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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/16647-8.txt b/16647-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7edaa15 --- /dev/null +++ b/16647-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7580 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of An Outline of the Relations between England +and Scotland (500-1707), by Robert S. Rait + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: An Outline of the Relations between England and Scotland (500-1707) + +Author: Robert S. Rait + +Release Date: September 4, 2005 [EBook #16647] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN OUTLINE OF THE RELATIONS *** + + + + +Produced by Irma Spehar, Janet Blenkinship and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net. +Produced from page images provided by Internet +Archive/Canadian Libraries. + + + + + + + + AN OUTLINE OF THE + + RELATIONS BETWEEN + + ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND + (500-1707) + + BY + + ROBERT S. RAIT + FELLOW OF NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD + + + + LONDON + BLACKIE & SON, LIMITED, 50 OLD BAILEY, E.C. + GLASGOW AND DUBLIN + 1901 + + + + +PREFATORY NOTE + + +I desire to take this opportunity of acknowledging valuable aid derived +from the recent works on Scottish History by Mr. Hume Brown and Mr. +Andrew Lang, from Mr. E.W. Robertson's _Scotland under her Early Kings_, +and from Mr. Oman's _Art of War_. Personal acknowledgments are due to +Professor Davidson of Aberdeen, to Mr. H. Fisher, Fellow of New College, +and to Mr. J.T.T. Brown, of Glasgow, who was good enough to aid me in +the search for references to the Highlanders in Scottish mediæval +literature, and to give me the benefit of his great knowledge of this +subject. + + R.S.R. + + NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD, + _April, 1901_. + + + + + CONTENTS + + + Page + + INTRODUCTION ix + + CHAP. I. RACIAL DISTRIBUTION AND FEUDAL RELATIONS, + _c._500-1066 a.d. 1 + + " II. SCOTLAND AND THE NORMANS, 1066-1286 11 + + " III. THE SCOTTISH POLICY OF EDWARD I, 1286-1296 31 + + " IV. THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1297-1328 41 + + " V. EDWARD III AND SCOTLAND, 1328-1399 64 + + " VI. SCOTLAND, LANCASTER, AND YORK, 1400-1500 80 + + " VII. THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE, + 1500-1542 101 + + " VIII. THE PARTING OF THE WAYS, 1542-1568 116 + + " IX. THE UNION OF THE CROWNS, 1568-1625 141 + + " X. "THE TROUBLES IN SCOTLAND", 1625-1688 157 + + " XI. THE UNION OF THE PARLIAMENTS, 1689-1707 180 + + APPENDIX A. REFERENCES TO THE HIGHLANDERS IN + MEDIÆVAL LITERATURE 195 + + " B. THE FEUDALIZATION OF SCOTLAND 204 + + " C. TABLE OF THE COMPETITORS OF 1290 214 + + INDEX 215 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The present volume has been published with two main objects. The writer +has attempted to exhibit, in outline, the leading features of the +international history of the two countries which, in 1707, became the +United Kingdom. Relations with England form a large part, and the heroic +part, of Scottish history, relations with Scotland a very much smaller +part of English history. The result has been that in histories of +England references to Anglo-Scottish relations are occasional and +spasmodic, while students of Scottish history have occasionally +forgotten that, in regard to her southern neighbour, the attitude of +Scotland was not always on the heroic scale. Scotland appears on the +horizon of English history only during well-defined epochs, leaving no +trace of its existence in the intervals between these. It may be that +the space given to Scotland in the ordinary histories of England is +proportional to the importance of Scottish affairs, on the whole; but +the importance assigned to Anglo-Scottish relations in the fourteenth +century is quite disproportionate to the treatment of the same subject +in the fifteenth century. Readers even of Mr. Green's famous book, may +learn with surprise from Mr. Lang or Mr. Hume Brown the part played by +the Scots in the loss of the English dominions in France, or may fail to +understand the references to Scotland in the diplomatic correspondence +of the sixteenth century.[1] There seems to be, therefore, room for a +connected narrative of the attitude of the two countries towards each +other, for only thus is it possible to provide the _data_ requisite for +a fair appreciation of the policy of Edward I and Henry VIII, or of +Elizabeth and James I. Such a narrative is here presented, in outline, +and the writer has tried, as far as might be, to eliminate from his work +the element of national prejudice. + +The book has also another aim. The relations between England and +Scotland have not been a purely political connexion. The peoples have, +from an early date, been, to some extent, intermingled, and this mixture +of blood renders necessary some account of the racial relationship. It +has been a favourite theme of the English historians of the nineteenth +century that the portions of Scotland where the Gaelic tongue has ceased +to be spoken are not really Scottish, but English. "The Scots who +resisted Edward", wrote Mr. Freeman, "were the English of Lothian. The +true Scots, out of hatred to the 'Saxons' nearest to them, leagued with +the 'Saxons' farther off."[2] Mr. Green, writing of the time of Edward +I, says: "The farmer of Fife or the Lowlands, and the artisan of the +towns, remained stout-hearted Northumbrian Englishmen", and he adds that +"The coast districts north of the Tay were inhabited by a population of +the same blood as that of the Lowlands".[3] The theory has been, at all +events verbally, accepted by Mr. Lang, who describes the history of +Scotland as "the record of the long resistance of the English of +Scotland to England, of the long resistance of the Celts of Scotland to +the English of Scotland".[4] Above all, the conception has been firmly +planted in the imagination by the poet of the _Lady of the Lake_. + + "These fertile plains, that soften'd vale, + Were once the birthright of the Gael; + The stranger came with iron hand, + And from our fathers reft the land." + +While holding in profound respect these illustrious names, the writer +ventures to ask for a modification of this verdict. That the Scottish +Lowlanders (among whom we include the inhabitants of the coast +districts from the Tay to the Moray Firth) were, in the end of the +thirteenth century, "English in speech and manners" (as Mr. Oman[5] +guardedly describes them) is beyond doubt. Were they also English in +blood? The evidence upon which the accepted theory is founded is +twofold. In the course of the sixth century the Angles made a descent +between the Humber and the Forth, and that district became part of the +English kingdom of Northumbria. Even here we have, in the evidence of +the place-names, some reasons for believing that a proportion of the +original Brythonic population may have survived. This northern portion +of the kingdom of Northumbria was affected by the Danish invasions, but +it remained an Anglian kingdom till its conquest, in the beginning of +the eleventh century, by the Celtic king, Malcolm II. There is, thus, +sufficient justification for Mr. Freeman's phrase, "the English of +Lothian", if we interpret the term "Lothian" in the strict sense; but it +remains to be explained how the inhabitants of the Scottish Lowlands, +outside Lothian, can be included among the English of Lothian who +resisted Edward I. That explanation is afforded by the events which +followed the Norman Conquest of England. It is argued that the +Englishmen who fled from the Normans united with the original English of +Lothian to produce the result indicated in the passage quoted from Mr. +Green. The farmers of Fife and the Lowlands, the artisans of the towns, +the dwellers in the coast districts north of Tay, became, by the end of +the thirteenth century, stout Northumbrian Englishmen. Mr. Green admits +that the south-west of Scotland was still inhabited, in 1290, by the +Picts of Galloway, and neither he nor any other exponent of the theory +offers any explanation of their subsequent disappearance. The history of +Scotland, from the fourteenth century to the Rising of 1745, contains, +according to this view, a struggle between the Celts and "the English of +Scotland", the most important incident of which is the battle of Harlaw, +in 1411, which resulted in a great victory for "the English of +Scotland". Mr. Hill Burton writes thus of Harlaw: "On the face of +ordinary history it looks like an affair of civil war. But this +expression is properly used towards those who have common interests and +sympathies, who should naturally be friends and may be friends again, +but for a time are, from incidental causes of dispute and quarrel, made +enemies. The contest ... was none of this; it was a contest between +foes, of whom their contemporaries would have said that their ever +being in harmony with each other, or having a feeling of common +interests and common nationality, was not within the range of rational +expectations.... It will be difficult to make those not familiar with +the tone of feeling in Lowland Scotland at that time believe that the +defeat of Donald of the Isles was felt as a more memorable deliverance +even than that of Bannockburn."[6] + +We venture to plead for a modification of this theory, which may fairly +be called the orthodox account of the circumstances. It will at once +occur to the reader that some definite proof should be forthcoming that +the Celtic inhabitants of Scotland, outside the Lothians, were actually +subjected to this process of racial displacement. Such a displacement +had certainly not been effected before the Norman Conquest, for it was +only in 1018 that the English of Lothian were subjected to the rule of a +Celtic king, and the large amount of Scottish literature, in the Gaelic +tongue, is sufficient indication that Celtic Scotland was not confined +to the Highlands in the eleventh century. Nor have we any hint of a +racial displacement after the Norman conquest, even though it is +unquestionable that a considerable number of exiles followed Queen +Margaret to Scotland, and that William's harrying of the north of +England drove others over the border. It is easy to lay too much stress +upon the effect of the latter event. The northern counties cannot have +been very thickly populated, and if Mr. Freeman is right in his +description of "that fearful deed, half of policy, half of vengeance, +which has stamped the name of William with infamy", not very many of the +victims of his cruelty can have made good their flight, for we are told +that the bodies of the inhabitants of Yorkshire "were rotting in the +streets, in the highways, or on their own hearthstones". Stone dead left +no fellow to colonize Scotland. We find, therefore, only the results and +not the process of this racial displacement. These results were the +adoption of English manners and the English tongue, and the growth of +English names, and we wish to suggest that they may find an historical +explanation which does not involve the total disappearance of the +Scottish farmer from Fife, or of the Scottish artisan from Aberdeen. + +Before proceeding to a statement of the explanation to which we desire +to direct the reader's attention, it may be useful to deal briefly with +the questions relating to the spoken language of Lowland Scotland and to +its place-names. The fact that the language of the Angles and Saxons +completely superseded, in England, the tongue of the conquered Britons, +is admitted to be a powerful argument for the view that the Anglo-Saxon +conquest of England resulted in a racial displacement. But the argument +cannot be transferred to the case of the Scottish Lowlands, where, also, +the English language has completely superseded a Celtic tongue. For, in +the first case, the victory is that of the language of a savage people, +known to be in a state of actual warfare, and it is a victory which +follows as an immediate result of conquest. In Scotland, the victory of +the English tongue (outside the Lothians) dates from a relatively +advanced period of civilization, and it is a victory won, not by +conquest or bloodshed, but by peaceful means. Even in a case of +conquest, change of speech is not conclusive evidence of change of race +(_e.g._ the adoption of a Romance tongue by the Gauls); much less is it +decisive in such an instance as the adoption of English by the +Lowlanders of Scotland. In striking contrast to the case of England, the +victory of the Anglo-Saxon speech in Scotland did not include the +adoption of English place-names. The reader will find the subject fully +discussed in the valuable work by the Reverend J.B. Johnston, entitled +_Place-Names of Scotland_. "It is impossible", says Mr. Johnston, "to +speak with strict accuracy on the point, but Celtic names in Scotland +must outnumber all the rest by nearly ten to one." Even in counties +where the Gaelic tongue is now quite obsolete (_e.g._ in Fife, in +Forfar, in the Mearns, and in parts of Aberdeenshire), the place-names +are almost entirely Celtic. The region where English place-names abound +is, of course, the Lothians; but scarcely an English place-name is +definitely known to have existed, even in the Lothians, before the +Norman Conquest, and, even in the Lothians, the English tongue never +affected the names of rivers and mountains. In many instances, the +existence of a place-name which has now assumed an English form is no +proof of English race. As the Gaelic tongue died out, Gaelic place-names +were either translated or corrupted into English forms; Englishmen, +receiving grants of land from Malcolm Canmore and his successors, called +these lands after their own names, with the addition of the suffix-ham +or-tun; the influence of English ecclesiastics introduced many new +names; and as English commerce opened up new seaports, some of these +became known by the names which Englishmen had given them.[7] On the +whole, the evidence of the place-names corroborates our view that the +changes were changes in civilization, and not in racial distribution. + +We now proceed to indicate the method by which these changes were +effected, apart from any displacement of race. Our explanation finds a +parallel in the process which has changed the face of the Scottish +Highlands within the last hundred and fifty years, and which produced +very important results within the "sixty years" to which Sir Walter +Scott referred in the second title of _Waverley_.[8] There has been no +racial displacement; but the English language and English civilization +have gradually been superseding the ancient tongue and the ancient +customs of the Scottish Highlands. The difference between Skye and Fife +is that the influences which have been at work in the former for a +century and a half have been in operation in the latter for more than +eight hundred years. + +What then were the influences which, between 1066 and 1300, produced in +the Scottish Lowlands some of the results that, between 1746 and 1800, +were achieved in the Scottish Highlands? That they included an infusion +of English blood we have no wish to deny. Anglo-Saxons, in considerable +numbers, penetrated northwards, and by the end of the thirteenth +century the Lowlanders were a much less pure race than, except in the +Lothians, they had been in the days of Malcolm Canmore. Our contention +is, that we have no evidence for the assertion that this Saxon admixture +amounted to a racial change, and that, ethnically, the men of Fife and +of Forfar were still Scots, not English. Such an infusion of English +blood as our argument allows will not explain the adoption of the +English tongue, or of English habits of life; we must look elsewhere for +the full explanation. The English victory was, as we shall try to show, +a victory not of blood but of civilization, and three main causes helped +to bring it about. The marriage of Malcolm Canmore introduced two new +influences into Scotland--an English Court and an English Church, and +contemporaneously with the changes consequent upon these new +institutions came the spread of English commerce, carrying with it the +English tongue along the coast, and bringing an infusion of English +blood into the towns.[9] In the reign of David I, the son of Malcolm +Canmore and St. Margaret, these purely Saxon influences were succeeded +by the Anglo-Norman tendencies of the king's favourites. Grants of +land[10] to English and Norman courtiers account for the occurrence of +English and Norman family and place-names. The men who lived in +immediate dependence upon a lord, giving him their services and +receiving his protection, owing him their homage and living under his +sole jurisdiction, took the name of the lord whose men they were. + +A more important question arises with regard to the system of land +tenure, and the change from clan ownership to feudal possession. How was +the tribal system suppressed? An outline of the process by which +Scotland became a feudalized country will be found in the Appendix, +where we shall also have an opportunity of referring, for purposes of +comparison, to the methods by which clan-feeling was destroyed after the +last Jacobite insurrection. Here, it must suffice to give a brief +summary of the case there presented. It is important to bear in mind +that the tribes of 1066 were not the clans of 1746. The clan system in +the Highlands underwent considerable development between the days of +Malcolm Canmore and those of the Stuarts. Too much stress must not be +laid upon the unwillingness of the people to give up tribal ownership, +for it is clear from our early records that the rights of +joint-occupancy were confined to the immediate kin of the head of the +clan. "The limit of the immediate kindred", says Mr. E.W. Robertson,[11] +"extended to the third generation, all who were fourth in descent from a +Senior passing from amongst the joint-proprietary, and receiving, +apparently, a final allotment; which seems to have been separated +permanently from the remainder of the joint-property by certain +ceremonies usual on such occasions." To such holders of individual +property the charter offered by David I gave additional security of +tenure. We know from the documents entitled "Quoniam attachiamenta", +printed in the first volume of the _Acts of the Parliament of Scotland_, +that the tribal system included large numbers of bondmen, to whom the +change to feudalism meant little or nothing. But even when all due +allowance has been made for this, the difficulty is not completely +solved. There must have been some owners of clan property whom the +changes affected in an adverse way, and we should expect to hear of +them. We do hear of them, for the reigns of the successors of Malcolm +Canmore are largely occupied with revolts in Galloway and in Morayshire. +The most notable of these was the rebellion of MacHeth, Mormaor of +Moray, about 1134. On its suppression, David I confiscated the earldom +of Moray, and granted it, by charters, to his own favourites, and +especially to the Anglo-Normans, from Yorkshire and Northumberland, whom +he had invited to aid him in dealing with the reactionary forces of +Moray; but such grants of land in no way dispossessed the lesser +tenants, who simply held of new lords and by new titles. Fordun, who +wrote two centuries later, ascribes to David's successor, Malcolm IV, an +invasion of Moray, and says that the king scattered the inhabitants +throughout the rest of Scotland, and replaced them by "his own peaceful +people".[12] There is no further evidence in support of this statement, +and almost the whole of Malcolm's short reign was occupied with the +settlement of Galloway. We know that he followed his grandfather's +policy of making grants of land in Moray, and this is probably the germ +of truth in Fordun's statement. Moray, however, occupied rather an +exceptional position. "As the power of the sovereign extended over the +west," says Mr. E.W. Robertson, "it was his policy, not to eradicate the +old ruling families, but to retain them in their native provinces, +rendering them more or less responsible for all that portion of their +respective districts which was not placed under the immediate authority +of the royal sheriffs or baillies." As this policy was carried out even +in Galloway, Argyll, and Ross, where there were occasional rebellions, +and was successful in its results, we have no reason for believing that +it was abandoned in dealing with the rest of the Lowlands. As, from time +to time, instances occurred in which this plan was unsuccessful, and as +other causes for forfeiture arose, the lands were granted to strangers, +and by the end of the thirteenth century the Scottish nobility was +largely Anglo-Norman. The vestiges of the clan system which remained may +be part of the explanation of the place of the great Houses in Scottish +History. The unique importance of such families as the Douglasses or the +Gordons may thus be a portion of the Celtic heritage of the Lowlands. + +If, then, it was not by a displacement of race, but through the subtle +influences of religion, feudalism, and commerce that the Scottish +Lowlands came to be English in speech and in civilization, if the +farmers of Fife and some, at least, of the burghers of Dundee or of +Aberdeen were really Scots who had been subjected to English influences, +we should expect to find no strong racial feeling in mediæval Scotland. +Such racial antagonism as existed would, in this case, be owing to the +large admixture of Scandinavian blood in Caithness and in the Isles, +rather than to any difference between the true Scots and "the English +of the Lowlands". Do we, then, find any racial antagonism between the +Highlands and the Lowlands? If Mr. Freeman is right in laying down the +general rule that "the true Scots, out of hatred to the 'Saxons' nearest +to them, leagued with the 'Saxons' farther off", if Mr. Hill Burton is +correct in describing the red Harlaw as a battle between foes who could +have no feeling of common nationality, there is nothing to be said in +support of the theory we have ventured to suggest. We may fairly expect +some signs of ill-will between those who maintained the Celtic +civilization and their brethren who had abandoned the ancient customs +and the ancient tongue; we may naturally look for attempts to produce a +conservative or Celtic reaction, but anything more than this will be +fatal to our case. The facts do not seem to us to bear out Mr. Freeman's +generalization. When the independence of Scotland is really at stake, we +shall find the "true Scots" on the patriotic side. Highlanders and +Islesmen fought under the banner of David I at Northallerton; they took +their place along with the men of Carrick in the Bruce's own division at +Bannockburn, and they bore their part in the stubborn ring that +encircled James IV at Flodden. At other times, indeed, we do find the +Lords of the Isles involved in treacherous intrigues with the kings of +England, but just in the same way as we see the Earls of Douglas +engaged in traitorous schemes against the Scottish kings. In both cases +alike we are dealing with the revolt of a powerful vassal against a weak +king. Such an incident is sufficiently frequent in the annals of +Scotland to render it unnecessary to call in racial considerations to +afford an explanation. One of the most notable of these intrigues +occurred in the year 1408, when Donald of the Isles, who chanced to be +engaged in a personal quarrel about the heritage which he claimed in +right of his Lowland relatives, made a treacherous agreement with Henry +IV; and the quarrel ended in the battle of Harlaw in 1411. The real +importance of Harlaw is that it ended in the defeat of a Scotsman who, +like some other Scotsmen in the South, was acting in the English +interest; any further significance that it may possess arises from the +consideration that it is the last of a series of efforts directed +against the predominance, not of the English race, but of Saxon speech +and civilization. It was just because Highlanders and Lowlanders did +represent a common nationality that the battle was fought, and the blood +spilt on the field of Harlaw was not shed in any racial struggle, but in +the cause of the real English conquest of Scotland, the conquest of +civilization and of speech. + +Our argument derives considerable support from the references to the +Highlands of Scotland which we find in mediæval literature. Racial +distinctions were not always understood in the Middle Ages; but readers +of Giraldus Cambrensis are familiar with the strong racial feeling that +existed between the English and the Welsh, and between the English and +the Irish. If the Lowlanders of Scotland felt towards the Highlanders as +Mr. Hill Burton asserts that they did feel, we should expect to find +references to the difference between Celts and Saxons. But, on the +contrary, we meet with statement after statement to the effect that the +Highlanders are only Scotsmen who have maintained the ancient Scottish +language and literature, while the Lowlanders have adopted English +customs and a foreign tongue. The words "Scots" and "Scotland" are never +used to designate the Highlanders as distinct from other inhabitants of +Scotland, yet the phrase "Lingua Scotica" means, up to the end of the +fifteenth century, the Gaelic tongue.[13] In the beginning of the +sixteenth century John Major speaks of "the wild Scots and Islanders" as +using Irish, while the civilized Scots speak English; and Gavin Douglas +professed to write in Scots (_i.e._ the Lowland tongue). In the course +of the century this became the regular usage. Acts of the Scottish +Parliament, directed against Highland marauders, class them with the +border thieves. There is no hint in the Register of the Privy Council or +in the Exchequer Rolls, of any racial feeling, and the independence of +the Celtic chiefs has been considerably exaggerated. James IV and James +V both visited the Isles, and the chief town of Skye takes its name from +the visit of the latter. In the beginning of the sixteenth century, it +was safe for Hector Boece, the Principal of the newly founded university +of Aberdeen, to go in company of the Rector to make a voyage to the +Hebrides, and, in the account they have left us of their experiences, we +can discover no hint that there existed between Highlanders and +Lowlanders much the same difference as separated the English from the +Welsh. Neither in Barbour's _Bruce_ nor in Blind Harry's _Wallace_ is +there any such consciousness of difference, although Barbour lived in +Aberdeen in the days before Harlaw. John of Fordun, a fellow-townsman +and a contemporary of Barbour, was an ardent admirer of St. Margaret and +of David I, and of the Anglo-Norman institutions they introduced, while +he possessed an invincible objection to the kilt. We should therefore +expect to find in him some consciousness of the racial difference. He +writes of the Highlanders with some ill-will, describing them as a +"savage and untamed people, rude and independent, given to rapine, ... +hostile to the English language and people, and, owing to diversity of +speech, even to their own nation[14]." But it is his custom to write +thus of the opponents of the Anglo-Norman civil and ecclesiastical +institutions, and he brings all Scotland under the same condemnation +when he tells us how David "did his utmost to draw on that rough and +boorish people towards quiet and chastened manners".[15] The reference +to "their own nation" shows, too, that Fordun did not understand that +the Highlanders were a different people; and when he called them hostile +to the English, he was evidently unaware that their custom was "out of +hatred to the Saxons nearest them" to league with the English. John +Major, writing in the reign of James IV (1489-1513), mentions the +differences between Highlander and Lowlander. The wild Scots speak +Irish; the civilized Scots use English. "But", he adds, "most of us +spoke Irish a short time ago."[16] His contemporary, Hector Boece, who +made the Tour to the Hebrides, says: "Those of us who live on the +borders of England have forsaken our own tongue and learned English, +being driven thereto by wars and commerce. But the Highlanders remain +just as they were in the time of Malcolm Canmore, in whose days we began +to adopt English manners."[17] When Bishop Elphinstone applied, in 1493, +for Papal permission to found a university in Old Aberdeen, in proximity +to the barbarian Highlanders, he made no suggestion of any racial +difference between the English-speaking population of Aberdeen and their +Gaelic-speaking neighbours.[18] Late in the sixteenth century, John +Lesley, the defender of Queen Mary, who had been bishop of Ross, and +came of a northern family, wrote in a strain similar to that of Major +and Boece. "Foreign nations look on the Gaelic-speaking Scots as wild +barbarians because they maintain the customs and the language of their +ancestors; but we call them Highlanders."[19] + +Even in connexion with the battle of Harlaw, we find that Scottish +historians do not use such terms in speaking of the Highland forces as +Mr. Hill Burton would lead us to expect. Of the two contemporary +authorities, one, the Book of Pluscarden, was probably written by a +Highlander, while the continuation of Fordun's _Scoti-chronicon_, in +which we have a more detailed account of the battle, was the work of +Bower, a Lowlander who shared Fordun's antipathy to Highland customs. +The _Liber Pluscardensis_ mentions the battle in a very casual manner. +It was fought between Donald of the Isles and the Earl of Mar; there was +great slaughter: and it so happened that the town of Cupar chanced to be +burned in the same year.[20] Bower assigns a greater importance to the +affair;[21] he tells us that Donald wished to spoil Aberdeen and then to +add to his own possessions all Scotland up to the Tay. It is as if he +were writing of the ambition of the House of Douglas. But there is no +hint of racial antipathy; the abuse applied to Donald and his followers +would suit equally well for the Borderers who shouted the Douglas +battle-cry. John Major tells us that it was a civil war fought for the +spoil of the famous city of Aberdeen, and he cannot say who won--only +the Islanders lost more men than the civilized Scots. For him, its chief +interest lay in the ferocity of the contest; rarely, even in struggles +with a foreign foe, had the fighting been so keen.[22] The fierceness +with which Harlaw was fought impressed the country so much that, some +sixty years later, when Major was a boy, he and his playmates at the +Grammar School of Haddington used to amuse themselves by mock fights in +which they re-enacted the red Harlaw. + +From Major we turn with interest to the Principal of the University and +King's College, Hector Boece, who wrote his _History of Scotland_, at +Aberdeen, about a century after the battle of Harlaw, and who shows no +trace of the strong feeling described by Mr. Hill Burton. He narrates +the origin of the quarrel with much sympathy for the Lord of the Isles, +and regrets that he was not satisfied with recovering his own heritage +of Ross, but was tempted by the pillage of Aberdeen, and he speaks of +the Lowland army as "the Scots on the other side".[23] His narrative in +the _History_ is devoid of any racial feeling whatsoever, and in his +_Lives of the Bishops of Aberdeen_ he omits any mention of Harlaw at +all. We have laid stress upon the evidence of Boece because in Aberdeen, +if anywhere, the memory of the "Celtic peril" at Harlaw should have +survived. Similarly, George Buchanan speaks of Harlaw as a raid for +purposes of plunder, made by the islanders upon the mainland.[24] These +illustrations may serve to show how Scottish historians really did look +upon the battle of Harlaw, and how little do they share Mr. Burton's +horror of the Celts. + +When we turn to descriptions of Scotland we find no further proof of the +correctness of the orthodox theory. When Giraldus Cambrensis wrote, in +the twelfth century, he remarked that the Scots of his time have an +affinity of race with the Irish,[25] and the English historians of the +War of Independence speak of the Scots as they do of the Welsh or the +Irish, and they know only one type of Scotsman. We have already seen the +opinion of John Major, the sixteenth-century Scottish historian and +theologian, who had lived much in France, and could write of his native +country from an _ab extra_ stand-point, that the Highlanders speak Irish +and are less respectable than the other Scots; and his opinion was +shared by two foreign observers, Pedro de Ayala and Polydore Vergil. The +former remarks on the difference of speech, and the latter says that the +more civilized Scots have adopted the English tongue. In like manner +English writers about the time of the Union of the Crowns write of the +Highlanders as Scotsmen who retain their ancient language. Camden, +indeed, speaks of the Lowlands as being Anglo-Saxon in origin, but he +restricts his remark to the district which had formed part of the +kingdom of Northumbria.[26] + +We should, of course, expect to find that the gradually widening breach +in manners and language between Highlanders and Lowlanders produced some +dislike for the Highland robbers and their Irish tongue, and we do +occasionally, though rarely, meet some indication of this. There are not +many references to the Highlanders in Scottish literature earlier than +the sixteenth century. "Blind Harry" (Book VI, ll. 132-140) represents +an English soldier as using, in addressing Wallace, first a mixture of +French and Lowland Scots, and then a mixture of Lowland Scots and +Gaelic: + + "Dewgar, gud day, bone Senzhour, and gud morn! + + * * * * * + + Sen ye ar Scottis, zeit salust sall ye be; + Gud deyn, dawch Lard, bach lowch, banzoch a de". + +In "The Book of the Howlat", written in the latter half of the fifteenth +century, by a certain Richard Holland, who was an adherent of the House +of Douglas, there is a similar imitation of Scottish Gaelic, with the +same phrase "Banachadee" (the blessing of God). This seemingly innocent +phrase seems to have some ironical signification, for we find in the +_Auchinleck Chronicle_ (anno 1452) that it was used by some Highlanders +as a term of abuse towards the Bishop of Argyll. Another example occurs +in a coarse "Answer to ane Helandmanis Invective", by Alexander +Montgomerie, the court poet of James VI. The Lowland literature of the +sixteenth century contains a considerable amount of abuse of the +Highland tongue. William Dunbar (1460-1520), in his "Flyting" (an +exercise in Invective), reproaches his antagonist, Walter Kennedy, with +his Highland origin. Kennedy was a native of Galloway, while Dunbar +belonged to the Lothians, where we should expect the strongest +appreciation of the differences between Lowlander and Highlander. +Dunbar, moreover, had studied (or, at least, resided) at Oxford, and was +one of the first Scotsmen to succumb to the attractions of "town". The +most suggestive point in the "Flyting" is that a native of the Lothians +could still regard a Galwegian as a "beggar Irish bard". For Walter +Kennedy spoke and wrote in Lowland Scots; he was, possibly, a graduate +of the University of Glasgow, and he could boast of Stuart blood. +Ayrshire was as really English as was Aberdeenshire; and, if Dunbar is +in earnest, it is a strong confirmation of our theory that he, being +"of the Lothians himself", spoke of Kennedy in this way. It would, +however, be unwise to lay too much stress on what was really a +conventional exercise of a particular style of poetry, now obsolete. +Kennedy, in his reply, retorts that he alone is true Scots, and that +Dunbar, as a native of Lothian, is but an English thief: + + "In Ingland, owle, suld be thyne habitacione, + Homage to Edward Langschankis maid thy kyn". + +In an Epitaph on Donald Owre, a son of the Lord of the Isles, who raised +a rebellion against James IV in 1503, Dunbar had a great opportunity for +an outburst against the Highlanders, of which, however, he did not take +advantage, but confined himself to a denunciation of treachery in +general. In the "Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins", there is a well-known +allusion to the bag-pipes: + + "Than cryd Mahoun[27] for a Healand padyane; + Syne ran a feynd to feche Makfadyane[28] + Far northwart in a nuke.[29] + Be he the correnoch had done schout + Erschemen so gadderit him about + In Hell grit rowme they tuke. + Thae tarmegantis with tag and tatter + Full lowde in Ersche begowth to clatter, + And rowp lyk revin and ruke. + The Devill sa devit was with thair yell + That in the depest pot of Hell + He smorit thame with smoke." + +Similar allusions will be found in the writings of Montgomerie; but such +caricatures of Gaelic and the bagpipes afford but a slender basis for a +theory of racial antagonism. + +After the Union of the Crowns, the Lowlands of Scotland came to be more +and more closely bound to England, while the Highlands remained +unaffected by these changes. The Scottish nobility began to find its +true place at the English Court; the Scottish adventurer was +irresistibly drawn to London; the Scottish Presbyterian found the +English Puritan his brother in the Lord; and the Scottish Episcopalian +joined forces with the English Cavalier. The history of the seventeenth +century prepared the way for the acceptance of the Celtic theory in the +beginning of the eighteenth, and when philologists asserted that the +Scottish Highlanders were a different race from the Scottish Lowlanders, +the suggestion was eagerly adopted. The views of the philologists were +confirmed by the experiences of the 'Forty-five, and they received a +literary form in the _Lady of the Lake_ and in _Waverley_. In the +nineteenth century the theory received further development owing to the +fact that it was generally in line with the arguments of the defenders +of the Edwardian policy in Scotland; and it cannot be denied that it +holds the field to-day, in spite of Mr. Robertson's attack on it in +Appendix R of his _Scotland under her Early Kings_. + +The writer of the present volume ventures to hope that he has, at all +events, done something to make out a case for re-consideration of the +subject. The political facts on which rests the argument just stated +will be found in the text, and an Appendix contains the more important +references to the Highlanders in mediæval Scottish literature, and +offers a brief account of the feudalization of Scotland. Our argument +amounts only to a modification, and not to a complete reversal of the +current theory. No historical problems are more difficult than those +which refer to racial distribution, and it is impossible to speak +dogmatically on such a subject. That the English blood of the Lothians, +and the English exiles after the Norman Conquest, did modify the race +over whom Malcolm Canmore ruled, we do not seek to deny. But that it was +a modification and not a displacement, a victory of civilization and +not of race, we beg to suggest. The English influences were none the +less strong for this, and, in the end, they have everywhere prevailed. +But the Scotsman may like to think that mediæval Scotland was not +divided by an abrupt racial line, and that the political unity and +independence which it obtained at so great a cost did correspond to a +natural and a national unity which no people can, of itself, create. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: Spanish and Venetian Calendars of State Papers. Cf. +especially the reference to the succour afforded by Scotland to France +in Spanish Calendar, i. 210.] + +[Footnote 2: _Historical Essays_, First Series, p. 71.] + +[Footnote 3: _History of the English People_, Book III, c. iv.] + +[Footnote 4: _History of Scotland_, vol. i, p. 2. But, as Mr. Lang +expressly repudiates any theory of displacement north of the Forth, and +does not regard Harlaw in the light of a great racial contest, his +position is not really incompatible with that of the present work.] + +[Footnote 5: _History of England_, p. 158. Mr. Oman is almost alone in +not calling them English in blood.] + +[Footnote 6: _History of Scotland_, vol. ii, pp. 393-394.] + +[Footnote 7: Instances of the first tendency are Edderton, near Tain, +_i.e._ _eadar duin_ ("between the hillocks"), and Falkirk, _i.e._ +_Eaglais_ ("speckled church"), while examples of the second tendency are +too numerous to require mention. Examples of ecclesiastical names are +Laurencekirk and Kirkcudbright, and the growth of commerce receives the +witness of such names as Turnberry, on the coast of Ayr, dating from the +thirteenth century, and Burghead on the Moray Firth.] + +[Footnote 8: Cf. _Waverley_, c. xliii, and the concluding chapter of +_Tales of a Grandfather_.] + +[Footnote 9: William of Newburgh states this in a probably exaggerated +form when he says:--"Regni Scottici oppida et burgi ab Anglis habitari +noscuntur" (Lib. II, c. 34). The population of the towns in the Lothians +was, of course, English.] + +[Footnote 10: For the real significance of such grants of land, cf. +Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_, Essay II.] + +[Footnote 11: _Scotland under her Early Kings_, vol. i, p. 239.] + +[Footnote 12: Annalia, iv.] + +[Footnote 13: There is a possible exception in Barbour's _Bruce_ (Bk. +XVIII, 1. 443)--"Then gat he all the Erischry that war intill his +company, of Argyle and the Ilis alswa". It has been generally understood +that the "Erischry" here are the Scottish Highlanders; but it is certain +that Barbour frequently uses the word to mean Irishmen, and it is +perhaps more probable that he does so here also than that he should use +the word in this sense only once, and with no parallel instance for more +than a century.] + +[Footnote 14: Chronicle, Book II, c. ix. Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 15: Ibid, Book V, c. x. Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 16: _History of Greater Britain_, Bk. I, cc. vii, viii, ix. +Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 17: _Scotorum Regni Descriptio_, prefixed to his "History". +Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 18: _Fasti Aberdonenses_, p. 3.] + +[Footnote 19: _De Gestis Scotorum_, Lib. I. Cf. App. A. It is +interesting to note, as showing how the breach between Highlander and +Lowlander widened towards the close of the sixteenth century, that +Father James Dalrymple, who translated Lesley's History, at Ratisbon, +about the beginning of the seventeenth century, wrote: "Bot the rest of +the Scottis, quhome _we_ halde as outlawis and wylde peple". Dalrymple +was probably a native of Ayrshire.] + +[Footnote 20: _Liber Pluscardensis_, X, c. xxii. Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 21: _Scoti-chronicon_, XV, c. xxi. Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 22: _Greater Britain_, VI, c. x. Cf. App. A. The keenness of +the fighting is no proof of racial bitterness. Cf. the clan fight on the +Inches at Perth, a few years before Harlaw.] + +[Footnote 23: _Scotorum Historiæ_, Lib. XVI. Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 24: _Rerum Scotorum Historia_, Lib. X. Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 25: _Top. Hib._, Dis. III, cap. xi.] + +[Footnote 26: _Britannia_, section _Scoti_.] + +[Footnote 27: Mahoun = Mahomet, _i.e._ the Devil.] + +[Footnote 28: The Editor of the Scottish Text Society's edition of +Dunbar points out that "Macfadyane" is a reference to the traitor of the +War of Independence: + + "This Makfadzane till Inglismen was suorn; + Eduard gaiff him bath Argill and Lorn". + + Blind Harry, VII, ll. 627-8. + +] + +[Footnote 29: "Far northward in a nuke" is a reference to the cave in +which Macfadyane was killed by Duncan of Lorne (Bk. VIII, ll. 866-8).] + + + + +CHAPTER I + +RACIAL DISTRIBUTION AND FEUDAL RELATIONS + +_c._ 500-1066 A.D. + + +Since the beginning of the eighteenth century, it has been customary to +speak of the Scottish Highlanders as "Celts". The name is singularly +inappropriate. The word "Celt" was used by Cæsar to describe the peoples +of Middle Gaul, and it thence became almost synonymous with "Gallic". +The ancient inhabitants of Gaul were far from being closely akin to the +ancient inhabitants of Scotland, although they belong to the same +general family. The latter were Picts and Goidels; the former, Brythons +or Britons, of the same race as those who settled in England and were +driven by the Saxon conquerors into Wales, as their kinsmen were driven +into Brittany by successive conquests of Gaul. In the south of Scotland, +Goidels and Brythons must at one period have met; but the result of the +meeting was to drive the Goidels into the Highlands, where the Goidelic +or Gaelic form of speech still remains different from the Welsh of the +descendants of the Britons. Thus the only reason for calling the +Scottish Highlanders "Celts" is that Cæsar used that name to describe a +race cognate with another race from which the Highlanders ought to be +carefully distinguished. In none of our ancient records is the term +"Celt" ever employed to describe the Highlanders of Scotland. They never +called themselves Celtic; their neighbours never gave them such a name; +nor would the term have possessed any significance, as applied to them, +before the eighteenth century. In 1703, a French historian and Biblical +antiquary, Paul Yves Pezron, wrote a book about the people of Brittany, +entitled _Antiquité de la Nation et de la Langue des Celtes autrement +appellez Gaulois_. It was translated into English almost immediately, +and philologists soon discovered that the language of Cæsar's Celts was +related to the Gaelic of the Scottish Highlanders. On this ground +progressed the extension of the name, and the Highlanders became +identified with, instead of being distinguished from, the Celts of Gaul. +The word Celt was used to describe both the whole family (including +Brythons and Goidels), and also the special branch of the family to +which Cæsar applied the term. It is as if the word "Teutonic" had been +used to describe the whole Aryan Family, and had been specially employed +in speaking of the Romance peoples. The word "Celtic" has, however, +become a technical term as opposed to "Saxon" or "English", and it is +impossible to avoid its use. + +Besides the Goidels, or so-called Celts, and the Brythonic Celts or +Britons, we find traces in Scotland of an earlier race who are known as +"Picts", a few fragments of whose language survive. About the identity +of these Picts another controversy has been waged. Some look upon the +Pictish tongue as closely allied to Scottish Gaelic; others regard it as +Brythonic rather than Goidelic; and Dr. Rhys surmises that it is really +an older form of speech, neither Goidelic nor Brythonic, and probably +not allied to either, although, in the form in which its fragments have +come down to us, it has been deeply affected by Brythonic forms. Be all +this as it may, it is important for us to remember that, at the dawn of +history, modern Scotland was populated entirely by people now known as +"Celts", of whom the Brythonic portion were the later to appear, driving +the Goidels into the more mountainous districts. The Picts, whatever +their origin, had become practically amalgamated with the "Celts", and +the Roman historians do not distinguish between different kinds of +northern barbarians. + +In the end of the fifth century and the beginning of the sixth, a new +settlement of Goidels was made. These were the Scots, who founded the +kingdom of Dalriada, corresponding roughly to the Modern Argyllshire. +Some fifty years later (_c._ 547) came the Angles under Ida, and +established a dominion along the coast from Tweed to Forth, covering the +modern counties of Roxburgh, Berwick, Haddington, and Midlothian. Its +outlying fort was the castle of Edinburgh, the name of which, in the +form in which we have it, has certainly been influenced by association +with the Northumbrian king, Edwin.[30] This district remained a portion +of the kingdom of Northumbria till the tenth century, and it is of this +district alone that the word "English" can fairly be used. Even here, +however, there must have been a considerable infusion of Celtic blood, +and such Celtic place-names as "Dunbar" still remain even in the +counties where English place-names predominate. A distinguished Celtic +scholar tells us: "In all our ancient literature, the inhabitants of +ancient Lothian are known as Saix-Brit, _i.e._ Saxo-Britons, because +they were a Cymric people, governed by the Saxons of Northumbria".[31] A +further non-Celtic influence was that of the Norse invaders, who +attacked the country from the ninth to the eighteenth century, and +profoundly modified the racial character of the population on the south +and west coasts, in the islands, and along the east coast as far south +as the Moray Firth. + +Such, then, was the racial distribution of Scotland. Picts, Goidelic +Celts, Brythonic Celts, Scots, and Anglo-Saxons were in possession of +the country. In the year 844, Kenneth MacAlpine, King of the Scots of +Dalriada, united under his rule the ancient kingdoms of the Picts and +Scots, including the whole of Scotland from the Pentland Firth to the +Forth. In 908, a brother of the King of Scots became King of the Britons +of Strathclyde, while Lothian, with the rest of Northumbria, passed +under the overlordship of the House of Wessex. We have now arrived at +the commencement of the long dispute about the "overlordship". We shall +attempt to state the main outlines as clearly as possible. + +The foundation of the whole controversy lies in a statement, "in the +honest English of the Winchester Chronicle", that, in 924, "was Eadward +king chosen to father and to lord of the Scots king and of the Scots, +and of Regnold king, and of all the Northumbrians", and also of the +Strathclyde, Brythons or Welsh. Mr. E.W. Robertson has argued that no +real weight can be given to this statement, for (1) "Regnold king" had +died in 921; (2) in 924, Edward the Elder was striving to suppress the +Danes south of the Humber, and had no claims to overlordship of any kind +over the Northumbrian Danes and English; and (3) the place assigned, +Bakewell, in Derbyshire, is improbable, and the recorded building of a +fort there is irrelevant. The reassertion of this homage, under +Aethelstan, in 926, which occurs in one MS. of the Chronicle, is open to +the objection that it describes the King of Scots as giving up idolatry, +more than three hundred and fifty years after the conversion of the +country; but as the entry under the year 924 is probably in a +contemporary hand, considerable weight must be attached to the double +statement. In the reign of Edmund the Magnificent, an event occurred +which has given fresh occasion for dispute. A famous passage in the +"Chronicle" (945 A.D.) tells how Edmund and Malcolm I of +Scotland conquered Cumbria, which the English king gave to Malcolm on +condition that Malcolm should be his "midwyrtha" or fellow-worker by sea +and land. Mr. Freeman interpreted this as a feudal grant, reading the +sense of "fealty" into "midwyrtha", and regarded the district described +as "Cumbria" as including the whole of Strathclyde. It is somewhat +difficult to justify this position, especially as we have no reason for +supposing that Edmund did invade Strathclyde, and since, in point of +fact, Strathclyde remained hostile to the kingdom of Scotland long after +this date. In 946 the statement of the Chronicle is reasserted in +connection with the accession of Eadred, and in somewhat stronger +words:--"the Scots gave him oaths, that they would all that he would". +Such are the main facts relating to the first two divisions of the +threefold claim to overlordship, and their value will probably continue +to be estimated in accordance with the personal feelings of the reader. +It is scarcely possible to claim that they are in any way decisive. Nor +can any further light be gained from the story of what Mr. Lang has +happily termed the apocryphal eight which the King of Scots stroked on +the Dee in the reign of Edgar. In connection with this "Great +Commendation" of 973, the Chronicle mentions only six kings as rowing +Edgar at Chester, and it wisely names no names. The number eight, and +the mention of Kenneth, King of Scots, as one of the oarsmen, have been +transferred to Mr. Freeman's pages from those of the twelfth-century +chronicler, Florence of Worcester. + +We pass now to the third section of the supremacy argument. The district +to which we have referred as Lothian was, unquestionably, largely +inhabited by men of English race, and it formed part of the Northumbrian +kingdom. Within the first quarter of the eleventh century it had passed +under the dominion of the Celtic kings of Scotland. When and how this +happened is a mystery. The tract _De Northynbrorum Comitibus_ which used +to be attributed to Simeon of Durham, asserts that it was ceded by Edgar +to Kenneth and that Kenneth did homage, and this story, elaborated by +John of Wallingford, has been frequently given as the historical +explanation. But Simeon of Durham in his "History"[32] asserts that +Malcolm II, about 1016, wrested Lothian from the Earl of Northumbria, +and there is internal evidence that the story of Edgar and Kenneth has +been constructed out of the known facts of Malcolm's reign. It is, at +all events, certain that the Scottish kings in no sense governed Lothian +till after the battle of Carham in 1018, when Malcolm and the +Strathclyde monarch Owen, defeated the Earl of Northumbria and added +Lothian to his dominions. This conquest was confirmed by Canute in 1031, +and, in connection with the confirmation, the Chronicle again speaks of +a doubtful homage which the Scots king "not long held", and, again, the +Chronicle, or one version of it, adds an impossible statement--this time +about Macbeth, who had not yet appeared on the stage of history. The +year 1018 is also marked by the succession of Malcolm's grandson, +Duncan, to the throne of his kinsman, Owen of Strathclyde, and on +Malcolm's death in 1034 the whole of Scotland was nominally united under +Duncan I.[33] The consolidation of the kingdom was as yet in the future, +but from the end of the reign of Malcolm II there was but one Kingdom of +Scotland. From this united kingdom we must exclude the islands, which +were largely inhabited by Norsemen. Both the Hebrides and the islands of +Orkney and Shetland were outside the realm of Scotland. + +The names of Macbeth and "the gentle Duncan" suggest the great drama +which the genius of Shakespeare constructed from the magic tale of +Hector Boece; but our path does not lie by the moor near Forres, nor +past Birnam Wood or Dunsinane. Nor does the historian of the relations +between England and Scotland have anything to tell about the English +expedition to restore Malcolm. All such tales emanate from Florence of +Worcester, and we know only that Siward of Northumbria made a fruitless +invasion of Scotland, and that Macbeth reigned for three years +afterwards. + +We have now traced, in outline, the connections between the northern and +the southern portions of this island up to the date of the Norman +Conquest of England. We have found in Scotland a population composed of +Pict, Scot, Goidel, Brython, Dane, and Angle, and we have seen how the +country came to be, in some sense, united under a single monarch. It is +not possible to speak dogmatically of either of the two great problems +of the period--the racial distribution of the country, and the Edwardian +claims to overlordship. But it is clear that no portion of Scotland was, +in 1066, in any sense English, except the Lothians, of which Angles and +Danes had taken possession. From the Lothians, the English influences +must have spread slightly into Strathclyde; but the fact that the Celtic +Kings of Scotland were strong enough to annex and rule the Lothians as +part of a Celtic kingdom implies a limit to English colonization. As to +the feudal supremacy, it may be fairly said that there is no portion of +the English claim that cannot be reasonably doubted, and whatever force +it retains must be of the nature of a cumulative argument. It must, of +course, be recollected that Anglo-Norman chroniclers of the twelfth and +thirteenth centuries, like English historians of a later date, regarded +themselves as holding a brief for the English claim, while, on the other +hand, Scottish writers would be the last to assert, in their own case, a +complete absence of bias. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 30: Johnston: _Place-Names of Scotland_, p. 102.] + +[Footnote 31: Rev. Duncan MacGregor in _Scottish Church Society +Conferences_. Second Series, Vol. II, p. 23.] + +[Footnote 32: _Hist. Dun._ Rolls Series, i. 218.] + +[Footnote 33: Duncan was the grandson of Malcolm, and, by Pictish +custom, should not have succeeded. The "rightful" heir, an un-named +cousin of Malcolm, was murdered, and his sister, Gruoch, who married the +Mormaor of Moray, left a son, Lulach, who thus represented a rival line, +whose claims may be connected with some of the Highland risings against +the descendants of Duncan.] + + + + +CHAPTER II + +SCOTLAND AND THE NORMANS + +1066-1286 + + +The Norman Conquest of England could not fail to modify the position of +Scotland. Just as the Roman and the Saxon conquests had, in turn, driven +the Brythons northwards, so the dispossessed Saxons fled to Scotland +from their Norman victors. The result was considerably to alter the +ecclesiastical arrangements of the country, and to help its advance +towards civilization. The proportion of Anglo-Saxons to the races who +are known as Celts must also have been increased; but a complete +de-Celticization of Southern Scotland could not, and did not, follow. +The failure of William's conquest to include the Northern counties of +England left Northumbria an easy prey to the Scottish king, and the +marriage of Malcolm III, known as Canmore, to Margaret, the sister of +Edgar the Ætheling, gave her husband an excuse for interference in +England. We, accordingly, find a long series of raids over the border, +of which only five possess any importance. In 1069-70, Malcolm (who had, +even in the Confessor's time, been in Northumberland with hostile +intent) conducted an invasion in the interests of his brother-in-law. +It is probable that this movement was intended to coincide with the +arrival of the Danish fleet a few months earlier. But Malcolm was too +late; the Danes had gone home, and, in the interval, William had himself +superintended the great harrying of the North which made Malcolm's +subsequent efforts somewhat unnecessary. The invasion is important only +as having provoked the counter-attack of the Conqueror, which led to the +renewal of the supremacy controversy. William marched into Scotland and +crossed the Forth (the first English king to do so since the unfortunate +Egfrith, who fell at Nectansmere in 685). At Abernethy, on the banks of +the Tay, Malcolm and William met, and the English Chronicle, as usual, +informs us that the King of Scots became the "man" of the English king. +But as Malcolm received from William twelve _villae_ in England, it is, +at least, doubtful whether Malcolm paid homage for these alone or also +for Lothian and Cumbria, or for either of them. There is, at all events, +no question about the _villae_. Scottish historians have not failed to +point out that the value of the homage, for whatever it was given, is +sufficiently indicated by Malcolm's dealings with Gospatric of +Northumberland, whom William dismissed as a traitor and rebel. Within +about six months of the Abernethy meeting, Malcolm gave Gospatric the +earldom of Dunbar, and he became the founder of the great house of +March. No further invasion took place till 1079, when Malcolm took +advantage of William's Norman difficulties to make another harrying +expedition, which afforded the occasion for the building of +Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The accession of Rufus and his difficulties with +Robert of Normandy led, in 1091, to a somewhat belated attempt by +Malcolm to support the claims of the Ætheling by a third invasion, and, +in the following year, peace was made. Rufus confirmed to Malcolm the +grant of twelve _villae_, and Malcolm in turn gave the English king such +homage as he had given to his father. What this vague statement meant, +it was reserved for the Bruce to determine, and the Bruces had, as yet, +not one foot of Scottish soil. The agreement made in 1092 did not +prevent Rufus from completing his father's work by the conquest of +Cumberland, to which the Scots had claims. Malcolm's indignation and +William's illness led to a famous meeting at Gloucester, whence Malcolm +withdrew in great wrath, declining to be treated as a vassal of England. +The customary invasion followed, with the result that Malcolm was slain +at Alnwick in November, 1093. + +But the great effects of the Norman Conquest, as regards Scotland, are +not connected with strictly international affairs. They are partially +racial, and, in other respects, may be described as personal. It is +unquestionable that there was an immigration of the Northumbrian +population into Scotland; but the Northumbrian population were +Anglo-Danish, and the north of England was not thickly populated. When +William the Conqueror ravaged the northern counties with fire and sword, +a considerable proportion of the population must have perished. The +actual infusion of English blood may thus be exaggerated; but the +introduction of English influences cannot be questioned. These +influences were mainly due to the personality of Malcolm's second wife, +the Saxon princess, Margaret. The queen was a woman of considerable +mental power, and possessed a great influence over her strong-headed and +hot-tempered husband. She was a devout churchwoman, and she immediately +directed her energies to the task of bringing the Scottish church into +closer communion with the Roman. The changes were slight in themselves; +all that we know of them is an alteration in the beginning of Lent, the +proper observance of Easter and of Sunday, and a question, still +disputed, about the tonsure. But, slight as they were, they stood for +much. They involved the abandonment of the separate position held by the +Scottish Church, and its acceptance of a place as an integral portion of +Roman Christianity. The result was to make the Papacy, for the first +time, an important factor in Scottish affairs, and to bridge the gulf +that divided Scotland from Continental Europe. We soon find Scottish +churchmen seeking learning in France, and bringing into Scotland those +French influences which were destined seriously to affect the +civilization of the country. But, above all, these Roman changes were +important just because they were Anglican--introduced by an English +queen, carried out by English clerics, emanating from a court which was +rapidly becoming English. Malcolm's subjects thenceforth began to adopt +English customs and the English tongue, which spread from the court of +Queen Margaret. The colony of English refugees represented a higher +civilization and a more advanced state of commerce than the Scottish +Celts, and the English language, from this cause also, made rapid +progress. For about twenty-five years Margaret exercised the most potent +influence in her husband's kingdom, and, when she died, her reputation +as a saint and her subsequent canonization maintained and supported the +traditions she had created. Not only did she have on her side the power +of a court and the prestige of courtly etiquette, but, as we have said, +she represented a higher civilizing force than that which was opposed to +her, and hence the greatness of her victory. It must, however, be +remembered that the spread of the English language in Scotland does not +necessarily imply the predominance of English blood. It means rather the +growth of English commerce. We can trace the adoption of English along +the seaboard, and in the towns, while Gaelic still remained the +language of the countryman. There is no evidence of any English +immigration of sufficient proportions to overwhelm the Gaelic +population. Like the victory of the conquered English over the +conquering Normans, which was even then making fast progress in England, +it is a triumph of a kind that subsequent events have revealed as +characteristically Anglo-Saxon, and it called into force the powers of +adaptation and of colonization which have brought into being so great an +English-speaking world. + +Malcolm's reign ended in defeat and failure; his wife died of grief, and +the opportunity presented itself of a Celtic reaction against the +Anglicization of the reign of Malcolm III. The throne was seized by +Malcolm's brother, Donald Bane. Malcolm's eldest son, Duncan, whose +mother, Ingibjorg, had been a Dane, received assistance from Rufus, and +drove Donald Bane, after a reign of six months, into the distant North. +But after about six months he himself was slain in a small fight with +the Mormaer or Earl of the Mearns, and Donald Bane continued to reign +for about three years, in conjunction with Edmund, a son of Malcolm and +Margaret. But in 1097, Edgar, a younger brother of Edmund, again +obtained the help of Rufus and secured the throne. The reign of Edgar is +important in two respects. It put an end to the Celtic revival, and +reproduced the conditions of the time of Malcolm and Margaret. +Henceforward Celtic efforts were impossible except in the Highlands, and +the Celts of the Lowlands resigned themselves to the process of +Anglicization imposed upon them alike by ecclesiastical, political, and +commercial circumstances. It saw also the beginning of an influence +which was to prove scarcely less fruitful in results than the +Anglo-Saxon triumph of which we have spoken. In November, 1100, Edgar's +sister, Matilda, was married to the Norman King of England, Henry I, and +two years later, another sister, Mary, was married to Eustace, Count of +Boulogne, the son of the future King Stephen. These unions, with a son +and a grandson respectively of William the Conqueror, prepared the way +for the Norman Conquest of Scotland. Edgar died in January, 1106-7, and +his brother and successor, Alexander I, espoused an Anglo-Norman, +Sybilla, who is generally supposed to have been a natural daughter of +Henry I. On the death of Alexander, in 1124, these Norman influences +acquired a new importance under his brother David, the youngest son of +Malcolm and Margaret. During the troubles which followed his father's +death, David had been educated in England, and after the marriage of +Henry I and Matilda, had resided at the court of his brother-in-law, +till the death of Edgar, when he became ruler of Cumbria and the +southern portion of Lothian. He had married, in 1113-14, the daughter +and heiress of Waltheof, Earl of Huntingdon, who was also the widow of a +Norman baron. In this way the earldom of Huntingdon became attached to +the Scottish throne, and afforded an occasion for reviving the old +question of homage. Moreover, Waltheof of Huntingdon was the son of +Siward of Northumbria, and David regarded himself as, on this account, +possessing claims over Northumbria. + +David, as we have seen, had been brought up under Norman influences, and +it is under the son of the Saxon Margaret that the bloodless Norman +conquest of Scotland took place. Edgar had recognized the new English +nobility and settlers by addressing charters to all in his kingdom, +"both Scots and English"; his brother, David, speaks of "French and +English, Scots and Galwegians". The charters are, of course, addressed +to barons and land-owners, and their evidence refers to the English and +Anglo-Norman nobility. The Norman fascination, which had been turned to +such good account in England, in Italy, and in the Holy Land, had +completely vanquished such English prepossessions as David might have +inherited from his mother. Normans, like the Bruces and the Fitzalans +(afterwards the Stewarts), came to David's court and received from him +grants of land. The number of Norman signatures that attest his charters +show that his _entourage_ was mainly Norman. He was a very devout +Church-man (a "sair sanct for the Crown" as James VI called him), and +Norman prelate and Norman abbot helped to increase the total of Norman +influence. He transformed Scotland into a feudal country, gave grants of +land by feudal tenure, summoned a great council on the feudal principle, +and attempted to create such a monarchy as that of which Henry I was +laying the foundations. There can be little doubt that this strong +Norman influence helped to prepare the Scottish people for the French +alliance; but its more immediate effect was to bring about the existence +of an anti-national nobility. These great Norman names were to become +great in Scottish story; but it required a long process to make their +bearers, in any sense, Scotsmen. Most of them had come from England, +many of them held lands in England, and none of them could be expected +to feel any real difference between themselves and their English +fellows. + +During the reign of Henry I, Anglo-Norman influences thus worked a great +change in Scotland. On Henry's death, David, as the uncle of the Empress +Matilda, immediately took up arms on her behalf. Stephen, with the +wisdom which characterized the beginning of his reign, came to terms +with him at Durham. David did not personally acknowledge the usurper, +but his son, Henry, did him homage for Huntingdon and some possessions +in the north (1136). In the following year, David claimed +Northumberland for Henry as the representative of Siward, and, on +Stephen's refusal, again adopted the cause of the empress. The usual +invasion of England followed, and after some months of ravaging, a short +truce, and a slight Scottish victory gained at Clitheroe on the Ribble, +in June, 1138, the final result was David's great defeat in the battle +of the Standard, fought near Northallerton on the 22nd August, 1138. + +The battle of the Standard possesses no special interest for students of +the art of war. The English army, under William of Albemarle and Walter +l'Espec, was drawn up in one line of battle, consisting of knights in +coats of mail, archers, and spearmen. The Scots were in four divisions; +the van was composed of the Picts of Galloway, the right wing was led by +Prince Henry, and the men of Lothian were on the left. Behind fought +King David, with the men of Moray. The Galwegians made several +unsuccessful attempts upon the English centre. Prince Henry led his +horse through the English left wing, but the infantry failed to follow, +and the prince lost his advantage by a premature attempt to plunder. The +Scottish right made a pusillanimous attempt on the English left, and the +reserve began to desert King David, who collected the remnants of his +army and retired in safety to a height above Cowton Moor, the scene of +the fight. Prince Henry was left surrounded by the enemy, but saved the +position by a clever stratagem, and rejoined his father. Mr. Oman +remarks that the battle was "of a very abnormal type for the twelfth +century, since the side which had the advantage in cavalry made no +attempt to use it, while that which was weak in the all-important arm +made a creditable attempt to turn it to account by breaking into the +hostile flank.... Wild rushes of unmailed clansmen against a steady +front of spears and bows never succeeded; in this respect Northallerton +is the forerunner of Dupplin, Halidon Hill, Flodden, and Pinkie."[34] +The chief interest, for our purpose, attaching to the battle of the +Standard, is connected with the light it throws upon the racial +complexion of the country seventy years after the Norman Conquest. Our +chief authorities are the Hexham chroniclers and Ailred of Rivaulx[35], +English writers of the twelfth century. They speak of David's host as +composed of Angli, Picti, and Scoti. The Angli alone contained mailed +knights in their ranks, and David's first intention was to send these +mail-clad warriors against the English, while the Picts and Scots were +to follow with sword and targe. The Galwegians and the Scots from beyond +Forth strongly opposed this arrangement, and assured the king that his +unarmed Highlanders would fight better than "these Frenchmen". The king +gave the place of honour to the Galwegians, and altered his whole plan +of battle. The whole context, and the Earl of Strathern's sneer at +"these Frenchmen", would seem to show that the "Angli" are, at all +events, clearly distinguished from the Picts of Galloway and the Scots +who, like Malise of Strathern, came from beyond the Forth. It is +probable that the "Angli" were the men of Lothian; but it must also be +recollected both that the term included the Anglo-Norman nobility +("these Frenchman") and the English settlers who had followed Queen +Margaret, and that David was fighting in an English quarrel and in the +interests of an English queen. The knights who wore coats of mail were +entirely Anglo-Norman, and it is against them that the claim of the +Highlanders is particularly directed. When Richard of Hexham tells us +that Angles, Scots, and Picts fell out by the way, as they returned +home, he means to contrast the men of Lothian and the new Anglo-Norman +nobility with the Picts of Galloway and the Highlanders from north of +the Forth, and this unusual application of the term _Angli_, to a +portion of the Scottish army, is an indication, not that the Lowlanders +were entirely English, but that there was a strong jealousy between the +Scots and the new English nobility. The "Angli" are, above all others, +the knights in mail.[36] + +It is not possible to credit David with any real affection for the +cause of the empress or with any higher motive than selfish greed, and +it can scarcely be claimed that he kept faith with Stephen. Such, +however, were the difficulties of the English king, that, in spite of +his crushing defeat, David reaped the advantages of victory. Peace was +made in April, 1139, by the Treaty of Durham, which secured to Prince +Henry the earldom of Northumberland, as an English fief. The Scottish +border line, which had successively enclosed Strathclyde and part of +Cumberland, and the Lothians, now extended to the Tees. David gave +Stephen some assistance in 1139, but on the victory of the Empress +Maud[37] at Lincoln, in 1141, David deserted the captive king, and was +present, on the empress's side, at her defeat at Winchester, in 1141. +Eight years later he entered into an agreement with the claimant, Henry +Fitz-Empress, afterwards Henry II, by which the eldest son of the +Scottish king was to retain his English fiefs, and David was to aid +Henry against Stephen. An unsuccessful attempt on England followed--the +last of David's numerous invasions. When he died, in 1153, he left +Scotland in a position of power with regard to England such as she was +never again to occupy. The religious devotion which secured for him a +popular canonization (he was never actually canonized) can scarcely +justify his conduct to Stephen. But it must be recollected that, +throughout his reign, there is comparatively little racial antagonism +between the two countries. David interfered in an English civil war, and +took part, now on one side, and now on the other. But the whole effect +of his life was to bring the nations more closely together through the +Norman influences which he encouraged in Scotland. His son and heir held +great fiefs in England,[38] and he granted tracts of land to +Anglo-Norman nobles. A Bruce and a Balliol, who each held possessions +both in Scotland and in England, tried to prevent the battle of the +Standard. Their well-meant efforts proved fruitless; but the fact is +notable and significant. + +David's eldest son, the gallant Prince Henry, who had led the wild +charge at Northallerton, predeceased his father in 1152. He left three +sons, of whom the two elder, Malcolm and William, became successively +kings of Scotland, while from the youngest, David, Earl of Huntingdon, +were descended the claimants at the first Inter-regnum. It was the fate +of Scotland, as so often again, to be governed by a child; and a strong +king, Henry II, was now on the throne of England. As David I had taken +advantage of the weakness of Stephen, so now did Henry II benefit by the +youth of Malcolm IV. In spite of the agreement into which Henry had +entered with David in 1149, he, in 1157, obtained from Malcolm, then +fourteen years of age, the resignation of his claims upon +Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. In return for this, +Malcolm received a confirmation of the earldom of Huntingdon (cf. p. +18). The abandonment of the northern claims seems to have led to a +quarrel, for Henry refused to knight the Scots king; but, in the +following year, Malcolm accompanied Henry in his expedition to Toulouse, +and received his knighthood at Henry's hands. Malcolm's subsequent +troubles were connected with rebellions in Moray and in Galloway against +the new _régime_, and with the ambition of Somerled, the ruler of +Argyll, and of the still independent western islands. The only occasion +on which he again entered into relations with England was in 1163, when +he met Henry at Woodstock and did homage to his eldest son, who became +known as Henry III, although he never actually reigned. As usual, there +is no statement precisely defining the homage; it must not be forgotten +that the King of Scots was also Earl of Huntingdon. + +Malcolm died in 1165, and was succeeded by his brother, William the +Lion, who reigned for nearly fifty years. Henry was now in the midst of +his great struggle with the Church, but William made no attempt to use +the opportunity. He accepted the earldom of Huntingdon from Henry, and +in 1170, when the younger Henry was crowned in Becket's despite, William +took the oath of fealty to him as Earl of Huntingdon. But in 1173-74, +when the English king's ungrateful son organized a baronial revolt, +William decided that his chance had come. His grandfather, David, had +made him Earl of Northumberland, and the resignation which Henry had +extorted from the weakness of Malcolm IV could scarcely be held as +binding upon William. So William marched into England to aid the rebel +prince, and, after some skirmishes and the usual ravaging, was surprised +while tilting near Alnwick, and made a captive. He was conveyed to the +castle of Falaise in Normandy, and there, on December 8th, 1174, as a +condition of his release, he signed the Treaty of Falaise, which +rendered the kingdom of Scotland, for fifteen years, unquestionably the +vassal of England.[39] The treaty acknowledged Henry II as overlord of +Scotland, and expressly stated the dependence of the Scottish Church +upon that of England. The relations of the churches had been an +additional cause of difficulty since the time of St. Margaret, and the +present arrangement was in no sense final. A papal legate held a council +in Edinburgh in 1177, and ten years afterwards Pope Clement III took the +Scottish Church directly under his own protection. + +About the political relationship there could be no such doubt. William +stood, theoretically, if not actually, in much the same position to +Henry II, as John Baliol afterwards occupied to Edward I. It was not +till the accession of Richard I that William recovered his freedom. The +castles in the south of Scotland which had been delivered to the English +were restored, and the independence of Scotland was admitted, on +William's paying Richard the sum of 10,000 marks. This agreement, dated +December, 1189, annulled the terms of the Treaty of Falaise, and left +the position of William the Lion exactly what it had been at the death +of Malcolm IV. He remained liegeman for such lands as the Scottish kings +had, in times past, done homage to England. The agreement with Richard I +is certainly not incompatible with the Scottish position that the +homage, before the Treaty of Falaise, applied only to the earldom of +Huntingdon; but the usual vagueness was maintained, and the arrangement +in no way determines the question of the homage paid by the earlier +Scottish kings. For a hundred years after this date, the two countries +were never at war. William had difficulties with John; in 1209, an +outbreak of hostilities seemed almost certain, but the two kings came to +terms. The long reign of William came to an end in 1214. His son and +successor, Alexander II, joined the French party in England which was +defeated at Lincoln in 1216. Alexander made peace with the regent, +resigned all claims to Northumberland, and did homage for his English +possessions--the most important of which was the earldom of Huntingdon, +which had, since 1190, been held by his uncle, David, known as David of +Huntingdon. In 1221, he married Joanna, sister of Henry III. Another +marriage, negotiated at the same time, was probably of more real +importance. Margaret, the eldest daughter of William the Lion, became +the wife of the Justiciar of England, Hubert de Burgh. Mr. Hume Brown +has pointed out that immediately on the fall of Hubert de Burgh, a +dispute arose between Henry and Alexander. The English king desired +Alexander to acknowledge the Treaty of Falaise, and this Alexander +refused to do. The agreement, which averted an appeal to the sword, was, +on the whole, favourable to Scotland. Nothing was said about homage for +this kingdom. David of Huntingdon had died in 1119, and Alexander gave +up the southern earldom, but received a fief in the northern counties, +always coveted of the kings of Scotland. This arrangement is known as +the Treaty of York (1236). Some trifling incidents and the second +marriage of Alexander, which brought Scotland into closer touch with +France (he married Marie, daughter of Enguerand de Coucy), nearly +provoked a rupture in 1242, but the domestic troubles of Henry and +Alexander alike prevented any breach of the long peace which had +subsisted since the capture of William the Lion. In 1249, the Scottish +king died, and his son and successor,[40] Alexander III, was knighted by +Henry of England, and, in 1251, married Margaret, Henry's eldest +daughter. The relations of Alexander to Henry III and to Edward I will +be narrated in the following chapter. Not once throughout his reign was +any blood spilt in an English quarrel, and the story of his reign forms +no part of our subject. Its most interesting event is the battle of +Largs. The Scottish kings had, for some time, been attempting to annex +the islands, and, in 1263, Hakon of Norway invaded Scotland as a +retributive measure. He was defeated at the battle of Largs, and, in +1266, the Isles were annexed to the Scottish crown. The fact that this +forcible annexation took place, after a struggle, only twenty years +before the death of Alexander III, must be borne in mind in connection +with the part played by the Islanders in the War of Independence. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 34: _Art of War in the Middle Ages_, p. 391.] + +[Footnote 35: Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 36: In the final order of battle, David seems to have +attempted to bring all classes of his subjects together, and the +divisions have a political as well as a military purpose. The right wing +contained Anglo-Norman knights and men from Strathclyde and Teviotdale, +the left wing men from Lothian and Highlanders from Argyll and the +islands, and King David's reserve was composed of more knights along +with men from Moray and the region north of the Forth.] + +[Footnote 37: The Empress Maud, daughter of Henry I, and niece of David, +must be carefully distinguished from Queen Maud, wife of Stephen, and +cousin of David, who negotiated the Treaty of Durham.] + +[Footnote 38: Ailred credits Bruce with a long speech, in which he tries +to convince David that his real friends are not his Scottish subjects, +but his Anglo-Norman favourites, and that, accordingly, he should keep +on good terms with the English.] + +[Footnote 39: William's English earldom of Huntingdon, which had been +forfeited, was restored, in 1185, and was conferred by William upon his +brother, David, the ancestor of the claimants of 1290.] + +[Footnote 40: As Alexander III was the last king of Scotland who ruled +before the War of Independence, it is interesting to note that he was +crowned at Scone with the ancient ceremonies, and as the representative +of the Celtic kings of Scotland. Fordun tells us that the coronation +took place on the sacred stone at Scone, on which all Scottish kings had +sat, and that a Highlander appeared and read Alexander's Celtic +genealogy (Annals XLVIII. Cf. App. A). There is no indication that +Alexander's subjects, from the Forth to the Moray Firth, were "stout +Northumbrian Englishmen", who had, for no good reason, drifted away from +their English countrymen, to unite them with whom Edward I waged his +Scottish wars.] + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE SCOTTISH POLICY OF EDWARD I + +1286-1296 + + +When Alexander III was killed, on the 19th March, 1285-86, the relations +between England and Scotland were such that Edward I was amply justified +in looking forward to a permanent union. Since the ill-fated invasion of +William the Lion in 1174, there had been no serious warfare between the +two countries, and in recent years they had become more and more +friendly in their dealings with each other. The late king had married +Edward's sister, Margaret, and the child-queen was her grand-daughter; +Alexander and Margaret had been present at the English King's coronation +in 1274; and, in addition to these personal connections, Scotland had +found England a friend in its great final struggle with the Danes. The +misfortunes which had overtaken Scotland in the premature deaths[41] of +Alexander and his three children might yet prove a very real blessing, +if they prepared the way for the creation of a great island kingdom, +which should be at once free and united. The little Margaret, the Maid +of Norway, Edward's grand-niece, had been acknowledged heir to the +throne of her grandfather, in February, 1283-84, and on his death her +succession was admitted. The Great Council met at Scone in April, 1286, +and appointed six Guardians of the Kingdom. It was no easy task which +was entrusted to them, for the claim of a child and a foreigner could +not but be disputed by the barons who stood nearest to the throne. The +only rival who attempted to rebel was Robert Bruce of Annandale, who had +been promised the succession by Alexander II, and had been disappointed +of the fulfilment of his hopes by the birth of the late king in 1241. +The deaths of two of the guardians added to the difficulties of the +situation, and it was with something like relief that the Scots heard +that Eric of Norway, the father of their queen, wished to come to an +arrangement with Edward of England, in whose power he lay. The result of +Eric's negotiations with Edward was that a conference met at Salisbury +in 1289, and was attended, on Edward's invitation, by four Scottish +representatives, who included Robert Bruce and three of the guardians. +Such were the troubles of the country that the Scots willingly acceded +to Edward's proposals, which gave him an interest in the government of +Scotland, and they heard with delight that he contemplated the marriage +of their little queen to his son Edward, then two years of age. The +English king was assured of the satisfaction which such a marriage would +give to Scotland, and the result was that, by the Treaty of Brigham, in +1290, the marriage was duly arranged. Edward had previously obtained the +necessary dispensation from the pope. + +The eagerness with which the Scots welcomed the proposal of marriage was +sufficient evidence that the time had come for carrying out Edward's +statesmanlike scheme, but the conditions which were annexed to it should +have warned him that there were limits to the Scottish compliance with +his wishes. Scotland was not in any way to be absorbed by England, +although the crowns would be united in the persons of Edward and +Margaret. Edward wisely made no attempt to force Scotland into any more +complete union, although he could not but expect that the union of the +crowns would prepare the way for a union of the kingdoms. He certainly +interpreted in the widest sense the rights given him by the treaty of +Brigham, but when the Scots objected to his demand that all Scottish +castles should be placed in his power, he gave way without rousing +further suspicion or indignation. Hitherto, his policy had been +characterized by the great sagacity which he had shown in his conduct of +English affairs; it is impossible to refuse either to sympathize with +his ideals or to admire the tact he displayed in his negotiations with +Scotland. His considerateness extended even to the little Maid of +Norway, for whose benefit he victualled, with raisins and other fruit, +the "large ship" which he sent to conduct her to England. But the large +ship returned to England with a message from King Eric that he would not +entrust his daughter to an English vessel. The patient Edward sent it +back again, and it was probably in it that the child set sail in +September, 1290. Some weeks later, Bishop Fraser of St. Andrews, one of +the guardians, and a supporter of the English interest, wrote to Edward +that he had heard a "sorrowful rumour" regarding the queen.[42] The +rumour proved to be well-founded; in circumstances which are unknown to +us, the poor girl-queen died on her voyage, and her death proved a fatal +blow to the work on which Edward had been engaged for the last four +years. + +Of the thirteen[43] competitors who put forward claims to the crown, +only three need be here mentioned. They were each descended from David, +Earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion and grandson of David I. +The claimant who, according to the strict rules of primogeniture, had +the best right was John Balliol, the grandson of Margaret, the eldest +daughter of Earl David. His most formidable opponent was Robert Bruce of +Annandale, the son of Earl David's second daughter, Isabella, who based +his candidature on the fact that he was the grandson, whereas Balliol +was the great-grandson, of the Earl of Huntingdon, through whom both the +rivals claimed. The third, John Hastings, was the grandson of David's +youngest daughter, Ada. Bishop Fraser, in the letter to which we have +already referred, urged Edward I to interfere in favour of John Balliol, +who might be employed to further English interests in Scotland. The +English king thereupon decided to put forward a definite claim to be +lord paramount, and, in virtue of that right, to decide the disputed +succession. + +Since Richard I had restored his independence to William the Lion, in +1189, the question of the overlordship had lain almost entirely dormant. +On John's succession, William had done homage "saving his own right", +but whether the homage was for Scotland or solely for his English fiefs +was not clear. His successor, Alexander II, aided Louis of France +against the infant Henry III, and, after the battle of Lincoln, came to +an agreement with the regent, by which he did homage to Henry III, but +only for the earldom of Huntingdon and his other possessions in Henry's +kingdom. After the fall of Hubert de Burgh, Henry used his influence +with Pope Gregory IX, who looked upon the English king as a valuable +ally in the great struggle with Frederick II, to persuade the pope to +order the King of Scots to acknowledge Henry as his overlord (1234). +Alexander refused to comply with the papal injunction, and the matter +was not definitely settled. Henry made no attempt to enforce his claim, +and merely came to an agreement with Alexander regarding the English +possessions of the Scottish king (1236). During the minority of +Alexander III, when Henry was, for two years, the real ruler of Scotland +(1255-1257), he described himself not as lord paramount, but as chief +adviser of the Scottish king. Lastly, when, in 1278, Alexander III took +a solemn oath of homage to Edward at Westminster, he, according to the +Scottish account of the affair, made an equally solemn avowal that to +God alone was his homage due for the kingdom of Scotland, and Edward had +accepted the homage thus rendered. + +It is thus clear that Edward regarded the claim of the overlordship as a +"trump card" to be played only in special circumstances, and these +appeared now to have arisen. The death of the Maid of Norway had +deprived him of his right to interfere in the affairs of Scotland, and +had destroyed his hopes of a marriage alliance. It seemed to him that +all hope of carrying out his Scottish policy had vanished, unless he +could take advantage of the helpless condition of the country to obtain +a full and final recognition of a claim which had been denied for +exactly a hundred years. At first it seemed as if the scheme were to +prove satisfactory. The Norman nobles who claimed the throne declared, +after some hesitation, their willingness to acknowledge Edward's claim +to be lord paramount, and the English king was therefore arbiter of the +situation. He now obtained what he had asked in vain in the preceding +year--the delivery into English hands of all Scottish strongholds (June, +1291). Edward delayed his decision till the 17th November, 1292, when, +after much disputation regarding legal precedents, and many +consultations with Scottish commissioners and the English Parliament, he +finally adjudged the crown to John Balliol. It cannot be argued that the +decision was unfair; but Edward was fortunate in finding that the +candidate whose hereditary claim was strongest was also the man most +fitted to occupy the position of a vassal king. The new monarch made a +full and indisputable acknowledgment of his position as Edward's liege, +and the great seal of the kingdom of Scotland was publicly destroyed in +token of the position of vassalage in which the country now stood. Of +what followed it is difficult to speak with any certainty. Balliol +occupied the throne for three and a half years, and was engaged, during +the whole of that period, in disputes with his superior. The details +need not detain us. Edward claimed to be final judge in all Scottish +cases; he summoned Balliol to his court to plead against one of the +Scottish king's own vassals, and to receive instructions with regard to +the raising of money for Edward's needs. It may fairly be said that +Edward's treatment of Balliol does give grounds for the view of Scottish +historians that the English king was determined, from the first, to goad +his wretched vassal into rebellion in order to give him an opportunity +of absorbing the country in his English kingdom. On the other hand, it +may be argued that, if this was Edward's aim, he was singularly +unfortunate in the time he chose for forcing a crisis. He was at war +with Philip IV of France; Madoc was raising his Welsh rebellion; and +Edward's seizure of wool had created much indignation among his own +subjects. However this may be, it is certain that Balliol, rankling with +a sense of injustice caused by the ignominy which Edward had heaped upon +him, and rendered desperate by the complaints of his own subjects, +decided, by the advice of the Great Council, to disown his allegiance to +the King of England, and to enter upon an alliance with France. It is +noteworthy that the policy of the French alliance, as an anti-English +movement, which became the watchword of the patriotic party in Scotland, +was inaugurated by John Balliol. The Scots commenced hostilities by some +predatory incursions into the northern counties of England in 1295-96. + +Whether or not Edward was waiting for the opportunity thus given him, he +certainly took full advantage of it. Undisturbed by his numerous +difficulties, he marched northwards to the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed. +Tradition tells that he was exasperated by insults showered upon him by +the inhabitants, but the story cannot go far to excuse the massacre +which followed the capture of the town. After more than a century of +peace, the first important act of war was marked by a brutality which +was a fitting prelude to more than two centuries of fierce and bloody +fighting. On Edward's policy of "Thorough," as exemplified at Berwick, +must rest, to some extent, the responsibility for the unnecessary +ferocity which distinguished the Scottish War of Independence. It was, +from a military stand-point, a complete and immediate success; +politically, it was unquestionably a failure. From Berwick-on-Tweed +Edward marched to Dunbar, cheered by the formal announcement of +Balliol's renunciation of his allegiance. He easily defeated the Scots +at Dunbar, in April, 1296, and continued an undisturbed progress through +Scotland, the castles of Dunbar, Roxburgh, Edinburgh, and Stirling +falling into his hands. Balliol determined to submit, and, on the 7th +July, 1296, he met Edward in the churchyard of Stracathro, near Brechin, +and formally resigned his office into the hands of his overlord. Balliol +was imprisoned in England for three years, but, in July, 1299, he was +permitted to go to his estate of Bailleul, in Normandy, where he +survived till April, 1313. + +Edward now treated Scotland as a conquered country under his own +immediate rule. He continued his progress, by Aberdeen, Banff, and +Cullen, to Elgin, whence, in July, 1296, he marched southwards by Scone, +whence he carried off the Stone of Fate, which is now part of the +Coronation Chair in Westminster Abbey. He also despoiled Scotland of +many of its early records, which might serve to remind his new subjects +of their forfeited independence. He did not at once determine the new +constitution of the country, but left it under a military occupation, +with John de Warrenne, Earl of Surrey, as Governor, Hugh de Cressingham +as Treasurer, and William Ormsby as Justiciar. All castles and other +strong places were in English hands, and Edward regarded his conquest as +assured. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 41: David, the youngest child of Alexander and Margaret of +England, died in June, 1281; Alexander, his older brother, in January, +1283-84; and their sister, Margaret, Queen of Norway, in April, 1283. +Neither Alexander nor David left any issue, and the little daughter of +the Queen of Norway was only about three years old when her grandfather, +Alexander III, was killed.] + +[Footnote 42: Nat. MSS. i. 36, No. LXX.] + +[Footnote 43: Cf. Table, App. C.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE + +1297-1328 + + +Edward I had failed to recognize the difference between the Scottish +barons and the Scottish people, to which we have referred in a former +chapter. To the Norman baron, who possessed lands in England and +Scotland alike, it mattered little that he had now but one liege lord +instead of two suzerains. To the people of Scotland, proud and +high-spirited, tenacious of their long traditions of independence, +resentful of the presence of foreigners, it could not but be hateful to +find their country governed by a foreign soldiery. The conduct of +Edward's officials, and especially of Cressingham and Ormsby, and the +cruelty of the English garrisons, served to strengthen this national +feeling, and it only remained for it to find a leader round whom it +might rally.[44] A leader arose in the person of Sir William Wallace, a +heroic and somewhat mysterious figure, who first attracted notice in +the autumn of 1296, and, by the spring of the following year, had +gathered round him a band of guerilla warriors, by whose help he was +able to make serious attacks upon the English garrisons of Lanark and +Scone (May, 1297). These exploits, of little importance in themselves, +sufficed to attract the popular feeling towards Wallace. The domestic +difficulties of Edward I rendered the time opportune for a rising, and, +despite the failure of an ill-conceived and badly-managed attempt on the +part of some of the more patriotic barons, which led to the submission +of Irvine, in 1297, the little army which Wallace had collected rapidly +grew in courage and in numbers, and its leader laid siege to the castle +of Dundee. He had now attained a position of such importance that Surrey +and Cressingham found it necessary to take strong measures against him, +and they assembled at Stirling, whither Wallace marched to meet them. +The battle of Stirling Bridge (or, more strictly, Cambuskenneth Bridge) +was fought on September 11th, 1297. Wallace, with his army of knights +and spearmen, took up his position on the Abbey Craig, with the Forth +between him and the English. Less than a mile from the Scottish camp was +a small bridge over the river, giving access to the Abbey of +Cambuskenneth. Surrey rashly attempted to cross this bridge, in the face +of the Scots, and Wallace, after a considerable number of the enemy had +been allowed to reach the northern bank, ordered an attack. The English +failed to keep the bridge, and their force became divided. Surrey was +unable to offer any assistance to his vanguard, and they fell an easy +prey to the Scots, while the English general, with the remnants of his +army, retreated to Berwick. + +Stirling was the great military key of the country, commanding all the +passes from south to north, and the great defeat which the English had +sustained placed the country in the power of Wallace. Along with an +Andrew de Moray, of whose identity we know nothing, he undertook the +government of the country, corresponded in the name of Scotland with +Lübeck and Hamburg, and took the offensive against England in an +expedition which ravaged as far south as Hexham. To the great monastery +of Hexham he granted protection in the name of "the leaders of the army +of Scotland",[45] although he was not successful in restraining the +ferocity of his followers. The document in question is granted in the +name of John, King of Scotland, and in a charter dated March 1298,[46] +Wallace describes himself as Guardian of the Kingdom of Scotland, acting +for the exiled Balliol. In the following summer, Edward marched into +Scotland, and although his forces were in serious difficulties from want +of food, he went forward to meet Wallace, who held a strong position at +Falkirk. Wallace prepared to meet Edward by drawing up his spearmen in +four great "schiltrons" or divisions, with a reserve of cavalry. His +flanks were protected by archers, and he had also placed archers between +the divisions of spearmen. On the English side, Edward himself commanded +the centre, the Earls of Norfolk and Hereford the right, and the Bishop +of Durham the left. The Scottish defeat was the result of a combination +of archers and cavalry. The first attack of the English horse was +completely repulsed by the spearmen. "The front ranks", says Mr. Oman, +"knelt with their spear-butts fixed in the earth; the rear ranks +levelled their lances over their comrades' heads; the thick-set grove of +twelve-foot spears was far too dense for the cavalry to penetrate." But +Edward withdrew the cavalry and ordered the archers to send a shower of +arrows on the Scots. Wallace's cavalry made no attempt to interfere with +the archers; the Scottish bowmen were too few to retaliate; and, when +the English horse next charged, they found many weak points in the +schiltrons, and broke up the Scottish host. + +As the battle of Stirling had created the power of Wallace, so that of +Falkirk completely destroyed it. He almost immediately resigned his +office of guardian (mainly, according to tradition, because of the +jealousy with which the great barons regarded him), and took refuge in +France. Edward was still in the midst of difficulties, both foreign and +domestic, and he was unable to reduce the country. The Scots elected new +guardians, who regarded themselves as regents, not for Edward but for +Balliol. They included John Comyn and Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, the +future king. The guardians were successful in persuading both Philip IV +of France and Pope Boniface VIII to intervene in their favour, but +Edward disregarded the papal interference, and though he was too busy to +complete his conquest, he sent an army into Scotland in each of the +years 1300, 1301, and 1302. Military operations were almost entirely +confined to ravaging; but, in February 1302-3, Comyn completely defeated +at Rosslyn, near Edinburgh, an English army under Sir John Segrave and +Ralph de Manton, whom Edward had ordered to make a foray in Scotland +about the beginning of Lent. In the summer of 1303, the English king, +roused perhaps by this small success, and able to give his undivided +attention to Scotland, conducted an invasion on a larger scale. In +September, he traversed the country as far north as Elgin, and, +remaining in Scotland during the winter of 1303-4, he set to work in the +spring to reduce the castle of Stirling, which still held out against +him. When the garrison surrendered, in July, 1304, Scotland lay at +Edward's feet. Comyn had already submitted to the English king, and +Edward's personal vindictiveness was satisfied by the capture of Wallace +by Sir John Menteith, a Scotsman who had been acting in the English +interest. Wallace was taken to London, subjected to a mock trial, +tortured, and put to death with ignominy. On the 23rd August, 1305, his +head was placed on London Bridge, and portions of his body were sent to +Scotland. His memory served as an inspiration for the cause of freedom, +and it is held in just reverence to the present hour. If it is true that +he did not scruple to go beyond what we should regard as the limits of +honourable warfare, it must be remembered that he was fighting an enemy +who had also disregarded these limits, and much may be forgiven to brave +men who are resisting a gratuitous war of conquest. When he died, his +work seemed to have failed. But he had shown his countrymen how to +resist Edward, and he had given sufficient evidence of the strength of +national feeling, if only it could find a suitable leader. The English +had to learn the lesson which, five centuries later, Napoleon had to +learn in Spain, and Scotland cannot forget that Wallace was the first to +teach it. + +It is not less pathetic to turn to Edward's scheme for the government of +Scotland. It bears the impress of a mind which was that of a statesman +and a lawyer as well as a soldier. It is impossible to deny a tribute of +admiration to its wisdom, or to question the probability of its success +in other circumstances. Had the course of events been more propitious +for Edward's great plan, Scotland and England might have been spared +much suffering. But Edward failed to realize that the Scots could no +longer regard him as the friend and ally to whose son they had willingly +agreed to marry their queen. He was now but a military conqueror in +temporary possession of their country, an enemy to be resisted by any +means. The new constitution was foredoomed to failure. Carrying out his +scheme of 1296, Edward created no vassal-king, but placed Scotland under +his own nephew, John of Brittany; he interfered as little as might be +with the customs and laws of the country; he placed over it eight +justiciars with sheriffs under them. In 1305, Edward's Parliament, which +met at London, was attended by Scottish representatives. The +incorporation of the country with its larger neighbour was complete, but +it involved as little change as was possible in the circumstances. + +The Parliament of 1305 was attended by Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, +who attended not as a representative of Scotland, but as an English +lord. Bruce was the grandson of the Robert Bruce of Annandale who had +been promised the crown by Alexander II, and who had been one of the +claimants of 1290. His grandfather had done homage to Edward, and Bruce +himself had been generally on the English side, and had fought against +Wallace at Falkirk. When John Balliol had decided to rebel, he had +transferred the lands of Annandale from the Bruces to the Comyns, and +they had been restored by Edward I after Balliol's submission. From 1299 +to 1303, Bruce had been associated with Comyn in the guardianship of the +kingdom, but, like Comyn, had submitted to Edward. Nobody in Scotland +could now think of a restoration of Balliol, and if there was to be a +Scottish king at all, it must obviously be either Comyn or Bruce. The +claim of John Comyn the younger was much stronger than that of his +father had been. The elder Comyn had claimed on account of his descent +from Donald Bane, the brother and successor of Malcolm Canmore; but the +younger Comyn had an additional claim in right of his mother, who was a +sister of John Balliol. Between Bruce and Comyn there was a +long-standing feud. In 1299, at a meeting of the Great Council of +Scotland at Peebles, Comyn had attacked Bruce, and they could only be +separated by the use of violence. On the 10th February, 1305-6, Bruce +and the Comyn met in the church of the convent of the Minorite Friars at +Dumfries. Tradition tells that they met to adjust their conflicting +claims, with a view to establishing the independence of the country in +the person of one or other of the rivals; that a dispute arose in which +they came to blows; and that Bruce, after inflicting a severe wound upon +his enemy, left the church. "I doubt I have slain the Red Comyn," he +said to his followers. "Doubt?" was the reply of Sir Roger Fitzpatrick, +"I'll mak siccar." The actual circumstances of the affair are unknown to +us; but Bruce may fairly be relieved of the suspicion of any +premeditation, because it is most unlikely that he would have needlessly +chosen to offend the Church by committing a murder within sanctuary. The +real interest attaching to the circumstances lies in the tradition that +the object of the meeting was to organize a resistance against Edward I. +Whether this was so or not, there can be no doubt that the result of the +conference compelled the Bruce to place himself at the head of the +national cause. A Norman baron, born in England, he was by no means the +natural leader for whose appearance men looked, and there was a grave +chance of his failing to arouse the national sentiment. But the murder +of one claimant to the Scottish throne at the hands of the only other +possible candidate, who thus placed himself in the position of undoubted +heir, could scarcely have been forgiven by Edward I, even if the Comyn +had not, for the past two years, proved a faithful servant of the +English king. There was no alternative, and, on the 27th March, 1306, +Robert, Earl of Carrick and Lord of Annandale, was crowned King of the +Scots at Scone. The ancient royal crown of the Scottish kings had been +removed by Balliol in 1296, and had fallen into the hands of Edward, but +the Countess of Buchan placed on the Bruce's head a hastily made coronet +of gold. + +It was far from an auspicious beginning. It is difficult to give Bruce +credit for much patriotic feeling, although, as we have seen, he had +been one of the guardians who had maintained a semblance of +independence. The death of the Comyn had thrown against him the whole +influence of the Church; he was excommunicate, and it was no sin to slay +him. The powerful family, whose head had been cut off by his hand, had +vowed revenge, and its great influence was on the side of the English. +It is no small tribute to the force of the sentiment of nationality that +the Scots rallied round such a leader, and it must be remembered that, +from whatever reason the Bruce adopted the national cause, he proved in +every respect worthy of a great occasion, and as time passed, he came to +deserve the place he occupies as the hero of the epic of a nation's +freedom. + +The first blow in the renewed struggle was struck at Methven, near +Perth, where, on the 19th June, 1306, the Earl of Pembroke inflicted a +defeat upon King Robert. The Lowlands were now almost entirely lost to +him; he sent his wife[47] and child to Kildrummie Castle in +Aberdeenshire, whence they fled to the sanctuary of St. Duthac, near +Tain. In August, Bruce was defeated at Dalry, by Alexander of Lorn, a +relative of the Comyn. In September, Kildrummie Castle fell, and Nigel +Bruce, King Robert's brother, fell into the hands of the English and was +put to death at Berwick. To complete the tale of catastrophes, the +Bruce's wife and daughter, two of his sisters, and other two of his +brothers, along with the Countess of Buchan, came into the power of the +English king. Edward placed some of the ladies in cages, and put to +death Sir Thomas Bruce and Alexander Bruce, Dean of Glasgow (February, +1306-7). Meanwhile, King Robert had found it impossible to maintain +himself even in his own lands of Carrick, and he withdrew to the island +of Rathlin, where he wintered. Undeterred by this long series of +calamities, he took the field in the spring of 1307, and now, for the +first time, fortune favoured him. On the 10th May, he defeated the +English, under Pembroke, at Loudon Hill, in Ayrshire. He had been joined +by his brother Edward and by the Lord James of Douglas (the "Black +Douglas"), and the news of his success, slight as it was, helped to +increase at once the spirit and the numbers of his followers. His +position, however, was one of extreme difficulty; he was still only a +king in name, and, in reality, the leader of a guerilla warfare. Edward +was marching northwards at the head of a large army, determined to crush +his audacious subject. But Fate had decreed that the Hammer of the Scots +was never again to set foot in Scotland. At Burgh-on-Sand, near +Carlisle, within sight of his unconquered conquest, the great Edward +breathed his last. His death was the turning-point in the struggle. The +reign of Edward II in England is a most important factor in the +explanation of Bruce's success. + +With the death of Edward I the whole aspect of the contest changes. The +English were no longer conducting a great struggle for a statesmanlike +ideal, as they had been under Edward I--however impossible he himself +had made its attainment. There is no longer any sign of conscious +purpose either in their method or in their aims. The nature of the +warfare at once changed; Edward II, despite his father's wish that his +bones should be carried at the head of the army till Scotland was +subdued, contented himself with a fruitless march into Ayrshire, and +then returned to give his father a magnificent burial in Westminster +Abbey. King Robert was left to fight his Scottish enemies without their +English allies. These Scottish enemies may be divided into two +classes--the Anglo-Norman nobles who had supported the English cause +more or less consistently, and the personal enemies of the Bruce, who +increased in numbers after the murder of Comyn. Among the great families +thus alienated from the cause of Scotland were the Highlanders of Argyll +and the Isles, some of the men of Badenach, and certain Galloway clans. +But that this opposition was personal, and not racial, is shown by the +fact that, from the first, some of these Highlanders were loyal to +Bruce, _e.g._ Sir Nigel Campbell and Angus Og. We shall see, further, +that after the first jealousies caused by Comyn's death and Bruce's +success had passed away, the men of Argyll and the Isles took a more +prominent part on the Scottish side. In December, 1307, Bruce routed +John Comyn, the successor of his old rival, at Slains, on the +Aberdeenshire coast, and in the following May, when Comyn had obtained +some slight English assistance, he inflicted a final defeat upon him at +Inverurie. The power of the Comyns in their hereditary earldom of Buchan +had now been suppressed, and King Robert turned his attention to their +allies in the south. In the autumn of 1308, he himself defeated +Alexander of Lorn and subdued the district of Argyll, his brother Edward +reduced Galloway to subjection, and Douglas, along with Randolph, Earl +of Moray, was successful in Tweeddale. Thus, within three years from the +death of Comyn, Bruce had broken the power of the great families, whose +enmity against him had been aroused by that event. One year later the +other great misfortune, which had been brought upon him by the same +cause, was removed by an act which is important evidence at once of the +strength of the anti-English feeling in the country, and of the +confidence which Bruce had inspired. On the 24th February, 1309-10, the +clergy of Scotland met at Dundee and made a solemn declaration[48] of +fealty to King Robert as their lawful king. Scotland was thus united in +its struggle for independence under King Robert I. + +It now remained to attack the English garrisons who held the castles of +Scotland. An invasion conducted by Edward II in 1310 proved fruitless, +and the English king returned home to enter on a long quarrel with the +Lords Ordainers, and to see his favourite, Gaveston, first exiled and +then put to death. While the attention of the rulers of England was thus +occupied, Bruce, for the first time since Wallace's inroad of 1297, +carried the war into the enemy's country, invading the north of England +both in 1311 and in 1312. Meanwhile the strongholds of the country were +passing out of the English power. Linlithgow was recovered in 1311; +Perth in January, 1312-13; and Roxburgh a month later. The romantic +capture of the castle of Edinburgh, by Randolph, Earl of Moray, in +March, 1313, is one of the classical stories of Scottish history, and +in the summer of the same year, King Robert restored the Scottish rule +in the Isle of Man. In November, 1313, only Stirling Castle remained in +English hands, and Edward Bruce rashly agreed to raise the siege on +condition that the garrison should surrender if they were not relieved +by June 24th, 1314. Edward II determined to make a heroic effort to +maintain this last vestige of English conquest, and his attempt to do so +has become irrevocably associated with the Field of Bannockburn. + +In his preparations for the great struggle, which was to determine the +fate of Scotland, the Bruce carefully avoided the errors which had led +to Wallace's defeat at Falkirk. He selected a position which was +covered, on one side by the Bannock Burn and a morass, and, on the other +side, by the New Park or Forest. His front was protected by the stream +and by the famous series of "pottes", or holes, covered over so as to +deceive the English cavalry. The choice of this narrow position not only +prevented the possibility of a flank attack, but also forced the great +army of Edward II into a small space, where its numbers became a +positive disadvantage. King Robert arranged his infantry in four +divisions; in front were three schiltrons of pikemen, under Randolph, +Edward Bruce, and Sir James Douglas, and Bruce himself commanded the +reserve, which was composed of Highlanders from Argyll and the Islands +and of the men of Carrick.[49] Sir Robert Keith, the Marischal, was in +charge of a small body of cavalry, which did good service by driving +back, at a critical moment, such archers as made their way through the +forest. The English army was in ten divisions, but the limited area in +which they had to fight interfered with their arrangement. As at +Falkirk, the English cavalry made a gallant but useless charge against +the schiltrons, but it was not possible again to save the day by means +of archers, for the archers had no room to deploy, and could only make +vain efforts to shoot over the heads of the horsemen. Bruce strengthened +the Scots with his reserve, and then ensued a general action along the +whole line. The van of the English army was now thoroughly demoralized, +and their comrades in the rear could not, in these narrow limits, press +forward to render any assistance. King Robert's camp-followers, at this +juncture, rushed down a hill behind the Scottish army, and they appeared +to the English as a fresh force come to assist the enemy. The result was +the loss of all sense of discipline: King Edward's magnificent host fled +in complete rout and with great slaughter, and the cause of Scottish +freedom was won. + +The victory of Bannockburn did not end the war, for the English refused +to acknowledge the hard-won independence of Scotland, and fighting +continued till the year 1327. The Scots not only invaded England, but +adopted the policy of fighting England in Ireland, and English reprisals +in Scotland were uniformly unsuccessful. Bruce invaded England in 1315; +in the same year, his brother Edward landed with a Scottish army at +Carrickfergus, in the hope of obtaining a throne for himself. He was +crowned King of Ireland in May, 1316, and during that and the following +year, King Robert was personally in Ireland, giving assistance to his +brother. But, in 1318, Edward Bruce was defeated and slain near Dundalk, +and, with his death, this phase of the Bruce's English policy +disappears. A few months before the death of Edward Bruce, King Robert +had captured the border town of Berwick-on-Tweed, which had been held by +the English since 1298. In 1319, Edward II sent an English army to +besiege Berwick, and the Scots replied by an invasion of England in the +course of which Douglas and Randolph defeated the English at +Mitton-on-Swale in Yorkshire. The English were led by the Archbishop of +York, and so many clerks were killed that the battle acquired the name +of the Chapter of Mitton. The war lingered on for three years more. The +year 1322 saw an invasion of England by King Robert and a +counter-invasion of Scotland by Edward II, who destroyed the Abbey of +Dryburgh on his return march. This expedition was, as usual, fruitless, +for the Scots adopted their usual tactics of leaving the country waste +and desolate, and the English army could obtain no food. In October of +the same year King Robert made a further inroad into Yorkshire, and won +a small victory at Biland Abbey. At last, in March, 1323, a truce was +made for thirteen years, but as Edward II persisted in declining to +acknowledge the independence of Scotland, it was obvious that peace +could not be long maintained. + +During the fourteen years which followed his victory of Bannockburn, +King Robert was consolidating his kingdom. He had obtained recognition +even in the Western Highlands and Islands, and the sentiment of the +whole nation had gathered around him. The force of this sentiment is +apparent in connection with ecclesiastical difficulties. When Pope John +XXII attempted to make peace in 1317 and refused to acknowledge the +Bruce as king, the papal envoys were driven from the kingdom. For this +the country was placed under the papal ban, and when, in 1324, the pope +offered both to acknowledge King Robert and to remove the +excommunication, on condition that Berwick should be restored to the +English, the Scots refused to comply with his condition. A small +rebellion in 1320 had been firmly repressed by king and Parliament. The +birth of a son to King Robert, on the 5th March, 1323-24, had given +security to the dynasty, and, at the great Parliament which met at +Cambuskenneth in 1326, at which Scottish burghs were, for the first +time, represented, the clergy, the barons, and the people took an oath +of allegiance to the little Prince David, and, should his heirs fail, to +Robert, the son of Bruce's daughter, Marjorie, and her husband, Robert, +the High Steward of Scotland. The same Parliament put the financial +position of the monarch on a satisfactory footing by granting him a +tenth penny of all rents. + +The deposition and murder of Edward II created a situation of which the +King of Scots could not fail to take advantage. The truce was broken in +the summer of 1327 by an expedition into England, conducted by Douglas +and Randolph, and the hardiness of the Scottish soldiery surprised the +English and warned them that it was impossible to prolong the contest in +the present condition of the two countries. The regents for the young +Edward III resolved to come to terms with Bruce. The treaty of +Northampton, dated 17th March, 1327-28, is still preserved in Edinburgh. +It acknowledged the complete independence of Scotland and the royal +dignity of King Robert. It promised the restoration of all the symbols +of Scottish independence which Edward I had removed, and it arranged a +marriage between Prince David, the heir to the Scottish throne, and +Joanna, the sister of the young king of England. A marriage ceremony +between the two children was solemnized in the following May, but the +Stone of Fate was never removed from Westminster, owing, it is said, to +the opposition of the abbot. The succession of James VI to the throne of +England, nearly three centuries later, was accepted as the fulfilment of +the prophecy attached to the Coronation Stone, "Lapis ille grandis": + + "Ni fallat fatam, Scoti, quocunque locatum, + Invenient lapidem, regnare tenentur ibidem". + +Thus closed the portion of Scottish history which is known as the War of +Independence. The condemnation of the policy of Edward I lies simply in +its results. He found the two nations at peace and living together in +amity; he left them at war and each inspired with a bitter hatred of the +other. A policy which aimed at the unification of the island and at +preventing Scotland from proving a source of danger to England, and +which resulted in a warfare covering, almost continuously, more than two +hundred and fifty years, and which, after the lapse of four centuries, +left the policy of Scotland a serious difficulty to English ministers, +can scarcely receive credit for practical sagacity, however wise its +aim. It created for England a relentless and irritating (if not always a +dangerous) enemy, invariably ready to take advantage of English +difficulties. England had to fight Scotland in France and in Ireland, +and Edward IV and Henry VII found the King of Scots the ally of the +House of Lancaster, and the protector of Perkin Warbeck. Only the +accident of the Reformation rendered it possible to disengage Scotland +from its alliance with France, and to bring about a union with England. +Till the emergence of the religious question the English party in +Scotland consisted of traitors and mercenaries, and their efforts to +strengthen English influence form the most discreditable pages of +Scottish history. + +We are not here dealing with the domestic history of Scotland; but it is +impossible to avoid a reference to the subject of the influence of the +Scottish victory upon the Scots themselves. It has been argued that +Bannockburn was, for Scotland, a national misfortune, and that Bruce's +defeat would have been for the real welfare of the country. There are, +of course, two stand-points from which we may approach the question. The +apologist of Bannockburn might lay stress on the different effects of +conquest and a hard-won independence upon the national character, and +might fairly point to various national characteristics which have been, +perhaps, of some value to civilization, and which could hardly have been +fostered in a condition of servitude. On the other hand, there arises a +question as to material prosperity. It must be remembered that we are +not here discussing the effect of a peaceful and amicable union, such as +Edward first proposed, but of a successful war of conquest; and in this +connection it is only with thankfulness and gratitude to Wallace and to +Bruce that the Scotsman can regard the parallel case of Ireland, which, +from a century before the time of Edward I, had been annexed by +conquest. The story we have just related goes to create a reasonable +probability that the fate of Scotland could not have been different; +but, further, leaving all such problems of the "might have been", we may +submit that the misery of Scotland in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and +sixteenth centuries has been much exaggerated. It is true that the +borders were in a condition of perpetual feud, and that minorities and +intrigues gravely hampered the progress of the country. But, more +especially in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, there are not +wanting indications of prosperity. The chapter of Scottish history which +tells of the growth of burghs has yet to be written. The construction of +magnificent cathedrals and religious houses, and the rise of three +universities, must not be left out of account. Gifts to the infant +universities, the records of which we possess, prove that for humble +folk the tenure of property was comparatively secure, and that there was +a large amount of comfort among the people. Under James IV, trade and +commerce prospered, and the Scottish navy rivalled that of the Tudors. +The century in which Scottish prosperity received its most severe blows +immediately succeeded the Union of the Crowns. If for three hundred +years the civilizing influence of England can scarcely be traced in the +history of Scottish progress, that of France was predominant, and +Scotland cannot entirely regret the fact. Scotland, from the date of +Bannockburn to that of Pinkie, will not suffer from a comparison with +the England which underwent the strain of the long French wars, the +civil broils of Lancaster and York, and the oppression of the Tudors. +Moreover, there is one further consideration which should not be +overlooked. The postponement of an English union till the seventeenth +century enabled Scotland to work out its own reformation of religion in +the way best adapted to the national needs, and it is difficult to +estimate, from the material stand-point alone, the importance of this +factor in the national progress. The inspiration and the education which +the Scottish Church has given to the Scottish people has found one +result in the impulse it has afforded to the growth of material +prosperity, and it is not easy to regret that Scotland, at the date of +the Reformation, was free to work out its own ecclesiastical destiny. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 44: There is no indication of any racial division in the +attitude of the Scots. Some Highlanders, from various personal causes, +are found on the English side at the beginning of the War of +Independence; but Mr. Lang has shown that of the descendants of Somerled +of Argyll, the ancestor of the Lords of the Isles, only one fought +against Wallace, while the Celts of Moray and Badenach and the Highland +districts of Aberdeenshire, joined his standard. The behaviour of the +Highland chiefs is similar to that of the Lowland barons. If there is +any racial feeling at all, it is not Celtic _v._ Saxon, but Scandinavian +_v._ Scottish, and it is connected with the recent conquest of the +Isles. But even of this there is little trace, and the behaviour of the +Islesmen is, on the whole, marvellously loyal.] + +[Footnote 45: Hemingburgh, ii, 141-147.] + +[Footnote 46: _Diplomata Scotiæ_, xliii, xliv.] + +[Footnote 47: Bruce had married, 1st, Isabella, daughter of the 10th +Earl of Mar, by whom he had a daughter, Marjorie, and 2nd, in 1302, +Elizabeth de Burgh, daughter of the Earl of Ulster.] + +[Footnote 48: Nat. MSS. ii. 12, No. XVII. The original is preserved in +the Register House.] + +[Footnote 49: Pinkerton suggests that King Robert adopted this +arrangement because he was unable to trust the Highlanders, but this is +unlikely, as their leader, Angus Og, had been consistently faithful to +him throughout.] + + + + +CHAPTER V + +EDWARD III AND SCOTLAND + +1328-1399 + + +Almost immediately after the conclusion of the Treaty of Northampton, +the conditions of government in England and Scotland were reversed. +Since the death of Edward I, Scotland, under a strong king, had gained +by the weakness of the English sovereign; now England, under the +energetic rule of Edward III, was to profit by the death of King Robert +and by the succession of a minor. On the 7th June, 1329, King Robert +died (probably a leper) at his castle of Cardross, on the Clyde, and +left the Scottish throne to his five-year-old son, David II. In October +of the following year the young Edward III of England threw off the yoke +of the Mortimers and established his personal rule, and came almost +immediately into conflict with Scotland. The Scottish regent was +Randolph or Ranulph, Earl of Moray, the companion of Bruce and the Black +Douglas[50] in the exploits of the great war. Possibly because Edward +III had afforded protection to the Pretender, Edward Balliol, the +eldest son of John Balliol, and had received him at the English court, +Randolph refused to carry out the provisions of the Treaty of +Northampton, by which their lands were to be restored to the +"Disinherited", _i.e._ to barons whose property in Scotland had been +forfeited because they had adopted the English side in the war. A +somewhat serious situation was thus created, and Edward, not +unnaturally, took advantage of it to disown the Treaty of Northampton, +which had been negotiated by the Mortimers during his minority, and +which was extremely unpopular in England. He at once recognized Edward +Balliol as King of Scotland. The only defence of Randolph's action is +the probability that he suspected Edward to be in search of a pretext +for refusing to be bound by a treaty made in such circumstances, and if +a struggle were to ensue, it was certainly desirable not to increase the +power of the English party. Edward proceeded to assist Balliol in an +expedition to Scotland, which Mr. Lang describes as "practically an +Anglo-Norman filibustering expedition, winked at by the home government, +the filibusters being neither more nor less Scottish than most of our +_noblesse_". But before Balliol reached Scotland, the last of the +paladins whose names have been immortalized by the Bruce's wars, had +disappeared from the scene. Randolph died at Musselburgh in July, 1332, +and Scotland was left leaderless. The new regent, the Earl of Mar, was +quite incapable of dealing with the situation. When Balliol landed at +Kinghorn in August, he made his way unmolested till he reached the river +Earn, on his way to Perth. The regent had taken up a position near +Dupplin, and was at the head of a force which considerably outnumbered +the English. But the Scots had failed to learn the lesson taught by +Edward I at Falkirk and by Bruce at Bannockburn. The English succeeded +in crossing the Earn by night, and took up a position opposite the hill +on which the Scots were encamped. Their archers were so arranged as +practically to surround the Scots, who attacked in three divisions, +armed with pikes, making no attempt even to harass the thin lines of +archers who were extended on each side of the English main body. But the +unerring aim of the archers could not fail to render the Scottish attack +innocuous. The English stood their ground while line after line of the +Scots hurled themselves against them, only to be struck down by the +gray-goose shafts. At last the attack degenerated into a complete rout, +and the English made good their victory by an indiscriminate massacre. + +The immediate result of the battle of Dupplin Moor was that "Edward I of +Scotland" entered upon a reign which lasted almost exactly twelve weeks. +He was crowned at Scone on September 24th, 1332, and unreservedly +acknowledged himself the vassal of the King of England. On the 16th +December the new king was at Annan, when an unexpected attack was made +upon him by a small force, led, very appropriately, by a son of +Randolph, Earl of Moray, and by the young brother of the Lord James of +Douglas. Balliol fled to Carlisle, "one leg booted and the other naked", +and there awaited the help of his liege lord, who prepared to invade +Scotland in May. Meanwhile the patriotic party had failed to take +advantage of their opportunity. Sir Andrew Moray of Bothwell, the regent +chosen to succeed Mar (who had fallen at Dupplin), had been captured in +a skirmish near Roxburgh, either in November, 1332, or in April, 1333, +and was succeeded in turn by Sir Archibald Douglas, the hero of the +Annan episode, but destined to be better known as "Tyneman the Unlucky". +The young king had been sent for safety to France. + +In April, Balliol was again in Scotland, and, in May, Edward III began +to besiege Berwick, which had been promised him by Balliol. To defend +Berwick, the Scots were forced to fight a pitched battle, which proved a +repetition of Dupplin Moor. Berwick had promised to surrender if it were +not relieved by a fixed date. When the day arrived, a small body of +Scots had succeeded in breaking through the English lines, and Sir +Archibald Douglas had led a larger force to ravage Northumberland. On +these grounds Berwick held that it had been in fact relieved; but +Edward III, who lacked his grandfather's nice appreciation of situations +where law and fact are at variance, replied by hanging a hostage. The +regent was now forced to risk a battle in the hope of saving Berwick, +and he marched southwards, towards Berwick, with a large army. Edward, +following the precedent of Dupplin, occupied a favourable position at +Halidon Hill, with his front protected by a marsh. He drew up his line +in the order that had been so successful at Dupplin, and the same result +followed. Each successive body of Scottish pikemen was cut down by a +shower of English arrows, before being able even to strike a blow. The +regent was slain, and Moray, his companion in arms, fled to France, soon +to return to strike another blow for Scotland. + +The victory of Halidon added greatly to the popularity of Edward III, +for the English looked upon the shame of Bannockburn as avenged, and +they sang: + + "Scots out of Berwick and out of Aberdeen, + At the Burn of Bannock, ye were far too keen, + Many guiltless men ye slew, as was clearly seen. + King Edward has avenged it now, and fully too, I ween, + He has avenged it well, I ween. Well worth the while! + I bid you all beware of Scots, for they are full of guile. + + "'Tis now, thou rough-foot, brogue-shod Scot, that begins thy care, + Then boastful barley-bag-man, thy dwelling is all bare. + False wretch and forsworn, whither wilt thou fare? + Hie thee unto Bruges, seek a better biding there! + There, wretch, shalt thou stay and wait a weary while; + Thy dwelling in Dundee is lost for ever by thy guile."[51] + +In Scotland, the party of independence was, for the time, helpless. +Edward and Balliol divided the country between them. The eight counties +of Dumfries, Roxburgh, Berwick, Selkirk, Peebles, Haddington, Edinburgh, +and Linlithgow formed the English king's share of the spoil, along with +a reassertion of his supremacy over the rest of Scotland. English +officers began to rule between the Tweed and the Forth. But the cause of +independence was never really hopeless. Balliol and the English party +were soon weakened by internal dissensions, and the leaders on the +patriotic side were not slow to take advantage of the opportunities thus +given them. It was, indeed, necessary to send King David and his wife to +France, and they landed at Boulogne in May, 1334. But from France, in +return, came the young Earl of Moray, who, along with Robert the High +Steward, son of Marjory Bruce, and next heir to the throne, took up the +duties of guardians. The arrival of Moray gave fresh life to the cause, +but there is little interest in the records of the struggle. The Scots +won two small successes at the Borough-Muir of Edinburgh and at +Kilblain. But the victory in the skirmish at the Borough-Muir (August, +1335) was more unfortunate than defeat, for it deprived Scotland for +some time of the services of the Earl of Moray. He had captured Guy de +Namur and conducted him to the borders, and was himself taken prisoner +while on his journey northwards. Sir Andrew Moray of Bothwell, who had +been made guardian after the battle of Dupplin, and was captured in +April, 1333, had now been ransomed, and he was again recognized as +regent for David II. So strong was the Scottish party that Balliol had +to flee to England for assistance, and, in 1336, Edward III again +appeared in Scotland. It was not a very heroic effort for the future +victor of Crécy; he marched northwards to Elgin, and, on his way home, +burned the town of Aberdeen. + +As in the first war the turning-point had proved to be the death of +Edward I in the summer of 1307, so now, exactly thirty years later, came +another decisive event. In the autumn of 1337, Edward III first styled +himself King of France, and the diversion of his energies from the Scots +to their French allies rendered possible the final overthrow of Balliol +and the Scottish traitors. The circumstances are, however, parallel only +to the extent that an intervention of fortune rendered possible the +victory of Scottish freedom. In 1337 there was no great leader: the hour +had come, but not the man. For the next four years, castle after castle +fell into Scottish hands; many of the tales are romantic enough, but +they do not lead to a Bannockburn. The only incident of any significance +is the defence of the castle of Dunbar. The lord of Dunbar was the Earl +of March, whose record throughout the troubles had been far from +consistent, but who was now a supporter of King David, largely through +the influence of his wife, famous as "Black Agnes", a daughter of the +great Randolph, Earl of Moray. From January to June, 1338, Black Agnes +held Dunbar against English assaults by sea and land. Many romantic +incidents have been related of these long months of siege: the stories +of the Countess's use of a dust-cloth to repair the damage done by the +English siege-machines to the battlements, and of her prophecy, made +when the Earl of Salisbury brought a "sow" or shed fitted to protect +soldiers in the manner of the Roman _testudo_, + + "Beware, Montagow, + For farrow shall thy sow", + +and fulfilled by dropping a huge stone on the machine and thus +scattering its occupants, "the litter of English pigs"--these, and her +"love-shafts", which, as Salisbury said, "pierce to the heart", are +among the most wonderful of historical fairy tales. In the end the +English had to raise the siege: + + "Came I early, came I late, + I found Agnes at the gate", + +they sang as the explanation of their failure. + +The defence of Dunbar was followed by the surrender of Perth and the +capture of the castles of Stirling and Edinburgh, and in June, 1341, +David II returned to Scotland, from which Balliol had fled. David was +now seventeen years of age, and he had a great opportunity. Scotland was +again free, and was prepared to rally round its national sovereign and +the son of the Bruce. The English foe was engaged in a great struggle +with France, and difficulties had arisen between the English king and +his Parliament. But the unworthy son of the great Robert proved only a +source of weakness to his supporters. The only redeeming feature of his +policy is that it was, at first, inspired by loyalty to his French +protectors. In their interest he made, in the year of the Crécy +campaign, an incursion into England, thus ending a truce made in 1343. +After the usual preliminary ravaging, he reached Neville's Cross, near +Durham, in the month of October. There he found a force prepared to meet +him, led, as at Northallerton and at Mitton, by the clergy of the +northern province. The battle was a repetition of Dupplin and Halidon +Hill, and a rehearsal of Homildon and Flodden. Scots and English alike +were drawn up in the usual three divisions; the left, centre, and right +being led respectively, on the one side, by Robert the Steward, King +David, and Randolph, and, on the other, by Rokeby, Archbishop Neville, +and Henry Percy. The English archers were, as usual, spread out so as to +command both the Scottish wings. They were met by no cavalry charge, and +they soon threw the Scottish left into confusion, and prepared the way +for an assault upon the centre. Randolph was killed; the king was +captured, and for eleven years he remained a prisoner in England. +Meanwhile Robert the Steward (still the heir to the throne, for David +had no children) ruled in Scotland. There is reason for believing that, +in 1352, David was allowed to go to Scotland to raise a ransom, and, two +years later, an arrangement was actually made for his release. But +Robert the Steward and David had always been on bad terms, and, after +everything had been formally settled, the Scots decided to remain loyal +to their French allies. Hostilities recommenced; in August, 1355, the +Scots won a small victory at Nesbit in Berwickshire, and captured the +town of Berwick. Early in the following year it was retaken by Edward +III, who proclaimed himself the successor of Balliol, and mercilessly +ravaged the Lowlands. So great was his destruction of churches and +religious houses that the invasion is remembered as the "Burned +Candlemas". Peace was made in 1357, and David's ransom was fixed at +100,000 marks. It was a huge sum; but in connection with the efforts +made to raise it the burgesses acquired some influence in the government +of the country. + +David's residence in France and in England had entirely deprived him of +sympathy with the national aspirations of his subjects. He loved the +gay court of Edward III, and the Anglo-Norman chivalry had deeply +affected him. He hated his destined successor, and he had been charmed +by Edward's personality. Accordingly we find him, seven years after his +return to Scotland, again making a journey to England. It is a striking +fact that the son of the victor of Bannockburn should have gone to +London to propose to sell the independence of Scotland to the grandson +of Edward I. The difficulty of paying the yearly instalment of his +ransom made a limit to his own extravagant expenditure, and he now +offered, instead of money, an acknowledgment of either Edward himself or +one of his sons as the heir to the Scottish throne. The result of this +proposal was to change the policy of Edward. He abandoned the Balliol +claim and the traditional Edwardian policy in Scotland, and accepted +David's offer. David returned to Scotland and laid before his Parliament +the less violent of the two schemes, the proposal that, in the event of +his dying childless, Prince Lionel of England should succeed (1364). + + "To that said all his lieges, Nay; + Na their consent wald be na way, + That ony Ynglis mannys sone + In[to] that honour suld be done, + Or succede to bere the Crown, + Off Scotland in successione, + Sine of age and off vertew there + The lauchfull airis appearand ware." + +So the proposal to substitute an "English-man's son" for the lawful +heirs proved utterly futile. Equally vain were any attempts of the Scots +to mitigate Edward's rigour in the exaction of the ransom, and Edward +reverted to his earlier policy, disowned King David, and prepared for +another Scottish campaign to vindicate his right as the successor of +Balliol, who had died in 1363. But English energies were once more +diverted at a critical moment. The Black Prince had involved himself in +serious troubles in Gascony, and England was called upon to defend its +conquests in France. In 1369 a truce was made between Scotland and +England, to last for fourteen years. + +David II died, unregretted, in February, 1370-1371. It was fortunate for +Scotland that the miserable seven years which remained to Edward III, +and the reign of his unfortunate grandson, were so full of trouble for +England. Robert the Steward succeeded his uncle without much difficulty. +He was fifty-six years of age, already an old man for those days, eight +years the senior of the nephew whom he succeeded. The main lines of the +foreign policy of his reign may be briefly indicated; but its chief +interest lies in a series of border raids, the story of which is too +intricate and of too slight importance to concern us. The new king began +by entering into an agreement with France, of a more definite +description than any previous arrangement, and the year 1372 may be +taken as marking the formal inauguration of the Franco-Scottish League. +The truce with England was continued and was renewed in 1380, three +years before the date originally fixed for its expiry. The renewal was +necessitated by various acts of hostility which had rendered it, in +effect, a dead letter. The English were still in possession of such +Scottish strongholds as Roxburgh, Berwick, and Lochmaben, and round +these there was continual warfare. The Scots sacked the town of Roxburgh +in 1377, but without regaining the castle, and, in 1378, they again +obtained possession of Berwick. John of Gaunt, who had forced the +government of his nephew to acknowledge his importance as a factor in +English politics, was entrusted with the command of an army directed +against Scotland. He met the Scottish representatives at Berwick, which +was again in English hands, and agreed to confirm the existing truce, +which was maintained till 1384, when Scotland was included in the +English truce with France. The truce, which was to last for eight +months, was negotiated in France in January, 1383-84. In February and +March, John of Gaunt conducted a ravaging expedition into Scotland as +far as Edinburgh. During the Peasants' Revolt he had taken refuge in +Scotland, and the chroniclers tell us that the expedition of 1384 was +singularly merciful. Still, it was an act of war, and the Scots may +reasonably have expressed surprise, when, in April, the French +ambassadors (who had been detained in England since February) arrived in +Edinburgh, and announced that Scotland and England had been at peace +since January. About the same time there occurred two border forays. +Some French knights, with their Scottish hosts, made an incursion into +England, and the Percies, along with the Earl of Nottingham, conducted a +devastating raid in Scotland, laying waste the Lothians. About the date +of both events there is some doubt; probably the Percy invasion was in +retaliation for the French affair. But all the time the two countries +were nominally at peace, and it was not till May, 1385, that they were +technically in a state of war. In that month a French army was sent to +aid the Scots, and, under the command of John de Vienne, it took part in +an incursion on a somewhat larger scale than the usual raids. The +English replied, in the month of August, by an invasion conducted by +Richard II in person, at the head of a large army, while the Scots, +declining a battle, wasted Cumberland. Richard sacked Edinburgh and +burned the great religious houses of Dryburgh, Melrose, and Newbattle, +but was forced to retire without having made any real conquest. The +Scots adopted their invariable custom of retreating after laying waste +the country, so as to deprive the English of provender; even the +impatience of their French allies failed to persuade them to give +battle to King Richard's greatly superior forces. From Scotland the +English king marched to London, to commence the great struggle which led +to the impeachment of Suffolk and the rise of the Lords Appellant. While +England was thus occupied, the Scots, under the Earl of Fife, second son +of Robert II (better known as the Duke of Albany), and the Earl of +Douglas, made great preparations for an invasion. Fife took his men into +the western counties and ravaged Cumberland and Westmoreland, but +without any important incident. Douglas attacked the country of his old +enemies, the Percies, and won the victory of Otterburn or Chevy Chase +(August, 1388), the most romantic of all the fights between Scots and +English. The Scots lost their leader, but the English were completely +defeated, and Harry Hotspur, the son of Northumberland, was made a +prisoner. Chevy Chase is the subject of many ballads and legends, and it +is indissolubly connected with the story of the House of Douglas: + + "Hosts have been known at that dread sound to yield, + And, Douglas dead, his name hath won the field". + +From the date of Otterburn to the accession of Henry IV there was peace +between Scotland and England, except for the never-ending border +skirmishes. Robert II died in 1390, and was succeeded by his eldest son, +John, Earl of Carrick, who took the title of Robert III, to avoid the +unlucky associations of the name of John, which had acquired an +unpleasant notoriety from John Balliol as well as John of England and +the unfortunate John of France. Under the new king the treaty with +France was confirmed, but continuous truces were made with England till +the deposition of Richard II. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 50: Douglas disappeared from the scene immediately after King +Robert's death, taking the Bruce's heart with him on a pilgrimage to +Palestine. He was killed in August, 1330, while fighting the Moors in +Spain, on his way to the Holy Land.] + +[Footnote 51: Minot. Tr. F. York Powell.] + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +SCOTLAND, LANCASTER, AND YORK + +1400-1500 + + +When Henry of Lancaster placed himself on his cousin's throne, Scotland +was divided between the supporters of the Duke of Rothesay, the eldest +son of Robert III and heir to the crown, and the adherents of the Duke +of Albany, the brother of the old king. In 1399, Rothesay had just +succeeded his uncle as regent, and to him, as to Henry IV, there was a +strong temptation to acquire popularity by a spirited foreign policy. +The Scots hesitated to acknowledge Henry as King of England, and he, in +turn, seems to have resolved upon an invasion of Scotland as the first +military event of his reign. He, accordingly, raised the old claim of +homage, and marched into Scotland to demand the fealty of Robert III and +his barons. As usual, we find in Scotland some malcontents, who form an +English party. The leader of the English intrigue on this occasion was +the Scots Earl of March,[52] the son of Black Agnes. The Duke of +Rothesay had been betrothed to the daughter of March, but had married +in February, 1399-1400, a daughter of the Earl of Douglas, the +hereditary foe of March. The Dunbar allegiance had always been doubtful, +and it was only the influence of the great countess that had brought it +to the patriotic side. In August, 1400, Henry marched into Scotland, and +besieged for three days the castle of Edinburgh, which was successfully +defended by the regent, while Albany was at the head of an army which +made no attempt to interfere with Henry's movements. Difficulties in +Wales now attracted Henry's attention, and he left Scotland without +having accomplished anything, and leaving the record of the mildest and +most merciful English invasion of Scotland. The necessities of his +position in England may explain his abstaining from spoiling religious +houses as his predecessors had done, but the chroniclers tell us that he +gave protection to every town that asked it. While Henry was suppressing +the Welsh revolt and negotiating with his Parliament, Albany and +Rothesay were struggling for the government of Scotland. Rothesay fell +from power in 1401, and in March, 1402, he died at Falkland. +Contemporary rumour and subsequent legend attributed his death to +Albany, and, as in the case of Richard II, the method of death was +supposed to be starvation. Sir Walter has told the story in _The Fair +Maid of Perth_. Albany, who had succeeded him as regent or guardian, +made no effort to end the meaningless war with England, which went +fitfully on. An idiot mendicant, who was represented to be Richard II, +gave the Scots their first opportunity of supporting a pretender to the +English throne; but the pretence was too ridiculous to be seriously +maintained. The French refused to take any part in such a scheme, and +the pseudo-Richard served only to annoy Henry IV, and scarcely gave even +a semblance of significance to the war, which really degenerated into a +series of border raids, one of which was of unusual importance. Henry +had no intention of seriously prosecuting the claim of homage, and the +continuance of hostilities is really explained by the ill-will between +March and Douglas and the old feud between the Douglases and the +Percies. In June, 1402, the Scots were defeated in a skirmish at Nesbit +in Berwickshire (the scene of a small Scottish victory in 1355), and, in +the following September, occurred the disaster of Homildon Hill. Douglas +and Murdoch Stewart, the eldest son of Albany, had collected a large +army, and the incursion was raised to the level of something like +national importance. They marched into England and took up a strong +position on Homildon Hill or Heugh. The Percies, under Northumberland +and Hotspur, sent against them a body of English archers, who easily +outranged the Scottish bowmen, and threw the army into confusion. Then +ensued, as at Dupplin and Halidon Hill, a simple massacre. Murdoch +Stewart and Douglas were taken captive with several other Scots lords. +Close on Homildon Hill followed the rebellion of the Percies, and the +result of the English victory at Homildon was merely to create a new +difficulty for Henry IV. The sudden nature of the Percy revolt is +indicated by the fact that, when Albany marched to relieve a Scottish +stronghold which they were besieging, he found that the enemy had +entered into an alliance with the House of Douglas, their ancient foes, +and were turning their arms against the English king. Percy and Douglas +fought together at Shrewsbury, while the Earl of March was in the ranks +of King Henry. + +The battle of Shrewsbury was fought in July, 1403. In 1405, +Northumberland, a traitor for a second time, took refuge in Scotland, +and received a dubious protection from Albany, who was ready to sell him +should any opportunity arise. A truce which had been arranged between +Scotland and England expired in April, 1405, and the two countries were +technically in a state of war, although there were no great military +operations in progress.[53] In the spring of 1406, Albany sent the heir +to the Scottish throne, Prince James, to be educated in France. The +vessel in which he sailed was captured by the English off Flamborough +Head, and the prince was taken to Henry IV. It has been a tradition in +Scotland that James was captured in time of truce, and Wyntoun uses the +incident to point a moral with regard to the natural deceitfulness of +the English heart: + + "It is of English nationn + The common kent conditionn + Of Truth the virtue to forget, + When they do them on winning set, + And of good faith reckless to be + When they do their advantage see." + +But it would seem clear that the truce had expired, and that the English +king was bound to no treaty of peace. His son's capture was immediately +followed by the death of King Robert III, who sank, broken-hearted, into +the grave. Albany continued to rule, and maintained a series of truces +with England till his death in 1420. The peace was occasionally broken +in intervals of truce, and the advantage was usually on the side of the +Scots. In 1409 the Earl of March returned to his allegiance and received +back his estates. In the same year his son recovered Fast Castle (on St. +Abb's Head), and the Scots also recovered Jedburgh. + +Albany's attention was now diverted by a danger threatened by the +Highland portion of the kingdom. Scotland, south of Forth and Clyde, +along with the east coast up to the Moray Firth, had been rapidly +affected by the English, French, and Norman influences, of which we +have spoken. The inhabitants of the more remote Highland districts and +of the western isles had remained uncorrupted by civilization of any +kind, and ever since the reign of Malcolm Canmore there had been a +militant reaction against the changes of St. Margaret and David I; from +the eleventh century to the thirteenth, the Scottish kings were scarcely +ever free from Celtic pretenders and Celtic revolts.[54] The inhabitants +of the west coast and of the isles were very largely of Scandinavian +blood, and it was not till 1266 that the western isles definitely passed +from Norway to the Scottish crown. The English had employed several +opportunities of allying themselves with these discontented Scotsmen; +but Mr. Freeman's general statement, already quoted, that "the true +Scots, out of hatred to the Saxons nearest them, leagued with the Saxons +farther off", is very far from a fair representation of the facts. We +have seen that Highlander and Islesman fought under David I at the +battle of the Standard, against the "Saxons farther off", and that +although the death of Comyn ranged against Bruce the Highlanders of +Argyll, numbers of Highlanders were led to victory at Bannockburn by +Earl Randolph; and Angus Og and the Islesmen formed part of the Scottish +reserves and stood side by side with the men of Carrick, under the +leadership of King Robert. During the troubles which followed King +Robert's death, the Lords of the Isles had resumed their general +attitude of opposition. It was an opposition very natural in the +circumstances, the rebellion of a powerful vassal against a weak central +government, a reaction against the forces of civilization. But it has +never been shown that it was an opposition in any way racial; the +complaint that the Lowlands of Scotland have been "rent by the Saxon +from the Gael", in the manner of a racial dispossession, belongs to "The +Lady of the Lake", not to sober history. All Scotland, indeed, has now, +in one sense, been "rent by the Saxon" from the Celt. "Let no one doubt +the civilization of these islands," wrote Dr. Johnson, in Skye, "for +Portree possesses a jail." The Highlands and islands have been the last +portions of Scotland to succumb to Anglo-Saxon influences; that the +Lowlands formed an earlier victim does not prove that their racial +complexion is different. The incident of which we have now to speak has +frequently been quoted as a crowning proof of the difference between the +Lowlanders and the "true Scots". Donald of the Isles had a quarrel with +the Regent Albany, and, in 1408, entered into an agreement with Henry +IV, to whom he owned allegiance. But this very quarrel arose about the +earldom of Ross, which was claimed by Donald (himself a grandson of +Robert II) in right of his wife, a member of the Leslie family. The +"assertor of Celtic nationality" was thus the son of one Lowland woman +and the husband of another. When he entered the Scottish mainland his +progress was first opposed, not by the Lowlanders, but by the Mackays of +Caithness, who were defeated near Dingwall, and the Frasers immediately +afterwards received what the historians of the Clan Donald term a +"well-merited chastisement".[55] Donald pursued his victorious march to +Aberdeenshire, tempted by the prospect of plundering Aberdeen. It is +interesting to note that, while the battle which has given significance +to the record of the dispute was fought for the Lowland town of Aberdeen +in a Lowland part of Aberdeenshire, the very name of the town is Celtic, +and the district in which the battlefield of Harlaw is situated abounds +to this day in Celtic place-names, and, not many miles away, the Gaelic +tongue may still be heard at Braemar or at Tomintoul. It was not to a +racial battle between Celt and Saxon that the Earl of Mar and the +Provost of Aberdeen, aided by the Frasers, marched out to Harlaw, in +July, 1411, to meet Donald of the Isles. Had the clansmen been +victorious there would certainly have been a Celtic revival; but this +was not the danger most dreaded by the victorious Lowlanders. The battle +of Harlaw was part of the struggle with England. Donald of the Isles was +the enemy of Scottish independence, and his success would mean English +supremacy. He had taken up the rôle of "the Disinherited" of the +preceding century, just as the Earl of March had done some years before. +As time passed, and civilization progressed in the Lowlands while the +Highlands maintained their integrity, the feeling of separation grew +more strongly marked; and as the inhabitants of the Lowlands +intermarried with French and English, the differences of blood became +more evident and hostility became unavoidable. But any such abrupt +racial division as Mr. Freeman drew between the true Scots and the +Scottish Lowlanders stands much in need of proof. + +Harlaw was an incident in the never-ending struggle with England. It was +succeeded, in 1416 or 1417, by an unfortunate expedition into England, +known as the "Foul Raid", and after the Foul Raid came the battle of +Baugé. They are all part of one and the same story; although Harlaw +might seem an internal complication and Baugé an act of unprovoked +aggression, both are really as much part of the English war as is the +Foul Raid or the battle of Bannockburn itself. The invasion of France by +Henry V reminded the Scots that the English could be attacked on French +soil as well as in Northumberland. So the Earl of Buchan, a son of +Albany, was sent to France at the head of an army, in answer to the +dauphin's request for help. In March, 1421, the Scots defeated the +English at Baugé and captured the Earl of Somerset. The death of Henry +V, in the following year, and the difficulties of the English government +led to the return of the young King of Scots. The Regent Albany had been +succeeded in 1420 by his son, who was weak and incompetent, and Scotland +longed for its rightful king. James had been carefully educated in +England, and the dreary years of his captivity have enriched Scottish +literature by the _King's Quair_: + + "More sweet than ever a poet's heart + Gave yet to the English tongue". + +Albany seems to have made all due efforts to obtain his nephew's +release, and James was in constant communication with Scotland. He had +been forced to accompany Henry V to France, and was present at the siege +of Melun, where Henry refused quarter to the Scottish allies of France, +although England and Scotland were at war. Although constantly +complaining of his imprisonment, and of the treatment accorded to him in +England, James brought home with him, when his release was negotiated in +1423-24, an English bride, Joan Beaufort, the heroine of the _Quair_. +She was the daughter of Somerset, who had been captured at Baugé, and +grand-daughter of John of Gaunt. + +The troublous reign of James I gave him but little time for conducting a +foreign war, and the truce which was made when the king was ransomed +continued till 1433. It had been suggested that the peace between +England and Scotland should extend to the Scottish troops serving in +France, but no such clause was inserted in the actual arrangement made, +and it is almost certain that James could not have enforced it, even had +he wished to do so. He gave, however, no indication of holding lightly +the ties that bound Scotland to France, and, in 1428, agreed to the +marriage of his infant daughter, Margaret, to the dauphin. Meanwhile, +the Scottish levies had been taking their full share in the struggle for +freedom in which France was engaged. At Crevant, near Auxerre, in July, +1423, the Earl of Buchan, now Constable of France, was defeated by +Salisbury, and, thirteen months later, Buchan and the Earl of Douglas +(Duke of Touraine) fell on the disastrous field of Verneuil. At the +Battle of the Herrings (an attack upon a French convoy carrying Lenten +food to the besiegers of Orleans, made near Janville, in February, +1429), the Scots, under the new constable, Sir John Stewart of Darnley, +committed the old error of Halidon and Homildon, and their impetuous +valour could not avail against the English archers. They shared in the +victory of Pathay, gained by the Maid of Orleans in June 1429, almost on +the anniversary of Bannockburn, and they continued to follow the Maid +through the last fateful months of her warfare. So great a part had +Scotsmen taken in the French wars that, on the expiry of the truce in +1433, the English offered to restore not only Roxburgh but also Berwick +to Scotland. But the French alliance was destined to endure for more +than another century, and James declined, thus bringing about a slight +resuscitation of warlike operations. The Scots won a victory at +Piperden, near Berwick, in 1435 or 1436, and in the summer of 1436, when +the Princess Margaret was on her way to France to enter into her +ill-starred union with the dauphin, the English made an attempt to take +her captive. James replied by an attempt upon Roxburgh, but gave it up +without having accomplished anything, and returned to spend his last +Christmas at Perth. His twelve years in Scotland had been mainly +occupied in attempts to reduce his rebellious subjects, especially in +the Highlands, to obedience and loyalty, and he had roused much +implacable resentment. So the poet-king was murdered at Perth in +February, 1436-37, and his English widow was left to guard her son, the +child sovereign, now in his seventh year. It was probably under her +influence that a truce of nine years was made. + +When the truce came to an end, Scotland was in the interval between the +two contests with the House of Douglas which mark the reign of James II. +William the sixth earl and his brother David had been entrapped and +beheaded by the governors of the boy king in November, 1440, and the +new earl, James the Gross, died in 1443, and was succeeded by his son, +William, the eighth earl, who remained for some years on good terms with +the king. Accordingly, we find that, when the English burned the town of +Dunbar in May, 1448, Douglas replied, in the following month, by sacking +Alnwick. Retaliation came in the shape of an assault upon Dumfries in +the end of June, and the Scots, with Douglas at their head, burned +Warkworth in July. The successive attacks on Alnwick and Warkworth +roused the Percies to a greater effort, and, in October, they invaded +Scotland, and were defeated at the battle of Sark or Lochmaben +Stone.[56] In 1449 the Franco-Scottish League was strengthened by the +marriage of King James to Marie of Gueldres. + +Now began the second struggle with the Douglases. Their great +possessions, their rights as Wardens of the Marches, their prestige in +Scottish history made them dangerous subjects for a weak royal house. +Since the death of the good Lord James their loyalty to the kings of +Scotland had not been unbroken, and it is probable that their +suppression was inevitable in the interests of a strong central +government. But the perfidy with which James, with his own hand, +murdered the Earl, in February, 1451-52, can scarcely be condoned, and +it has created a sympathy for the Douglases which their history scarcely +merits. James had now entered upon a decisive struggle with the great +House, which a temporary reconciliation with the new earl, in 1453, only +served to prolong. The quarrel is interesting for our purpose because it +largely decided the relations between Scotland and the rival lines of +Lancaster and York. In 1455, when the Douglases were finally suppressed +and their estates were forfeited, the Yorkists first took up arms +against Henry VI. Douglas had attempted intrigues with the Lord of the +Isles, with the Lancastrians, and with the Yorkists in turn, and, about +1454, he came to an understanding with the Duke of York. We find, +therefore, during the years which followed the first battle of St. +Albans, a revival of active hostilities with England. In 1456, James +invaded England and harried Northumberland in the interests of the +Lancastrians. During the temporary loss of power by the Duke of York, in +1457, a truce was concluded, but it was broken after the reconciliation +of York to Henry VI in 1458, and when the battle of Northampton, in +July, 1460, left the Yorkists again triumphant, James marched to attempt +the recovery of Roxburgh.[57] James I, as we have seen, had abandoned +the siege of Roxburgh Castle only to go to his death; his son found his +death while attempting the same task. On Sunday, the 3rd of August, +1460, he was killed by the bursting of a cannon, the mechanism of which +had attracted his attention and made him, according to Pitscottie, "more +curious than became him or the majesty of a king". + +The year 1461 saw Edward IV placed on his uneasy throne, and a boy of +ten years reigning over the turbulent kingdom of Scotland. The Scots had +regained Roxburgh a few days after the death of King James, and they +followed up their success by the capture of Wark. But a greater triumph +was in store. When Margaret of Anjou, after rescuing her husband, Henry +VI, at the second battle of St. Albans, in February, 1461, met, in +March, the great disaster of Towton, she fled with Henry to Scotland, +where she had been received when preparing for the expedition which had +proved so unfortunate. On her second visit she brought with her the +surrender of Berwick, which, in April, 1461, became once more a Scots +town, and was represented in the Parliament which met in 1469. In +gratitude for the gift, the Scots made an invasion of England in June, +1461, and besieged Carlisle, but were forced to retire without having +afforded any real assistance to the Lancastrian cause. There was now a +division of opinion in Scotland with regard to supporting the +Lancastrian cause. The policy of the late king was maintained by the +great Bishop Kennedy, who himself entertained Henry VI in the Castle of +St. Andrews. But the queen-mother, Mary of Gueldres, was a niece of the +Duke of Burgundy, and was, through his influence, persuaded to go over +to the side of the White Rose. While Edward IV remained on unfriendly +terms with Louis XI of France, Kennedy had not much difficulty in +resisting the Yorkist proclivities of the queen-mother, and in keeping +Scotland loyal to the Red Rose. They were able to render their allies +but little assistance, and their opposition gave the astute Edward IV an +opportunity of intrigue. John of the Isles took advantage of the +minority of James III to break the peace into which he had been brought +by James II, and the exiled Earl of Douglas concluded an agreement +between the Lord of the Isles and the King of England. But when, in +October, 1463, Edward IV came to terms with Louis XI, Bishop Kennedy was +willing to join Mary of Gueldres in deserting the doomed House of +Lancaster. Mary did not live to see the success of her policy; but peace +was made for a period of fifteen years, and Scotland had no share in the +brief Lancastrian restoration of 1470. The threatening relations between +England and France nearly led to a rupture in 1473, but the result was +only to strengthen the agreement, and it was arranged that the infant +heir of James III should marry the Princess Cecilia, Edward's daughter. +In 1479-80, when the French were again alarmed by the diplomacy of +Edward IV, we find an outbreak of hostilities, the precise cause of +which is somewhat obscure. It is certain that Edward made no effort to +preserve the peace, and he sent, in 1481, a fleet to attack the towns on +the Firth of Forth, in revenge for a border raid for which James had +attempted to apologize. Edward was unable to secure the services of his +old ally, the Lord of the Isles, who had been again brought into +subjection in the interval of peace, and who now joined in the national +preparations for war with England. But there was still a rebel Earl of +Douglas with whom to plot, and Edward was fortunate in obtaining the +co-operation of the Duke of Albany, brother of James III, who had been +exiled in 1479. Albany and Edward made a treaty in 1482, in which the +former styled himself "Alexander, King of Scotland", and promised to do +homage to Edward when he should obtain his throne. The only important +events of the war are the recapture of Berwick, in August, 1482, and an +invasion of Scotland by the Duke of Gloucester. Berwick was never again +in Scottish hands. Albany was unable to carry out the revolution +contemplated in his treaty with Edward IV; but he was reinstated, and +became for three months Lieutenant-General of the Realm of Scotland. In +March, 1482-83, he resigned this office, and, after a brief interval, in +which he was reconciled to King James, was again forfeited in July, +1483. Edward IV had died on the 9th of April, and Albany was unable to +obtain any English aid. Along with the Earl of Douglas he made an +attempt upon Scotland, but was defeated at Lochmaben in July, 1484. +Thereafter, both he and his ally pass out of the story: Douglas died a +prisoner in 1488; Albany escaped to France, where he was killed at a +tournament in 1485; he left a son who was to take a great part in +Scottish politics during the minority of James V. + +Richard III found sufficient difficulty in governing England to prevent +his desiring to continue unfriendly relations with Scotland, and he +made, on his accession, something like a cordial peace with James III. +It was arranged that James, now a widower,[58] should marry Elizabeth +Woodville, widow of Edward IV, and that his heir, Prince James, should +marry a daughter of the Duke of Suffolk. James did not afford Richard +any assistance in 1485, and after the battle of Bosworth he remained on +friendly terms with Henry VII. A controversy about Berwick prevented the +completion of negotiations for marriage alliances, but friendly +relations were maintained till the revolution of 1488, in which James +III lost his life. Both James and his rebellious nobles, who had +proclaimed his son as king, attempted to obtain English assistance, but +it was given to neither side. + +The new king, James IV, was young, brave, and ambitious. He was +specially interested in the navy, and in the commercial prosperity of +Scotland. It was scarcely possible that, in this way, difficulties with +England could be avoided, for Henry VII was engaged in developing +English trade, and encouraged English shipping. Accordingly, we find +that, while the two countries were still nominally at peace, they were +engaged in a naval warfare. Scotland was fortunate in the possession of +some great sea-captains, notable among whom were Sir Andrew Wood and Sir +Andrew Barton.[59] In 1489, Sir Andrew Wood, with two ships, the _Yellow +Carvel_ and the _Flower_, inflicted a severe defeat upon five English +vessels which were engaged in a piratical expedition in the Firth of +Forth. Henry VII, in great wrath, sent Stephen Bull, with "three great +ships, well-manned, well-victualled, and well-artilleried", to revenge +the honour of the English navy, and after a severe fight Bull and his +vessels were captured by the Scots. There was thus considerable +irritation on both sides, and while the veteran intriguer, the Duchess +of Burgundy, attempted to obtain James's assistance for the pretender, +Perkin Warbeck, the pseudo-Duke of York, Henry entered into a compact +with Archibald, Earl of Angus, well-known to readers of _Marmion_. The +treachery of Angus led, however, to no immediate result, and peace was +maintained till 1495, although the French alliance was confirmed in +1491. The rupture of 1495 was due solely to the desire of James to aid +Maximilian in the attempt to dethrone Henry VII in the interests of +Warbeck. Henry, on his part, made every effort to retain the friendship +of the Scottish king, and offered a marriage alliance with his eldest +daughter, Margaret. James, however, was determined to strike a blow for +his protegé, and in November, 1495, Warbeck landed in Scotland, was +received with great honour, assigned a pension, and wedded to the Lady +Katharine Gordon, daughter of the greatest northern lord, the Earl of +Huntly. In the following April, Ferdinand and Isabella, who were +desirous of separating Scotland from France, tried to dissuade James +from supporting Warbeck, and offered him a daughter in marriage, +although the only available Spanish princess was already promised to +Prince Arthur of England. But all efforts to avoid war were of no avail, +and in September, 1496, James marched into England, ravaged the English +borders, and returned to Scotland. The English replied by small border +forays, but James's enthusiasm for his guest rapidly cooled; in July, +1497, Warbeck left Scotland. James did not immediately make peace, +holding himself possibly in readiness in the event of Warbeck's +attaining any success. In August he again invaded England, and attacked +Norham Castle, provoking a counter-invasion of Scotland by the Earl of +Surrey. In September, Warbeck was captured, and, in the same month, a +truce was arranged between Scotland and England, by the Peace of Aytoun. +There was, in the following year, an unimportant border skirmish; but +with the Peace of Aytoun ended this attempt of the Scots to support a +pretender to the English crown. The first Scottish interference in the +troubles of Lancaster and York had been on behalf of the House of +Lancaster; the story is ended with this Yorkist intrigue. When next +there arose circumstances in any way similar, the sympathies of the +Scots were enlisted on the side of their own Royal House of Stuart. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 52: George Dunbar, Earl of March, must be carefully +distinguished from the child, Edmund Mortimer, the English Earl of +March, grandson of Lionel of Clarence, and direct heir to the English +throne after Richard II.] + +[Footnote 53: In the summer of 1405 the English ravaged Arran, and the +Scots sacked Berwick. There were also some naval skirmishes later in the +year.] + +[Footnote 54: Cf. App. B.] + +[Footnote 55: _The Clan Donald_, vol. i, p. 154. The Mackenzies were +also against the Celtic hero.] + +[Footnote 56: There is great doubt as to whether these events belong to +the year 1448 or 1449. Mr. Lang, with considerable probability, assigns +them to 1449.] + +[Footnote 57: James's army contained a considerable proportion of +Islesmen, who, as at Northallerton and at Bannockburn, fought _against_ +"the Saxons farther off".] + +[Footnote 58: He had married, in 1469, Margaret, daughter of Christian I +of Denmark. The islands of Orkney and Shetland were assigned as payment +for her dowry, and so passed, a few years later, under the Scottish +Crown.] + +[Footnote 59: Cf. _The Days of James IV_, by Mr. G. Gregory Smith, in +the series of "Scottish History from Contemporary Writers".] + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE + +1500-1542 + + +When, in 1501, negotiations were in progress for the marriage of James +IV to Margaret Tudor, Polydore Virgil tells us that the English Council +raised the objection that Margaret or her descendants might succeed to +the throne of England. "If it should fall out so," said Henry, "the +realm of England will suffer no evil, since it will not be the addition +of England to Scotland, but of Scotland to England." It is obvious that +the English had every reason for desiring to stop the irritating +opposition of the Scots, which, while it never seriously endangered the +realm, was frequently a cause of annoyance, and which hampered the +efforts of English diplomacy. The Scots, on the other hand, were +separated from the English by the memories of two centuries of constant +warfare, and they were bound by many ties to the enemies of England. The +only King of Scots, since Alexander III, who had been on friendly terms +with England, was James III, and his enemies had used the fact as a +weapon against him. His successor had already twice refused the +proffered English alliance, and when he at length accepted Henry's +persistent proposal and the thrice-offered English princess, it was only +after much hesitation and upon certain strict conditions. No Englishmen +were to enter Scotland "without letters commendatory of their own +sovereign lord or safe conduct of his Warden of the Marches". The +marriage, though not especially flattering to the dignity of a monarch +who had been encouraged to hope for the hand of a daughter of Spain, was +notable as involving a recognition (the first since the Treaty of +Northampton) of the King of Scots as an independent sovereign. On the +8th of August, 1503, Margaret was married to James in the chapel of +Holyrood. She was received with great rejoicing; the poet Dunbar, whom a +recent visit to London had convinced that the English capital, with its +"beryl streamis pleasant ... where many a swan doth swim with wingis +fair", was "the flower of cities all", wrote the well-known poem on the +Union of the Thistle and the Rose to welcome this second English +Margaret to Scotland. But the time was not yet ripe for any real union +of the Thistle and the Rose. Peace continued till the death of Henry +VII; but during these years England was never at war with France. James +threatened war with England in April, 1505, in the interests of the Duke +of Gueldres; in 1508, he declined to give an understanding that he would +not renew the old league with France, and he refused to be drawn, by +Pope Julius II, into an attitude of opposition to that country. Even +before the death of Henry VII, in 1509, there were troubles with regard +to the borders, and it was evident that the "perpetual peace" arranged +by the treaty of marriage was a sheer impossibility. + +Henry VIII succeeded to the throne of England in April, 1509; three +years and five months later, in September, 1513, was fought the battle +of Flodden. The causes may soon be told. They fall under three heads. +James and Henry were alike headstrong and impetuous, and they were alike +ambitious of playing a considerable part in European affairs. They were, +moreover, brothers-in-law, and, in the division of the inheritance of +Henry VII, the King of England had, with characteristic Tudor avarice, +retained jewels and other property which had been left to his sister, +the Queen of Scots. In the second place, the ancient jealousies were +again roused by disputes on the borders, and by naval warfare. James had +long been engaged in "the building of a fleet for the protection of our +shores"; in 1511, he had built the _Great Michael_, for which, it was +said, the woods of Fife had been wasted. The Scottish fleet was +frequently involved in quarrels with Henry's ships, and in August, 1511, +the English took two Scottish vessels, which they alleged to be pirates, +and Andrew Barton was slain in the fighting. James demanded redress, +but, says Hall, "the King of England wrote with brotherly salutations +to the King of Scots of the robberies and evil doings of Andrew Barton; +and that it became not one prince to lay a breach of a league to another +prince, in doing justice upon a pirate or thief".[60] These personal +irritations and petty troubles might have proved harmless, and, had no +European complications intervened, it is possible that there might have +"from Fate's dark book a leaf been torn", the leaf which tells of +Flodden Field. But, in 1511, Julius II formed the Holy League against +France, and by the end of the year it included Spain, Austria, and +England. The formation of a united Europe against the ancient ally of +Scotland thoroughly alarmed James. It was true that, at the moment, +England was willing to be friendly; but, should France be subdued, +whither might Scotland look for help in the future? James used every +effort to prevent the League from carrying out their project; he +attempted to form a coalition of Denmark, France, and Scotland, and +wrote to his uncle, the King of Denmark, urging him to declare for the +Most Christian King. He wrote Henry offering to "pardon all the damage +done to us and our kingdom, the capture of our merchant ships, the +slaughter and imprisonment of our subjects", if only Henry would +"maintain the universal concord of the Church". He made a vigorous +appeal to the pope himself, beseeching him to keep the peace. His +efforts were, of course, futile, nor was France in such extreme danger +as he supposed. But the chance of proving himself the saviour of France +appealed strongly to him, and, when there came to him, in the spring of +1513, a message from the Queen of France, couched in the bygone language +of chivalry, and urging him, as her knight, to break a lance for her on +English soil, James could no longer hesitate. Henry persevered in his +warlike measures against France, and James, after one more despairing +effort to act as mediator, began his preparations for an invasion of +England. His wisest counsellors were strongly opposed to war: most +prominent among them was his father's faithful servant, Bishop +Elphinstone, the founder of the University of Aberdeen. Elphinstone was +a saint, a scholar, and a statesman, and he was probably the only man in +Scotland who could influence the king. During the discussion of the +French alliance he urged delay, but was overborne by the impetuous +patriotism of the younger nobles, whose voice was, as ever, for war. So, +war it was. Bitter letters of defiance passed between the two kings, +and, in August, 1513, James led his army over the border. Lowlanders, +Highlanders, and Islesmen had alike rallied round his banner; once again +we find the "true Scots leagued", not "with", but against "the Saxons +farther off". The Scots took Norham Castle and some neighbouring +strongholds to prevent their affording protection to the English, and +then occupied a strong position on Flodden Edge. The Earl of Surrey, who +was in command of the English army, challenged James to a pitched +battle, and James accepted the challenge. Meanwhile, Surrey completely +outmanoeuvred the King of Scots, crossing the Till and marching +northwards so as to get between James and Scotland. James seems to have +been quite unsuspicious of this movement, which was protected by some +rising ground. The Scots had failed to learn the necessity of scouting. +Surrey, when he had gained his end, recrossed the Till, and made a march +directly southwards upon Flodden. James cannot have been afraid of +losing his communications, for his force was well-provisioned, and +Surrey was bound by the terms of his own challenge to fight immediately; +but he decided to abandon Flodden Edge for the lower ridge of Brankston, +and in a cloud of smoke, which not only rendered the Scots invisible to +the enemy but likewise concealed the enemy from the Scots, King James +and his army rushed upon the English. The battle began with artillery, +the superiority of the English in which forced the Scots to come to +close quarters. Then + + "Far on the left, unseen the while, + Stanley broke Lennox and Argyle"; + +on the English right, Sir Edmund Howard fell back before the charge of +the Scottish borderers, who, forthwith, devoted themselves to plunder. +The centre was fiercely contested; the Lord High Admiral of England, a +son of Surrey, defeated Crawford and Montrose, and attacked the division +with which James himself was encountering Surrey, while the archers on +the left of the English centre rendered unavailing the brave charge of +the Highlanders. With artillery and with archery the English had drawn +the Scottish attack, and the battle of Flodden was but a variation on +every fight since Dupplin Moor. Finally the Scots formed themselves into +a ring of spearmen, and the English, with their arrows and their long +bills, kept up a continuous attack. The story has been told once for +all: + + "But yet, though thick the shafts as snow, + Though charging knights as whirlwinds go, + Though bill-men ply the ghastly blow, + Unbroken was the ring; + The stubborn spearmen still made good + Their dark impenetrable wood, + Each stepping where their comrade stood + The instant that he fell. + No thought was there of dastard flight; + Link'd in the serried phalanx tight + Groom fought like noble, squire like knight, + As fearlessly and well; + Till utter darkness closed her wing + O'er their thin host and wounded king." + +No defeat had ever less in it of disgrace. The victory of the English +was hard won, and the valour displayed on the stricken field saved +Scotland from any further results of Surrey's triumph. The results were +severe enough. Although the Scots could boast of their dead king that + + "No one failed him; he is keeping + Royal state and semblance still", + +they had lost the best and bravest of the land. Scarcely a family record +but tells of an ancestor slain at Flodden, and many laments have come +down to us for "The Flowers of the Forest". But, although the disaster +was overwhelming, and the loss seemed irreparable at the time, though +the defeat at Flodden was not less decisive than the victory of +Bannockburn, the name of Flodden, notwithstanding all this, recalls but +an incident in our annals. Bannockburn is an incident in English +history, but it is the great turning-point in the story of Scotland; the +historian cannot regard Flodden as more than incidental to both. + +When James V succeeded his father he was but one year old, and his +guardian, in accordance with the desire of James IV, was the +queen-mother, Margaret Tudor. Her subsequent career is one long tale of +intrigue, too elaborate and intricate to require a full recapitulation +here. The war lingered on, in a desultory fashion, till May, 1515. Lord +Dacre ravaged the borders, and the Scots replied by a raid into England; +but there is nothing of any interest to relate. From the accession of +Francis I, in 1515, the condition of politics in Scotland, as of all +Europe, was influenced and at times dominated by his rivalry with the +Emperor. The unwonted desire of France for peace and alliance with +England placed the Scots in a position of considerable difficulty, and +the difficulty was accentuated by the more than usually distracted state +of the country during the minority of the king. In August, 1514, +Margaret (who had in the preceding April given birth to a posthumous +child to James IV) was married to the Earl of Angus, the grandson of +Archibald Bell-the-Cat. It was felt that the sister of Henry VIII and +the wife of a Douglas could scarcely prove a suitable guardian of a +Stewart throne, and the Scots invited the Duke of Albany, son of the +traitor duke, and cousin of the late king, to come over to Scotland and +undertake the government. Despite some efforts of Henry to prevent him, +Albany came to Scotland in May, 1515. He was a French nobleman, +possessed large estates in France, and, although he was, ere long, +heir-presumptive to the Scottish throne, could speak no language but +French. When he arrived in Scotland he found against him the party of +Margaret and Angus, while the Earls of Lennox and Arran were his ardent +supporters. The latter nobleman was the grandson of James II, being the +son of the Princess Mary and James, Lord Hamilton, and he was, +therefore, the next heir to the throne after Albany. The interests of +both might be endangered should Margaret and Angus become all-powerful, +and so we find them acting together for some time. Albany was +immediately made regent of Scotland, and the care of the young king and +his brother, the baby Duke of Ross, was entrusted to him. It required +force to obtain possession of the children, but the regent succeeded in +doing so in August, in time to defeat a scheme of Henry VIII for +kidnapping the princes. The queen-mother fled to England, where, in +October, she bore to Angus a daughter, Margaret, afterwards Countess of +Lennox and mother of the unfortunate Darnley. She then proceeded to pay +a visit to Henry VIII. Meanwhile, in Scotland, Albany was finding many +difficulties. Arran was now in rebellion against him, and now in +alliance with him. In May, 1516, Angus himself, leaving his imperious +wife in England, made terms with the regent. The infant Duke of Ross had +died in the end of 1515, and only the boy king stood between Albany and +the throne. In 1517 Albany returned to France to cement more closely the +old alliance, and remained in France till 1521. Margaret immediately +returned to Scotland, and, had she behaved with any degree of wisdom, +might have greatly strengthened her brother's tortuous Scottish policy. +But a Tudor and a Douglas could not be other than an ill-matched pair, +and Margaret was already tired of her husband. In 1518, she informed +her brother that she desired to divorce Angus. Henry, whose own +matrimonial adventures were still in the future, and to whom Angus was +useful, scolded his sister in true Tudor fashion, and told her that, +alike by the laws of God and man, she must stick to her husband. A +formal reconciliation took place, but, henceforth, Margaret's one desire +was to be free, and to this she subordinated all other considerations. +In 1519, she came to an understanding with Arran, her husband's +bitterest foe, and in the summer of the same year we find Henry +marvelling much at the "tender letters" she sent to France, in which she +urged the return of Albany, whose absence from Scotland had been the +main aim of English policy since Flodden. While Francis I and Henry VIII +were on good terms, Albany was detained in France; but when, in 1521, +their relations became strained, he returned to Scotland to find Angus +in power. Scotland rallied round him, and in February, 1522, Angus, in +turn, retired to France, while Henry VIII devoted his energies to the +prevention of a marriage between his amorous sister and the handsome +Albany. The regent led an army to the borders and began to organize an +invasion, for which the north of England was ill-prepared, but was +outwitted by Henry's agent, Lord Dacre, who arranged an armistice which +he had no authority to conclude. Albany then returned to France, and +the Scots, refusing Henry's offer of peace, had to suffer an invasion by +Surrey, which was encouraged by Margaret, who was again on the English +side. When Albany came back in September, 1523, he easily won over the +fickle queen; but, after an unsuccessful attack on Wark, he left +Scotland for ever in May, 1524. + +No sooner had Albany disappeared from the scene than Margaret entered +into a new intrigue with the Earl of Arran; it had one important result, +the "erection" of the young king, who now, at the age of twelve years, +became the nominal ruler of the country. This manoeuvre was executed +with the connivance of the English, to whose side Margaret had again +deserted. For some time Arran and Margaret remained at the head of +affairs, but the return of the Earl of Angus at once drove the +queen-mother into the opposite camp, and she became reconciled to the +leader of the French party, Archbishop Beaton, whom she had imprisoned +shortly before. Angus, who had been the paid servant of England +throughout all changes since 1517, assumed the government. The alliance +between England and France, which followed the disaster to Francis I at +Pavia, seriously weakened the supporters of French influence in +Scotland, and Angus made a three years' truce in 1525. In the next year, +Arran transferred his support to Angus, who held the reins of power till +the summer of 1528. The chief event of this period is the divorce of +Queen Margaret, who immediately married a youth, Henry Stewart, son of +Lord Evandale, and afterwards known as Lord Methven. + +The fall of Angus was brought about by the conduct of the young king +himself, who, tired of the tyranny in which he was held, and escaping +from Edinburgh to Stirling, regained his freedom. Angus had to flee to +England, and James passed under the influence of his mother and her +youthful husband. In 1528 he made a truce with England for five years. +During these years James showed leanings towards the French alliance, +while Henry was engaged in treasonable intrigues with Scottish nobles, +and in fomenting border troubles. But the truce was renewed in 1533, and +a more definite peace was made in 1534. Henry now attempted to enlist +James as an ally against Rome, and, by the irony of fate, offered him, +as a temptation to become a Protestant, the hand of the Princess Mary. +James refused to break with the pope, and negotiations for a meeting +between the two kings fell through--fortunately, for Henry was prepared +to kidnap James. The King of Scots arranged in 1536 to marry a daughter +of the Duc de Vendome, but, on seeing her, behaved much as Henry VIII +was to do in the case of Anne of Cleves, except that he definitely +declined to wed her at all. Being in France, he made a proposal for the +Princess Madeleine, daughter of Francis I, and was married to her in +January, 1536-37. This step naturally annoyed Henry, who refused James a +passport through England, on the ground that "no Scottish king had ever +entered England peacefully except as a vassal". So James returned by sea +with his dying bride, and reached Scotland to find numerous troubles in +store for him--among them, intrigues brought about by his mother's wish +to obtain a divorce from her third husband. Madeleine died in July, +1537, and the relations between James and Henry VIII (now a widower by +the death of Jane Seymour) were further strained by the fact that nephew +and uncle alike desired the hand of Mary of Guise, widow of the Duke de +Longueville, who preferred her younger suitor and married him in the +following summer. These two French marriages are important as marking +James's final rejection of the path marked out for him by Henry VIII. +The husband of a Guise could scarcely remain on good terms with the +heretic King of England; but Henry, with true Tudor persistency, did not +give up hope of bending his nephew to his will, and spent the next few +years in negotiating with James, in trying to alienate him from Cardinal +Beaton--the great supporter of the French alliance,--and in urging the +King of Scots to enrich himself at the expense of the Church. As late as +1541, a meeting was arranged at York, whither Henry went, to find that +his nephew did not appear. James was probably wise, for we know that +Henry would not have scrupled to seize his person. Border troubles +arose; Henry reasserted the old claim of homage and devised a scheme to +kidnap James. Finally he sent the Earl of Angus, who had been living in +England, with a force to invade Scotland, and this without the formality +of declaring war. Henry, in fact, was acting as a suzerain punishing a +vassal who had refused to appear when he was summoned. The English +ravaged the county of Roxburgh in 1542; the Scottish nobles declined to +cross the border in what they asserted to be a French quarrel; and in +November a small Scottish force was enclosed between Solway Moss and the +river Esk, and completely routed. The ignominy of this fresh disaster +broke the king's heart. On December 8th was born the hapless princess +who is known as _the_ Queen of Scots. The news brought small comfort to +the dying king, who was still mourning the sons he had lost in the +preceding year. "'Adieu,' he said, 'farewell; it came with a lass and it +will pass with a lass.' And so", adds Pitscottie, "he recommended +himself to the mercy of Almighty God, and spake little from that time +forth, but turned his back unto his lords, and his face unto the wall." +Six days later the end came. With "a little smile of laughter", and +kissing his hand to the nobles who stood round, he breathed his last. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 60: Gregory Smith, p. 123.] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE PARTING OF THE WAYS + +1542-1568 + + +Mary of Guise, thus for the second time a widow, was left the sole +protector of the infant queen, against the intrigues of Henry VIII and +the treachery of the House of Douglas. Fortunately, Margaret Tudor had +predeceased her son in October, 1541, and her death left one disturbing +element the less. But the situation which the dowager had to face was +much more perplexed than that which confronted any other of the long +line of Scottish queen-mothers. During the reign of James V the Reformed +doctrines had been rapidly spreading in Scotland. It was at one time +possible that James V might follow the example of Henry VIII, and a +considerable section of his subjects would have welcomed the change. His +death added recruits to the Protestant cause; the greater nobles now +strongly desired an alienation of Church property, because they could +take advantage of the royal minority to seize it for their private +advantage. The English party no longer consisted only of outlawed +traitors; there were many honest Scots who felt that alliance with a +Protestant kingdom must replace the old French league. The main +interest had come to be not nationality but religion, and Scotland must +decide between France and England. The sixteenth century had already, in +spite of all that had passed, made it evident that Scots and English +could live on terms of peace, and the reign of James IV, which had +witnessed the first attempt at a perpetual alliance, was remembered as +the golden age of Scottish prosperity. The queen-mother was, by birth +and by education, committed to the maintenance of the old religion and +of the French alliance. The task was indeed difficult. Ultimate success +was rendered impossible by causes over which she possessed no kind of +control; a temporary victory was rendered practicable only by the folly +of Henry VIII. + +The history of Henry's intrigues becomes at this point very intricate, +and we must be content with a mere outline. On James's death he +conceived the plan of seizing the Scottish throne, and for this purpose +he entered into an agreement with the Scottish prisoners taken at Solway +Moss. They professed themselves willing to seize Mary and Cardinal +Beaton, and so to deprive the national party of their leaders. Then came +the news that the Earl of Arran had been appointed regent in December, +1542. He was heir-presumptive to the throne, and so was unlikely to +acquiesce in Henry's scheme, and the traitors were instructed to deal +with him as they thought necessary. But the traitors, who had, of +course, been joined by the Earl of Angus, proved false to Henry and were +falsely true to Scotland. They imprisoned Beaton, but did not deliver +him up to the English, and they came to terms with Arran; nor did they +carry out Henry's projects further than to permit the circulation of +"haly write, baith the new testament and the auld, in the vulgar toung", +and to enter into negotiations for the marriage of the young queen to +the Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VI. The conditions they made were +widely different from those suggested by Henry. Full precautions were +taken to secure the independence of the country both during Mary's +minority and for the future. Strongholds were to be retained in Scottish +hands; should there be no child of the marriage, the union would +determine, and the proper heir would succeed to the Scottish throne. In +any case, no union of the kingdoms was contemplated, although the crowns +might be united. These terms were slightly modified in the following +May. Beaton, who had escaped to St. Andrews, did not oppose the treaty, +but made preparations for war. The treaty was agreed to, and the war of +intrigues went on, Henry offering almost any terms for the possession of +the little queen. Finally, in September, Arran joined the cardinal, +became reconciled to the Church, and left Henry to intrigue with the +Earl of Lennox, the next heir after Arran. + +Hostilities broke out in the end of 1543, when the Scots, enraged by +Henry's having attacked some Scottish shipping, declared the treaty +annulled. In the spring of 1544, the Earl of Hertford conducted his +expedition into Scotland. The "English Wooing", as it was called, took +the form of a massacre without regard to age or sex. The instructions +given to Hertford by Henry and his council read like quotations from the +book of Joshua. He was to leave none remaining, where he encountered any +resistance. Hertford, abandoning the usual methods of English invaders, +came by sea, took Leith, burned Edinburgh, and ravaged the Lothians. +Lennox attempted to give up Dumbarton to the English, but his treachery +was discovered and he fled to England, where he married Margaret, the +daughter of Angus and niece of Henry VIII, by whom he became, in 1545, +the father of Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, who thus stood within the +possibility of succession, in his own right, to both kingdoms. Angus and +his brother, Sir George Douglas, seized the opportunity given them by +the misery caused by the English atrocities to make a move against Arran +and Beaton, and seized the person of the queen-mother. But their success +was brought to an end by the meeting of a Parliament, summoned by Arran, +in December, 1544, and the Douglases were reconciled and restored to +their estates, deeming this the most profitable step for themselves. +Their breach with Henry was widened by the events of the next two +months. A body of Englishmen, under Sir Ralph Eure, defeated Arran at +Melrose, and desecrated the abbey, the sepulchre of the Douglas family. +In revenge, Angus, along with Arran, fell upon the English at Ancrum +Moor in Roxburghshire, and inflicted on them a total defeat. This was +followed by a second invasion of Hertford (this time by land). He +ravaged the borders in merciless fashion. A counter-invasion by an army +of Scots and French auxiliaries had proved futile owing to the +incompetence or the treachery of Angus, who almost immediately returned +to the English side. About the same time a descendant of the Lord of the +Isles whom James IV had crushed made an agreement with Henry, but was of +little use to his cause. Beaton, after some successful fighting on the +borders, in the end of 1545, went to St. Andrews in the beginning of +1546. On the 1st March, George Wishart, who had been condemned on a +charge of heresy, was hanged, and his body was burned at the stake. On +May 29th the more fierce section of the Protestant party took their +revenge by murdering the great cardinal in cold blood. We are not here +concerned with Beaton's private character or with his treatment of +heretics. His public actions, as far as foreign relations are concerned, +are marked by a consistent patriotic aim. He represented the long line +of Scottish churchmen who had striven to maintain the integrity of the +kingdom and the alliance with France. He had shown great ability and +tact, and in politics he had been much more honest than his opponents. +But for his support of the queen-dowager in 1542-43, and but for his +maintaining the party to which Arran afterwards attached himself, it is +possible that Scotland might have passed under the yoke of Henry VIII in +1543, instead of being peacefully united to England sixty years later. +With him disappeared any remaining hope of the French party. "We may say +of old Catholic Scotland", writes Mr. Lang, "as said the dying Cardinal: +'Fie, all is gone'." + +Though Beaton was dead, the effects of his work remained. He had saved +the situation at the crisis of December, 1542, and the insensate cruelty +of Henry VIII had made it impossible that the Cardinal's work should +fall to pieces at once. It seemed at first as if the only difference was +that the castle of St. Andrews was held by the English party. Ten months +after Beaton's death, the small Protestant garrison was joined by John +Knox, who was present when the regent succeeded, with help from France, +in reducing the castle in July, 1547. Its defenders, including Knox, +were sent as galley-slaves to France. Henry VIII had died in the +preceding January, but Hertford (now Protector Somerset) continued the +Scottish policy of the preceding reign. In the summer of 1547 he made +his third invasion of Scotland, marked by the usual barbarity. In the +course of it, on 10th September, was fought the last battle between +Scots and English. Somerset met the Scots, under Arran, at Pinkiecleuch, +near Edinburgh, and by the combined effect of artillery and a cavalry +charge, completely defeated them with great slaughter. The English, +after some further devastation, returned home, and the Scots at once +entered into a treaty with France, which had been at war with England +since 1544. It was agreed that the young queen should marry the dauphin, +the eldest son of Henry II. While negotiations were in progress, she was +placed for safety, first in the priory of Inchmahome, an island in the +lake of Menteith, and afterwards in Dumbarton Castle. In June, 1548, a +large number of French auxiliaries were sent to Scotland, and, in the +beginning of August, Mary was sent to France. The English failed to +capture her, and she landed about 13th August. The war lingered on till +1550. The Scots gradually won back the strongholds which had been seized +by the English, and, although their French allies did good service, +serious jealousies arose, which greatly weakened the position of the +French party. Finally, Scotland was included in the peace made between +England and France in 1550. + +All the time, the Reformed faith was rapidly gaining adherents, and +when, in April, 1554, the queen-dowager succeeded Arran (now Duke of +Chatelherault) as regent, she found the problem of governing Scotland +still more difficult. The relations with England had, indeed, been +simplified by the accession of a Roman Catholic queen in England, but +the Spanish marriage of Mary Tudor made it difficult for a Guise to +obtain any help from her. She continued the policy of obtaining French +levies, and the irritation they caused was a considerable help to her +opponents. Knox had returned to Scotland in 1555, and, except for a +visit to Geneva in 1556-57, spent the rest of his life in his native +country. In 1557 was formed the powerful assembly of Protestant clergy +and laymen who took the title of "the Congregation of the Lord", and +signed the National Covenant which aimed at the abolition of Roman +Catholicism. Their hostility to the queen-regent was intensified by the +events of the year 1558-59. In April, 1558, Queen Mary was married to +the dauphin, and her husband received the crown-matrimonial and became +known as King of Scots. Scotland seemed to have passed entirely under +France. We know that there was some ground for the Protestant alarm, +because the girl queen had been induced to sign documents which +transferred her rights, in case of her decease without issue, to the +King of France and his heirs. These documents were in direct antagonism +to the assurance given to the Scottish Parliament of the maintenance of +national independence. The French alliance seemed to have gained a +complete triumph, while the shout of joy raised by its supporters was +really the swan-song of the cause. Knox and the Congregation had +rendered it for ever impossible. + +Nor was it long before this became apparent. In November, 1558, Mary +Tudor died, and England was again Protestant. Henry II ordered Francis +and Mary to assume the arms of England, in virtue of Mary's descent from +Margaret Tudor, which made her in Roman Catholic eyes the rightful Queen +of England, Elizabeth being born out of wedlock. The Protestant Queen of +England had thus an additional motive for opposition to the government +of Mary of Guise and her daughter. It was unfortunate for the +queen-regent that, at this particular juncture, she was entering into +strained relations with the Reformers. Hitherto she had succeeded in +satisfying Knox himself; but, in the beginning of 1559, she adopted more +severe measures, and the lords of the congregation began to discuss a +treasonable alliance with England, which proved the beginning of the +end. The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis set the French government free to +pay greater attention to the progress of Scottish affairs, and Mary of +Guise forthwith denounced the leading Protestant preachers as heretics. +It was much too late. The immediate result was the Perth riots of May +and June, 1559, which involved the destruction of the religious houses +which were the glory of the Fair City. The aspect of affairs was so +threatening that the regent came to terms, and promised that she would +take no vengeance on the people of Perth, and that she would not leave a +French garrison in the town. The regent kept her word in garrisoning the +town with Scotsmen, but her introduction of a French bodyguard, in +attendance on her own person, was regarded as a breach of her promise. +The destruction of religious buildings continued, although Knox did his +endeavour to save the palace of Scone. The Protestants held St. Andrews +while the regent entered into negotiations which they considered to be a +mere subterfuge for gaining time, and, on the 29th June, they marched +upon Edinburgh. In July, 1559, occurred the sudden death of Henry II; +Francis and Mary succeeded, and the supreme power in France and in +Scotland passed to the House of Guise. The Protestants who had been +making overtures to Cecil and Elizabeth declared, in October, that the +regent had been deposed. This bold step was justified by the help +received from England, and by the indignation caused by the excesses of +the regent's French troops in Scotland. So far had religious emotion +outrun the sentiment of nationality that the Protestants were willing to +admit almost any English claim. The result of Elizabeth's treaty with +the rebels was that they were enabled to besiege Leith, by means of an +English fleet, while the regent took refuge in Edinburgh Castle. The +English attack on Leith was unsuccessful, but the dangerous illness of +the queen-mother led to the conclusion of peace. A truce was made on +condition that all foreign soldiers, French and English alike, should +leave Scotland, and that the Scottish claim to the English throne should +be abandoned. On the 11th June, 1560, Mary died. The wisdom of the +policy of her later years may be questioned, but her conduct during her +widowhood forms a strange contrast to that of her Tudor mother-in-law in +similar circumstances. It is probable that her intentions were honest +enough, and that the Protestant indignation at her "falsehoods" was +based on invincible misunderstanding. Her gracious charm of manner was +the concomitant of a tolerance rare in the sixteenth century; and she +died at peace with all men, and surrounded by those who had been in arms +against her, receiving "all her nobles with all pleasure, with a +pleasant countenance, and even embracing them with a kiss of love". + +Her death set the lords of the congregation free to carry out their +ecclesiastical programme. In August Roman Catholicism was abolished by +the Scottish Parliament and the celebration of the mass forbidden, under +severe penalties. There remained the question of the ratification of the +Treaty of Edinburgh, the final form of the agreement by which peace had +been made. The young Queen of Scots objected to the treaty on the ground +that it included a clause that "the most Christian King and Queen Mary, +and each of them, abstain henceforth from using the title and bearing +the arms of the kingdom of England or of Ireland".[61] She interpreted +the word "henceforth" as involving an absolute renunciation of her claim +to the English throne, and so prejudicing her succession, should she +survive Elizabeth. Cecil had suggested to the Scots that it might be +advisable to raise the claim of the Lord James Stewart, an illegitimate +son of James V, and afterwards Earl of Moray, to the throne, or to +support that of the House of Hamilton. The Scots improved on this +suggestion, and proposed that Elizabeth should marry the Earl of Arran, +the eldest son of the Duke of Chatelherault, who might succeed to the +throne. There were many reasons why Elizabeth should not wed the +imbecile Arran, and it may safely be said that she never seriously +considered the project although she continued to trifle with the +suggestion, which formed a useful form of intrigue against Mary. + +The situation was considerably altered by the death of Francis II, in +December, 1560. That event was, on the whole, welcome to Elizabeth, for +it destroyed the power of the Guises, and Mary Stuart[62] had now to +face her Scottish difficulties without French aid. She was not on good +terms with her mother-in-law, Catherine de Medici, who now controlled +the destinies of France, and it was evident that she must accept the +fact of the Scottish Reformation, and enter upon a conflict with the +theocratic tendencies of the Church and with the Scottish nobles who +were the pensioners of Elizabeth. On the other hand, although Francis II +was dead, his widow survived, young, beautiful, charming, and a queen. +The dissolution of her first marriage had removed an actual difficulty +from the path of the English queen, but, after all, it only meant that +she might be able to contract an alliance still more dangerous. As early +as December 31st, 1560, Throckmorton warned Elizabeth that she must +"have an eye to" the second marriage of Mary Stuart.[63] The Queen of +England had a choice of alternatives. She might prosecute the intrigue +with the Earl of Arran, capture Mary on her way to Scotland, and boldly +adopt the position of the leader of Protestantism. There were, however, +many difficulties, ecclesiastical, foreign, and personal, in such a +course. Arran was an impossible husband; Knox and the lords of the +congregation made good allies but bad subjects; and the inevitable +struggle with Spain would be precipitated. The other course was to +attempt to win Mary's confidence, and to prevent her from contracting an +alliance with the Hapsburgs, which was probably what Elizabeth most +feared. This was the alternative finally adopted by the Queen of +England; but, very characteristically, she did not immediately abandon +the other possibility. On the pretext that Mary refused to confirm the +Treaty of Edinburgh, her cousin declined to grant her request for a +safe-conduct from France to Scotland, and spoke of the Scottish queen in +terms which Mary took the first opportunity of resenting. "The queen, +your mistress," she remarked to the English ambassador who brought the +refusal, "doth say that I am young and do lack experience. Indeed I +confess I am younger than she is, and do want experience; but I have age +enough and experience to use myself towards my friends and kinsfolk +friendly and uprightly; and I trust my discretion shall not so fail me +that my passion shall move me to use other language of her than it +becometh of a queen and my next kinswoman."[64] + +When, in August, 1561, Mary did sail from France to Scotland, Elizabeth +made an effort to capture her. It was characteristically hesitating, and +it succeeded only in giving Mary an impression of Elizabeth's hostility. +Some months later Elizabeth imprisoned the Countess of Lennox, the +mother of Darnley, for giving God thanks because "when the queen's +ships were almost near taking of the Scottish queen, there fell down a +mist from heaven that separated them and preserved her".[65] The arrival +of Mary in Scotland effectually put an end to the Arran intrigue, but +the girl-widow of scarcely nineteen years had many difficulties with +which to contend. As a devout Roman Catholic, she had to face the +relentless opposition of Knox and the congregation, who objected even to +her private exercise of her own faith. As the representative of the +French alliance, now but a dead cause, she was confronted by an English +party which included not only her avowed enemies but many of her real or +pretended friends. Her brother, the Lord James Stewart, whom she made +Earl of Moray, and who guided the early policy of her reign, was +constantly in Elizabeth's pay, as were most of her other advisers. Her +secretary, Maitland of Lethington, the most distinguished and the ablest +Scottish statesman of his day, had, as the fixed aim of his policy, a +good understanding with England. Furthermore, she was disliked by all +the nobles who had seized upon the property of the Church and added it +to their own possessions. Up to the age of twenty-five she had, by Scots +law, the right of recalling all grants of land made during her minority, +and her greedy nobles knew well that the victory of Roman Catholicism +meant the restoration of Church lands. Her relations with France were +uncertain, and the Guises found their attention fully occupied at home. +As the next heir to the throne of England, she was bound to be very +careful in her dealings with Elizabeth. United by every tie of blood and +sentiment to Rome and the Guises, she was forced, for reasons of policy, +to remain on good terms with Protestantism and the Tudor Queen of +England. The first years of Mary's reign in Scotland were marked by the +continuance of good relations between herself and her half-brother, whom +she entrusted with the government of the kingdom. In 1562 she suppressed +the most powerful Catholic noble in Scotland, the Earl of Huntly. The +result of this policy was to raise an unfounded suspicion in England and +Spain that the Queen of Scots was "no more devout towards Rome than for +the sustentation of her uncles".[66] The indignation felt at Mary's +conduct among Roman Catholics in England and in Spain may have been one +of the reasons for Elizabeth's adopting a more distinctly Protestant +position in 1562. In the Act of Supremacy of that year the first avowed +reference is made to the authority used by Henry VIII and Edward VI, +_i.e._ the Supreme Headship of the Church. It at all events made +Elizabeth's position less difficult, because Spain and Austria were not +likely to attack England in the interests of a queen whose orthodoxy was +doubtful. + +Meanwhile Elizabeth was directing all her efforts to prevent Mary from +contracting a second marriage, and, at all hazards, to secure that she +should not marry Don Carlos of Spain or the Archduke of Austria. Her +persistent endeavours to bribe Scottish nobles were directed, with +considerable acuteness, to creating an English party strong enough to +deter foreign princes from "seeking upon a country so much at her +devotion".[67] She warned Mary that any alliance with "a mighty prince" +would offend England[68] and so imperil her succession. Mary, on her +part, was attempting to obtain a recognition of her position as "second +person" [heir presumptive], and she professed her willingness to take +Elizabeth's advice in the all-important matter of her marriage. The +English queen made various suggestions, and found objections to them +all. Finally she proposed that Mary should marry her own favourite, +Leicester, and a long correspondence followed. It was suggested that the +two queens should have an interview, but this project fell through. +Elizabeth, of course, was too fondly attached to Leicester to see him +become the husband of her beautiful rival; Mary, on her part, despised +the "new-made earl", and Leicester himself apologized to Mary's +ambassador for the presumption of the proposal, "alleging the invention +of that proposition to have proceeded from Master Cecil, his secret +enemy".[69] While the Leicester negotiations were in progress, the Earl +of Lennox, who had been exiled in 1544, returned to Scotland with his +son Henry, Lord Darnley, a handsome youth, eighteen years of age. As +early as May, 1564, Knox suspected that Mary intended to marry +Darnley.[70] There is little doubt that it was a love-match; but there +were also political reasons, for Darnley was, after Mary herself, the +nearest heir to Elizabeth's throne, and only the Hamiltons stood between +him and the crown of Scotland. He had been born and educated in England, +as also had been his mother, the daughter of Angus and Margaret Tudor, +and Elizabeth might have used him as against Mary's claim. That claim +the English queen refused to acknowledge, although, in the end of 1564, +Murray and Maitland of Lethington tried their utmost to persuade her to +do so. + +On the 29th July, 1565, Mary was married to Darnley in the chapel of +Holyrood. Elizabeth chose to take offence, and Murray raised a +rebellion. There are two stories of plots: there are hints of a scheme +to capture Mary and Darnley; and Murray, on the other hand, alleged that +Darnley had entered into a conspiracy to kidnap him. It is, at all +events, certain that Murray raised a revolt and that the people rallied +to Mary, who drove her brother across the border. Elizabeth received +Murray with coldness, and asked him "how he, being a rebel to her sister +of Scotland, durst take the boldness upon him to come within her +realm?"[71] But Murray, confident in Elizabeth's promise of aid, knew +what this hypocritical outburst was worth, and the English queen soon +afterwards wrote to Mary in his favour. The motive which Murray alleged +for his revolt was his fear for the true religion in view of Mary's +marriage to Darnley, nominally a Roman Catholic; but his position with +regard to the Rizzio Bond renders it, as we shall see, somewhat +difficult to give him credit for sincerity. It is more likely that he +was ambitious of ruling the kingdom with Mary as a prisoner. About +Elizabeth's complicity there can be no doubt.[72] + +Mary's troubles had only begun. On the 16th January, 1566, Randolph, the +English ambassador, wrote from Edinburgh: "I cannot tell what mislikings +of late there hath been between her grace and her husband; he presses +earnestly for the matrimonial crown, which she is loth hastily to +grant". Darnley, in fact, had proved a vicious fool, and was possessed +of a fool's ambition. Rizzio, Mary's Italian secretary, who had urged +the Darnley marriage, strongly warned Mary against giving her husband +any real share in the government, and Darnley determined that Rizzio +should be "removed".[73] He therefore entered into a conspiracy with his +natural enemies, the Scottish nobles, who professed to be willing to +secure the throne for this youth whom they despised and hated. The plot +involved the murder of Rizzio, the imprisonment of Mary, the +crown-matrimonial for Darnley, and the return of Murray and his +accomplices, who were still in exile. The English government was, of +course, privy to the scheme.[74] The murder was carried out, in +circumstances of great brutality, on the night of the 9th March. Mary's +condition of health, "having then passed almost to the end of seven +months in our birth", renders the carrying out of the deed in her +presence, and while Rizzio was her guest, almost certainly an attempt +upon the queen's own life. There were numberless opportunities of +slaying Rizzio elsewhere, and the ghastly details--the sudden appearance +of Ruthven, hollow, pale, just risen from a sick bed, the pistol of Ker +of Faudonside,--are so rich in dramatic effect that one can scarcely +doubt what _dénouement_ was intended. The plot failed in its main +purpose. Rizzio, indeed, was killed, and Murray made his appearance next +morning and obtained forgiveness. The queen "embracit him and kisset +him, alleging that in caice he had bene at hame, he wald not have +sufferit her to have bene sa uncourterly handlit". But the success ended +here. Mary won over her husband, and together they escaped and fled to +Dunbar. Darnley deserted his accomplices, proclaimed his innocence, and +strongly urged the punishment of the murderers. They, of course, threw +themselves on the hospitality of Queen Elizabeth, who sent them money, +and lied to Mary,[75] who did not put too much faith in her cousin's +assurances. On June 19th, a prince was born in Edinburgh Castle, but the +event brought about only a partial reconciliation between his unhappy +parents. Mary was shamefully treated by her worthless husband, and in +the following November her nobles suggested to her the project of a +divorce. Darnley, however, was not doomed to the fate which overtook his +descendants, the life of a king without a crown. He had awakened the +enmity of men whose feuds were blood-feuds, and the Rizzio conspirators +were not likely to forgive the upstart youth whose inconstancy had +foiled their plan for Mary's fall, and whose treachery had involved them +in exile. Darnley had proved useless even as a tool for the nobles, he +had offended Mary and disgusted everybody in Scotland, and there were +many who were willing to do without him. At this point a new tool was +ready to the hands of the discontented barons. The Earl of Bothwell, +whether with Mary's consent or not, aspired to the queen's hand, and +devised a plan for the murder of Darnley. On the night of the 10th +February, 1566-67, the wretched boy, not yet twenty-one years of age, +was strangled,[76] and the house in which he had been living was blown +up with gunpowder. Public opinion accused Bothwell of the murder; he was +tried and found innocent, and Parliament put its seal upon his +acquittal. On the 24th April he seized the person of the queen as she +was travelling from Linlithgow to Edinburgh, and Mary married him on the +15th May. _Mense malum Maio nubere vulgus ait._ The nobles almost +immediately raised a rebellion, professedly to deliver the queen from +the thraldom of Bothwell. On June 15th she surrendered at Carberry Hill, +and the nobles disregarded a pledge of loyalty to the queen given on +condition of her abandoning Bothwell, alleging that she was still in +correspondence with him. They now accused her of murdering her husband, +and imprisoned her in Lochleven Castle. The whole affair is wrapped in +mystery, but it is impossible to give the Earl of Morton and the other +nobles any credit for honesty of purpose. There can be little doubt that +they used Bothwell for their own ends, and, while they represented the +murder as the result of a domestic conspiracy between the queen and +Bothwell, they afterwards, when quarrelling among themselves, hurled at +each other accusations of participation in the plot, and their leader, +the Earl of Morton, died on the scaffold as a criminal put to death for +the murder of Darnley. This, of course, does not exclude the hypothesis +of Mary's guilt, and while the view of Hume or of Mr. Froude could not +now be seriously advanced in its entirety, it is only right to say that +a majority of historians are of opinion that she, at least, connived at +the murder. The question of her implication as a principal in the plot +depends upon the authenticity of the documents known as the "Casket +Letters", which purported to be written by the queen to Bothwell, and +which the insurgent lords afterwards produced as evidence against +her.[77] + +Moray had left Scotland in the end of April. When he returned in the +beginning of August he found that the prisoner of Lochleven, to whom he +owed his advancement and his earldom, had been forced to sign a deed of +abdication, nominating himself as regent for her infant son. On the 15th +August he went to Lochleven and saw his sister, as he had done after the +murder of Rizzio, when she was a prisoner in Holyrood. Till an hour past +midnight, Elizabeth's pensioner preached to the unfortunate princess on +righteousness and judgment, leaving her "that night in hope of nothing +but of God's mercy". It was merely a threat; Mary's life was safe, for +Elizabeth, roused, for once, to a feeling of generosity, had forbidden +Moray to make any attempt on that. Next morning he graciously accepted +the regency and left his sister's prison with her kisses on his +lips.[78] + +On the 2nd May, 1568, Mary escaped from Lochleven, and her brother at +once prepared a hostile force to meet her. Her army, composed largely of +Protestants, marched towards Dunbarton Castle, where they desired to +place the queen for safe keeping. The regent intercepted her at +Langside, and inflicted a complete defeat upon her forces. Mary was +again a fugitive, and her followers strongly urged her to take refuge in +France. But Elizabeth had given her a promise of protection, and Mary, +impelled by some fateful impulse, resolved to throw herself on the mercy +of her kinswoman.[79] On the 16th day of May, her little boat crossed +the Solway. When the Queen of Scots, the daughter of the House of Guise, +the widow of a monarch of the line of Valois, set foot on English soil +as a suppliant for the protection which came to her only by death, the +last faint hope must have faded out of the hearts of the few who still +longed for an independent Scotland, bound by gratitude and by ancient +tradition to the ally who, more than once, had proved its salvation. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 61: Cf. the present writer's "Mary, Queen of Scots" (Scottish +History from Contemporary Writers).] + +[Footnote 62: The spelling "Stuart", which Queen Mary brought with her +from France, now superseded the older "Stewart".] + +[Footnote 63: Foreign Calendar: Elizabeth, December 31st, 1560.] + +[Footnote 64: _Cabala, Sive Scrinia Sacra_, pp. 345-349.] + +[Footnote 65: Foreign Calendar, May 7th, 1562.] + +[Footnote 66: Foreign Calendar, June 8th, 1562.] + +[Footnote 67: Foreign Calendar, March 31st, 1561.] + +[Footnote 68: Foreign Calendar, 20th August, 1563.] + +[Footnote 69: Sir James Melville's _Memoirs_, pp. 116-130 (Bannatyne +Club).] + +[Footnote 70: Laing's _Knox_, vi, p. 541.] + +[Footnote 71: Laing's _Knox_, vol. ii, p. 513. Melville's _Memoirs_, p. +134.] + +[Footnote 72: Foreign Calendar, July-December, 1565.] + +[Footnote 73: The evidence for the scandal which associated Mary's name +with that of Rizzio will be found in Mr. Hay Fleming's _Mary, Queen of +Scots_, pp. 398-401. It is very far indeed from being conclusive.] + +[Footnote 74: Foreign Calendar, March, 1566.] + +[Footnote 75: Mary to Elizabeth, July, 1566. Keith's History, ii, p. +442.] + +[Footnote 76: It is almost certain that Darnley was murdered before the +explosion.] + +[Footnote 77: Mary's defenders point out that her 25th birthday fell in +November, 1567, and that it was necessary to prevent her from taking any +steps for the restitution of Church land; and they look on the plot as +devised by Bothwell and the other nobles, the latter aiming at using +Bothwell as a tool to ruin Mary. On the question of the Casket Letters, +see Mr. Lang's _Mystery of Mary Stuart_.] + +[Footnote 78: Keith's History, ii, pp. 736-739.] + +[Footnote 79: In forming any moral judgment with regard to Elizabeth's +conduct towards Mary, it must be remembered that Mary fled to England +trusting to the English Queen's invitation.] + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE UNION OF THE CROWNS + +1568-1625 + + +When Mary fled to England, Elizabeth refused to see her, on the ground +that she ought first to clear herself from the suspicion of guilt in +connection with the murder of Darnley. In the end, Mary agreed that the +case should be submitted to the judgment of a commission appointed by +Elizabeth, and she appeared as prosecuting Moray and his friends as +rebels and traitors. They defended themselves by bringing accusations +against Mary, and produced the Casket Letters and other documents in +support of their assertions. Mary asked to be brought face to face with +her accusers; Elizabeth thought the claim "very reasonable", and refused +it. Mary then asked for copies of the letters produced as evidence +against her, and when her request was pressed upon Elizabeth's notice by +La Mothe Fénélon, the French ambassador, he was informed that +Elizabeth's feelings had been hurt by Mary's accusing her of +partiality.[80] Mary's commissioners then withdrew, and Elizabeth closed +the case, with the oracular decision that, "nothing has been adduced +against the Earl of Moray and his adherents, as yet, that may impair +their honour or allegiances; and, on the other part, there has been +nothing sufficiently produced nor shown by them against the queen, their +sovereign, whereby the Queen of England should conceive or take any evil +opinion of the queen, her good sister, for anything yet seen". So +Elizabeth's "good sister" was subjected to a rigorous imprisonment, and +the Earl of Moray returned to Scotland, with an increased allowance of +English gold. Henceforth the successive regents of Scotland had to guide +their policy in accordance with Elizabeth's wishes. If they rebelled, +she could always threaten to release her prisoner, and, once or twice in +the course of those long, weary years, Mary, whose nature was buoyant, +actually dared to hope that Elizabeth would replace her on her throne. +While Mary was plotting, and hope deferred was being succeeded by hope +deferred and vain illusion by vain illusion, events moved fast. In +November, 1569, the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland raised a +rebellion in her favour, which was easily suppressed. In January, 1570, +Moray was assassinated at Linlithgow, and the Earl of Lennox, the father +of Darnley, and the traitor of Mary's minority, succeeded to the +regency, while Mary's Scottish supporters, who had continued to fight +for her desperate cause, were strengthened by the accession of Maitland +of Lethington, who, with Kirkaldy of Grange, also a recruit from the +king's party, held Edinburgh Castle for the queen. Mary's hopes were +further raised by the rebellion of the Duke of Norfolk, whose marriage +with the Scottish queen had been suggested in 1569. Letters from the +papal agent, Rudolfi, were discovered, and, in June, 1572, Norfolk was +put to death. Lennox had been killed in September, 1571, and his +successor, the Earl of Mar, was approached on the subject of taking +Mary's life. Elizabeth was unwilling to accept the responsibility for +the deed, and proposed to deliver up Mary to Mar, on the understanding +that she should be immediately killed. Mar, who was an honourable man, +declined to listen to the proposal. But, after his death, which occurred +in October, 1572, the new regent, the Earl of Morton, professed his +willingness to undertake the accomplishment of the deed, if Elizabeth +would openly acknowledge it. This she refused to do, and the plot +failed. It is characteristic that the last Douglas to play an important +part in Scottish history should be the leading actor in such a plot as +this. + +The castle of Edinburgh fell in June, 1573, and with its surrender +passed away Mary's last chance in Scotland. Morton held the regency till +1578, when he was forced to resign, and the young king, now twelve years +old, became the nominal ruler. In 1581, Morton was condemned to death as +"airt and pairt" in Darnley's murder, and Elizabeth failed in her +efforts to save him. Mary entered into negotiations with Elizabeth for +her release and return to Scotland as joint-sovereign with James VI, and +the English queen played with her prisoner, while, all the time, she was +discussing projects for her death. The key to the policy of James is his +desire to secure the succession to the English crown. To that end he was +willing to sacrifice all other considerations; nor had he, on other +grounds, any desire to share his throne with his mother. In 1585, he +negotiated a league with England, which, however, contained a provision +that "the said league be without prejudice in any sort to any former +league or alliance betwixt this realm and any other auld friends and +confederates thereof, except only in matters of religion, wheranent we +do fully consent the league be defensive and offensive". As we are at +the era of religious wars, the latter section of the clause goes far to +neutralize the former. Scotland was at last at the disposal of the +sovereign of England. Even the tragedy of Fotheringay scarcely produced +a passing coldness. On the 8th February, 1587, Elizabeth's warrant was +carried out, and Mary's head fell on the block. She was accused of +plotting for her own escape and against Elizabeth's life. It is probable +that she had so plotted, and it would be childish to express surprise or +indignation. The English queen, on her part, had injured her kinswoman +too deeply to render it possible to be generous now. Mary had sent her, +on her arrival in England, "a diamond jewel, which", as she afterwards +reminded her, "I received as a token from you, and with assurance to be +succoured against my rebels, and even that, on my retiring towards you, +you would come to the very frontiers in order to assist me, which had +been confirmed to me by divers messengers".[81] Had the protection thus +promised been vouchsafed, it might have spared Elizabeth many years of +trouble. But it was now too late, and the relentless logic of events +forced her to complete the tale of her treachery and injustice by a deed +which she herself could not but regard as a crime. But while this excuse +may be made for the deed itself, there can be no apology for the manner +of it. The Queen of England stooped to urge her servants to murder her +kinswoman; when they refused, she was mean enough to contrive so as to +throw the responsibility upon her secretary, Davison. After Mary's +death, she wrote to King James and expressed her sincere regret at +having cut off the head of his mother by accident. James accepted the +apology, and, in the following year, made preparations against the +Armada. Had the son of Mary Stuart been otherwise constituted, it would +scarcely have been safe for Elizabeth to persevere in the execution of +his mother; an alliance between Scotland and Spain might have proved +dangerous for England. But Elizabeth knew well the type of man with whom +she had to deal, and events proved that she was wise in her generation. +And James, on his part, had his reward. Elizabeth died in March, 1603, +and her successor was the King of Scots, who entered upon a heritage, +which had been bought, in the view of his Catholic subjects, by the +blood of his mother, and which was to claim as its next victim his +second son. Within eighty-five years of his accession, his House had +lost not only their new kingdom, but their ancestral throne as well. In +all James's references to the Union, it is clear that he regarded that +event from the point of view of the monarch; had it proved of as little +value to his subjects as to the Stuart line there would have been small +reason for remembering it to-day. The Union of England and Scotland was +one of the events most clearly fore-ordained by a benignant fate: but it +is difficult to feel much sympathy for the son who would not risk its +postponement, when, by the possible sacrifice of his personal ambition, +he might have saved the life of his mother. + +There are certain aspects of James's life in Scotland that explain his +future policy, and they are, therefore, important for our purpose. In +the first place, he spent his days in one long struggle with the +theocratic Church system which had been brought to Scotland by Knox and +developed by his great successor, Andrew Melville. The Church Courts, +local and central, had maintained the old ecclesiastical jurisdiction, +and they dealt out justice with impartial hand. In all questions of +morality, religion, education, and marriage the Kirk Session or the +Presbytery or the General Assembly was all-powerful. The Church was by +far the most important factor in the national life. It interfered in +numberless ways with legislative and executive functions: on one +occasion King James consulted the Presbytery of Edinburgh about the +raising of a force to suppress a rebellion,[82] and, as late as 1596, he +approached the General Assembly with reference to a tax, and promised +that "his chamber doors sould be made patent to the meanest minister in +Scotland; there sould not be anie meane gentleman in Scotland more +subject to the good order and discipline of the Kirk than he would +be".[83] Andrew Melville had told him that "there is twa kings and twa +kingdomes in Scotland. Thair is Chryst Jesus the King and his Kingdom +the Kirk, whase subject King James the Saxt is: and of whase Kingdom +nocht a King, nor a lord, nor a heid, bot a member."[84] James had done +his utmost to assert his authority over the Church. He had tried to +establish Episcopacy in Scotland to replace the Presbyterian system, and +had succeeded only to a very limited extent. "Presbytery", he said, +"agreeth as well with a king as God with the Devil." So he went to +England, not only prepared to welcome the episcopal form of +church-government and to graciously receive the episcopal adulation so +freely showered upon him, but also determined to suppress, at all +hazards, "the proud Puritanes, who, claining to their Paritie, and +crying, 'We are all but vile wormes', yet will judge and give Law to +their king, but will be judged nor controlled by none".[85] "God's +sillie vassal" was Melville's summing-up of the royal character in +James's own presence. "God hath given us a Solomon", exulted the Bishop +of Winchester, and he recorded the fact in print, that all the world +might know. James was wrong in mistaking the English Puritans for the +Scottish Presbyterians. Alike in number, in influence, and in aim, his +new subjects differed from his old enemies. English Puritanism had +already proved unsuited to the genius of the nation, and it had given up +all hope of the abolition of Episcopacy. The Millenary Petition asked +only some changes in the ritual of the Church and certain moderate +reforms. Had James received their requests in a more reasonable spirit, +he might have succeeded in reconciling, at all events, the more moderate +section of them to the Church, and at the very first it seemed as if he +were likely to win for himself the blessing of the peace-maker, which +he was so eager to obtain. But just at this crisis he found the first +symptoms of Parliamentary opposition, and here again his training in +Scotland interfered. The Church and the Church alone had opposed him in +Scotland; he had never discovered that a Parliament could be other than +subservient.[86] It was, therefore, natural for him to connect the +Parliamentary discontent with Puritan dissatisfaction. Scottish Puritans +had employed the General Assembly as their main weapon of offence; their +English fellows evidently desired to use the House of Commons as an +engine for similar purposes. Therefore said King James, "I shall make +them conform themselves, or I will harry them out of the land, or else +do worse". So he "did worse", and prepared the way for the Puritan +revolution. If the English succession enabled the king to suppress the +Scottish Assembly, the Assembly had its revenge, for the fear of it +brought a snare, and James may justly be considered one of the founders +of English dissent. + +A violent hatred of the temporal claims of the Church also affected +James's attitude to Roman Catholicism. His Catholic subjects in Scotland +had not been in a position to do him any harm, and the son of Mary +Stuart could not but have some sympathy for his mother's +fellow-sufferers. Accordingly, we find him telling his first Parliament: +"I acknowledge the Roman Church to be our Mother Church, although +defiled with some infirmities and corruption". But, after the Gunpowder +Plot, and when he was engaged in a controversy with Cardinal Perron +about the right of the pope to depose kings, he came to prove that the +pope is Antichrist and "our Mother Church" none other than the Scarlet +Woman. His Scottish experience revealed clearly enough that the claims +of Rome and Geneva were identical in their essence. There is on record +an incident that will serve to illustrate his position. In 1615, the +Scottish Privy Council reported to him the case of a Jesuit, John +Ogilvie. He bade them examine Ogilvie: if he proved to be but a priest +who had said mass, he was to go into banishment; but if he was a +practiser of sedition, let him die. The unfortunate priest showed in his +reply that he held the same view of the royal supremacy as did the +Presbyterian clergy. It was enough: they hanged him. + +Once more, James's Irish policy seems to have been influenced by his +experience of the Scottish Highlands. He had conceived the plan which +was afterwards carried out in the Plantation of Ulster--"planting +colonies among them of answerable inland subjects, that within short +time may reforme and civilize the best-inclined among them; rooting out +or transporting the barbarous or stubborne sort, and planting civilitie +in their roomes".[87] Although James continued to carry on his efforts +in this direction after 1603, yet it may be said that the English +succession prevented his giving effect to his scheme, and that it also +interfered with his intentions regarding the abolition of hereditary +jurisdictions, which remained to "wracke the whole land" till after the +Rising of 1745. + +On the 5th April, 1603, King James set out from Edinburgh to enter upon +the inheritance which had fallen to him "by right divine". His departure +made considerable changes in the condition of Scotland. The absence of +any fear of an outbreak of hostilities with the "auld enemy" was a great +boon to the borders, but there was little love lost between the two +countries. The union of the crowns did not, of course, affect the +position of Scotland to England in matters of trade, and beyond some +thirty years of peace, James's ancient kingdom gained but little. King +James, who possessed considerable powers of statesmanship, if not much +practical wisdom, devised the impossible project of a union of the +kingdoms in 1604. "What God hathe conjoyned", he said, "let no man +separate. I am the Husband, and all the whole Isle is my lawful wife.... +I hope, therefore, that no man will be so unreasonable as to think that +I, that am a Christian King under the Gospel, should be a Polygamist +and husband to two wives." He desired to see a complete union--one king, +one law, one Church. Scotland would, he trusted, "with time, become but +as Cumberland and Northumberland and those other remote and northern +shires". Commissioners were appointed, and in 1606 they produced a +scheme which involved commercial equality except with regard to cloth +and meat, the exception being made by mutual consent. The discussion on +the Union question raised the subject of naturalization, and the rights +of the _post-nati_, _i.e._ Scots born after James's accession to the +throne. The royal prerogative became involved in the discussion and a +test case was prepared. Some land in England was bought for the infant +grandson of Lord Colvill, or Colvin, of Culross. An action was raised +against two defendants who refused him possession of the land, and they +defended themselves on the ground that the child, as an alien, could not +possess land in England. It was decided that he, as a natural-born +subject of the King of Scotland, was also a subject of the King of +England. This decision, and the repeal of the laws treating Scotland as +a hostile country, proved the only result of the negotiations for union. +The English Parliament would not listen to any proposal for commercial +equality, and the king had to abandon his cherished project. + +James had boasted to his English Parliament that, if they agreed to +commercial equality, the Scottish estates would, in three days, adopt +English law. It is doubtful if the acquiescence even of the Scottish +Parliament would have gone so far; but there can be no doubt that the +English succession had made James more powerful in Scotland than any of +his predecessors had been. "Here I sit", he said, "and governe Scotland +with my pen. I write and it is done, and by a clearke of the councell I +governe Scotland now, which others could not doe by the sword." The +boast was justified by the facts. The king's instructions to his Privy +Council, which formed the Scottish executive, are of the most +dictatorial description. James gives his orders in the tone of a man who +is accustomed to unswerving obedience, and he does not hesitate to +reprove his erring ministers in the severest terms of censure. The whole +business of Parliament was conducted by the Lords of the Articles, who +represented the spiritual and temporal lords, and the Commons. All the +bishops were the king's creatures, and by virtue of their position, +entirely dependent on him. It was therefore arranged that the prelates +should choose representatives of the temporal lords, and they took care +to select men who supported the king's policy. The peers were allowed to +choose representatives of the bishops, and could not avoid electing the +king's friends, while the representatives of the spiritual and temporal +lords choose men to appear for the small barons and the burgesses. In +this way the efficient power of Parliament was completely monopolized, +and none dared to dispute the king's will. Even the Church was reduced +to an unwilling submission, which, from its very nature, could only be +temporary. He forbade the meeting of a General Assembly; and the +convening of an Assembly at Aberdeen, in defiance of his command, in +1605, served to give him an opportunity of imprisoning or banishing the +Presbyterian leaders. He had to give up his scheme of abolishing the +Presbyterian Church courts, and contented himself with engrafting on to +the existing system the institution of Episcopacy, which had practically +been in abeyance since 1560, although Scotland was never without its +titular prelates. Bishops were appointed in 1606; presbyteries and +synods were ordered to elect perpetual moderators, and the scheme was +devised so that the moderator of almost every synod should be a bishop. +The members of the Linlithgow Convention, which accepted this scheme, +were specially summoned by the king, and it was in no sense a free +Assembly of the Church. But the royal power was, for the present, +irresistible; in 1610 an Assembly which met at Glasgow established +Episcopacy, and its action was, in 1612, ratified by the Scots +Parliament. Three of the Scottish bishops[88] received English orders, +to ensure the succession; but, to prevent any claim of superiority, +neither English primate took any part in the ceremony. In 1616, the +Assembly met at Aberdeen, and the king made five proposals, which are +known as the Five Articles of Perth, from their adoption there in 1618. +The Five Articles included:--(1) The Eucharist to be received kneeling; +(2) the administration of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper to sick +persons in private houses; (3) the administration of Baptism in private +houses in cases of necessity; (4) the recognition of Christmas, Good +Friday, Easter, and Pentecost; and (5) the episcopal benediction. +Scottish opposition centred round the first article, which was not +welcomed even by the Episcopalian party, and it required the king's +personal interference to enforce it in Holyrood Chapel, during his stay +in Edinburgh in 1616-17. His proposal to erect in the chapel +representations of patriarchs and saints shocked even the bishops, on +whose remonstrances he withdrew his orders, incidentally administering a +severe rebuke to the recalcitrant prelates, "at whose ignorance he could +not but wonder". Not till the following year were the articles accepted +at Perth, under fear of the royal displeasure, and considerable +difficulty was experienced in enforcing them. + +The only other Scottish measures of James's reign that demand mention +are his attempts to carry out his policy of plantations in the +Highlands. As a whole, the scheme failed, and was productive of +considerable misery, but here and there it succeeded, and it tended to +increase the power of the government. The end of the reign is also +remarkable for attempts at Scottish colonization, resulting in the +foundation of Nova Scotia, and in the Plantation of Ulster. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 80: Fénélon, i, 133 and 162.] + +[Footnote 81: Mary to Elizabeth, 8th Nov., 1582. Strickland's _Letters +of Mary Stuart_, i, p. 294.] + +[Footnote 82: Calderwood, _History of the Kirk of Scotland_, v, 341-42.] + +[Footnote 83: _Ibid_, pp. 396-97.] + +[Footnote 84: James Melville's _Autobiography and Diary_, p. 370.] + +[Footnote 85: _Basilikon Doron_.] + +[Footnote 86: Cf. the present writer's _Scottish Parliament before the +Union of the Crowns_.] + +[Footnote 87: _Basilikon Doron_.] + +[Footnote 88: The old controversy about the relation of the Church of +Scotland to the sees of York and Canterbury had been finally settled, in +1474, by the erection of St. Andrews into a metropolitan see. Glasgow +was made an archbishopric in 1492.] + + + + +CHAPTER X + +"THE TROUBLES IN SCOTLAND" + + +The new reign had scarcely begun when trouble arose between King Charles +and his Scottish subjects. On the one hand, he alienated the nobles by +an attempt, partially successful, to secure for the Church some of its +ancient revenues. More serious still was his endeavour to bring the +Scottish Church into uniformity with the usage of the Church of England. +James had understood that any further attempt to alter the service or +constitution of the Church of Scotland would infallibly lead to serious +trouble. He had given up an intention of introducing a new prayer-book +to supersede the "Book of Common Order", known as "Knox's Liturgy", +which was employed in the Church, though not to the exclusion of +extemporary prayers. When Charles came to Edinburgh to be crowned, in +1633, he made a further attempt in this direction, and, although he had +to postpone the introduction of this particular change, he left a most +uneasy feeling, not only among the Presbyterians, but also among the +bishops themselves. An altar was erected in Holyrood Chapel, and behind +it was a crucifix, before which the clergy made genuflexions. He erected +Edinburgh into a bishopric, with the Collegiate Church of St. Giles for +a cathedral, and the Bishops of Edinburgh, as they followed in rapid +succession, gained the reputation of innovators and supporters of Laud +and the English. Even more dangerous in its effect was a general order +for the clergy to wear surplices. It was widely disobeyed, but it +created very great alarm. + +In 1635, canons were issued for the Church of Scotland, which owed their +existence to the dangerous meddling of Laud, now Archbishop of +Canterbury. James, who loved Episcopacy, had dreaded the influence of +Laud in Scotland; his fear was justified, for it was given to Laud to +make an Episcopal Church impossible north of the Tweed. Although certain +of the Scottish bishops had expressed approval of these canons, they +were enjoined in the Church by royal authority, and the Scots, whose +theory of the rights of the Church was much more "high" than that of +Laud, would, on this account alone, have met them with resistance. But +the canons used words and phrases which were intolerable to Scottish +ears. They spoke of a "chancel" and they commended auricular confession; +they gave the Scottish bishops something like the authority of their +English brethren, to the detriment of minister and kirk-session, and +they made the use of a new prayer-book compulsory, and forbade any +objection to it. Two years elapsed before the book was actually +introduced. It was English, and it had been forced upon the Church by +the State, and, worse than this, it was associated with the hated name +of Laud and with his suspected designs upon the Protestant religion. +When it came it was found to follow the English prayer-book almost +exactly; but such changes as there were seemed suspicious in the +extreme. In the communion service the rubric preceding the prayer of +consecration read thus: "During the time of consecration he shall stand +at such a part of the holy table where he may with the more ease and +decency use both his hands". The reference to both hands was suspected +to mean the Elevation of the Host, and this suspicion was confirmed by +the omission of the sentences "Take and eat this in remembrance that +Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith, with +thanksgiving", and "Drink this in remembrance that Christ's blood was +shed for thee, and be thankful", from the words of administration. On +more general grounds, too, strong objection was taken to the book, and +on July 23rd, 1637, there occurred the famous riot in St. Giles's, which +has become connected with the name of Jennie Geddes. The objection was +not, in any sense, to read prayers in themselves; the Book of Common +Order had been read in St. Giles's that very morning. The difficulty lay +in the particular book, and it is notable that the cries which have come +down to us as prefacing the riot are all indicative of a suspected +attempt to reintroduce Roman Catholicism. "The mass is entered upon us." +"Baal is in the Church." "Darest thou sing mass in my lug." + +The Privy Council was negligent in punishing the rioters, and it soon +became evident that they had public opinion behind them. Alexander +Henderson, who ministered to a Fifeshire congregation in the old Norman +church of Leuchars, and whom the king was to meet in other +circumstances, issued a respectful and moderate protest, in which he did +not deal with the particular points at issue, but asserted the +ecclesiastical independence of Scotland. Riots continued to disturb +Edinburgh, and Charles was impotent to suppress them. He refused +Henderson's "Supplication"; its supporters drew up a second petition +boldly asking that the bishops should be tried as the real authors of +the disturbances, and, in November, 1637, they chose a body of +commissioners to represent them. These commissioners, and some +sub-committees of them, are known in Scottish history as The Tables, the +name being applied to several different bodies. Charles replied to the +second petition in wrathful terms, and it was decided to revive the +National Covenant of 1581, to renounce popery. It had been drawn up +under fear of a popish plot, and was itself an expansion of the Covenant +of 1557. To it was now added a declaration suited to immediate +necessities. On the 1st and 2nd March, 1638, it was signed by vast +multitudes in the churchyard of Greyfriars, in Edinburgh, and it +continued to be signed, sometimes under pressure, throughout the land. +Hamilton, Charles's agent in Scotland, was quite unable to meet the +situation. In the end Charles had to agree to the meeting of a General +Assembly in Glasgow, in November, 1638. Hamilton, the High Commissioner, +attempted to obtain the ejection of laymen and to create a division +among his opponents. When he failed in this, he dissolved the Assembly +in the king's name. At the instance of Henderson, supported by Argyll, +the Assembly refused to acknowledge itself dissolved, and proceeded to +abolish Episcopacy and re-establish the Presbyterian form of Church +government. + +The king, on his part, began to concert measures with his Privy Council +for the subjugation of Scotland. The "Committee on Scotch affairs" of +the English Privy Council was obviously unconstitutional, but matters +were fast drifting towards civil war, and it was no time to consider +constitutional niceties. It is much more important that the committee +was divided and useless. Wentworth, writing from Ireland, advised the +king to maintain a firm attitude, but not to provoke an outbreak of war +at so inconvenient a moment. Charles again attempted a compromise. He +offered to withdraw Laud's unlucky service-book, the new canons, and +even the Articles of Perth, and to limit the power of the bishops; and +he asked the people to sign the Covenant of 1580-81, on which the new +Covenant was based, but which, of course, contained no reference to +immediate difficulties. But it was too late; the sentiment of religious +independence had become united to the old feeling of national +independence, and war was inevitable. The Scots were fortunate in their +leaders. In the end of 1638 there returned to Scotland from Germany, +Alexander Leslie, the great soldier who had fought for Protestantism +under Gustavus Adolphus. In February, 1639, he took command of the army +of the Covenant, which had been largely reinforced by veterans from the +Thirty Years' War. A more attractive personality than Leslie's was that +of the young Earl of Montrose, who had attached himself with enthusiasm +to the national cause, and had attempted to convert the people of +Aberdeen to covenanting principles. Charles, on his part, asserted that +his throne was in danger, and that the Scottish preparations constituted +a menace to the kingdom of England, and so attempted to rouse enthusiasm +for himself. + +While the king was preparing to reinforce the loyalist Marquis of Huntly +at Aberdeen, the news came that the garrisons of Edinburgh and Dunbarton +had surrendered to the insurgents (March, 1639), who, a few days later, +seized the regalia at Dalkeith. On March 30th Aberdeen fell into the +hands of Montrose and Leslie, and Huntly was soon practically a +prisoner. Charles had by this time reached York, and it was now evident +that he had entirely miscalculated the strength of the enemy. He had +hoped to subdue Scotland through Hamilton and Huntly; he now saw that, +if Scotland was to be conquered at all, it must be through an English +army. The first blood in the Civil War was shed near Turriff, in +Aberdeenshire (May 14th, 1639), where some of Huntly's supporters gained +a slight success, after which the city of Aberdeen fell into their hands +for some ten days, when it was reoccupied by the Covenanters. Meanwhile +Charles and Leslie had been facing each other near Berwick; the former +unwilling to risk his raw levies against Leslie's trained soldiers, +while the Covenanters were not desirous of entering into a war in which +they might find the whole strength of England ultimately arrayed against +them. On the 18th June the two parties entered into the Pacification of +Berwick, in accordance with which both armies were to be disbanded, and +Charles promised to allow a free General Assembly and a free Parliament +to govern Scotland. While the pacification was being signed at Berwick, +a battle was in progress at Aberdeen, where, on June 18th-19th, Montrose +gained a victory, at the Bridge of Dee, over the Earl of Aboyne, the +eldest son of the Marquis of Huntly. For the third time, Montrose +spared the city of Aberdeen, and Scotland settled down to a brief period +of peace. + +It was clear that the pacification was only a truce, for no exact terms +had been agreed upon, and both sides thoroughly distrusted each other. +Disputes immediately arose about the constitution of Parliament and the +Assembly. Charles refused to rescind the acts constituting Episcopacy +legal, and it is clear that he never intended to keep his promise to the +Scots, who, on their part, were too suspicious of his good faith to +carry out their part of the agreement. In the end Assembly and +Parliament alike abolished Episcopacy, and Parliament passed several +acts to ensure its own supremacy. Charles refused to assent to these +Acts, and prorogued Parliament from November, 1639, to June, 1640. The +result of the king's evident disinclination to implement the Treaty of +Berwick, was an interesting attempt to undo the work of the preceding +century by a reversion to the old policy of a French alliance. It was, +of course, impossible thus to turn back, and Richelieu met the Scottish +offers with a decisive rebuff, while the fact of these treasonable +negotiations became known to Charles, and embittered the already bitter +controversy. A new attempt at negotiation failed, and in June, 1640, the +second Bishops' War began. As usual the north suffered, especially from +the fierceness of the Earl of Argyll, who disliked the more moderate +policy advocated by Montrose. The king's English difficulties were +increasing, and the Scots had now many sympathizers among Englishmen, +who looked upon them as fighting for the same cause of Protestantism and +constitutional government. + +In August the Scots invaded England for the first time since the +minority of Mary Stuart, and, on August 28th, they defeated a portion of +the king's army at Newburn, a ford near Newcastle. The town was +immediately occupied, and from Newcastle the invaders advanced to the +Tees and seized Durham. Charles was forced, a second time, to give way. +In October he agreed that the Scottish army of occupation should be paid +until the English Parliament, which he was about to summon, might make a +final arrangement. By Parliament alone could the Scots be paid, and +thus, by a strange irony of fate, the occupation of the northern +counties by a Scottish army was, for the time, the best guarantee of +English liberties. There were, however, points on which the Scottish +army and the English Parliament found it difficult to agree, and it was +not till August, 1641, that the Scots recrossed the Tweed. Charles, who +hoped to enlist the sympathy of the Scots in his struggle with the +English Parliament, paid a second visit to Edinburgh, where he gave his +assent to the abolition of Episcopacy, and to the repeal of the Acts +which had given rise to the dispute. But it became evident that the +Parliament, and not the king, was to bear rule in Scotland. The king's +stay in Edinburgh was marked by what is known as "The Incident", a +mysterious plot to capture Argyll and Hamilton, who was now the ally of +Argyll. It was supposed that the king was cognizant of the plan; he had +to defend himself from the accusation, and was declared guiltless in the +matter. At the time of the Incident, Argyll fled, but soon returned, and +Charles had to yield to him in all things. Parliament, under Argyll, +appointed all officials. Argyll himself was made a marquis, and Leslie +became Earl of Leven. There was a general amnesty, and among those who +obtained their liberty was the Earl of Montrose, who had been imprisoned +in May for making terms with the king. In November, 1641, Charles left +Scotland for London, to face the English Parliament. He can scarcely +have hoped for Scottish aid, and when, a few months later, he was on the +verge of hostilities and made a request for assistance, it was twice +refused. + +With the general course of the Great Rebellion we are not here +concerned. It is important for our purpose to notice that it affected +Scotland in two ways. The course of events converted, on the one hand, +the Episcopalian party into a Royalist party, and placed at its head the +Covenanter, Montrose. On the other hand, the National Covenant was +transformed into the Solemn League and Covenant, which had for its aim +the establishment of Presbytery in England as well as in Scotland. This +"will o' the wisp" of covenanted uniformity led the Scottish Church into +somewhat strange places. As early as January, 1643, Montrose had offered +to strike a blow for the king in Scotland, but Charles would not take +the responsibility of beginning the strife. In August negotiations began +for the extension of the covenant to England. The Solemn League and +Covenant, which provided for the abolition of Episcopacy in England, was +adopted by the Convention of Estates at Edinburgh on August 17th, and in +the following month it passed both Houses of Parliament in England, and +was taken both by the House of Commons and by the Assembly of Divines at +Westminster. Its only ultimate results were the substitution in Scotland +of the Westminster Confession of Faith, Catechisms, and Directory for +Public Worship, in place of the older Scottish documents, and the +approximation of Scottish Presbytery to English Puritanism, involving a +distinct departure from the ideals of the Scottish Reformation, and the +introduction into Scotland of a form of Sabbatarianism which has come to +be regarded as distinctively Scottish, but which owes its origin, +historically, to English Nonconformity.[89] Its immediate effects were +the short-lived predominance of Presbytery in England, and the crossing +of the Tweed, in January, 1644, by a Scottish army in the pay of the +English Parliament. The part taken by the Scottish army in the war was +not unimportant. In April they aided Fairfax in the siege of York; in +July they took an honourable share in the battle of Marston Moor; they +were responsible for the Uxbridge proposals which provided for peace on +the basis of a Presbyterian settlement. In June, 1645, they advanced +southwards to Mansfield, and, after the surrender of Carlisle, on June +28th, and its occupation by a Scottish garrison, Leven proceeded to +Alcester and thereafter laid siege to Hereford, an attempt which events +in Scotland forced him to abandon. Finally, in May, 1646, the king +surrendered to the Scottish army at Newark, which had been invested by +Leven since the preceding November. + +While the Scottish army was thus aiding the Parliamentary cause, the +Earl of Montrose had created an important diversion on the king's side +in Scotland itself. In April, 1644, he occupied Dumfries and made an +unsuccessful attempt on the Scottish Lowlands. In May Charles conferred +on him a marquisate, and in August he prepared to renew the struggle. To +his old foes, the Gordons, he first looked for assistance, but was +finally compelled to raise his forces in the Highlands, and to obtain +Irish aid. On September 1st he gained his first victory at Tippermuir, +near Perth, on which he had marched with his Highland host. From Perth +he marched on Aberdeen, gaining some reinforcements from the northern +gentry, and in particular from the Earl of Airlie. Once again Montrose +fought a battle which delivered the city of Aberdeen into his power +(September 13th), but now he was unwilling or unable to protect the +captured town, which was cruelly ravaged. From Aberdeen Montrose +proceeded by Rothiemurchus to Blair Athole, but suddenly turned +backwards to Aberdeenshire, where he defended Fyvie Castle, slipped past +Argyll, and again reached Blair Athole. The enemies of Argyll crowded to +his banner, but his army was still small when, in December, 1644, he +made his descent upon Argyll, and reached the castle of Inverary. From +Inverary he went northwards, ravaging as he went, till he found, at Loch +Ness, that there was an army of 5000 men under the Earl of Seaforth +prepared to resist his advance, while Argyll was behind him at +Inverlochy. Although Argyll's army considerably outnumbered his own, +Montrose turned southwards and made a rapid dash at Argyll's forces as +they lay at Inverlochy, and won a complete victory, the news of which +dispersed Seaforth's men and enabled Montrose to invite Charles to a +country which lay at his mercy. At Elgin he was joined by the heir of +the Marquis of Huntly, his forces increased, and the excommunication +which the Church immediately published against him seemed of but little +importance. On April 4th he seized Dundee, and on May 9th won a fresh +victory at Auldearn, which was followed, in rapid succession, by a +victory at Alford in July, and in August by the "crowning mercy" of +Kilsyth, which made him master of the situation, and forced Leven to +raise the siege of Hereford. From Kilsyth he marched to Glasgow, where +both the Highlanders and the Gordons began to desert him. From England, +Leven sent David Leslie to meet Montrose as he marched by the Lothians +into the border counties. On September 13th, 1645, just one year after +his victory at Aberdeen, Montrose was completely defeated at +Philiphaugh. He escaped, but his power was broken, and he was unable +henceforth to take any important share in the war. + +When Charles surrendered himself to the Scots, in May, 1646, his friends +in Scotland were helpless, and he had to meet the Presbyterian leaders +without any hope beyond that of being able to take advantage of the +differences of opinion between Presbyterians and Independents, which +were fast assuming critical importance. The king held at Newcastle a +conference with Alexander Henderson, which led to no definite result. In +the end the Scots offered to adopt the king's cause if he would accept +Presbyterianism. This he declined to do, and his refusal left the Scots +no choice except keeping him a prisoner or surrendering him to his +English subjects. They owed him no gratitude, and, while it might be +chivalrous, it could scarcely be expedient to retain his person. While +he was unwilling to accede to their conditions they were powerless to +give him any help. He was therefore handed over to the commissioners of +the English Parliament, and the Scots, on the 30th January, 1647, +returned home, having been paid, as the price of the king's surrender, +the money promised them by the English Parliament when they entered into +the struggle in 1644. + +In the end of 1647 the Scots again entered into the long series of +negotiations with the king. When Charles was a prisoner at Newport, and +while he was arranging terms with the English, he entered into a secret +agreement with commissioners from Scotland. The "Engagement", as it was +called, embodied the conditions which Charles had refused at +Newcastle--the recognition of Presbytery in Scotland and its +establishment in England for three years, the king being allowed +toleration for his own form of worship. The Engagement was by no means +unanimously carried in the Scottish Parliament, and its results were +disastrous to Charles himself. It caused the English Parliament to pass +the vote of No Addresses, and the second civil war, which it helped to +provoke, had a share in bringing about his death. The Duke of Hamilton +led a small army into England, where in August 17th, 1648, it was +totally defeated by Cromwell at Preston. Meanwhile the Hamilton party +had lost power in Scotland, and when Cromwell entered Scotland, Argyll, +who had opposed the Engagement, willingly agreed to his conditions, and +accepted the aid of three English regiments. In the events of the next +six months Scotland had no part nor lot. The responsibility for the +king's death rests on the English Government alone. + +The news of the execution of the king was at once followed by the fall +of Argyll and his party. The Scots had no sympathy with English +republicanism, and they were alarmed by the growth of Independency in +England. On February 5th Charles II was proclaimed King of Great +Britain, France, and Ireland, and the Scots declared themselves ready to +defend his cause by blood, if only he would take the Covenant. This the +young king refused to do while he had hopes of success in Ireland. +Meanwhile three of his most loyal friends perished on the scaffold. The +English, who held the Duke of Hamilton as a prisoner, put him to death +on March 9th, 1649, and on the 22nd day of the same month the Marquis of +Huntly was beheaded at Edinburgh. On April 27th, Montrose, who had +collected a small army and taken the field in the northern Highlands, +was defeated at Carbisdale and taken prisoner. On the 25th May he was +hanged in Edinburgh, and with his death the story is deprived of its +hero. + +The pressure of misfortune finally drove Charles to accept the Scottish +offers. Even while Montrose was fighting his last battle, his young +master was negotiating with the Covenanters. Conferences were held at +Breda in the spring of 1650, and Charles landed at the mouth of the +river Spey on the 3rd July, having taken the Covenant. In the middle of +the same month Cromwell crossed the Tweed at the head of an English +army. The Scots, under Leven and David Leslie, took up a position near +Edinburgh, and, after a month's fruitless skirmishing, Cromwell had to +retire to Dunbar, whither Leslie followed him. By a clever manoeuvre, +Leslie intercepted Cromwell's retreat on Berwick, while he also seized +Doon Hill, an eminence commanding Dunbar. The Parliamentary Committee, +under whose authority Leslie was acting, forced him to make an attack to +prevent Cromwell's force from escaping by sea. The details of the battle +have been disputed, and the most convincing account is that given by Mr. +Firth in his "Cromwell". When Leslie left the Doon Hill his left became +shut in between the hill and "the steep ravine of the Brock burn", while +his centre had not sufficient room to move. Cromwell, therefore, after a +feint on the left, concentrated his forces against Leslie's right, and +shattered it. The rout was complete, and Leslie had to retreat to +Stirling, while the Lowlands fell into Cromwell's hands. Cromwell was +conciliatory, and a considerable proportion of Presbyterians took up an +attitude hostile to the king's claims. The supporters of Charles were +known as Resolutioners, or Engagers, and his opponents as Protesters or +Remonstrants. The consequence was that the old Royalists and +Episcopalians began to rejoin Charles. Before the battle of Dunbar +(September 2nd) Charles had been really a prisoner in the hands of the +Covenanters, who had ruled him with a rod of iron. As the stricter +Presbyterians withdrew, and their places were filled by the "Malignants" +whom they had excluded from the king's service, the personal importance +of Charles increased. On January 1st, 1651, he was crowned at Scone, and +in the following summer he took up a position near Stirling, with Leslie +as commander of his army. Cromwell outmanoeuvred Leslie and seized +Perth, and the royal forces retaliated by the invasion of England, which +ended in the defeat of Worcester on September 3rd, 1651, exactly one +year after Dunbar. The king escaped and fled to France. + +Scotland was now unable to resist Monk, whom Cromwell had left behind +him when he went southwards to defeat Charles at Worcester. On the 14th +August he captured Stirling, and on the 28th the Committee of Estates +was seized at Alyth and carried off to London. There was no further +attempt at opposition, and all Scotland, for the first time since the +reign of Edward I, was in military occupation by English troops. The +property of the leading supporters of Charles II was confiscated. In +1653 the General Assembly was reduced to pleading that "we were an +ecclesiastical synod, a spiritual court of Jesus Christ, which meddled +not with anything civil"; but their unwonted humility was of no avail to +save them. An earlier victim than the Assembly was the Scottish +Parliament. It was decided in 1652 that Scotland should be incorporated +with England, and from February of that year till the Restoration, the +kingdom of Scotland ceased to exist. The "Instrument" of Government of +1653 gave Scotland thirty members in the British Parliament. Twenty were +allotted to the shires--one to each of the larger shires and one to each +of nine groups of less important shires. There were also eight groups of +burghs, each group electing one member, and two members were returned by +the city of Edinburgh. Between 1653 and 1655 Scotland was governed by +parliamentary commissioners, and, from 1655 onwards, by a special +council. The Court of Session was abolished, and its place taken by a +Commission of Justice.[90] The actual union dates from 1654, when it was +ratified by the Supreme Council of the Commonwealth of England, but +Scotland was under English rule from the battle of Worcester. The wise +policy of allowing freedom of trade, like the improvement in the +administration of justice, failed to reconcile the Scots to the union, +and, to the end, it required a military force to maintain the new +government. + +As Scotland had no share in the execution of Charles I, so it had none +in the restoration of his son. The "Committee of Estates", which met +after the 29th of May, was not lacking in loyalty. All traces of the +union were swept away, and the pressure of the new Navigation Act was +severely felt in contrast to the freedom of trade that had been the +great boon of the Commonwealth. But worse evils were in store. The +"Covenanted monarch" was determined to restore Episcopacy in Scotland, +and for this purpose he employed as a tool the notorious James Sharpe, +who had been sent up to London to plead the cause of Presbytery with +Monk. Sharpe returned to Scotland in the spring of 1661 as Archbishop of +St. Andrews. Parliament met by royal authority and passed a General Act +Rescissory, which rendered void all acts passed since 1638. The +episcopal form of church government was immediately established. The +Privy Council received enlarged powers, and was again completely +subservient to the king. The execution of Argyll atoned for the death of +Montrose, in the eyes of Royalists, and two notable ecclesiastical +politicians, Johnston of Warriston and James Guthrie, were also put to +death. An Indemnity Act was passed, but many men found that the king's +pardon had its price. On October 1st, 1662, an act was passed ordering +recusant ministers to leave their parishes, and the council improved on +the English Five Mile Act, by ordering that no recusant minister should, +on pain of treason, reside within twenty miles of his parish, within six +miles of Edinburgh or any cathedral town, or within three miles of any +royal burgh. A Court of High Commission, which had been established by +James VI in 1610, was again entrusted with all religious cases. The +effect of these harsh measures was to rouse the insurrections which are +the most notable feature of the reign. In 1666 the Covenanters were +defeated at the battle of Pentland, or Rullion Green, and those who were +suspected of a share in the rising were subjected to examination under +torture, which now became one of the normal features of Charles's brutal +government. Prisoners were hanged or sent as slaves to the plantations. +In 1669, an Indulgence was passed, permitting Presbyterian services +under certain conditions, but in 1670, Parliament passed a Conventicle +Act, making it a capital crime to "preach, expound scripture, or pray", +at any unlicensed meeting. On May 5th, 1679, Sharpe was assassinated +near St. Andrews. The murderers escaped, and some of them joined the +Covenanters of the west. The Government had determined to put a stop to +the meetings of conventicles, and had chosen for this purpose John +Graham of Claverhouse. On the 11th June, Claverhouse was defeated at +Drumclog, but eleven days later he routed the Covenanting army at +Bothwell Bridge, and took over a thousand prisoners. Only seven were +executed, but the others were imprisoned in Greyfriars' churchyard, and +a large number of them were sold as plantation slaves. A small rising at +Aird's Moss in Ayrshire, in 1680, was easily suppressed. In 1681 the +Scottish Parliament prescribed as a test the disavowal of the National +Covenant of 1638 and the Solemn League and Covenant of 1644, and it +declared that any attempt to alter the succession involved the subjects +"in perjury and rebellion". In connection with the Test Act, an +opportunity was found for convicting the Earl of Argyll[91] of treason. +His property was confiscated, but he himself was allowed to escape. The +last years of the reign, under the administration of the Duke of York, +were marked by exceptional cruelty in connection with the religious +persecutions. The expeditions of Claverhouse, the case of the Wigtown +martyrs, and the horrible cruelties of the torture-room have given to +these years the title of "the Killing time". + +The Scottish Parliament welcomed King James VII with fulsome adulation. +But the new king was scarcely seated on the throne before a rebellion +broke out. The Earl of Argyll adopted the cause of Monmouth, landed in +his own country, and marched into Lanarkshire. His attempt was an entire +failure: nobody joined his standard, and he himself, failing to make +good his retreat, was captured and executed without a new trial. The +Parliament again enforced the Test Act, and renewed the Conventicle Act, +making it a capital offence even to be present at a conventicle. The +persecutions continued with renewed vigour. James failed in persuading +even the obsequious Parliament to give protection to the Roman +Catholics. He attempted to obtain the same end by a Declaration of +Indulgence, of which the Covenanters might be unable to avail +themselves, but in its final form, issued in May, 1688, it included +them. The conjunction of popery and absolute prerogative thoroughly +alarmed the Scots, and the news of the English Revolution was received +with general satisfaction. The effect of the long struggle had been to +weaken the country in many ways. Thousands of her bravest sons had died +on the scaffold or on the battle-field or in the dungeons of Dunnottar, +or had been exiled to the plantations. Trade and commerce had declined. +The records of the burghs show us how harbours were empty and houses +ruinous, where, a century earlier, there had been a thriving trade. +Scotland in 1688 was in every way, unless in moral discipline, poorer +than she had been while England was still the "auld enemy". + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 89: Sabbath observance had been introduced from England six +centuries earlier. Cf. p. 14.] + +[Footnote 90: Justices of the peace were appointed throughout the +country, and heritable jurisdictions were abolished.] + +[Footnote 91: The son of the Marquis who was executed in 1661. The +earldom, but not the marquisate, had been restored in 1663.] + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE UNION OF THE PARLIAMENTS + +1689-1707 + + +On April 4th, 1689, a Convention of the Estates of Scotland met to +consider the new situation which had been created by the course of +events in England. They had no difficulty in determining their course of +action, nor any scruples about deposing James, who was declared to have +forfeited his right to the crown. A list was drawn up of the king's +misdeeds. They included "erecting schools and societies of Jesuits, +making papists officers of state", taxation and the maintenance of a +standing army without consent of Parliament, illegal imprisonments, +fines, and forfeitures, and interference with the charters of burghs. +The crown was then offered to William and Mary, but upon certain +strictly defined conditions. All the acts of the late king which were +included in the list of his offences must be recognized as illegal: no +Roman Catholic might be King or Queen of Scotland; and the new +sovereigns must agree to the re-establishment of Presbytery as the +national religion. It was obvious that the nation was not unanimous. + + "To the Lords of Convention, 'twas Claverhouse spoke, + Ere the King's crown go down there are crowns to be broke." + +The opponents of the revolution settlement consisted mainly of the old +Royalist and Episcopalian party, the representatives of those who had +followed Montrose to victory, and the supporters of the Restoration +Government. As the Great Rebellion had made Royalists of the Scottish +Episcopalians, so the Revolution could not but convert them into +Jacobites. Their leader was James Graham of Claverhouse, who retreated +from Edinburgh to the north to prepare for a campaign against the new +government. The discontent was not confined to the Episcopalian party. +Such Roman Catholics as there were in Scotland at the time were prepared +to take up arms for a Stuart king who was a devout adherent of their +religion. Moreover, the Presbyterians themselves were not united. A +party which was to grow in strength, and which now included a +considerable number of extreme Presbyterians, still longed, in spite of +their experience of Charles II, for a covenanted king, and looked with +great distrust upon William and Mary. The triumphant party of moderate +Presbyterians, who probably represented most faithfully the feeling of +the nation, acted throughout with considerable wisdom. The acceptance of +the crown converted the Convention into a Parliament, and the Estates +set themselves to obtain, in the first place, their own freedom from the +tyranny of the committee known as the "Lords of the Articles", through +which James VI and his successors had kept the Parliament in +subjection. William was unwilling to lose entirely this method of +controlling his new subjects, but he had to give way. The Parliament +rescinded the Act of Charles II asserting his majesty's supremacy "over +all persons and in all causes ecclesiastical" as "inconsistent with the +establishment of Church government now desired", but, in the military +crisis which threatened them, they proceeded no further than to bring in +an Act abolishing Prelacy and all superiority of office in the Church of +Scotland. + +While William's first Parliament was debating, his enemies were entering +upon a struggle which was destined to be brief. Edinburgh Castle held +out for King James till June 14th, 1689, when its captain, the Duke of +Gordon, capitulated. Graham of Claverhouse, now Viscount Dundee, had +collected an army of Highlanders, against whom William sent General +Mackay, a Scotsman who had served in Holland. Mackay followed Dundee +through the Highlands to Elgin and on to Inverness, and finally, after +many wanderings, the two armies met in the pass of Killiecrankie. Dundee +and his Highlanders were victorious, but Dundee himself was killed in +the battle, and his death proved a fatal blow to the Jacobite cause. +After some delay Mackay was able to attain the object for which the +battle had been fought--the possession of Blair Athole Castle. The +military resistance soon came to an end. + +The ecclesiastical settlement followed the suppression of the +rebellion. The deprivation of nonjuring clergymen had been proceeding +since the establishment of the new Government, and in 1690 an act was +passed restoring to their parishes the Presbyterian clergy who had been +ejected under Charles II. A small temporary provision was made for their +successors, who were now, in turn, expelled. On the 26th May, 1690, the +Parliament adopted the Confession of Faith, although it refused to be +committed to the Covenant. The Presbyterian form of Church government +was established; but King William succeeded in maintaining some check on +the General Assembly, and toleration was granted to such Episcopalian +dissenters as were willing to take the oath of allegiance. On the other +hand, acceptance of the Confession of Faith was made a test for +professors in the universities. The changes were carried out with little +disturbance to the peace, there was no blood spilt, and except for some +rough usage of Episcopalians in the west (known as the "rabbling of the +curates"), there was nothing in the way of outrage or insult. The credit +of the settlement belongs to William Carstares, afterwards Principal of +the University of Edinburgh, whose tact and wisdom overcame many +difficulties. + +The personal union of Scotland and England had created no special +difficulties while both countries were under the rule of an absolute +monarch. The policy of both was alike, because it was guided by one +supreme ruler. But the accession of a constitutional king, with a +parliamentary title, at once created many problems difficult of +solution, and made a more complete union absolutely necessary. The Union +of 1707 was thus the natural consequence of the Revolution of 1689, +although, at the time of the Revolution, scrupulous care was taken, +alike by the new king and by his English Parliament, to recognize the +existence of Scotland as a separate kingdom. The Scottish Parliament, +which regarded itself as the ruler of the country, found itself hampered +and restricted by William's action. It was allowed no voice on questions +of foreign policy, and its conduct of home affairs met with not +infrequent interference, which roused the indignation of Scottish +politicians, and especially of the section which followed Fletcher of +Saltoun. Several causes combined to add to the unpopularity which +William had acquired through the occasional friction with the +Parliament. Scotland had ceased to have any interest in the war, and its +prolongation constituted a standing grievance, of which the partisans of +the Stuarts were not slow to avail themselves. + +There were two events, in particular, which roused widespread resentment +in Scotland. These were the Massacre of Glencoe, and the failure of the +scheme for colonizing the Isthmus of Darien. The story of Glencoe has +been often told. The 31st December, 1691, had been appointed as the +latest day on which the government would receive the submission of the +Highland chiefs. MacDonald of Glencoe delayed till the last moment, and +then proceeded to Fort-William, where a fortress had just been erected, +to take the oath in the presence of its commander, who had no power to +receive it. From Fort-William he had to go to Inverary, to take the oath +before the sheriff of Argyll, and he did so on the 6th January, 1692. +The six days' delay placed him and his clan in the power of men who were +unlikely to show any mercy to the name of MacDonald. Acting under +instructions from King William, the nature of which has been matter of +dispute, Campbell of Glenlyon, acting with the knowledge of Breadalbane +and Sir John Dalrymple of Stair, the Secretary of State, and as their +tool, entered the pass of Glencoe on the 1st February, 1692. The +MacDonalds, trusting in the assurances which had been given by the +Government, seem to have suspected no evil from this armed visit of +their traditional enemies, the Campbells, and received them with +hospitality. While they were living peaceably, all possible retreat was +being cut off from the unfortunate MacDonalds by the closing of the +passes, and on the 13th effect was given to the dastardly scheme. It +failed, however, to achieve its full object--the extirpation of the +clan. Many escaped to the hills; but the chief himself and over thirty +others were murdered in cold blood. The news of the massacre roused a +fierce flame of indignation, not only in the Highlands, but throughout +the Lowlands as well, and the Jacobites did not fail to make use of it. +A commission was appointed to enquire into the circumstances, and it +severely censured Dalrymple, and charged Breadalbane with treason, while +many blamed, possibly unjustly, the king himself. + +The other grievance was of a different nature. About 1695, William +Paterson, the founder of the Bank of England, suggested the formation of +a Scottish company to trade to Africa and the Indies. It was originally +known as the African Company, but it was destined to be popularly +remembered by the name of its most notable failure--the Darien Company. +It received very full powers from the Scottish Parliament, powers of +military colonization as well as trading privileges. These powers +aroused great jealousy and indignation in England, and the House of +Commons decided that, as the company had its headquarters in London, the +directors were guilty of high crimes and misdemeanours. There followed a +failure of the English capital on which the promoters had reckoned, but +shares to the value of £400,000 (on which £219,094 was paid up) were +subscribed in Scotland. At first the company was a prosperous trading +concern, but its only attempt at colonization involved it in ruin. +Paterson wished his fellow-countrymen to found a colony in the Isthmus +of Panama, and to attract thither the whole trade of North and South +America. The ports of the colony were to be open to ships of all +nations. In the end of 1698 twelve hundred Scots landed on the shore of +the Gulf of Darien, without organization and without the restraint of +responsibility to any government. They soon had difficulties with their +Spanish neighbours, and the English colonists at New York, Barbadoes, +and Jamaica were warned to render them no assistance. Disease and famine +completed the tale of misery, and the first colonists deserted their +posts. Their successors, who arrived to find empty huts, surrounded by +lonely Scottish graves, were soon in worse plight, and they were driven +out by a band of Spaniards. The unfortunate company lingered on for some +time, but merely as traders. The Scots blamed the king's ill-will for +their failure, and he became more than ever unpopular in Scotland. The +moral of the whole story was that only through the corporate union of +the two countries could trade jealousies and the danger of rival schemes +of colonization be avoided. + +In the reign of Charles II the Scots, who felt keenly the loss of the +freedom of trade which they had enjoyed under Cromwell, had themselves +broached the question of union, and William had brought it forward at +the beginning of his reign. It was, however, reserved for his successor +to see it carried. In March, 1702, the king died. The death of "William +II", as his title ran in the kingdom of Scotland, was received with a +feeling amounting almost to satisfaction. The first English Parliament +of Queen Anne agreed to the appointment of commissioners to discuss +terms of union, and the Estates of Scotland chose representatives to +meet them. But the English refused to give freedom of trade, and so the +negotiations broke down. In reply, the Scottish Parliament removed the +restrictions on the import of wines from France, with which country +England was now at war. In the summer of 1703 the Scots passed an Act of +Security, which invested the Parliament with the power of the crown in +case of the queen's dying without heirs, and entrusted to it the choice +of a Protestant sovereign "from the royal line". It refused to such king +or queen, if also sovereign of England, the power of declaring war or +making peace without the consent of Parliament, and it enacted that the +union of the crowns should determine after the queen's death unless +Scotland was admitted to equal trade and navigation privileges with +England. Further, the act provided for the compulsory training of every +Scotsman to bear arms, in order that the country might, if necessary, +defend its independence by the sword. The queen's consent to the Act of +Security was refused, and the bitterness of the national feeling was +accentuated by the suspicion of a Jacobite plot. Parliament had been +adjourned on 16th September, 1703. When it met in 1704 it again passed +the Act of Security, and an important section began to argue that the +royal assent was merely a usual form, and not an indispensable +authentication of an act. For some time, it seemed as if the two +countries were on the brink of war. But, as the union of the crowns had +been rendered possible by the self-restraint of a nation who could +accept their hereditary enemy as their hereditary sovereign, so now +Queen Anne's advisers resolved, with patient wisdom, to secure, at all +hazards, the union of the kingdoms. + +It was not an easy task, even in England, for there could be no union +without complete freedom of trade, and many Englishmen were most +unwilling to yield on this point. In Scotland the difficulties to be +overcome were much greater. The whole nation, irrespective of politics +and religion, felt bitterly the indignity of surrendering the +independent existence for which Scotland had fought for four hundred +years. It could not but be difficult to reconcile an ancient and +high-spirited people to incorporation with a larger and more powerful +neighbour, and the whole population mourned the approaching loss of +their Parliament and their autonomy. Almost every section had special +reasons for opposing the measure. For the Jacobites an Act of Union +meant that Scotland was irretrievably committed to the Hanoverian +succession, and whatever force the Jacobites might be able to raise +after the queen's death must take action in the shape of a rebellion +against the _de facto_ government. It deprived them of all hope of +seizing the reins of power, and of using the machinery of government in +Scotland for the good of their cause--a _coup d'état_ of which the Act +of Security gave considerable chance. On this very account the +triumphant Presbyterians were anxious to carry the union scheme, and the +correspondence of the Electress Sophia proves that the negotiations for +union were looked upon at Hanover as solely an important factor in the +succession controversy. But the recently re-established Presbyterian +Church of Scotland regarded with great anxiety a union with an +Episcopalian country, and hesitated to place their dearly won freedom at +the mercy of a Parliament the large majority of whom were Episcopalians. +The more extreme Presbyterians, and especially the Cameronians of the +west, were bitterly opposed to the project. They protested against +becoming subject to a Parliament in whose deliberations the English +bishops had an important voice, and against accepting a king who had +been educated as a Lutheran, and they clamoured for covenanted +uniformity and a covenanted monarch. By a curious irony of fate, the +Scottish Episcopalians were forced by their Jacobite leanings to act +with the extreme Presbyterians, and to oppose the scheme of amalgamation +with an Episcopalian country. The legal interest was strongly against a +proposal that might reduce the importance of Scots law and of Scottish +lawyers, while the populace of Edinburgh were furious at the suggestion +of a union, whose result must be to remove at once one of the glories of +their city and a valuable source of income. There was still another body +of opponents. The reign of William had been remarkable for the rise of +political parties. The two main factions were known as Williamites and +Cavaliers, and in addition to these there had grown up a Patriot or +Country party. It was brought into existence by the enthusiasm of +Fletcher of Saltoun, and it was based upon an antiquarian revival which +may be compared with the mediæval attempts to revive the Republic of +Rome. The aim of the patriots was to maintain the independence of +Scotland, and they attempted to show that the Scottish crown had never +been under feudal obligations to England, and that the Scottish +Parliament had always possessed sovereign rights, and could govern +independently of the will of the monarch. They were neither Jacobites +nor Hanoverians; but they held that if the foreign domination, of which +they had complained under William, were to continue, it mattered little +whether it emanated from St. Germains or from the Court of St. James's, +and they had combined with the Jacobites to pass the Act of Security. + +Such was the complicated situation with which the English Government had +to deal. Their first step was to advise Queen Anne to assent to the Act +of Security, and so to conserve the dignity and _amour propre_ of the +Scottish Parliament. Commissioners were then appointed to negotiate for +a union. No attempt was made to conciliate the Jacobites, for no attempt +could have met with any kind of success. Nor did the commissioners make +any effort to satisfy the more extreme Presbyterians, who sullenly +refused to acknowledge the union when it became an accomplished fact, +and who remained to hamper the Government when the Jacobite troubles +commenced. An assurance that there would be no interference with the +Church of Scotland as by law established, and a guarantee that the +universities would be maintained in their _status quo_, satisfied the +moderate Presbyterians, and removed their scruples. Unlike James VI and +Cromwell, the advisers of Queen Anne declared their intention of +preserving the independent Scots law and the independent Scottish courts +of justice, and these guarantees weakened the arguments of the Patriot +party. But above all the English proposals won the support of the +ever-increasing commercial interest in Scotland by conceding freedom of +trade in a complete form. They agreed that "all parts of the United +Kingdom of Great Britain be under the same regulations, prohibitions, +and restrictions, and liable to equal impositions and duties for export +and import". The adjustment of financial obligations was admitted to +involve some injustice to Scotland, and an "equivalent" was allowed, to +compensate for the responsibility now accruing to Scotland in connection +with the English National Debt. It remained to adjust the representation +of Scotland in the united Parliament. It was at first proposed to allow +only thirty-eight members, but the number was finally raised to +forty-five. Thirty of these represented the shires. Each shire was to +elect one representative, except the three groups of Bute and Caithness, +Clackmannan and Kinross, and Nairn and Cromarty. In each group the +election was made alternately by the two counties. Thus Bute, +Clackmannan, and Nairn each sent a member in 1708, and Caithness, +Kinross, and Cromarty in 1710. The device is sufficiently unusual to +deserve mention. The burghs were divided into fifteen groups, each of +which was given one member. In this form, after considerable difficulty, +the act was carried both in Scotland and in England. It was a union much +less extensive than that which had been planned by James VI or that +which had been in actual force under Cromwell. The existence of a +separate Church, governed differently from the English Establishment, +and the maintenance of a separate legal code and a separate judicature +have helped to preserve some of the national characteristics of the +Scots. Not for many years did the union become popular in Scotland, and +not for many years did the two nations become really united. It might, +in fact, be said that the force of steam has accomplished what law has +failed to do, and that the real incorporation of Scotland with England +dates from the introduction of railways. + + + + + APPENDIX A + + REFERENCES TO THE HIGHLANDERS IN MEDIÆVAL LITERATURE + + + ~I. AELRED (12th Century)~ + + _Account of the Battle of the Standard_ + + "Rex interim, coactis in unum comitibus, optimisque regni sui + proceribus, coepit cum eis de belli ratione tractare, placuitque + plurimis, ut quotquot aderant armati milites et sagittarii cunctum + praeirent exercitum, quatenus armati armatos impeterent, milites + congrederentur militibus, sagittae sagittis obviarent. Restitere + Galwenses, dicentes sui esse juris primam construere aciem.... Cum + rex militum magis consiliis acquiescere videretur, Malisse comes + Stradarniae plurimum indignatus: 'Quid est,' inquit, 'o rex, quod + Gallorum te magis committis voluntati, cum nullus eorum cum armis + suis me inermem sit hodie praecessurus in bello?' ... Tunc rex ... + ne tumultus hac altercatione subitus nasceretur, Galwensium cessit + voluntati. Alteram aciem filius regis et milites sagittariique cum + eo, adjunctis sibi Cumbrensibus et Tevidalensibus cum magna + sagacitate constituit.... Conjunxerat se ei ejusque interfuit aciei + Eustacius filius Joannis de magnis proceribus Angliae ... qui a + rege Anglorum ideo recesserat.... Tertium cuneum Laodonenses cum + Insulanis et Lavernanis fecerunt. Rex in sua acie Scotos et + Muranenses retinuit, nonnullos etiam de militibus Anglis et Francis + ad sui corporis custodiam deputavit."--Aelred, _De Bello + Standardii_, Migne, _Patrologia Latina_, vol. cxcv, col. 702-712. + + ~2. JOHN OF FORDUN (d. 1394?)~ + + (_a_) _Description of the Highlanders_ + + "Mores autem Scotorum secundum diversitatem linguarum variantur; + duabus enim utuntur linguis, Scotica videlicet, et Teutonica; cujus + linguae gens maritimas possidet et planas regiones: linguae vero + gens Scoticae montanas inhabitat, et insulas ulteriores. Maritima + quoque domestica gens est, et culta, fida, patiens, et urbana; + vestitu siquidem honesta, civilis atque pacifica; circa cultum + divinum devota, sed et obviandis hostium injuriis semper prona. + Insulana vero, sive montana, ferma gens est et indomita, rudis et + immorigerata, raptu capax, otium diligens, ingenio docilis et + callida; forma spectabilis, sed amictu deformis; populo quidem + Anglorum et linguae, sed et propriae nationi, propter linguarum + diversitatem, infesta jugiter et crudelis. Regi tamen et regno + fidelis et obediens, nec non faciliter legibus subdita, si + regatur.... Scotica gens ea ab initio est quae quondam in Hibernia + fuit, et ei similis per omnia, lingua, moribus, et + natura."--_Scoti-chronicon_, Bk. ii, ch. ix. + + This contrast between the Highlanders and the civilized Scots must + be read in the light of Fordun's general view of the work of the + descendants of Malcolm Canmore. He describes how David I changed + the Lowlanders into civilized men, but never hints that he did so + by introducing Englishmen. He represents the whole nation (outside + the old Northumbrian kingdom) as Picts and Scots, on whose + antiquity he lays stress, and merely mentions that Malcolm Canmore + welcomed English refugees. The following extracts show that he + looked upon the Lowlanders, not as a separate race from the + Highlanders, but simply as men of the same barbarian race who had + been civilized by David:-- + + "Unde tota illa gentis illius barbaries mansuefacta, tanta se mox + benevolentia et humilitate substravit, ut naturalis oblita + saevitiae, legibus quas regia mansuetudo dictabat, colla + submitteret, et pacem quam eatenus nesciebat, gratanter + acciperet."--Bk. v, ch. xxxvii. + + "Ipse vero pretiosis vestibus pallia tua pilosa mutavit et antiquam + nuditatem byssa et purpura texit. Ipse barbaros mores tuos + Christiana religione composuit...."--Bk. v, ch. xliii. + + + (_b_) _Coronation of Alexander III as a king of Scots_ + + "Ipso quoque rege super cathedram regalem, scilicet, lapidem, + sedente, sub cujus pedibus comites ceterique nobiles sua vestimenta + coram lapide curvatis genibus sternebant. Qui lapis in eodem + monasterio reverenter ob regum Albaniae consecrationem servatur. + Nec uspiam aliquis regum in Scocia regnare solebat,[92] nisi super + eundem lapidem regium in accipiendum nomen prius sederet in Scona, + sede vero superiori, videlicet Albaniae constituta regibus ab + antiquis. Et ecce, peractus singulis, quidam Scotus montanus ante + thronum subito genuflectens materna lingua regem inclinato capite + salutavit hiis Scoticis verbis, dicens:--'Benach de Re Albanne + Alexander, mac Alexander, mac Vleyham, mac Henri, mac David', et + sic pronunciando regum Scotorum genealogiam usque in finem legebat. + Quod ita Latine sonat:--'Salve rex Albanorum Alexander, filii + Alexandri ... filii Mane, filii Fergusii, primi Scotorum regis in + Albania'. Qui quoque Fergusius fuit filius Feredach, quamvis a + quibusdam dicitur filius Ferechere, parum tamen discrepant in sono. + Haec discrepantia forte scriptoris constat vitio propter + difficultatem loquelae. Deinde dictam genealogiam dictus Scotus ab + homine in hominem continuando perlegit donec ad primum Scotum, + videlicet, Iber Scot. pervenit."--_Annals_, xlviii. + + ~3. BOOK OF PLUSCARDEN (written in the latter half of the 15th + century)~ + + _Account of Harlaw_ + + "Item anno Domini M°CCCCXI fuit conflictus de Harlaw, in + Le Gariach, per Donaldum de Insulis contra Alexandrum comitem de + Mar et vicecomitem Angusiae, ubi multi nobiles ceciderunt in bello. + Eodem anno combusta est villa de Cupro casualiter."--Bk. x, ch. + xxii. + + ~4. WALTER BOWER (d. 1449)~ + + _Account of Harlaw_ + + "Anno Dom. millesimo quadringentesimo undecimo, in vigilia sancti + Jacobi Apostoli, conflictus de Harlaw in Marria, ubi Dovenaldus de + Insulis cum decem millibus de insulanis et hominibus suis de Ross + hostiliter intravit terram cis montes, omnia conculcans et + depopulans, ac in vastitatem redigens; sperens in illa expeditione + villam regiam de Abirdene spoliare, et consequenter usque ad aquam + de Thya suae subjicere ditioni. Et quia in tanta multitudine ferali + occupaverunt terram sicut locustae, conturbati sunt omnes de + dominica terra qui videbant eos, et timuit omnis homo. Cui occurrit + Alexander Stewart, comes de Marr, cum Alexandro Ogilby vicecomite + de Angus, qui semper et ubique justitiam dilexit, cum potestate de + Mar et Garioch, Angus et Mernis, et facto acerrimo congressu, + occisi sunt ex parte comitis de Mar Jacobus Scrymgeour + constabularius de Dundé, Alexander de Irevin, Robertus de Malvile + et Thomas Murrave milites, Willelmus de Abirnethy ... et alii + valentes armigeri, necnon Robertus David consul de Abirdene, cum + multis burgensibus. De parte insulanorum cecidit campidoctor. + Maclane nomine, et dominus Dovenaldus capitaneus fugatus, et ex + parte ejus occisi nongenti et ultra, ex parte nostra quingenti, et + fere omnes generosi de Buchane."--Lib. xv, ch. xxi. + + ~5. JOHN MAJOR OR MAIR (1469-1550)~ + + _(a) References to the Scottish nation, and description of the + Gaelic-speaking population_ + + "Cum enim Aquitaniam, Andegaviam, Normanniam, Hiberniam, Valliamque + Angli haberent, adhuc sine bellis in Scotia civilibus, nihil in ea + profecerunt, et jam mille octingentos et quinquaginta annos in + Britannia Scoti steterunt, hodierno die non minus potentes et ad + bellum propensi quam unquam fuerint...."--_Greater Britain_, Bk. i. + ch. vii. + + "Praeterea, sicut Scotorum, uti diximus, duplex est lingua, ita + mores gemini sunt. Nam in nemoribus Septentrionalibus et montibus + aliqui nati sunt, hos altae terrae, reliquos imae terrae viros + vocamus. Apud exteros priores Scoti sylvestri, posteriores + domestici vocantur, lingua Hibernica priores communiter utuntur, + Anglicana posteriores. Una Scotiae medietas Hibernice loquitur, et + nos omnes cum Insulanis in sylvestrium societate deputamus. In + veste, cultu et moribus, reliquis puta domesticis minus honesti + sunt, non tamen minus ad bellum praecipites, sed multo magis, tum + quia magis boreales, tum quia in montibus nati et sylvicolae, + pugnatiores suapte natura sunt. Penes tamen domitos est totius + regni pondus et regimen, quia melius vel minus male quam alii + politizant."--Bk. i, ch. viii. + + "Adhuc Scotiae ferme medietas Hibernice loquitur, et a paucis + retroactis diebus plures Hibernice loquuti sunt."--Bk. i, ch. ix. + + + _(b) Account of Harlaw_ + + "Anno 1411, praelium Harlaw apud Scotos famigeratum commissum est. + Donaldus insularum comes decies mille viris clarissimis + sylvestribus Scotis munitus, Aberdoniam urbem insignam et alia loca + spoliare proposuit; contra quem Alexander Steuartus comes Marrae, + et Alexander Ogilvyus Angusiae vice-comes suos congregant et + Donaldo Insularum apud Harlaw occurrunt. Fit atrox et acerrima + pugna; nec cum exteris praelium periculosius in tanto numero unquam + habitum est; sic quod in schola grammaticali juvenculi ludentes, ad + partes oppositas nos solemus retrahere, dicentes nos praelium de + Harlaw struere velle. Licet communius a vulgo dicatur quod + sylvestres Scoti erant victi, ab annalibus tamen oppositum invenio: + solum Insularum comes coactus est retrocedere, et plures occisos + habuit quam Scoti domiti...."--Bk. vi, ch. x. + + ~6. HECTOR BOECE (1465?-1536)~ + + _(a) Account of the differences between Highlanders and Lowlanders_ + + "Nos vero qui in confinio Angliae sedes habemus, sicut Saxonum + linguam per multa commercia bellaque ab illis didicimus nostramque + deseruimus; ita priscos omnes mores reliquimus, priscusque nobis + scribendi mos ut et sermo incognitus est. At qui montana incolunt + ut linguam ita et caetera prope omnia arctissime tuentur.... + Labentibus autem seculis idque maxime circa Malcolmi Canmoir + tempora mutari cuncta coeperunt. Vicinis enim Britannis primum a + Romanis subactis ocioque enervatis, ac postea a Saxonibus expulsis + commilitii eorum commercio nonnihil, mox Pictis quoque deletis ubi + affinitate Anglis coniungi coepimus, expanso, ut ita dicam, gremio + mores quoque eorum amplexi imbibimus. Minus enim prisca patrum + virtus in pretio esse coeperat, permanente nihilominus vetere + gloriae cupiditate. Verum haud recta insistentes via umbras + germanae gloriae non veram sectabantur, cognomina sibi nobilitatis + imponentes, eaque Anglorum more ostentantes atque iactantes, quum + antea is haberi esseque nobilissimus soleret, qui virtute non + opibus, qui egregiis a se factis non maiorum suorum clarus erat. + Hinc illae natae sunt Ducum, Comitum, ac reliquorum id genus ad + ostentationem confictae appellationes. Quum antea eiusdem + potestatis esse solerent, qui Thani id est quaestores regii + dicebantur illis muneribus ob fidem virtutemque donari."--_Scotorum + Regni Descriptio_, prefixed to his History. + + + _(b) Account of Harlaw_ + + "Exortum est subinde ex Hebridibus bellum duce Donaldo Hebridiano + injuria a gubernatore affecto. Nam Wilhelmus comes Rossensis filius + Hugonis, is quem praelio ad Halidounhil periisse supra memoratum + est,[93] duas habuit filias, quarum natu maiorem Waltero Leslie + viro nobilissimo coniugem dedit una cum Rossiae comitatu. Walterus + susceptis ex ea filio Alexandro nomine, quem comitem Rossiae fecit, + et filia, quam Donaldo Hebridiano uxorem dedit, defunctus est. + Alexander ex filia Roberti gubernatoris, quam duxerat, unam + duntaxat filiam reliquit, Eufemiam nomine, quae admodum adhuc + adolescentula erat, dum pater decederet, parumque rerum perita. Eam + gubernator [Albany], blanditiis an minis incertum, persuasam + induxit, ut resignato in ipsum comitatu Rossensi, ab eo rursum + reciperet his legibus, ut si ipsa sine liberis decederet, ad filium + eius secundo natum rediret. Quod si neque ille masculam prolem + reliquisset, tum Robertus eius frater succederet, ac si in illo + quoque defecisset soboles, tum ad regem rediret Rossia. Quibus + astute callideque peractis haud multo post Eufemia adhuc virgo + moritur, ut ferebatur, opera gubernatoris sublata, ut ad filium + comitatus veniret. Ita Ioannes, quum antea Buthquhaniae comes + fuisset Rossiae comitatum acquisivit, et unicam tantum filiam + reliquit, quam Willelmus à Setoun eques auratus in coniugem + accepit; unde factum est ut eius familiae principes ius sibi + Buthquhaniae vendicent. At Donaldus qui amitam Eufemiae Alexandri + Leslie sororem, uxorem habebat, ubi Eufemiam defunctam audivit, à + gubernatore postulavit ex haereditate Rossiae comitatum; ubi quum + ille nihil aequi respondisset, collecta ex Hebridibus ingenti manu, + partim vi, partim benevolentia, secum ducens Rossiam invadit, nee + magno negotio in ditionem suam redegit, Rossianis verum recipere + haeredem haud quaquam recusantibus. Verum eo successu non + contentus, nec se in eorum quae iure petiverat, finibus continens, + Moraviam. Bogaevallem iisque vicinas regiones hostiliter + depopulando in Gareotham pervenit, Aberdoniam, uti minitabatur, + direpturus. Caeterum in tempore obvians temeritati eius Alexander + Stuart Alexandri filii Roberti regis secundi comitis Buthquhaniae + nothus, Marriae comes ad Hairlau (vicus est pugna mox ibi gesta + cruentissima insignis) haud expectatis reliquis auxiliis cum eo + congressus est. Qua re factum est, ut dum auxilia sine ordinibus + (nihil tale suspicantes) cum magna neglegentia advenirent, permulti + eorum caesi sint, adeoque ambigua fuerit victoria, ut utrique se in + proximos montes desertis castris victoria cedentes receperint. + Nongenti ex Hebridianis et iis qui Donaldo adhaeserant cecidere cum + Makgillane et Maktothe praecipuis post Donaldum ducibus. Ex Scotis + adversae partis vir nobilis Alexander Ogilvy Angusiae vice-comes + singulari iustitia ac probitate praeditus, Jacobus Strimger + Comestabulis Deidoni magno animo vir ac insigni virtute, et ad + posteros clarus, Alexander Irrvein à Drum ob praecipuum robur + conspicuus, Robertus Maul à Pammoir, Thomas Moravus, Wilhelmus + Abernethi à Salthon, Alexander Strathon à Loucenstoun, Robertus + Davidstoun Aberdoniae praefectus; hi omnes equites aurati cum + multis aliis nobilibus eo praelio occubere. Donaldus victoriam + hostibus prorsus concedens, tota nocte quanta potuit celeritate ad + Rossiam contendit, ac inde qua proxime dabatur, in Hebrides se + recepit. Gubernator in sequenti anno cum valido exercitu Hebrides + oppugnare parans, Donaldum veniam supplicantem, ac omnia + praestiturum damna illata pollicentem, nec deinceps iniuriam ullam + illaturum iurantem in gratiam recepit."--_Scotorum Historiae_, Lib. + xvi. + + ~7. JOHN LESLEY (1527-1596)~ + + _Contrast between Highlanders and Lowlanders_ + + "Angli etenim sicut et politiores Scoti antiqua illa Saxonum + lingua, quae nunc Anglica dicitur promiscue, alia tamen atque alia + dialecto loquuntur. Scotorum autem reliqui quos exteri (quod + majorum suorum instituta, ac antiquam illam simplicemque amiciendi + ac vivendi formam mordicus adhuc teneant) feros et sylvestres, + montanos dicimus, prisca sua Hibernica lingua utuntur."--_De Gestis + Scotorum_, Lib. i. (_De Populis Regnis et Linguis_.) + + ~8. GEORGE BUCHANAN (1506-1582)~ + + _Account of Harlaw_ + + "Altero vero post anno, qui fuit a Christo 1411, Donaldus Insulanus + OEbudarum dominus cum Rossiam iuris calumnia per Gubernatorem + sibi ablatam, velut proximus haeres (uti erat) repeteret, ac nihil + aequi impetraret, collectis insulanorum decem millibus in + continentem descendit; ac Rossiam facile occupavit, cunctis + libenter ad iusti domini imperium redeuntibus. Sed ea Rossianorum + parendi facilitas animum praedae avidum ad maiora audenda impulit. + In Moraviam transgressus eam praesidio destitutam statim in suam + potestatem redegit. Deinde Bogiam praedabundus transivit; et iam + Abredoniae imminebat. Adversus hunc subitum et inexpectatum hostem + Gubernator copias parabat; sed cum magnitudo et propinquitas + periculi auxilia longinqua expectare non sineret, Alexander Marriae + Comes ex Alexandro Gubernatoris fratre genitus cum tota ferme + nobilitate trans Taum ad Harlaum vicum ei se objecit. Fit praelium + inter pauca cruentum et memorabile: nobilium hominum virtute de + omnibus fortunis, deque gloria adversus immanem feritatem + decertante. Nox eos diremit magis pugnando lassos, quam in alteram + partem re inclinata adeoque incertus fuit eius pugnae exitus, ut + utrique cum recensuissent, quos viros amisissent, sese pro victis + gesserint. Hoc enim praelio tot homines genere, factisque clari + desiderati sunt, quot vix ullus adversus exteros conflictus per + multos annos absumpsisse memoratur. Itaque vicus ante obscurus ex + eo ad posteritatem nobilitatus est."--_Rerum Scotorum Historia_, + Lib. x. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 92: This was written after the stone had been carried to +England.] + +[Footnote 93: He had fallen in the front rank of the Scottish army at +Halidon Hill.] + + + + + APPENDIX B + + THE FEUDALIZATION OF SCOTLAND + + +The object of this Appendix is to give a summary of the process by which +Anglo-Norman feudalism came to supersede the earlier Scottish +civilization. For a more detailed account, the reader is referred to +Skene's _Celtic Scotland_, Robertson's _Scotland under her Early Kings_, +and Mr. Lang's _History of Scotland_. + +The kingdom[94] of which Malcolm Canmore became the ruler in 1058 was +not inhabited by clans. It had been, from of old, divided into seven +provinces, each of which was inhabited by tribes. The tribe or tuath was +governed by its own chief or king (Ri or Toisech); each province or Mor +Tuath was governed by Ri Mor Tuath or Mormaer,[95] and these seven +Mormaers seem (in theory, at all events) to have elected the national +king, and to have acted as his advisers. The tribe was divided into +freemen and slaves, and freemen and slaves alike were subdivided into +various classes--noble and simple; serfs attached to land, and personal +bondmen. The land was held, not by the tribe in general, but by the +_ciniod_ or near kin of the _flath_ or senior of each family within the +tribe. On the death of a senior, the new senior was chosen (generally +with strict regard to primogeniture) from among the nearest in blood, +and all who were within three degrees of kin to him, shared in the +joint-proprietary of the proceeds of the land. The senior had special +privileges and was the representative and surety of the _ciniod_, and +the guardian of their common interests. After the third generation, a +man ceased to be reckoned among the _ciniod_, and probably received a +small personal allotment. Most of his descendants would thus be +landless, or, if they held land, would do so by what soon amounted to +servile tenure. Thus the majority of the tribe had little or nothing to +lose by the feudalization that was approaching. + +The changes of Malcolm's reign are concerned with the Church, not with +land-tenure. But the territorialization of the Church, and the abolition +of the ecclesiastical system of the tribe, foreshadowed the innovations +that Malcolm's son was to introduce. We have seen that an anti-English +reaction followed the deaths of Malcolm and Margaret. This is important +because it involved an expulsion of the English from Scotland, which may +be compared with the expulsion of the Normans from England after the +return of Godwin. Our knowledge of the circumstances is derived from the +following statement of Symeon of Durham:-- + + "Qua [Margerita] mortua, Dufenaldum regis Malcolmi fratrem Scotti + sibi in regem elegerunt, et omnes Anglos qui de curia regis + extiterunt, de Scotia expulerunt. Quibus auditis, filius regis + Malcolmi Dunechan regem Willelmum, cui tune militavit, ut ei regnum + sui patris concederet, petiit, et impetravit, illique fidelitatem + juravit. Et sic ad Scotiam cum multitudine Anglorum et Normannorum + properavit, et patruum suum Dufenaldum de regno expulit, et in loco + ejus regnavit. Deinde nonnulli Scottorum in unum congregati, + homines illius pene omnes peremerunt. Ipse vero vix cum paucis + evasit. Veruntamen post haec illum regnare permiserunt, ea ratione, + ut amplius in Scotiam nec Anglos nec Normannos introduceret, + sibique militare permitteret."-_Rolls Series edn._, vol. ii, p. + 222. + +It was not till the reign of Alexander I (1107-1124) that the new +influences made any serious modification of ancient custom. The peaceful +Edgar had surrounded himself with English favourites, and had granted +Saxon charters to Saxon landholders in the Lothians. His brother, +Alexander, made the first efforts to abolish the old Celtic tenure. In +1114, he gave a charter to the monastery of Scone, and not only did the +charter contemplate the direct holding of land from the king, but the +signatories or witnesses described themselves as Earls, not as Mormaers. +The monastery was founded to commemorate the suppression of a revolt of +the Celts of Moray, and the earls who witnessed the charter bore Celtic +names. This policy of taking advantage of rebellions to introduce +English civilization became a characteristic method of the kings of +Scotland. Alexander's successor, David I, set himself definitely to +carry on the work which his brother had begun. He found his opportunity +in the rising of Malcolm MacHeth, Earl of Moray. To this rising we have +already referred in the Introduction. It was the greatest effort made +against the innovations of the anti-national sons of Malcolm Canmore, +and its leader, Malcolm MacHeth, was the representative of a rival line +of kings. David had to obtain the assistance, not only of the +Anglo-Normans by whom he himself was surrounded, but also of some of the +barons of Northumberland and Yorkshire, with whom he had a connection as +Earl of Huntingdon, for the descendant of the Celtic kings of Scotland +was himself an English baron. We have seen that David captured MacHeth +and forfeited the lands of Moray, which he regranted, on feudal terms, +to Anglo-Normans or to native Scots who supported the king's new policy. +The war with England interrupted David's work, as a long struggle with +the Church had prevented his brother, Alexander, from giving full scope +to the principles that both had learned in the English Court; but, by +the end of David's reign, the lines of future development had been quite +clearly laid down. The Celtic Church had almost disappeared. The bishops +of St. Andrews, Dunkeld, Moray, Glasgow, Ross, Caithness, Aberdeen, +Dunblane, Brechin, and Galloway were great royal officers, who +inculcated upon the people the necessity of adopting the new political +and ecclesiastical system. The Culdee monasteries were dying out; north +of the Forth, Scone had been founded by Alexander I as a pioneer of the +new civilization, and, after the defeat of Malcolm MacHeth and the +settlement of Moray, David, in 1150, founded the Abbey of Kinloss. The +Celtic official terms were replaced by English names; the Mormaer had +become the Earl, the Toisech was now the Thane, and Earl and Thane alike +were losing their position as the royal representative, as David +gradually introduced the Anglo-Norman _vice-comes_ or sheriff, who +represented the royal Exchequer and the royal system of justice. David's +police regulations tended still further to strengthen the nascent +Feudalism; like the kings of England, he would have none of the +"lordless man, of whom no law can be got", and commendation was added to +the forces which produced the disintegration of the tribal system. Not +less important was the introduction of written charters. Alexander had +given a written charter to the monastery of Scone; David gave private +charters to individual land-owners, and made the possession of a charter +the test of a freeholder. Finally, it is from David's reign that +Scottish burghs take their origin. He encouraged the rise of towns as +part of the feudal system. The burgesses were tenants-in-chief of the +king, held of him by charter, and stood in the same relation to him as +other tenants-in-chief. So firmly grounded was this idea that, up to +1832, the only Scottish burgesses who attended Parliament were +representatives of the ancient Royal Burghs, and their right depended, +historically, not on any gift of the franchise, but on their position as +tenants-in-chief. That there were strangers among the new burgesses +cannot be doubted; Saxons and Normans mingled with Danes and Flemish +merchants in the humble streets of the villages that were protected by +the royal castle and that grew into Scottish towns; but their numbers +were too few to give us any ground for believing that they were, in any +sense, foreign colonies, or that they seriously modified the ethnic +character of the land. Men from the country would, for reasons of +protection, or from the impulse of commerce, find their way into the +towns; it is certain that the population of the towns did not migrate +into the country. The real importance of the towns lies in the part they +played in the spread of the English tongue. To the influence of Court +and King, of land tenure, of law and police, of parish priest and monk, +and Abbot and Bishop, was added the persuasive force of commercial +interest. + +The death of David I, in 1153, was immediately followed by Celtic +revolts against Anglo-Norman order. The province of Moray made a final +effort on behalf of Donald Mac Malcolm MacHeth, the son of the Malcolm +MacHeth of the previous reign, and of a sister of Somerled of Argyll, +the ancestor of the Lord of the Isles. The new king, Malcolm IV, the +grandson of David, easily subdued this rising, and it is in connection +with its suppression that Fordun makes the statement, quoted in the +Introduction, about the displacement of the population of Moray. There +is no earlier authority for it than the fourteenth century, and the +inherent probability in its favour is so very slight that but little +weight can reasonably be assigned to it. David had already granted Moray +to Anglo-Normans who were now in possession of the Lowland portion and +who ruled the Celtic population. We should expect to hear something +definite of any further change in the Lowlands, and a repopulation of +the Highlands of Moray was beyond the limits of possibility. The king, +too, had little time to carry out such a measure, for he had immediately +to face a new rebellion in Galloway; he reigned for twelve years in all, +and was only twenty-four years of age when he died. The only truth in +Fordun's statement is probably that Malcolm IV carried on the policy of +David I in regard to the land-owners of Moray, and forfeited the +possessions of those who had taken part in MacHeth's rising. In +Galloway, a similar policy was pursued. Some of the old nobility, +offended perhaps by Malcolm's attendance on Henry II at Toulouse, in his +capacity as an English baron, joined the defeated Donald MacHeth in an +attempt upon Malcolm, at Perth, in 1160. MacHeth took refuge in +Galloway, which the king had to invade three times before bringing it +into subjection. Before his death, in 1165, Galloway was part of the +feudal kingdom of Scotland. + +Only once again was the security of the Anglo-Celtic dynasty seriously +threatened by the supporters of the older civilization. When William the +Lion, brother and successor of Malcolm IV, was the prisoner of Henry II, +risings took place both in Galloway and in Moray. A Galloway chieftain, +by name Gilbert, maintained an independent rule to his death in 1185, +when William came to terms with his nephew and successor, Roland. In the +north, Donald Bane Mac William, a great-grandson of Malcolm Canmore, +raised the standard of revolt in 1181, and it was not till 1187 that the +rebellion was finally suppressed, and Donald Bane killed. There were +further risings, in Moray in 1214 (on the accession of Alexander II), +and in Galloway in 1235. The chronicler, Walter of Coventry, tells us +that these revolts were occasioned by the fact that recent Scottish +kings had proved themselves Frenchmen rather than Scots, and had +surrounded themselves solely with Frenchmen. This is the real +explanation of the support given to the Celtic pretenders. A new +civilization is not easily imposed upon a people. Elsewhere in Scotland, +the process was more gradual and less violent. In the eastern Lowlands +there were no pretenders and no rebellions, and traces of the earlier +civilization remained longer than in Galloway and in Moray. "In Fife +alone", says Mr. Robertson, "the Earl continued in the thirteenth +century to exercise the prerogatives of a royal Maor, and, in the reign +of David I, we find in Fife what is practically the clan MacDuff."[96] +Neither in the eastern Lowlands, nor in the more disturbed districts of +Moray and Galloway, is there any evidence of a radical change in the +population. The changes were imposed from above. Mr. Lang has pointed +out that we do not hear "of feuds consequent on the eviction of prior +holders.... The juries, from Angus to Clyde, are full of Celtic names of +the gentry. The Steward (FitzAlan) got Renfrew, but the _probi +homines_, or gentry, remain Celtic after the reigns of David and +William."[97] The contemporary chronicler, Aelred, gives no hint that +David replaced his Scottish subjects by an Anglo-Norman population; he +admits that he was terrible to the men of Galloway, but insists that he +was beloved of the Scots. It must not be forgotten that the new system +brought Anglo-Norman justice and order with it, and must soon have +commended itself by its practical results. The grants of land did not +mean dispossession. The small owners of land and the serfs acquiesced in +the new rule and began to take new names, and the Anglo-Norman strangers +were in actual possession, not of the land itself, but of the +_privilegia_ owed by the land. Even with regard to the great lords, the +statements have been slightly exaggerated; Alexander II was aided in +crushing the rebellion of 1214-15 by Celtic earls, and in 1235 he +subdued Galloway by the aid of a Celtic Earl of Ross. + + * * * * * + +We have attempted to explain the Anglicization of Scotland, south and +east of "the Highland line", by the combined forces of the Church, the +Court, Feudalism, and Commerce, and it is unnecessary to lay further +stress upon the importance of these elements in twelfth century life. It +may be interesting to compare with this the process by which the +Scottish Highlands have been Anglicized within the last century and a +half. It must, in the first place, be fully understood that the interval +between the twelfth century and the suppression of the last Jacobite +rising was not void of development even in the Highlands. "It is in the +reign of David the First", says Mr. Skene,[98] "that the sept or clan +first appears as a distinct and prominent feature in the social +organization of the Gaelic population", and it is not till the reign of +Robert III that he finds "the first appearance of a distinct clan". +Between the end of the fourteenth century and the middle of the +eighteenth, the clan had developed a complete organization, consisting +of the chief and his kinsmen, the common people of the same blood, and +the dependants of the clan. Each clan contained several septs, founded +by such descendants of chiefs as had obtained a definite possession in +land. The writer of _Letters from a Gentleman in the North of Scotland +in 1726_, mentions that the Highland clans were "subdivided into smaller +branches of fifty or sixty men, who deduce their original from their +particular chieftains, and rely upon them as their more immediate +protectors and defenders". + +The Hanoverian government had thus to face, in 1746, a problem in some +respects more difficult than that which the descendants of Malcolm +Canmore had solved. The clan organization was complete, and clan loyalty +had assumed the form of an extravagant devotion; a hostile feeling had +arisen between Highlands and Lowlands, and all feeling of common +nationality had been lost. There was no such important factor as the +Church to help the change; religion was, on the whole, perhaps rather +adverse than favourable to the process of Anglicization. On the other +hand, the task was, in other aspects, very much easier. The Highlands +had been affected by the events of the seventeenth century, and the +chiefs were no longer mere freebooters and raiders. The Jacobite rising +had weakened the Highlands, and the clans had been divided among +themselves. It was not a united opposition that confronted the +Government. Above all, the methods of land-tenure had already been +rendered subject to very considerable modification. Since the reign of +James VI, the law had been successful in attempting to ignore "all +Celtic usages inconsistent with its principles", and it "regarded all +persons possessing a feudal title as absolute proprietors of the land, +and all occupants of the land who could not show a right derived from +the proprietor, as simple tenants".[99] Thus the strongest support of +the clan system had been removed before the suppression of the clans. +The Government of George II placed the Highlands under military +occupation, and began to root out every tendency towards the persistence +of a clan organization. The clan, as a military unit, ceased to exist +when the Highlanders were disarmed, and as a unit for administrative +purposes when the heritable jurisdictions were abolished, and it could +no longer claim to be a political force of any kind, for every vestige +of independence was removed. The only individual characteristic left to +the clan or to the Highlander was the tartan and the Celtic garb, and +its use was prohibited under very severe penalties. These were measures +which were not possible in the days of David as they were in those of +George. But a further step was common to both centuries--the forfeiture +of lands, and although a later Government restored many of these to +descendants of the attainted chiefs, the magic spell had been broken, +and the proprietor was no longer the head of the clan. Such measures, +and the introduction of sheep-farming, had, within sixty years, changed +the whole face of the Highlands. + +Another century has been added to Sir Walter's _Sixty Years Since_, and +it may be argued that all the resources of modern civilisation have +failed to accomplish, in that period, what the descendants of Malcolm +Canmore effected in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. This is true +as far as language is concerned, but only with regard to language. The +Highlanders have not forgotten the Gaelic tongue as the Lowlanders had +forgotten it by the outbreak of the War of Independence.[100] Various +facts account for this. One of the features of recent days is an +antiquarian revival, which has tended to preserve for Highland children +the great intellectual advantage of a bi-lingual education. The very +severance of the bond between chieftain and clan has helped to +perpetuate the ancient language, for the people no longer adopt the +speech of their chief, as, in earlier days, the Celt of Moray or of Fife +adopted the tongue spoken by his Anglo-Norman lord, or learned by the +great men of his own race at the court of David or of William the Lion. +The Bible has been translated into Gaelic, and Gaelic has become the +language of Highland religion. In the Lowlands of the twelfth century, +the whole influence of the Church was directed to the extermination of +the Culdee religion, associated with the Celtic language and with Celtic +civilization. Above all, the difference lies in the rise of burghs in +the Lowlands. Speech follows trade. Every small town on the east coast +was a school of English language. Should commerce ever reach the +Highlands, should the abomination of desolation overtake the waterfalls +and the valleys, and other temples of nature share the degradation of +the Falls of Foyers, we may then look for the disappearance of the +Gaelic tongue. + +Be all this as it may, it is undeniable that there has been in the +Highlands, since 1745, a change of civilization without a displacement +of race. We venture to think that there is some ground for the view that +a similar change of civilization occurred in the Lowlands between 1066 +and 1286, and, similarly, without a racial dispossession. We do not deny +that there was some infusion of Anglo-Saxon blood between the Forth and +the Moray Firth in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; but there is no +evidence that it was a repopulation. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 94: In this discussion the province of Lothian is not +included.] + +[Footnote 95: Ri Mortuath is an Irish term. We find, more usually, in +Scotland, the Mormaer.] + +[Footnote 96: _Op. cit._, vol. i, p. 254.] + +[Footnote 97: _History of Scotland_, vol. i, pp. 135-6.] + +[Footnote 98: _Celtic Scotland_, vol. iii, pp. 303, 309.] + +[Footnote 99: _Celtic Scotland_, vol. iii, p. 368.] + +[Footnote 100: It should of course be recollected that the Gaelic tongue +must have persisted in the vernacular speech of the Lowlands long after +we lose all traces of it as a literary language.] + + + + + APPENDIX C + + TABLE OF THE COMPETITORS OF 1290 + + (_Names of the thirteen Competitors are in bold type_) + + + Duncan I + (1034-1040) + | + +---------------------------+-------------------------------------+ + | | + Malcolm III (Canmore) Donald Bane + (1057-8-1093) (1093-1097) + | | + David I (1134-1753) | + | | + Prince Henry | + | | + +------------------------------------+-------------+------+ | + | | | | | + | | | | | + William the Lion David Ada | | + (1165-1214) Earl of m. the Count | | + | Huntingdon of Holland | | + | | | | | + | | | Marjorie | + | | | m. John | + | | | Lindesay | + | | | | | + +-------------+------+------+------+------+ +--------+------+ | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | + Alexander II Isabella | Margaret | Henry | Isabella m. | | | | + (1214-1249) m. Robert | m. Eustace | Galithly | Robert | | | | + | Ros | Vesci | | | Bruce | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | Ada | Aufricá m. | Margaret m. | Ada | | | + | | m. Patrick, | William Say | Alan of | m. Henry | | | + | | Earl of | | | Galloway | Hastynges | | | + | | Dunbar | | | | | | | | | + +-------+ | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | + Alexander III | | | | | | | | | | | | + (1249-1285-6) | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Marjorie | | | | | Devorguilla | Henry | | | + | | | | | | | m. John | Hastynges | | | + | | | | | | | Balliol | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | + Margaret m. | ~William~ | ~William~ | ~Patrick~ | ~Robert~ | ~Florent~, | ~John Comyn~ + ~Eric II~ | ~Ros~ | ~Vesci~ | ~Galithly~ | ~Bruce~ | Count | m. a sister of + ~of Norway~ | | | | | | of Holland | John Balliol + | | | | | | | | | + | ~Nicolas~ ~Patrick~ ~Roger~ ~John Balliol~ | ~John~ ~Robert~ | + | ~Sovles~ ~of Dunbar~ ~Mandeville~ (1292-1296) | ~Hastynges~ ~Pinkeny~ | + | | | | + | | Robert | + Margaret, the | Earl of Carrick | + Maid of Norway | | John Comyn + (1285-6-1290) | | (stabbed + | | by Bruce in + | | 1305-6) + Edward Balliol | + | + Robert I + (1306-1329) + + + + + + INDEX + + + Abbey Craig, 42. + + Aberdeen, xv, xxiii, xxvii, xxix, xxx, xxxi, 40, 68, 70, 87, 162, 163, + 164, 169, 170, 202. + ---- Assembly at, 154, 155. + ---- Bishop of, 206. + ---- University of, xxxi, 105. + + Aberdeenshire, xvii, xxxiv, 51, 87, 163, 169. + + Abernethy, 12. + + Abirdene, Robert of, 198. + + Aboyne, Earl of, 163. + + _Acts of the Parliament of Scotland_, xxi. + + Ada, daughter of Earl David, 35. + + Aelred of Rivaulx, 21, 195. + + Aethelstan, 5. + + Aird's Moss, rising at, 178. + + Airlie, Earl of, 169. + + Albany, 201. + ---- Alexander, Duke of, 96, 97. + ---- Duke of, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 88, 89. + ---- 3rd Duke of, 109, 110, 111, 112. + + Alcester, 168. + + Alexander I, 17, 205, 207. + ---- II, 28, 29, 32, 35, 36, 47, 209, 210. + ---- III, 29, 30, 31, 36, 101, 197. + ---- Earl of Mar, 198, 199. + ---- son of Alexander III, 31. + ---- of Lorn, 51, 53. + ---- of Ross, 201. + + Alford, victory at, 170. + + Alnwick, 13, 26. + ---- sacking of, 92. + + Alyth, 174. + + Ancrum Moor, battle of, 120. + + Angus, 198, 209. + + Angus, Earl Archibald, 99. + ---- grandson of Earl Archibald, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 118, 119, + 120, 133. + Angus Og, 53, 56, 85. + + Annan, 67. + + Annandale, 32, 47, 48, 50. + + Anne, Queen, 188, 189, 192. + ---- of Cleves, 113. + + "Answer to ane Helandmanis Invective", xxxiv. + + _Antiquité de la Nation et de la Langue + des Celtes autrement appellez Gaulois_, 2. + + Antony, Bishop of Durham, 44. + + Argyll, Bishop of, xxxiv. + ---- Earl of, 178. + ---- Highlanders of, 52, 55, 85, 106. + ---- Marquis and Earl of, 161, 164, 166, 169, 172, 176. + + Argyllshire, xxiii, 3, 23, 25, 185. + + Armada, 145. + + Arran, 83. + ---- Earl of (Chatelherault), 109, 110, 111, 112, 117, 118, 119, 120, + 122, 123. + ---- Earl of, son of Chatelherault, 127, 128, 130. + + Arthur, Prince, 99. + + _Auchinleck Chronicle_, xxxiv. + + Auldearn, victory at, 170. + + Auxerre, 90. + + Ayr, xvii. + + Ayrshire, xxix, xxxiv, 51, 52, 178. + + Aytoun, Peace of, 100. + + + Badenach, Celts of, 41, 53. + + Bailleul, estate of, 39. + + Bakewell, 5. + + Balliol, Edward, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 72, 73, 75. + ---- John, 27, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 43, 45, 48, 50, 65, 79. + + Banff, 40. + + Bannockburn, battle of, xiv, xxiv, 55, 58, 61, 63, 66, 68, 74, 85, 88, + 90, 93, 108. + Barbadoes, 187. + + Barbour's _Bruce_, xxvi, xxvii. + + Barton, Sir Andrew, 98, 103. + + Baugé, battle of, 88, 89. + + Beaton, Cardinal, 112, 114, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121. + + Beaufort, Joan, 89. + + Becket, Thomas, 26. + + Berwick, 3, 39, 43, 51, 57, 58, 73, 76, 83, 91, 94, 96, 163, 173. + ---- county of, 69, 73, 82. + ---- pacification of, 163. + ---- siege of, 67, 68. + ---- Treaty of, 164. + + Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, 44. + + Biland Abbey, 58. + + Birnam Wood, 9. + + Bishops' War, 164. + + "Black Agnes", 71. + + Blair Athole, 169. + ---- Castle, 182. + + Blind Harry's _Wallace_, xxvii, xxxiii. + + Boece, Hector, xxvii, xxviii, xxix, xxxi, 9, 200. + + Boniface VIII, 45. + + "Book of the Howlat", the, xxxiii. + + "Book of Pluscarden", the, xxx, 198. + + Borough-Muir of Edinburgh, 69. + + Bosworth, battle of, 97. + + Bothwell, 67, 70. + ---- Earl of, 136, 137, 138. + ---- Bridge, battle of, 178. + + Boulogne, 69. + + Bower, Walter, xxx, 198. + + Braemar, 87. + + Brankston ridge, 106. + + Breadalbane, Marquis of, 185, 186. + + Brechin, 39. + ---- Bishop of, 206. + + Breda, Conference at, 173. + + Bridge of Dee, battle of, 163. + + Brigham, Treaty of, 33. + + Brittany, 1. + + Brockburn, 173. + + Brown, Mr. Hume, x. + + Bruce, Alexander, 51, + ---- Edward, 51, 55, 57. + ---- Marjory, 51, 59, 69. + ---- Nigel, 51. + ---- Robert I, xxiv, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, + 59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 72, 85, 86. + ---- Robert of Annandale, 32, 34, 35, 47. + ---- Sir Thomas, 51. + + Bruces, the, 13, 18, 24, 48. + + Bruges, 68. + + Buchan, Countess of, 50, 51. + ---- earldom of, 53. + ---- Earl of, 88, 90. + ---- men of, 198. + + Buchanan, George, xxxii, 203. + + Bull, Stephen, 98. + + Burgh, Elizabeth de, 51. + ---- Hubert de, 28, 35. + + Burghead, xvii. + + Burgh-on-Sands, 52. + + Burgundy, Duchess of, 98. + ---- Duke of, 95. + + "Burned Candlemas", 73. + + Burton, Mr. Hill, xiii, xxiv, xxvi, xxx, xxxi, xxxii. + + Bute, 193. + + + Cæsar, Julius, 1, 2. + + Caithness, xxiii, 87, 193. + ---- Bishop of, 206. + + Calderwood's _History of the Kirk_, 147. + + Cambuskenneth, Abbey of, 43. + ---- Bridge, battle of, 42. + ---- Parliament at, 59. + + Camden's _Britannia_, xxxiii. + + Campbell, Sir Nigel, 53. + + Campbell of Glenlyon, 185. + + Canute, 8. + + Carberry Hill, 137. + + Carbisdale, defeat at, 172. + + Cardross, castle of, 64. + + Carham, battle of, 8. + + Carlisle, 52, 67, 94, 168. + + Carrick, xxiv, 47, 51. + + ---- earldom of, 45. + + ---- men of, 56, 85. + + Carrickfergus, 57. + + Carstares, William, 183. + + Casket Letters, 138, 141. + + Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty of, 124. + + Cecil, Lord Burleigh, 125, 127, 133. + + Cecilia, d. of Edward IV, 96. + + Charles I, 157, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, + 171, 176. + ---- II, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 181, 182, 183, 187. + + Chatelherault, Duke of, 123. + + Chester, 7. + + Chevy Chase, battle of, 78. + + Clackmannan, 193. + + Clarence, Lionel of, 74, 80. + + Clement III, 27. + + Clitheroe, victory at, 20. + + Clyde, river, 64, 84, 209. + + Colvin of Culross, 152. + + Comyn, John, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53, 85. + + Comyns, the, 48. + + Conventicle Act, 177, 179. + + Cowton Moor, 200. + + Crawford, defeat of, 107. + + Creçy, battle of, 70, 72. + + Cressingham, Hugh of, 40, 41. + + Crevant, battle of, 90. + + Cromarty, 193. + + Cromwell, Oliver, 172, 173, 174, 187, 192, 193. + + Cullen, 40. + + Cumberland, 13, 23, 25, 151 + ---- ravaged, 78. + + Cumbria, 6, 12, 17, 195. + + Cupar, xxx, 198. + + + Dacre, Lord, 108, 111. + + Dalkeith, 163. + + Dalriada, kingdom of, 3, 4. + + Dalry, defeat at, 51. + + Dalrymple, Father James, xxix. + ---- Sir John, of Stair, 185, 186. + + "Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins", xxxv. + + Darc, Joan, 90. + + Darien Scheme, 184, 186, 187. + + Darnley, 90. + ---- Lord, 110, 119, 129, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143. + + David I, xix, xxi, xxii, xxiv, xxvii, xxviii, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, + 24, 25, 26, 34, 85, 196, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213. + ---- II, 59, 64, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75. + ---- Earl of Huntingdon, 24, 28, 34, 35, 206. + ---- son of Alexander III, 31. + + Davidstone, Robert, 202. + + Davison, Secretary, 145. + + Declaration of Indulgence, 179. + + De Coucy, Enguerand, 29. + ---- Marie, 29. + + Dee, river, 7. + + _De Northynbrorum Comitibus_, 7. + + Derbyshire, 5. + + Dingwall, defeat near, 87. + + Don Carlos, 132. + + Donald, Clan of, 87. + + Donald Bane, 16, 48, 209. + ---- of the Isles, xiv, xxv, xxx, 86, 87, 148, 199, 201, 202, 203. + + Doon Hill, 173. + + Douglas, David, 91. + ---- Earl of, 78, 81, 82, 92. + ---- 6th Earl William, 91. + ---- 8th Earl William, 92, 95, 96, 97. + ---- Gavin, xxvii. + ---- House of, xxx, xxxiii, 83, 116. + ---- Lord James, 51, 53, 57, 59, 67. + ---- Lord James the Good, 92. + ---- Lord James the Gross, 92. + ---- Sir Archibald, 67. + + Douglas, Sir George, 119. + ---- Sir James, 55. + + Douglases, the, xxiii, xxv, 82, 92, 93. + + Drumclog, battle of, 178. + + Dryburgh, Abbey of, 57, 58, 77. + + Dumbarton, 119, 162. + + Dumfries, 92, 168. + ---- convent of, 48. + ---- county of, 69. + + Dunbar, 4, 136. + ---- battle of (1296), 39. + ---- battle of (1650), 173, 174. + ---- burning of, 92. + ---- castle of, 70, 71. + ---- earldom of, 12. + ---- William, xxxiv, xxxv, 102. + + Dunbarton Castle, 139. + + Dunblane, Bishop of, 206. + + Duncan I, 8, 9. + + Duncan, son of Malcolm III, 16. + ---- of Lorne, xxxv. + + Dundalk, defeat at, 57. + + Dundee, xxiii, 170, 198. + ---- castle of, 42. + ---- meeting at, 54. + + Dunkeld, Bishop of, 206. + + Dunottar, castle of, 179. + + Dunsinane, 9. + + Dupplin Moor, battle of, 21, 66, 67, 68, 70, 72, 82, 108. + + Durham, city of, 19, 72, 165. + ---- Treaty of, 23. + + + Eadred, 6. + + Earn, river, 66. + + Edderton, xvii. + + Edgar, 7, 205. + + Edgar, son of Malcolm III, 16, 17, 18. + + Edgar the Atheling, 11, 13. + + Edinburgh, 4, 27, 45, 59, 76, 77, 113, 119, 125, 137, 151, 157, 161, 162, + 165, 166, 172, 173, 175, 181. + ---- Bishop of, 158. + ---- castle of, 39, 54, 71, 81, 126, 136, 143, 182. + ---- Convention at, 167. + ---- county of, 69. + ---- Presbytery of, 147. + ---- riots in, 160. + ---- Treaty of, 126, 127, 129. + ---- University of, 183. + + Edmund the Magnificent, 6, 16. + + Edward I, x, xi, xii, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, + 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 59, 60, 62, 64, 66, + 70, 74, 179. + ---- II, 32, 33, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59. + ---- III, 59, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74, 75. + ---- IV, 61, 94, 95, 96, 97. + ---- VI, 118, 131. + ---- the Black Prince, 75. + ---- the Elder, 5. + + Edwin, 4. + + Egfrith, 12. + + Elgin, 40, 45, 70, 182. + Elizabeth, Queen, x, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, + 136, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146. + + Elphinstone, Bishop, xxix, 105. + + "English Wooing", the, 119. + + Eric of Norway, 32, 34. + + Esk, river, 115. + + Eugenia, 201. + + Eure, Sir Ralph, 120. + + Eustace of Boulogne, 17. + + Eustacius, 195. + + Evandale, Lord, 113. + + + _Fair Maid of Perth_, 81. + + Fairfax, Lord, 168. + + Falaise, castle of, 26. + ---- Treaty of, 27, 28. + + Falkirk, battle of, xvii, 44, 55, 56, 66. + + Falkland, 81. + + Falls of Foyers, 213. + + Fast Castle, 84. + + Fénélon, La Mothe, 141. + + Ferdinand of Spain, 99. + + Feredach, 197. + + Fergus, 197. + + Fife, xi, xiii, xv, xvii, xviii, xix, xxiii, xxxiv, 103. + ---- Celts of, 213. + ---- Earl of, 78. + + Fifeshire, 160. + + Firth, Mr. C., 173. + + FitzAlan, or Steward, 210. + + Fitzalans, the, 18. + + Fitzpatrick, Sir Roger, 49. + + Five Mile Act, 177. + + Flamborough Head, 83. + + Fletcher of Saltoun, 184, 191. + + Flodden, battle of, xxiv, 21, 72, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 111. + + Florence of Worcester, 7, 9. + + _Flower_, the, 98. + + "Flyting", xxxiv. + + Fordun, John of, xxii, xxvii, xxx, 196, 208. + + Forfar, xvii, xix. + + Fort-William, 185. + + Forth, Firth of, xii, 3, 5, 12, 21, 22, 42, 69, 84, 96, 98, 213. + + Fotheringay Castle, 144. + + "Foul Raid", the, 88. + + Francis I, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114. + ---- II, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128. + + Fraser, Bishop, 34, 35. + + Frasers, the, 87. + + Frederick II, the Emperor, 35. + + Freeman, Edward, x, xii, xv, xxiv, 6, 7, 85, 88. + + Froude, Mr., 138. + + Fyvie Castle, 169. + + + Galloway, xiii, xxi, xxii, xxiii, 22, 25, 208, 209, 210. + ---- Bishop of, 206. + + Gascony, 75. + + Gaul, 1. + + Gaveston, Piers, 54. + + Geddes, Jennie, 159. + + Geneva, 123, 150. + + George II, 212. + + Gilbert of Galloway, 209. + + Giraldus Cambrensis, xxvi, xxxii. + + Glasgow, 51, 170. + ---- Assembly at, 154, 161. + ---- Bishop of, 206. + ---- University of, xxxiv. + + Glencoe, Massacre of, 184, 185. + + Gloucester, Duke of, 96. + ---- meeting at, 13. + + Godwin, Earl, 205. + + Gordon, Duke of, 182. + ---- Lady Katharine, 99. + + Gordons, the, xxiii, 168, 170. + + Gospatric of Northumberland, 12. + + Graham, John, of Claverhouse, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182. + + _Great Michael_, the, 103. + + Green, J.R., x, xi, xiii. + + Gregory IX, 35. + + Greyfriars, church of, 161, 178. + + Gruoch, wife of Mormaor, 8. + + Gueldres, Duke of, 102. + + Guise, Mary of, 114, 116, 117, 124, 125, 126. + + Gunpowder Plot, 150. + + Gustavus Adolphus, 162. + + Guthrie, James, 176. + + + Haddington, xxxi, 3. + ---- county of, 69. + + Hakon of Norway, 29. + + Halidon Hill, battle of, 21, 68, 72, 90, 201. + + Hall, the chronicler, 104. + + Hamburg, 43. + + Hamilton, Duke and Marquis of, 161, 163, 166, 171, 172. + + Hamiltons, the, 133. + + Hapsburgs, the, 129. + + Harlaw, battle of, xiii, xxiv, xxv, xxix, xxxi, xxxii, 87, 88, 198, 199, + 200, 201, 202, 203. + + Hastings, John, 35. + + Hebrides, xxix, 8. + + Henderson, Alexander, 160, 161, 170. + + Henry I, 17, 19. + + Henry II, 23, 25, 26, 27, 208, 209. + ---- III, 28, 29, 35, 36. + ---- IV, xxv, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86. + ---- V, 88, 89. + ---- VI, 93, 94, 95. + ---- VII, 61, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103. + ---- VIII, x, 103, 104, 105, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, + 118, 119, 120, 121, 131. + ---- II of France, 122, 124, 125. + ---- Prince of Scotland, 20, 23, 24. + + Hereford, Earl of, 44. + ---- siege of, 168, 170. + + Herrings, battle of, 90. + + Hertford, Earl of, 119, 120, 121. + + Hexham Chronicle, 21. + ---- monastery of, 43. + + Holland, Richard, xxxiii. + + Holyrood, 102, 133, 138, 155, 157. + + Homildon Hill, battle of, 72, 82, 83, 90. + + Hotspur, Sir Harry, 78, 82. + + Howard, Sir Edmund, 106. + + Hugo of Ross, 201. + + Humber, river, xii. + + Hume, the historian, 138. + + Huntingdon, earldom of, 18, 19, 25, 26, 27, 28, 35. + + Huntly, Earl of, 99, 131. + ---- Marquis of, 162, 163, 164, 169, 172. + + + Ida, 3. + + Inchmahome priory, 122. + + Ingibjorg, 16. + + "Instrument" of Government, 175. + + Inverary, 185. + ---- Castle, 169. + + Inverlochy, 169. + + Inverness, 182. + + Inverurie, defeat at, 53. + + Irevin, Alexander, 198. + + Irvine, submission of, 42. + + Isabella, daughter of Earl David, 35. + ---- of Spain, 99. + + Italy, 18. + + + Jamaica, 187. + + James I, 83, 84, 89, 90, 91, 93. + ---- II, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 109. + ---- III, 95, 96, 97, 98, 101. + ---- IV, xxiv, xxvii, xxviii, xxxv, 62, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, + 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 117, 120. + ---- V, xxvii, 97, 108, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 127. + ---- VI, x, xxxiv, 19, 60, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, + 153, 154, 155, 157, 158, 177, 181, 192, 193, 211. + ---- VII, 178, 179, 180, 182. + ---- Lord Hamilton, 109. + + Janville, 90. + + Jedburgh, 84. + + Joanna, daughter of Edward II, 60. + + ---- daughter of John, 28. + John, 28, 35, 79, 195. + + ---- XXII, the Pope, 58. + ---- of Brittany, 47. + ---- of Carrick, 78. + ---- of France, 79. + ---- of Gaunt, 76, 89. + ---- of the Isles, 95, 96. + ---- of Wallingford, 7. + + Johnson, Dr., 86. + + Johnston, J.B., xvi, 4. + + Johnston of Warriston, 170. + + Julius II, 103, 104. + + + Keith, Sir Robert, 56. + + Kennedy, Bishop, 95. + ---- Walter, xxxiv, xxxv. + + Kenneth Macalpine, 4. + + Kenneth of Scotland, 7. + + Ker of Faudonside, 135. + + Kilblain, victory at, 69. + + Kildrummie Castle, 51. + + Killiecrankie, battle of, 182. + + Kilsyth, victory at, 170. + + Kinghorn, 66. + + _Kings Quair_, 89. + + Kinloss, Abbey of, 207. + + Kinross, 193. + + Kirkaldy of Grange, 142. + + Kirkcudbright, xvii. + + Knox, John, 121, 123, 124, 125, 128, 130, 133, 146. + + + _Lady of the Lake_, the, xi, xxxvii, 86. + + Lanark, 42. + + Lanarkshire, 179. + + Lang, Mr. Andrew, x, xi, 7, 41, 65, 92, 121, 204. + + Langside, battle of, 139. + + Largs, battle of, 29, 30. + + Laud, Archbishop, 158, 159, 162. + + Laurencekirk, xvii. + + Leicester, Earl of, 132. + + Leith, 119. + ---- besieged, 126. + + Lennox, Earl of, 106, 108, 109, 119, 133, 142, 143. + + Lesley, John, xxix, 203. + + Leslie, Alexander, 201. + ---- Alexander, Earl of Leven, 162, 163, 166, 168, 170, 173, 174. + ---- David, 170, 173. + ---- family of, 86. + ---- Walter, 201. + + Leuchars, church of, 160. + + Lincoln, battle of (1216), 28. + ---- victory at, 23. + + Linlithgow, 54, 137, 142. + ---- Convention at, 154. + ---- county of, 69. + + Lochleven Castle, 137, 138, 139. + + Lochmaben, 76. + ---- battle of, 97. + ---- Stone, battle of, 92. + + Loch Ness, 169. + + London, xxxvi, 46, 73, 78, 102, 166, 174, 176. + + Longueville, Duc de, 114. + + Lords of the Articles, 153, 181. + + Lords Ordainers, 54. + + Lothians, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xvii, xix, xxxiv, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 17, 22, + 23, 77, 119, 170, 206. + + Loudon Hill, battle of, 51. + + Louis IX, 35. + + Louis XI, 95. + + Lubeck, 43. + + + MacAlexander, 197. + + Macbeth, 8, 9. + + MacDavid, 197. + + MacDonald of Glencoe, 185. + + MacDuff, Clan of, 209. + + Macfadyane, xxxv. + + MacGregor, Red Duncan, 4. + + MacHenry, 197. + + MacHeth, xxi, 206, 207, 208. + + Mackay, General, 182. + + Mackays, the, 87. + + Mackenzies, the, 87. + + MacLane, 198. + + Madeline, daughter of Francis I, 113, 114. + + Madoc of Wales, 38. + + Mahomet, xxxv. + + Maitland of Lethington, 130, 133, 142. + + Major, John, xxvi, xxviii, xxix, xxx, xxxi, xxxii, 199. + + Malcolm I, 6. + ---- II, xii, 7, 8, 9. + ---- III (Canmore), xvii, xix, xx, xxi, xxix, xxxvii, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, + 16, 17, 48, 85, 196, 200, 204, 205, 206, 209, 211, 212. + ---- IV, xxii, 24, 25, 26, 27, 208. + + Malvile, Robert de, 198. + + Man, Isle of, 55. + + Mansfield, town of, 168. + + Manton, Ralph de, 45. + + Mar, Alexander, 203. + ---- 10th Earl of, 50. + ---- 11th Earl of, 65, 66, 67. + ---- 12th Earl of, 87. + ---- Earls of, xxx, 143, 202. + ---- Isabella of, 50. + + March, Edmund, Earl of, 80. + ---- George, Earl of, 71, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 88. + + Margaret, daughter of Alexander III, 31. + ---- daughter of Angus, 110, 119, 129, 133. + ---- daughter of Christian I, 97. + ---- daughter of David, 34. + ---- daughter of Henry III, 31. + ---- daughter of Henry VII, 99, 101, 102, 103, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, + 113, 114, 116, 124, 133. + ---- daughter of James I, 90, 91. + ---- daughter of William the Lion, 28. + ---- grand-daughter of Alexander III, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36. + ---- Saint, xix, xxvii, 27, 85. + ---- wife of Canmore, xiv, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 205. + ---- of Anjou, 94. + + Marston Moor, battle of, 168. + + Mary, Queen of Scots, xxix, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, + 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141, + 142, 143, 144, 145, 149, 165. + ---- II, 180, 181. + ---- daughter of Henry VIII, 113, 123, 124. + ---- daughter of James II, 109. + ---- wife of Eustace, 17. + ---- of Gueldres, 95. + + Matilda, the Empress, 19, 20, 23. + ---- wife of Henry I, 17. + + Maximilian the Emperor, 99. + + Mearns, Earl of, 16. + ---- the, xvii, 198. + + Medici, Catherine de, 128. + + Melrose Abbey, 77, 120. + + Melun, siege of, 89. + + Melville, Andrew, 147, 148. + + Menteith, Lake of, 122. + ---- Sir John, 46. + + Methven, 50. + ---- Lord, 113. + + Midlothian, 3. + + Millenary Petition, the, 148. + + Mitton-on-Swale, battle of, 57, 72. + + Monk, General, 174, 176. + + Monmouth, Duke of, 179. + + Montgomerie, Alexander, xxxiv, xxxvi. + + Montrose, Marquis of, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, + 173, 176, 181. + + Moors, the, 64. + + Mor Tuath, 204. + + Moray, Andrew of, 43. + ---- Bishop of, 206. + ---- Celts, 206, 208, 213. + ---- earldom of, xxi, xxii, 8. + ---- Firth, xii, xvii, 4, 84, 213. + ---- Sir Andrew, 67, 70. + ---- Thomas, 198, 202. + + Morayshire, xxi, 25. + + Mormaers, the, 204, 206. + + Mortimers, the, 64, 65. + + Morton, Earl of, 137, 138, 143. + + Musselburgh, 65. + + + Namur, Guy de, 70. + + Napoleon, 46. + + National Covenant, 160, 162, 166, 178. + + Navigation Act, 176. + + Nectansmere, battle of, 12. + + Nesbit, skirmish at, 82. + ---- victory at, 73. + + Neville, Archbishop, 72. + + Neville's Cross, battle of, 72. + + Newark, 168. + + Newbattle Abbey, 77. + + Newburn, battle of, 165. + + Newcastle, 13, 165. + ---- Propositions of, 170. + + Newport, 171. + + New York, 187. + + Norfolk, Duke of, 143. + + Norham Castle, 100, 105. + + Normandy, 26, 40. + + Northallerton, xxiv, 20, 21, 24, 72, 93. + + Northampton, battle of, 93. + ---- Treaty of, 59, 64, 65, 101. + + Northumberland, xxii, 11, 12, 18, 19, 25, 67, 88, 93, 151, 206. + ---- earldom of, 23, 26, 28. + ---- Earl of, 78, 82, 83, 142. + + Northumbria, xii, xxxiii, 4, 5. + + Northumbria, Earl of, 7, 8, 9. + + Nottingham, Earl of, 77. + + Nova Scotia, 156. + + + Ogilby, Alexander, 198, 199, 202. + + Ogilvie, John, 150. + + Oman, Mr., xii, 21, 44. + + Orkneys, 8, 97. + + Orleans, siege of, 90. + + Ormsby, William, 40, 41. + + Otterburn, battle of, 78. + + Owen of Strathclyde, 8. + + Owre, Donald, xxxv. + + Oxford, xxxiv. + + + Palestine, 18, 64. + + Panama, Isthmus of, 187. + + Paterson, William, 186, 187. + + Pathay, victory of, 90. + + Pavia, battle of, 112. + + Peasants' Revolt, 76. + + Pedro de Ayala, xxxii. + + Peebles, 48. + ---- county of, 69. + + Pembroke, Earl of, 50, 51. + + Pentland, battle of, 177. + ---- Firth of, 5. + + Percies, the, 77, 78, 82, 83, 92. + + Percy, Henry, 72. + + Perron, Cardinal, 150. + + Perth, xxxi, 50, 54, 66, 91, 168, 169, 174, 208. + ---- Five Articles of, 155, 162. + ---- riots in, 124, 125. + ---- surrender of, 71. + + Pezron, Paul Ives, 2. + + Philip IV, 38, 45. + + Philiphaugh, defeat at, 170. + + Pinkerton's suggestion, 56. + + Pinkie, battle of, 21, 63, 122. + + Piperden, victory of, 91. + + Pitscottie, 94, 115. + + _Post-nati_ case, 152. + + Preston, battle of, 172. + + + Randolph, Earl of Moray, 53, 54, 55, 57, 59, 64, 65, 67, 71, 85. + ---- Earl of Moray, the younger, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73. + ---- the ambassador, 134. + + Rathlin, island of, 51. + + Ratisbon, xxix. + + Regnold, King, 5. + + Renfrew, 10. + + Rhys, Dr., 3. + + Richard I, 27, 35. + ---- II, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82. + ---- III, 97. + + Richard of Hexham, 22. + + Richelieu, Cardinal, 164. + + Rizzio, David, 134, 135, 136, 138. + + Robert II, the Steward, 59, 69, 72, 73, 75, 78, 86. + ---- III, 78, 80, 81, 84, 210. + ---- the High Steward, 59. + ---- of Normandy, 13. + + Robertson, E.W., xxi, xxii, xxxvii, 5, 209. + + Rokeby, 72. + + Ross, Bishop of, xxix, 206. + ---- county of, xxiii, xxxi. + ---- Duke of, 110. + ---- earldom of, 86. + ---- Earl of, 201, 202, 203, 210. + + Rosslyn, defeat at, 45. + + Rothesay, Duke of, 80, 81. + + Rothiemurchus, 169. + + Roxburgh, 39, 54, 91, 93. + ---- castle of, 94. + ---- county of, 69, 76, 115, 120. + ---- skirmish at, 67. + + Rudolfi, 143. + + Rullion Green, battle of, 177. + + Ruthven, Earl of, 135. + + + St. Abb's Head, 84. + + St. Albans, 1st battle of, 93. + ---- 2nd battle of, 94. + + St. Andrews, 34, 118, 120, 121, 125, 177. + ---- Archbishop of, 176, 206. + ---- castle of, 95. + + St. Duthac, 51. + + St. Germains, 191. + + St. Giles' Collegiate Church, 158, 159. + + St. James's, 191. + + Salisbury, Earl of, 70. + ---- meeting at, 32. + + Sark, battle of, 92. + + Scone, 32, 40, 42, 66, 174. + + _Scoti-chronicon_, xxx. + + Scott, Sir Walter, xviii, 81, 212. + + Scrymgeour, James, 198. + + Seaforth, Earl of, 169. + + Segrave, Sir John, 45. + + Selkirk, county of, 69. + + Seymour, Jane, 114. + + Shakespeare, 9. + + Sharpe, James, 176, 177. + + Shetlands, 8, 97. + + Shrewsbury, battle of, 83. + + Siward of Northumbria, 9, 18, 20. + + Skene's _Celtic Scotland_, 204, 210. + + Skye, xviii, xxvii, 86. + + Slains, rout at, 53. + + Smith, Mr. G. Gregory, 98, 104. + + Solemn League and Covenant, 167, 172, 173, 178. + + Solway, the, 139. + ---- Moss, battle of, 115, 117. + + Somerled of Argyll, 25, 41, 208. + + Somerset, Earl of, 88. + + Sophia of Hanover, 190. + + Spain, 46, 64, 104, 128, 131, 132, 146. + + Spey, river, 173. + + Standard, battle of, 20, 21, 24, 85, 195. + + Stanley, 106. + + Stephen, 17, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25. + + Stewart, Henry, 113. + ---- Lord James, 127, 130, 133, 134, 135, 138, 139, 141, 142. + ---- Murdoch, 82. + ---- Sir John, 90. + + Stirling, 113, 173, 174. + ---- battle of, 42, 44. + ---- castle of, 34, 45, 55, 71. + + Stracathro, 39. + + Stradarniae comes, 195. + + Strathclyde, 5, 6, 8, 9, 23. + + Strathern, Earl of, 22. + + Strathon, Alexander, 202. + + Strickland, Miss, 145. + + Stuart, Alexander, 202. + + Stuarts, the, xx, 18, 100. + + Suffolk, Earl of, 78. + + Surrey, Earl of, 100, 106, 107, 108, 112. + + Sybilla, daughter of Henry I, 17. + + Symeon of Durham, 7, 205. + + + Tables, the, 160. + + Tain, xvii, 51. + + _Tales of a Grandfather_, xviii. + + Tay, xi, xii, xiii, xxx. + + Tees, 23, 165. + + Test Act, 178, 179. + + Teviotdale, 23. + + "The Incident", 166. + + Thirty Years' War, 162. + + Throckmorton, 126. + + Till, river, 106. + + Tippermuir, victory at, 168. + + Tomintoul, 87. + + Toulouse, 25, 208. + + Touraine, Duke of, 90. + + Towton, battle of, 94. + + Tudors, the, 63. + + Turnberry, xvii. + + Turriff, battle of, 163. + + Tweed, 13, 69, 158, 165, 168, 173. + + Tweeddale, 53. + + "Tyneman the Unlucky", 67. + + + Ulster, Plantation of, 150, 156. + + Uxbridge, Proposals of, 168. + + + Vendome, Duc de, 113. + + Verneuil, battle of, 90. + + Vienne, John de, 77. + + Virgil, Polydore, xxxii, 101. + + + Wales, 1, 81. + + Wallace, William, xxxiii, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, 54, 55, 62. + + Walter l'Espec, 20. + ---- of Coventry, 209. + + Waltheof, 18. + + Warbeck, Perkin, 61, 99, 100. + + Warenne, John of, 40, 43. + + Wark, attack on, 112. + ---- capture of, 94. + + Warkworth, castle of, 92. + + _Waverley_, xviii, xxxvii. + + Wentworth, Lord Strafford, 161. + + Wessex, 5. + + Westminster, 36. + ---- Abbey, 36, 40, 52, 60. + ---- Assembly, 167. + + Westmoreland, 25, 78. + ---- Earl of, 142. + + Wigtown, martyrs of, 178. + + Winchester, Bishop of, 148. + ---- Chronicle, 5. + ---- defeat at, 23. + + Wishart, George, 120. + + William I, xiv, xv, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17. + ---- III, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 187, 188, 191. + + William the Lion, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 34, 35, 205, 209, 210, 213. + ---- Earl of Ross, 201. + ---- of Albemarle, 20. + ---- of Newburgh, xix. + ---- Rufus, 13, 16. + + Wood, Sir Andrew, 98. + + Woodstock, homage at, 25. + + Woodville, Elizabeth, 97. + + Worcester, battle of, 174, 175. + + Wyntoun, 84. + + + _Yellow Carvel_, 98. + + York, 168. + + York, Archbishop of, 57. + ---- Duke of, 98. + ---- meeting at, 114. + ---- reconciliation of, 93. + ---- siege of, 168. + ---- Treaty of, 29. + + Yorkshire, xv, xxii, 57, 58, 206. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Outline of the Relations between +England and Scotland (500-1707), by Robert S. 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Rait + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: An Outline of the Relations between England and Scotland (500-1707) + +Author: Robert S. Rait + +Release Date: September 4, 2005 [EBook #16647] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN OUTLINE OF THE RELATIONS *** + + + + +Produced by Irma Spehar, Janet Blenkinship and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net. +Produced from page images provided by Internet +Archive/Canadian Libraries. + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p><a name="Page_-37" id="Page_-37"></a></p> + +<h2>Outline of the</h2> + +<h2>Relations between</h2> + +<h1>England and Scotland</h1> + +<h4>(500-1707)</h4> + +<p><a name="Page_-36" id="Page_-36"></a><a name="Page_-35" id="Page_-35"></a></p> + +<h4>BY</h4> + +<h2>ROBERT S. RAIT</h2> + +<h4>FELLOW OF NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD</h4> + +<h4>LONDON</h4> +<h4>BLACKIE & SON, <span class="smcap">Limited</span>, 50 OLD BAILEY, E.C.</h4> +<h4>GLASGOW AND DUBLIN</h4> +<h4>1901</h4> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i"></a></p><p><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii"></a></p> +<h3>PREFATORY NOTE</h3> + + +<p>I desire to take this opportunity of acknowledging valuable aid derived +from the recent works on Scottish History by Mr. Hume Brown and Mr. +Andrew Lang, from Mr. E.W. Robertson's <i>Scotland under her Early Kings</i>, +and from Mr. Oman's <i>Art of War</i>. Personal acknowledgments are due to +Professor Davidson of Aberdeen, to Mr. H. Fisher, Fellow of New College, +and to Mr. J.T.T. Brown, of Glasgow, who was good enough to aid me in +the search for references to the Highlanders in Scottish mediæval +literature, and to give me the benefit of his great knowledge of this +subject.</p> + +<p class='author'>R.S.R.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">New College, Oxford,</span></p> +<p><span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>April, 1901</i>.</span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_-32" id="Page_-32"></a></p><p><a name="Page_-31" id="Page_-31"></a></p> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="TABLE OF CONTENTS"> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I—Racial Distribution and Feudal Relations, 500-1066 a.d.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II—Scotland and the Normans, 1066-1286</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III—The Scottish Policy of Edward I, 1286-1296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV—The War of Independence, 1297-1328</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V—Edward III and Scotland, 1328-1399</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI—Scotland, Lancaster, and York, 1400-1500</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII—The Beginnings of the English Alliance,</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII—The Parting of the Ways, 1542-1568</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX—The Union of the Crowns, 1568-1625</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X—"The Troubles in Scotland", 1625-1688</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI—The Union of the Parliaments, 1689-1707</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#APPENDIX_A">APPENDIX A—References to the Highlanders in Mediæval Literature</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#APPENDIX_B">APPENDIX B—The Feudalization of Scotland</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#APPENDIX_C">APPENDIX C—Table of the Competitors of 1290</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix"></a></p><p><a name="Page_-29" id="Page_-29"></a></p> +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> + + +<p>The present volume has been published with two main objects. The writer +has attempted to exhibit, in outline, the leading features of the +international history of the two countries which, in 1707, became the +United Kingdom. Relations with England form a large part, and the heroic +part, of Scottish history, relations with Scotland a very much smaller +part of English history. The result has been that in histories of +England references to Anglo-Scottish relations are occasional and +spasmodic, while students of Scottish history have occasionally +forgotten that, in regard to her southern neighbour, the attitude of +Scotland was not always on the heroic scale. Scotland appears on the +horizon of English history only during well-defined epochs, leaving no +trace of its existence in the intervals between these. It may be that +the space given to Scotland in the ordinary histories of England is +proportional to the importance of Scottish affairs, on the whole; but +the importance assigned to Anglo-Scottish relations in the fourteenth +century is quite disproportionate to the treatment of the same subject +in the fifteenth century. Readers <a name="Page_x" id="Page_x"></a>even of Mr. Green's famous book, may +learn with surprise from Mr. Lang or Mr. Hume Brown the part played by +the Scots in the loss of the English dominions in France, or may fail to +understand the references to Scotland in the diplomatic correspondence +of the sixteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> There seems to be, therefore, room for a +connected narrative of the attitude of the two countries towards each +other, for only thus is it possible to provide the <i>data</i> requisite for +a fair appreciation of the policy of Edward I and Henry VIII, or of +Elizabeth and James I. Such a narrative is here presented, in outline, +and the writer has tried, as far as might be, to eliminate from his work +the element of national prejudice.</p> + +<p>The book has also another aim. The relations between England and +Scotland have not been a purely political connexion. The peoples have, +from an early date, been, to some extent, intermingled, and this mixture +of blood renders necessary some account of the racial relationship. It +has been a favourite theme of the English historians of the nineteenth +century that the portions of Scotland where the Gaelic tongue has ceased +to be spoken are not really Scottish, but English. "The Scots who +resisted Edward", wrote Mr. Freeman, "were the English of<a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi"></a> Lothian. The +true Scots, out of hatred to the 'Saxons' nearest to them, leagued with +the 'Saxons' farther off."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Mr. Green, writing of the time of Edward +I, says: "The farmer of Fife or the Lowlands, and the artisan of the +towns, remained stout-hearted Northumbrian Englishmen", and he adds that +"The coast districts north of the Tay were inhabited by a population of +the same blood as that of the Lowlands".<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The theory has been, at all +events verbally, accepted by Mr. Lang, who describes the history of +Scotland as "the record of the long resistance of the English of +Scotland to England, of the long resistance of the Celts of Scotland to +the English of Scotland".<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Above all, the conception has been firmly +planted in the imagination by the poet of the <i>Lady of the Lake</i>.</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"These fertile plains, that soften'd vale,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Were once the birthright of the Gael;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">The stranger came with iron hand,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">And from our fathers reft the land."</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>While holding in profound respect these illustrious names, the writer +ventures to ask for a modification of this verdict. That the Scottish +Lowlanders (among whom we include the in<a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii"></a>habitants of the coast +districts from the Tay to the Moray Firth) were, in the end of the +thirteenth century, "English in speech and manners" (as Mr. Oman<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> +guardedly describes them) is beyond doubt. Were they also English in +blood? The evidence upon which the accepted theory is founded is +twofold. In the course of the sixth century the Angles made a descent +between the Humber and the Forth, and that district became part of the +English kingdom of Northumbria. Even here we have, in the evidence of +the place-names, some reasons for believing that a proportion of the +original Brythonic population may have survived. This northern portion +of the kingdom of Northumbria was affected by the Danish invasions, but +it remained an Anglian kingdom till its conquest, in the beginning of +the eleventh century, by the Celtic king, Malcolm II. There is, thus, +sufficient justification for Mr. Freeman's phrase, "the English of +Lothian", if we interpret the term "Lothian" in the strict sense; but it +remains to be explained how the inhabitants of the Scottish Lowlands, +outside Lothian, can be included among the English of Lothian who +resisted Edward I. That explanation is afforded by the events which +followed the Norman Conquest of<a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii"></a> England. It is argued that the +Englishmen who fled from the Normans united with the original English of +Lothian to produce the result indicated in the passage quoted from Mr. +Green. The farmers of Fife and the Lowlands, the artisans of the towns, +the dwellers in the coast districts north of Tay, became, by the end of +the thirteenth century, stout Northumbrian Englishmen. Mr. Green admits +that the south-west of Scotland was still inhabited, in 1290, by the +Picts of Galloway, and neither he nor any other exponent of the theory +offers any explanation of their subsequent disappearance. The history of +Scotland, from the fourteenth century to the Rising of 1745, contains, +according to this view, a struggle between the Celts and "the English of +Scotland", the most important incident of which is the battle of Harlaw, +in 1411, which resulted in a great victory for "the English of +Scotland". Mr. Hill Burton writes thus of Harlaw: "On the face of +ordinary history it looks like an affair of civil war. But this +expression is properly used towards those who have common interests and +sympathies, who should naturally be friends and may be friends again, +but for a time are, from incidental causes of dispute and quarrel, made +enemies. The contest ... was none of this; it was a contest between +foes, of whom their contemporaries would have said that their ever +<a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv"></a>being in harmony with each other, or having a feeling of common +interests and common nationality, was not within the range of rational +expectations.... It will be difficult to make those not familiar with +the tone of feeling in Lowland Scotland at that time believe that the +defeat of Donald of the Isles was felt as a more memorable deliverance +even than that of Bannockburn."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p>We venture to plead for a modification of this theory, which may fairly +be called the orthodox account of the circumstances. It will at once +occur to the reader that some definite proof should be forthcoming that +the Celtic inhabitants of Scotland, outside the Lothians, were actually +subjected to this process of racial displacement. Such a displacement +had certainly not been effected before the Norman Conquest, for it was +only in 1018 that the English of Lothian were subjected to the rule of a +Celtic king, and the large amount of Scottish literature, in the Gaelic +tongue, is sufficient indication that Celtic Scotland was not confined +to the Highlands in the eleventh century. Nor have we any hint of a +racial displacement after the Norman conquest, even though it is +unquestionable that a considerable number of exiles followed Queen +Margaret to Scotland, and that William's harrying of the north of +England drove others over the <a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv"></a>border. It is easy to lay too much stress +upon the effect of the latter event. The northern counties cannot have +been very thickly populated, and if Mr. Freeman is right in his +description of "that fearful deed, half of policy, half of vengeance, +which has stamped the name of William with infamy", not very many of the +victims of his cruelty can have made good their flight, for we are told +that the bodies of the inhabitants of Yorkshire "were rotting in the +streets, in the highways, or on their own hearthstones". Stone dead left +no fellow to colonize Scotland. We find, therefore, only the results and +not the process of this racial displacement. These results were the +adoption of English manners and the English tongue, and the growth of +English names, and we wish to suggest that they may find an historical +explanation which does not involve the total disappearance of the +Scottish farmer from Fife, or of the Scottish artisan from Aberdeen.</p> + +<p>Before proceeding to a statement of the explanation to which we desire +to direct the reader's attention, it may be useful to deal briefly with +the questions relating to the spoken language of Lowland Scotland and to +its place-names. The fact that the language of the Angles and Saxons +completely superseded, in England, the tongue of the conquered Britons, +<a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi"></a>is admitted to be a powerful argument for the view that the Anglo-Saxon +conquest of England resulted in a racial displacement. But the argument +cannot be transferred to the case of the Scottish Lowlands, where, also, +the English language has completely superseded a Celtic tongue. For, in +the first case, the victory is that of the language of a savage people, +known to be in a state of actual warfare, and it is a victory which +follows as an immediate result of conquest. In Scotland, the victory of +the English tongue (outside the Lothians) dates from a relatively +advanced period of civilization, and it is a victory won, not by +conquest or bloodshed, but by peaceful means. Even in a case of +conquest, change of speech is not conclusive evidence of change of race +(<i>e.g.</i> the adoption of a Romance tongue by the Gauls); much less is it +decisive in such an instance as the adoption of English by the +Lowlanders of Scotland. In striking contrast to the case of England, the +victory of the Anglo-Saxon speech in Scotland did not include the +adoption of English place-names. The reader will find the subject fully +discussed in the valuable work by the Reverend J.B. Johnston, entitled +<i>Place-Names of Scotland</i>. "It is impossible", says Mr. Johnston, "to +speak with strict accuracy on the point, but Celtic names in Scotland +must outnumber all <a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii"></a>the rest by nearly ten to one." Even in counties +where the Gaelic tongue is now quite obsolete (<i>e.g.</i> in Fife, in +Forfar, in the Mearns, and in parts of Aberdeenshire), the place-names +are almost entirely Celtic. The region where English place-names abound +is, of course, the Lothians; but scarcely an English place-name is +definitely known to have existed, even in the Lothians, before the +Norman Conquest, and, even in the Lothians, the English tongue never +affected the names of rivers and mountains. In many instances, the +existence of a place-name which has now assumed an English form is no +proof of English race. As the Gaelic tongue died out, Gaelic place-names +were either translated or corrupted into English forms; Englishmen, +receiving grants of land from Malcolm Canmore and his successors, called +these lands after their own names, with the addition of the suffix-ham +or-tun; the influence of English ecclesiastics introduced many new +names; and as English commerce opened up new seaports, some of these +became known by the names which Englishmen had given them.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> On the +<a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii"></a>whole, the evidence of the place-names corroborates our view that the +changes were changes in civilization, and not in racial distribution.</p> + +<p>We now proceed to indicate the method by which these changes were +effected, apart from any displacement of race. Our explanation finds a +parallel in the process which has changed the face of the Scottish +Highlands within the last hundred and fifty years, and which produced +very important results within the "sixty years" to which Sir Walter +Scott referred in the second title of <i>Waverley</i>.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> There has been no +racial displacement; but the English language and English civilization +have gradually been superseding the ancient tongue and the ancient +customs of the Scottish Highlands. The difference between Skye and Fife +is that the influences which have been at work in the former for a +century and a half have been in operation in the latter for more than +eight hundred years.</p> + +<p>What then were the influences which, between 1066 and 1300, produced in +the Scottish Lowlands some of the results that, between 1746 and 1800, +were achieved in the Scottish Highlands? That they included an infusion +of English blood we have no wish to deny. Anglo-Saxons, in considerable +numbers, penetrated northwards, <a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix"></a>and by the end of the thirteenth +century the Lowlanders were a much less pure race than, except in the +Lothians, they had been in the days of Malcolm Canmore. Our contention +is, that we have no evidence for the assertion that this Saxon admixture +amounted to a racial change, and that, ethnically, the men of Fife and +of Forfar were still Scots, not English. Such an infusion of English +blood as our argument allows will not explain the adoption of the +English tongue, or of English habits of life; we must look elsewhere for +the full explanation. The English victory was, as we shall try to show, +a victory not of blood but of civilization, and three main causes helped +to bring it about. The marriage of Malcolm Canmore introduced two new +influences into Scotland—an English Court and an English Church, and +contemporaneously with the changes consequent upon these new +institutions came the spread of English commerce, carrying with it the +English tongue along the coast, and bringing an infusion of English +blood into the towns.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> In the reign of David I, the son of Malcolm +Canmore and St. Margaret, these purely Saxon influences were succeeded +by the Anglo-Norman tendencies of the king's <a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx"></a>favourites. Grants of +land<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> to English and Norman courtiers account for the occurrence of +English and Norman family and place-names. The men who lived in +immediate dependence upon a lord, giving him their services and +receiving his protection, owing him their homage and living under his +sole jurisdiction, took the name of the lord whose men they were.</p> + +<p>A more important question arises with regard to the system of land +tenure, and the change from clan ownership to feudal possession. How was +the tribal system suppressed? An outline of the process by which +Scotland became a feudalized country will be found in the Appendix, +where we shall also have an opportunity of referring, for purposes of +comparison, to the methods by which clan-feeling was destroyed after the +last Jacobite insurrection. Here, it must suffice to give a brief +summary of the case there presented. It is important to bear in mind +that the tribes of 1066 were not the clans of 1746. The clan system in +the Highlands underwent considerable development between the days of +Malcolm Canmore and those of the Stuarts. Too much stress must not be +laid upon the unwillingness of the people to give up tribal ownership, +for it is clear from our early records that the rights of +joint-occupancy <a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi"></a>were confined to the immediate kin of the head of the +clan. "The limit of the immediate kindred", says Mr. E.W. Robertson,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> +"extended to the third generation, all who were fourth in descent from a +Senior passing from amongst the joint-proprietary, and receiving, +apparently, a final allotment; which seems to have been separated +permanently from the remainder of the joint-property by certain +ceremonies usual on such occasions." To such holders of individual +property the charter offered by David I gave additional security of +tenure. We know from the documents entitled "Quoniam attachiamenta", +printed in the first volume of the <i>Acts of the Parliament of Scotland</i>, +that the tribal system included large numbers of bondmen, to whom the +change to feudalism meant little or nothing. But even when all due +allowance has been made for this, the difficulty is not completely +solved. There must have been some owners of clan property whom the +changes affected in an adverse way, and we should expect to hear of +them. We do hear of them, for the reigns of the successors of Malcolm +Canmore are largely occupied with revolts in Galloway and in Morayshire. +The most notable of these was the rebellion of MacHeth, Mormaor of +Moray, about 1134. On its suppression, David I <a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii"></a>confiscated the earldom +of Moray, and granted it, by charters, to his own favourites, and +especially to the Anglo-Normans, from Yorkshire and Northumberland, whom +he had invited to aid him in dealing with the reactionary forces of +Moray; but such grants of land in no way dispossessed the lesser +tenants, who simply held of new lords and by new titles. Fordun, who +wrote two centuries later, ascribes to David's successor, Malcolm IV, an +invasion of Moray, and says that the king scattered the inhabitants +throughout the rest of Scotland, and replaced them by "his own peaceful +people".<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> There is no further evidence in support of this statement, +and almost the whole of Malcolm's short reign was occupied with the +settlement of Galloway. We know that he followed his grandfather's +policy of making grants of land in Moray, and this is probably the germ +of truth in Fordun's statement. Moray, however, occupied rather an +exceptional position. "As the power of the sovereign extended over the +west," says Mr. E.W. Robertson, "it was his policy, not to eradicate the +old ruling families, but to retain them in their native provinces, +rendering them more or less responsible for all that portion of their +respective districts which was not placed under the immediate authority +of the royal sheriffs or baillies." As this <a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii"></a>policy was carried out even +in Galloway, Argyll, and Ross, where there were occasional rebellions, +and was successful in its results, we have no reason for believing that +it was abandoned in dealing with the rest of the Lowlands. As, from time +to time, instances occurred in which this plan was unsuccessful, and as +other causes for forfeiture arose, the lands were granted to strangers, +and by the end of the thirteenth century the Scottish nobility was +largely Anglo-Norman. The vestiges of the clan system which remained may +be part of the explanation of the place of the great Houses in Scottish +History. The unique importance of such families as the Douglasses or the +Gordons may thus be a portion of the Celtic heritage of the Lowlands.</p> + +<p>If, then, it was not by a displacement of race, but through the subtle +influences of religion, feudalism, and commerce that the Scottish +Lowlands came to be English in speech and in civilization, if the +farmers of Fife and some, at least, of the burghers of Dundee or of +Aberdeen were really Scots who had been subjected to English influences, +we should expect to find no strong racial feeling in mediæval Scotland. +Such racial antagonism as existed would, in this case, be owing to the +large admixture of Scandinavian blood in Caithness and in the Isles, +rather than to any difference between the true Scots and "the<a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv"></a> English +of the Lowlands". Do we, then, find any racial antagonism between the +Highlands and the Lowlands? If Mr. Freeman is right in laying down the +general rule that "the true Scots, out of hatred to the 'Saxons' nearest +to them, leagued with the 'Saxons' farther off", if Mr. Hill Burton is +correct in describing the red Harlaw as a battle between foes who could +have no feeling of common nationality, there is nothing to be said in +support of the theory we have ventured to suggest. We may fairly expect +some signs of ill-will between those who maintained the Celtic +civilization and their brethren who had abandoned the ancient customs +and the ancient tongue; we may naturally look for attempts to produce a +conservative or Celtic reaction, but anything more than this will be +fatal to our case. The facts do not seem to us to bear out Mr. Freeman's +generalization. When the independence of Scotland is really at stake, we +shall find the "true Scots" on the patriotic side. Highlanders and +Islesmen fought under the banner of David I at Northallerton; they took +their place along with the men of Carrick in the Bruce's own division at +Bannockburn, and they bore their part in the stubborn ring that +encircled James IV at Flodden. At other times, indeed, we do find the +Lords of the Isles involved in treacherous intrigues with the kings of +Eng<a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv"></a>land, but just in the same way as we see the Earls of Douglas +engaged in traitorous schemes against the Scottish kings. In both cases +alike we are dealing with the revolt of a powerful vassal against a weak +king. Such an incident is sufficiently frequent in the annals of +Scotland to render it unnecessary to call in racial considerations to +afford an explanation. One of the most notable of these intrigues +occurred in the year 1408, when Donald of the Isles, who chanced to be +engaged in a personal quarrel about the heritage which he claimed in +right of his Lowland relatives, made a treacherous agreement with Henry +IV; and the quarrel ended in the battle of Harlaw in 1411. The real +importance of Harlaw is that it ended in the defeat of a Scotsman who, +like some other Scotsmen in the South, was acting in the English +interest; any further significance that it may possess arises from the +consideration that it is the last of a series of efforts directed +against the predominance, not of the English race, but of Saxon speech +and civilization. It was just because Highlanders and Lowlanders did +represent a common nationality that the battle was fought, and the blood +spilt on the field of Harlaw was not shed in any racial struggle, but in +the cause of the real English conquest of Scotland, the conquest of +civilization and of speech.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi"></a>Our argument derives considerable support from the references to the +Highlands of Scotland which we find in mediæval literature. Racial +distinctions were not always understood in the Middle Ages; but readers +of Giraldus Cambrensis are familiar with the strong racial feeling that +existed between the English and the Welsh, and between the English and +the Irish. If the Lowlanders of Scotland felt towards the Highlanders as +Mr. Hill Burton asserts that they did feel, we should expect to find +references to the difference between Celts and Saxons. But, on the +contrary, we meet with statement after statement to the effect that the +Highlanders are only Scotsmen who have maintained the ancient Scottish +language and literature, while the Lowlanders have adopted English +customs and a foreign tongue. The words "Scots" and "Scotland" are never +used to designate the Highlanders as distinct from other inhabitants of +Scotland, yet the phrase "Lingua Scotica" means, up to the end of the +fifteenth century, the Gaelic tongue.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> In the beginning of the +sixteenth century John Major speaks of "the wild Scots and Islanders" as +using<a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii"></a> Irish, while the civilized Scots speak English; and Gavin Douglas +professed to write in Scots (<i>i.e.</i> the Lowland tongue). In the course +of the century this became the regular usage. Acts of the Scottish +Parliament, directed against Highland marauders, class them with the +border thieves. There is no hint in the Register of the Privy Council or +in the Exchequer Rolls, of any racial feeling, and the independence of +the Celtic chiefs has been considerably exaggerated. James IV and James +V both visited the Isles, and the chief town of Skye takes its name from +the visit of the latter. In the beginning of the sixteenth century, it +was safe for Hector Boece, the Principal of the newly founded university +of Aberdeen, to go in company of the Rector to make a voyage to the +Hebrides, and, in the account they have left us of their experiences, we +can discover no hint that there existed between Highlanders and +Lowlanders much the same difference as separated the English from the +Welsh. Neither in Barbour's <i>Bruce</i> nor in Blind Harry's <i>Wallace</i> is +there any such consciousness of difference, although Barbour lived in +Aberdeen in the days before Harlaw. John of Fordun, a fellow-townsman +and a contemporary of Barbour, was an ardent admirer of St. Margaret and +of David I, and of the Anglo-Norman institutions they introduced, while +he possessed an invincible objection to the kilt. We <a name="Page_xxviii" id="Page_xxviii"></a>should therefore +expect to find in him some consciousness of the racial difference. He +writes of the Highlanders with some ill-will, describing them as a +"savage and untamed people, rude and independent, given to rapine, ... +hostile to the English language and people, and, owing to diversity of +speech, even to their own nation<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>." But it is his custom to write +thus of the opponents of the Anglo-Norman civil and ecclesiastical +institutions, and he brings all Scotland under the same condemnation +when he tells us how David "did his utmost to draw on that rough and +boorish people towards quiet and chastened manners".<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> The reference +to "their own nation" shows, too, that Fordun did not understand that +the Highlanders were a different people; and when he called them hostile +to the English, he was evidently unaware that their custom was "out of +hatred to the Saxons nearest them" to league with the English. John +Major, writing in the reign of James IV (1489-1513), mentions the +differences between Highlander and Lowlander. The wild Scots speak +Irish; the civilized Scots use English. "But", he adds, "most of us +spoke Irish a short time ago."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> His contemporary, Hector Boece, who +made the Tour to the<a name="Page_xxix" id="Page_xxix"></a> Hebrides, says: "Those of us who live on the +borders of England have forsaken our own tongue and learned English, +being driven thereto by wars and commerce. But the Highlanders remain +just as they were in the time of Malcolm Canmore, in whose days we began +to adopt English manners."<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> When Bishop Elphinstone applied, in 1493, +for Papal permission to found a university in Old Aberdeen, in proximity +to the barbarian Highlanders, he made no suggestion of any racial +difference between the English-speaking population of Aberdeen and their +Gaelic-speaking neighbours.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Late in the sixteenth century, John +Lesley, the defender of Queen Mary, who had been bishop of Ross, and +came of a northern family, wrote in a strain similar to that of Major +and Boece. "Foreign nations look on the Gaelic-speaking Scots as wild +barbarians because they maintain the customs and the language of their +ancestors; but we call them Highlanders."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> + +<p>Even in connexion with the battle of Harlaw, we find that Scottish +historians do not use such <a name="Page_xxx" id="Page_xxx"></a>terms in speaking of the Highland forces as +Mr. Hill Burton would lead us to expect. Of the two contemporary +authorities, one, the Book of Pluscarden, was probably written by a +Highlander, while the continuation of Fordun's <i>Scoti-chronicon</i>, in +which we have a more detailed account of the battle, was the work of +Bower, a Lowlander who shared Fordun's antipathy to Highland customs. +The <i>Liber Pluscardensis</i> mentions the battle in a very casual manner. +It was fought between Donald of the Isles and the Earl of Mar; there was +great slaughter: and it so happened that the town of Cupar chanced to be +burned in the same year.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Bower assigns a greater importance to the +affair;<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> he tells us that Donald wished to spoil Aberdeen and then to +add to his own possessions all Scotland up to the Tay. It is as if he +were writing of the ambition of the House of Douglas. But there is no +hint of racial antipathy; the abuse applied to Donald and his followers +would suit equally well for the Borderers who shouted the Douglas +battle-cry. John Major tells us that it was a civil war fought for the +spoil of the famous city of Aberdeen, and he cannot say who won—only +the Islanders lost more men than the civilized Scots. For him, its chief +interest lay in the ferocity of the contest; <a name="Page_xxxi" id="Page_xxxi"></a>rarely, even in struggles +with a foreign foe, had the fighting been so keen.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> The fierceness +with which Harlaw was fought impressed the country so much that, some +sixty years later, when Major was a boy, he and his playmates at the +Grammar School of Haddington used to amuse themselves by mock fights in +which they re-enacted the red Harlaw.</p> + +<p>From Major we turn with interest to the Principal of the University and +King's College, Hector Boece, who wrote his <i>History of Scotland</i>, at +Aberdeen, about a century after the battle of Harlaw, and who shows no +trace of the strong feeling described by Mr. Hill Burton. He narrates +the origin of the quarrel with much sympathy for the Lord of the Isles, +and regrets that he was not satisfied with recovering his own heritage +of Ross, but was tempted by the pillage of Aberdeen, and he speaks of +the Lowland army as "the Scots on the other side".<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> His narrative in +the <i>History</i> is devoid of any racial feeling whatsoever, and in his +<i>Lives of the Bishops of Aberdeen</i> he omits any mention of Harlaw at +all. We have laid stress upon the evidence of Boece because in Aberdeen, +if anywhere, the memory of the "Celtic peril" at Harlaw should have +survived.<a name="Page_xxxii" id="Page_xxxii"></a> Similarly, George Buchanan speaks of Harlaw as a raid for +purposes of plunder, made by the islanders upon the mainland.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> These +illustrations may serve to show how Scottish historians really did look +upon the battle of Harlaw, and how little do they share Mr. Burton's +horror of the Celts.</p> + +<p>When we turn to descriptions of Scotland we find no further proof of the +correctness of the orthodox theory. When Giraldus Cambrensis wrote, in +the twelfth century, he remarked that the Scots of his time have an +affinity of race with the Irish,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> and the English historians of the +War of Independence speak of the Scots as they do of the Welsh or the +Irish, and they know only one type of Scotsman. We have already seen the +opinion of John Major, the sixteenth-century Scottish historian and +theologian, who had lived much in France, and could write of his native +country from an <i>ab extra</i> stand-point, that the Highlanders speak Irish +and are less respectable than the other Scots; and his opinion was +shared by two foreign observers, Pedro de Ayala and Polydore Vergil. The +former remarks on the difference of speech, and the latter says that the +more civilized Scots have adopted the English tongue. In like manner +English writers about <a name="Page_xxxiii" id="Page_xxxiii"></a>the time of the Union of the Crowns write of the +Highlanders as Scotsmen who retain their ancient language. Camden, +indeed, speaks of the Lowlands as being Anglo-Saxon in origin, but he +restricts his remark to the district which had formed part of the +kingdom of Northumbria.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> + +<p>We should, of course, expect to find that the gradually widening breach +in manners and language between Highlanders and Lowlanders produced some +dislike for the Highland robbers and their Irish tongue, and we do +occasionally, though rarely, meet some indication of this. There are not +many references to the Highlanders in Scottish literature earlier than +the sixteenth century. "Blind Harry" (Book VI, ll. 132-140) represents +an English soldier as using, in addressing Wallace, first a mixture of +French and Lowland Scots, and then a mixture of Lowland Scots and +Gaelic:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"Dewgar, gud day, bone Senzhour, and gud morn!</span></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;">*</span><span style="margin-left: 4em;">*</span><span style="margin-left: 4em;">*</span><span style="margin-left: 4em;">*</span><span style="margin-left: 4em;">*</span></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sen ye ar Scottis, zeit salust sall ye be;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gud deyn, dawch Lard, bach lowch, banzoch a de".</span> +</p> + +<p>In "The Book of the Howlat", written in the latter half of the fifteenth +century, by a certain Richard Holland, who was an adherent of the House +of Douglas, there is a similar imitation of Scottish Gaelic, with the +same phrase "Bana<a name="Page_xxxiv" id="Page_xxxiv"></a>chadee" (the blessing of God). This seemingly innocent +phrase seems to have some ironical signification, for we find in the +<i>Auchinleck Chronicle</i> (anno 1452) that it was used by some Highlanders +as a term of abuse towards the Bishop of Argyll. Another example occurs +in a coarse "Answer to ane Helandmanis Invective", by Alexander +Montgomerie, the court poet of James VI. The Lowland literature of the +sixteenth century contains a considerable amount of abuse of the +Highland tongue. William Dunbar (1460-1520), in his "Flyting" (an +exercise in Invective), reproaches his antagonist, Walter Kennedy, with +his Highland origin. Kennedy was a native of Galloway, while Dunbar +belonged to the Lothians, where we should expect the strongest +appreciation of the differences between Lowlander and Highlander. +Dunbar, moreover, had studied (or, at least, resided) at Oxford, and was +one of the first Scotsmen to succumb to the attractions of "town". The +most suggestive point in the "Flyting" is that a native of the Lothians +could still regard a Galwegian as a "beggar Irish bard". For Walter +Kennedy spoke and wrote in Lowland Scots; he was, possibly, a graduate +of the University of Glasgow, and he could boast of Stuart blood. +Ayrshire was as really English as was Aberdeenshire; and, if Dunbar is +in earnest, it is a strong confirmation of our theory that <a name="Page_xxxv" id="Page_xxxv"></a>he, being +"of the Lothians himself", spoke of Kennedy in this way. It would, +however, be unwise to lay too much stress on what was really a +conventional exercise of a particular style of poetry, now obsolete. +Kennedy, in his reply, retorts that he alone is true Scots, and that +Dunbar, as a native of Lothian, is but an English thief:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"In Ingland, owle, suld be thyne habitacione,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Homage to Edward Langschankis maid thy kyn".</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>In an Epitaph on Donald Owre, a son of the Lord of the Isles, who raised +a rebellion against James IV in 1503, Dunbar had a great opportunity for +an outburst against the Highlanders, of which, however, he did not take +advantage, but confined himself to a denunciation of treachery in +general. In the "Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins", there is a well-known +allusion to the bag-pipes:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Than cryd Mahoun<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> for a Healand padyane;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Syne ran a feynd to feche Makfadyane<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Far northwart in a nuke.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Be he the correnoch had done schout</span><br /><a name="Page_xxxvi" id="Page_xxxvi"></a> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Erschemen so gadderit him about</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">In Hell grit rowme they tuke.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Thae tarmegantis with tag and tatter</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Full lowde in Ersche begowth to clatter,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">And rowp lyk revin and ruke.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">The Devill sa devit was with thair yell</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">That in the depest pot of Hell</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">He smorit thame with smoke."</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>Similar allusions will be found in the writings of Montgomerie; but such +caricatures of Gaelic and the bagpipes afford but a slender basis for a +theory of racial antagonism.</p> + +<p>After the Union of the Crowns, the Lowlands of Scotland came to be more +and more closely bound to England, while the Highlands remained +unaffected by these changes. The Scottish nobility began to find its +true place at the English Court; the Scottish adventurer was +irresistibly drawn to London; the Scottish Presbyterian found the +English Puritan his brother in the Lord; and the Scottish Episcopalian +joined forces with the English Cavalier. The history of the seventeenth +century prepared the way for the acceptance of the Celtic theory in the +beginning of the eighteenth, and when philologists asserted that the +Scottish Highlanders were a different race from the Scottish Lowlanders, +the suggestion was eagerly adopted. The views of the philologists were +confirmed by the experiences <a name="Page_xxxvii" id="Page_xxxvii"></a>of the 'Forty-five, and they received a +literary form in the <i>Lady of the Lake</i> and in <i>Waverley</i>. In the +nineteenth century the theory received further development owing to the +fact that it was generally in line with the arguments of the defenders +of the Edwardian policy in Scotland; and it cannot be denied that it +holds the field to-day, in spite of Mr. Robertson's attack on it in +Appendix R of his <i>Scotland under her Early Kings</i>.</p> + +<p>The writer of the present volume ventures to hope that he has, at all +events, done something to make out a case for re-consideration of the +subject. The political facts on which rests the argument just stated +will be found in the text, and an Appendix contains the more important +references to the Highlanders in mediæval Scottish literature, and +offers a brief account of the feudalization of Scotland. Our argument +amounts only to a modification, and not to a complete reversal of the +current theory. No historical problems are more difficult than those +which refer to racial distribution, and it is impossible to speak +dogmatically on such a subject. That the English blood of the Lothians, +and the English exiles after the Norman Conquest, did modify the race +over whom Malcolm Canmore ruled, we do not seek to deny. But that it was +a modification and not a displacement, a victory <a name="Pagexxxviii" id="Pagexxxviii"></a>of civilization and +not of race, we beg to suggest. The English influences were none the +less strong for this, and, in the end, they have everywhere prevailed. +But the Scotsman may like to think that mediæval Scotland was not +divided by an abrupt racial line, and that the political unity and +independence which it obtained at so great a cost did correspond to a +natural and a national unity which no people can, of itself, create.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Spanish and Venetian Calendars of State Papers. Cf. +especially the reference to the succour afforded by Scotland to France +in Spanish Calendar, i. 210.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Historical Essays</i>, First Series, p. 71.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>History of the English People</i>, Book III, c. iv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. i, p. 2. But, as Mr. Lang +expressly repudiates any theory of displacement north of the Forth, and +does not regard Harlaw in the light of a great racial contest, his +position is not really incompatible with that of the present work.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>History of England</i>, p. 158. Mr. Oman is almost alone in +not calling them English in blood.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. ii, pp. 393-394.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Instances of the first tendency are Edderton, near Tain, +<i>i.e.</i> <i>eadar duin</i> ("between the hillocks"), and Falkirk, <i>i.e.</i> +<i>Eaglais</i> ("speckled church"), while examples of the second tendency are +too numerous to require mention. Examples of ecclesiastical names are +Laurencekirk and Kirkcudbright, and the growth of commerce receives the +witness of such names as Turnberry, on the coast of Ayr, dating from the +thirteenth century, and Burghead on the Moray Firth.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Cf. <i>Waverley</i>, c. xliii, and the concluding chapter of +<i>Tales of a Grandfather</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> William of Newburgh states this in a probably exaggerated +form when he says:—"Regni Scottici oppida et burgi ab Anglis habitari +noscuntur" (Lib. II, c. 34). The population of the towns in the Lothians +was, of course, English.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> For the real significance of such grants of land, cf. +Maitland, <i>Domesday Book and Beyond</i>, Essay II.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Scotland under her Early Kings</i>, vol. i, p. 239.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Annalia, iv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> There is a possible exception in Barbour's <i>Bruce</i> (Bk. +XVIII, 1. 443)—"Then gat he all the Erischry that war intill his +company, of Argyle and the Ilis alswa". It has been generally understood +that the "Erischry" here are the Scottish Highlanders; but it is certain +that Barbour frequently uses the word to mean Irishmen, and it is +perhaps more probable that he does so here also than that he should use +the word in this sense only once, and with no parallel instance for more +than a century.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Chronicle, Book II, c. ix. Cf. App. A.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Ibid, Book V, c. x. Cf. App. A.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>History of Greater Britain</i>, Bk. I, cc. vii, viii, ix. +Cf. App. A.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>Scotorum Regni Descriptio</i>, prefixed to his "History". +Cf. App. A.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Fasti Aberdonenses</i>, p. 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>De Gestis Scotorum</i>, Lib. I. Cf. App. A. It is +interesting to note, as showing how the breach between Highlander and +Lowlander widened towards the close of the sixteenth century, that +Father James Dalrymple, who translated Lesley's History, at Ratisbon, +about the beginning of the seventeenth century, wrote: "Bot the rest of +the Scottis, quhome <i>we</i> halde as outlawis and wylde peple". Dalrymple +was probably a native of Ayrshire.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Liber Pluscardensis</i>, X, c. xxii. Cf. App. A.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <i>Scoti-chronicon</i>, XV, c. xxi. Cf. App. A.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>Greater Britain</i>, VI, c. x. Cf. App. A. The keenness of +the fighting is no proof of racial bitterness. Cf. the clan fight on the +Inches at Perth, a few years before Harlaw.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> <i>Scotorum Historiæ</i>, Lib. XVI. Cf. App. A.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> <i>Rerum Scotorum Historia</i>, Lib. X. Cf. App. A.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> <i>Top. Hib.</i>, Dis. III, cap. xi.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Britannia</i>, section <i>Scoti</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Mahoun = Mahomet, <i>i.e.</i> the Devil.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The Editor of the Scottish Text Society's edition of +Dunbar points out that "Macfadyane" is a reference to the traitor of the +War of Independence: +</p> + +<p><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"This Makfadzane till Inglismen was suorn;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Eduard gaiff him bath Argill and Lorn".</span><br /> +</p> +<p><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blind Harry, VII, ll. 627-8.</span><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> "Far northward in a nuke" is a reference to the cave in +which Macfadyane was killed by Duncan of Lorne (Bk. VIII, ll. 866-8).</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h4>RACIAL DISTRIBUTION AND FEUDAL RELATIONS</h4> + +<h4><i>c.</i> 500-1066 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span></h4> + + +<p>Since the beginning of the eighteenth century, it has been customary to +speak of the Scottish Highlanders as "Celts". The name is singularly +inappropriate. The word "Celt" was used by Cæsar to describe the peoples +of Middle Gaul, and it thence became almost synonymous with "Gallic". +The ancient inhabitants of Gaul were far from being closely akin to the +ancient inhabitants of Scotland, although they belong to the same +general family. The latter were Picts and Goidels; the former, Brythons +or Britons, of the same race as those who settled in England and were +driven by the Saxon conquerors into Wales, as their kinsmen were driven +into Brittany by successive conquests of Gaul. In the south of Scotland, +Goidels and Brythons must at one period have met; but the result of the +meeting was to drive the Goidels into the Highlands, where the Goidelic +or Gaelic form of speech still remains different from the Welsh of the +descendants of the Britons. Thus the only reason for calling the +Scottish Highlanders "Celts" is that Cæsar used that name to describe a +race cognate with another race from which the Highlanders ought to be +carefully distinguished. In none <a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>of our ancient records is the term +"Celt" ever employed to describe the Highlanders of Scotland. They never +called themselves Celtic; their neighbours never gave them such a name; +nor would the term have possessed any significance, as applied to them, +before the eighteenth century. In 1703, a French historian and Biblical +antiquary, Paul Yves Pezron, wrote a book about the people of Brittany, +entitled <i>Antiquité de la Nation et de la Langue des Celtes autrement +appellez Gaulois</i>. It was translated into English almost immediately, +and philologists soon discovered that the language of Cæsar's Celts was +related to the Gaelic of the Scottish Highlanders. On this ground +progressed the extension of the name, and the Highlanders became +identified with, instead of being distinguished from, the Celts of Gaul. +The word Celt was used to describe both the whole family (including +Brythons and Goidels), and also the special branch of the family to +which Cæsar applied the term. It is as if the word "Teutonic" had been +used to describe the whole Aryan Family, and had been specially employed +in speaking of the Romance peoples. The word "Celtic" has, however, +become a technical term as opposed to "Saxon" or "English", and it is +impossible to avoid its use.</p> + +<p>Besides the Goidels, or so-called Celts, and the Brythonic Celts or +Britons, we find traces in Scotland of an earlier race who are known as<a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a> +"Picts", a few fragments of whose language survive. About the identity +of these Picts another controversy has been waged. Some look upon the +Pictish tongue as closely allied to Scottish Gaelic; others regard it as +Brythonic rather than Goidelic; and Dr. Rhys surmises that it is really +an older form of speech, neither Goidelic nor Brythonic, and probably +not allied to either, although, in the form in which its fragments have +come down to us, it has been deeply affected by Brythonic forms. Be all +this as it may, it is important for us to remember that, at the dawn of +history, modern Scotland was populated entirely by people now known as +"Celts", of whom the Brythonic portion were the later to appear, driving +the Goidels into the more mountainous districts. The Picts, whatever +their origin, had become practically amalgamated with the "Celts", and +the Roman historians do not distinguish between different kinds of +northern barbarians.</p> + +<p>In the end of the fifth century and the beginning of the sixth, a new +settlement of Goidels was made. These were the Scots, who founded the +kingdom of Dalriada, corresponding roughly to the Modern Argyllshire. +Some fifty years later (<i>c.</i> 547) came the Angles under Ida, and +established a dominion along the coast from Tweed to Forth, covering the +modern counties of Roxburgh, Berwick, Haddington, and Midlothian. Its +outlying fort was the castle of<a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a> Edinburgh, the name of which, in the +form in which we have it, has certainly been influenced by association +with the Northumbrian king, Edwin.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> This district remained a portion +of the kingdom of Northumbria till the tenth century, and it is of this +district alone that the word "English" can fairly be used. Even here, +however, there must have been a considerable infusion of Celtic blood, +and such Celtic place-names as "Dunbar" still remain even in the +counties where English place-names predominate. A distinguished Celtic +scholar tells us: "In all our ancient literature, the inhabitants of +ancient Lothian are known as Saix-Brit, <i>i.e.</i> Saxo-Britons, because +they were a Cymric people, governed by the Saxons of Northumbria".<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> A +further non-Celtic influence was that of the Norse invaders, who +attacked the country from the ninth to the eighteenth century, and +profoundly modified the racial character of the population on the south +and west coasts, in the islands, and along the east coast as far south +as the Moray Firth.</p> + +<p>Such, then, was the racial distribution of Scotland. Picts, Goidelic +Celts, Brythonic Celts, Scots, and Anglo-Saxons were in possession of +the country. In the year 844, Kenneth MacAlpine, King of the Scots of +Dalriada, united <a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>under his rule the ancient kingdoms of the Picts and +Scots, including the whole of Scotland from the Pentland Firth to the +Forth. In 908, a brother of the King of Scots became King of the Britons +of Strathclyde, while Lothian, with the rest of Northumbria, passed +under the overlordship of the House of Wessex. We have now arrived at +the commencement of the long dispute about the "overlordship". We shall +attempt to state the main outlines as clearly as possible.</p> + +<p>The foundation of the whole controversy lies in a statement, "in the +honest English of the Winchester Chronicle", that, in 924, "was Eadward +king chosen to father and to lord of the Scots king and of the Scots, +and of Regnold king, and of all the Northumbrians", and also of the +Strathclyde, Brythons or Welsh. Mr. E.W. Robertson has argued that no +real weight can be given to this statement, for (1) "Regnold king" had +died in 921; (2) in 924, Edward the Elder was striving to suppress the +Danes south of the Humber, and had no claims to overlordship of any kind +over the Northumbrian Danes and English; and (3) the place assigned, +Bakewell, in Derbyshire, is improbable, and the recorded building of a +fort there is irrelevant. The reassertion of this homage, under +Aethelstan, in 926, which occurs in one MS. of the Chronicle, is open to +the objection that it describes the King of Scots as giving up idolatry, +more than three hundred and fifty years after <a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a>the conversion of the +country; but as the entry under the year 924 is probably in a +contemporary hand, considerable weight must be attached to the double +statement. In the reign of Edmund the Magnificent, an event occurred +which has given fresh occasion for dispute. A famous passage in the +"Chronicle" (945 <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>) tells how Edmund and Malcolm I of +Scotland conquered Cumbria, which the English king gave to Malcolm on +condition that Malcolm should be his "midwyrtha" or fellow-worker by sea +and land. Mr. Freeman interpreted this as a feudal grant, reading the +sense of "fealty" into "midwyrtha", and regarded the district described +as "Cumbria" as including the whole of Strathclyde. It is somewhat +difficult to justify this position, especially as we have no reason for +supposing that Edmund did invade Strathclyde, and since, in point of +fact, Strathclyde remained hostile to the kingdom of Scotland long after +this date. In 946 the statement of the Chronicle is reasserted in +connection with the accession of Eadred, and in somewhat stronger +words:—"the Scots gave him oaths, that they would all that he would". +Such are the main facts relating to the first two divisions of the +threefold claim to overlordship, and their value will probably continue +to be estimated in accordance with the personal feelings of the reader. +It is scarcely possible to claim that they are in any way decisive. Nor +can any further light be gained from <a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>the story of what Mr. Lang has +happily termed the apocryphal eight which the King of Scots stroked on +the Dee in the reign of Edgar. In connection with this "Great +Commendation" of 973, the Chronicle mentions only six kings as rowing +Edgar at Chester, and it wisely names no names. The number eight, and +the mention of Kenneth, King of Scots, as one of the oarsmen, have been +transferred to Mr. Freeman's pages from those of the twelfth-century +chronicler, Florence of Worcester.</p> + +<p>We pass now to the third section of the supremacy argument. The district +to which we have referred as Lothian was, unquestionably, largely +inhabited by men of English race, and it formed part of the Northumbrian +kingdom. Within the first quarter of the eleventh century it had passed +under the dominion of the Celtic kings of Scotland. When and how this +happened is a mystery. The tract <i>De Northynbrorum Comitibus</i> which used +to be attributed to Simeon of Durham, asserts that it was ceded by Edgar +to Kenneth and that Kenneth did homage, and this story, elaborated by +John of Wallingford, has been frequently given as the historical +explanation. But Simeon of Durham in his "History"<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> asserts that +Malcolm II, about 1016, wrested Lothian from the Earl of Northumbria, +and there is internal evidence that the story of Edgar and Kenneth has +been constructed out of the known <a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a>facts of Malcolm's reign. It is, at +all events, certain that the Scottish kings in no sense governed Lothian +till after the battle of Carham in 1018, when Malcolm and the +Strathclyde monarch Owen, defeated the Earl of Northumbria and added +Lothian to his dominions. This conquest was confirmed by Canute in 1031, +and, in connection with the confirmation, the Chronicle again speaks of +a doubtful homage which the Scots king "not long held", and, again, the +Chronicle, or one version of it, adds an impossible statement—this time +about Macbeth, who had not yet appeared on the stage of history. The +year 1018 is also marked by the succession of Malcolm's grandson, +Duncan, to the throne of his kinsman, Owen of Strathclyde, and on +Malcolm's death in 1034 the whole of Scotland was nominally united under +Duncan I.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The consolidation of the kingdom was as yet in the future, +but from the end of the reign of Malcolm II there was but one Kingdom of +Scotland. From this united kingdom we must exclude the islands, which +were largely inhabited by Norsemen. Both the Hebrides and the islands of +Orkney and Shetland were outside the realm of Scotland.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>The names of Macbeth and "the gentle Duncan" suggest the great drama +which the genius of Shakespeare constructed from the magic tale of +Hector Boece; but our path does not lie by the moor near Forres, nor +past Birnam Wood or Dunsinane. Nor does the historian of the relations +between England and Scotland have anything to tell about the English +expedition to restore Malcolm. All such tales emanate from Florence of +Worcester, and we know only that Siward of Northumbria made a fruitless +invasion of Scotland, and that Macbeth reigned for three years +afterwards.</p> + +<p>We have now traced, in outline, the connections between the northern and +the southern portions of this island up to the date of the Norman +Conquest of England. We have found in Scotland a population composed of +Pict, Scot, Goidel, Brython, Dane, and Angle, and we have seen how the +country came to be, in some sense, united under a single monarch. It is +not possible to speak dogmatically of either of the two great problems +of the period—the racial distribution of the country, and the Edwardian +claims to overlordship. But it is clear that no portion of Scotland was, +in 1066, in any sense English, except the Lothians, of which Angles and +Danes had taken possession. From the Lothians, the English influences +must have spread slightly into Strathclyde; but the fact that the Celtic +Kings of Scotland were strong enough to annex and rule <a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>the Lothians as +part of a Celtic kingdom implies a limit to English colonization. As to +the feudal supremacy, it may be fairly said that there is no portion of +the English claim that cannot be reasonably doubted, and whatever force +it retains must be of the nature of a cumulative argument. It must, of +course, be recollected that Anglo-Norman chroniclers of the twelfth and +thirteenth centuries, like English historians of a later date, regarded +themselves as holding a brief for the English claim, while, on the other +hand, Scottish writers would be the last to assert, in their own case, a +complete absence of bias.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Johnston: <i>Place-Names of Scotland</i>, p. 102.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Rev. Duncan MacGregor in <i>Scottish Church Society +Conferences</i>. Second Series, Vol. II, p. 23.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Hist. Dun.</i> Rolls Series, i. 218.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Duncan was the grandson of Malcolm, and, by Pictish +custom, should not have succeeded. The "rightful" heir, an un-named +cousin of Malcolm, was murdered, and his sister, Gruoch, who married the +Mormaor of Moray, left a son, Lulach, who thus represented a rival line, +whose claims may be connected with some of the Highland risings against +the descendants of Duncan.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h4>SCOTLAND AND THE NORMANS</h4> + +<h4>1066-1286</h4> + + +<p>The Norman Conquest of England could not fail to modify the position of +Scotland. Just as the Roman and the Saxon conquests had, in turn, driven +the Brythons northwards, so the dispossessed Saxons fled to Scotland +from their Norman victors. The result was considerably to alter the +ecclesiastical arrangements of the country, and to help its advance +towards civilization. The proportion of Anglo-Saxons to the races who +are known as Celts must also have been increased; but a complete +de-Celticization of Southern Scotland could not, and did not, follow. +The failure of William's conquest to include the Northern counties of +England left Northumbria an easy prey to the Scottish king, and the +marriage of Malcolm III, known as Canmore, to Margaret, the sister of +Edgar the Ætheling, gave her husband an excuse for interference in +England. We, accordingly, find a long series of raids over the border, +of which only five possess any importance. In 1069-70, Malcolm (who had, +even in the Confessor's time, been in Northumberland with hostile +intent) conducted an invasion in the interests of his brother-<a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>in-law. +It is probable that this movement was intended to coincide with the +arrival of the Danish fleet a few months earlier. But Malcolm was too +late; the Danes had gone home, and, in the interval, William had himself +superintended the great harrying of the North which made Malcolm's +subsequent efforts somewhat unnecessary. The invasion is important only +as having provoked the counter-attack of the Conqueror, which led to the +renewal of the supremacy controversy. William marched into Scotland and +crossed the Forth (the first English king to do so since the unfortunate +Egfrith, who fell at Nectansmere in 685). At Abernethy, on the banks of +the Tay, Malcolm and William met, and the English Chronicle, as usual, +informs us that the King of Scots became the "man" of the English king. +But as Malcolm received from William twelve <i>villae</i> in England, it is, +at least, doubtful whether Malcolm paid homage for these alone or also +for Lothian and Cumbria, or for either of them. There is, at all events, +no question about the <i>villae</i>. Scottish historians have not failed to +point out that the value of the homage, for whatever it was given, is +sufficiently indicated by Malcolm's dealings with Gospatric of +Northumberland, whom William dismissed as a traitor and rebel. Within +about six months of the Abernethy meeting, Malcolm gave Gospatric the +earldom of Dunbar, and he became the founder of the great house of +March.<a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a> No further invasion took place till 1079, when Malcolm took +advantage of William's Norman difficulties to make another harrying +expedition, which afforded the occasion for the building of +Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The accession of Rufus and his difficulties with +Robert of Normandy led, in 1091, to a somewhat belated attempt by +Malcolm to support the claims of the Ætheling by a third invasion, and, +in the following year, peace was made. Rufus confirmed to Malcolm the +grant of twelve <i>villae</i>, and Malcolm in turn gave the English king such +homage as he had given to his father. What this vague statement meant, +it was reserved for the Bruce to determine, and the Bruces had, as yet, +not one foot of Scottish soil. The agreement made in 1092 did not +prevent Rufus from completing his father's work by the conquest of +Cumberland, to which the Scots had claims. Malcolm's indignation and +William's illness led to a famous meeting at Gloucester, whence Malcolm +withdrew in great wrath, declining to be treated as a vassal of England. +The customary invasion followed, with the result that Malcolm was slain +at Alnwick in November, 1093.</p> + +<p>But the great effects of the Norman Conquest, as regards Scotland, are +not connected with strictly international affairs. They are partially +racial, and, in other respects, may be described as personal. It is +unquestionable that there was an immigration of the Northumbrian +popu<a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>lation into Scotland; but the Northumbrian population were +Anglo-Danish, and the north of England was not thickly populated. When +William the Conqueror ravaged the northern counties with fire and sword, +a considerable proportion of the population must have perished. The +actual infusion of English blood may thus be exaggerated; but the +introduction of English influences cannot be questioned. These +influences were mainly due to the personality of Malcolm's second wife, +the Saxon princess, Margaret. The queen was a woman of considerable +mental power, and possessed a great influence over her strong-headed and +hot-tempered husband. She was a devout churchwoman, and she immediately +directed her energies to the task of bringing the Scottish church into +closer communion with the Roman. The changes were slight in themselves; +all that we know of them is an alteration in the beginning of Lent, the +proper observance of Easter and of Sunday, and a question, still +disputed, about the tonsure. But, slight as they were, they stood for +much. They involved the abandonment of the separate position held by the +Scottish Church, and its acceptance of a place as an integral portion of +Roman Christianity. The result was to make the Papacy, for the first +time, an important factor in Scottish affairs, and to bridge the gulf +that divided Scotland from Continental Europe. We soon find Scottish +churchmen seeking learn<a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>ing in France, and bringing into Scotland those +French influences which were destined seriously to affect the +civilization of the country. But, above all, these Roman changes were +important just because they were Anglican—introduced by an English +queen, carried out by English clerics, emanating from a court which was +rapidly becoming English. Malcolm's subjects thenceforth began to adopt +English customs and the English tongue, which spread from the court of +Queen Margaret. The colony of English refugees represented a higher +civilization and a more advanced state of commerce than the Scottish +Celts, and the English language, from this cause also, made rapid +progress. For about twenty-five years Margaret exercised the most potent +influence in her husband's kingdom, and, when she died, her reputation +as a saint and her subsequent canonization maintained and supported the +traditions she had created. Not only did she have on her side the power +of a court and the prestige of courtly etiquette, but, as we have said, +she represented a higher civilizing force than that which was opposed to +her, and hence the greatness of her victory. It must, however, be +remembered that the spread of the English language in Scotland does not +necessarily imply the predominance of English blood. It means rather the +growth of English commerce. We can trace the adoption of English along +the seaboard, and in the towns, <a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>while Gaelic still remained the +language of the countryman. There is no evidence of any English +immigration of sufficient proportions to overwhelm the Gaelic +population. Like the victory of the conquered English over the +conquering Normans, which was even then making fast progress in England, +it is a triumph of a kind that subsequent events have revealed as +characteristically Anglo-Saxon, and it called into force the powers of +adaptation and of colonization which have brought into being so great an +English-speaking world.</p> + +<p>Malcolm's reign ended in defeat and failure; his wife died of grief, and +the opportunity presented itself of a Celtic reaction against the +Anglicization of the reign of Malcolm III. The throne was seized by +Malcolm's brother, Donald Bane. Malcolm's eldest son, Duncan, whose +mother, Ingibjorg, had been a Dane, received assistance from Rufus, and +drove Donald Bane, after a reign of six months, into the distant North. +But after about six months he himself was slain in a small fight with +the Mormaer or Earl of the Mearns, and Donald Bane continued to reign +for about three years, in conjunction with Edmund, a son of Malcolm and +Margaret. But in 1097, Edgar, a younger brother of Edmund, again +obtained the help of Rufus and secured the throne. The reign of Edgar is +important in two respects. It put an end to the Celtic revival, and +reproduced the conditions <a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>of the time of Malcolm and Margaret. +Henceforward Celtic efforts were impossible except in the Highlands, and +the Celts of the Lowlands resigned themselves to the process of +Anglicization imposed upon them alike by ecclesiastical, political, and +commercial circumstances. It saw also the beginning of an influence +which was to prove scarcely less fruitful in results than the +Anglo-Saxon triumph of which we have spoken. In November, 1100, Edgar's +sister, Matilda, was married to the Norman King of England, Henry I, and +two years later, another sister, Mary, was married to Eustace, Count of +Boulogne, the son of the future King Stephen. These unions, with a son +and a grandson respectively of William the Conqueror, prepared the way +for the Norman Conquest of Scotland. Edgar died in January, 1106-7, and +his brother and successor, Alexander I, espoused an Anglo-Norman, +Sybilla, who is generally supposed to have been a natural daughter of +Henry I. On the death of Alexander, in 1124, these Norman influences +acquired a new importance under his brother David, the youngest son of +Malcolm and Margaret. During the troubles which followed his father's +death, David had been educated in England, and after the marriage of +Henry I and Matilda, had resided at the court of his brother-in-law, +till the death of Edgar, when he became ruler of Cumbria and the +southern portion of Lothian. He had married, in 1113-14, the <a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>daughter +and heiress of Waltheof, Earl of Huntingdon, who was also the widow of a +Norman baron. In this way the earldom of Huntingdon became attached to +the Scottish throne, and afforded an occasion for reviving the old +question of homage. Moreover, Waltheof of Huntingdon was the son of +Siward of Northumbria, and David regarded himself as, on this account, +possessing claims over Northumbria.</p> + +<p>David, as we have seen, had been brought up under Norman influences, and +it is under the son of the Saxon Margaret that the bloodless Norman +conquest of Scotland took place. Edgar had recognized the new English +nobility and settlers by addressing charters to all in his kingdom, +"both Scots and English"; his brother, David, speaks of "French and +English, Scots and Galwegians". The charters are, of course, addressed +to barons and land-owners, and their evidence refers to the English and +Anglo-Norman nobility. The Norman fascination, which had been turned to +such good account in England, in Italy, and in the Holy Land, had +completely vanquished such English prepossessions as David might have +inherited from his mother. Normans, like the Bruces and the Fitzalans +(afterwards the Stewarts), came to David's court and received from him +grants of land. The number of Norman signatures that attest his charters +show that his <i>entourage</i> was mainly Norman. He was a very devout +Church-<a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>man (a "sair sanct for the Crown" as James VI called him), and +Norman prelate and Norman abbot helped to increase the total of Norman +influence. He transformed Scotland into a feudal country, gave grants of +land by feudal tenure, summoned a great council on the feudal principle, +and attempted to create such a monarchy as that of which Henry I was +laying the foundations. There can be little doubt that this strong +Norman influence helped to prepare the Scottish people for the French +alliance; but its more immediate effect was to bring about the existence +of an anti-national nobility. These great Norman names were to become +great in Scottish story; but it required a long process to make their +bearers, in any sense, Scotsmen. Most of them had come from England, +many of them held lands in England, and none of them could be expected +to feel any real difference between themselves and their English +fellows.</p> + +<p>During the reign of Henry I, Anglo-Norman influences thus worked a great +change in Scotland. On Henry's death, David, as the uncle of the Empress +Matilda, immediately took up arms on her behalf. Stephen, with the +wisdom which characterized the beginning of his reign, came to terms +with him at Durham. David did not personally acknowledge the usurper, +but his son, Henry, did him homage for Huntingdon and some possessions +in the north (1136). In the following year, David claimed +Northumber<a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>land for Henry as the representative of Siward, and, on +Stephen's refusal, again adopted the cause of the empress. The usual +invasion of England followed, and after some months of ravaging, a short +truce, and a slight Scottish victory gained at Clitheroe on the Ribble, +in June, 1138, the final result was David's great defeat in the battle +of the Standard, fought near Northallerton on the 22nd August, 1138.</p> + +<p>The battle of the Standard possesses no special interest for students of +the art of war. The English army, under William of Albemarle and Walter +l'Espec, was drawn up in one line of battle, consisting of knights in +coats of mail, archers, and spearmen. The Scots were in four divisions; +the van was composed of the Picts of Galloway, the right wing was led by +Prince Henry, and the men of Lothian were on the left. Behind fought +King David, with the men of Moray. The Galwegians made several +unsuccessful attempts upon the English centre. Prince Henry led his +horse through the English left wing, but the infantry failed to follow, +and the prince lost his advantage by a premature attempt to plunder. The +Scottish right made a pusillanimous attempt on the English left, and the +reserve began to desert King David, who collected the remnants of his +army and retired in safety to a height above Cowton Moor, the scene of +the fight. Prince Henry was left surrounded by the enemy, but saved the +position by a clever <a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>stratagem, and rejoined his father. Mr. Oman +remarks that the battle was "of a very abnormal type for the twelfth +century, since the side which had the advantage in cavalry made no +attempt to use it, while that which was weak in the all-important arm +made a creditable attempt to turn it to account by breaking into the +hostile flank.... Wild rushes of unmailed clansmen against a steady +front of spears and bows never succeeded; in this respect Northallerton +is the forerunner of Dupplin, Halidon Hill, Flodden, and Pinkie."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> +The chief interest, for our purpose, attaching to the battle of the +Standard, is connected with the light it throws upon the racial +complexion of the country seventy years after the Norman Conquest. Our +chief authorities are the Hexham chroniclers and Ailred of Rivaulx<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>, +English writers of the twelfth century. They speak of David's host as +composed of Angli, Picti, and Scoti. The Angli alone contained mailed +knights in their ranks, and David's first intention was to send these +mail-clad warriors against the English, while the Picts and Scots were +to follow with sword and targe. The Galwegians and the Scots from beyond +Forth strongly opposed this arrangement, and assured the king that his +unarmed Highlanders would fight better than "these Frenchmen". The king +gave the place of honour to <a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>the Galwegians, and altered his whole plan +of battle. The whole context, and the Earl of Strathern's sneer at +"these Frenchmen", would seem to show that the "Angli" are, at all +events, clearly distinguished from the Picts of Galloway and the Scots +who, like Malise of Strathern, came from beyond the Forth. It is +probable that the "Angli" were the men of Lothian; but it must also be +recollected both that the term included the Anglo-Norman nobility +("these Frenchman") and the English settlers who had followed Queen +Margaret, and that David was fighting in an English quarrel and in the +interests of an English queen. The knights who wore coats of mail were +entirely Anglo-Norman, and it is against them that the claim of the +Highlanders is particularly directed. When Richard of Hexham tells us +that Angles, Scots, and Picts fell out by the way, as they returned +home, he means to contrast the men of Lothian and the new Anglo-Norman +nobility with the Picts of Galloway and the Highlanders from north of +the Forth, and this unusual application of the term <i>Angli</i>, to a +portion of the Scottish army, is an indication, not that the Lowlanders +were entirely English, but that there was a strong jealousy between the +Scots and the new English nobility. The "Angli" are, above all others, +the knights in mail.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> + +<p><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>It is not possible to credit David with any real affection for the +cause of the empress or with any higher motive than selfish greed, and +it can scarcely be claimed that he kept faith with Stephen. Such, +however, were the difficulties of the English king, that, in spite of +his crushing defeat, David reaped the advantages of victory. Peace was +made in April, 1139, by the Treaty of Durham, which secured to Prince +Henry the earldom of Northumberland, as an English fief. The Scottish +border line, which had successively enclosed Strathclyde and part of +Cumberland, and the Lothians, now extended to the Tees. David gave +Stephen some assistance in 1139, but on the victory of the Empress +Maud<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> at Lincoln, in 1141, David deserted the captive king, and was +present, on the empress's side, at her defeat at Winchester, in 1141. +Eight years later he entered into an agreement with the claimant, Henry +Fitz-Empress, afterwards Henry II, by which the eldest son of the +Scottish king was to retain his English fiefs, and David was to aid +Henry against Stephen. An unsuccessful attempt on England followed—the +last of David's numerous invasions. When he <a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>died, in 1153, he left +Scotland in a position of power with regard to England such as she was +never again to occupy. The religious devotion which secured for him a +popular canonization (he was never actually canonized) can scarcely +justify his conduct to Stephen. But it must be recollected that, +throughout his reign, there is comparatively little racial antagonism +between the two countries. David interfered in an English civil war, and +took part, now on one side, and now on the other. But the whole effect +of his life was to bring the nations more closely together through the +Norman influences which he encouraged in Scotland. His son and heir held +great fiefs in England,<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> and he granted tracts of land to +Anglo-Norman nobles. A Bruce and a Balliol, who each held possessions +both in Scotland and in England, tried to prevent the battle of the +Standard. Their well-meant efforts proved fruitless; but the fact is +notable and significant.</p> + +<p>David's eldest son, the gallant Prince Henry, who had led the wild +charge at Northallerton, predeceased his father in 1152. He left three +sons, of whom the two elder, Malcolm and William, became successively +kings of Scotland, while from the youngest, David, Earl of Huntingdon, +were descended the claimants at the <a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>first Inter-regnum. It was the fate +of Scotland, as so often again, to be governed by a child; and a strong +king, Henry II, was now on the throne of England. As David I had taken +advantage of the weakness of Stephen, so now did Henry II benefit by the +youth of Malcolm IV. In spite of the agreement into which Henry had +entered with David in 1149, he, in 1157, obtained from Malcolm, then +fourteen years of age, the resignation of his claims upon +Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. In return for this, +Malcolm received a confirmation of the earldom of Huntingdon (cf. p. +18). The abandonment of the northern claims seems to have led to a +quarrel, for Henry refused to knight the Scots king; but, in the +following year, Malcolm accompanied Henry in his expedition to Toulouse, +and received his knighthood at Henry's hands. Malcolm's subsequent +troubles were connected with rebellions in Moray and in Galloway against +the new <i>régime</i>, and with the ambition of Somerled, the ruler of +Argyll, and of the still independent western islands. The only occasion +on which he again entered into relations with England was in 1163, when +he met Henry at Woodstock and did homage to his eldest son, who became +known as Henry III, although he never actually reigned. As usual, there +is no statement precisely defining the homage; it must not be forgotten +that the King of Scots was also Earl of Huntingdon.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>Malcolm died in 1165, and was succeeded by his brother, William the +Lion, who reigned for nearly fifty years. Henry was now in the midst of +his great struggle with the Church, but William made no attempt to use +the opportunity. He accepted the earldom of Huntingdon from Henry, and +in 1170, when the younger Henry was crowned in Becket's despite, William +took the oath of fealty to him as Earl of Huntingdon. But in 1173-74, +when the English king's ungrateful son organized a baronial revolt, +William decided that his chance had come. His grandfather, David, had +made him Earl of Northumberland, and the resignation which Henry had +extorted from the weakness of Malcolm IV could scarcely be held as +binding upon William. So William marched into England to aid the rebel +prince, and, after some skirmishes and the usual ravaging, was surprised +while tilting near Alnwick, and made a captive. He was conveyed to the +castle of Falaise in Normandy, and there, on December 8th, 1174, as a +condition of his release, he signed the Treaty of Falaise, which +rendered the kingdom of Scotland, for fifteen years, unquestionably the +vassal of England.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> The treaty acknowledged Henry II as overlord of +Scotland, and expressly stated the dependence of the Scottish Church +<a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>upon that of England. The relations of the churches had been an +additional cause of difficulty since the time of St. Margaret, and the +present arrangement was in no sense final. A papal legate held a council +in Edinburgh in 1177, and ten years afterwards Pope Clement III took the +Scottish Church directly under his own protection.</p> + +<p>About the political relationship there could be no such doubt. William +stood, theoretically, if not actually, in much the same position to +Henry II, as John Baliol afterwards occupied to Edward I. It was not +till the accession of Richard I that William recovered his freedom. The +castles in the south of Scotland which had been delivered to the English +were restored, and the independence of Scotland was admitted, on +William's paying Richard the sum of 10,000 marks. This agreement, dated +December, 1189, annulled the terms of the Treaty of Falaise, and left +the position of William the Lion exactly what it had been at the death +of Malcolm IV. He remained liegeman for such lands as the Scottish kings +had, in times past, done homage to England. The agreement with Richard I +is certainly not incompatible with the Scottish position that the +homage, before the Treaty of Falaise, applied only to the earldom of +Huntingdon; but the usual vagueness was maintained, and the arrangement +in no way determines the question of the homage paid by <a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>the earlier +Scottish kings. For a hundred years after this date, the two countries +were never at war. William had difficulties with John; in 1209, an +outbreak of hostilities seemed almost certain, but the two kings came to +terms. The long reign of William came to an end in 1214. His son and +successor, Alexander II, joined the French party in England which was +defeated at Lincoln in 1216. Alexander made peace with the regent, +resigned all claims to Northumberland, and did homage for his English +possessions—the most important of which was the earldom of Huntingdon, +which had, since 1190, been held by his uncle, David, known as David of +Huntingdon. In 1221, he married Joanna, sister of Henry III. Another +marriage, negotiated at the same time, was probably of more real +importance. Margaret, the eldest daughter of William the Lion, became +the wife of the Justiciar of England, Hubert de Burgh. Mr. Hume Brown +has pointed out that immediately on the fall of Hubert de Burgh, a +dispute arose between Henry and Alexander. The English king desired +Alexander to acknowledge the Treaty of Falaise, and this Alexander +refused to do. The agreement, which averted an appeal to the sword, was, +on the whole, favourable to Scotland. Nothing was said about homage for +this kingdom. David of Huntingdon had died in 1119, and Alexander gave +up the southern earldom, but received a fief in the northern <a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>counties, +always coveted of the kings of Scotland. This arrangement is known as +the Treaty of York (1236). Some trifling incidents and the second +marriage of Alexander, which brought Scotland into closer touch with +France (he married Marie, daughter of Enguerand de Coucy), nearly +provoked a rupture in 1242, but the domestic troubles of Henry and +Alexander alike prevented any breach of the long peace which had +subsisted since the capture of William the Lion. In 1249, the Scottish +king died, and his son and successor,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> Alexander III, was knighted by +Henry of England, and, in 1251, married Margaret, Henry's eldest +daughter. The relations of Alexander to Henry III and to Edward I will +be narrated in the following chapter. Not once throughout his reign was +any blood spilt in an English quarrel, and the story of his reign forms +no part of our subject. Its most interesting event is the battle of +Largs. The Scottish kings had, for some time, been attempting to annex +the islands, and, in 1263, Hakon of Norway invaded Scotland as a +retributive mea<a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>sure. He was defeated at the battle of Largs, and, in +1266, the Isles were annexed to the Scottish crown. The fact that this +forcible annexation took place, after a struggle, only twenty years +before the death of Alexander III, must be borne in mind in connection +with the part played by the Islanders in the War of Independence.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> <i>Art of War in the Middle Ages</i>, p. 391.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Cf. App. A.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> In the final order of battle, David seems to have +attempted to bring all classes of his subjects together, and the +divisions have a political as well as a military purpose. The right wing +contained Anglo-Norman knights and men from Strathclyde and Teviotdale, +the left wing men from Lothian and Highlanders from Argyll and the +islands, and King David's reserve was composed of more knights along +with men from Moray and the region north of the Forth.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> The Empress Maud, daughter of Henry I, and niece of David, +must be carefully distinguished from Queen Maud, wife of Stephen, and +cousin of David, who negotiated the Treaty of Durham.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Ailred credits Bruce with a long speech, in which he tries +to convince David that his real friends are not his Scottish subjects, +but his Anglo-Norman favourites, and that, accordingly, he should keep +on good terms with the English.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> William's English earldom of Huntingdon, which had been +forfeited, was restored, in 1185, and was conferred by William upon his +brother, David, the ancestor of the claimants of 1290.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> As Alexander III was the last king of Scotland who ruled +before the War of Independence, it is interesting to note that he was +crowned at Scone with the ancient ceremonies, and as the representative +of the Celtic kings of Scotland. Fordun tells us that the coronation +took place on the sacred stone at Scone, on which all Scottish kings had +sat, and that a Highlander appeared and read Alexander's Celtic +genealogy (Annals XLVIII. Cf. App. A). There is no indication that +Alexander's subjects, from the Forth to the Moray Firth, were "stout +Northumbrian Englishmen", who had, for no good reason, drifted away from +their English countrymen, to unite them with whom Edward I waged his +Scottish wars.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h4>THE SCOTTISH POLICY OF EDWARD I</h4> + +<h4>1286-1296</h4> + + +<p>When Alexander III was killed, on the 19th March, 1285-86, the relations +between England and Scotland were such that Edward I was amply justified +in looking forward to a permanent union. Since the ill-fated invasion of +William the Lion in 1174, there had been no serious warfare between the +two countries, and in recent years they had become more and more +friendly in their dealings with each other. The late king had married +Edward's sister, Margaret, and the child-queen was her grand-daughter; +Alexander and Margaret had been present at the English King's coronation +in 1274; and, in addition to these personal connections, Scotland had +found England a friend in its great final struggle with the Danes. The +misfortunes which had overtaken Scotland in the premature deaths<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> of +Alexander and his three children might yet prove a very real blessing, +if they prepared the way for the creation of a great island kingdom, +which <a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>should be at once free and united. The little Margaret, the Maid +of Norway, Edward's grand-niece, had been acknowledged heir to the +throne of her grandfather, in February, 1283-84, and on his death her +succession was admitted. The Great Council met at Scone in April, 1286, +and appointed six Guardians of the Kingdom. It was no easy task which +was entrusted to them, for the claim of a child and a foreigner could +not but be disputed by the barons who stood nearest to the throne. The +only rival who attempted to rebel was Robert Bruce of Annandale, who had +been promised the succession by Alexander II, and had been disappointed +of the fulfilment of his hopes by the birth of the late king in 1241. +The deaths of two of the guardians added to the difficulties of the +situation, and it was with something like relief that the Scots heard +that Eric of Norway, the father of their queen, wished to come to an +arrangement with Edward of England, in whose power he lay. The result of +Eric's negotiations with Edward was that a conference met at Salisbury +in 1289, and was attended, on Edward's invitation, by four Scottish +representatives, who included Robert Bruce and three of the guardians. +Such were the troubles of the country that the Scots willingly acceded +to Edward's proposals, which gave him an interest in the government of +Scotland, and they heard with delight that he contemplated the marriage +of their little queen to his son Edward, <a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>then two years of age. The +English king was assured of the satisfaction which such a marriage would +give to Scotland, and the result was that, by the Treaty of Brigham, in +1290, the marriage was duly arranged. Edward had previously obtained the +necessary dispensation from the pope.</p> + +<p>The eagerness with which the Scots welcomed the proposal of marriage was +sufficient evidence that the time had come for carrying out Edward's +statesmanlike scheme, but the conditions which were annexed to it should +have warned him that there were limits to the Scottish compliance with +his wishes. Scotland was not in any way to be absorbed by England, +although the crowns would be united in the persons of Edward and +Margaret. Edward wisely made no attempt to force Scotland into any more +complete union, although he could not but expect that the union of the +crowns would prepare the way for a union of the kingdoms. He certainly +interpreted in the widest sense the rights given him by the treaty of +Brigham, but when the Scots objected to his demand that all Scottish +castles should be placed in his power, he gave way without rousing +further suspicion or indignation. Hitherto, his policy had been +characterized by the great sagacity which he had shown in his conduct of +English affairs; it is impossible to refuse either to sympathize with +his ideals or to admire the tact he displayed in his negotiations <a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>with +Scotland. His considerateness extended even to the little Maid of +Norway, for whose benefit he victualled, with raisins and other fruit, +the "large ship" which he sent to conduct her to England. But the large +ship returned to England with a message from King Eric that he would not +entrust his daughter to an English vessel. The patient Edward sent it +back again, and it was probably in it that the child set sail in +September, 1290. Some weeks later, Bishop Fraser of St. Andrews, one of +the guardians, and a supporter of the English interest, wrote to Edward +that he had heard a "sorrowful rumour" regarding the queen.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> The +rumour proved to be well-founded; in circumstances which are unknown to +us, the poor girl-queen died on her voyage, and her death proved a fatal +blow to the work on which Edward had been engaged for the last four +years.</p> + +<p>Of the thirteen<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> competitors who put forward claims to the crown, +only three need be here mentioned. They were each descended from David, +Earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion and grandson of David I. +The claimant who, according to the strict rules of primogeniture, had +the best right was John Balliol, the grandson of Margaret, the eldest +daughter of Earl David. His most formidable opponent was Robert Bruce of +Annandale, the son of Earl<a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a> David's second daughter, Isabella, who based +his candidature on the fact that he was the grandson, whereas Balliol +was the great-grandson, of the Earl of Huntingdon, through whom both the +rivals claimed. The third, John Hastings, was the grandson of David's +youngest daughter, Ada. Bishop Fraser, in the letter to which we have +already referred, urged Edward I to interfere in favour of John Balliol, +who might be employed to further English interests in Scotland. The +English king thereupon decided to put forward a definite claim to be +lord paramount, and, in virtue of that right, to decide the disputed +succession.</p> + +<p>Since Richard I had restored his independence to William the Lion, in +1189, the question of the overlordship had lain almost entirely dormant. +On John's succession, William had done homage "saving his own right", +but whether the homage was for Scotland or solely for his English fiefs +was not clear. His successor, Alexander II, aided Louis of France +against the infant Henry III, and, after the battle of Lincoln, came to +an agreement with the regent, by which he did homage to Henry III, but +only for the earldom of Huntingdon and his other possessions in Henry's +kingdom. After the fall of Hubert de Burgh, Henry used his influence +with Pope Gregory IX, who looked upon the English king as a valuable +ally in the great struggle with Frederick II, to persuade the pope to +order the<a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a> King of Scots to acknowledge Henry as his overlord (1234). +Alexander refused to comply with the papal injunction, and the matter +was not definitely settled. Henry made no attempt to enforce his claim, +and merely came to an agreement with Alexander regarding the English +possessions of the Scottish king (1236). During the minority of +Alexander III, when Henry was, for two years, the real ruler of Scotland +(1255-1257), he described himself not as lord paramount, but as chief +adviser of the Scottish king. Lastly, when, in 1278, Alexander III took +a solemn oath of homage to Edward at Westminster, he, according to the +Scottish account of the affair, made an equally solemn avowal that to +God alone was his homage due for the kingdom of Scotland, and Edward had +accepted the homage thus rendered.</p> + +<p>It is thus clear that Edward regarded the claim of the overlordship as a +"trump card" to be played only in special circumstances, and these +appeared now to have arisen. The death of the Maid of Norway had +deprived him of his right to interfere in the affairs of Scotland, and +had destroyed his hopes of a marriage alliance. It seemed to him that +all hope of carrying out his Scottish policy had vanished, unless he +could take advantage of the helpless condition of the country to obtain +a full and final recognition of a claim which had been denied for +exactly a hundred years. At first it seemed as if the <a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>scheme were to +prove satisfactory. The Norman nobles who claimed the throne declared, +after some hesitation, their willingness to acknowledge Edward's claim +to be lord paramount, and the English king was therefore arbiter of the +situation. He now obtained what he had asked in vain in the preceding +year—the delivery into English hands of all Scottish strongholds (June, +1291). Edward delayed his decision till the 17th November, 1292, when, +after much disputation regarding legal precedents, and many +consultations with Scottish commissioners and the English Parliament, he +finally adjudged the crown to John Balliol. It cannot be argued that the +decision was unfair; but Edward was fortunate in finding that the +candidate whose hereditary claim was strongest was also the man most +fitted to occupy the position of a vassal king. The new monarch made a +full and indisputable acknowledgment of his position as Edward's liege, +and the great seal of the kingdom of Scotland was publicly destroyed in +token of the position of vassalage in which the country now stood. Of +what followed it is difficult to speak with any certainty. Balliol +occupied the throne for three and a half years, and was engaged, during +the whole of that period, in disputes with his superior. The details +need not detain us. Edward claimed to be final judge in all Scottish +cases; he summoned Balliol to his court to plead against one of the +Scottish <a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>king's own vassals, and to receive instructions with regard to +the raising of money for Edward's needs. It may fairly be said that +Edward's treatment of Balliol does give grounds for the view of Scottish +historians that the English king was determined, from the first, to goad +his wretched vassal into rebellion in order to give him an opportunity +of absorbing the country in his English kingdom. On the other hand, it +may be argued that, if this was Edward's aim, he was singularly +unfortunate in the time he chose for forcing a crisis. He was at war +with Philip IV of France; Madoc was raising his Welsh rebellion; and +Edward's seizure of wool had created much indignation among his own +subjects. However this may be, it is certain that Balliol, rankling with +a sense of injustice caused by the ignominy which Edward had heaped upon +him, and rendered desperate by the complaints of his own subjects, +decided, by the advice of the Great Council, to disown his allegiance to +the King of England, and to enter upon an alliance with France. It is +noteworthy that the policy of the French alliance, as an anti-English +movement, which became the watchword of the patriotic party in Scotland, +was inaugurated by John Balliol. The Scots commenced hostilities by some +predatory incursions into the northern counties of England in 1295-96.</p> + +<p>Whether or not Edward was waiting for the opportunity thus given him, he +certainly took <a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>full advantage of it. Undisturbed by his numerous +difficulties, he marched northwards to the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed. +Tradition tells that he was exasperated by insults showered upon him by +the inhabitants, but the story cannot go far to excuse the massacre +which followed the capture of the town. After more than a century of +peace, the first important act of war was marked by a brutality which +was a fitting prelude to more than two centuries of fierce and bloody +fighting. On Edward's policy of "Thorough," as exemplified at Berwick, +must rest, to some extent, the responsibility for the unnecessary +ferocity which distinguished the Scottish War of Independence. It was, +from a military stand-point, a complete and immediate success; +politically, it was unquestionably a failure. From Berwick-on-Tweed +Edward marched to Dunbar, cheered by the formal announcement of +Balliol's renunciation of his allegiance. He easily defeated the Scots +at Dunbar, in April, 1296, and continued an undisturbed progress through +Scotland, the castles of Dunbar, Roxburgh, Edinburgh, and Stirling +falling into his hands. Balliol determined to submit, and, on the 7th +July, 1296, he met Edward in the churchyard of Stracathro, near Brechin, +and formally resigned his office into the hands of his overlord. Balliol +was imprisoned in England for three years, but, in July, 1299, he was +permitted to go to his estate of Bailleul, <a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>in Normandy, where he +survived till April, 1313.</p> + +<p>Edward now treated Scotland as a conquered country under his own +immediate rule. He continued his progress, by Aberdeen, Banff, and +Cullen, to Elgin, whence, in July, 1296, he marched southwards by Scone, +whence he carried off the Stone of Fate, which is now part of the +Coronation Chair in Westminster Abbey. He also despoiled Scotland of +many of its early records, which might serve to remind his new subjects +of their forfeited independence. He did not at once determine the new +constitution of the country, but left it under a military occupation, +with John de Warrenne, Earl of Surrey, as Governor, Hugh de Cressingham +as Treasurer, and William Ormsby as Justiciar. All castles and other +strong places were in English hands, and Edward regarded his conquest as +assured.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> David, the youngest child of Alexander and Margaret of +England, died in June, 1281; Alexander, his older brother, in January, +1283-84; and their sister, Margaret, Queen of Norway, in April, 1283. +Neither Alexander nor David left any issue, and the little daughter of +the Queen of Norway was only about three years old when her grandfather, +Alexander III, was killed.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Nat. MSS. i. 36, No. LXX.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Cf. Table, App. C.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h4>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</h4> + +<h4>1297-1328</h4> + + +<p>Edward I had failed to recognize the difference between the Scottish +barons and the Scottish people, to which we have referred in a former +chapter. To the Norman baron, who possessed lands in England and +Scotland alike, it mattered little that he had now but one liege lord +instead of two suzerains. To the people of Scotland, proud and +high-spirited, tenacious of their long traditions of independence, +resentful of the presence of foreigners, it could not but be hateful to +find their country governed by a foreign soldiery. The conduct of +Edward's officials, and especially of Cressingham and Ormsby, and the +cruelty of the English garrisons, served to strengthen this national +feeling, and it only remained for it to find a leader round whom it +might rally.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> A leader arose in the person of Sir William Wallace, a +heroic and somewhat mysterious figure, who first attracted notice in +<a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>the autumn of 1296, and, by the spring of the following year, had +gathered round him a band of guerilla warriors, by whose help he was +able to make serious attacks upon the English garrisons of Lanark and +Scone (May, 1297). These exploits, of little importance in themselves, +sufficed to attract the popular feeling towards Wallace. The domestic +difficulties of Edward I rendered the time opportune for a rising, and, +despite the failure of an ill-conceived and badly-managed attempt on the +part of some of the more patriotic barons, which led to the submission +of Irvine, in 1297, the little army which Wallace had collected rapidly +grew in courage and in numbers, and its leader laid siege to the castle +of Dundee. He had now attained a position of such importance that Surrey +and Cressingham found it necessary to take strong measures against him, +and they assembled at Stirling, whither Wallace marched to meet them. +The battle of Stirling Bridge (or, more strictly, Cambuskenneth Bridge) +was fought on September 11th, 1297. Wallace, with his army of knights +and spearmen, took up his position on the Abbey Craig, with the Forth +between him and the English. Less than a mile from the Scottish camp was +a small bridge over the river, giving access to the Abbey <a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>of +Cambuskenneth. Surrey rashly attempted to cross this bridge, in the face +of the Scots, and Wallace, after a considerable number of the enemy had +been allowed to reach the northern bank, ordered an attack. The English +failed to keep the bridge, and their force became divided. Surrey was +unable to offer any assistance to his vanguard, and they fell an easy +prey to the Scots, while the English general, with the remnants of his +army, retreated to Berwick.</p> + +<p>Stirling was the great military key of the country, commanding all the +passes from south to north, and the great defeat which the English had +sustained placed the country in the power of Wallace. Along with an +Andrew de Moray, of whose identity we know nothing, he undertook the +government of the country, corresponded in the name of Scotland with +Lübeck and Hamburg, and took the offensive against England in an +expedition which ravaged as far south as Hexham. To the great monastery +of Hexham he granted protection in the name of "the leaders of the army +of Scotland",<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> although he was not successful in restraining the +ferocity of his followers. The document in question is granted in the +name of John, King of Scotland, and in a charter dated March 1298,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> +Wallace describes himself as Guardian of the Kingdom of Scotland, acting +for the exiled Balliol. In the following <a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>summer, Edward marched into +Scotland, and although his forces were in serious difficulties from want +of food, he went forward to meet Wallace, who held a strong position at +Falkirk. Wallace prepared to meet Edward by drawing up his spearmen in +four great "schiltrons" or divisions, with a reserve of cavalry. His +flanks were protected by archers, and he had also placed archers between +the divisions of spearmen. On the English side, Edward himself commanded +the centre, the Earls of Norfolk and Hereford the right, and the Bishop +of Durham the left. The Scottish defeat was the result of a combination +of archers and cavalry. The first attack of the English horse was +completely repulsed by the spearmen. "The front ranks", says Mr. Oman, +"knelt with their spear-butts fixed in the earth; the rear ranks +levelled their lances over their comrades' heads; the thick-set grove of +twelve-foot spears was far too dense for the cavalry to penetrate." But +Edward withdrew the cavalry and ordered the archers to send a shower of +arrows on the Scots. Wallace's cavalry made no attempt to interfere with +the archers; the Scottish bowmen were too few to retaliate; and, when +the English horse next charged, they found many weak points in the +schiltrons, and broke up the Scottish host.</p> + +<p>As the battle of Stirling had created the power of Wallace, so that of +Falkirk completely destroyed it. He almost immediately resigned his +<a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a>office of guardian (mainly, according to tradition, because of the +jealousy with which the great barons regarded him), and took refuge in +France. Edward was still in the midst of difficulties, both foreign and +domestic, and he was unable to reduce the country. The Scots elected new +guardians, who regarded themselves as regents, not for Edward but for +Balliol. They included John Comyn and Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, the +future king. The guardians were successful in persuading both Philip IV +of France and Pope Boniface VIII to intervene in their favour, but +Edward disregarded the papal interference, and though he was too busy to +complete his conquest, he sent an army into Scotland in each of the +years 1300, 1301, and 1302. Military operations were almost entirely +confined to ravaging; but, in February 1302-3, Comyn completely defeated +at Rosslyn, near Edinburgh, an English army under Sir John Segrave and +Ralph de Manton, whom Edward had ordered to make a foray in Scotland +about the beginning of Lent. In the summer of 1303, the English king, +roused perhaps by this small success, and able to give his undivided +attention to Scotland, conducted an invasion on a larger scale. In +September, he traversed the country as far north as Elgin, and, +remaining in Scotland during the winter of 1303-4, he set to work in the +spring to reduce the castle of Stirling, which still held out against +him. When the garrison surren<a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>dered, in July, 1304, Scotland lay at +Edward's feet. Comyn had already submitted to the English king, and +Edward's personal vindictiveness was satisfied by the capture of Wallace +by Sir John Menteith, a Scotsman who had been acting in the English +interest. Wallace was taken to London, subjected to a mock trial, +tortured, and put to death with ignominy. On the 23rd August, 1305, his +head was placed on London Bridge, and portions of his body were sent to +Scotland. His memory served as an inspiration for the cause of freedom, +and it is held in just reverence to the present hour. If it is true that +he did not scruple to go beyond what we should regard as the limits of +honourable warfare, it must be remembered that he was fighting an enemy +who had also disregarded these limits, and much may be forgiven to brave +men who are resisting a gratuitous war of conquest. When he died, his +work seemed to have failed. But he had shown his countrymen how to +resist Edward, and he had given sufficient evidence of the strength of +national feeling, if only it could find a suitable leader. The English +had to learn the lesson which, five centuries later, Napoleon had to +learn in Spain, and Scotland cannot forget that Wallace was the first to +teach it.</p> + +<p>It is not less pathetic to turn to Edward's scheme for the government of +Scotland. It bears the impress of a mind which was that of <a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>a statesman +and a lawyer as well as a soldier. It is impossible to deny a tribute of +admiration to its wisdom, or to question the probability of its success +in other circumstances. Had the course of events been more propitious +for Edward's great plan, Scotland and England might have been spared +much suffering. But Edward failed to realize that the Scots could no +longer regard him as the friend and ally to whose son they had willingly +agreed to marry their queen. He was now but a military conqueror in +temporary possession of their country, an enemy to be resisted by any +means. The new constitution was foredoomed to failure. Carrying out his +scheme of 1296, Edward created no vassal-king, but placed Scotland under +his own nephew, John of Brittany; he interfered as little as might be +with the customs and laws of the country; he placed over it eight +justiciars with sheriffs under them. In 1305, Edward's Parliament, which +met at London, was attended by Scottish representatives. The +incorporation of the country with its larger neighbour was complete, but +it involved as little change as was possible in the circumstances.</p> + +<p>The Parliament of 1305 was attended by Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, +who attended not as a representative of Scotland, but as an English +lord. Bruce was the grandson of the Robert Bruce of Annandale who had +been promised the crown by Alexander II, and who had been <a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>one of the +claimants of 1290. His grandfather had done homage to Edward, and Bruce +himself had been generally on the English side, and had fought against +Wallace at Falkirk. When John Balliol had decided to rebel, he had +transferred the lands of Annandale from the Bruces to the Comyns, and +they had been restored by Edward I after Balliol's submission. From 1299 +to 1303, Bruce had been associated with Comyn in the guardianship of the +kingdom, but, like Comyn, had submitted to Edward. Nobody in Scotland +could now think of a restoration of Balliol, and if there was to be a +Scottish king at all, it must obviously be either Comyn or Bruce. The +claim of John Comyn the younger was much stronger than that of his +father had been. The elder Comyn had claimed on account of his descent +from Donald Bane, the brother and successor of Malcolm Canmore; but the +younger Comyn had an additional claim in right of his mother, who was a +sister of John Balliol. Between Bruce and Comyn there was a +long-standing feud. In 1299, at a meeting of the Great Council of +Scotland at Peebles, Comyn had attacked Bruce, and they could only be +separated by the use of violence. On the 10th February, 1305-6, Bruce +and the Comyn met in the church of the convent of the Minorite Friars at +Dumfries. Tradition tells that they met to adjust their conflicting +claims, with a view to establishing the independence of the country in +<a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>the person of one or other of the rivals; that a dispute arose in which +they came to blows; and that Bruce, after inflicting a severe wound upon +his enemy, left the church. "I doubt I have slain the Red Comyn," he +said to his followers. "Doubt?" was the reply of Sir Roger Fitzpatrick, +"I'll mak siccar." The actual circumstances of the affair are unknown to +us; but Bruce may fairly be relieved of the suspicion of any +premeditation, because it is most unlikely that he would have needlessly +chosen to offend the Church by committing a murder within sanctuary. The +real interest attaching to the circumstances lies in the tradition that +the object of the meeting was to organize a resistance against Edward I. +Whether this was so or not, there can be no doubt that the result of the +conference compelled the Bruce to place himself at the head of the +national cause. A Norman baron, born in England, he was by no means the +natural leader for whose appearance men looked, and there was a grave +chance of his failing to arouse the national sentiment. But the murder +of one claimant to the Scottish throne at the hands of the only other +possible candidate, who thus placed himself in the position of undoubted +heir, could scarcely have been forgiven by Edward I, even if the Comyn +had not, for the past two years, proved a faithful servant of the +English king. There was no alternative, and, on the 27th March, 1306, +Robert, Earl of Carrick and Lord <a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>of Annandale, was crowned King of the +Scots at Scone. The ancient royal crown of the Scottish kings had been +removed by Balliol in 1296, and had fallen into the hands of Edward, but +the Countess of Buchan placed on the Bruce's head a hastily made coronet +of gold.</p> + +<p>It was far from an auspicious beginning. It is difficult to give Bruce +credit for much patriotic feeling, although, as we have seen, he had +been one of the guardians who had maintained a semblance of +independence. The death of the Comyn had thrown against him the whole +influence of the Church; he was excommunicate, and it was no sin to slay +him. The powerful family, whose head had been cut off by his hand, had +vowed revenge, and its great influence was on the side of the English. +It is no small tribute to the force of the sentiment of nationality that +the Scots rallied round such a leader, and it must be remembered that, +from whatever reason the Bruce adopted the national cause, he proved in +every respect worthy of a great occasion, and as time passed, he came to +deserve the place he occupies as the hero of the epic of a nation's +freedom.</p> + +<p>The first blow in the renewed struggle was struck at Methven, near +Perth, where, on the 19th June, 1306, the Earl of Pembroke inflicted a +defeat upon King Robert. The Lowlands were now almost entirely lost to +him; he sent his wife<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a> and child to Kildrummie Castle in +Aberdeenshire, whence they fled to the sanctuary of St. Duthac, near +Tain. In August, Bruce was defeated at Dalry, by Alexander of Lorn, a +relative of the Comyn. In September, Kildrummie Castle fell, and Nigel +Bruce, King Robert's brother, fell into the hands of the English and was +put to death at Berwick. To complete the tale of catastrophes, the +Bruce's wife and daughter, two of his sisters, and other two of his +brothers, along with the Countess of Buchan, came into the power of the +English king. Edward placed some of the ladies in cages, and put to +death Sir Thomas Bruce and Alexander Bruce, Dean of Glasgow (February, +1306-7). Meanwhile, King Robert had found it impossible to maintain +himself even in his own lands of Carrick, and he withdrew to the island +of Rathlin, where he wintered. Undeterred by this long series of +calamities, he took the field in the spring of 1307, and now, for the +first time, fortune favoured him. On the 10th May, he defeated the +English, under Pembroke, at Loudon Hill, in Ayrshire. He had been joined +by his brother Edward and by the Lord James of Douglas (the "Black +Douglas"), and the news of his success, slight as it was, helped to +increase at once the spirit and the numbers of his followers. His +position, however, was one of extreme difficulty; he was <a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>still only a +king in name, and, in reality, the leader of a guerilla warfare. Edward +was marching northwards at the head of a large army, determined to crush +his audacious subject. But Fate had decreed that the Hammer of the Scots +was never again to set foot in Scotland. At Burgh-on-Sand, near +Carlisle, within sight of his unconquered conquest, the great Edward +breathed his last. His death was the turning-point in the struggle. The +reign of Edward II in England is a most important factor in the +explanation of Bruce's success.</p> + +<p>With the death of Edward I the whole aspect of the contest changes. The +English were no longer conducting a great struggle for a statesmanlike +ideal, as they had been under Edward I—however impossible he himself +had made its attainment. There is no longer any sign of conscious +purpose either in their method or in their aims. The nature of the +warfare at once changed; Edward II, despite his father's wish that his +bones should be carried at the head of the army till Scotland was +subdued, contented himself with a fruitless march into Ayrshire, and +then returned to give his father a magnificent burial in Westminster +Abbey. King Robert was left to fight his Scottish enemies without their +English allies. These Scottish enemies may be divided into two +classes—the Anglo-Norman nobles who had supported the English cause +more or less consistently, and the personal <a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>enemies of the Bruce, who +increased in numbers after the murder of Comyn. Among the great families +thus alienated from the cause of Scotland were the Highlanders of Argyll +and the Isles, some of the men of Badenach, and certain Galloway clans. +But that this opposition was personal, and not racial, is shown by the +fact that, from the first, some of these Highlanders were loyal to +Bruce, <i>e.g.</i> Sir Nigel Campbell and Angus Og. We shall see, further, +that after the first jealousies caused by Comyn's death and Bruce's +success had passed away, the men of Argyll and the Isles took a more +prominent part on the Scottish side. In December, 1307, Bruce routed +John Comyn, the successor of his old rival, at Slains, on the +Aberdeenshire coast, and in the following May, when Comyn had obtained +some slight English assistance, he inflicted a final defeat upon him at +Inverurie. The power of the Comyns in their hereditary earldom of Buchan +had now been suppressed, and King Robert turned his attention to their +allies in the south. In the autumn of 1308, he himself defeated +Alexander of Lorn and subdued the district of Argyll, his brother Edward +reduced Galloway to subjection, and Douglas, along with Randolph, Earl +of Moray, was successful in Tweeddale. Thus, within three years from the +death of Comyn, Bruce had broken the power of the great families, whose +enmity against him had been aroused by that event. One year later the +<a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>other great misfortune, which had been brought upon him by the same +cause, was removed by an act which is important evidence at once of the +strength of the anti-English feeling in the country, and of the +confidence which Bruce had inspired. On the 24th February, 1309-10, the +clergy of Scotland met at Dundee and made a solemn declaration<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> of +fealty to King Robert as their lawful king. Scotland was thus united in +its struggle for independence under King Robert I.</p> + +<p>It now remained to attack the English garrisons who held the castles of +Scotland. An invasion conducted by Edward II in 1310 proved fruitless, +and the English king returned home to enter on a long quarrel with the +Lords Ordainers, and to see his favourite, Gaveston, first exiled and +then put to death. While the attention of the rulers of England was thus +occupied, Bruce, for the first time since Wallace's inroad of 1297, +carried the war into the enemy's country, invading the north of England +both in 1311 and in 1312. Meanwhile the strongholds of the country were +passing out of the English power. Linlithgow was recovered in 1311; +Perth in January, 1312-13; and Roxburgh a month later. The romantic +capture of the castle of Edinburgh, by Randolph, Earl of Moray, in +March, 1313, is one of the classical stories of<a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a> Scottish history, and +in the summer of the same year, King Robert restored the Scottish rule +in the Isle of Man. In November, 1313, only Stirling Castle remained in +English hands, and Edward Bruce rashly agreed to raise the siege on +condition that the garrison should surrender if they were not relieved +by June 24th, 1314. Edward II determined to make a heroic effort to +maintain this last vestige of English conquest, and his attempt to do so +has become irrevocably associated with the Field of Bannockburn.</p> + +<p>In his preparations for the great struggle, which was to determine the +fate of Scotland, the Bruce carefully avoided the errors which had led +to Wallace's defeat at Falkirk. He selected a position which was +covered, on one side by the Bannock Burn and a morass, and, on the other +side, by the New Park or Forest. His front was protected by the stream +and by the famous series of "pottes", or holes, covered over so as to +deceive the English cavalry. The choice of this narrow position not only +prevented the possibility of a flank attack, but also forced the great +army of Edward II into a small space, where its numbers became a +positive disadvantage. King Robert arranged his infantry in four +divisions; in front were three schiltrons of pikemen, under Randolph, +Edward Bruce, and Sir James Douglas, and Bruce himself commanded the +reserve, which was composed of Highlanders from Argyll and the Islands +and <a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>of the men of Carrick.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Sir Robert Keith, the Marischal, was in +charge of a small body of cavalry, which did good service by driving +back, at a critical moment, such archers as made their way through the +forest. The English army was in ten divisions, but the limited area in +which they had to fight interfered with their arrangement. As at +Falkirk, the English cavalry made a gallant but useless charge against +the schiltrons, but it was not possible again to save the day by means +of archers, for the archers had no room to deploy, and could only make +vain efforts to shoot over the heads of the horsemen. Bruce strengthened +the Scots with his reserve, and then ensued a general action along the +whole line. The van of the English army was now thoroughly demoralized, +and their comrades in the rear could not, in these narrow limits, press +forward to render any assistance. King Robert's camp-followers, at this +juncture, rushed down a hill behind the Scottish army, and they appeared +to the English as a fresh force come to assist the enemy. The result was +the loss of all sense of discipline: King Edward's magnificent host fled +in complete rout and with great slaughter, and the cause of Scottish +freedom was won.</p> + +<p>The victory of Bannockburn did not end the <a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>war, for the English refused +to acknowledge the hard-won independence of Scotland, and fighting +continued till the year 1327. The Scots not only invaded England, but +adopted the policy of fighting England in Ireland, and English reprisals +in Scotland were uniformly unsuccessful. Bruce invaded England in 1315; +in the same year, his brother Edward landed with a Scottish army at +Carrickfergus, in the hope of obtaining a throne for himself. He was +crowned King of Ireland in May, 1316, and during that and the following +year, King Robert was personally in Ireland, giving assistance to his +brother. But, in 1318, Edward Bruce was defeated and slain near Dundalk, +and, with his death, this phase of the Bruce's English policy +disappears. A few months before the death of Edward Bruce, King Robert +had captured the border town of Berwick-on-Tweed, which had been held by +the English since 1298. In 1319, Edward II sent an English army to +besiege Berwick, and the Scots replied by an invasion of England in the +course of which Douglas and Randolph defeated the English at +Mitton-on-Swale in Yorkshire. The English were led by the Archbishop of +York, and so many clerks were killed that the battle acquired the name +of the Chapter of Mitton. The war lingered on for three years more. The +year 1322 saw an invasion of England by King Robert and a +counter-invasion of Scotland by Edward II, who destroyed the Abbey of +Dry<a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>burgh on his return march. This expedition was, as usual, fruitless, +for the Scots adopted their usual tactics of leaving the country waste +and desolate, and the English army could obtain no food. In October of +the same year King Robert made a further inroad into Yorkshire, and won +a small victory at Biland Abbey. At last, in March, 1323, a truce was +made for thirteen years, but as Edward II persisted in declining to +acknowledge the independence of Scotland, it was obvious that peace +could not be long maintained.</p> + +<p>During the fourteen years which followed his victory of Bannockburn, +King Robert was consolidating his kingdom. He had obtained recognition +even in the Western Highlands and Islands, and the sentiment of the +whole nation had gathered around him. The force of this sentiment is +apparent in connection with ecclesiastical difficulties. When Pope John +XXII attempted to make peace in 1317 and refused to acknowledge the +Bruce as king, the papal envoys were driven from the kingdom. For this +the country was placed under the papal ban, and when, in 1324, the pope +offered both to acknowledge King Robert and to remove the +excommunication, on condition that Berwick should be restored to the +English, the Scots refused to comply with his condition. A small +rebellion in 1320 had been firmly repressed by king and Parliament. The +birth of a son to<a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a> King Robert, on the 5th March, 1323-24, had given +security to the dynasty, and, at the great Parliament which met at +Cambuskenneth in 1326, at which Scottish burghs were, for the first +time, represented, the clergy, the barons, and the people took an oath +of allegiance to the little Prince David, and, should his heirs fail, to +Robert, the son of Bruce's daughter, Marjorie, and her husband, Robert, +the High Steward of Scotland. The same Parliament put the financial +position of the monarch on a satisfactory footing by granting him a +tenth penny of all rents.</p> + +<p>The deposition and murder of Edward II created a situation of which the +King of Scots could not fail to take advantage. The truce was broken in +the summer of 1327 by an expedition into England, conducted by Douglas +and Randolph, and the hardiness of the Scottish soldiery surprised the +English and warned them that it was impossible to prolong the contest in +the present condition of the two countries. The regents for the young +Edward III resolved to come to terms with Bruce. The treaty of +Northampton, dated 17th March, 1327-28, is still preserved in Edinburgh. +It acknowledged the complete independence of Scotland and the royal +dignity of King Robert. It promised the restoration of all the symbols +of Scottish independence which Edward I had removed, and it arranged a +marriage between Prince David, the <a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>heir to the Scottish throne, and +Joanna, the sister of the young king of England. A marriage ceremony +between the two children was solemnized in the following May, but the +Stone of Fate was never removed from Westminster, owing, it is said, to +the opposition of the abbot. The succession of James VI to the throne of +England, nearly three centuries later, was accepted as the fulfilment of +the prophecy attached to the Coronation Stone, "Lapis ille grandis":</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Ni fallat fatam, Scoti, quocunque locatum,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Invenient lapidem, regnare tenentur ibidem".</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>Thus closed the portion of Scottish history which is known as the War of +Independence. The condemnation of the policy of Edward I lies simply in +its results. He found the two nations at peace and living together in +amity; he left them at war and each inspired with a bitter hatred of the +other. A policy which aimed at the unification of the island and at +preventing Scotland from proving a source of danger to England, and +which resulted in a warfare covering, almost continuously, more than two +hundred and fifty years, and which, after the lapse of four centuries, +left the policy of Scotland a serious difficulty to English ministers, +can scarcely receive credit for practical sagacity, however wise its +aim. It created for England a relentless and irritating (if not always a +dangerous) enemy, invariably ready to take advantage of English +<a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>difficulties. England had to fight Scotland in France and in Ireland, +and Edward IV and Henry VII found the King of Scots the ally of the +House of Lancaster, and the protector of Perkin Warbeck. Only the +accident of the Reformation rendered it possible to disengage Scotland +from its alliance with France, and to bring about a union with England. +Till the emergence of the religious question the English party in +Scotland consisted of traitors and mercenaries, and their efforts to +strengthen English influence form the most discreditable pages of +Scottish history.</p> + +<p>We are not here dealing with the domestic history of Scotland; but it is +impossible to avoid a reference to the subject of the influence of the +Scottish victory upon the Scots themselves. It has been argued that +Bannockburn was, for Scotland, a national misfortune, and that Bruce's +defeat would have been for the real welfare of the country. There are, +of course, two stand-points from which we may approach the question. The +apologist of Bannockburn might lay stress on the different effects of +conquest and a hard-won independence upon the national character, and +might fairly point to various national characteristics which have been, +perhaps, of some value to civilization, and which could hardly have been +fostered in a condition of servitude. On the other hand, there arises a +question as to material prosperity. It must be remembered <a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>that we are +not here discussing the effect of a peaceful and amicable union, such as +Edward first proposed, but of a successful war of conquest; and in this +connection it is only with thankfulness and gratitude to Wallace and to +Bruce that the Scotsman can regard the parallel case of Ireland, which, +from a century before the time of Edward I, had been annexed by +conquest. The story we have just related goes to create a reasonable +probability that the fate of Scotland could not have been different; +but, further, leaving all such problems of the "might have been", we may +submit that the misery of Scotland in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and +sixteenth centuries has been much exaggerated. It is true that the +borders were in a condition of perpetual feud, and that minorities and +intrigues gravely hampered the progress of the country. But, more +especially in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, there are not +wanting indications of prosperity. The chapter of Scottish history which +tells of the growth of burghs has yet to be written. The construction of +magnificent cathedrals and religious houses, and the rise of three +universities, must not be left out of account. Gifts to the infant +universities, the records of which we possess, prove that for humble +folk the tenure of property was comparatively secure, and that there was +a large amount of comfort among the people. Under James IV, trade and +commerce prospered, and <a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>the Scottish navy rivalled that of the Tudors. +The century in which Scottish prosperity received its most severe blows +immediately succeeded the Union of the Crowns. If for three hundred +years the civilizing influence of England can scarcely be traced in the +history of Scottish progress, that of France was predominant, and +Scotland cannot entirely regret the fact. Scotland, from the date of +Bannockburn to that of Pinkie, will not suffer from a comparison with +the England which underwent the strain of the long French wars, the +civil broils of Lancaster and York, and the oppression of the Tudors. +Moreover, there is one further consideration which should not be +overlooked. The postponement of an English union till the seventeenth +century enabled Scotland to work out its own reformation of religion in +the way best adapted to the national needs, and it is difficult to +estimate, from the material stand-point alone, the importance of this +factor in the national progress. The inspiration and the education which +the Scottish Church has given to the Scottish people has found one +result in the impulse it has afforded to the growth of material +prosperity, and it is not easy to regret that Scotland, at the date of +the Reformation, was free to work out its own ecclesiastical destiny.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> There is no indication of any racial division in the +attitude of the Scots. Some Highlanders, from various personal causes, +are found on the English side at the beginning of the War of +Independence; but Mr. Lang has shown that of the descendants of Somerled +of Argyll, the ancestor of the Lords of the Isles, only one fought +against Wallace, while the Celts of Moray and Badenach and the Highland +districts of Aberdeenshire, joined his standard. The behaviour of the +Highland chiefs is similar to that of the Lowland barons. If there is +any racial feeling at all, it is not Celtic <i>v.</i> Saxon, but Scandinavian +<i>v.</i> Scottish, and it is connected with the recent conquest of the +Isles. But even of this there is little trace, and the behaviour of the +Islesmen is, on the whole, marvellously loyal.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Hemingburgh, ii, 141-147.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> <i>Diplomata Scotiæ</i>, xliii, xliv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Bruce had married, 1st, Isabella, daughter of the 10th +Earl of Mar, by whom he had a daughter, Marjorie, and 2nd, in 1302, +Elizabeth de Burgh, daughter of the Earl of Ulster.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Nat. MSS. ii. 12, No. XVII. The original is preserved in +the Register House.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Pinkerton suggests that King Robert adopted this +arrangement because he was unable to trust the Highlanders, but this is +unlikely, as their leader, Angus Og, had been consistently faithful to +him throughout.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h4>EDWARD III AND SCOTLAND</h4> + +<h4>1328-1399</h4> + + +<p>Almost immediately after the conclusion of the Treaty of Northampton, +the conditions of government in England and Scotland were reversed. +Since the death of Edward I, Scotland, under a strong king, had gained +by the weakness of the English sovereign; now England, under the +energetic rule of Edward III, was to profit by the death of King Robert +and by the succession of a minor. On the 7th June, 1329, King Robert +died (probably a leper) at his castle of Cardross, on the Clyde, and +left the Scottish throne to his five-year-old son, David II. In October +of the following year the young Edward III of England threw off the yoke +of the Mortimers and established his personal rule, and came almost +immediately into conflict with Scotland. The Scottish regent was +Randolph or Ranulph, Earl of Moray, the companion of Bruce and the Black +Douglas<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> in the exploits of the great war. Possibly because Edward +III had afforded protection to the Pretender, Edward Balliol, the +<a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>eldest son of John Balliol, and had received him at the English court, +Randolph refused to carry out the provisions of the Treaty of +Northampton, by which their lands were to be restored to the +"Disinherited", <i>i.e.</i> to barons whose property in Scotland had been +forfeited because they had adopted the English side in the war. A +somewhat serious situation was thus created, and Edward, not +unnaturally, took advantage of it to disown the Treaty of Northampton, +which had been negotiated by the Mortimers during his minority, and +which was extremely unpopular in England. He at once recognized Edward +Balliol as King of Scotland. The only defence of Randolph's action is +the probability that he suspected Edward to be in search of a pretext +for refusing to be bound by a treaty made in such circumstances, and if +a struggle were to ensue, it was certainly desirable not to increase the +power of the English party. Edward proceeded to assist Balliol in an +expedition to Scotland, which Mr. Lang describes as "practically an +Anglo-Norman filibustering expedition, winked at by the home government, +the filibusters being neither more nor less Scottish than most of our +<i>noblesse</i>". But before Balliol reached Scotland, the last of the +paladins whose names have been immortalized by the Bruce's wars, had +disappeared from the scene. Randolph died at Musselburgh in July, 1332, +and Scotland was left leaderless. The new regent, the Earl <a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>of Mar, was +quite incapable of dealing with the situation. When Balliol landed at +Kinghorn in August, he made his way unmolested till he reached the river +Earn, on his way to Perth. The regent had taken up a position near +Dupplin, and was at the head of a force which considerably outnumbered +the English. But the Scots had failed to learn the lesson taught by +Edward I at Falkirk and by Bruce at Bannockburn. The English succeeded +in crossing the Earn by night, and took up a position opposite the hill +on which the Scots were encamped. Their archers were so arranged as +practically to surround the Scots, who attacked in three divisions, +armed with pikes, making no attempt even to harass the thin lines of +archers who were extended on each side of the English main body. But the +unerring aim of the archers could not fail to render the Scottish attack +innocuous. The English stood their ground while line after line of the +Scots hurled themselves against them, only to be struck down by the +gray-goose shafts. At last the attack degenerated into a complete rout, +and the English made good their victory by an indiscriminate massacre.</p> + +<p>The immediate result of the battle of Dupplin Moor was that "Edward I of +Scotland" entered upon a reign which lasted almost exactly twelve weeks. +He was crowned at Scone on September 24th, 1332, and unreservedly +acknowledged himself the vassal of the King of England. On the<a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a> 16th +December the new king was at Annan, when an unexpected attack was made +upon him by a small force, led, very appropriately, by a son of +Randolph, Earl of Moray, and by the young brother of the Lord James of +Douglas. Balliol fled to Carlisle, "one leg booted and the other naked", +and there awaited the help of his liege lord, who prepared to invade +Scotland in May. Meanwhile the patriotic party had failed to take +advantage of their opportunity. Sir Andrew Moray of Bothwell, the regent +chosen to succeed Mar (who had fallen at Dupplin), had been captured in +a skirmish near Roxburgh, either in November, 1332, or in April, 1333, +and was succeeded in turn by Sir Archibald Douglas, the hero of the +Annan episode, but destined to be better known as "Tyneman the Unlucky". +The young king had been sent for safety to France.</p> + +<p>In April, Balliol was again in Scotland, and, in May, Edward III began +to besiege Berwick, which had been promised him by Balliol. To defend +Berwick, the Scots were forced to fight a pitched battle, which proved a +repetition of Dupplin Moor. Berwick had promised to surrender if it were +not relieved by a fixed date. When the day arrived, a small body of +Scots had succeeded in breaking through the English lines, and Sir +Archibald Douglas had led a larger force to ravage Northumberland. On +these grounds Berwick held that it had been in fact relieved; <a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>but +Edward III, who lacked his grandfather's nice appreciation of situations +where law and fact are at variance, replied by hanging a hostage. The +regent was now forced to risk a battle in the hope of saving Berwick, +and he marched southwards, towards Berwick, with a large army. Edward, +following the precedent of Dupplin, occupied a favourable position at +Halidon Hill, with his front protected by a marsh. He drew up his line +in the order that had been so successful at Dupplin, and the same result +followed. Each successive body of Scottish pikemen was cut down by a +shower of English arrows, before being able even to strike a blow. The +regent was slain, and Moray, his companion in arms, fled to France, soon +to return to strike another blow for Scotland.</p> + +<p>The victory of Halidon added greatly to the popularity of Edward III, +for the English looked upon the shame of Bannockburn as avenged, and +they sang:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Scots out of Berwick and out of Aberdeen,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">At the Burn of Bannock, ye were far too keen,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Many guiltless men ye slew, as was clearly seen.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">King Edward has avenged it now, and fully too, I ween,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">He has avenged it well, I ween. Well worth the while!</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">I bid you all beware of Scots, for they are full of guile.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"'Tis now, thou rough-foot, brogue-shod Scot, that begins thy care,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Then boastful barley-bag-man, thy dwelling is all bare.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">False wretch and forsworn, whither wilt thou fare?</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hie thee unto Bruges, seek a better biding there!</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">There, wretch, shalt thou stay and wait a weary while;</span><br /><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Thy dwelling in Dundee is lost for ever by thy guile."<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></span><br /> +</p> + +<p>In Scotland, the party of independence was, for the time, helpless. +Edward and Balliol divided the country between them. The eight counties +of Dumfries, Roxburgh, Berwick, Selkirk, Peebles, Haddington, Edinburgh, +and Linlithgow formed the English king's share of the spoil, along with +a reassertion of his supremacy over the rest of Scotland. English +officers began to rule between the Tweed and the Forth. But the cause of +independence was never really hopeless. Balliol and the English party +were soon weakened by internal dissensions, and the leaders on the +patriotic side were not slow to take advantage of the opportunities thus +given them. It was, indeed, necessary to send King David and his wife to +France, and they landed at Boulogne in May, 1334. But from France, in +return, came the young Earl of Moray, who, along with Robert the High +Steward, son of Marjory Bruce, and next heir to the throne, took up the +duties of guardians. The arrival of Moray gave fresh life to the cause, +but there is little interest in the records of the struggle. The Scots +won two small successes at the Borough-Muir of Edinburgh and at +Kilblain. But the victory in the skirmish at the Borough-Muir (August, +1335) was more unfortunate than defeat, for it deprived Scotland for +some <a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>time of the services of the Earl of Moray. He had captured Guy de +Namur and conducted him to the borders, and was himself taken prisoner +while on his journey northwards. Sir Andrew Moray of Bothwell, who had +been made guardian after the battle of Dupplin, and was captured in +April, 1333, had now been ransomed, and he was again recognized as +regent for David II. So strong was the Scottish party that Balliol had +to flee to England for assistance, and, in 1336, Edward III again +appeared in Scotland. It was not a very heroic effort for the future +victor of Crécy; he marched northwards to Elgin, and, on his way home, +burned the town of Aberdeen.</p> + +<p>As in the first war the turning-point had proved to be the death of +Edward I in the summer of 1307, so now, exactly thirty years later, came +another decisive event. In the autumn of 1337, Edward III first styled +himself King of France, and the diversion of his energies from the Scots +to their French allies rendered possible the final overthrow of Balliol +and the Scottish traitors. The circumstances are, however, parallel only +to the extent that an intervention of fortune rendered possible the +victory of Scottish freedom. In 1337 there was no great leader: the hour +had come, but not the man. For the next four years, castle after castle +fell into Scottish hands; many of the tales are romantic enough, but +they do not lead to a Bannockburn. The only incident of any significance +is the defence of the castle of Dun<a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>bar. The lord of Dunbar was the Earl +of March, whose record throughout the troubles had been far from +consistent, but who was now a supporter of King David, largely through +the influence of his wife, famous as "Black Agnes", a daughter of the +great Randolph, Earl of Moray. From January to June, 1338, Black Agnes +held Dunbar against English assaults by sea and land. Many romantic +incidents have been related of these long months of siege: the stories +of the Countess's use of a dust-cloth to repair the damage done by the +English siege-machines to the battlements, and of her prophecy, made +when the Earl of Salisbury brought a "sow" or shed fitted to protect +soldiers in the manner of the Roman <i>testudo</i>,</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Beware, Montagow,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">For farrow shall thy sow",</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>and fulfilled by dropping a huge stone on the machine and thus +scattering its occupants, "the litter of English pigs"—these, and her +"love-shafts", which, as Salisbury said, "pierce to the heart", are +among the most wonderful of historical fairy tales. In the end the +English had to raise the siege:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Came I early, came I late,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">I found Agnes at the gate",</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>they sang as the explanation of their failure.</p> + +<p>The defence of Dunbar was followed by the surrender of Perth and the +capture of the castles of Stirling and Edinburgh, and in June, 1341,<a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a> +David II returned to Scotland, from which Balliol had fled. David was +now seventeen years of age, and he had a great opportunity. Scotland was +again free, and was prepared to rally round its national sovereign and +the son of the Bruce. The English foe was engaged in a great struggle +with France, and difficulties had arisen between the English king and +his Parliament. But the unworthy son of the great Robert proved only a +source of weakness to his supporters. The only redeeming feature of his +policy is that it was, at first, inspired by loyalty to his French +protectors. In their interest he made, in the year of the Crécy +campaign, an incursion into England, thus ending a truce made in 1343. +After the usual preliminary ravaging, he reached Neville's Cross, near +Durham, in the month of October. There he found a force prepared to meet +him, led, as at Northallerton and at Mitton, by the clergy of the +northern province. The battle was a repetition of Dupplin and Halidon +Hill, and a rehearsal of Homildon and Flodden. Scots and English alike +were drawn up in the usual three divisions; the left, centre, and right +being led respectively, on the one side, by Robert the Steward, King +David, and Randolph, and, on the other, by Rokeby, Archbishop Neville, +and Henry Percy. The English archers were, as usual, spread out so as to +command both the Scottish wings. They were met by no cavalry charge, and +they soon <a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>threw the Scottish left into confusion, and prepared the way +for an assault upon the centre. Randolph was killed; the king was +captured, and for eleven years he remained a prisoner in England. +Meanwhile Robert the Steward (still the heir to the throne, for David +had no children) ruled in Scotland. There is reason for believing that, +in 1352, David was allowed to go to Scotland to raise a ransom, and, two +years later, an arrangement was actually made for his release. But +Robert the Steward and David had always been on bad terms, and, after +everything had been formally settled, the Scots decided to remain loyal +to their French allies. Hostilities recommenced; in August, 1355, the +Scots won a small victory at Nesbit in Berwickshire, and captured the +town of Berwick. Early in the following year it was retaken by Edward +III, who proclaimed himself the successor of Balliol, and mercilessly +ravaged the Lowlands. So great was his destruction of churches and +religious houses that the invasion is remembered as the "Burned +Candlemas". Peace was made in 1357, and David's ransom was fixed at +100,000 marks. It was a huge sum; but in connection with the efforts +made to raise it the burgesses acquired some influence in the government +of the country.</p> + +<p>David's residence in France and in England had entirely deprived him of +sympathy with the national aspirations of his subjects. He loved <a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>the +gay court of Edward III, and the Anglo-Norman chivalry had deeply +affected him. He hated his destined successor, and he had been charmed +by Edward's personality. Accordingly we find him, seven years after his +return to Scotland, again making a journey to England. It is a striking +fact that the son of the victor of Bannockburn should have gone to +London to propose to sell the independence of Scotland to the grandson +of Edward I. The difficulty of paying the yearly instalment of his +ransom made a limit to his own extravagant expenditure, and he now +offered, instead of money, an acknowledgment of either Edward himself or +one of his sons as the heir to the Scottish throne. The result of this +proposal was to change the policy of Edward. He abandoned the Balliol +claim and the traditional Edwardian policy in Scotland, and accepted +David's offer. David returned to Scotland and laid before his Parliament +the less violent of the two schemes, the proposal that, in the event of +his dying childless, Prince Lionel of England should succeed (1364).</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"To that said all his lieges, Nay;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Na their consent wald be na way,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">That ony Ynglis mannys sone</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">In[to] that honour suld be done,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Or succede to bere the Crown,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Off Scotland in successione,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Sine of age and off vertew there</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">The lauchfull airis appearand ware."</span><br /> +</p> + +<p><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>So the proposal to substitute an "English-man's son" for the lawful +heirs proved utterly futile. Equally vain were any attempts of the Scots +to mitigate Edward's rigour in the exaction of the ransom, and Edward +reverted to his earlier policy, disowned King David, and prepared for +another Scottish campaign to vindicate his right as the successor of +Balliol, who had died in 1363. But English energies were once more +diverted at a critical moment. The Black Prince had involved himself in +serious troubles in Gascony, and England was called upon to defend its +conquests in France. In 1369 a truce was made between Scotland and +England, to last for fourteen years.</p> + +<p>David II died, unregretted, in February, 1370-1371. It was fortunate for +Scotland that the miserable seven years which remained to Edward III, +and the reign of his unfortunate grandson, were so full of trouble for +England. Robert the Steward succeeded his uncle without much difficulty. +He was fifty-six years of age, already an old man for those days, eight +years the senior of the nephew whom he succeeded. The main lines of the +foreign policy of his reign may be briefly indicated; but its chief +interest lies in a series of border raids, the story of which is too +intricate and of too slight importance to concern us. The new king began +by entering into an agreement with France, of a more definite +description than any previous arrangement, and <a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>the year 1372 may be +taken as marking the formal inauguration of the Franco-Scottish League. +The truce with England was continued and was renewed in 1380, three +years before the date originally fixed for its expiry. The renewal was +necessitated by various acts of hostility which had rendered it, in +effect, a dead letter. The English were still in possession of such +Scottish strongholds as Roxburgh, Berwick, and Lochmaben, and round +these there was continual warfare. The Scots sacked the town of Roxburgh +in 1377, but without regaining the castle, and, in 1378, they again +obtained possession of Berwick. John of Gaunt, who had forced the +government of his nephew to acknowledge his importance as a factor in +English politics, was entrusted with the command of an army directed +against Scotland. He met the Scottish representatives at Berwick, which +was again in English hands, and agreed to confirm the existing truce, +which was maintained till 1384, when Scotland was included in the +English truce with France. The truce, which was to last for eight +months, was negotiated in France in January, 1383-84. In February and +March, John of Gaunt conducted a ravaging expedition into Scotland as +far as Edinburgh. During the Peasants' Revolt he had taken refuge in +Scotland, and the chroniclers tell us that the expedition of 1384 was +singularly merciful. Still, it was an act of war, and the Scots may +reasonably have expressed surprise, <a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a>when, in April, the French +ambassadors (who had been detained in England since February) arrived in +Edinburgh, and announced that Scotland and England had been at peace +since January. About the same time there occurred two border forays. +Some French knights, with their Scottish hosts, made an incursion into +England, and the Percies, along with the Earl of Nottingham, conducted a +devastating raid in Scotland, laying waste the Lothians. About the date +of both events there is some doubt; probably the Percy invasion was in +retaliation for the French affair. But all the time the two countries +were nominally at peace, and it was not till May, 1385, that they were +technically in a state of war. In that month a French army was sent to +aid the Scots, and, under the command of John de Vienne, it took part in +an incursion on a somewhat larger scale than the usual raids. The +English replied, in the month of August, by an invasion conducted by +Richard II in person, at the head of a large army, while the Scots, +declining a battle, wasted Cumberland. Richard sacked Edinburgh and +burned the great religious houses of Dryburgh, Melrose, and Newbattle, +but was forced to retire without having made any real conquest. The +Scots adopted their invariable custom of retreating after laying waste +the country, so as to deprive the English of provender; even the +impatience of their French allies failed to persuade them to give +<a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a>battle to King Richard's greatly superior forces. From Scotland the +English king marched to London, to commence the great struggle which led +to the impeachment of Suffolk and the rise of the Lords Appellant. While +England was thus occupied, the Scots, under the Earl of Fife, second son +of Robert II (better known as the Duke of Albany), and the Earl of +Douglas, made great preparations for an invasion. Fife took his men into +the western counties and ravaged Cumberland and Westmoreland, but +without any important incident. Douglas attacked the country of his old +enemies, the Percies, and won the victory of Otterburn or Chevy Chase +(August, 1388), the most romantic of all the fights between Scots and +English. The Scots lost their leader, but the English were completely +defeated, and Harry Hotspur, the son of Northumberland, was made a +prisoner. Chevy Chase is the subject of many ballads and legends, and it +is indissolubly connected with the story of the House of Douglas:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Hosts have been known at that dread sound to yield,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">And, Douglas dead, his name hath won the field".</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>From the date of Otterburn to the accession of Henry IV there was peace +between Scotland and England, except for the never-ending border +skirmishes. Robert II died in 1390, and was succeeded by his eldest son, +John, Earl of Carrick, who took the title of Robert III, to avoid <a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a>the +unlucky associations of the name of John, which had acquired an +unpleasant notoriety from John Balliol as well as John of England and +the unfortunate John of France. Under the new king the treaty with +France was confirmed, but continuous truces were made with England till +the deposition of Richard II.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Douglas disappeared from the scene immediately after King +Robert's death, taking the Bruce's heart with him on a pilgrimage to +Palestine. He was killed in August, 1330, while fighting the Moors in +Spain, on his way to the Holy Land.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Minot. Tr. F. York Powell.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h4>SCOTLAND, LANCASTER, AND YORK</h4> + +<h4>1400-1500</h4> + + +<p>When Henry of Lancaster placed himself on his cousin's throne, Scotland +was divided between the supporters of the Duke of Rothesay, the eldest +son of Robert III and heir to the crown, and the adherents of the Duke +of Albany, the brother of the old king. In 1399, Rothesay had just +succeeded his uncle as regent, and to him, as to Henry IV, there was a +strong temptation to acquire popularity by a spirited foreign policy. +The Scots hesitated to acknowledge Henry as King of England, and he, in +turn, seems to have resolved upon an invasion of Scotland as the first +military event of his reign. He, accordingly, raised the old claim of +homage, and marched into Scotland to demand the fealty of Robert III and +his barons. As usual, we find in Scotland some malcontents, who form an +English party. The leader of the English intrigue on this occasion was +the Scots Earl of March,<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> the son of Black Agnes. The Duke of +Rothesay had been betrothed to the daughter of March, but had <a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>married +in February, 1399-1400, a daughter of the Earl of Douglas, the +hereditary foe of March. The Dunbar allegiance had always been doubtful, +and it was only the influence of the great countess that had brought it +to the patriotic side. In August, 1400, Henry marched into Scotland, and +besieged for three days the castle of Edinburgh, which was successfully +defended by the regent, while Albany was at the head of an army which +made no attempt to interfere with Henry's movements. Difficulties in +Wales now attracted Henry's attention, and he left Scotland without +having accomplished anything, and leaving the record of the mildest and +most merciful English invasion of Scotland. The necessities of his +position in England may explain his abstaining from spoiling religious +houses as his predecessors had done, but the chroniclers tell us that he +gave protection to every town that asked it. While Henry was suppressing +the Welsh revolt and negotiating with his Parliament, Albany and +Rothesay were struggling for the government of Scotland. Rothesay fell +from power in 1401, and in March, 1402, he died at Falkland. +Contemporary rumour and subsequent legend attributed his death to +Albany, and, as in the case of Richard II, the method of death was +supposed to be starvation. Sir Walter has told the story in <i>The Fair +Maid of Perth</i>. Albany, who had succeeded him as regent or guardian, +made no effort to end the meaningless war with<a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a> England, which went +fitfully on. An idiot mendicant, who was represented to be Richard II, +gave the Scots their first opportunity of supporting a pretender to the +English throne; but the pretence was too ridiculous to be seriously +maintained. The French refused to take any part in such a scheme, and +the pseudo-Richard served only to annoy Henry IV, and scarcely gave even +a semblance of significance to the war, which really degenerated into a +series of border raids, one of which was of unusual importance. Henry +had no intention of seriously prosecuting the claim of homage, and the +continuance of hostilities is really explained by the ill-will between +March and Douglas and the old feud between the Douglases and the +Percies. In June, 1402, the Scots were defeated in a skirmish at Nesbit +in Berwickshire (the scene of a small Scottish victory in 1355), and, in +the following September, occurred the disaster of Homildon Hill. Douglas +and Murdoch Stewart, the eldest son of Albany, had collected a large +army, and the incursion was raised to the level of something like +national importance. They marched into England and took up a strong +position on Homildon Hill or Heugh. The Percies, under Northumberland +and Hotspur, sent against them a body of English archers, who easily +outranged the Scottish bowmen, and threw the army into confusion. Then +ensued, as at Dupplin and Halidon Hill, a simple massacre. Murdoch +Stewart and Douglas were <a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>taken captive with several other Scots lords. +Close on Homildon Hill followed the rebellion of the Percies, and the +result of the English victory at Homildon was merely to create a new +difficulty for Henry IV. The sudden nature of the Percy revolt is +indicated by the fact that, when Albany marched to relieve a Scottish +stronghold which they were besieging, he found that the enemy had +entered into an alliance with the House of Douglas, their ancient foes, +and were turning their arms against the English king. Percy and Douglas +fought together at Shrewsbury, while the Earl of March was in the ranks +of King Henry.</p> + +<p>The battle of Shrewsbury was fought in July, 1403. In 1405, +Northumberland, a traitor for a second time, took refuge in Scotland, +and received a dubious protection from Albany, who was ready to sell him +should any opportunity arise. A truce which had been arranged between +Scotland and England expired in April, 1405, and the two countries were +technically in a state of war, although there were no great military +operations in progress.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> In the spring of 1406, Albany sent the heir +to the Scottish throne, Prince James, to be educated in France. The +vessel in which he sailed was captured by the English off Flamborough +Head, and the prince was taken to<a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a> Henry IV. It has been a tradition in +Scotland that James was captured in time of truce, and Wyntoun uses the +incident to point a moral with regard to the natural deceitfulness of +the English heart:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"It is of English nationn</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">The common kent conditionn</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Of Truth the virtue to forget,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">When they do them on winning set,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">And of good faith reckless to be</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">When they do their advantage see."</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>But it would seem clear that the truce had expired, and that the English +king was bound to no treaty of peace. His son's capture was immediately +followed by the death of King Robert III, who sank, broken-hearted, into +the grave. Albany continued to rule, and maintained a series of truces +with England till his death in 1420. The peace was occasionally broken +in intervals of truce, and the advantage was usually on the side of the +Scots. In 1409 the Earl of March returned to his allegiance and received +back his estates. In the same year his son recovered Fast Castle (on St. +Abb's Head), and the Scots also recovered Jedburgh.</p> + +<p>Albany's attention was now diverted by a danger threatened by the +Highland portion of the kingdom. Scotland, south of Forth and Clyde, +along with the east coast up to the Moray Firth, had been rapidly +affected by the English, French, and Norman influences, of which we +<a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>have spoken. The inhabitants of the more remote Highland districts and +of the western isles had remained uncorrupted by civilization of any +kind, and ever since the reign of Malcolm Canmore there had been a +militant reaction against the changes of St. Margaret and David I; from +the eleventh century to the thirteenth, the Scottish kings were scarcely +ever free from Celtic pretenders and Celtic revolts.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> The inhabitants +of the west coast and of the isles were very largely of Scandinavian +blood, and it was not till 1266 that the western isles definitely passed +from Norway to the Scottish crown. The English had employed several +opportunities of allying themselves with these discontented Scotsmen; +but Mr. Freeman's general statement, already quoted, that "the true +Scots, out of hatred to the Saxons nearest them, leagued with the Saxons +farther off", is very far from a fair representation of the facts. We +have seen that Highlander and Islesman fought under David I at the +battle of the Standard, against the "Saxons farther off", and that +although the death of Comyn ranged against Bruce the Highlanders of +Argyll, numbers of Highlanders were led to victory at Bannockburn by +Earl Randolph; and Angus Og and the Islesmen formed part of the Scottish +reserves and stood side by side with the men of Carrick, under the +leadership of King Robert. During the troubles which followed<a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a> King +Robert's death, the Lords of the Isles had resumed their general +attitude of opposition. It was an opposition very natural in the +circumstances, the rebellion of a powerful vassal against a weak central +government, a reaction against the forces of civilization. But it has +never been shown that it was an opposition in any way racial; the +complaint that the Lowlands of Scotland have been "rent by the Saxon +from the Gael", in the manner of a racial dispossession, belongs to "The +Lady of the Lake", not to sober history. All Scotland, indeed, has now, +in one sense, been "rent by the Saxon" from the Celt. "Let no one doubt +the civilization of these islands," wrote Dr. Johnson, in Skye, "for +Portree possesses a jail." The Highlands and islands have been the last +portions of Scotland to succumb to Anglo-Saxon influences; that the +Lowlands formed an earlier victim does not prove that their racial +complexion is different. The incident of which we have now to speak has +frequently been quoted as a crowning proof of the difference between the +Lowlanders and the "true Scots". Donald of the Isles had a quarrel with +the Regent Albany, and, in 1408, entered into an agreement with Henry +IV, to whom he owned allegiance. But this very quarrel arose about the +earldom of Ross, which was claimed by Donald (himself a grandson of +Robert II) in right of his wife, a member of the Leslie family. The +"assertor of Celtic nationality" was thus the <a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>son of one Lowland woman +and the husband of another. When he entered the Scottish mainland his +progress was first opposed, not by the Lowlanders, but by the Mackays of +Caithness, who were defeated near Dingwall, and the Frasers immediately +afterwards received what the historians of the Clan Donald term a +"well-merited chastisement".<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> Donald pursued his victorious march to +Aberdeenshire, tempted by the prospect of plundering Aberdeen. It is +interesting to note that, while the battle which has given significance +to the record of the dispute was fought for the Lowland town of Aberdeen +in a Lowland part of Aberdeenshire, the very name of the town is Celtic, +and the district in which the battlefield of Harlaw is situated abounds +to this day in Celtic place-names, and, not many miles away, the Gaelic +tongue may still be heard at Braemar or at Tomintoul. It was not to a +racial battle between Celt and Saxon that the Earl of Mar and the +Provost of Aberdeen, aided by the Frasers, marched out to Harlaw, in +July, 1411, to meet Donald of the Isles. Had the clansmen been +victorious there would certainly have been a Celtic revival; but this +was not the danger most dreaded by the victorious Lowlanders. The battle +of Harlaw was part of the struggle with England. Donald of the Isles was +the enemy of Scottish inde<a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>pendence, and his success would mean English +supremacy. He had taken up the rôle of "the Disinherited" of the +preceding century, just as the Earl of March had done some years before. +As time passed, and civilization progressed in the Lowlands while the +Highlands maintained their integrity, the feeling of separation grew +more strongly marked; and as the inhabitants of the Lowlands +intermarried with French and English, the differences of blood became +more evident and hostility became unavoidable. But any such abrupt +racial division as Mr. Freeman drew between the true Scots and the +Scottish Lowlanders stands much in need of proof.</p> + +<p>Harlaw was an incident in the never-ending struggle with England. It was +succeeded, in 1416 or 1417, by an unfortunate expedition into England, +known as the "Foul Raid", and after the Foul Raid came the battle of +Baugé. They are all part of one and the same story; although Harlaw +might seem an internal complication and Baugé an act of unprovoked +aggression, both are really as much part of the English war as is the +Foul Raid or the battle of Bannockburn itself. The invasion of France by +Henry V reminded the Scots that the English could be attacked on French +soil as well as in Northumberland. So the Earl of Buchan, a son of +Albany, was sent to France at the head of an army, in answer to the +dauphin's request for help. In March, 1421, the Scots <a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>defeated the +English at Baugé and captured the Earl of Somerset. The death of Henry +V, in the following year, and the difficulties of the English government +led to the return of the young King of Scots. The Regent Albany had been +succeeded in 1420 by his son, who was weak and incompetent, and Scotland +longed for its rightful king. James had been carefully educated in +England, and the dreary years of his captivity have enriched Scottish +literature by the <i>King's Quair</i>:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"More sweet than ever a poet's heart</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Gave yet to the English tongue".</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>Albany seems to have made all due efforts to obtain his nephew's +release, and James was in constant communication with Scotland. He had +been forced to accompany Henry V to France, and was present at the siege +of Melun, where Henry refused quarter to the Scottish allies of France, +although England and Scotland were at war. Although constantly +complaining of his imprisonment, and of the treatment accorded to him in +England, James brought home with him, when his release was negotiated in +1423-24, an English bride, Joan Beaufort, the heroine of the <i>Quair</i>. +She was the daughter of Somerset, who had been captured at Baugé, and +grand-daughter of John of Gaunt.</p> + +<p>The troublous reign of James I gave him but little time for conducting a +foreign war, and the <a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>truce which was made when the king was ransomed +continued till 1433. It had been suggested that the peace between +England and Scotland should extend to the Scottish troops serving in +France, but no such clause was inserted in the actual arrangement made, +and it is almost certain that James could not have enforced it, even had +he wished to do so. He gave, however, no indication of holding lightly +the ties that bound Scotland to France, and, in 1428, agreed to the +marriage of his infant daughter, Margaret, to the dauphin. Meanwhile, +the Scottish levies had been taking their full share in the struggle for +freedom in which France was engaged. At Crevant, near Auxerre, in July, +1423, the Earl of Buchan, now Constable of France, was defeated by +Salisbury, and, thirteen months later, Buchan and the Earl of Douglas +(Duke of Touraine) fell on the disastrous field of Verneuil. At the +Battle of the Herrings (an attack upon a French convoy carrying Lenten +food to the besiegers of Orleans, made near Janville, in February, +1429), the Scots, under the new constable, Sir John Stewart of Darnley, +committed the old error of Halidon and Homildon, and their impetuous +valour could not avail against the English archers. They shared in the +victory of Pathay, gained by the Maid of Orleans in June 1429, almost on +the anniversary of Bannockburn, and they continued to follow the Maid +through the last fateful months of her <a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>warfare. So great a part had +Scotsmen taken in the French wars that, on the expiry of the truce in +1433, the English offered to restore not only Roxburgh but also Berwick +to Scotland. But the French alliance was destined to endure for more +than another century, and James declined, thus bringing about a slight +resuscitation of warlike operations. The Scots won a victory at +Piperden, near Berwick, in 1435 or 1436, and in the summer of 1436, when +the Princess Margaret was on her way to France to enter into her +ill-starred union with the dauphin, the English made an attempt to take +her captive. James replied by an attempt upon Roxburgh, but gave it up +without having accomplished anything, and returned to spend his last +Christmas at Perth. His twelve years in Scotland had been mainly +occupied in attempts to reduce his rebellious subjects, especially in +the Highlands, to obedience and loyalty, and he had roused much +implacable resentment. So the poet-king was murdered at Perth in +February, 1436-37, and his English widow was left to guard her son, the +child sovereign, now in his seventh year. It was probably under her +influence that a truce of nine years was made.</p> + +<p>When the truce came to an end, Scotland was in the interval between the +two contests with the House of Douglas which mark the reign of James II. +William the sixth earl and his brother David had been entrapped and +beheaded <a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>by the governors of the boy king in November, 1440, and the +new earl, James the Gross, died in 1443, and was succeeded by his son, +William, the eighth earl, who remained for some years on good terms with +the king. Accordingly, we find that, when the English burned the town of +Dunbar in May, 1448, Douglas replied, in the following month, by sacking +Alnwick. Retaliation came in the shape of an assault upon Dumfries in +the end of June, and the Scots, with Douglas at their head, burned +Warkworth in July. The successive attacks on Alnwick and Warkworth +roused the Percies to a greater effort, and, in October, they invaded +Scotland, and were defeated at the battle of Sark or Lochmaben +Stone.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> In 1449 the Franco-Scottish League was strengthened by the +marriage of King James to Marie of Gueldres.</p> + +<p>Now began the second struggle with the Douglases. Their great +possessions, their rights as Wardens of the Marches, their prestige in +Scottish history made them dangerous subjects for a weak royal house. +Since the death of the good Lord James their loyalty to the kings of +Scotland had not been unbroken, and it is probable that their +suppression was inevitable in the interests of a strong central +government. But the perfidy with which James, with his own <a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>hand, +murdered the Earl, in February, 1451-52, can scarcely be condoned, and +it has created a sympathy for the Douglases which their history scarcely +merits. James had now entered upon a decisive struggle with the great +House, which a temporary reconciliation with the new earl, in 1453, only +served to prolong. The quarrel is interesting for our purpose because it +largely decided the relations between Scotland and the rival lines of +Lancaster and York. In 1455, when the Douglases were finally suppressed +and their estates were forfeited, the Yorkists first took up arms +against Henry VI. Douglas had attempted intrigues with the Lord of the +Isles, with the Lancastrians, and with the Yorkists in turn, and, about +1454, he came to an understanding with the Duke of York. We find, +therefore, during the years which followed the first battle of St. +Albans, a revival of active hostilities with England. In 1456, James +invaded England and harried Northumberland in the interests of the +Lancastrians. During the temporary loss of power by the Duke of York, in +1457, a truce was concluded, but it was broken after the reconciliation +of York to Henry VI in 1458, and when the battle of Northampton, in +July, 1460, left the Yorkists again triumphant, James marched to attempt +the recovery of Roxburgh.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> James I, <a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>as we have seen, had abandoned +the siege of Roxburgh Castle only to go to his death; his son found his +death while attempting the same task. On Sunday, the 3rd of August, +1460, he was killed by the bursting of a cannon, the mechanism of which +had attracted his attention and made him, according to Pitscottie, "more +curious than became him or the majesty of a king".</p> + +<p>The year 1461 saw Edward IV placed on his uneasy throne, and a boy of +ten years reigning over the turbulent kingdom of Scotland. The Scots had +regained Roxburgh a few days after the death of King James, and they +followed up their success by the capture of Wark. But a greater triumph +was in store. When Margaret of Anjou, after rescuing her husband, Henry +VI, at the second battle of St. Albans, in February, 1461, met, in +March, the great disaster of Towton, she fled with Henry to Scotland, +where she had been received when preparing for the expedition which had +proved so unfortunate. On her second visit she brought with her the +surrender of Berwick, which, in April, 1461, became once more a Scots +town, and was represented in the Parliament which met in 1469. In +gratitude for the gift, the Scots made an invasion of England in June, +1461, and besieged Carlisle, but were forced to retire without having +afforded any real assistance to the Lancastrian cause. There was now a +division of opinion in Scotland with <a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>regard to supporting the +Lancastrian cause. The policy of the late king was maintained by the +great Bishop Kennedy, who himself entertained Henry VI in the Castle of +St. Andrews. But the queen-mother, Mary of Gueldres, was a niece of the +Duke of Burgundy, and was, through his influence, persuaded to go over +to the side of the White Rose. While Edward IV remained on unfriendly +terms with Louis XI of France, Kennedy had not much difficulty in +resisting the Yorkist proclivities of the queen-mother, and in keeping +Scotland loyal to the Red Rose. They were able to render their allies +but little assistance, and their opposition gave the astute Edward IV an +opportunity of intrigue. John of the Isles took advantage of the +minority of James III to break the peace into which he had been brought +by James II, and the exiled Earl of Douglas concluded an agreement +between the Lord of the Isles and the King of England. But when, in +October, 1463, Edward IV came to terms with Louis XI, Bishop Kennedy was +willing to join Mary of Gueldres in deserting the doomed House of +Lancaster. Mary did not live to see the success of her policy; but peace +was made for a period of fifteen years, and Scotland had no share in the +brief Lancastrian restoration of 1470. The threatening relations between +England and France nearly led to a rupture in 1473, but the result was +only to strengthen the agreement, and it <a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>was arranged that the infant +heir of James III should marry the Princess Cecilia, Edward's daughter. +In 1479-80, when the French were again alarmed by the diplomacy of +Edward IV, we find an outbreak of hostilities, the precise cause of +which is somewhat obscure. It is certain that Edward made no effort to +preserve the peace, and he sent, in 1481, a fleet to attack the towns on +the Firth of Forth, in revenge for a border raid for which James had +attempted to apologize. Edward was unable to secure the services of his +old ally, the Lord of the Isles, who had been again brought into +subjection in the interval of peace, and who now joined in the national +preparations for war with England. But there was still a rebel Earl of +Douglas with whom to plot, and Edward was fortunate in obtaining the +co-operation of the Duke of Albany, brother of James III, who had been +exiled in 1479. Albany and Edward made a treaty in 1482, in which the +former styled himself "Alexander, King of Scotland", and promised to do +homage to Edward when he should obtain his throne. The only important +events of the war are the recapture of Berwick, in August, 1482, and an +invasion of Scotland by the Duke of Gloucester. Berwick was never again +in Scottish hands. Albany was unable to carry out the revolution +contemplated in his treaty with Edward IV; but he was reinstated, and +became for three months Lieutenant-General of the Realm of Scotland.<a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a> In +March, 1482-83, he resigned this office, and, after a brief interval, in +which he was reconciled to King James, was again forfeited in July, +1483. Edward IV had died on the 9th of April, and Albany was unable to +obtain any English aid. Along with the Earl of Douglas he made an +attempt upon Scotland, but was defeated at Lochmaben in July, 1484. +Thereafter, both he and his ally pass out of the story: Douglas died a +prisoner in 1488; Albany escaped to France, where he was killed at a +tournament in 1485; he left a son who was to take a great part in +Scottish politics during the minority of James V.</p> + +<p>Richard III found sufficient difficulty in governing England to prevent +his desiring to continue unfriendly relations with Scotland, and he +made, on his accession, something like a cordial peace with James III. +It was arranged that James, now a widower,<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> should marry Elizabeth +Woodville, widow of Edward IV, and that his heir, Prince James, should +marry a daughter of the Duke of Suffolk. James did not afford Richard +any assistance in 1485, and after the battle of Bosworth he remained on +friendly terms with Henry VII. A controversy about Berwick prevented the +completion of negotiations for marriage alliances, but friendly +relations were maintained till the revolution of 1488, in which<a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a> James +III lost his life. Both James and his rebellious nobles, who had +proclaimed his son as king, attempted to obtain English assistance, but +it was given to neither side.</p> + +<p>The new king, James IV, was young, brave, and ambitious. He was +specially interested in the navy, and in the commercial prosperity of +Scotland. It was scarcely possible that, in this way, difficulties with +England could be avoided, for Henry VII was engaged in developing +English trade, and encouraged English shipping. Accordingly, we find +that, while the two countries were still nominally at peace, they were +engaged in a naval warfare. Scotland was fortunate in the possession of +some great sea-captains, notable among whom were Sir Andrew Wood and Sir +Andrew Barton.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> In 1489, Sir Andrew Wood, with two ships, the <i>Yellow +Carvel</i> and the <i>Flower</i>, inflicted a severe defeat upon five English +vessels which were engaged in a piratical expedition in the Firth of +Forth. Henry VII, in great wrath, sent Stephen Bull, with "three great +ships, well-manned, well-victualled, and well-artilleried", to revenge +the honour of the English navy, and after a severe fight Bull and his +vessels were captured by the Scots. There was thus considerable +irritation on both sides, and while the veteran intriguer, the Duchess +of Burgundy, attempted to obtain James's assistance for the <a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a>pretender, +Perkin Warbeck, the pseudo-Duke of York, Henry entered into a compact +with Archibald, Earl of Angus, well-known to readers of <i>Marmion</i>. The +treachery of Angus led, however, to no immediate result, and peace was +maintained till 1495, although the French alliance was confirmed in +1491. The rupture of 1495 was due solely to the desire of James to aid +Maximilian in the attempt to dethrone Henry VII in the interests of +Warbeck. Henry, on his part, made every effort to retain the friendship +of the Scottish king, and offered a marriage alliance with his eldest +daughter, Margaret. James, however, was determined to strike a blow for +his protegé, and in November, 1495, Warbeck landed in Scotland, was +received with great honour, assigned a pension, and wedded to the Lady +Katharine Gordon, daughter of the greatest northern lord, the Earl of +Huntly. In the following April, Ferdinand and Isabella, who were +desirous of separating Scotland from France, tried to dissuade James +from supporting Warbeck, and offered him a daughter in marriage, +although the only available Spanish princess was already promised to +Prince Arthur of England. But all efforts to avoid war were of no avail, +and in September, 1496, James marched into England, ravaged the English +borders, and returned to Scotland. The English replied by small border +forays, but James's enthusiasm for his guest rapidly cooled; in July, +1497, Warbeck left<a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a> Scotland. James did not immediately make peace, +holding himself possibly in readiness in the event of Warbeck's +attaining any success. In August he again invaded England, and attacked +Norham Castle, provoking a counter-invasion of Scotland by the Earl of +Surrey. In September, Warbeck was captured, and, in the same month, a +truce was arranged between Scotland and England, by the Peace of Aytoun. +There was, in the following year, an unimportant border skirmish; but +with the Peace of Aytoun ended this attempt of the Scots to support a +pretender to the English crown. The first Scottish interference in the +troubles of Lancaster and York had been on behalf of the House of +Lancaster; the story is ended with this Yorkist intrigue. When next +there arose circumstances in any way similar, the sympathies of the +Scots were enlisted on the side of their own Royal House of Stuart.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> George Dunbar, Earl of March, must be carefully +distinguished from the child, Edmund Mortimer, the English Earl of +March, grandson of Lionel of Clarence, and direct heir to the English +throne after Richard II.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> In the summer of 1405 the English ravaged Arran, and the +Scots sacked Berwick. There were also some naval skirmishes later in the +year.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Cf. App. B.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> <i>The Clan Donald</i>, vol. i, p. 154. The Mackenzies were +also against the Celtic hero.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> There is great doubt as to whether these events belong to +the year 1448 or 1449. Mr. Lang, with considerable probability, assigns +them to 1449.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> James's army contained a considerable proportion of +Islesmen, who, as at Northallerton and at Bannockburn, fought <i>against</i> +"the Saxons farther off".</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> He had married, in 1469, Margaret, daughter of Christian I +of Denmark. The islands of Orkney and Shetland were assigned as payment +for her dowry, and so passed, a few years later, under the Scottish +Crown.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Cf. <i>The Days of James IV</i>, by Mr. G. Gregory Smith, in +the series of "Scottish History from Contemporary Writers".</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h4>THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE</h4> + +<h4>1500-1542</h4> + + +<p>When, in 1501, negotiations were in progress for the marriage of James +IV to Margaret Tudor, Polydore Virgil tells us that the English Council +raised the objection that Margaret or her descendants might succeed to +the throne of England. "If it should fall out so," said Henry, "the +realm of England will suffer no evil, since it will not be the addition +of England to Scotland, but of Scotland to England." It is obvious that +the English had every reason for desiring to stop the irritating +opposition of the Scots, which, while it never seriously endangered the +realm, was frequently a cause of annoyance, and which hampered the +efforts of English diplomacy. The Scots, on the other hand, were +separated from the English by the memories of two centuries of constant +warfare, and they were bound by many ties to the enemies of England. The +only King of Scots, since Alexander III, who had been on friendly terms +with England, was James III, and his enemies had used the fact as a +weapon against him. His successor had already twice refused the +proffered English alliance, and when <a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>he at length accepted Henry's +persistent proposal and the thrice-offered English princess, it was only +after much hesitation and upon certain strict conditions. No Englishmen +were to enter Scotland "without letters commendatory of their own +sovereign lord or safe conduct of his Warden of the Marches". The +marriage, though not especially flattering to the dignity of a monarch +who had been encouraged to hope for the hand of a daughter of Spain, was +notable as involving a recognition (the first since the Treaty of +Northampton) of the King of Scots as an independent sovereign. On the +8th of August, 1503, Margaret was married to James in the chapel of +Holyrood. She was received with great rejoicing; the poet Dunbar, whom a +recent visit to London had convinced that the English capital, with its +"beryl streamis pleasant ... where many a swan doth swim with wingis +fair", was "the flower of cities all", wrote the well-known poem on the +Union of the Thistle and the Rose to welcome this second English +Margaret to Scotland. But the time was not yet ripe for any real union +of the Thistle and the Rose. Peace continued till the death of Henry +VII; but during these years England was never at war with France. James +threatened war with England in April, 1505, in the interests of the Duke +of Gueldres; in 1508, he declined to give an understanding that he would +not renew the old league with France, and he refused to be <a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a>drawn, by +Pope Julius II, into an attitude of opposition to that country. Even +before the death of Henry VII, in 1509, there were troubles with regard +to the borders, and it was evident that the "perpetual peace" arranged +by the treaty of marriage was a sheer impossibility.</p> + +<p>Henry VIII succeeded to the throne of England in April, 1509; three +years and five months later, in September, 1513, was fought the battle +of Flodden. The causes may soon be told. They fall under three heads. +James and Henry were alike headstrong and impetuous, and they were alike +ambitious of playing a considerable part in European affairs. They were, +moreover, brothers-in-law, and, in the division of the inheritance of +Henry VII, the King of England had, with characteristic Tudor avarice, +retained jewels and other property which had been left to his sister, +the Queen of Scots. In the second place, the ancient jealousies were +again roused by disputes on the borders, and by naval warfare. James had +long been engaged in "the building of a fleet for the protection of our +shores"; in 1511, he had built the <i>Great Michael</i>, for which, it was +said, the woods of Fife had been wasted. The Scottish fleet was +frequently involved in quarrels with Henry's ships, and in August, 1511, +the English took two Scottish vessels, which they alleged to be pirates, +and Andrew Barton was slain in the fighting. James demanded redress, +but, says Hall, "the King <a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a>of England wrote with brotherly salutations +to the King of Scots of the robberies and evil doings of Andrew Barton; +and that it became not one prince to lay a breach of a league to another +prince, in doing justice upon a pirate or thief".<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> These personal +irritations and petty troubles might have proved harmless, and, had no +European complications intervened, it is possible that there might have +"from Fate's dark book a leaf been torn", the leaf which tells of +Flodden Field. But, in 1511, Julius II formed the Holy League against +France, and by the end of the year it included Spain, Austria, and +England. The formation of a united Europe against the ancient ally of +Scotland thoroughly alarmed James. It was true that, at the moment, +England was willing to be friendly; but, should France be subdued, +whither might Scotland look for help in the future? James used every +effort to prevent the League from carrying out their project; he +attempted to form a coalition of Denmark, France, and Scotland, and +wrote to his uncle, the King of Denmark, urging him to declare for the +Most Christian King. He wrote Henry offering to "pardon all the damage +done to us and our kingdom, the capture of our merchant ships, the +slaughter and imprisonment of our subjects", if only Henry would +"maintain the universal concord of the Church". He made a vigorous +appeal to the pope himself, beseech<a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a>ing him to keep the peace. His +efforts were, of course, futile, nor was France in such extreme danger +as he supposed. But the chance of proving himself the saviour of France +appealed strongly to him, and, when there came to him, in the spring of +1513, a message from the Queen of France, couched in the bygone language +of chivalry, and urging him, as her knight, to break a lance for her on +English soil, James could no longer hesitate. Henry persevered in his +warlike measures against France, and James, after one more despairing +effort to act as mediator, began his preparations for an invasion of +England. His wisest counsellors were strongly opposed to war: most +prominent among them was his father's faithful servant, Bishop +Elphinstone, the founder of the University of Aberdeen. Elphinstone was +a saint, a scholar, and a statesman, and he was probably the only man in +Scotland who could influence the king. During the discussion of the +French alliance he urged delay, but was overborne by the impetuous +patriotism of the younger nobles, whose voice was, as ever, for war. So, +war it was. Bitter letters of defiance passed between the two kings, +and, in August, 1513, James led his army over the border. Lowlanders, +Highlanders, and Islesmen had alike rallied round his banner; once again +we find the "true Scots leagued", not "with", but against "the Saxons +farther off". The Scots took Norham Castle and some neighbour<a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>ing +strongholds to prevent their affording protection to the English, and +then occupied a strong position on Flodden Edge. The Earl of Surrey, who +was in command of the English army, challenged James to a pitched +battle, and James accepted the challenge. Meanwhile, Surrey completely +outmanœuvred the King of Scots, crossing the Till and marching +northwards so as to get between James and Scotland. James seems to have +been quite unsuspicious of this movement, which was protected by some +rising ground. The Scots had failed to learn the necessity of scouting. +Surrey, when he had gained his end, recrossed the Till, and made a march +directly southwards upon Flodden. James cannot have been afraid of +losing his communications, for his force was well-provisioned, and +Surrey was bound by the terms of his own challenge to fight immediately; +but he decided to abandon Flodden Edge for the lower ridge of Brankston, +and in a cloud of smoke, which not only rendered the Scots invisible to +the enemy but likewise concealed the enemy from the Scots, King James +and his army rushed upon the English. The battle began with artillery, +the superiority of the English in which forced the Scots to come to +close quarters. Then</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Far on the left, unseen the while,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Stanley broke Lennox and Argyle";</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>on the English right, Sir Edmund Howard fell <a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a>back before the charge of +the Scottish borderers, who, forthwith, devoted themselves to plunder. +The centre was fiercely contested; the Lord High Admiral of England, a +son of Surrey, defeated Crawford and Montrose, and attacked the division +with which James himself was encountering Surrey, while the archers on +the left of the English centre rendered unavailing the brave charge of +the Highlanders. With artillery and with archery the English had drawn +the Scottish attack, and the battle of Flodden was but a variation on +every fight since Dupplin Moor. Finally the Scots formed themselves into +a ring of spearmen, and the English, with their arrows and their long +bills, kept up a continuous attack. The story has been told once for +all:</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"But yet, though thick the shafts as snow,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Though charging knights as whirlwinds go,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Though bill-men ply the ghastly blow,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Unbroken was the ring;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">The stubborn spearmen still made good</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Their dark impenetrable wood,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Each stepping where their comrade stood</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">The instant that he fell.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">No thought was there of dastard flight;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Link'd in the serried phalanx tight</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Groom fought like noble, squire like knight,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">As fearlessly and well;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Till utter darkness closed her wing</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">O'er their thin host and wounded king."</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>No defeat had ever less in it of disgrace. The victory of the English +was hard won, and the <a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>valour displayed on the stricken field saved +Scotland from any further results of Surrey's triumph. The results were +severe enough. Although the Scots could boast of their dead king that</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"No one failed him; he is keeping</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Royal state and semblance still",</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>they had lost the best and bravest of the land. Scarcely a family record +but tells of an ancestor slain at Flodden, and many laments have come +down to us for "The Flowers of the Forest". But, although the disaster +was overwhelming, and the loss seemed irreparable at the time, though +the defeat at Flodden was not less decisive than the victory of +Bannockburn, the name of Flodden, notwithstanding all this, recalls but +an incident in our annals. Bannockburn is an incident in English +history, but it is the great turning-point in the story of Scotland; the +historian cannot regard Flodden as more than incidental to both.</p> + +<p>When James V succeeded his father he was but one year old, and his +guardian, in accordance with the desire of James IV, was the +queen-mother, Margaret Tudor. Her subsequent career is one long tale of +intrigue, too elaborate and intricate to require a full recapitulation +here. The war lingered on, in a desultory fashion, till May, 1515. Lord +Dacre ravaged the borders, and the Scots replied by a raid into England; +but there is nothing of any interest to relate.<a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a> From the accession of +Francis I, in 1515, the condition of politics in Scotland, as of all +Europe, was influenced and at times dominated by his rivalry with the +Emperor. The unwonted desire of France for peace and alliance with +England placed the Scots in a position of considerable difficulty, and +the difficulty was accentuated by the more than usually distracted state +of the country during the minority of the king. In August, 1514, +Margaret (who had in the preceding April given birth to a posthumous +child to James IV) was married to the Earl of Angus, the grandson of +Archibald Bell-the-Cat. It was felt that the sister of Henry VIII and +the wife of a Douglas could scarcely prove a suitable guardian of a +Stewart throne, and the Scots invited the Duke of Albany, son of the +traitor duke, and cousin of the late king, to come over to Scotland and +undertake the government. Despite some efforts of Henry to prevent him, +Albany came to Scotland in May, 1515. He was a French nobleman, +possessed large estates in France, and, although he was, ere long, +heir-presumptive to the Scottish throne, could speak no language but +French. When he arrived in Scotland he found against him the party of +Margaret and Angus, while the Earls of Lennox and Arran were his ardent +supporters. The latter nobleman was the grandson of James II, being the +son of the Princess Mary and James, Lord Hamilton, and he was, +therefore, the <a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>next heir to the throne after Albany. The interests of +both might be endangered should Margaret and Angus become all-powerful, +and so we find them acting together for some time. Albany was +immediately made regent of Scotland, and the care of the young king and +his brother, the baby Duke of Ross, was entrusted to him. It required +force to obtain possession of the children, but the regent succeeded in +doing so in August, in time to defeat a scheme of Henry VIII for +kidnapping the princes. The queen-mother fled to England, where, in +October, she bore to Angus a daughter, Margaret, afterwards Countess of +Lennox and mother of the unfortunate Darnley. She then proceeded to pay +a visit to Henry VIII. Meanwhile, in Scotland, Albany was finding many +difficulties. Arran was now in rebellion against him, and now in +alliance with him. In May, 1516, Angus himself, leaving his imperious +wife in England, made terms with the regent. The infant Duke of Ross had +died in the end of 1515, and only the boy king stood between Albany and +the throne. In 1517 Albany returned to France to cement more closely the +old alliance, and remained in France till 1521. Margaret immediately +returned to Scotland, and, had she behaved with any degree of wisdom, +might have greatly strengthened her brother's tortuous Scottish policy. +But a Tudor and a Douglas could not be other than an ill-matched pair, +and Margaret was already tired of her <a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>husband. In 1518, she informed +her brother that she desired to divorce Angus. Henry, whose own +matrimonial adventures were still in the future, and to whom Angus was +useful, scolded his sister in true Tudor fashion, and told her that, +alike by the laws of God and man, she must stick to her husband. A +formal reconciliation took place, but, henceforth, Margaret's one desire +was to be free, and to this she subordinated all other considerations. +In 1519, she came to an understanding with Arran, her husband's +bitterest foe, and in the summer of the same year we find Henry +marvelling much at the "tender letters" she sent to France, in which she +urged the return of Albany, whose absence from Scotland had been the +main aim of English policy since Flodden. While Francis I and Henry VIII +were on good terms, Albany was detained in France; but when, in 1521, +their relations became strained, he returned to Scotland to find Angus +in power. Scotland rallied round him, and in February, 1522, Angus, in +turn, retired to France, while Henry VIII devoted his energies to the +prevention of a marriage between his amorous sister and the handsome +Albany. The regent led an army to the borders and began to organize an +invasion, for which the north of England was ill-prepared, but was +outwitted by Henry's agent, Lord Dacre, who arranged an armistice which +he had no authority to conclude. Albany then re<a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>turned to France, and +the Scots, refusing Henry's offer of peace, had to suffer an invasion by +Surrey, which was encouraged by Margaret, who was again on the English +side. When Albany came back in September, 1523, he easily won over the +fickle queen; but, after an unsuccessful attack on Wark, he left +Scotland for ever in May, 1524.</p> + +<p>No sooner had Albany disappeared from the scene than Margaret entered +into a new intrigue with the Earl of Arran; it had one important result, +the "erection" of the young king, who now, at the age of twelve years, +became the nominal ruler of the country. This manœuvre was executed +with the connivance of the English, to whose side Margaret had again +deserted. For some time Arran and Margaret remained at the head of +affairs, but the return of the Earl of Angus at once drove the +queen-mother into the opposite camp, and she became reconciled to the +leader of the French party, Archbishop Beaton, whom she had imprisoned +shortly before. Angus, who had been the paid servant of England +throughout all changes since 1517, assumed the government. The alliance +between England and France, which followed the disaster to Francis I at +Pavia, seriously weakened the supporters of French influence in +Scotland, and Angus made a three years' truce in 1525. In the next year, +Arran transferred his support to Angus, who held the reins of power till +the summer of 1528.<a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a> The chief event of this period is the divorce of +Queen Margaret, who immediately married a youth, Henry Stewart, son of +Lord Evandale, and afterwards known as Lord Methven.</p> + +<p>The fall of Angus was brought about by the conduct of the young king +himself, who, tired of the tyranny in which he was held, and escaping +from Edinburgh to Stirling, regained his freedom. Angus had to flee to +England, and James passed under the influence of his mother and her +youthful husband. In 1528 he made a truce with England for five years. +During these years James showed leanings towards the French alliance, +while Henry was engaged in treasonable intrigues with Scottish nobles, +and in fomenting border troubles. But the truce was renewed in 1533, and +a more definite peace was made in 1534. Henry now attempted to enlist +James as an ally against Rome, and, by the irony of fate, offered him, +as a temptation to become a Protestant, the hand of the Princess Mary. +James refused to break with the pope, and negotiations for a meeting +between the two kings fell through—fortunately, for Henry was prepared +to kidnap James. The King of Scots arranged in 1536 to marry a daughter +of the Duc de Vendome, but, on seeing her, behaved much as Henry VIII +was to do in the case of Anne of Cleves, except that he definitely +declined to wed her at all. Being in France, he made a proposal for the +Princess Madeleine, daughter of Francis<a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a> I, and was married to her in +January, 1536-37. This step naturally annoyed Henry, who refused James a +passport through England, on the ground that "no Scottish king had ever +entered England peacefully except as a vassal". So James returned by sea +with his dying bride, and reached Scotland to find numerous troubles in +store for him—among them, intrigues brought about by his mother's wish +to obtain a divorce from her third husband. Madeleine died in July, +1537, and the relations between James and Henry VIII (now a widower by +the death of Jane Seymour) were further strained by the fact that nephew +and uncle alike desired the hand of Mary of Guise, widow of the Duke de +Longueville, who preferred her younger suitor and married him in the +following summer. These two French marriages are important as marking +James's final rejection of the path marked out for him by Henry VIII. +The husband of a Guise could scarcely remain on good terms with the +heretic King of England; but Henry, with true Tudor persistency, did not +give up hope of bending his nephew to his will, and spent the next few +years in negotiating with James, in trying to alienate him from Cardinal +Beaton—the great supporter of the French alliance,—and in urging the +King of Scots to enrich himself at the expense of the Church. As late as +1541, a meeting was arranged at York, whither Henry went, to find that +his nephew did <a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>not appear. James was probably wise, for we know that +Henry would not have scrupled to seize his person. Border troubles +arose; Henry reasserted the old claim of homage and devised a scheme to +kidnap James. Finally he sent the Earl of Angus, who had been living in +England, with a force to invade Scotland, and this without the formality +of declaring war. Henry, in fact, was acting as a suzerain punishing a +vassal who had refused to appear when he was summoned. The English +ravaged the county of Roxburgh in 1542; the Scottish nobles declined to +cross the border in what they asserted to be a French quarrel; and in +November a small Scottish force was enclosed between Solway Moss and the +river Esk, and completely routed. The ignominy of this fresh disaster +broke the king's heart. On December 8th was born the hapless princess +who is known as <i>the</i> Queen of Scots. The news brought small comfort to +the dying king, who was still mourning the sons he had lost in the +preceding year. "'Adieu,' he said, 'farewell; it came with a lass and it +will pass with a lass.' And so", adds Pitscottie, "he recommended +himself to the mercy of Almighty God, and spake little from that time +forth, but turned his back unto his lords, and his face unto the wall." +Six days later the end came. With "a little smile of laughter", and +kissing his hand to the nobles who stood round, he breathed his last.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Gregory Smith, p. 123.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h4>THE PARTING OF THE WAYS</h4> + +<h4>1542-1568</h4> + + +<p>Mary of Guise, thus for the second time a widow, was left the sole +protector of the infant queen, against the intrigues of Henry VIII and +the treachery of the House of Douglas. Fortunately, Margaret Tudor had +predeceased her son in October, 1541, and her death left one disturbing +element the less. But the situation which the dowager had to face was +much more perplexed than that which confronted any other of the long +line of Scottish queen-mothers. During the reign of James V the Reformed +doctrines had been rapidly spreading in Scotland. It was at one time +possible that James V might follow the example of Henry VIII, and a +considerable section of his subjects would have welcomed the change. His +death added recruits to the Protestant cause; the greater nobles now +strongly desired an alienation of Church property, because they could +take advantage of the royal minority to seize it for their private +advantage. The English party no longer consisted only of outlawed +traitors; there were many honest Scots who felt that alliance with a +Protestant kingdom must replace the old French <a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>league. The main +interest had come to be not nationality but religion, and Scotland must +decide between France and England. The sixteenth century had already, in +spite of all that had passed, made it evident that Scots and English +could live on terms of peace, and the reign of James IV, which had +witnessed the first attempt at a perpetual alliance, was remembered as +the golden age of Scottish prosperity. The queen-mother was, by birth +and by education, committed to the maintenance of the old religion and +of the French alliance. The task was indeed difficult. Ultimate success +was rendered impossible by causes over which she possessed no kind of +control; a temporary victory was rendered practicable only by the folly +of Henry VIII.</p> + +<p>The history of Henry's intrigues becomes at this point very intricate, +and we must be content with a mere outline. On James's death he +conceived the plan of seizing the Scottish throne, and for this purpose +he entered into an agreement with the Scottish prisoners taken at Solway +Moss. They professed themselves willing to seize Mary and Cardinal +Beaton, and so to deprive the national party of their leaders. Then came +the news that the Earl of Arran had been appointed regent in December, +1542. He was heir-presumptive to the throne, and so was unlikely to +acquiesce in Henry's scheme, and the traitors were instructed to deal +with him as they <a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>thought necessary. But the traitors, who had, of +course, been joined by the Earl of Angus, proved false to Henry and were +falsely true to Scotland. They imprisoned Beaton, but did not deliver +him up to the English, and they came to terms with Arran; nor did they +carry out Henry's projects further than to permit the circulation of +"haly write, baith the new testament and the auld, in the vulgar toung", +and to enter into negotiations for the marriage of the young queen to +the Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VI. The conditions they made were +widely different from those suggested by Henry. Full precautions were +taken to secure the independence of the country both during Mary's +minority and for the future. Strongholds were to be retained in Scottish +hands; should there be no child of the marriage, the union would +determine, and the proper heir would succeed to the Scottish throne. In +any case, no union of the kingdoms was contemplated, although the crowns +might be united. These terms were slightly modified in the following +May. Beaton, who had escaped to St. Andrews, did not oppose the treaty, +but made preparations for war. The treaty was agreed to, and the war of +intrigues went on, Henry offering almost any terms for the possession of +the little queen. Finally, in September, Arran joined the cardinal, +became reconciled to the Church, and left Henry to intrigue with the +Earl of Lennox, the next heir after Arran.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a>Hostilities broke out in the end of 1543, when the Scots, enraged by +Henry's having attacked some Scottish shipping, declared the treaty +annulled. In the spring of 1544, the Earl of Hertford conducted his +expedition into Scotland. The "English Wooing", as it was called, took +the form of a massacre without regard to age or sex. The instructions +given to Hertford by Henry and his council read like quotations from the +book of Joshua. He was to leave none remaining, where he encountered any +resistance. Hertford, abandoning the usual methods of English invaders, +came by sea, took Leith, burned Edinburgh, and ravaged the Lothians. +Lennox attempted to give up Dumbarton to the English, but his treachery +was discovered and he fled to England, where he married Margaret, the +daughter of Angus and niece of Henry VIII, by whom he became, in 1545, +the father of Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, who thus stood within the +possibility of succession, in his own right, to both kingdoms. Angus and +his brother, Sir George Douglas, seized the opportunity given them by +the misery caused by the English atrocities to make a move against Arran +and Beaton, and seized the person of the queen-mother. But their success +was brought to an end by the meeting of a Parliament, summoned by Arran, +in December, 1544, and the Douglases were reconciled and restored to +their estates, deeming this the most profitable step for them<a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a>selves. +Their breach with Henry was widened by the events of the next two +months. A body of Englishmen, under Sir Ralph Eure, defeated Arran at +Melrose, and desecrated the abbey, the sepulchre of the Douglas family. +In revenge, Angus, along with Arran, fell upon the English at Ancrum +Moor in Roxburghshire, and inflicted on them a total defeat. This was +followed by a second invasion of Hertford (this time by land). He +ravaged the borders in merciless fashion. A counter-invasion by an army +of Scots and French auxiliaries had proved futile owing to the +incompetence or the treachery of Angus, who almost immediately returned +to the English side. About the same time a descendant of the Lord of the +Isles whom James IV had crushed made an agreement with Henry, but was of +little use to his cause. Beaton, after some successful fighting on the +borders, in the end of 1545, went to St. Andrews in the beginning of +1546. On the 1st March, George Wishart, who had been condemned on a +charge of heresy, was hanged, and his body was burned at the stake. On +May 29th the more fierce section of the Protestant party took their +revenge by murdering the great cardinal in cold blood. We are not here +concerned with Beaton's private character or with his treatment of +heretics. His public actions, as far as foreign relations are concerned, +are marked by a consistent patriotic aim. He represented the long line +of Scottish churchmen who had <a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>striven to maintain the integrity of the +kingdom and the alliance with France. He had shown great ability and +tact, and in politics he had been much more honest than his opponents. +But for his support of the queen-dowager in 1542-43, and but for his +maintaining the party to which Arran afterwards attached himself, it is +possible that Scotland might have passed under the yoke of Henry VIII in +1543, instead of being peacefully united to England sixty years later. +With him disappeared any remaining hope of the French party. "We may say +of old Catholic Scotland", writes Mr. Lang, "as said the dying Cardinal: +'Fie, all is gone'."</p> + +<p>Though Beaton was dead, the effects of his work remained. He had saved +the situation at the crisis of December, 1542, and the insensate cruelty +of Henry VIII had made it impossible that the Cardinal's work should +fall to pieces at once. It seemed at first as if the only difference was +that the castle of St. Andrews was held by the English party. Ten months +after Beaton's death, the small Protestant garrison was joined by John +Knox, who was present when the regent succeeded, with help from France, +in reducing the castle in July, 1547. Its defenders, including Knox, +were sent as galley-slaves to France. Henry VIII had died in the +preceding January, but Hertford (now Protector Somerset) continued the +Scottish policy of the preceding reign. In the summer of 1547 he made +his third invasion <a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>of Scotland, marked by the usual barbarity. In the +course of it, on 10th September, was fought the last battle between +Scots and English. Somerset met the Scots, under Arran, at Pinkiecleuch, +near Edinburgh, and by the combined effect of artillery and a cavalry +charge, completely defeated them with great slaughter. The English, +after some further devastation, returned home, and the Scots at once +entered into a treaty with France, which had been at war with England +since 1544. It was agreed that the young queen should marry the dauphin, +the eldest son of Henry II. While negotiations were in progress, she was +placed for safety, first in the priory of Inchmahome, an island in the +lake of Menteith, and afterwards in Dumbarton Castle. In June, 1548, a +large number of French auxiliaries were sent to Scotland, and, in the +beginning of August, Mary was sent to France. The English failed to +capture her, and she landed about 13th August. The war lingered on till +1550. The Scots gradually won back the strongholds which had been seized +by the English, and, although their French allies did good service, +serious jealousies arose, which greatly weakened the position of the +French party. Finally, Scotland was included in the peace made between +England and France in 1550.</p> + +<p>All the time, the Reformed faith was rapidly gaining adherents, and +when, in April, 1554, the queen-dowager succeeded Arran (now Duke <a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>of +Chatelherault) as regent, she found the problem of governing Scotland +still more difficult. The relations with England had, indeed, been +simplified by the accession of a Roman Catholic queen in England, but +the Spanish marriage of Mary Tudor made it difficult for a Guise to +obtain any help from her. She continued the policy of obtaining French +levies, and the irritation they caused was a considerable help to her +opponents. Knox had returned to Scotland in 1555, and, except for a +visit to Geneva in 1556-57, spent the rest of his life in his native +country. In 1557 was formed the powerful assembly of Protestant clergy +and laymen who took the title of "the Congregation of the Lord", and +signed the National Covenant which aimed at the abolition of Roman +Catholicism. Their hostility to the queen-regent was intensified by the +events of the year 1558-59. In April, 1558, Queen Mary was married to +the dauphin, and her husband received the crown-matrimonial and became +known as King of Scots. Scotland seemed to have passed entirely under +France. We know that there was some ground for the Protestant alarm, +because the girl queen had been induced to sign documents which +transferred her rights, in case of her decease without issue, to the +King of France and his heirs. These documents were in direct antagonism +to the assurance given to the Scottish Parliament of the maintenance of +national independence. The French <a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a>alliance seemed to have gained a +complete triumph, while the shout of joy raised by its supporters was +really the swan-song of the cause. Knox and the Congregation had +rendered it for ever impossible.</p> + +<p>Nor was it long before this became apparent. In November, 1558, Mary +Tudor died, and England was again Protestant. Henry II ordered Francis +and Mary to assume the arms of England, in virtue of Mary's descent from +Margaret Tudor, which made her in Roman Catholic eyes the rightful Queen +of England, Elizabeth being born out of wedlock. The Protestant Queen of +England had thus an additional motive for opposition to the government +of Mary of Guise and her daughter. It was unfortunate for the +queen-regent that, at this particular juncture, she was entering into +strained relations with the Reformers. Hitherto she had succeeded in +satisfying Knox himself; but, in the beginning of 1559, she adopted more +severe measures, and the lords of the congregation began to discuss a +treasonable alliance with England, which proved the beginning of the +end. The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis set the French government free to +pay greater attention to the progress of Scottish affairs, and Mary of +Guise forthwith denounced the leading Protestant preachers as heretics. +It was much too late. The immediate result was the Perth riots of May +and June, 1559, which involved <a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>the destruction of the religious houses +which were the glory of the Fair City. The aspect of affairs was so +threatening that the regent came to terms, and promised that she would +take no vengeance on the people of Perth, and that she would not leave a +French garrison in the town. The regent kept her word in garrisoning the +town with Scotsmen, but her introduction of a French bodyguard, in +attendance on her own person, was regarded as a breach of her promise. +The destruction of religious buildings continued, although Knox did his +endeavour to save the palace of Scone. The Protestants held St. Andrews +while the regent entered into negotiations which they considered to be a +mere subterfuge for gaining time, and, on the 29th June, they marched +upon Edinburgh. In July, 1559, occurred the sudden death of Henry II; +Francis and Mary succeeded, and the supreme power in France and in +Scotland passed to the House of Guise. The Protestants who had been +making overtures to Cecil and Elizabeth declared, in October, that the +regent had been deposed. This bold step was justified by the help +received from England, and by the indignation caused by the excesses of +the regent's French troops in Scotland. So far had religious emotion +outrun the sentiment of nationality that the Protestants were willing to +admit almost any English claim. The result of Elizabeth's treaty with +the rebels was that they were enabled to <a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a>besiege Leith, by means of an +English fleet, while the regent took refuge in Edinburgh Castle. The +English attack on Leith was unsuccessful, but the dangerous illness of +the queen-mother led to the conclusion of peace. A truce was made on +condition that all foreign soldiers, French and English alike, should +leave Scotland, and that the Scottish claim to the English throne should +be abandoned. On the 11th June, 1560, Mary died. The wisdom of the +policy of her later years may be questioned, but her conduct during her +widowhood forms a strange contrast to that of her Tudor mother-in-law in +similar circumstances. It is probable that her intentions were honest +enough, and that the Protestant indignation at her "falsehoods" was +based on invincible misunderstanding. Her gracious charm of manner was +the concomitant of a tolerance rare in the sixteenth century; and she +died at peace with all men, and surrounded by those who had been in arms +against her, receiving "all her nobles with all pleasure, with a +pleasant countenance, and even embracing them with a kiss of love".</p> + +<p>Her death set the lords of the congregation free to carry out their +ecclesiastical programme. In August Roman Catholicism was abolished by +the Scottish Parliament and the celebration of the mass forbidden, under +severe penalties. There remained the question of the ratification of the +Treaty of Edinburgh, the final form of the agree<a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>ment by which peace had +been made. The young Queen of Scots objected to the treaty on the ground +that it included a clause that "the most Christian King and Queen Mary, +and each of them, abstain henceforth from using the title and bearing +the arms of the kingdom of England or of Ireland".<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> She interpreted +the word "henceforth" as involving an absolute renunciation of her claim +to the English throne, and so prejudicing her succession, should she +survive Elizabeth. Cecil had suggested to the Scots that it might be +advisable to raise the claim of the Lord James Stewart, an illegitimate +son of James V, and afterwards Earl of Moray, to the throne, or to +support that of the House of Hamilton. The Scots improved on this +suggestion, and proposed that Elizabeth should marry the Earl of Arran, +the eldest son of the Duke of Chatelherault, who might succeed to the +throne. There were many reasons why Elizabeth should not wed the +imbecile Arran, and it may safely be said that she never seriously +considered the project although she continued to trifle with the +suggestion, which formed a useful form of intrigue against Mary.</p> + +<p>The situation was considerably altered by the death of Francis II, in +December, 1560. That event was, on the whole, welcome to Elizabeth, for +it destroyed the power of the Guises, and Mary<a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a> Stuart<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> had now to +face her Scottish difficulties without French aid. She was not on good +terms with her mother-in-law, Catherine de Medici, who now controlled +the destinies of France, and it was evident that she must accept the +fact of the Scottish Reformation, and enter upon a conflict with the +theocratic tendencies of the Church and with the Scottish nobles who +were the pensioners of Elizabeth. On the other hand, although Francis II +was dead, his widow survived, young, beautiful, charming, and a queen. +The dissolution of her first marriage had removed an actual difficulty +from the path of the English queen, but, after all, it only meant that +she might be able to contract an alliance still more dangerous. As early +as December 31st, 1560, Throckmorton warned Elizabeth that she must +"have an eye to" the second marriage of Mary Stuart.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> The Queen of +England had a choice of alternatives. She might prosecute the intrigue +with the Earl of Arran, capture Mary on her way to Scotland, and boldly +adopt the position of the leader of Protestantism. There were, however, +many difficulties, ecclesiastical, foreign, and personal, in such a +course. Arran was an impossible husband; Knox and the lords of the +congregation made good allies but bad subjects; and the inevitable +struggle with Spain would be <a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>precipitated. The other course was to +attempt to win Mary's confidence, and to prevent her from contracting an +alliance with the Hapsburgs, which was probably what Elizabeth most +feared. This was the alternative finally adopted by the Queen of +England; but, very characteristically, she did not immediately abandon +the other possibility. On the pretext that Mary refused to confirm the +Treaty of Edinburgh, her cousin declined to grant her request for a +safe-conduct from France to Scotland, and spoke of the Scottish queen in +terms which Mary took the first opportunity of resenting. "The queen, +your mistress," she remarked to the English ambassador who brought the +refusal, "doth say that I am young and do lack experience. Indeed I +confess I am younger than she is, and do want experience; but I have age +enough and experience to use myself towards my friends and kinsfolk +friendly and uprightly; and I trust my discretion shall not so fail me +that my passion shall move me to use other language of her than it +becometh of a queen and my next kinswoman."<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p> + +<p>When, in August, 1561, Mary did sail from France to Scotland, Elizabeth +made an effort to capture her. It was characteristically hesitating, and +it succeeded only in giving Mary an impression of Elizabeth's hostility. +Some months later Elizabeth imprisoned the Countess of Lennox, the +mother of Darnley, for giving God thanks be<a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>cause "when the queen's +ships were almost near taking of the Scottish queen, there fell down a +mist from heaven that separated them and preserved her".<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> The arrival +of Mary in Scotland effectually put an end to the Arran intrigue, but +the girl-widow of scarcely nineteen years had many difficulties with +which to contend. As a devout Roman Catholic, she had to face the +relentless opposition of Knox and the congregation, who objected even to +her private exercise of her own faith. As the representative of the +French alliance, now but a dead cause, she was confronted by an English +party which included not only her avowed enemies but many of her real or +pretended friends. Her brother, the Lord James Stewart, whom she made +Earl of Moray, and who guided the early policy of her reign, was +constantly in Elizabeth's pay, as were most of her other advisers. Her +secretary, Maitland of Lethington, the most distinguished and the ablest +Scottish statesman of his day, had, as the fixed aim of his policy, a +good understanding with England. Furthermore, she was disliked by all +the nobles who had seized upon the property of the Church and added it +to their own possessions. Up to the age of twenty-five she had, by Scots +law, the right of recalling all grants of land made during her minority, +and her greedy nobles knew well that the victory of Roman Catholicism +meant the restoration of<a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a> Church lands. Her relations with France were +uncertain, and the Guises found their attention fully occupied at home. +As the next heir to the throne of England, she was bound to be very +careful in her dealings with Elizabeth. United by every tie of blood and +sentiment to Rome and the Guises, she was forced, for reasons of policy, +to remain on good terms with Protestantism and the Tudor Queen of +England. The first years of Mary's reign in Scotland were marked by the +continuance of good relations between herself and her half-brother, whom +she entrusted with the government of the kingdom. In 1562 she suppressed +the most powerful Catholic noble in Scotland, the Earl of Huntly. The +result of this policy was to raise an unfounded suspicion in England and +Spain that the Queen of Scots was "no more devout towards Rome than for +the sustentation of her uncles".<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> The indignation felt at Mary's +conduct among Roman Catholics in England and in Spain may have been one +of the reasons for Elizabeth's adopting a more distinctly Protestant +position in 1562. In the Act of Supremacy of that year the first avowed +reference is made to the authority used by Henry VIII and Edward VI, +<i>i.e.</i> the Supreme Headship of the Church. It at all events made +Elizabeth's position less difficult, because Spain and Austria were not +likely to attack England in the interests of a queen whose orthodoxy was +doubtful.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>Meanwhile Elizabeth was directing all her efforts to prevent Mary from +contracting a second marriage, and, at all hazards, to secure that she +should not marry Don Carlos of Spain or the Archduke of Austria. Her +persistent endeavours to bribe Scottish nobles were directed, with +considerable acuteness, to creating an English party strong enough to +deter foreign princes from "seeking upon a country so much at her +devotion".<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> She warned Mary that any alliance with "a mighty prince" +would offend England<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> and so imperil her succession. Mary, on her +part, was attempting to obtain a recognition of her position as "second +person" [heir presumptive], and she professed her willingness to take +Elizabeth's advice in the all-important matter of her marriage. The +English queen made various suggestions, and found objections to them +all. Finally she proposed that Mary should marry her own favourite, +Leicester, and a long correspondence followed. It was suggested that the +two queens should have an interview, but this project fell through. +Elizabeth, of course, was too fondly attached to Leicester to see him +become the husband of her beautiful rival; Mary, on her part, despised +the "new-made earl", and Leicester himself apologized to Mary's +ambassador for the presumption of the proposal, "alleging the invention +of that pro<a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>position to have proceeded from Master Cecil, his secret +enemy".<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> While the Leicester negotiations were in progress, the Earl +of Lennox, who had been exiled in 1544, returned to Scotland with his +son Henry, Lord Darnley, a handsome youth, eighteen years of age. As +early as May, 1564, Knox suspected that Mary intended to marry +Darnley.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> There is little doubt that it was a love-match; but there +were also political reasons, for Darnley was, after Mary herself, the +nearest heir to Elizabeth's throne, and only the Hamiltons stood between +him and the crown of Scotland. He had been born and educated in England, +as also had been his mother, the daughter of Angus and Margaret Tudor, +and Elizabeth might have used him as against Mary's claim. That claim +the English queen refused to acknowledge, although, in the end of 1564, +Murray and Maitland of Lethington tried their utmost to persuade her to +do so.</p> + +<p>On the 29th July, 1565, Mary was married to Darnley in the chapel of +Holyrood. Elizabeth chose to take offence, and Murray raised a +rebellion. There are two stories of plots: there are hints of a scheme +to capture Mary and Darnley; and Murray, on the other hand, alleged that +Darnley had entered into a conspiracy to kidnap him. It is, at all +events, certain that Murray raised a revolt and that the people rallied +to<a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a> Mary, who drove her brother across the border. Elizabeth received +Murray with coldness, and asked him "how he, being a rebel to her sister +of Scotland, durst take the boldness upon him to come within her +realm?"<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> But Murray, confident in Elizabeth's promise of aid, knew +what this hypocritical outburst was worth, and the English queen soon +afterwards wrote to Mary in his favour. The motive which Murray alleged +for his revolt was his fear for the true religion in view of Mary's +marriage to Darnley, nominally a Roman Catholic; but his position with +regard to the Rizzio Bond renders it, as we shall see, somewhat +difficult to give him credit for sincerity. It is more likely that he +was ambitious of ruling the kingdom with Mary as a prisoner. About +Elizabeth's complicity there can be no doubt.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p> + +<p>Mary's troubles had only begun. On the 16th January, 1566, Randolph, the +English ambassador, wrote from Edinburgh: "I cannot tell what mislikings +of late there hath been between her grace and her husband; he presses +earnestly for the matrimonial crown, which she is loth hastily to +grant". Darnley, in fact, had proved a vicious fool, and was possessed +of a fool's ambition. Rizzio, Mary's Italian secretary, who had urged +the Darnley marriage, strongly warned Mary against giving her husband +any real share in the government, and Darnley determined that<a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a> Rizzio +should be "removed".<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> He therefore entered into a conspiracy with his +natural enemies, the Scottish nobles, who professed to be willing to +secure the throne for this youth whom they despised and hated. The plot +involved the murder of Rizzio, the imprisonment of Mary, the +crown-matrimonial for Darnley, and the return of Murray and his +accomplices, who were still in exile. The English government was, of +course, privy to the scheme.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> The murder was carried out, in +circumstances of great brutality, on the night of the 9th March. Mary's +condition of health, "having then passed almost to the end of seven +months in our birth", renders the carrying out of the deed in her +presence, and while Rizzio was her guest, almost certainly an attempt +upon the queen's own life. There were numberless opportunities of +slaying Rizzio elsewhere, and the ghastly details—the sudden appearance +of Ruthven, hollow, pale, just risen from a sick bed, the pistol of Ker +of Faudonside,—are so rich in dramatic effect that one can scarcely +doubt what <i>dénouement</i> was intended. The plot failed in its main +purpose. Rizzio, indeed, was killed, and Murray made his appearance next +morning and obtained forgiveness. The queen "embracit him and kisset +him, alleging that in caice he had bene at hame, <a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a>he wald not have +sufferit her to have bene sa uncourterly handlit". But the success ended +here. Mary won over her husband, and together they escaped and fled to +Dunbar. Darnley deserted his accomplices, proclaimed his innocence, and +strongly urged the punishment of the murderers. They, of course, threw +themselves on the hospitality of Queen Elizabeth, who sent them money, +and lied to Mary,<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> who did not put too much faith in her cousin's +assurances. On June 19th, a prince was born in Edinburgh Castle, but the +event brought about only a partial reconciliation between his unhappy +parents. Mary was shamefully treated by her worthless husband, and in +the following November her nobles suggested to her the project of a +divorce. Darnley, however, was not doomed to the fate which overtook his +descendants, the life of a king without a crown. He had awakened the +enmity of men whose feuds were blood-feuds, and the Rizzio conspirators +were not likely to forgive the upstart youth whose inconstancy had +foiled their plan for Mary's fall, and whose treachery had involved them +in exile. Darnley had proved useless even as a tool for the nobles, he +had offended Mary and disgusted everybody in Scotland, and there were +many who were willing to do without him. At this point a new tool was +ready to the hands of the discontented barons. The Earl of Bothwell, +whether with Mary's con<a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>sent or not, aspired to the queen's hand, and +devised a plan for the murder of Darnley. On the night of the 10th +February, 1566-67, the wretched boy, not yet twenty-one years of age, +was strangled,<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> and the house in which he had been living was blown +up with gunpowder. Public opinion accused Bothwell of the murder; he was +tried and found innocent, and Parliament put its seal upon his +acquittal. On the 24th April he seized the person of the queen as she +was travelling from Linlithgow to Edinburgh, and Mary married him on the +15th May. <i>Mense malum Maio nubere vulgus ait.</i> The nobles almost +immediately raised a rebellion, professedly to deliver the queen from +the thraldom of Bothwell. On June 15th she surrendered at Carberry Hill, +and the nobles disregarded a pledge of loyalty to the queen given on +condition of her abandoning Bothwell, alleging that she was still in +correspondence with him. They now accused her of murdering her husband, +and imprisoned her in Lochleven Castle. The whole affair is wrapped in +mystery, but it is impossible to give the Earl of Morton and the other +nobles any credit for honesty of purpose. There can be little doubt that +they used Bothwell for their own ends, and, while they represented the +murder as the result of a domestic conspiracy between the queen and +Bothwell, they afterwards, when quarrelling among themselves, <a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a>hurled at +each other accusations of participation in the plot, and their leader, +the Earl of Morton, died on the scaffold as a criminal put to death for +the murder of Darnley. This, of course, does not exclude the hypothesis +of Mary's guilt, and while the view of Hume or of Mr. Froude could not +now be seriously advanced in its entirety, it is only right to say that +a majority of historians are of opinion that she, at least, connived at +the murder. The question of her implication as a principal in the plot +depends upon the authenticity of the documents known as the "Casket +Letters", which purported to be written by the queen to Bothwell, and +which the insurgent lords afterwards produced as evidence against +her.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p> + +<p>Moray had left Scotland in the end of April. When he returned in the +beginning of August he found that the prisoner of Lochleven, to whom he +owed his advancement and his earldom, had been forced to sign a deed of +abdication, nominating himself as regent for her infant son. On the 15th +August he went to Lochleven and saw his sister, as he had done after the +murder of Rizzio, when she was a prisoner in Holyrood. Till an hour past +midnight, Elizabeth's pensioner preached to the unfortunate princess on +righteous<a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>ness and judgment, leaving her "that night in hope of nothing +but of God's mercy". It was merely a threat; Mary's life was safe, for +Elizabeth, roused, for once, to a feeling of generosity, had forbidden +Moray to make any attempt on that. Next morning he graciously accepted +the regency and left his sister's prison with her kisses on his +lips.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p> + +<p>On the 2nd May, 1568, Mary escaped from Lochleven, and her brother at +once prepared a hostile force to meet her. Her army, composed largely of +Protestants, marched towards Dunbarton Castle, where they desired to +place the queen for safe keeping. The regent intercepted her at +Langside, and inflicted a complete defeat upon her forces. Mary was +again a fugitive, and her followers strongly urged her to take refuge in +France. But Elizabeth had given her a promise of protection, and Mary, +impelled by some fateful impulse, resolved to throw herself on the mercy +of her kinswoman.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> On the 16th day of May, her little boat crossed +the Solway. When the Queen of Scots, the daughter of the House of Guise, +the widow of a monarch of the line of Valois, set foot on English soil +as a suppliant for the protection which came to her only by death, the +last faint hope must have <a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>faded out of the hearts of the few who still +longed for an independent Scotland, bound by gratitude and by ancient +tradition to the ally who, more than once, had proved its salvation.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Cf. the present writer's "Mary, Queen of Scots" (Scottish +History from Contemporary Writers).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> The spelling "Stuart", which Queen Mary brought with her +from France, now superseded the older "Stewart".</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Foreign Calendar: Elizabeth, December 31st, 1560.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <i>Cabala, Sive Scrinia Sacra</i>, pp. 345-349.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Foreign Calendar, May 7th, 1562.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Foreign Calendar, June 8th, 1562.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Foreign Calendar, March 31st, 1561.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Foreign Calendar, 20th August, 1563.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Sir James Melville's <i>Memoirs</i>, pp. 116-130 (Bannatyne +Club).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Laing's <i>Knox</i>, vi, p. 541.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Laing's <i>Knox</i>, vol. ii, p. 513. Melville's <i>Memoirs</i>, p. +134.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Foreign Calendar, July-December, 1565.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> The evidence for the scandal which associated Mary's name +with that of Rizzio will be found in Mr. Hay Fleming's <i>Mary, Queen of +Scots</i>, pp. 398-401. It is very far indeed from being conclusive.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Foreign Calendar, March, 1566.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Mary to Elizabeth, July, 1566. Keith's History, ii, p. +442.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> It is almost certain that Darnley was murdered before the +explosion.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Mary's defenders point out that her 25th birthday fell in +November, 1567, and that it was necessary to prevent her from taking any +steps for the restitution of Church land; and they look on the plot as +devised by Bothwell and the other nobles, the latter aiming at using +Bothwell as a tool to ruin Mary. On the question of the Casket Letters, +see Mr. Lang's <i>Mystery of Mary Stuart</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Keith's History, ii, pp. 736-739.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> In forming any moral judgment with regard to Elizabeth's +conduct towards Mary, it must be remembered that Mary fled to England +trusting to the English Queen's invitation.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h4>THE UNION OF THE CROWNS</h4> + +<h4>1568-1625</h4> + + +<p>When Mary fled to England, Elizabeth refused to see her, on the ground +that she ought first to clear herself from the suspicion of guilt in +connection with the murder of Darnley. In the end, Mary agreed that the +case should be submitted to the judgment of a commission appointed by +Elizabeth, and she appeared as prosecuting Moray and his friends as +rebels and traitors. They defended themselves by bringing accusations +against Mary, and produced the Casket Letters and other documents in +support of their assertions. Mary asked to be brought face to face with +her accusers; Elizabeth thought the claim "very reasonable", and refused +it. Mary then asked for copies of the letters produced as evidence +against her, and when her request was pressed upon Elizabeth's notice by +La Mothe Fénélon, the French ambassador, he was informed that +Elizabeth's feelings had been hurt by Mary's accusing her of +partiality.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> Mary's commissioners then withdrew, and Elizabeth closed +the case, with the oracular decision that, "nothing has been adduced +against the Earl of Moray and his adherents, as yet, that may impair +their <a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a>honour or allegiances; and, on the other part, there has been +nothing sufficiently produced nor shown by them against the queen, their +sovereign, whereby the Queen of England should conceive or take any evil +opinion of the queen, her good sister, for anything yet seen". So +Elizabeth's "good sister" was subjected to a rigorous imprisonment, and +the Earl of Moray returned to Scotland, with an increased allowance of +English gold. Henceforth the successive regents of Scotland had to guide +their policy in accordance with Elizabeth's wishes. If they rebelled, +she could always threaten to release her prisoner, and, once or twice in +the course of those long, weary years, Mary, whose nature was buoyant, +actually dared to hope that Elizabeth would replace her on her throne. +While Mary was plotting, and hope deferred was being succeeded by hope +deferred and vain illusion by vain illusion, events moved fast. In +November, 1569, the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland raised a +rebellion in her favour, which was easily suppressed. In January, 1570, +Moray was assassinated at Linlithgow, and the Earl of Lennox, the father +of Darnley, and the traitor of Mary's minority, succeeded to the +regency, while Mary's Scottish supporters, who had continued to fight +for her desperate cause, were strengthened by the accession of Maitland +of Lethington, who, with Kirkaldy of Grange, also a recruit from the +king's party, held<a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a> Edinburgh Castle for the queen. Mary's hopes were +further raised by the rebellion of the Duke of Norfolk, whose marriage +with the Scottish queen had been suggested in 1569. Letters from the +papal agent, Rudolfi, were discovered, and, in June, 1572, Norfolk was +put to death. Lennox had been killed in September, 1571, and his +successor, the Earl of Mar, was approached on the subject of taking +Mary's life. Elizabeth was unwilling to accept the responsibility for +the deed, and proposed to deliver up Mary to Mar, on the understanding +that she should be immediately killed. Mar, who was an honourable man, +declined to listen to the proposal. But, after his death, which occurred +in October, 1572, the new regent, the Earl of Morton, professed his +willingness to undertake the accomplishment of the deed, if Elizabeth +would openly acknowledge it. This she refused to do, and the plot +failed. It is characteristic that the last Douglas to play an important +part in Scottish history should be the leading actor in such a plot as +this.</p> + +<p>The castle of Edinburgh fell in June, 1573, and with its surrender +passed away Mary's last chance in Scotland. Morton held the regency till +1578, when he was forced to resign, and the young king, now twelve years +old, became the nominal ruler. In 1581, Morton was condemned to death as +"airt and pairt" in Darnley's murder, and Elizabeth failed in her +efforts to save him.<a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a> Mary entered into negotiations with Elizabeth for +her release and return to Scotland as joint-sovereign with James VI, and +the English queen played with her prisoner, while, all the time, she was +discussing projects for her death. The key to the policy of James is his +desire to secure the succession to the English crown. To that end he was +willing to sacrifice all other considerations; nor had he, on other +grounds, any desire to share his throne with his mother. In 1585, he +negotiated a league with England, which, however, contained a provision +that "the said league be without prejudice in any sort to any former +league or alliance betwixt this realm and any other auld friends and +confederates thereof, except only in matters of religion, wheranent we +do fully consent the league be defensive and offensive". As we are at +the era of religious wars, the latter section of the clause goes far to +neutralize the former. Scotland was at last at the disposal of the +sovereign of England. Even the tragedy of Fotheringay scarcely produced +a passing coldness. On the 8th February, 1587, Elizabeth's warrant was +carried out, and Mary's head fell on the block. She was accused of +plotting for her own escape and against Elizabeth's life. It is probable +that she had so plotted, and it would be childish to express surprise or +indignation. The English queen, on her part, had injured her kinswoman +too deeply to render it possible to be generous now. Mary <a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>had sent her, +on her arrival in England, "a diamond jewel, which", as she afterwards +reminded her, "I received as a token from you, and with assurance to be +succoured against my rebels, and even that, on my retiring towards you, +you would come to the very frontiers in order to assist me, which had +been confirmed to me by divers messengers".<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> Had the protection thus +promised been vouchsafed, it might have spared Elizabeth many years of +trouble. But it was now too late, and the relentless logic of events +forced her to complete the tale of her treachery and injustice by a deed +which she herself could not but regard as a crime. But while this excuse +may be made for the deed itself, there can be no apology for the manner +of it. The Queen of England stooped to urge her servants to murder her +kinswoman; when they refused, she was mean enough to contrive so as to +throw the responsibility upon her secretary, Davison. After Mary's +death, she wrote to King James and expressed her sincere regret at +having cut off the head of his mother by accident. James accepted the +apology, and, in the following year, made preparations against the +Armada. Had the son of Mary Stuart been otherwise constituted, it would +scarcely have been safe for Elizabeth to persevere in the execution of +his mother; an alliance between Scotland and<a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a> Spain might have proved +dangerous for England. But Elizabeth knew well the type of man with whom +she had to deal, and events proved that she was wise in her generation. +And James, on his part, had his reward. Elizabeth died in March, 1603, +and her successor was the King of Scots, who entered upon a heritage, +which had been bought, in the view of his Catholic subjects, by the +blood of his mother, and which was to claim as its next victim his +second son. Within eighty-five years of his accession, his House had +lost not only their new kingdom, but their ancestral throne as well. In +all James's references to the Union, it is clear that he regarded that +event from the point of view of the monarch; had it proved of as little +value to his subjects as to the Stuart line there would have been small +reason for remembering it to-day. The Union of England and Scotland was +one of the events most clearly fore-ordained by a benignant fate: but it +is difficult to feel much sympathy for the son who would not risk its +postponement, when, by the possible sacrifice of his personal ambition, +he might have saved the life of his mother.</p> + +<p>There are certain aspects of James's life in Scotland that explain his +future policy, and they are, therefore, important for our purpose. In +the first place, he spent his days in one long struggle with the +theocratic Church system which had been brought to Scotland by Knox <a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a>and +developed by his great successor, Andrew Melville. The Church Courts, +local and central, had maintained the old ecclesiastical jurisdiction, +and they dealt out justice with impartial hand. In all questions of +morality, religion, education, and marriage the Kirk Session or the +Presbytery or the General Assembly was all-powerful. The Church was by +far the most important factor in the national life. It interfered in +numberless ways with legislative and executive functions: on one +occasion King James consulted the Presbytery of Edinburgh about the +raising of a force to suppress a rebellion,<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> and, as late as 1596, he +approached the General Assembly with reference to a tax, and promised +that "his chamber doors sould be made patent to the meanest minister in +Scotland; there sould not be anie meane gentleman in Scotland more +subject to the good order and discipline of the Kirk than he would +be".<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> Andrew Melville had told him that "there is twa kings and twa +kingdomes in Scotland. Thair is Chryst Jesus the King and his Kingdom +the Kirk, whase subject King James the Saxt is: and of whase Kingdom +nocht a King, nor a lord, nor a heid, bot a member."<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> James had done +his utmost to assert his authority over the Church. He had tried to +establish Episcopacy in Scotland to replace the Presbyterian system, and +had <a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a>succeeded only to a very limited extent. "Presbytery", he said, +"agreeth as well with a king as God with the Devil." So he went to +England, not only prepared to welcome the episcopal form of +church-government and to graciously receive the episcopal adulation so +freely showered upon him, but also determined to suppress, at all +hazards, "the proud Puritanes, who, claining to their Paritie, and +crying, 'We are all but vile wormes', yet will judge and give Law to +their king, but will be judged nor controlled by none".<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> "God's +sillie vassal" was Melville's summing-up of the royal character in +James's own presence. "God hath given us a Solomon", exulted the Bishop +of Winchester, and he recorded the fact in print, that all the world +might know. James was wrong in mistaking the English Puritans for the +Scottish Presbyterians. Alike in number, in influence, and in aim, his +new subjects differed from his old enemies. English Puritanism had +already proved unsuited to the genius of the nation, and it had given up +all hope of the abolition of Episcopacy. The Millenary Petition asked +only some changes in the ritual of the Church and certain moderate +reforms. Had James received their requests in a more reasonable spirit, +he might have succeeded in reconciling, at all events, the more moderate +section of them to the Church, and at the very first it seemed as if he +were likely <a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a>to win for himself the blessing of the peace-maker, which +he was so eager to obtain. But just at this crisis he found the first +symptoms of Parliamentary opposition, and here again his training in +Scotland interfered. The Church and the Church alone had opposed him in +Scotland; he had never discovered that a Parliament could be other than +subservient.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> It was, therefore, natural for him to connect the +Parliamentary discontent with Puritan dissatisfaction. Scottish Puritans +had employed the General Assembly as their main weapon of offence; their +English fellows evidently desired to use the House of Commons as an +engine for similar purposes. Therefore said King James, "I shall make +them conform themselves, or I will harry them out of the land, or else +do worse". So he "did worse", and prepared the way for the Puritan +revolution. If the English succession enabled the king to suppress the +Scottish Assembly, the Assembly had its revenge, for the fear of it +brought a snare, and James may justly be considered one of the founders +of English dissent.</p> + +<p>A violent hatred of the temporal claims of the Church also affected +James's attitude to Roman Catholicism. His Catholic subjects in Scotland +had not been in a position to do him any harm, and the son of Mary +Stuart could not but have <a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a>some sympathy for his mother's +fellow-sufferers. Accordingly, we find him telling his first Parliament: +"I acknowledge the Roman Church to be our Mother Church, although +defiled with some infirmities and corruption". But, after the Gunpowder +Plot, and when he was engaged in a controversy with Cardinal Perron +about the right of the pope to depose kings, he came to prove that the +pope is Antichrist and "our Mother Church" none other than the Scarlet +Woman. His Scottish experience revealed clearly enough that the claims +of Rome and Geneva were identical in their essence. There is on record +an incident that will serve to illustrate his position. In 1615, the +Scottish Privy Council reported to him the case of a Jesuit, John +Ogilvie. He bade them examine Ogilvie: if he proved to be but a priest +who had said mass, he was to go into banishment; but if he was a +practiser of sedition, let him die. The unfortunate priest showed in his +reply that he held the same view of the royal supremacy as did the +Presbyterian clergy. It was enough: they hanged him.</p> + +<p>Once more, James's Irish policy seems to have been influenced by his +experience of the Scottish Highlands. He had conceived the plan which +was afterwards carried out in the Plantation of Ulster—"planting +colonies among them of answerable inland subjects, that within short +time may reforme and civilize the best-inclined among them; rooting out +or transporting the barbarous <a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>or stubborne sort, and planting civilitie +in their roomes".<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> Although James continued to carry on his efforts +in this direction after 1603, yet it may be said that the English +succession prevented his giving effect to his scheme, and that it also +interfered with his intentions regarding the abolition of hereditary +jurisdictions, which remained to "wracke the whole land" till after the +Rising of 1745.</p> + +<p>On the 5th April, 1603, King James set out from Edinburgh to enter upon +the inheritance which had fallen to him "by right divine". His departure +made considerable changes in the condition of Scotland. The absence of +any fear of an outbreak of hostilities with the "auld enemy" was a great +boon to the borders, but there was little love lost between the two +countries. The union of the crowns did not, of course, affect the +position of Scotland to England in matters of trade, and beyond some +thirty years of peace, James's ancient kingdom gained but little. King +James, who possessed considerable powers of statesmanship, if not much +practical wisdom, devised the impossible project of a union of the +kingdoms in 1604. "What God hathe conjoyned", he said, "let no man +separate. I am the Husband, and all the whole Isle is my lawful wife.... +I hope, therefore, that no man will be so unreasonable as to think that +I, that am a Christian King under the Gospel, should be a<a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a> Polygamist +and husband to two wives." He desired to see a complete union—one king, +one law, one Church. Scotland would, he trusted, "with time, become but +as Cumberland and Northumberland and those other remote and northern +shires". Commissioners were appointed, and in 1606 they produced a +scheme which involved commercial equality except with regard to cloth +and meat, the exception being made by mutual consent. The discussion on +the Union question raised the subject of naturalization, and the rights +of the <i>post-nati</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Scots born after James's accession to the +throne. The royal prerogative became involved in the discussion and a +test case was prepared. Some land in England was bought for the infant +grandson of Lord Colvill, or Colvin, of Culross. An action was raised +against two defendants who refused him possession of the land, and they +defended themselves on the ground that the child, as an alien, could not +possess land in England. It was decided that he, as a natural-born +subject of the King of Scotland, was also a subject of the King of +England. This decision, and the repeal of the laws treating Scotland as +a hostile country, proved the only result of the negotiations for union. +The English Parliament would not listen to any proposal for commercial +equality, and the king had to abandon his cherished project.</p> + +<p>James had boasted to his English Parliament that, if they agreed to +commercial equality, the<a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a> Scottish estates would, in three days, adopt +English law. It is doubtful if the acquiescence even of the Scottish +Parliament would have gone so far; but there can be no doubt that the +English succession had made James more powerful in Scotland than any of +his predecessors had been. "Here I sit", he said, "and governe Scotland +with my pen. I write and it is done, and by a clearke of the councell I +governe Scotland now, which others could not doe by the sword." The +boast was justified by the facts. The king's instructions to his Privy +Council, which formed the Scottish executive, are of the most +dictatorial description. James gives his orders in the tone of a man who +is accustomed to unswerving obedience, and he does not hesitate to +reprove his erring ministers in the severest terms of censure. The whole +business of Parliament was conducted by the Lords of the Articles, who +represented the spiritual and temporal lords, and the Commons. All the +bishops were the king's creatures, and by virtue of their position, +entirely dependent on him. It was therefore arranged that the prelates +should choose representatives of the temporal lords, and they took care +to select men who supported the king's policy. The peers were allowed to +choose representatives of the bishops, and could not avoid electing the +king's friends, while the representatives of the spiritual and temporal +lords choose men to appear for the small barons and the burgesses.<a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a> In +this way the efficient power of Parliament was completely monopolized, +and none dared to dispute the king's will. Even the Church was reduced +to an unwilling submission, which, from its very nature, could only be +temporary. He forbade the meeting of a General Assembly; and the +convening of an Assembly at Aberdeen, in defiance of his command, in +1605, served to give him an opportunity of imprisoning or banishing the +Presbyterian leaders. He had to give up his scheme of abolishing the +Presbyterian Church courts, and contented himself with engrafting on to +the existing system the institution of Episcopacy, which had practically +been in abeyance since 1560, although Scotland was never without its +titular prelates. Bishops were appointed in 1606; presbyteries and +synods were ordered to elect perpetual moderators, and the scheme was +devised so that the moderator of almost every synod should be a bishop. +The members of the Linlithgow Convention, which accepted this scheme, +were specially summoned by the king, and it was in no sense a free +Assembly of the Church. But the royal power was, for the present, +irresistible; in 1610 an Assembly which met at Glasgow established +Episcopacy, and its action was, in 1612, ratified by the Scots +Parliament. Three of the Scottish bishops<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> received<a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a> English orders, +to ensure the succession; but, to prevent any claim of superiority, +neither English primate took any part in the ceremony. In 1616, the +Assembly met at Aberdeen, and the king made five proposals, which are +known as the Five Articles of Perth, from their adoption there in 1618. +The Five Articles included:—(1) The Eucharist to be received kneeling; +(2) the administration of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper to sick +persons in private houses; (3) the administration of Baptism in private +houses in cases of necessity; (4) the recognition of Christmas, Good +Friday, Easter, and Pentecost; and (5) the episcopal benediction. +Scottish opposition centred round the first article, which was not +welcomed even by the Episcopalian party, and it required the king's +personal interference to enforce it in Holyrood Chapel, during his stay +in Edinburgh in 1616-17. His proposal to erect in the chapel +representations of patriarchs and saints shocked even the bishops, on +whose remonstrances he withdrew his orders, incidentally administering a +severe rebuke to the recalcitrant prelates, "at whose ignorance he could +not but wonder". Not till the following year were the articles accepted +at Perth, under fear of the royal displeasure, and considerable +difficulty was experienced in enforcing them.</p> + +<p>The only other Scottish measures of James's reign that demand mention +are his attempts to carry out his policy of plantations in the +High<a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>lands. As a whole, the scheme failed, and was productive of +considerable misery, but here and there it succeeded, and it tended to +increase the power of the government. The end of the reign is also +remarkable for attempts at Scottish colonization, resulting in the +foundation of Nova Scotia, and in the Plantation of Ulster.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Fénélon, i, 133 and 162.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Mary to Elizabeth, 8th Nov., 1582. Strickland's <i>Letters +of Mary Stuart</i>, i, p. 294.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Calderwood, <i>History of the Kirk of Scotland</i>, v, 341-42.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>, pp. 396-97.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> James Melville's <i>Autobiography and Diary</i>, p. 370.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> <i>Basilikon Doron</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Cf. the present writer's <i>Scottish Parliament before the +Union of the Crowns</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> <i>Basilikon Doron</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> The old controversy about the relation of the Church of +Scotland to the sees of York and Canterbury had been finally settled, in +1474, by the erection of St. Andrews into a metropolitan see. Glasgow +was made an archbishopric in 1492.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h4>"THE TROUBLES IN SCOTLAND"</h4> + + +<p>The new reign had scarcely begun when trouble arose between King Charles +and his Scottish subjects. On the one hand, he alienated the nobles by +an attempt, partially successful, to secure for the Church some of its +ancient revenues. More serious still was his endeavour to bring the +Scottish Church into uniformity with the usage of the Church of England. +James had understood that any further attempt to alter the service or +constitution of the Church of Scotland would infallibly lead to serious +trouble. He had given up an intention of introducing a new prayer-book +to supersede the "Book of Common Order", known as "Knox's Liturgy", +which was employed in the Church, though not to the exclusion of +extemporary prayers. When Charles came to Edinburgh to be crowned, in +1633, he made a further attempt in this direction, and, although he had +to postpone the introduction of this particular change, he left a most +uneasy feeling, not only among the Presbyterians, but also among the +bishops themselves. An altar was erected in Holyrood Chapel, and behind +it was a crucifix, before which the clergy made genuflexions. He erected +Edinburgh into a bishopric, <a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>with the Collegiate Church of St. Giles for +a cathedral, and the Bishops of Edinburgh, as they followed in rapid +succession, gained the reputation of innovators and supporters of Laud +and the English. Even more dangerous in its effect was a general order +for the clergy to wear surplices. It was widely disobeyed, but it +created very great alarm.</p> + +<p>In 1635, canons were issued for the Church of Scotland, which owed their +existence to the dangerous meddling of Laud, now Archbishop of +Canterbury. James, who loved Episcopacy, had dreaded the influence of +Laud in Scotland; his fear was justified, for it was given to Laud to +make an Episcopal Church impossible north of the Tweed. Although certain +of the Scottish bishops had expressed approval of these canons, they +were enjoined in the Church by royal authority, and the Scots, whose +theory of the rights of the Church was much more "high" than that of +Laud, would, on this account alone, have met them with resistance. But +the canons used words and phrases which were intolerable to Scottish +ears. They spoke of a "chancel" and they commended auricular confession; +they gave the Scottish bishops something like the authority of their +English brethren, to the detriment of minister and kirk-session, and +they made the use of a new prayer-book compulsory, and forbade any +objection to it. Two years elapsed before the book was actually +<a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>introduced. It was English, and it had been forced upon the Church by +the State, and, worse than this, it was associated with the hated name +of Laud and with his suspected designs upon the Protestant religion. +When it came it was found to follow the English prayer-book almost +exactly; but such changes as there were seemed suspicious in the +extreme. In the communion service the rubric preceding the prayer of +consecration read thus: "During the time of consecration he shall stand +at such a part of the holy table where he may with the more ease and +decency use both his hands". The reference to both hands was suspected +to mean the Elevation of the Host, and this suspicion was confirmed by +the omission of the sentences "Take and eat this in remembrance that +Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith, with +thanksgiving", and "Drink this in remembrance that Christ's blood was +shed for thee, and be thankful", from the words of administration. On +more general grounds, too, strong objection was taken to the book, and +on July 23rd, 1637, there occurred the famous riot in St. Giles's, which +has become connected with the name of Jennie Geddes. The objection was +not, in any sense, to read prayers in themselves; the Book of Common +Order had been read in St. Giles's that very morning. The difficulty lay +in the particular book, and it is notable that the cries which have come +down <a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a>to us as prefacing the riot are all indicative of a suspected +attempt to reintroduce Roman Catholicism. "The mass is entered upon us." +"Baal is in the Church." "Darest thou sing mass in my lug."</p> + +<p>The Privy Council was negligent in punishing the rioters, and it soon +became evident that they had public opinion behind them. Alexander +Henderson, who ministered to a Fifeshire congregation in the old Norman +church of Leuchars, and whom the king was to meet in other +circumstances, issued a respectful and moderate protest, in which he did +not deal with the particular points at issue, but asserted the +ecclesiastical independence of Scotland. Riots continued to disturb +Edinburgh, and Charles was impotent to suppress them. He refused +Henderson's "Supplication"; its supporters drew up a second petition +boldly asking that the bishops should be tried as the real authors of +the disturbances, and, in November, 1637, they chose a body of +commissioners to represent them. These commissioners, and some +sub-committees of them, are known in Scottish history as The Tables, the +name being applied to several different bodies. Charles replied to the +second petition in wrathful terms, and it was decided to revive the +National Covenant of 1581, to renounce popery. It had been drawn up +under fear of a popish plot, and was itself an expansion of the Covenant +of 1557. To it was now added a declaration suited to immediate +<a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a>necessities. On the 1st and 2nd March, 1638, it was signed by vast +multitudes in the churchyard of Greyfriars, in Edinburgh, and it +continued to be signed, sometimes under pressure, throughout the land. +Hamilton, Charles's agent in Scotland, was quite unable to meet the +situation. In the end Charles had to agree to the meeting of a General +Assembly in Glasgow, in November, 1638. Hamilton, the High Commissioner, +attempted to obtain the ejection of laymen and to create a division +among his opponents. When he failed in this, he dissolved the Assembly +in the king's name. At the instance of Henderson, supported by Argyll, +the Assembly refused to acknowledge itself dissolved, and proceeded to +abolish Episcopacy and re-establish the Presbyterian form of Church +government.</p> + +<p>The king, on his part, began to concert measures with his Privy Council +for the subjugation of Scotland. The "Committee on Scotch affairs" of +the English Privy Council was obviously unconstitutional, but matters +were fast drifting towards civil war, and it was no time to consider +constitutional niceties. It is much more important that the committee +was divided and useless. Wentworth, writing from Ireland, advised the +king to maintain a firm attitude, but not to provoke an outbreak of war +at so inconvenient a moment. Charles again attempted a compromise. He +offered to withdraw Laud's unlucky service-book, the new <a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a>canons, and +even the Articles of Perth, and to limit the power of the bishops; and +he asked the people to sign the Covenant of 1580-81, on which the new +Covenant was based, but which, of course, contained no reference to +immediate difficulties. But it was too late; the sentiment of religious +independence had become united to the old feeling of national +independence, and war was inevitable. The Scots were fortunate in their +leaders. In the end of 1638 there returned to Scotland from Germany, +Alexander Leslie, the great soldier who had fought for Protestantism +under Gustavus Adolphus. In February, 1639, he took command of the army +of the Covenant, which had been largely reinforced by veterans from the +Thirty Years' War. A more attractive personality than Leslie's was that +of the young Earl of Montrose, who had attached himself with enthusiasm +to the national cause, and had attempted to convert the people of +Aberdeen to covenanting principles. Charles, on his part, asserted that +his throne was in danger, and that the Scottish preparations constituted +a menace to the kingdom of England, and so attempted to rouse enthusiasm +for himself.</p> + +<p>While the king was preparing to reinforce the loyalist Marquis of Huntly +at Aberdeen, the news came that the garrisons of Edinburgh and Dunbarton +had surrendered to the insurgents (March, 1639), who, a few days later, +seized the regalia at Dalkeith. On March 30th Aber<a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>deen fell into the +hands of Montrose and Leslie, and Huntly was soon practically a +prisoner. Charles had by this time reached York, and it was now evident +that he had entirely miscalculated the strength of the enemy. He had +hoped to subdue Scotland through Hamilton and Huntly; he now saw that, +if Scotland was to be conquered at all, it must be through an English +army. The first blood in the Civil War was shed near Turriff, in +Aberdeenshire (May 14th, 1639), where some of Huntly's supporters gained +a slight success, after which the city of Aberdeen fell into their hands +for some ten days, when it was reoccupied by the Covenanters. Meanwhile +Charles and Leslie had been facing each other near Berwick; the former +unwilling to risk his raw levies against Leslie's trained soldiers, +while the Covenanters were not desirous of entering into a war in which +they might find the whole strength of England ultimately arrayed against +them. On the 18th June the two parties entered into the Pacification of +Berwick, in accordance with which both armies were to be disbanded, and +Charles promised to allow a free General Assembly and a free Parliament +to govern Scotland. While the pacification was being signed at Berwick, +a battle was in progress at Aberdeen, where, on June 18th-19th, Montrose +gained a victory, at the Bridge of Dee, over the Earl of Aboyne, the +eldest son of the Marquis of Huntly. For the third time,<a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a> Montrose +spared the city of Aberdeen, and Scotland settled down to a brief period +of peace.</p> + +<p>It was clear that the pacification was only a truce, for no exact terms +had been agreed upon, and both sides thoroughly distrusted each other. +Disputes immediately arose about the constitution of Parliament and the +Assembly. Charles refused to rescind the acts constituting Episcopacy +legal, and it is clear that he never intended to keep his promise to the +Scots, who, on their part, were too suspicious of his good faith to +carry out their part of the agreement. In the end Assembly and +Parliament alike abolished Episcopacy, and Parliament passed several +acts to ensure its own supremacy. Charles refused to assent to these +Acts, and prorogued Parliament from November, 1639, to June, 1640. The +result of the king's evident disinclination to implement the Treaty of +Berwick, was an interesting attempt to undo the work of the preceding +century by a reversion to the old policy of a French alliance. It was, +of course, impossible thus to turn back, and Richelieu met the Scottish +offers with a decisive rebuff, while the fact of these treasonable +negotiations became known to Charles, and embittered the already bitter +controversy. A new attempt at negotiation failed, and in June, 1640, the +second Bishops' War began. As usual the north suffered, especially from +the fierceness of the Earl of Argyll, who disliked the more moderate +policy advocated by<a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a> Montrose. The king's English difficulties were +increasing, and the Scots had now many sympathizers among Englishmen, +who looked upon them as fighting for the same cause of Protestantism and +constitutional government.</p> + +<p>In August the Scots invaded England for the first time since the +minority of Mary Stuart, and, on August 28th, they defeated a portion of +the king's army at Newburn, a ford near Newcastle. The town was +immediately occupied, and from Newcastle the invaders advanced to the +Tees and seized Durham. Charles was forced, a second time, to give way. +In October he agreed that the Scottish army of occupation should be paid +until the English Parliament, which he was about to summon, might make a +final arrangement. By Parliament alone could the Scots be paid, and +thus, by a strange irony of fate, the occupation of the northern +counties by a Scottish army was, for the time, the best guarantee of +English liberties. There were, however, points on which the Scottish +army and the English Parliament found it difficult to agree, and it was +not till August, 1641, that the Scots recrossed the Tweed. Charles, who +hoped to enlist the sympathy of the Scots in his struggle with the +English Parliament, paid a second visit to Edinburgh, where he gave his +assent to the abolition of Episcopacy, and to the repeal of the Acts +which had given rise to the dispute. But it became evident that the +Parliament, and not the king, was to <a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a>bear rule in Scotland. The king's +stay in Edinburgh was marked by what is known as "The Incident", a +mysterious plot to capture Argyll and Hamilton, who was now the ally of +Argyll. It was supposed that the king was cognizant of the plan; he had +to defend himself from the accusation, and was declared guiltless in the +matter. At the time of the Incident, Argyll fled, but soon returned, and +Charles had to yield to him in all things. Parliament, under Argyll, +appointed all officials. Argyll himself was made a marquis, and Leslie +became Earl of Leven. There was a general amnesty, and among those who +obtained their liberty was the Earl of Montrose, who had been imprisoned +in May for making terms with the king. In November, 1641, Charles left +Scotland for London, to face the English Parliament. He can scarcely +have hoped for Scottish aid, and when, a few months later, he was on the +verge of hostilities and made a request for assistance, it was twice +refused.</p> + +<p>With the general course of the Great Rebellion we are not here +concerned. It is important for our purpose to notice that it affected +Scotland in two ways. The course of events converted, on the one hand, +the Episcopalian party into a Royalist party, and placed at its head the +Covenanter, Montrose. On the other hand, the National Covenant was +transformed into the Solemn League and Covenant, which had for <a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a>its aim +the establishment of Presbytery in England as well as in Scotland. This +"will o' the wisp" of covenanted uniformity led the Scottish Church into +somewhat strange places. As early as January, 1643, Montrose had offered +to strike a blow for the king in Scotland, but Charles would not take +the responsibility of beginning the strife. In August negotiations began +for the extension of the covenant to England. The Solemn League and +Covenant, which provided for the abolition of Episcopacy in England, was +adopted by the Convention of Estates at Edinburgh on August 17th, and in +the following month it passed both Houses of Parliament in England, and +was taken both by the House of Commons and by the Assembly of Divines at +Westminster. Its only ultimate results were the substitution in Scotland +of the Westminster Confession of Faith, Catechisms, and Directory for +Public Worship, in place of the older Scottish documents, and the +approximation of Scottish Presbytery to English Puritanism, involving a +distinct departure from the ideals of the Scottish Reformation, and the +introduction into Scotland of a form of Sabbatarianism which has come to +be regarded as distinctively Scottish, but which owes its origin, +historically, to English Nonconformity.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> Its immediate effects were +the short-lived predominance of Presbytery in England, <a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a>and the crossing +of the Tweed, in January, 1644, by a Scottish army in the pay of the +English Parliament. The part taken by the Scottish army in the war was +not unimportant. In April they aided Fairfax in the siege of York; in +July they took an honourable share in the battle of Marston Moor; they +were responsible for the Uxbridge proposals which provided for peace on +the basis of a Presbyterian settlement. In June, 1645, they advanced +southwards to Mansfield, and, after the surrender of Carlisle, on June +28th, and its occupation by a Scottish garrison, Leven proceeded to +Alcester and thereafter laid siege to Hereford, an attempt which events +in Scotland forced him to abandon. Finally, in May, 1646, the king +surrendered to the Scottish army at Newark, which had been invested by +Leven since the preceding November.</p> + +<p>While the Scottish army was thus aiding the Parliamentary cause, the +Earl of Montrose had created an important diversion on the king's side +in Scotland itself. In April, 1644, he occupied Dumfries and made an +unsuccessful attempt on the Scottish Lowlands. In May Charles conferred +on him a marquisate, and in August he prepared to renew the struggle. To +his old foes, the Gordons, he first looked for assistance, but was +finally compelled to raise his forces in the Highlands, and to obtain +Irish aid. On September 1st he gained his first victory at Tippermuir, +near Perth, on which he had marched with <a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>his Highland host. From Perth +he marched on Aberdeen, gaining some reinforcements from the northern +gentry, and in particular from the Earl of Airlie. Once again Montrose +fought a battle which delivered the city of Aberdeen into his power +(September 13th), but now he was unwilling or unable to protect the +captured town, which was cruelly ravaged. From Aberdeen Montrose +proceeded by Rothiemurchus to Blair Athole, but suddenly turned +backwards to Aberdeenshire, where he defended Fyvie Castle, slipped past +Argyll, and again reached Blair Athole. The enemies of Argyll crowded to +his banner, but his army was still small when, in December, 1644, he +made his descent upon Argyll, and reached the castle of Inverary. From +Inverary he went northwards, ravaging as he went, till he found, at Loch +Ness, that there was an army of 5000 men under the Earl of Seaforth +prepared to resist his advance, while Argyll was behind him at +Inverlochy. Although Argyll's army considerably outnumbered his own, +Montrose turned southwards and made a rapid dash at Argyll's forces as +they lay at Inverlochy, and won a complete victory, the news of which +dispersed Seaforth's men and enabled Montrose to invite Charles to a +country which lay at his mercy. At Elgin he was joined by the heir of +the Marquis of Huntly, his forces increased, and the excommunication +which the Church immediately published against him seemed <a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a>of but little +importance. On April 4th he seized Dundee, and on May 9th won a fresh +victory at Auldearn, which was followed, in rapid succession, by a +victory at Alford in July, and in August by the "crowning mercy" of +Kilsyth, which made him master of the situation, and forced Leven to +raise the siege of Hereford. From Kilsyth he marched to Glasgow, where +both the Highlanders and the Gordons began to desert him. From England, +Leven sent David Leslie to meet Montrose as he marched by the Lothians +into the border counties. On September 13th, 1645, just one year after +his victory at Aberdeen, Montrose was completely defeated at +Philiphaugh. He escaped, but his power was broken, and he was unable +henceforth to take any important share in the war.</p> + +<p>When Charles surrendered himself to the Scots, in May, 1646, his friends +in Scotland were helpless, and he had to meet the Presbyterian leaders +without any hope beyond that of being able to take advantage of the +differences of opinion between Presbyterians and Independents, which +were fast assuming critical importance. The king held at Newcastle a +conference with Alexander Henderson, which led to no definite result. In +the end the Scots offered to adopt the king's cause if he would accept +Presbyterianism. This he declined to do, and his refusal left the Scots +no choice except keeping him a prisoner or surrendering him to his<a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a> +English subjects. They owed him no gratitude, and, while it might be +chivalrous, it could scarcely be expedient to retain his person. While +he was unwilling to accede to their conditions they were powerless to +give him any help. He was therefore handed over to the commissioners of +the English Parliament, and the Scots, on the 30th January, 1647, +returned home, having been paid, as the price of the king's surrender, +the money promised them by the English Parliament when they entered into +the struggle in 1644.</p> + +<p>In the end of 1647 the Scots again entered into the long series of +negotiations with the king. When Charles was a prisoner at Newport, and +while he was arranging terms with the English, he entered into a secret +agreement with commissioners from Scotland. The "Engagement", as it was +called, embodied the conditions which Charles had refused at +Newcastle—the recognition of Presbytery in Scotland and its +establishment in England for three years, the king being allowed +toleration for his own form of worship. The Engagement was by no means +unanimously carried in the Scottish Parliament, and its results were +disastrous to Charles himself. It caused the English Parliament to pass +the vote of No Addresses, and the second civil war, which it helped to +provoke, had a share in bringing about his death. The Duke of Hamilton +led a small army into England, where in August 17th, 1648, it was +<a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>totally defeated by Cromwell at Preston. Meanwhile the Hamilton party +had lost power in Scotland, and when Cromwell entered Scotland, Argyll, +who had opposed the Engagement, willingly agreed to his conditions, and +accepted the aid of three English regiments. In the events of the next +six months Scotland had no part nor lot. The responsibility for the +king's death rests on the English Government alone.</p> + +<p>The news of the execution of the king was at once followed by the fall +of Argyll and his party. The Scots had no sympathy with English +republicanism, and they were alarmed by the growth of Independency in +England. On February 5th Charles II was proclaimed King of Great +Britain, France, and Ireland, and the Scots declared themselves ready to +defend his cause by blood, if only he would take the Covenant. This the +young king refused to do while he had hopes of success in Ireland. +Meanwhile three of his most loyal friends perished on the scaffold. The +English, who held the Duke of Hamilton as a prisoner, put him to death +on March 9th, 1649, and on the 22nd day of the same month the Marquis of +Huntly was beheaded at Edinburgh. On April 27th, Montrose, who had +collected a small army and taken the field in the northern Highlands, +was defeated at Carbisdale and taken prisoner. On the 25th May he was +hanged in Edinburgh, and with his death the story is deprived of its +hero.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a>The pressure of misfortune finally drove Charles to accept the Scottish +offers. Even while Montrose was fighting his last battle, his young +master was negotiating with the Covenanters. Conferences were held at +Breda in the spring of 1650, and Charles landed at the mouth of the +river Spey on the 3rd July, having taken the Covenant. In the middle of +the same month Cromwell crossed the Tweed at the head of an English +army. The Scots, under Leven and David Leslie, took up a position near +Edinburgh, and, after a month's fruitless skirmishing, Cromwell had to +retire to Dunbar, whither Leslie followed him. By a clever manœuvre, +Leslie intercepted Cromwell's retreat on Berwick, while he also seized +Doon Hill, an eminence commanding Dunbar. The Parliamentary Committee, +under whose authority Leslie was acting, forced him to make an attack to +prevent Cromwell's force from escaping by sea. The details of the battle +have been disputed, and the most convincing account is that given by Mr. +Firth in his "Cromwell". When Leslie left the Doon Hill his left became +shut in between the hill and "the steep ravine of the Brock burn", while +his centre had not sufficient room to move. Cromwell, therefore, after a +feint on the left, concentrated his forces against Leslie's right, and +shattered it. The rout was complete, and Leslie had to retreat to +Stirling, while the Lowlands fell into Cromwell's hands. Cromwell <a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>was +conciliatory, and a considerable proportion of Presbyterians took up an +attitude hostile to the king's claims. The supporters of Charles were +known as Resolutioners, or Engagers, and his opponents as Protesters or +Remonstrants. The consequence was that the old Royalists and +Episcopalians began to rejoin Charles. Before the battle of Dunbar +(September 2nd) Charles had been really a prisoner in the hands of the +Covenanters, who had ruled him with a rod of iron. As the stricter +Presbyterians withdrew, and their places were filled by the "Malignants" +whom they had excluded from the king's service, the personal importance +of Charles increased. On January 1st, 1651, he was crowned at Scone, and +in the following summer he took up a position near Stirling, with Leslie +as commander of his army. Cromwell outmanœuvred Leslie and seized +Perth, and the royal forces retaliated by the invasion of England, which +ended in the defeat of Worcester on September 3rd, 1651, exactly one +year after Dunbar. The king escaped and fled to France.</p> + +<p>Scotland was now unable to resist Monk, whom Cromwell had left behind +him when he went southwards to defeat Charles at Worcester. On the 14th +August he captured Stirling, and on the 28th the Committee of Estates +was seized at Alyth and carried off to London. There was no further +attempt at opposition, and all Scotland, for the first time since the +reign of Edward I, was <a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>in military occupation by English troops. The +property of the leading supporters of Charles II was confiscated. In +1653 the General Assembly was reduced to pleading that "we were an +ecclesiastical synod, a spiritual court of Jesus Christ, which meddled +not with anything civil"; but their unwonted humility was of no avail to +save them. An earlier victim than the Assembly was the Scottish +Parliament. It was decided in 1652 that Scotland should be incorporated +with England, and from February of that year till the Restoration, the +kingdom of Scotland ceased to exist. The "Instrument" of Government of +1653 gave Scotland thirty members in the British Parliament. Twenty were +allotted to the shires—one to each of the larger shires and one to each +of nine groups of less important shires. There were also eight groups of +burghs, each group electing one member, and two members were returned by +the city of Edinburgh. Between 1653 and 1655 Scotland was governed by +parliamentary commissioners, and, from 1655 onwards, by a special +council. The Court of Session was abolished, and its place taken by a +Commission of Justice.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> The actual union dates from 1654, when it was +ratified by the Supreme Council of the Commonwealth of England, but +Scotland was under English rule from the battle of Worcester. The wise +policy of allowing freedom of <a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a>trade, like the improvement in the +administration of justice, failed to reconcile the Scots to the union, +and, to the end, it required a military force to maintain the new +government.</p> + +<p>As Scotland had no share in the execution of Charles I, so it had none +in the restoration of his son. The "Committee of Estates", which met +after the 29th of May, was not lacking in loyalty. All traces of the +union were swept away, and the pressure of the new Navigation Act was +severely felt in contrast to the freedom of trade that had been the +great boon of the Commonwealth. But worse evils were in store. The +"Covenanted monarch" was determined to restore Episcopacy in Scotland, +and for this purpose he employed as a tool the notorious James Sharpe, +who had been sent up to London to plead the cause of Presbytery with +Monk. Sharpe returned to Scotland in the spring of 1661 as Archbishop of +St. Andrews. Parliament met by royal authority and passed a General Act +Rescissory, which rendered void all acts passed since 1638. The +episcopal form of church government was immediately established. The +Privy Council received enlarged powers, and was again completely +subservient to the king. The execution of Argyll atoned for the death of +Montrose, in the eyes of Royalists, and two notable ecclesiastical +politicians, Johnston of Warriston and James Guthrie, were also put to +death. An Indemnity Act was passed, but many men found <a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>that the king's +pardon had its price. On October 1st, 1662, an act was passed ordering +recusant ministers to leave their parishes, and the council improved on +the English Five Mile Act, by ordering that no recusant minister should, +on pain of treason, reside within twenty miles of his parish, within six +miles of Edinburgh or any cathedral town, or within three miles of any +royal burgh. A Court of High Commission, which had been established by +James VI in 1610, was again entrusted with all religious cases. The +effect of these harsh measures was to rouse the insurrections which are +the most notable feature of the reign. In 1666 the Covenanters were +defeated at the battle of Pentland, or Rullion Green, and those who were +suspected of a share in the rising were subjected to examination under +torture, which now became one of the normal features of Charles's brutal +government. Prisoners were hanged or sent as slaves to the plantations. +In 1669, an Indulgence was passed, permitting Presbyterian services +under certain conditions, but in 1670, Parliament passed a Conventicle +Act, making it a capital crime to "preach, expound scripture, or pray", +at any unlicensed meeting. On May 5th, 1679, Sharpe was assassinated +near St. Andrews. The murderers escaped, and some of them joined the +Covenanters of the west. The Government had determined to put a stop to +the meetings of conventicles, and had chosen for this purpose John +Graham of Claverhouse. On <a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a>the 11th June, Claverhouse was defeated at +Drumclog, but eleven days later he routed the Covenanting army at +Bothwell Bridge, and took over a thousand prisoners. Only seven were +executed, but the others were imprisoned in Greyfriars' churchyard, and +a large number of them were sold as plantation slaves. A small rising at +Aird's Moss in Ayrshire, in 1680, was easily suppressed. In 1681 the +Scottish Parliament prescribed as a test the disavowal of the National +Covenant of 1638 and the Solemn League and Covenant of 1644, and it +declared that any attempt to alter the succession involved the subjects +"in perjury and rebellion". In connection with the Test Act, an +opportunity was found for convicting the Earl of Argyll<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> of treason. +His property was confiscated, but he himself was allowed to escape. The +last years of the reign, under the administration of the Duke of York, +were marked by exceptional cruelty in connection with the religious +persecutions. The expeditions of Claverhouse, the case of the Wigtown +martyrs, and the horrible cruelties of the torture-room have given to +these years the title of "the Killing time".</p> + +<p>The Scottish Parliament welcomed King James VII with fulsome adulation. +But the new king was scarcely seated on the throne before a rebellion +broke out. The Earl of Argyll adopted <a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>the cause of Monmouth, landed in +his own country, and marched into Lanarkshire. His attempt was an entire +failure: nobody joined his standard, and he himself, failing to make +good his retreat, was captured and executed without a new trial. The +Parliament again enforced the Test Act, and renewed the Conventicle Act, +making it a capital offence even to be present at a conventicle. The +persecutions continued with renewed vigour. James failed in persuading +even the obsequious Parliament to give protection to the Roman +Catholics. He attempted to obtain the same end by a Declaration of +Indulgence, of which the Covenanters might be unable to avail +themselves, but in its final form, issued in May, 1688, it included +them. The conjunction of popery and absolute prerogative thoroughly +alarmed the Scots, and the news of the English Revolution was received +with general satisfaction. The effect of the long struggle had been to +weaken the country in many ways. Thousands of her bravest sons had died +on the scaffold or on the battle-field or in the dungeons of Dunnottar, +or had been exiled to the plantations. Trade and commerce had declined. +The records of the burghs show us how harbours were empty and houses +ruinous, where, a century earlier, there had been a thriving trade. +Scotland in 1688 was in every way, unless in moral discipline, poorer +than she had been while England was still the "auld enemy".</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Sabbath observance had been introduced from England six +centuries earlier. Cf. p. 14.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Justices of the peace were appointed throughout the +country, and heritable jurisdictions were abolished.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> The son of the Marquis who was executed in 1661. The +earldom, but not the marquisate, had been restored in 1663.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h4>THE UNION OF THE PARLIAMENTS</h4> + +<h4>1689-1707</h4> + + +<p>On April 4th, 1689, a Convention of the Estates of Scotland met to +consider the new situation which had been created by the course of +events in England. They had no difficulty in determining their course of +action, nor any scruples about deposing James, who was declared to have +forfeited his right to the crown. A list was drawn up of the king's +misdeeds. They included "erecting schools and societies of Jesuits, +making papists officers of state", taxation and the maintenance of a +standing army without consent of Parliament, illegal imprisonments, +fines, and forfeitures, and interference with the charters of burghs. +The crown was then offered to William and Mary, but upon certain +strictly defined conditions. All the acts of the late king which were +included in the list of his offences must be recognized as illegal: no +Roman Catholic might be King or Queen of Scotland; and the new +sovereigns must agree to the re-establishment of Presbytery as the +national religion. It was obvious that the nation was not unanimous.</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"To the Lords of Convention, 'twas Claverhouse spoke,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">Ere the King's crown go down there are crowns to be broke."</span><br /> +</p> + +<p><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a>The opponents of the revolution settlement consisted mainly of the old +Royalist and Episcopalian party, the representatives of those who had +followed Montrose to victory, and the supporters of the Restoration +Government. As the Great Rebellion had made Royalists of the Scottish +Episcopalians, so the Revolution could not but convert them into +Jacobites. Their leader was James Graham of Claverhouse, who retreated +from Edinburgh to the north to prepare for a campaign against the new +government. The discontent was not confined to the Episcopalian party. +Such Roman Catholics as there were in Scotland at the time were prepared +to take up arms for a Stuart king who was a devout adherent of their +religion. Moreover, the Presbyterians themselves were not united. A +party which was to grow in strength, and which now included a +considerable number of extreme Presbyterians, still longed, in spite of +their experience of Charles II, for a covenanted king, and looked with +great distrust upon William and Mary. The triumphant party of moderate +Presbyterians, who probably represented most faithfully the feeling of +the nation, acted throughout with considerable wisdom. The acceptance of +the crown converted the Convention into a Parliament, and the Estates +set themselves to obtain, in the first place, their own freedom from the +tyranny of the committee known as the "Lords of the Articles", through +which James VI and his successors had kept the<a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a> Parliament in +subjection. William was unwilling to lose entirely this method of +controlling his new subjects, but he had to give way. The Parliament +rescinded the Act of Charles II asserting his majesty's supremacy "over +all persons and in all causes ecclesiastical" as "inconsistent with the +establishment of Church government now desired", but, in the military +crisis which threatened them, they proceeded no further than to bring in +an Act abolishing Prelacy and all superiority of office in the Church of +Scotland.</p> + +<p>While William's first Parliament was debating, his enemies were entering +upon a struggle which was destined to be brief. Edinburgh Castle held +out for King James till June 14th, 1689, when its captain, the Duke of +Gordon, capitulated. Graham of Claverhouse, now Viscount Dundee, had +collected an army of Highlanders, against whom William sent General +Mackay, a Scotsman who had served in Holland. Mackay followed Dundee +through the Highlands to Elgin and on to Inverness, and finally, after +many wanderings, the two armies met in the pass of Killiecrankie. Dundee +and his Highlanders were victorious, but Dundee himself was killed in +the battle, and his death proved a fatal blow to the Jacobite cause. +After some delay Mackay was able to attain the object for which the +battle had been fought—the possession of Blair Athole Castle. The +military resistance soon came to an end.</p> + +<p>The ecclesiastical settlement followed the sup<a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a>pression of the +rebellion. The deprivation of nonjuring clergymen had been proceeding +since the establishment of the new Government, and in 1690 an act was +passed restoring to their parishes the Presbyterian clergy who had been +ejected under Charles II. A small temporary provision was made for their +successors, who were now, in turn, expelled. On the 26th May, 1690, the +Parliament adopted the Confession of Faith, although it refused to be +committed to the Covenant. The Presbyterian form of Church government +was established; but King William succeeded in maintaining some check on +the General Assembly, and toleration was granted to such Episcopalian +dissenters as were willing to take the oath of allegiance. On the other +hand, acceptance of the Confession of Faith was made a test for +professors in the universities. The changes were carried out with little +disturbance to the peace, there was no blood spilt, and except for some +rough usage of Episcopalians in the west (known as the "rabbling of the +curates"), there was nothing in the way of outrage or insult. The credit +of the settlement belongs to William Carstares, afterwards Principal of +the University of Edinburgh, whose tact and wisdom overcame many +difficulties.</p> + +<p>The personal union of Scotland and England had created no special +difficulties while both countries were under the rule of an absolute +monarch. The policy of both was alike, because <a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>it was guided by one +supreme ruler. But the accession of a constitutional king, with a +parliamentary title, at once created many problems difficult of +solution, and made a more complete union absolutely necessary. The Union +of 1707 was thus the natural consequence of the Revolution of 1689, +although, at the time of the Revolution, scrupulous care was taken, +alike by the new king and by his English Parliament, to recognize the +existence of Scotland as a separate kingdom. The Scottish Parliament, +which regarded itself as the ruler of the country, found itself hampered +and restricted by William's action. It was allowed no voice on questions +of foreign policy, and its conduct of home affairs met with not +infrequent interference, which roused the indignation of Scottish +politicians, and especially of the section which followed Fletcher of +Saltoun. Several causes combined to add to the unpopularity which +William had acquired through the occasional friction with the +Parliament. Scotland had ceased to have any interest in the war, and its +prolongation constituted a standing grievance, of which the partisans of +the Stuarts were not slow to avail themselves.</p> + +<p>There were two events, in particular, which roused widespread resentment +in Scotland. These were the Massacre of Glencoe, and the failure of the +scheme for colonizing the Isthmus of Darien. The story of Glencoe has +been <a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a>often told. The 31st December, 1691, had been appointed as the +latest day on which the government would receive the submission of the +Highland chiefs. MacDonald of Glencoe delayed till the last moment, and +then proceeded to Fort-William, where a fortress had just been erected, +to take the oath in the presence of its commander, who had no power to +receive it. From Fort-William he had to go to Inverary, to take the oath +before the sheriff of Argyll, and he did so on the 6th January, 1692. +The six days' delay placed him and his clan in the power of men who were +unlikely to show any mercy to the name of MacDonald. Acting under +instructions from King William, the nature of which has been matter of +dispute, Campbell of Glenlyon, acting with the knowledge of Breadalbane +and Sir John Dalrymple of Stair, the Secretary of State, and as their +tool, entered the pass of Glencoe on the 1st February, 1692. The +MacDonalds, trusting in the assurances which had been given by the +Government, seem to have suspected no evil from this armed visit of +their traditional enemies, the Campbells, and received them with +hospitality. While they were living peaceably, all possible retreat was +being cut off from the unfortunate MacDonalds by the closing of the +passes, and on the 13th effect was given to the dastardly scheme. It +failed, however, to achieve its full object—the extirpation of the +<a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a>clan. Many escaped to the hills; but the chief himself and over thirty +others were murdered in cold blood. The news of the massacre roused a +fierce flame of indignation, not only in the Highlands, but throughout +the Lowlands as well, and the Jacobites did not fail to make use of it. +A commission was appointed to enquire into the circumstances, and it +severely censured Dalrymple, and charged Breadalbane with treason, while +many blamed, possibly unjustly, the king himself.</p> + +<p>The other grievance was of a different nature. About 1695, William +Paterson, the founder of the Bank of England, suggested the formation of +a Scottish company to trade to Africa and the Indies. It was originally +known as the African Company, but it was destined to be popularly +remembered by the name of its most notable failure—the Darien Company. +It received very full powers from the Scottish Parliament, powers of +military colonization as well as trading privileges. These powers +aroused great jealousy and indignation in England, and the House of +Commons decided that, as the company had its headquarters in London, the +directors were guilty of high crimes and misdemeanours. There followed a +failure of the English capital on which the promoters had reckoned, but +shares to the value of £400,000 (on which £219,094 was paid up) were +subscribed in Scotland. At first the company was a prosperous trading +concern, but its <a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a>only attempt at colonization involved it in ruin. +Paterson wished his fellow-countrymen to found a colony in the Isthmus +of Panama, and to attract thither the whole trade of North and South +America. The ports of the colony were to be open to ships of all +nations. In the end of 1698 twelve hundred Scots landed on the shore of +the Gulf of Darien, without organization and without the restraint of +responsibility to any government. They soon had difficulties with their +Spanish neighbours, and the English colonists at New York, Barbadoes, +and Jamaica were warned to render them no assistance. Disease and famine +completed the tale of misery, and the first colonists deserted their +posts. Their successors, who arrived to find empty huts, surrounded by +lonely Scottish graves, were soon in worse plight, and they were driven +out by a band of Spaniards. The unfortunate company lingered on for some +time, but merely as traders. The Scots blamed the king's ill-will for +their failure, and he became more than ever unpopular in Scotland. The +moral of the whole story was that only through the corporate union of +the two countries could trade jealousies and the danger of rival schemes +of colonization be avoided.</p> + +<p>In the reign of Charles II the Scots, who felt keenly the loss of the +freedom of trade which they had enjoyed under Cromwell, had themselves +broached the question of union, and William had brought it forward at +the beginning of his reign.<a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a> It was, however, reserved for his successor +to see it carried. In March, 1702, the king died. The death of "William +II", as his title ran in the kingdom of Scotland, was received with a +feeling amounting almost to satisfaction. The first English Parliament +of Queen Anne agreed to the appointment of commissioners to discuss +terms of union, and the Estates of Scotland chose representatives to +meet them. But the English refused to give freedom of trade, and so the +negotiations broke down. In reply, the Scottish Parliament removed the +restrictions on the import of wines from France, with which country +England was now at war. In the summer of 1703 the Scots passed an Act of +Security, which invested the Parliament with the power of the crown in +case of the queen's dying without heirs, and entrusted to it the choice +of a Protestant sovereign "from the royal line". It refused to such king +or queen, if also sovereign of England, the power of declaring war or +making peace without the consent of Parliament, and it enacted that the +union of the crowns should determine after the queen's death unless +Scotland was admitted to equal trade and navigation privileges with +England. Further, the act provided for the compulsory training of every +Scotsman to bear arms, in order that the country might, if necessary, +defend its independence by the sword. The queen's consent to the Act of +Security was refused, and the bitterness of the national feeling <a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a>was +accentuated by the suspicion of a Jacobite plot. Parliament had been +adjourned on 16th September, 1703. When it met in 1704 it again passed +the Act of Security, and an important section began to argue that the +royal assent was merely a usual form, and not an indispensable +authentication of an act. For some time, it seemed as if the two +countries were on the brink of war. But, as the union of the crowns had +been rendered possible by the self-restraint of a nation who could +accept their hereditary enemy as their hereditary sovereign, so now +Queen Anne's advisers resolved, with patient wisdom, to secure, at all +hazards, the union of the kingdoms.</p> + +<p>It was not an easy task, even in England, for there could be no union +without complete freedom of trade, and many Englishmen were most +unwilling to yield on this point. In Scotland the difficulties to be +overcome were much greater. The whole nation, irrespective of politics +and religion, felt bitterly the indignity of surrendering the +independent existence for which Scotland had fought for four hundred +years. It could not but be difficult to reconcile an ancient and +high-spirited people to incorporation with a larger and more powerful +neighbour, and the whole population mourned the approaching loss of +their Parliament and their autonomy. Almost every section had special +reasons for opposing the measure. For the Jacobites an Act of Union +<a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a>meant that Scotland was irretrievably committed to the Hanoverian +succession, and whatever force the Jacobites might be able to raise +after the queen's death must take action in the shape of a rebellion +against the <i>de facto</i> government. It deprived them of all hope of +seizing the reins of power, and of using the machinery of government in +Scotland for the good of their cause—a <i>coup d'état</i> of which the Act +of Security gave considerable chance. On this very account the +triumphant Presbyterians were anxious to carry the union scheme, and the +correspondence of the Electress Sophia proves that the negotiations for +union were looked upon at Hanover as solely an important factor in the +succession controversy. But the recently re-established Presbyterian +Church of Scotland regarded with great anxiety a union with an +Episcopalian country, and hesitated to place their dearly won freedom at +the mercy of a Parliament the large majority of whom were Episcopalians. +The more extreme Presbyterians, and especially the Cameronians of the +west, were bitterly opposed to the project. They protested against +becoming subject to a Parliament in whose deliberations the English +bishops had an important voice, and against accepting a king who had +been educated as a Lutheran, and they clamoured for covenanted +uniformity and a covenanted monarch. By a curious irony of fate, the +Scottish Episcopalians were forced by their Jacobite leanings <a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a>to act +with the extreme Presbyterians, and to oppose the scheme of amalgamation +with an Episcopalian country. The legal interest was strongly against a +proposal that might reduce the importance of Scots law and of Scottish +lawyers, while the populace of Edinburgh were furious at the suggestion +of a union, whose result must be to remove at once one of the glories of +their city and a valuable source of income. There was still another body +of opponents. The reign of William had been remarkable for the rise of +political parties. The two main factions were known as Williamites and +Cavaliers, and in addition to these there had grown up a Patriot or +Country party. It was brought into existence by the enthusiasm of +Fletcher of Saltoun, and it was based upon an antiquarian revival which +may be compared with the mediæval attempts to revive the Republic of +Rome. The aim of the patriots was to maintain the independence of +Scotland, and they attempted to show that the Scottish crown had never +been under feudal obligations to England, and that the Scottish +Parliament had always possessed sovereign rights, and could govern +independently of the will of the monarch. They were neither Jacobites +nor Hanoverians; but they held that if the foreign domination, of which +they had complained under William, were to continue, it mattered little +whether it emanated from St. Germains or from the Court of St. James's, +and <a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>they had combined with the Jacobites to pass the Act of Security.</p> + +<p>Such was the complicated situation with which the English Government had +to deal. Their first step was to advise Queen Anne to assent to the Act +of Security, and so to conserve the dignity and <i>amour propre</i> of the +Scottish Parliament. Commissioners were then appointed to negotiate for +a union. No attempt was made to conciliate the Jacobites, for no attempt +could have met with any kind of success. Nor did the commissioners make +any effort to satisfy the more extreme Presbyterians, who sullenly +refused to acknowledge the union when it became an accomplished fact, +and who remained to hamper the Government when the Jacobite troubles +commenced. An assurance that there would be no interference with the +Church of Scotland as by law established, and a guarantee that the +universities would be maintained in their <i>status quo</i>, satisfied the +moderate Presbyterians, and removed their scruples. Unlike James VI and +Cromwell, the advisers of Queen Anne declared their intention of +preserving the independent Scots law and the independent Scottish courts +of justice, and these guarantees weakened the arguments of the Patriot +party. But above all the English proposals won the support of the +ever-increasing commercial interest in Scotland by conceding freedom of +trade in a complete form. They <a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a>agreed that "all parts of the United +Kingdom of Great Britain be under the same regulations, prohibitions, +and restrictions, and liable to equal impositions and duties for export +and import". The adjustment of financial obligations was admitted to +involve some injustice to Scotland, and an "equivalent" was allowed, to +compensate for the responsibility now accruing to Scotland in connection +with the English National Debt. It remained to adjust the representation +of Scotland in the united Parliament. It was at first proposed to allow +only thirty-eight members, but the number was finally raised to +forty-five. Thirty of these represented the shires. Each shire was to +elect one representative, except the three groups of Bute and Caithness, +Clackmannan and Kinross, and Nairn and Cromarty. In each group the +election was made alternately by the two counties. Thus Bute, +Clackmannan, and Nairn each sent a member in 1708, and Caithness, +Kinross, and Cromarty in 1710. The device is sufficiently unusual to +deserve mention. The burghs were divided into fifteen groups, each of +which was given one member. In this form, after considerable difficulty, +the act was carried both in Scotland and in England. It was a union much +less extensive than that which had been planned by James VI or that +which had been in actual force under Cromwell. The existence of a +separate Church, governed differently from the English Establishment, +and the maintenance of <a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a>a separate legal code and a separate judicature +have helped to preserve some of the national characteristics of the +Scots. Not for many years did the union become popular in Scotland, and +not for many years did the two nations become really united. It might, +in fact, be said that the force of steam has accomplished what law has +failed to do, and that the real incorporation of Scotland with England +dates from the introduction of railways.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a></p> +<h2><a name="APPENDIX_A" id="APPENDIX_A"></a>APPENDIX A</h2> + +<h4>REFERENCES TO THE HIGHLANDERS IN MEDIÆVAL LITERATURE</h4> + + +<h3>I. AELRED (12th Century)</h3> + +<h4><i>Account of the Battle of the Standard</i></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Rex interim, coactis in unum comitibus, optimisque regni sui +proceribus, coepit cum eis de belli ratione tractare, placuitque +plurimis, ut quotquot aderant armati milites et sagittarii cunctum +praeirent exercitum, quatenus armati armatos impeterent, milites +congrederentur militibus, sagittae sagittis obviarent. Restitere +Galwenses, dicentes sui esse juris primam construere aciem.... Cum +rex militum magis consiliis acquiescere videretur, Malisse comes +Stradarniae plurimum indignatus: 'Quid est,' inquit, 'o rex, quod +Gallorum te magis committis voluntati, cum nullus eorum cum armis +suis me inermem sit hodie praecessurus in bello?' ... Tunc rex ... +ne tumultus hac altercatione subitus nasceretur, Galwensium cessit +voluntati. Alteram aciem filius regis et milites sagittariique cum +eo, adjunctis sibi Cumbrensibus et Tevidalensibus cum magna +sagacitate constituit.... Conjunxerat se ei ejusque interfuit aciei +Eustacius filius Joannis de magnis proceribus Angliae ... qui a +rege Anglorum ideo recesserat.... Tertium cuneum Laodonenses cum +Insulanis et Lavernanis fecerunt. Rex in sua acie Scotos et +Muranenses retinuit, nonnullos etiam de militibus Anglis et Francis +ad sui corporis custodiam deputavit."—Aelred, <i>De Bello +Standardii</i>, Migne, <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, vol. cxcv, col. 702-712. </p></div> + +<h3><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>2. JOHN OF FORDUN (d. 1394?)</h3> + +<h4>(<i>a</i>) <i>Description of the Highlanders</i></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Mores autem Scotorum secundum diversitatem linguarum variantur; +duabus enim utuntur linguis, Scotica videlicet, et Teutonica; cujus +linguae gens maritimas possidet et planas regiones: linguae vero +gens Scoticae montanas inhabitat, et insulas ulteriores. Maritima +quoque domestica gens est, et culta, fida, patiens, et urbana; +vestitu siquidem honesta, civilis atque pacifica; circa cultum +divinum devota, sed et obviandis hostium injuriis semper prona. +Insulana vero, sive montana, ferma gens est et indomita, rudis et +immorigerata, raptu capax, otium diligens, ingenio docilis et +callida; forma spectabilis, sed amictu deformis; populo quidem +Anglorum et linguae, sed et propriae nationi, propter linguarum +diversitatem, infesta jugiter et crudelis. Regi tamen et regno +fidelis et obediens, nec non faciliter legibus subdita, si +regatur.... Scotica gens ea ab initio est quae quondam in Hibernia +fuit, et ei similis per omnia, lingua, moribus, et +natura."—<i>Scoti-chronicon</i>, Bk. ii, ch. ix.</p> + +<p>This contrast between the Highlanders and the civilized Scots must +be read in the light of Fordun's general view of the work of the +descendants of Malcolm Canmore. He describes how David I changed +the Lowlanders into civilized men, but never hints that he did so +by introducing Englishmen. He represents the whole nation (outside +the old Northumbrian kingdom) as Picts and Scots, on whose +antiquity he lays stress, and merely mentions that Malcolm Canmore +welcomed English refugees. The following extracts show that he +looked upon the Lowlanders, not as a separate race from the +Highlanders, but simply as men of the same barbarian race who had +been civilized by David:—</p> + +<p>"Unde tota illa gentis illius barbaries mansuefacta, tanta se mox +benevolentia et humilitate substravit, ut naturalis oblita +saevitiae, legibus quas regia mansuetudo dictabat, <a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a>colla +submitteret, et pacem quam eatenus nesciebat, gratanter +acciperet."—Bk. v, ch. xxxvii.</p> + +<p>"Ipse vero pretiosis vestibus pallia tua pilosa mutavit et antiquam +nuditatem byssa et purpura texit. Ipse barbaros mores tuos +Christiana religione composuit...."—Bk. v, ch. xliii. </p></div> + + +<h4>(<i>b</i>) <i>Coronation of Alexander III as a king of Scots</i></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Ipso quoque rege super cathedram regalem, scilicet, lapidem, +sedente, sub cujus pedibus comites ceterique nobiles sua vestimenta +coram lapide curvatis genibus sternebant. Qui lapis in eodem +monasterio reverenter ob regum Albaniae consecrationem servatur. +Nec uspiam aliquis regum in Scocia regnare solebat,<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> nisi super +eundem lapidem regium in accipiendum nomen prius sederet in Scona, +sede vero superiori, videlicet Albaniae constituta regibus ab +antiquis. Et ecce, peractus singulis, quidam Scotus montanus ante +thronum subito genuflectens materna lingua regem inclinato capite +salutavit hiis Scoticis verbis, dicens:—'Benach de Re Albanne +Alexander, mac Alexander, mac Vleyham, mac Henri, mac David', et +sic pronunciando regum Scotorum genealogiam usque in finem legebat. +Quod ita Latine sonat:—'Salve rex Albanorum Alexander, filii +Alexandri ... filii Mane, filii Fergusii, primi Scotorum regis in +Albania'. Qui quoque Fergusius fuit filius Feredach, quamvis a +quibusdam dicitur filius Ferechere, parum tamen discrepant in sono. +Haec discrepantia forte scriptoris constat vitio propter +difficultatem loquelae. Deinde dictam genealogiam dictus Scotus ab +homine in hominem continuando perlegit donec ad primum Scotum, +videlicet, Iber Scot. pervenit."—<i>Annals</i>, xlviii. </p></div> + +<h3><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a><b>3. BOOK OF PLUSCARDEN (written in the latter<br />half of the 15th +century)</b></h3> + +<h4><i>Account of Harlaw</i></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Item anno Domini <span class="smcap">m°ccccxi</span> fuit conflictus de Harlaw, in +Le Gariach, per Donaldum de Insulis contra Alexandrum comitem de +Mar et vicecomitem Angusiae, ubi multi nobiles ceciderunt in bello. +Eodem anno combusta est villa de Cupro casualiter."—Bk. x, ch. +xxii. </p></div> + +<h3>4. WALTER BOWER (d. 1449)</h3> + +<h4><i>Account of Harlaw</i></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Anno Dom. millesimo quadringentesimo undecimo, in vigilia sancti +Jacobi Apostoli, conflictus de Harlaw in Marria, ubi Dovenaldus de +Insulis cum decem millibus de insulanis et hominibus suis de Ross +hostiliter intravit terram cis montes, omnia conculcans et +depopulans, ac in vastitatem redigens; sperens in illa expeditione +villam regiam de Abirdene spoliare, et consequenter usque ad aquam +de Thya suae subjicere ditioni. Et quia in tanta multitudine ferali +occupaverunt terram sicut locustae, conturbati sunt omnes de +dominica terra qui videbant eos, et timuit omnis homo. Cui occurrit +Alexander Stewart, comes de Marr, cum Alexandro Ogilby vicecomite +de Angus, qui semper et ubique justitiam dilexit, cum potestate de +Mar et Garioch, Angus et Mernis, et facto acerrimo congressu, +occisi sunt ex parte comitis de Mar Jacobus Scrymgeour +constabularius de Dundé, Alexander de Irevin, Robertus de Malvile +et Thomas Murrave milites, Willelmus de Abirnethy ... et alii +valentes armigeri, necnon Robertus David consul de Abirdene, cum +multis burgensibus. De parte insulanorum cecidit campidoctor. +Maclane nomine, et dominus Dovenaldus capitaneus fugatus, et ex +parte ejus occisi nongenti et ultra, ex parte nostra quingenti, et +fere omnes generosi de Buchane."—Lib. xv, ch. xxi. </p></div> + +<h3><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a>5. JOHN MAJOR OR MAIR (1469-1550)</h3> + +<h4><i>(a) References to the Scottish nation, and description<br />of the +Gaelic-speaking population</i></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Cum enim Aquitaniam, Andegaviam, Normanniam, Hiberniam, Valliamque +Angli haberent, adhuc sine bellis in Scotia civilibus, nihil in ea +profecerunt, et jam mille octingentos et quinquaginta annos in +Britannia Scoti steterunt, hodierno die non minus potentes et ad +bellum propensi quam unquam fuerint...."—<i>Greater Britain</i>, Bk. i. +ch. vii.</p> + +<p>"Praeterea, sicut Scotorum, uti diximus, duplex est lingua, ita +mores gemini sunt. Nam in nemoribus Septentrionalibus et montibus +aliqui nati sunt, hos altae terrae, reliquos imae terrae viros +vocamus. Apud exteros priores Scoti sylvestri, posteriores +domestici vocantur, lingua Hibernica priores communiter utuntur, +Anglicana posteriores. Una Scotiae medietas Hibernice loquitur, et +nos omnes cum Insulanis in sylvestrium societate deputamus. In +veste, cultu et moribus, reliquis puta domesticis minus honesti +sunt, non tamen minus ad bellum praecipites, sed multo magis, tum +quia magis boreales, tum quia in montibus nati et sylvicolae, +pugnatiores suapte natura sunt. Penes tamen domitos est totius +regni pondus et regimen, quia melius vel minus male quam alii +politizant."—Bk. i, ch. viii.</p> + +<p>"Adhuc Scotiae ferme medietas Hibernice loquitur, et a paucis +retroactis diebus plures Hibernice loquuti sunt."—Bk. i, ch. ix.</p> + + +<h4><i>(b) Account of Harlaw</i></h4> + +<p>"Anno 1411, praelium Harlaw apud Scotos famigeratum commissum est. +Donaldus insularum comes decies mille viris clarissimis +sylvestribus Scotis munitus, Aberdoniam urbem insignam et alia loca +spoliare proposuit; contra quem Alexander Steuartus comes Marrae, +et Alexander Ogilvyus Angusiae vice-comes suos congregant et +Donaldo Insularum <a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a>apud Harlaw occurrunt. Fit atrox et acerrima +pugna; nec cum exteris praelium periculosius in tanto numero unquam +habitum est; sic quod in schola grammaticali juvenculi ludentes, ad +partes oppositas nos solemus retrahere, dicentes nos praelium de +Harlaw struere velle. Licet communius a vulgo dicatur quod +sylvestres Scoti erant victi, ab annalibus tamen oppositum invenio: +solum Insularum comes coactus est retrocedere, et plures occisos +habuit quam Scoti domiti...."—Bk. vi, ch. x. </p></div> + +<h3>6. HECTOR BOECE (1465?-1536)</h3> + +<h4><i>(a) Account of the differences between Highlanders and Lowlanders</i></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Nos vero qui in confinio Angliae sedes habemus, sicut Saxonum +linguam per multa commercia bellaque ab illis didicimus nostramque +deseruimus; ita priscos omnes mores reliquimus, priscusque nobis +scribendi mos ut et sermo incognitus est. At qui montana incolunt +ut linguam ita et caetera prope omnia arctissime tuentur.... +Labentibus autem seculis idque maxime circa Malcolmi Canmoir +tempora mutari cuncta coeperunt. Vicinis enim Britannis primum a +Romanis subactis ocioque enervatis, ac postea a Saxonibus expulsis +commilitii eorum commercio nonnihil, mox Pictis quoque deletis ubi +affinitate Anglis coniungi coepimus, expanso, ut ita dicam, gremio +mores quoque eorum amplexi imbibimus. Minus enim prisca patrum +virtus in pretio esse coeperat, permanente nihilominus vetere +gloriae cupiditate. Verum haud recta insistentes via umbras +germanae gloriae non veram sectabantur, cognomina sibi nobilitatis +imponentes, eaque Anglorum more ostentantes atque iactantes, quum +antea is haberi esseque nobilissimus soleret, qui virtute non +opibus, qui egregiis a se factis non maiorum suorum clarus erat. +Hinc illae natae sunt Ducum, Comitum, ac reliquorum id genus ad +ostentationem confictae appellationes. Quum antea eiusdem +potestatis esse solerent, <a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a>qui Thani id est quaestores regii +dicebantur illis muneribus ob fidem virtutemque donari."—<i>Scotorum +Regni Descriptio</i>, prefixed to his History.</p> + + +<h4><i>(b) Account of Harlaw</i></h4> + +<p>"Exortum est subinde ex Hebridibus bellum duce Donaldo Hebridiano +injuria a gubernatore affecto. Nam Wilhelmus comes Rossensis filius +Hugonis, is quem praelio ad Halidounhil periisse supra memoratum +est,<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> duas habuit filias, quarum natu maiorem Waltero Leslie +viro nobilissimo coniugem dedit una cum Rossiae comitatu. Walterus +susceptis ex ea filio Alexandro nomine, quem comitem Rossiae fecit, +et filia, quam Donaldo Hebridiano uxorem dedit, defunctus est. +Alexander ex filia Roberti gubernatoris, quam duxerat, unam +duntaxat filiam reliquit, Eufemiam nomine, quae admodum adhuc +adolescentula erat, dum pater decederet, parumque rerum perita. Eam +gubernator [Albany], blanditiis an minis incertum, persuasam +induxit, ut resignato in ipsum comitatu Rossensi, ab eo rursum +reciperet his legibus, ut si ipsa sine liberis decederet, ad filium +eius secundo natum rediret. Quod si neque ille masculam prolem +reliquisset, tum Robertus eius frater succederet, ac si in illo +quoque defecisset soboles, tum ad regem rediret Rossia. Quibus +astute callideque peractis haud multo post Eufemia adhuc virgo +moritur, ut ferebatur, opera gubernatoris sublata, ut ad filium +comitatus veniret. Ita Ioannes, quum antea Buthquhaniae comes +fuisset Rossiae comitatum acquisivit, et unicam tantum filiam +reliquit, quam Willelmus à Setoun eques auratus in coniugem +accepit; unde factum est ut eius familiae principes ius sibi +Buthquhaniae vendicent. At Donaldus qui amitam Eufemiae Alexandri +Leslie sororem, uxorem habebat, ubi Eufemiam defunctam audivit, à +gubernatore postulavit ex haereditate Rossiae comitatum; ubi quum +ille nihil aequi respondisset, collecta ex Hebridibus ingenti manu, +partim vi, partim bene<a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a>volentia, secum ducens Rossiam invadit, nee +magno negotio in ditionem suam redegit, Rossianis verum recipere +haeredem haud quaquam recusantibus. Verum eo successu non +contentus, nec se in eorum quae iure petiverat, finibus continens, +Moraviam. Bogaevallem iisque vicinas regiones hostiliter +depopulando in Gareotham pervenit, Aberdoniam, uti minitabatur, +direpturus. Caeterum in tempore obvians temeritati eius Alexander +Stuart Alexandri filii Roberti regis secundi comitis Buthquhaniae +nothus, Marriae comes ad Hairlau (vicus est pugna mox ibi gesta +cruentissima insignis) haud expectatis reliquis auxiliis cum eo +congressus est. Qua re factum est, ut dum auxilia sine ordinibus +(nihil tale suspicantes) cum magna neglegentia advenirent, permulti +eorum caesi sint, adeoque ambigua fuerit victoria, ut utrique se in +proximos montes desertis castris victoria cedentes receperint. +Nongenti ex Hebridianis et iis qui Donaldo adhaeserant cecidere cum +Makgillane et Maktothe praecipuis post Donaldum ducibus. Ex Scotis +adversae partis vir nobilis Alexander Ogilvy Angusiae vice-comes +singulari iustitia ac probitate praeditus, Jacobus Strimger +Comestabulis Deidoni magno animo vir ac insigni virtute, et ad +posteros clarus, Alexander Irrvein à Drum ob praecipuum robur +conspicuus, Robertus Maul à Pammoir, Thomas Moravus, Wilhelmus +Abernethi à Salthon, Alexander Strathon à Loucenstoun, Robertus +Davidstoun Aberdoniae praefectus; hi omnes equites aurati cum +multis aliis nobilibus eo praelio occubere. Donaldus victoriam +hostibus prorsus concedens, tota nocte quanta potuit celeritate ad +Rossiam contendit, ac inde qua proxime dabatur, in Hebrides se +recepit. Gubernator in sequenti anno cum valido exercitu Hebrides +oppugnare parans, Donaldum veniam supplicantem, ac omnia +praestiturum damna illata pollicentem, nec deinceps iniuriam ullam +illaturum iurantem in gratiam recepit."—<i>Scotorum Historiae</i>, Lib. +xvi. </p></div> + +<h3><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a>7. JOHN LESLEY (1527-1596)</h3> + +<h4><i>Contrast between Highlanders and Lowlanders</i></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Angli etenim sicut et politiores Scoti antiqua illa Saxonum +lingua, quae nunc Anglica dicitur promiscue, alia tamen atque alia +dialecto loquuntur. Scotorum autem reliqui quos exteri (quod +majorum suorum instituta, ac antiquam illam simplicemque amiciendi +ac vivendi formam mordicus adhuc teneant) feros et sylvestres, +montanos dicimus, prisca sua Hibernica lingua utuntur."—<i>De Gestis +Scotorum</i>, Lib. i. (<i>De Populis Regnis et Linguis</i>.) </p></div> + +<h3>8. GEORGE BUCHANAN (1506-1582)</h3> + +<h4><i>Account of Harlaw</i></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Altero vero post anno, qui fuit a Christo 1411, Donaldus Insulanus +Œbudarum dominus cum Rossiam iuris calumnia per Gubernatorem +sibi ablatam, velut proximus haeres (uti erat) repeteret, ac nihil +aequi impetraret, collectis insulanorum decem millibus in +continentem descendit; ac Rossiam facile occupavit, cunctis +libenter ad iusti domini imperium redeuntibus. Sed ea Rossianorum +parendi facilitas animum praedae avidum ad maiora audenda impulit. +In Moraviam transgressus eam praesidio destitutam statim in suam +potestatem redegit. Deinde Bogiam praedabundus transivit; et iam +Abredoniae imminebat. Adversus hunc subitum et inexpectatum hostem +Gubernator copias parabat; sed cum magnitudo et propinquitas +periculi auxilia longinqua expectare non sineret, Alexander Marriae +Comes ex Alexandro Gubernatoris fratre genitus cum tota ferme +nobilitate trans Taum ad Harlaum vicum ei se objecit. Fit praelium +inter pauca cruentum et memorabile: nobilium hominum virtute de +omnibus fortunis, deque gloria adversus immanem feritatem +decertante. Nox eos diremit magis pugnando lassos, quam in alteram +partem re inclinata adeoque incertus fuit eius pugnae exitus, ut +utrique cum recensuissent, quos viros amisissent, sese <a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a>pro victis +gesserint. Hoc enim praelio tot homines genere, factisque clari +desiderati sunt, quot vix ullus adversus exteros conflictus per +multos annos absumpsisse memoratur. Itaque vicus ante obscurus ex +eo ad posteritatem nobilitatus est."—<i>Rerum Scotorum Historia</i>, +Lib. x. </p></div> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> This was written after the stone had been carried to +England.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> He had fallen in the front rank of the Scottish army at +Halidon Hill.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="APPENDIX_B" id="APPENDIX_B"></a>APPENDIX B</h2> + +<h3>THE FEUDALIZATION OF SCOTLAND</h3> + + +<p>The object of this Appendix is to give a summary of the process by which +Anglo-Norman feudalism came to supersede the earlier Scottish +civilization. For a more detailed account, the reader is referred to +Skene's <i>Celtic Scotland</i>, Robertson's <i>Scotland under her Early Kings</i>, +and Mr. Lang's <i>History of Scotland</i>.</p> + +<p>The kingdom<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> of which Malcolm Canmore became the ruler in 1058 was +not inhabited by clans. It had been, from of old, divided into seven +provinces, each of which was inhabited by tribes. The tribe or tuath was +governed by its own chief or king (Ri or Toisech); each province or Mor +Tuath was governed by Ri Mor Tuath or Mormaer,<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> and these seven +Mormaers seem (in theory, at all events) to have elected the national +king, and to have acted as his advisers. The tribe was divided into +freemen and slaves, and freemen and slaves alike were subdivided into +various classes—noble and simple; serfs attached to land, and personal +bondmen. The land was held, not by the tribe in general, but by the +<i>ciniod</i> or near kin of the <i>flath</i> or senior of each family within the +tribe. On the death of a senior, the new senior was chosen (generally +with strict regard to primogeniture) from among the nearest in blood, +and all who were within three degrees of kin to him, shared in the +joint-<a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>proprietary of the proceeds of the land. The senior had special +privileges and was the representative and surety of the <i>ciniod</i>, and +the guardian of their common interests. After the third generation, a +man ceased to be reckoned among the <i>ciniod</i>, and probably received a +small personal allotment. Most of his descendants would thus be +landless, or, if they held land, would do so by what soon amounted to +servile tenure. Thus the majority of the tribe had little or nothing to +lose by the feudalization that was approaching.</p> + +<p>The changes of Malcolm's reign are concerned with the Church, not with +land-tenure. But the territorialization of the Church, and the abolition +of the ecclesiastical system of the tribe, foreshadowed the innovations +that Malcolm's son was to introduce. We have seen that an anti-English +reaction followed the deaths of Malcolm and Margaret. This is important +because it involved an expulsion of the English from Scotland, which may +be compared with the expulsion of the Normans from England after the +return of Godwin. Our knowledge of the circumstances is derived from the +following statement of Symeon of Durham:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Qua [Margerita] mortua, Dufenaldum regis Malcolmi fratrem Scotti +sibi in regem elegerunt, et omnes Anglos qui de curia regis +extiterunt, de Scotia expulerunt. Quibus auditis, filius regis +Malcolmi Dunechan regem Willelmum, cui tune militavit, ut ei regnum +sui patris concederet, petiit, et impetravit, illique fidelitatem +juravit. Et sic ad Scotiam cum multitudine Anglorum et Normannorum +properavit, et patruum suum Dufenaldum de regno expulit, et in loco +ejus regnavit. Deinde nonnulli Scottorum in unum congregati, +homines illius pene omnes peremerunt. Ipse vero vix cum paucis +evasit. Veruntamen post haec illum regnare permiserunt, ea ratione, +ut amplius in Scotiam nec Anglos nec Normannos introduceret, +sibique militare permitteret."-<i>Rolls Series edn.</i>, vol. ii, p. +222. </p></div> + +<p>It was not till the reign of Alexander I (1107-1124) that the new +influences made any serious modification of ancient custom. The peaceful +Edgar had surrounded himself with<a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a> English favourites, and had granted +Saxon charters to Saxon landholders in the Lothians. His brother, +Alexander, made the first efforts to abolish the old Celtic tenure. In +1114, he gave a charter to the monastery of Scone, and not only did the +charter contemplate the direct holding of land from the king, but the +signatories or witnesses described themselves as Earls, not as Mormaers. +The monastery was founded to commemorate the suppression of a revolt of +the Celts of Moray, and the earls who witnessed the charter bore Celtic +names. This policy of taking advantage of rebellions to introduce +English civilization became a characteristic method of the kings of +Scotland. Alexander's successor, David I, set himself definitely to +carry on the work which his brother had begun. He found his opportunity +in the rising of Malcolm MacHeth, Earl of Moray. To this rising we have +already referred in the Introduction. It was the greatest effort made +against the innovations of the anti-national sons of Malcolm Canmore, +and its leader, Malcolm MacHeth, was the representative of a rival line +of kings. David had to obtain the assistance, not only of the +Anglo-Normans by whom he himself was surrounded, but also of some of the +barons of Northumberland and Yorkshire, with whom he had a connection as +Earl of Huntingdon, for the descendant of the Celtic kings of Scotland +was himself an English baron. We have seen that David captured MacHeth +and forfeited the lands of Moray, which he regranted, on feudal terms, +to Anglo-Normans or to native Scots who supported the king's new policy. +The war with England interrupted David's work, as a long struggle with +the Church had prevented his brother, Alexander, from giving full scope +to the principles that both had learned in the English Court; but, by +the end of David's reign, the lines of future development had been quite +clearly laid down. The Celtic Church had almost disappeared. The bishops +of St. Andrews, Dunkeld, Moray, Glasgow, Ross, Caithness, Aberdeen, +Dunblane, Brechin, and Galloway were great royal officers, who +inculcated upon the people the necessity of adopting the new <a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a>political +and ecclesiastical system. The Culdee monasteries were dying out; north +of the Forth, Scone had been founded by Alexander I as a pioneer of the +new civilization, and, after the defeat of Malcolm MacHeth and the +settlement of Moray, David, in 1150, founded the Abbey of Kinloss. The +Celtic official terms were replaced by English names; the Mormaer had +become the Earl, the Toisech was now the Thane, and Earl and Thane alike +were losing their position as the royal representative, as David +gradually introduced the Anglo-Norman <i>vice-comes</i> or sheriff, who +represented the royal Exchequer and the royal system of justice. David's +police regulations tended still further to strengthen the nascent +Feudalism; like the kings of England, he would have none of the +"lordless man, of whom no law can be got", and commendation was added to +the forces which produced the disintegration of the tribal system. Not +less important was the introduction of written charters. Alexander had +given a written charter to the monastery of Scone; David gave private +charters to individual land-owners, and made the possession of a charter +the test of a freeholder. Finally, it is from David's reign that +Scottish burghs take their origin. He encouraged the rise of towns as +part of the feudal system. The burgesses were tenants-in-chief of the +king, held of him by charter, and stood in the same relation to him as +other tenants-in-chief. So firmly grounded was this idea that, up to +1832, the only Scottish burgesses who attended Parliament were +representatives of the ancient Royal Burghs, and their right depended, +historically, not on any gift of the franchise, but on their position as +tenants-in-chief. That there were strangers among the new burgesses +cannot be doubted; Saxons and Normans mingled with Danes and Flemish +merchants in the humble streets of the villages that were protected by +the royal castle and that grew into Scottish towns; but their numbers +were too few to give us any ground for believing that they were, in any +sense, foreign colonies, or that they seriously modified the ethnic +character of the land. Men from the country would, for reasons of +protection, <a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a>or from the impulse of commerce, find their way into the +towns; it is certain that the population of the towns did not migrate +into the country. The real importance of the towns lies in the part they +played in the spread of the English tongue. To the influence of Court +and King, of land tenure, of law and police, of parish priest and monk, +and Abbot and Bishop, was added the persuasive force of commercial +interest.</p> + +<p>The death of David I, in 1153, was immediately followed by Celtic +revolts against Anglo-Norman order. The province of Moray made a final +effort on behalf of Donald Mac Malcolm MacHeth, the son of the Malcolm +MacHeth of the previous reign, and of a sister of Somerled of Argyll, +the ancestor of the Lord of the Isles. The new king, Malcolm IV, the +grandson of David, easily subdued this rising, and it is in connection +with its suppression that Fordun makes the statement, quoted in the +Introduction, about the displacement of the population of Moray. There +is no earlier authority for it than the fourteenth century, and the +inherent probability in its favour is so very slight that but little +weight can reasonably be assigned to it. David had already granted Moray +to Anglo-Normans who were now in possession of the Lowland portion and +who ruled the Celtic population. We should expect to hear something +definite of any further change in the Lowlands, and a repopulation of +the Highlands of Moray was beyond the limits of possibility. The king, +too, had little time to carry out such a measure, for he had immediately +to face a new rebellion in Galloway; he reigned for twelve years in all, +and was only twenty-four years of age when he died. The only truth in +Fordun's statement is probably that Malcolm IV carried on the policy of +David I in regard to the land-owners of Moray, and forfeited the +possessions of those who had taken part in MacHeth's rising. In +Galloway, a similar policy was pursued. Some of the old nobility, +offended perhaps by Malcolm's attendance on Henry II at Toulouse, in his +capacity as an English baron, joined the defeated Donald MacHeth in an +attempt upon Malcolm, at Perth, in 1160. MacHeth took <a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a>refuge in +Galloway, which the king had to invade three times before bringing it +into subjection. Before his death, in 1165, Galloway was part of the +feudal kingdom of Scotland.</p> + +<p>Only once again was the security of the Anglo-Celtic dynasty seriously +threatened by the supporters of the older civilization. When William the +Lion, brother and successor of Malcolm IV, was the prisoner of Henry II, +risings took place both in Galloway and in Moray. A Galloway chieftain, +by name Gilbert, maintained an independent rule to his death in 1185, +when William came to terms with his nephew and successor, Roland. In the +north, Donald Bane Mac William, a great-grandson of Malcolm Canmore, +raised the standard of revolt in 1181, and it was not till 1187 that the +rebellion was finally suppressed, and Donald Bane killed. There were +further risings, in Moray in 1214 (on the accession of Alexander II), +and in Galloway in 1235. The chronicler, Walter of Coventry, tells us +that these revolts were occasioned by the fact that recent Scottish +kings had proved themselves Frenchmen rather than Scots, and had +surrounded themselves solely with Frenchmen. This is the real +explanation of the support given to the Celtic pretenders. A new +civilization is not easily imposed upon a people. Elsewhere in Scotland, +the process was more gradual and less violent. In the eastern Lowlands +there were no pretenders and no rebellions, and traces of the earlier +civilization remained longer than in Galloway and in Moray. "In Fife +alone", says Mr. Robertson, "the Earl continued in the thirteenth +century to exercise the prerogatives of a royal Maor, and, in the reign +of David I, we find in Fife what is practically the clan MacDuff."<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> +Neither in the eastern Lowlands, nor in the more disturbed districts of +Moray and Galloway, is there any evidence of a radical change in the +population. The changes were imposed from above. Mr. Lang has pointed +out that we do not hear "of feuds consequent on the eviction of prior +holders.... The juries, from Angus to Clyde, are full of Celtic names of +the gentry. The<a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a> Steward (FitzAlan) got Renfrew, but the <i>probi +homines</i>, or gentry, remain Celtic after the reigns of David and +William."<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> The contemporary chronicler, Aelred, gives no hint that +David replaced his Scottish subjects by an Anglo-Norman population; he +admits that he was terrible to the men of Galloway, but insists that he +was beloved of the Scots. It must not be forgotten that the new system +brought Anglo-Norman justice and order with it, and must soon have +commended itself by its practical results. The grants of land did not +mean dispossession. The small owners of land and the serfs acquiesced in +the new rule and began to take new names, and the Anglo-Norman strangers +were in actual possession, not of the land itself, but of the +<i>privilegia</i> owed by the land. Even with regard to the great lords, the +statements have been slightly exaggerated; Alexander II was aided in +crushing the rebellion of 1214-15 by Celtic earls, and in 1235 he +subdued Galloway by the aid of a Celtic Earl of Ross.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>We have attempted to explain the Anglicization of Scotland, south and +east of "the Highland line", by the combined forces of the Church, the +Court, Feudalism, and Commerce, and it is unnecessary to lay further +stress upon the importance of these elements in twelfth century life. It +may be interesting to compare with this the process by which the +Scottish Highlands have been Anglicized within the last century and a +half. It must, in the first place, be fully understood that the interval +between the twelfth century and the suppression of the last Jacobite +rising was not void of development even in the Highlands. "It is in the +reign of David the First", says Mr. Skene,<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> "that the sept or clan +first appears as a distinct and prominent feature in the social +organization of the Gaelic population", and it is not till the reign of +Robert III that he finds "the first appearance of a distinct clan". +Between the end of the <a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a>fourteenth century and the middle of the +eighteenth, the clan had developed a complete organization, consisting +of the chief and his kinsmen, the common people of the same blood, and +the dependants of the clan. Each clan contained several septs, founded +by such descendants of chiefs as had obtained a definite possession in +land. The writer of <i>Letters from a Gentleman in the North of Scotland +in 1726</i>, mentions that the Highland clans were "subdivided into smaller +branches of fifty or sixty men, who deduce their original from their +particular chieftains, and rely upon them as their more immediate +protectors and defenders".</p> + +<p>The Hanoverian government had thus to face, in 1746, a problem in some +respects more difficult than that which the descendants of Malcolm +Canmore had solved. The clan organization was complete, and clan loyalty +had assumed the form of an extravagant devotion; a hostile feeling had +arisen between Highlands and Lowlands, and all feeling of common +nationality had been lost. There was no such important factor as the +Church to help the change; religion was, on the whole, perhaps rather +adverse than favourable to the process of Anglicization. On the other +hand, the task was, in other aspects, very much easier. The Highlands +had been affected by the events of the seventeenth century, and the +chiefs were no longer mere freebooters and raiders. The Jacobite rising +had weakened the Highlands, and the clans had been divided among +themselves. It was not a united opposition that confronted the +Government. Above all, the methods of land-tenure had already been +rendered subject to very considerable modification. Since the reign of +James VI, the law had been successful in attempting to ignore "all +Celtic usages inconsistent with its principles", and it "regarded all +persons possessing a feudal title as absolute proprietors of the land, +and all occupants of the land who could not show a right derived from +the proprietor, as simple tenants".<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> Thus the strongest support of +the clan system had been removed before the suppression of <a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a>the clans. +The Government of George II placed the Highlands under military +occupation, and began to root out every tendency towards the persistence +of a clan organization. The clan, as a military unit, ceased to exist +when the Highlanders were disarmed, and as a unit for administrative +purposes when the heritable jurisdictions were abolished, and it could +no longer claim to be a political force of any kind, for every vestige +of independence was removed. The only individual characteristic left to +the clan or to the Highlander was the tartan and the Celtic garb, and +its use was prohibited under very severe penalties. These were measures +which were not possible in the days of David as they were in those of +George. But a further step was common to both centuries—the forfeiture +of lands, and although a later Government restored many of these to +descendants of the attainted chiefs, the magic spell had been broken, +and the proprietor was no longer the head of the clan. Such measures, +and the introduction of sheep-farming, had, within sixty years, changed +the whole face of the Highlands.</p> + +<p>Another century has been added to Sir Walter's <i>Sixty Years Since</i>, and +it may be argued that all the resources of modern civilisation have +failed to accomplish, in that period, what the descendants of Malcolm +Canmore effected in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. This is true +as far as language is concerned, but only with regard to language. The +Highlanders have not forgotten the Gaelic tongue as the Lowlanders had +forgotten it by the outbreak of the War of Independence.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> Various +facts account for this. One of the features of recent days is an +antiquarian revival, which has tended to preserve for Highland children +the great intellectual advantage of a bi-lingual education. The very +severance of the bond between chieftain and clan has helped to +perpetuate the ancient language, for the people no longer <a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a>adopt the +speech of their chief, as, in earlier days, the Celt of Moray or of Fife +adopted the tongue spoken by his Anglo-Norman lord, or learned by the +great men of his own race at the court of David or of William the Lion. +The Bible has been translated into Gaelic, and Gaelic has become the +language of Highland religion. In the Lowlands of the twelfth century, +the whole influence of the Church was directed to the extermination of +the Culdee religion, associated with the Celtic language and with Celtic +civilization. Above all, the difference lies in the rise of burghs in +the Lowlands. Speech follows trade. Every small town on the east coast +was a school of English language. Should commerce ever reach the +Highlands, should the abomination of desolation overtake the waterfalls +and the valleys, and other temples of nature share the degradation of +the Falls of Foyers, we may then look for the disappearance of the +Gaelic tongue.</p> + +<p>Be all this as it may, it is undeniable that there has been in the +Highlands, since 1745, a change of civilization without a displacement +of race. We venture to think that there is some ground for the view that +a similar change of civilization occurred in the Lowlands between 1066 +and 1286, and, similarly, without a racial dispossession. We do not deny +that there was some infusion of Anglo-Saxon blood between the Forth and +the Moray Firth in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; but there is no +evidence that it was a repopulation.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> In this discussion the province of Lothian is not +included.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Ri Mortuath is an Irish term. We find, more usually, in +Scotland, the Mormaer.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, vol. i, p. 254.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> <i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. i, pp. 135-6.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> <i>Celtic Scotland</i>, vol. iii, pp. 303, 309.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>Celtic Scotland</i>, vol. iii, p. 368.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> It should of course be recollected that the Gaelic tongue +must have persisted in the vernacular speech of the Lowlands long after +we lose all traces of it as a literary language.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="APPENDIX_C" id="APPENDIX_C"></a>APPENDIX C</h2> + +<h3>TABLE OF THE COMPETITORS OF 1290</h3> + +<h4>(<i>Names of the thirteen Competitors are in bold type</i>)</h4> + +<div style="font-size: 75%; margin-left: -5%; margin-right: -5%;"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%" +summary="Table of the Competitors of 1290"> +<tr> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Duncan I<br />(1034-1040)</td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="3"> </td> +<td colspan="5" class="bline"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brb"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blb"> </td> +<td colspan="11" class="bline"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blt"> </td> +<td colspan="16" class="tline"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Malcolm III<br />(Canmore)<br />(1057-8-1093)</td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Donald Bane<br />(1093-1097)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td colspan="16"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">David I<br /> (1134-1753)</td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td colspan="16"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Prince Henry</td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blb"> </td> +<td colspan="15" class="bline"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blt"> </td> +<td colspan="8" class="tline"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blt"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tline"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">William <br />the Lion<br />(1165-1214)</td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">David <br />Earl of<br />Huntingdon</td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Ada m.<br />the Count<br />of Holland</td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Marjorie<br />m. John<br />Lindesay</td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td colspan="5" class="bline"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brb"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blb"> </td> +<td colspan="5" class="bline"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="bline"> </td> + +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brb"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blb"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="bline"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blt"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tline"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Alexander II<br />(1214-1249)</td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Isabella m.<br />Robert Ros</td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Ada m.<br />Patrick, Earl<br />of Dunbar</td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Margaret<br />m. Eustace<br />Vesci</td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Aufricá m.<br />William Say</td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Henry<br />Galithly</td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Margaret m.<br />Alan of<br />Galloway</td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Isabella m.<br />Robert<br />Bruce</td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Ada m.<br />Henry<br />Hastynges</td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blb"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="bline"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="blt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="brt"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Alexander III<br />(1249-1285-6)</td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Marjorie</td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Devorguilla<br />m. John<br />Balliol</td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Henry<br />Hastynges</td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Margaret m.<br /><b>Eric II</b><br /><b>of +Norway</b></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc"><b>Nicolas<br />Sovles</b></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc"><b>William<br />Ros</b></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc"><b>Patrick<br />of Dunbar</b></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc"><b>William<br />Vesci</b></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc"><b>Roger<br />Mandeville</b></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc"><b>Patrick<br />Galithly</b></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc"><b>John Balliol</b><br />(1292-1296)</td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc"><b>Robert<br />Bruce</b></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc"><b>John<br />Hastynges</b></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc"><b>Florent</b>,<br />Count of<br />Holland</td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc"><b>Robert<br />Pinkeny</b></td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc"><b>John Comyn</b><br />m. a sister of<br />John +Balliol</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td colspan="2"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Margaret, the<br />Maid of Norway<br +/>(1285-6-1290)</td> +<td colspan="12"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Edward <br />Balliol</td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Robert Earl<br />of Carrick</td> +<td colspan="6"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">John Comyn<br />(stabbed by Bruce<br />in +1305-6)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="16"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="liner"> </td> +<td style="width: 3.8%;" class="linel"> </td> +<td colspan="8"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="16"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc">Robert I<br />(1306-1329)</td> +<td colspan="8"> </td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a></p> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="INDEX"> +<tr><td align='left'>Abbey Craig,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Aberdeen,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xv'>xv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxvii'>xxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxix'>xxix</a>, <a href='#Page_xxx'>xxx</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxi'>xxxi</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Assembly at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Bishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- University of, xxxi,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Aberdeenshire,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxvii'>xxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Abernethy,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Abirdene, Robert of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Aboyne, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Acts of the Parliament of Scotland</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxi'>xxi</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ada, daughter of Earl David,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Aelred of Rivaulx,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Aethelstan,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Aird's Moss, rising at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Airlie, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Albany,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Alexander, Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>----3rd Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Alcester,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Alexander I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of Mar,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- son of Alexander III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Lorn,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Ross,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Alford, victory at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Alnwick,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- sacking of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Alyth,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ancrum Moor, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Angus,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Angus, Earl Archibald,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- grandson of Earl Archibald,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Angus Og,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Annan,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Annandale,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Anne, Queen,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Cleves,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"Answer to ane Helandmanis Invective",</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Antiquité de la Nation et de la Langue des Celtes autrement appellez Gaulois</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Antony, Bishop of Durham,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Argyll, Bishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Highlanders of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Marquis and Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Argyllshire,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxiii'>xxiii</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Armada,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Arran,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of (Chatelherault),</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of, son of Chatelherault,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Arthur, Prince,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Auchinleck Chronicle</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Auldearn, victory at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Auxerre,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ayr,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ayrshire, xxix, xxxiv,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Aytoun, Peace of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Badenach, Celts of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.<a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bailleul, estate of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bakewell,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Balliol, Edward,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- John,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Banff,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bannockburn, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xiv'>xiv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxiv'>xxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Barbadoes,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Barbour's <i>Bruce</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxvi'>xxvi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxvii'>xxvii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Barton, Sir Andrew,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Baugé, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beaton, Cardinal,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beaufort, Joan,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Becket, Thomas,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Berwick,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- county of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- pacification of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- siege of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Treaty of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bigod, Earl of Norfolk,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Biland Abbey,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Birnam Wood,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bishops' War,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"Black Agnes",</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Blair Athole,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Castle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Blind Harry's <i>Wallace</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxvii'>xxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxiii'>xxxiii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Boece, Hector,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxvii'>xxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxviii'>xxviii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxix'>xxix</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxi'>xxxi</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Boniface VIII,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"Book of the Howlat", the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiii'>xxxiii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"Book of Pluscarden", the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxx'>xxx</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Borough-Muir of Edinburgh,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bosworth, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bothwell,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Bridge, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Boulogne,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bower, Walter,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxx'>xxx</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Braemar,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Brankston ridge,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Breadalbane, Marquis of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Brechin,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Bishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Breda, Conference at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bridge of Dee, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Brigham, Treaty of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Brittany,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Brockburn,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Brown, Mr. Hume,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_x'>x</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bruce, Alexander,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Edward,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Marjory,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Nigel,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Robert I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxiv'>xxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Robert of Annandale,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Sir Thomas,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bruces, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bruges,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Buchan, Countess of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- earldom of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- men of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Buchanan, George,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxii'>xxxii</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bull, Stephen,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Burgh, Elizabeth de,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Hubert de,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Burghead, xvii.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Burgh-on-Sands,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Burgundy, Duchess of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"Burned Candlemas",</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Burton, Mr. Hill,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxiv'>xxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxvi'>xxvi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxx'>xxx</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxi'>xxxi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxii'>xxxii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bute,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cæsar, Julius,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Caithness, xxiii,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Bishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Calderwood's<i> History of the Kirk</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cambuskenneth, Abbey of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Bridge, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Parliament at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Camden's<i>Britannia</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiii'>xxxiii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Campbell, Sir Nigel,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.<a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Campbell of Glenlyon,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Canute,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Carberry Hill,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Carbisdale, defeat at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cardross, castle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Carham, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Carlisle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Carrick,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxiv'>xxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- earldom of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- men of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Carrickfergus,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Carstares, William,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Casket Letters,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cecil, Lord Burleigh,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cecilia, d. of Edward IV,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Charles I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chatelherault, Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chester,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chevy Chase, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Clackmannan,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Clarence, Lionel of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Clement III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Clitheroe, victory at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Clyde, river,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Colvin of Culross,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Comyn, John,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Comyns, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Conventicle Act,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cowton Moor,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crawford, defeat of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Creçy, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cressingham, Hugh of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crevant, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cromarty,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cromwell, Oliver,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cullen,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cumberland,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- ravaged,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cumbria,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cupar,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxx'>xxx</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dacre, Lord,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dalkeith,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dalriada, kingdom of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dalry, defeat at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dalrymple, Father James,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxiv'>xxiv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Sir John, of Stair,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins",</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxv'>xxxv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Darc, Joan,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Darien Scheme,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Darnley,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Lord,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>David I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xix'>xix</a>, <a href='#Page_xxi'>xxi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxii'>xxii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxiv'>xxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxvii'>xxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxviii'>xxviii</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>,<br /><a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of Huntingdon,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- son of Alexander III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Davidstone, Robert,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Davison, Secretary,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Declaration of Indulgence,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>De Coucy, Enguerand,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Marie,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dee, river,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>De Northynbrorum Comitibus</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Derbyshire,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dingwall, defeat near,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Don Carlos,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Donald, Clan of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Donald Bane,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of the Isles,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xiv'>xiv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxv'>xxv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxx'>xxx</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Doon Hill,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Douglas, David,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- 6th Earl William,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- 8th Earl William,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Gavin,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxvii'>xxvii</a>,.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- House of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxx'>xxx</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxiii'>xxxiii</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Lord James,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Lord James the Good,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Lord James the Gross,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Sir Archibald,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.<a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Douglas, Sir George,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Sir James,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Douglases, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxiii'>xxiii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxv'>xxv</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Drumclog, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dryburgh, Abbey of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dumbarton,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dumfries,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- convent of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- county of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dunbar,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- battle of 1296,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- battle of 1650,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- burning of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- castle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- earldom of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- William,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxv'>xxxv</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dunbarton Castle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dunblane, Bishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Duncan I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Duncan, son of Malcolm III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Lorne,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxv'>xxxv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dundalk, defeat at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dundee,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxiii'>xxiii</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- castle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- meeting at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dunkeld, Bishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dunottar, castle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dunsinane,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dupplin Moor, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Durham, city of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Treaty of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eadred,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Earn, river,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Edderton,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Edgar,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Edgar, son of Malcolm III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Edgar the Atheling,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Edinburgh,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Bishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- castle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Convention at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- county of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Presbytery of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- riots in,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Treaty of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- University of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Edmund the Magnificent,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>Edward I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xi'>xi</a>, <a href='#Page_xii'>xii</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>,<br /><a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- IV,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- VI,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- the Black Prince,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- the Elder,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Edwin,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Egfrith,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Elgin,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Elizabeth, Queen,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_x'>x</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Elphinstone, Bishop,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxix'>xxix</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"English Wooing", the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eric of Norway,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Esk, river,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eugenia,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eure, Sir Ralph,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eustace of Boulogne,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eustacius,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Evandale, Lord,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Fair Maid of Perth</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fairfax, Lord,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Falaise, castle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Treaty of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Falkirk, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Falkland,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Falls of Foyers,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fast Castle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fénélon, La Mothe,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.<a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ferdinand of Spain,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Feredach,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fergus,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fife,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xi'>xi</a>, <a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>, <a href='#Page_xv'>xv</a>, <a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>, <a href='#Page_xviii'>xviii</a>, <a href='#Page_xix'>xix</a>, <a href='#Page_xxiii'>xxiii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Celts of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fifeshire,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Firth, Mr. C.,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>FitzAlan, or Steward,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fitzalans, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fitzpatrick, Sir Roger,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Five Mile Act,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Flamborough Head,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fletcher of Saltoun,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Flodden, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxiv'>xxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Florence of Worcester,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Flower</i>, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"Flyting",</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fordun, John of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxii'>xxii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxvii'>xxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxx'>xxx</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Forfar,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>, <a href='#Page_xix'>xix</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fort-William,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Forth, Firth of,</td><td align='left'>xii,<a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fotheringay Castle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_144'>144</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"Foul Raid", the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Francis I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fraser, Bishop,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Frasers, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Frederick II, the Emperor,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Freeman, Edward,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_x'>x</a>, <a href='#Page_xii'>xii</a>, <a href='#Page_xv'>xv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxiv'>xxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Froude, Mr.,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fyvie Castle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Galloway,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxi'>xxi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxii'>xxii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxiii'>xxiii</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Bishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gascony,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gaul,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gaveston, Piers,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Geddes, Jennie,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Geneva,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>George II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gilbert of Galloway,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Giraldus Cambrensis,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxvi'>xxvi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxii'>xxxii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Glasgow,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Assembly at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Bishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- University of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Glencoe, Massacre of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gloucester, Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- meeting at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Godwin, Earl,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gordon, Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Lady Katharine,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gordons, the, xxiii,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gospatric of Northumberland,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Graham, John, of Claverhouse,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Great Michael</i>, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Green, J.R.,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_x'>x</a>, <a href='#Page_xi'>xi</a>, <a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gregory IX,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Greyfriars, church of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gruoch, wife of Mormaor,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gueldres, Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Guise, Mary of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gunpowder Plot,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gustavus Adolphus,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Guthrie, James,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Haddington, xxxi,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- county of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hakon of Norway,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Halidon Hill, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hall, the chronicler,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hamburg,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hamilton, Duke and Marquis of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hamiltons, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hapsburgs, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Harlaw, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxiv'>xxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxv'>xxv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxix'>xxix</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxi'>xxxi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxii'>xxxii</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hastings, John,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hebrides, xxix,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Henderson, Alexander,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Henry I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.<a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Henry II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- IV,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxv'>xxv</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- V,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- VI,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- VII,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- VIII,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_x'>x</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- II of France,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Prince of Scotland,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hereford, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- siege of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Herrings, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hertford, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hexham Chronicle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- monastery of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Holland, Richard,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiii'>xxxiii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Holyrood,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Homildon Hill, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hotspur, Sir Harry,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Howard, Sir Edmund,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hugo of Ross,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Humber, river,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xii'>xii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hume, the historian,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Huntingdon, earldom of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Huntly, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Marquis of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ida,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Inchmahome priory,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ingibjorg,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"Instrument" of Government,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Inverary,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Castle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Inverlochy,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Inverness,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Inverurie, defeat at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Irevin, Alexander,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Irvine, submission of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Isabella, daughter of Earl David,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Spain,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Italy,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Jamaica,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>James I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>---- IV,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxiv'>xxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxvii'>xxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxviii'>xxviii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxv'>xxxv</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>,<br /><a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- V,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxvii'>xxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>---- VI,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_x'>x</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>,<br /><a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- VII,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Lord Hamilton,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Janville,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Jedburgh,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Joanna, daughter of Edward II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- daughter of John,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>John,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- XXII, the Pope,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Brittany,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Carrick,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of France,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Gaunt,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of the Isles,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Wallingford,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Johnson, Dr.,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Johnston, J.B.,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xvi'>xvi</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Johnston of Warriston,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Julius II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Keith, Sir Robert,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kennedy, Bishop,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Walter,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxv'>xxxv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kenneth Macalpine,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kenneth of Scotland,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ker of Faudonside,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kilblain, victory at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kildrummie Castle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Killiecrankie, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kilsyth, victory at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kinghorn,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Kings Quair</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kinloss, Abbey of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kinross,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kirkaldy of Grange,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.<a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kirkcudbright,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Knox, John,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Lady of the Lake</i>, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xi'>xi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxvii'>xxxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lanark,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lanarkshire,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lang, Mr. Andrew,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_x'>x</a>, <a href='#Page_xi'>xi</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Langside, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Largs, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Laud, Archbishop,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Laurencekirk,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Leicester, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Leith,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- besieged,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lennox, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lesley, John,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxix'>xxix</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Leslie, Alexander,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Alexander, Earl of Leven,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- David,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- family of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Walter,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Leuchars, church of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lincoln, battle of 1216,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- victory at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Linlithgow,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Convention at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- county of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lochleven Castle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lochmaben,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Stone, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Loch Ness,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>London,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxvi'>xxxvi</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Longueville, Duc de,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lords of the Articles,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lords Ordainers,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lothians,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xi'>xi</a>, <a href='#Page_xii'>xii</a>, <a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>, <a href='#Page_xiv'>xiv</a>, <a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>, <a href='#Page_xix'>xix</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Loudon Hill, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Louis IX,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Louis XI,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lubeck,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MacAlexander,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Macbeth,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MacDavid,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MacDonald of Glencoe,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MacDuff, Clan of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Macfadyane,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxv'>xxxv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MacGregor, Red Duncan,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MacHenry,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MacHeth,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxi'>xxi</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mackay, General,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mackays, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mackenzies, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MacLane,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Madeline, daughter of Francis I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Madoc of Wales,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mahomet,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxv'>xxxv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Maitland of Lethington,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Major, John,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxvi'>xxvi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxviii'>xxviii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxix'>xxix</a>, <a href='#Page_xxx'>xxx</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxi'>xxxi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxii'>xxxii</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Malcolm I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xii'>xii</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</td></tr> +<tr valign='top'><td align='left'>---- III, (Canmore),</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>, <a href='#Page_xix'>xix</a>, <a href='#Page_xx'>xx</a>, <a href='#Page_xxi'>xxi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxix'>xxix</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxvii'>xxxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- IV,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxii'>xxii</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Malvile, Robert de,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Man, Isle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mansfield, town of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Manton, Ralph de,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mar, Alexander,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>----10th Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>----11th Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>----12th Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earls of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxx'>xxx</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Isabella of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>March, Edmund, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- George, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Margaret, daughter of Alexander III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- daughter of Angus,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- daughter of Christian I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.<a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- daughter of David,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- daughter of Henry III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- daughter of Henry VII,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- daughter of James I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- daughter of William the Lion,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- grand-daughter of Alexander III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Saint,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xix'>xix</a>, <a href='#Page_xxvii'>xxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- wife of Canmore,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xiv'>xiv</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Anjou,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Marston Moor, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mary, Queen of Scots,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxix'>xxix</a><a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>,<br/><a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- daughter of Henry VIII,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- daughter of James II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- wife of Eustace,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Gueldres,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Matilda, the Empress,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- wife of Henry I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Maximilian the Emperor,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mearns, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Medici, Catherine de,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Melrose Abbey,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Melun, siege of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Melville, Andrew,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Menteith, Lake of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Sir John,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Methven,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Lord,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Midlothian,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Millenary Petition, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_148'>148</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mitton-on-Swale, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Monk, General,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Monmouth, Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Montgomerie, Alexander,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxvi'>xxxvi</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Montrose, Marquis of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Moors, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mor Tuath,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_204'>204</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Moray, Andrew of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Bishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Celts,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- earldom of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxi'>xxi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxii'>xxii</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Firth,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xii'>xii</a>, <a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Sir Andrew,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Thomas,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Morayshire,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxi'>xxi</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mormaers, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mortimers, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Morton, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Musselburgh,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Namur, Guy de,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Napoleon,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>National Covenant,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Navigation Act,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nectansmere, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nesbit, skirmish at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- victory at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Neville, Archbishop,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Neville's Cross, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Newark,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Newbattle Abbey,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Newburn, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Newcastle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Propositions of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Newport,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>New York,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Norfolk, Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Norham Castle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Normandy,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Northallerton,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxiv'>xxiv</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Northampton, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Treaty of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Northumberland,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxii'>xxii</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- earldom of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.<a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Northumbria,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xii'>xii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxiii'>xxxii</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Northumbria, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nottingham, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nova Scotia,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_156'>156</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ogilby, Alexander,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ogilvie, John,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oman, Mr.,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xii'>xii</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Orkneys,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Orleans, siege of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ormsby, William,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Otterburn, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Owen of Strathclyde,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Owre, Donald,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxv'>xxxv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oxford,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiv'>xxxiv</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Palestine,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Panama, Isthmus of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Paterson, William,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pathay, victory of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pavia, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Peasants' Revolt,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pedro de Ayala,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxii'>xxxii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Peebles,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- county of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pembroke, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pentland, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Firth of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Percies, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Percy, Henry,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Perron, Cardinal,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Perth,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxi'>xxxi</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Five Articles of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- riots in,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- surrender of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pezron, Paul Ives,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Philip IV,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Philiphaugh, defeat at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pinkerton's suggestion,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pinkie, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Piperden, victory of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pitscottie,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Post-nati</i>case,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Preston, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Randolph, Earl of Moray,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of Moray, the younger,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- the ambassador,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_134'>134</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rathlin, island of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ratisbon,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxix'>xxix</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Regnold, King,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Renfrew,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rhys, Dr.,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Richard I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- II,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Richard of Hexham,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Richelieu, Cardinal,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rizzio, David,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Robert II, the Steward,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- the High Steward,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Normandy,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Robertson, E.W.,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxi'>xxi</a>, <a href='#Page_xxii'>xxii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxvii'>xxxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rokeby,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ross, Bishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxix'>xxix</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- county of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxiii'>xxiii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxi'>xxxi</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- earldom of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rosslyn, defeat at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rothesay, Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rothiemurchus,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Roxburgh,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- castle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- county of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- skirmish at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rudolfi,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rullion Green, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ruthven, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>St. Abb's Head,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>St. Albans, 1st battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>----2nd battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>St. Andrews,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Archbishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- castle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>St. Duthac,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>St. Germains,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>St. Giles' Collegiate Church,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.<a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>St. James's,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Salisbury, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- meeting at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sark, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Scone,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Scoti-chronicon</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxx'>xxx</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Scott, Sir Walter,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xviii'>xviii</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Scrymgeour, James,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Seaforth, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Segrave, Sir John,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Selkirk, county of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Seymour, Jane,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shakespeare,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sharpe, James,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shetlands,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shrewsbury, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Siward of Northumbria,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Skene's <i>Celtic Scotland</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Skye,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xviii'>xviii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxvii'>xxvii</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Slains, rout at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Smith, Mr. G. Gregory,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Solemn League and Covenant,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Solway, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Moss, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Somerled of Argyll,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Somerset, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sophia of Hanover,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_190'>190</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Spain,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Spey, river,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Standard, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stanley,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stephen,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stewart, Henry,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Lord James,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Murdoch,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Sir John,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stirling,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- castle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stracathro,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stradarniae comes,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Strathclyde,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Strathern, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Strathon, Alexander,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Strickland, Miss,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stuart, Alexander,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Stuarts, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xx'>xx</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Suffolk, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Surrey, Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sybilla, daughter of Henry I,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Symeon of Durham,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tables, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tain,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Tales of a Grandfather</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xviii'>xviii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tay,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xi'>xi</a>, <a href='#Page_xii'>xii</a>, <a href='#Page_xiii'>xiii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxx'>xxx</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tees,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Test Act,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Teviotdale,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"The Incident",</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Thirty Years' War,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Throckmorton,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Till, river,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_106'>106</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tippermuir, victory at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tomintoul,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Toulouse,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Touraine, Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Towton, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tudors, the,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Turnberry,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xvii'>xvii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Turriff, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tweed,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tweeddale,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"Tyneman the Unlucky",</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ulster, Plantation of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Uxbridge, Proposals of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Vendome, Duc de,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Verneuil, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Vienne, John de,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Virgil, Polydore,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxii'>xxxii</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wales,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wallace, William,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xxxiii'>xxxiii</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Walter l'Espec,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Coventry,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Waltheof,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.<a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Warbeck, Perkin,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Warenne, John of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wark, attack on,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- capture of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Warkworth, castle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Waverley</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xviii'>xviii</a>, <a href='#Page_xxxvii'>xxxvii</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wentworth, Lord Strafford,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wessex,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Westminster,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Abbey,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Assembly,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Westmoreland,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wigtown, martyrs of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Winchester, Bishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_148'>148</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Chronicle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- defeat at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wishart, George,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>William I, xiv, xv,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- III,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>William the Lion,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Earl of Ross,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Albemarle,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- of Newburgh,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xix'>xix</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Rufus,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wood, Sir Andrew,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Woodstock, homage at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Woodville, Elizabeth,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Worcester, battle of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wyntoun,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><i>Yellow Carvel</i>,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>York,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>York, Archbishop of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Duke of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- meeting at,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- reconciliation of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- siege of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>---- Treaty of,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Yorkshire,</td><td align='left'><a href='#Page_xv'>xv</a>, <a href='#Page_xxii'>xxii</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Outline of the Relations between +England and Scotland (500-1707), by Robert S. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: An Outline of the Relations between England and Scotland (500-1707) + +Author: Robert S. Rait + +Release Date: September 4, 2005 [EBook #16647] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN OUTLINE OF THE RELATIONS *** + + + + +Produced by Irma Spehar, Janet Blenkinship and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net. +Produced from page images provided by Internet +Archive/Canadian Libraries. + + + + + + + + AN OUTLINE OF THE + + RELATIONS BETWEEN + + ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND + (500-1707) + + BY + + ROBERT S. RAIT + FELLOW OF NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD + + + + LONDON + BLACKIE & SON, LIMITED, 50 OLD BAILEY, E.C. + GLASGOW AND DUBLIN + 1901 + + + + +PREFATORY NOTE + + +I desire to take this opportunity of acknowledging valuable aid derived +from the recent works on Scottish History by Mr. Hume Brown and Mr. +Andrew Lang, from Mr. E.W. Robertson's _Scotland under her Early Kings_, +and from Mr. Oman's _Art of War_. Personal acknowledgments are due to +Professor Davidson of Aberdeen, to Mr. H. Fisher, Fellow of New College, +and to Mr. J.T.T. Brown, of Glasgow, who was good enough to aid me in +the search for references to the Highlanders in Scottish mediaeval +literature, and to give me the benefit of his great knowledge of this +subject. + + R.S.R. + + NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD, + _April, 1901_. + + + + + CONTENTS + + + Page + + INTRODUCTION ix + + CHAP. I. RACIAL DISTRIBUTION AND FEUDAL RELATIONS, + _c._500-1066 a.d. 1 + + " II. SCOTLAND AND THE NORMANS, 1066-1286 11 + + " III. THE SCOTTISH POLICY OF EDWARD I, 1286-1296 31 + + " IV. THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1297-1328 41 + + " V. EDWARD III AND SCOTLAND, 1328-1399 64 + + " VI. SCOTLAND, LANCASTER, AND YORK, 1400-1500 80 + + " VII. THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE, + 1500-1542 101 + + " VIII. THE PARTING OF THE WAYS, 1542-1568 116 + + " IX. THE UNION OF THE CROWNS, 1568-1625 141 + + " X. "THE TROUBLES IN SCOTLAND", 1625-1688 157 + + " XI. THE UNION OF THE PARLIAMENTS, 1689-1707 180 + + APPENDIX A. REFERENCES TO THE HIGHLANDERS IN + MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE 195 + + " B. THE FEUDALIZATION OF SCOTLAND 204 + + " C. TABLE OF THE COMPETITORS OF 1290 214 + + INDEX 215 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The present volume has been published with two main objects. The writer +has attempted to exhibit, in outline, the leading features of the +international history of the two countries which, in 1707, became the +United Kingdom. Relations with England form a large part, and the heroic +part, of Scottish history, relations with Scotland a very much smaller +part of English history. The result has been that in histories of +England references to Anglo-Scottish relations are occasional and +spasmodic, while students of Scottish history have occasionally +forgotten that, in regard to her southern neighbour, the attitude of +Scotland was not always on the heroic scale. Scotland appears on the +horizon of English history only during well-defined epochs, leaving no +trace of its existence in the intervals between these. It may be that +the space given to Scotland in the ordinary histories of England is +proportional to the importance of Scottish affairs, on the whole; but +the importance assigned to Anglo-Scottish relations in the fourteenth +century is quite disproportionate to the treatment of the same subject +in the fifteenth century. Readers even of Mr. Green's famous book, may +learn with surprise from Mr. Lang or Mr. Hume Brown the part played by +the Scots in the loss of the English dominions in France, or may fail to +understand the references to Scotland in the diplomatic correspondence +of the sixteenth century.[1] There seems to be, therefore, room for a +connected narrative of the attitude of the two countries towards each +other, for only thus is it possible to provide the _data_ requisite for +a fair appreciation of the policy of Edward I and Henry VIII, or of +Elizabeth and James I. Such a narrative is here presented, in outline, +and the writer has tried, as far as might be, to eliminate from his work +the element of national prejudice. + +The book has also another aim. The relations between England and +Scotland have not been a purely political connexion. The peoples have, +from an early date, been, to some extent, intermingled, and this mixture +of blood renders necessary some account of the racial relationship. It +has been a favourite theme of the English historians of the nineteenth +century that the portions of Scotland where the Gaelic tongue has ceased +to be spoken are not really Scottish, but English. "The Scots who +resisted Edward", wrote Mr. Freeman, "were the English of Lothian. The +true Scots, out of hatred to the 'Saxons' nearest to them, leagued with +the 'Saxons' farther off."[2] Mr. Green, writing of the time of Edward +I, says: "The farmer of Fife or the Lowlands, and the artisan of the +towns, remained stout-hearted Northumbrian Englishmen", and he adds that +"The coast districts north of the Tay were inhabited by a population of +the same blood as that of the Lowlands".[3] The theory has been, at all +events verbally, accepted by Mr. Lang, who describes the history of +Scotland as "the record of the long resistance of the English of +Scotland to England, of the long resistance of the Celts of Scotland to +the English of Scotland".[4] Above all, the conception has been firmly +planted in the imagination by the poet of the _Lady of the Lake_. + + "These fertile plains, that soften'd vale, + Were once the birthright of the Gael; + The stranger came with iron hand, + And from our fathers reft the land." + +While holding in profound respect these illustrious names, the writer +ventures to ask for a modification of this verdict. That the Scottish +Lowlanders (among whom we include the inhabitants of the coast +districts from the Tay to the Moray Firth) were, in the end of the +thirteenth century, "English in speech and manners" (as Mr. Oman[5] +guardedly describes them) is beyond doubt. Were they also English in +blood? The evidence upon which the accepted theory is founded is +twofold. In the course of the sixth century the Angles made a descent +between the Humber and the Forth, and that district became part of the +English kingdom of Northumbria. Even here we have, in the evidence of +the place-names, some reasons for believing that a proportion of the +original Brythonic population may have survived. This northern portion +of the kingdom of Northumbria was affected by the Danish invasions, but +it remained an Anglian kingdom till its conquest, in the beginning of +the eleventh century, by the Celtic king, Malcolm II. There is, thus, +sufficient justification for Mr. Freeman's phrase, "the English of +Lothian", if we interpret the term "Lothian" in the strict sense; but it +remains to be explained how the inhabitants of the Scottish Lowlands, +outside Lothian, can be included among the English of Lothian who +resisted Edward I. That explanation is afforded by the events which +followed the Norman Conquest of England. It is argued that the +Englishmen who fled from the Normans united with the original English of +Lothian to produce the result indicated in the passage quoted from Mr. +Green. The farmers of Fife and the Lowlands, the artisans of the towns, +the dwellers in the coast districts north of Tay, became, by the end of +the thirteenth century, stout Northumbrian Englishmen. Mr. Green admits +that the south-west of Scotland was still inhabited, in 1290, by the +Picts of Galloway, and neither he nor any other exponent of the theory +offers any explanation of their subsequent disappearance. The history of +Scotland, from the fourteenth century to the Rising of 1745, contains, +according to this view, a struggle between the Celts and "the English of +Scotland", the most important incident of which is the battle of Harlaw, +in 1411, which resulted in a great victory for "the English of +Scotland". Mr. Hill Burton writes thus of Harlaw: "On the face of +ordinary history it looks like an affair of civil war. But this +expression is properly used towards those who have common interests and +sympathies, who should naturally be friends and may be friends again, +but for a time are, from incidental causes of dispute and quarrel, made +enemies. The contest ... was none of this; it was a contest between +foes, of whom their contemporaries would have said that their ever +being in harmony with each other, or having a feeling of common +interests and common nationality, was not within the range of rational +expectations.... It will be difficult to make those not familiar with +the tone of feeling in Lowland Scotland at that time believe that the +defeat of Donald of the Isles was felt as a more memorable deliverance +even than that of Bannockburn."[6] + +We venture to plead for a modification of this theory, which may fairly +be called the orthodox account of the circumstances. It will at once +occur to the reader that some definite proof should be forthcoming that +the Celtic inhabitants of Scotland, outside the Lothians, were actually +subjected to this process of racial displacement. Such a displacement +had certainly not been effected before the Norman Conquest, for it was +only in 1018 that the English of Lothian were subjected to the rule of a +Celtic king, and the large amount of Scottish literature, in the Gaelic +tongue, is sufficient indication that Celtic Scotland was not confined +to the Highlands in the eleventh century. Nor have we any hint of a +racial displacement after the Norman conquest, even though it is +unquestionable that a considerable number of exiles followed Queen +Margaret to Scotland, and that William's harrying of the north of +England drove others over the border. It is easy to lay too much stress +upon the effect of the latter event. The northern counties cannot have +been very thickly populated, and if Mr. Freeman is right in his +description of "that fearful deed, half of policy, half of vengeance, +which has stamped the name of William with infamy", not very many of the +victims of his cruelty can have made good their flight, for we are told +that the bodies of the inhabitants of Yorkshire "were rotting in the +streets, in the highways, or on their own hearthstones". Stone dead left +no fellow to colonize Scotland. We find, therefore, only the results and +not the process of this racial displacement. These results were the +adoption of English manners and the English tongue, and the growth of +English names, and we wish to suggest that they may find an historical +explanation which does not involve the total disappearance of the +Scottish farmer from Fife, or of the Scottish artisan from Aberdeen. + +Before proceeding to a statement of the explanation to which we desire +to direct the reader's attention, it may be useful to deal briefly with +the questions relating to the spoken language of Lowland Scotland and to +its place-names. The fact that the language of the Angles and Saxons +completely superseded, in England, the tongue of the conquered Britons, +is admitted to be a powerful argument for the view that the Anglo-Saxon +conquest of England resulted in a racial displacement. But the argument +cannot be transferred to the case of the Scottish Lowlands, where, also, +the English language has completely superseded a Celtic tongue. For, in +the first case, the victory is that of the language of a savage people, +known to be in a state of actual warfare, and it is a victory which +follows as an immediate result of conquest. In Scotland, the victory of +the English tongue (outside the Lothians) dates from a relatively +advanced period of civilization, and it is a victory won, not by +conquest or bloodshed, but by peaceful means. Even in a case of +conquest, change of speech is not conclusive evidence of change of race +(_e.g._ the adoption of a Romance tongue by the Gauls); much less is it +decisive in such an instance as the adoption of English by the +Lowlanders of Scotland. In striking contrast to the case of England, the +victory of the Anglo-Saxon speech in Scotland did not include the +adoption of English place-names. The reader will find the subject fully +discussed in the valuable work by the Reverend J.B. Johnston, entitled +_Place-Names of Scotland_. "It is impossible", says Mr. Johnston, "to +speak with strict accuracy on the point, but Celtic names in Scotland +must outnumber all the rest by nearly ten to one." Even in counties +where the Gaelic tongue is now quite obsolete (_e.g._ in Fife, in +Forfar, in the Mearns, and in parts of Aberdeenshire), the place-names +are almost entirely Celtic. The region where English place-names abound +is, of course, the Lothians; but scarcely an English place-name is +definitely known to have existed, even in the Lothians, before the +Norman Conquest, and, even in the Lothians, the English tongue never +affected the names of rivers and mountains. In many instances, the +existence of a place-name which has now assumed an English form is no +proof of English race. As the Gaelic tongue died out, Gaelic place-names +were either translated or corrupted into English forms; Englishmen, +receiving grants of land from Malcolm Canmore and his successors, called +these lands after their own names, with the addition of the suffix-ham +or-tun; the influence of English ecclesiastics introduced many new +names; and as English commerce opened up new seaports, some of these +became known by the names which Englishmen had given them.[7] On the +whole, the evidence of the place-names corroborates our view that the +changes were changes in civilization, and not in racial distribution. + +We now proceed to indicate the method by which these changes were +effected, apart from any displacement of race. Our explanation finds a +parallel in the process which has changed the face of the Scottish +Highlands within the last hundred and fifty years, and which produced +very important results within the "sixty years" to which Sir Walter +Scott referred in the second title of _Waverley_.[8] There has been no +racial displacement; but the English language and English civilization +have gradually been superseding the ancient tongue and the ancient +customs of the Scottish Highlands. The difference between Skye and Fife +is that the influences which have been at work in the former for a +century and a half have been in operation in the latter for more than +eight hundred years. + +What then were the influences which, between 1066 and 1300, produced in +the Scottish Lowlands some of the results that, between 1746 and 1800, +were achieved in the Scottish Highlands? That they included an infusion +of English blood we have no wish to deny. Anglo-Saxons, in considerable +numbers, penetrated northwards, and by the end of the thirteenth +century the Lowlanders were a much less pure race than, except in the +Lothians, they had been in the days of Malcolm Canmore. Our contention +is, that we have no evidence for the assertion that this Saxon admixture +amounted to a racial change, and that, ethnically, the men of Fife and +of Forfar were still Scots, not English. Such an infusion of English +blood as our argument allows will not explain the adoption of the +English tongue, or of English habits of life; we must look elsewhere for +the full explanation. The English victory was, as we shall try to show, +a victory not of blood but of civilization, and three main causes helped +to bring it about. The marriage of Malcolm Canmore introduced two new +influences into Scotland--an English Court and an English Church, and +contemporaneously with the changes consequent upon these new +institutions came the spread of English commerce, carrying with it the +English tongue along the coast, and bringing an infusion of English +blood into the towns.[9] In the reign of David I, the son of Malcolm +Canmore and St. Margaret, these purely Saxon influences were succeeded +by the Anglo-Norman tendencies of the king's favourites. Grants of +land[10] to English and Norman courtiers account for the occurrence of +English and Norman family and place-names. The men who lived in +immediate dependence upon a lord, giving him their services and +receiving his protection, owing him their homage and living under his +sole jurisdiction, took the name of the lord whose men they were. + +A more important question arises with regard to the system of land +tenure, and the change from clan ownership to feudal possession. How was +the tribal system suppressed? An outline of the process by which +Scotland became a feudalized country will be found in the Appendix, +where we shall also have an opportunity of referring, for purposes of +comparison, to the methods by which clan-feeling was destroyed after the +last Jacobite insurrection. Here, it must suffice to give a brief +summary of the case there presented. It is important to bear in mind +that the tribes of 1066 were not the clans of 1746. The clan system in +the Highlands underwent considerable development between the days of +Malcolm Canmore and those of the Stuarts. Too much stress must not be +laid upon the unwillingness of the people to give up tribal ownership, +for it is clear from our early records that the rights of +joint-occupancy were confined to the immediate kin of the head of the +clan. "The limit of the immediate kindred", says Mr. E.W. Robertson,[11] +"extended to the third generation, all who were fourth in descent from a +Senior passing from amongst the joint-proprietary, and receiving, +apparently, a final allotment; which seems to have been separated +permanently from the remainder of the joint-property by certain +ceremonies usual on such occasions." To such holders of individual +property the charter offered by David I gave additional security of +tenure. We know from the documents entitled "Quoniam attachiamenta", +printed in the first volume of the _Acts of the Parliament of Scotland_, +that the tribal system included large numbers of bondmen, to whom the +change to feudalism meant little or nothing. But even when all due +allowance has been made for this, the difficulty is not completely +solved. There must have been some owners of clan property whom the +changes affected in an adverse way, and we should expect to hear of +them. We do hear of them, for the reigns of the successors of Malcolm +Canmore are largely occupied with revolts in Galloway and in Morayshire. +The most notable of these was the rebellion of MacHeth, Mormaor of +Moray, about 1134. On its suppression, David I confiscated the earldom +of Moray, and granted it, by charters, to his own favourites, and +especially to the Anglo-Normans, from Yorkshire and Northumberland, whom +he had invited to aid him in dealing with the reactionary forces of +Moray; but such grants of land in no way dispossessed the lesser +tenants, who simply held of new lords and by new titles. Fordun, who +wrote two centuries later, ascribes to David's successor, Malcolm IV, an +invasion of Moray, and says that the king scattered the inhabitants +throughout the rest of Scotland, and replaced them by "his own peaceful +people".[12] There is no further evidence in support of this statement, +and almost the whole of Malcolm's short reign was occupied with the +settlement of Galloway. We know that he followed his grandfather's +policy of making grants of land in Moray, and this is probably the germ +of truth in Fordun's statement. Moray, however, occupied rather an +exceptional position. "As the power of the sovereign extended over the +west," says Mr. E.W. Robertson, "it was his policy, not to eradicate the +old ruling families, but to retain them in their native provinces, +rendering them more or less responsible for all that portion of their +respective districts which was not placed under the immediate authority +of the royal sheriffs or baillies." As this policy was carried out even +in Galloway, Argyll, and Ross, where there were occasional rebellions, +and was successful in its results, we have no reason for believing that +it was abandoned in dealing with the rest of the Lowlands. As, from time +to time, instances occurred in which this plan was unsuccessful, and as +other causes for forfeiture arose, the lands were granted to strangers, +and by the end of the thirteenth century the Scottish nobility was +largely Anglo-Norman. The vestiges of the clan system which remained may +be part of the explanation of the place of the great Houses in Scottish +History. The unique importance of such families as the Douglasses or the +Gordons may thus be a portion of the Celtic heritage of the Lowlands. + +If, then, it was not by a displacement of race, but through the subtle +influences of religion, feudalism, and commerce that the Scottish +Lowlands came to be English in speech and in civilization, if the +farmers of Fife and some, at least, of the burghers of Dundee or of +Aberdeen were really Scots who had been subjected to English influences, +we should expect to find no strong racial feeling in mediaeval Scotland. +Such racial antagonism as existed would, in this case, be owing to the +large admixture of Scandinavian blood in Caithness and in the Isles, +rather than to any difference between the true Scots and "the English +of the Lowlands". Do we, then, find any racial antagonism between the +Highlands and the Lowlands? If Mr. Freeman is right in laying down the +general rule that "the true Scots, out of hatred to the 'Saxons' nearest +to them, leagued with the 'Saxons' farther off", if Mr. Hill Burton is +correct in describing the red Harlaw as a battle between foes who could +have no feeling of common nationality, there is nothing to be said in +support of the theory we have ventured to suggest. We may fairly expect +some signs of ill-will between those who maintained the Celtic +civilization and their brethren who had abandoned the ancient customs +and the ancient tongue; we may naturally look for attempts to produce a +conservative or Celtic reaction, but anything more than this will be +fatal to our case. The facts do not seem to us to bear out Mr. Freeman's +generalization. When the independence of Scotland is really at stake, we +shall find the "true Scots" on the patriotic side. Highlanders and +Islesmen fought under the banner of David I at Northallerton; they took +their place along with the men of Carrick in the Bruce's own division at +Bannockburn, and they bore their part in the stubborn ring that +encircled James IV at Flodden. At other times, indeed, we do find the +Lords of the Isles involved in treacherous intrigues with the kings of +England, but just in the same way as we see the Earls of Douglas +engaged in traitorous schemes against the Scottish kings. In both cases +alike we are dealing with the revolt of a powerful vassal against a weak +king. Such an incident is sufficiently frequent in the annals of +Scotland to render it unnecessary to call in racial considerations to +afford an explanation. One of the most notable of these intrigues +occurred in the year 1408, when Donald of the Isles, who chanced to be +engaged in a personal quarrel about the heritage which he claimed in +right of his Lowland relatives, made a treacherous agreement with Henry +IV; and the quarrel ended in the battle of Harlaw in 1411. The real +importance of Harlaw is that it ended in the defeat of a Scotsman who, +like some other Scotsmen in the South, was acting in the English +interest; any further significance that it may possess arises from the +consideration that it is the last of a series of efforts directed +against the predominance, not of the English race, but of Saxon speech +and civilization. It was just because Highlanders and Lowlanders did +represent a common nationality that the battle was fought, and the blood +spilt on the field of Harlaw was not shed in any racial struggle, but in +the cause of the real English conquest of Scotland, the conquest of +civilization and of speech. + +Our argument derives considerable support from the references to the +Highlands of Scotland which we find in mediaeval literature. Racial +distinctions were not always understood in the Middle Ages; but readers +of Giraldus Cambrensis are familiar with the strong racial feeling that +existed between the English and the Welsh, and between the English and +the Irish. If the Lowlanders of Scotland felt towards the Highlanders as +Mr. Hill Burton asserts that they did feel, we should expect to find +references to the difference between Celts and Saxons. But, on the +contrary, we meet with statement after statement to the effect that the +Highlanders are only Scotsmen who have maintained the ancient Scottish +language and literature, while the Lowlanders have adopted English +customs and a foreign tongue. The words "Scots" and "Scotland" are never +used to designate the Highlanders as distinct from other inhabitants of +Scotland, yet the phrase "Lingua Scotica" means, up to the end of the +fifteenth century, the Gaelic tongue.[13] In the beginning of the +sixteenth century John Major speaks of "the wild Scots and Islanders" as +using Irish, while the civilized Scots speak English; and Gavin Douglas +professed to write in Scots (_i.e._ the Lowland tongue). In the course +of the century this became the regular usage. Acts of the Scottish +Parliament, directed against Highland marauders, class them with the +border thieves. There is no hint in the Register of the Privy Council or +in the Exchequer Rolls, of any racial feeling, and the independence of +the Celtic chiefs has been considerably exaggerated. James IV and James +V both visited the Isles, and the chief town of Skye takes its name from +the visit of the latter. In the beginning of the sixteenth century, it +was safe for Hector Boece, the Principal of the newly founded university +of Aberdeen, to go in company of the Rector to make a voyage to the +Hebrides, and, in the account they have left us of their experiences, we +can discover no hint that there existed between Highlanders and +Lowlanders much the same difference as separated the English from the +Welsh. Neither in Barbour's _Bruce_ nor in Blind Harry's _Wallace_ is +there any such consciousness of difference, although Barbour lived in +Aberdeen in the days before Harlaw. John of Fordun, a fellow-townsman +and a contemporary of Barbour, was an ardent admirer of St. Margaret and +of David I, and of the Anglo-Norman institutions they introduced, while +he possessed an invincible objection to the kilt. We should therefore +expect to find in him some consciousness of the racial difference. He +writes of the Highlanders with some ill-will, describing them as a +"savage and untamed people, rude and independent, given to rapine, ... +hostile to the English language and people, and, owing to diversity of +speech, even to their own nation[14]." But it is his custom to write +thus of the opponents of the Anglo-Norman civil and ecclesiastical +institutions, and he brings all Scotland under the same condemnation +when he tells us how David "did his utmost to draw on that rough and +boorish people towards quiet and chastened manners".[15] The reference +to "their own nation" shows, too, that Fordun did not understand that +the Highlanders were a different people; and when he called them hostile +to the English, he was evidently unaware that their custom was "out of +hatred to the Saxons nearest them" to league with the English. John +Major, writing in the reign of James IV (1489-1513), mentions the +differences between Highlander and Lowlander. The wild Scots speak +Irish; the civilized Scots use English. "But", he adds, "most of us +spoke Irish a short time ago."[16] His contemporary, Hector Boece, who +made the Tour to the Hebrides, says: "Those of us who live on the +borders of England have forsaken our own tongue and learned English, +being driven thereto by wars and commerce. But the Highlanders remain +just as they were in the time of Malcolm Canmore, in whose days we began +to adopt English manners."[17] When Bishop Elphinstone applied, in 1493, +for Papal permission to found a university in Old Aberdeen, in proximity +to the barbarian Highlanders, he made no suggestion of any racial +difference between the English-speaking population of Aberdeen and their +Gaelic-speaking neighbours.[18] Late in the sixteenth century, John +Lesley, the defender of Queen Mary, who had been bishop of Ross, and +came of a northern family, wrote in a strain similar to that of Major +and Boece. "Foreign nations look on the Gaelic-speaking Scots as wild +barbarians because they maintain the customs and the language of their +ancestors; but we call them Highlanders."[19] + +Even in connexion with the battle of Harlaw, we find that Scottish +historians do not use such terms in speaking of the Highland forces as +Mr. Hill Burton would lead us to expect. Of the two contemporary +authorities, one, the Book of Pluscarden, was probably written by a +Highlander, while the continuation of Fordun's _Scoti-chronicon_, in +which we have a more detailed account of the battle, was the work of +Bower, a Lowlander who shared Fordun's antipathy to Highland customs. +The _Liber Pluscardensis_ mentions the battle in a very casual manner. +It was fought between Donald of the Isles and the Earl of Mar; there was +great slaughter: and it so happened that the town of Cupar chanced to be +burned in the same year.[20] Bower assigns a greater importance to the +affair;[21] he tells us that Donald wished to spoil Aberdeen and then to +add to his own possessions all Scotland up to the Tay. It is as if he +were writing of the ambition of the House of Douglas. But there is no +hint of racial antipathy; the abuse applied to Donald and his followers +would suit equally well for the Borderers who shouted the Douglas +battle-cry. John Major tells us that it was a civil war fought for the +spoil of the famous city of Aberdeen, and he cannot say who won--only +the Islanders lost more men than the civilized Scots. For him, its chief +interest lay in the ferocity of the contest; rarely, even in struggles +with a foreign foe, had the fighting been so keen.[22] The fierceness +with which Harlaw was fought impressed the country so much that, some +sixty years later, when Major was a boy, he and his playmates at the +Grammar School of Haddington used to amuse themselves by mock fights in +which they re-enacted the red Harlaw. + +From Major we turn with interest to the Principal of the University and +King's College, Hector Boece, who wrote his _History of Scotland_, at +Aberdeen, about a century after the battle of Harlaw, and who shows no +trace of the strong feeling described by Mr. Hill Burton. He narrates +the origin of the quarrel with much sympathy for the Lord of the Isles, +and regrets that he was not satisfied with recovering his own heritage +of Ross, but was tempted by the pillage of Aberdeen, and he speaks of +the Lowland army as "the Scots on the other side".[23] His narrative in +the _History_ is devoid of any racial feeling whatsoever, and in his +_Lives of the Bishops of Aberdeen_ he omits any mention of Harlaw at +all. We have laid stress upon the evidence of Boece because in Aberdeen, +if anywhere, the memory of the "Celtic peril" at Harlaw should have +survived. Similarly, George Buchanan speaks of Harlaw as a raid for +purposes of plunder, made by the islanders upon the mainland.[24] These +illustrations may serve to show how Scottish historians really did look +upon the battle of Harlaw, and how little do they share Mr. Burton's +horror of the Celts. + +When we turn to descriptions of Scotland we find no further proof of the +correctness of the orthodox theory. When Giraldus Cambrensis wrote, in +the twelfth century, he remarked that the Scots of his time have an +affinity of race with the Irish,[25] and the English historians of the +War of Independence speak of the Scots as they do of the Welsh or the +Irish, and they know only one type of Scotsman. We have already seen the +opinion of John Major, the sixteenth-century Scottish historian and +theologian, who had lived much in France, and could write of his native +country from an _ab extra_ stand-point, that the Highlanders speak Irish +and are less respectable than the other Scots; and his opinion was +shared by two foreign observers, Pedro de Ayala and Polydore Vergil. The +former remarks on the difference of speech, and the latter says that the +more civilized Scots have adopted the English tongue. In like manner +English writers about the time of the Union of the Crowns write of the +Highlanders as Scotsmen who retain their ancient language. Camden, +indeed, speaks of the Lowlands as being Anglo-Saxon in origin, but he +restricts his remark to the district which had formed part of the +kingdom of Northumbria.[26] + +We should, of course, expect to find that the gradually widening breach +in manners and language between Highlanders and Lowlanders produced some +dislike for the Highland robbers and their Irish tongue, and we do +occasionally, though rarely, meet some indication of this. There are not +many references to the Highlanders in Scottish literature earlier than +the sixteenth century. "Blind Harry" (Book VI, ll. 132-140) represents +an English soldier as using, in addressing Wallace, first a mixture of +French and Lowland Scots, and then a mixture of Lowland Scots and +Gaelic: + + "Dewgar, gud day, bone Senzhour, and gud morn! + + * * * * * + + Sen ye ar Scottis, zeit salust sall ye be; + Gud deyn, dawch Lard, bach lowch, banzoch a de". + +In "The Book of the Howlat", written in the latter half of the fifteenth +century, by a certain Richard Holland, who was an adherent of the House +of Douglas, there is a similar imitation of Scottish Gaelic, with the +same phrase "Banachadee" (the blessing of God). This seemingly innocent +phrase seems to have some ironical signification, for we find in the +_Auchinleck Chronicle_ (anno 1452) that it was used by some Highlanders +as a term of abuse towards the Bishop of Argyll. Another example occurs +in a coarse "Answer to ane Helandmanis Invective", by Alexander +Montgomerie, the court poet of James VI. The Lowland literature of the +sixteenth century contains a considerable amount of abuse of the +Highland tongue. William Dunbar (1460-1520), in his "Flyting" (an +exercise in Invective), reproaches his antagonist, Walter Kennedy, with +his Highland origin. Kennedy was a native of Galloway, while Dunbar +belonged to the Lothians, where we should expect the strongest +appreciation of the differences between Lowlander and Highlander. +Dunbar, moreover, had studied (or, at least, resided) at Oxford, and was +one of the first Scotsmen to succumb to the attractions of "town". The +most suggestive point in the "Flyting" is that a native of the Lothians +could still regard a Galwegian as a "beggar Irish bard". For Walter +Kennedy spoke and wrote in Lowland Scots; he was, possibly, a graduate +of the University of Glasgow, and he could boast of Stuart blood. +Ayrshire was as really English as was Aberdeenshire; and, if Dunbar is +in earnest, it is a strong confirmation of our theory that he, being +"of the Lothians himself", spoke of Kennedy in this way. It would, +however, be unwise to lay too much stress on what was really a +conventional exercise of a particular style of poetry, now obsolete. +Kennedy, in his reply, retorts that he alone is true Scots, and that +Dunbar, as a native of Lothian, is but an English thief: + + "In Ingland, owle, suld be thyne habitacione, + Homage to Edward Langschankis maid thy kyn". + +In an Epitaph on Donald Owre, a son of the Lord of the Isles, who raised +a rebellion against James IV in 1503, Dunbar had a great opportunity for +an outburst against the Highlanders, of which, however, he did not take +advantage, but confined himself to a denunciation of treachery in +general. In the "Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins", there is a well-known +allusion to the bag-pipes: + + "Than cryd Mahoun[27] for a Healand padyane; + Syne ran a feynd to feche Makfadyane[28] + Far northwart in a nuke.[29] + Be he the correnoch had done schout + Erschemen so gadderit him about + In Hell grit rowme they tuke. + Thae tarmegantis with tag and tatter + Full lowde in Ersche begowth to clatter, + And rowp lyk revin and ruke. + The Devill sa devit was with thair yell + That in the depest pot of Hell + He smorit thame with smoke." + +Similar allusions will be found in the writings of Montgomerie; but such +caricatures of Gaelic and the bagpipes afford but a slender basis for a +theory of racial antagonism. + +After the Union of the Crowns, the Lowlands of Scotland came to be more +and more closely bound to England, while the Highlands remained +unaffected by these changes. The Scottish nobility began to find its +true place at the English Court; the Scottish adventurer was +irresistibly drawn to London; the Scottish Presbyterian found the +English Puritan his brother in the Lord; and the Scottish Episcopalian +joined forces with the English Cavalier. The history of the seventeenth +century prepared the way for the acceptance of the Celtic theory in the +beginning of the eighteenth, and when philologists asserted that the +Scottish Highlanders were a different race from the Scottish Lowlanders, +the suggestion was eagerly adopted. The views of the philologists were +confirmed by the experiences of the 'Forty-five, and they received a +literary form in the _Lady of the Lake_ and in _Waverley_. In the +nineteenth century the theory received further development owing to the +fact that it was generally in line with the arguments of the defenders +of the Edwardian policy in Scotland; and it cannot be denied that it +holds the field to-day, in spite of Mr. Robertson's attack on it in +Appendix R of his _Scotland under her Early Kings_. + +The writer of the present volume ventures to hope that he has, at all +events, done something to make out a case for re-consideration of the +subject. The political facts on which rests the argument just stated +will be found in the text, and an Appendix contains the more important +references to the Highlanders in mediaeval Scottish literature, and +offers a brief account of the feudalization of Scotland. Our argument +amounts only to a modification, and not to a complete reversal of the +current theory. No historical problems are more difficult than those +which refer to racial distribution, and it is impossible to speak +dogmatically on such a subject. That the English blood of the Lothians, +and the English exiles after the Norman Conquest, did modify the race +over whom Malcolm Canmore ruled, we do not seek to deny. But that it was +a modification and not a displacement, a victory of civilization and +not of race, we beg to suggest. The English influences were none the +less strong for this, and, in the end, they have everywhere prevailed. +But the Scotsman may like to think that mediaeval Scotland was not +divided by an abrupt racial line, and that the political unity and +independence which it obtained at so great a cost did correspond to a +natural and a national unity which no people can, of itself, create. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: Spanish and Venetian Calendars of State Papers. Cf. +especially the reference to the succour afforded by Scotland to France +in Spanish Calendar, i. 210.] + +[Footnote 2: _Historical Essays_, First Series, p. 71.] + +[Footnote 3: _History of the English People_, Book III, c. iv.] + +[Footnote 4: _History of Scotland_, vol. i, p. 2. But, as Mr. Lang +expressly repudiates any theory of displacement north of the Forth, and +does not regard Harlaw in the light of a great racial contest, his +position is not really incompatible with that of the present work.] + +[Footnote 5: _History of England_, p. 158. Mr. Oman is almost alone in +not calling them English in blood.] + +[Footnote 6: _History of Scotland_, vol. ii, pp. 393-394.] + +[Footnote 7: Instances of the first tendency are Edderton, near Tain, +_i.e._ _eadar duin_ ("between the hillocks"), and Falkirk, _i.e._ +_Eaglais_ ("speckled church"), while examples of the second tendency are +too numerous to require mention. Examples of ecclesiastical names are +Laurencekirk and Kirkcudbright, and the growth of commerce receives the +witness of such names as Turnberry, on the coast of Ayr, dating from the +thirteenth century, and Burghead on the Moray Firth.] + +[Footnote 8: Cf. _Waverley_, c. xliii, and the concluding chapter of +_Tales of a Grandfather_.] + +[Footnote 9: William of Newburgh states this in a probably exaggerated +form when he says:--"Regni Scottici oppida et burgi ab Anglis habitari +noscuntur" (Lib. II, c. 34). The population of the towns in the Lothians +was, of course, English.] + +[Footnote 10: For the real significance of such grants of land, cf. +Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_, Essay II.] + +[Footnote 11: _Scotland under her Early Kings_, vol. i, p. 239.] + +[Footnote 12: Annalia, iv.] + +[Footnote 13: There is a possible exception in Barbour's _Bruce_ (Bk. +XVIII, 1. 443)--"Then gat he all the Erischry that war intill his +company, of Argyle and the Ilis alswa". It has been generally understood +that the "Erischry" here are the Scottish Highlanders; but it is certain +that Barbour frequently uses the word to mean Irishmen, and it is +perhaps more probable that he does so here also than that he should use +the word in this sense only once, and with no parallel instance for more +than a century.] + +[Footnote 14: Chronicle, Book II, c. ix. Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 15: Ibid, Book V, c. x. Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 16: _History of Greater Britain_, Bk. I, cc. vii, viii, ix. +Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 17: _Scotorum Regni Descriptio_, prefixed to his "History". +Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 18: _Fasti Aberdonenses_, p. 3.] + +[Footnote 19: _De Gestis Scotorum_, Lib. I. Cf. App. A. It is +interesting to note, as showing how the breach between Highlander and +Lowlander widened towards the close of the sixteenth century, that +Father James Dalrymple, who translated Lesley's History, at Ratisbon, +about the beginning of the seventeenth century, wrote: "Bot the rest of +the Scottis, quhome _we_ halde as outlawis and wylde peple". Dalrymple +was probably a native of Ayrshire.] + +[Footnote 20: _Liber Pluscardensis_, X, c. xxii. Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 21: _Scoti-chronicon_, XV, c. xxi. Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 22: _Greater Britain_, VI, c. x. Cf. App. A. The keenness of +the fighting is no proof of racial bitterness. Cf. the clan fight on the +Inches at Perth, a few years before Harlaw.] + +[Footnote 23: _Scotorum Historiae_, Lib. XVI. Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 24: _Rerum Scotorum Historia_, Lib. X. Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 25: _Top. Hib._, Dis. III, cap. xi.] + +[Footnote 26: _Britannia_, section _Scoti_.] + +[Footnote 27: Mahoun = Mahomet, _i.e._ the Devil.] + +[Footnote 28: The Editor of the Scottish Text Society's edition of +Dunbar points out that "Macfadyane" is a reference to the traitor of the +War of Independence: + + "This Makfadzane till Inglismen was suorn; + Eduard gaiff him bath Argill and Lorn". + + Blind Harry, VII, ll. 627-8. + +] + +[Footnote 29: "Far northward in a nuke" is a reference to the cave in +which Macfadyane was killed by Duncan of Lorne (Bk. VIII, ll. 866-8).] + + + + +CHAPTER I + +RACIAL DISTRIBUTION AND FEUDAL RELATIONS + +_c._ 500-1066 A.D. + + +Since the beginning of the eighteenth century, it has been customary to +speak of the Scottish Highlanders as "Celts". The name is singularly +inappropriate. The word "Celt" was used by Caesar to describe the peoples +of Middle Gaul, and it thence became almost synonymous with "Gallic". +The ancient inhabitants of Gaul were far from being closely akin to the +ancient inhabitants of Scotland, although they belong to the same +general family. The latter were Picts and Goidels; the former, Brythons +or Britons, of the same race as those who settled in England and were +driven by the Saxon conquerors into Wales, as their kinsmen were driven +into Brittany by successive conquests of Gaul. In the south of Scotland, +Goidels and Brythons must at one period have met; but the result of the +meeting was to drive the Goidels into the Highlands, where the Goidelic +or Gaelic form of speech still remains different from the Welsh of the +descendants of the Britons. Thus the only reason for calling the +Scottish Highlanders "Celts" is that Caesar used that name to describe a +race cognate with another race from which the Highlanders ought to be +carefully distinguished. In none of our ancient records is the term +"Celt" ever employed to describe the Highlanders of Scotland. They never +called themselves Celtic; their neighbours never gave them such a name; +nor would the term have possessed any significance, as applied to them, +before the eighteenth century. In 1703, a French historian and Biblical +antiquary, Paul Yves Pezron, wrote a book about the people of Brittany, +entitled _Antiquite de la Nation et de la Langue des Celtes autrement +appellez Gaulois_. It was translated into English almost immediately, +and philologists soon discovered that the language of Caesar's Celts was +related to the Gaelic of the Scottish Highlanders. On this ground +progressed the extension of the name, and the Highlanders became +identified with, instead of being distinguished from, the Celts of Gaul. +The word Celt was used to describe both the whole family (including +Brythons and Goidels), and also the special branch of the family to +which Caesar applied the term. It is as if the word "Teutonic" had been +used to describe the whole Aryan Family, and had been specially employed +in speaking of the Romance peoples. The word "Celtic" has, however, +become a technical term as opposed to "Saxon" or "English", and it is +impossible to avoid its use. + +Besides the Goidels, or so-called Celts, and the Brythonic Celts or +Britons, we find traces in Scotland of an earlier race who are known as +"Picts", a few fragments of whose language survive. About the identity +of these Picts another controversy has been waged. Some look upon the +Pictish tongue as closely allied to Scottish Gaelic; others regard it as +Brythonic rather than Goidelic; and Dr. Rhys surmises that it is really +an older form of speech, neither Goidelic nor Brythonic, and probably +not allied to either, although, in the form in which its fragments have +come down to us, it has been deeply affected by Brythonic forms. Be all +this as it may, it is important for us to remember that, at the dawn of +history, modern Scotland was populated entirely by people now known as +"Celts", of whom the Brythonic portion were the later to appear, driving +the Goidels into the more mountainous districts. The Picts, whatever +their origin, had become practically amalgamated with the "Celts", and +the Roman historians do not distinguish between different kinds of +northern barbarians. + +In the end of the fifth century and the beginning of the sixth, a new +settlement of Goidels was made. These were the Scots, who founded the +kingdom of Dalriada, corresponding roughly to the Modern Argyllshire. +Some fifty years later (_c._ 547) came the Angles under Ida, and +established a dominion along the coast from Tweed to Forth, covering the +modern counties of Roxburgh, Berwick, Haddington, and Midlothian. Its +outlying fort was the castle of Edinburgh, the name of which, in the +form in which we have it, has certainly been influenced by association +with the Northumbrian king, Edwin.[30] This district remained a portion +of the kingdom of Northumbria till the tenth century, and it is of this +district alone that the word "English" can fairly be used. Even here, +however, there must have been a considerable infusion of Celtic blood, +and such Celtic place-names as "Dunbar" still remain even in the +counties where English place-names predominate. A distinguished Celtic +scholar tells us: "In all our ancient literature, the inhabitants of +ancient Lothian are known as Saix-Brit, _i.e._ Saxo-Britons, because +they were a Cymric people, governed by the Saxons of Northumbria".[31] A +further non-Celtic influence was that of the Norse invaders, who +attacked the country from the ninth to the eighteenth century, and +profoundly modified the racial character of the population on the south +and west coasts, in the islands, and along the east coast as far south +as the Moray Firth. + +Such, then, was the racial distribution of Scotland. Picts, Goidelic +Celts, Brythonic Celts, Scots, and Anglo-Saxons were in possession of +the country. In the year 844, Kenneth MacAlpine, King of the Scots of +Dalriada, united under his rule the ancient kingdoms of the Picts and +Scots, including the whole of Scotland from the Pentland Firth to the +Forth. In 908, a brother of the King of Scots became King of the Britons +of Strathclyde, while Lothian, with the rest of Northumbria, passed +under the overlordship of the House of Wessex. We have now arrived at +the commencement of the long dispute about the "overlordship". We shall +attempt to state the main outlines as clearly as possible. + +The foundation of the whole controversy lies in a statement, "in the +honest English of the Winchester Chronicle", that, in 924, "was Eadward +king chosen to father and to lord of the Scots king and of the Scots, +and of Regnold king, and of all the Northumbrians", and also of the +Strathclyde, Brythons or Welsh. Mr. E.W. Robertson has argued that no +real weight can be given to this statement, for (1) "Regnold king" had +died in 921; (2) in 924, Edward the Elder was striving to suppress the +Danes south of the Humber, and had no claims to overlordship of any kind +over the Northumbrian Danes and English; and (3) the place assigned, +Bakewell, in Derbyshire, is improbable, and the recorded building of a +fort there is irrelevant. The reassertion of this homage, under +Aethelstan, in 926, which occurs in one MS. of the Chronicle, is open to +the objection that it describes the King of Scots as giving up idolatry, +more than three hundred and fifty years after the conversion of the +country; but as the entry under the year 924 is probably in a +contemporary hand, considerable weight must be attached to the double +statement. In the reign of Edmund the Magnificent, an event occurred +which has given fresh occasion for dispute. A famous passage in the +"Chronicle" (945 A.D.) tells how Edmund and Malcolm I of +Scotland conquered Cumbria, which the English king gave to Malcolm on +condition that Malcolm should be his "midwyrtha" or fellow-worker by sea +and land. Mr. Freeman interpreted this as a feudal grant, reading the +sense of "fealty" into "midwyrtha", and regarded the district described +as "Cumbria" as including the whole of Strathclyde. It is somewhat +difficult to justify this position, especially as we have no reason for +supposing that Edmund did invade Strathclyde, and since, in point of +fact, Strathclyde remained hostile to the kingdom of Scotland long after +this date. In 946 the statement of the Chronicle is reasserted in +connection with the accession of Eadred, and in somewhat stronger +words:--"the Scots gave him oaths, that they would all that he would". +Such are the main facts relating to the first two divisions of the +threefold claim to overlordship, and their value will probably continue +to be estimated in accordance with the personal feelings of the reader. +It is scarcely possible to claim that they are in any way decisive. Nor +can any further light be gained from the story of what Mr. Lang has +happily termed the apocryphal eight which the King of Scots stroked on +the Dee in the reign of Edgar. In connection with this "Great +Commendation" of 973, the Chronicle mentions only six kings as rowing +Edgar at Chester, and it wisely names no names. The number eight, and +the mention of Kenneth, King of Scots, as one of the oarsmen, have been +transferred to Mr. Freeman's pages from those of the twelfth-century +chronicler, Florence of Worcester. + +We pass now to the third section of the supremacy argument. The district +to which we have referred as Lothian was, unquestionably, largely +inhabited by men of English race, and it formed part of the Northumbrian +kingdom. Within the first quarter of the eleventh century it had passed +under the dominion of the Celtic kings of Scotland. When and how this +happened is a mystery. The tract _De Northynbrorum Comitibus_ which used +to be attributed to Simeon of Durham, asserts that it was ceded by Edgar +to Kenneth and that Kenneth did homage, and this story, elaborated by +John of Wallingford, has been frequently given as the historical +explanation. But Simeon of Durham in his "History"[32] asserts that +Malcolm II, about 1016, wrested Lothian from the Earl of Northumbria, +and there is internal evidence that the story of Edgar and Kenneth has +been constructed out of the known facts of Malcolm's reign. It is, at +all events, certain that the Scottish kings in no sense governed Lothian +till after the battle of Carham in 1018, when Malcolm and the +Strathclyde monarch Owen, defeated the Earl of Northumbria and added +Lothian to his dominions. This conquest was confirmed by Canute in 1031, +and, in connection with the confirmation, the Chronicle again speaks of +a doubtful homage which the Scots king "not long held", and, again, the +Chronicle, or one version of it, adds an impossible statement--this time +about Macbeth, who had not yet appeared on the stage of history. The +year 1018 is also marked by the succession of Malcolm's grandson, +Duncan, to the throne of his kinsman, Owen of Strathclyde, and on +Malcolm's death in 1034 the whole of Scotland was nominally united under +Duncan I.[33] The consolidation of the kingdom was as yet in the future, +but from the end of the reign of Malcolm II there was but one Kingdom of +Scotland. From this united kingdom we must exclude the islands, which +were largely inhabited by Norsemen. Both the Hebrides and the islands of +Orkney and Shetland were outside the realm of Scotland. + +The names of Macbeth and "the gentle Duncan" suggest the great drama +which the genius of Shakespeare constructed from the magic tale of +Hector Boece; but our path does not lie by the moor near Forres, nor +past Birnam Wood or Dunsinane. Nor does the historian of the relations +between England and Scotland have anything to tell about the English +expedition to restore Malcolm. All such tales emanate from Florence of +Worcester, and we know only that Siward of Northumbria made a fruitless +invasion of Scotland, and that Macbeth reigned for three years +afterwards. + +We have now traced, in outline, the connections between the northern and +the southern portions of this island up to the date of the Norman +Conquest of England. We have found in Scotland a population composed of +Pict, Scot, Goidel, Brython, Dane, and Angle, and we have seen how the +country came to be, in some sense, united under a single monarch. It is +not possible to speak dogmatically of either of the two great problems +of the period--the racial distribution of the country, and the Edwardian +claims to overlordship. But it is clear that no portion of Scotland was, +in 1066, in any sense English, except the Lothians, of which Angles and +Danes had taken possession. From the Lothians, the English influences +must have spread slightly into Strathclyde; but the fact that the Celtic +Kings of Scotland were strong enough to annex and rule the Lothians as +part of a Celtic kingdom implies a limit to English colonization. As to +the feudal supremacy, it may be fairly said that there is no portion of +the English claim that cannot be reasonably doubted, and whatever force +it retains must be of the nature of a cumulative argument. It must, of +course, be recollected that Anglo-Norman chroniclers of the twelfth and +thirteenth centuries, like English historians of a later date, regarded +themselves as holding a brief for the English claim, while, on the other +hand, Scottish writers would be the last to assert, in their own case, a +complete absence of bias. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 30: Johnston: _Place-Names of Scotland_, p. 102.] + +[Footnote 31: Rev. Duncan MacGregor in _Scottish Church Society +Conferences_. Second Series, Vol. II, p. 23.] + +[Footnote 32: _Hist. Dun._ Rolls Series, i. 218.] + +[Footnote 33: Duncan was the grandson of Malcolm, and, by Pictish +custom, should not have succeeded. The "rightful" heir, an un-named +cousin of Malcolm, was murdered, and his sister, Gruoch, who married the +Mormaor of Moray, left a son, Lulach, who thus represented a rival line, +whose claims may be connected with some of the Highland risings against +the descendants of Duncan.] + + + + +CHAPTER II + +SCOTLAND AND THE NORMANS + +1066-1286 + + +The Norman Conquest of England could not fail to modify the position of +Scotland. Just as the Roman and the Saxon conquests had, in turn, driven +the Brythons northwards, so the dispossessed Saxons fled to Scotland +from their Norman victors. The result was considerably to alter the +ecclesiastical arrangements of the country, and to help its advance +towards civilization. The proportion of Anglo-Saxons to the races who +are known as Celts must also have been increased; but a complete +de-Celticization of Southern Scotland could not, and did not, follow. +The failure of William's conquest to include the Northern counties of +England left Northumbria an easy prey to the Scottish king, and the +marriage of Malcolm III, known as Canmore, to Margaret, the sister of +Edgar the AEtheling, gave her husband an excuse for interference in +England. We, accordingly, find a long series of raids over the border, +of which only five possess any importance. In 1069-70, Malcolm (who had, +even in the Confessor's time, been in Northumberland with hostile +intent) conducted an invasion in the interests of his brother-in-law. +It is probable that this movement was intended to coincide with the +arrival of the Danish fleet a few months earlier. But Malcolm was too +late; the Danes had gone home, and, in the interval, William had himself +superintended the great harrying of the North which made Malcolm's +subsequent efforts somewhat unnecessary. The invasion is important only +as having provoked the counter-attack of the Conqueror, which led to the +renewal of the supremacy controversy. William marched into Scotland and +crossed the Forth (the first English king to do so since the unfortunate +Egfrith, who fell at Nectansmere in 685). At Abernethy, on the banks of +the Tay, Malcolm and William met, and the English Chronicle, as usual, +informs us that the King of Scots became the "man" of the English king. +But as Malcolm received from William twelve _villae_ in England, it is, +at least, doubtful whether Malcolm paid homage for these alone or also +for Lothian and Cumbria, or for either of them. There is, at all events, +no question about the _villae_. Scottish historians have not failed to +point out that the value of the homage, for whatever it was given, is +sufficiently indicated by Malcolm's dealings with Gospatric of +Northumberland, whom William dismissed as a traitor and rebel. Within +about six months of the Abernethy meeting, Malcolm gave Gospatric the +earldom of Dunbar, and he became the founder of the great house of +March. No further invasion took place till 1079, when Malcolm took +advantage of William's Norman difficulties to make another harrying +expedition, which afforded the occasion for the building of +Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The accession of Rufus and his difficulties with +Robert of Normandy led, in 1091, to a somewhat belated attempt by +Malcolm to support the claims of the AEtheling by a third invasion, and, +in the following year, peace was made. Rufus confirmed to Malcolm the +grant of twelve _villae_, and Malcolm in turn gave the English king such +homage as he had given to his father. What this vague statement meant, +it was reserved for the Bruce to determine, and the Bruces had, as yet, +not one foot of Scottish soil. The agreement made in 1092 did not +prevent Rufus from completing his father's work by the conquest of +Cumberland, to which the Scots had claims. Malcolm's indignation and +William's illness led to a famous meeting at Gloucester, whence Malcolm +withdrew in great wrath, declining to be treated as a vassal of England. +The customary invasion followed, with the result that Malcolm was slain +at Alnwick in November, 1093. + +But the great effects of the Norman Conquest, as regards Scotland, are +not connected with strictly international affairs. They are partially +racial, and, in other respects, may be described as personal. It is +unquestionable that there was an immigration of the Northumbrian +population into Scotland; but the Northumbrian population were +Anglo-Danish, and the north of England was not thickly populated. When +William the Conqueror ravaged the northern counties with fire and sword, +a considerable proportion of the population must have perished. The +actual infusion of English blood may thus be exaggerated; but the +introduction of English influences cannot be questioned. These +influences were mainly due to the personality of Malcolm's second wife, +the Saxon princess, Margaret. The queen was a woman of considerable +mental power, and possessed a great influence over her strong-headed and +hot-tempered husband. She was a devout churchwoman, and she immediately +directed her energies to the task of bringing the Scottish church into +closer communion with the Roman. The changes were slight in themselves; +all that we know of them is an alteration in the beginning of Lent, the +proper observance of Easter and of Sunday, and a question, still +disputed, about the tonsure. But, slight as they were, they stood for +much. They involved the abandonment of the separate position held by the +Scottish Church, and its acceptance of a place as an integral portion of +Roman Christianity. The result was to make the Papacy, for the first +time, an important factor in Scottish affairs, and to bridge the gulf +that divided Scotland from Continental Europe. We soon find Scottish +churchmen seeking learning in France, and bringing into Scotland those +French influences which were destined seriously to affect the +civilization of the country. But, above all, these Roman changes were +important just because they were Anglican--introduced by an English +queen, carried out by English clerics, emanating from a court which was +rapidly becoming English. Malcolm's subjects thenceforth began to adopt +English customs and the English tongue, which spread from the court of +Queen Margaret. The colony of English refugees represented a higher +civilization and a more advanced state of commerce than the Scottish +Celts, and the English language, from this cause also, made rapid +progress. For about twenty-five years Margaret exercised the most potent +influence in her husband's kingdom, and, when she died, her reputation +as a saint and her subsequent canonization maintained and supported the +traditions she had created. Not only did she have on her side the power +of a court and the prestige of courtly etiquette, but, as we have said, +she represented a higher civilizing force than that which was opposed to +her, and hence the greatness of her victory. It must, however, be +remembered that the spread of the English language in Scotland does not +necessarily imply the predominance of English blood. It means rather the +growth of English commerce. We can trace the adoption of English along +the seaboard, and in the towns, while Gaelic still remained the +language of the countryman. There is no evidence of any English +immigration of sufficient proportions to overwhelm the Gaelic +population. Like the victory of the conquered English over the +conquering Normans, which was even then making fast progress in England, +it is a triumph of a kind that subsequent events have revealed as +characteristically Anglo-Saxon, and it called into force the powers of +adaptation and of colonization which have brought into being so great an +English-speaking world. + +Malcolm's reign ended in defeat and failure; his wife died of grief, and +the opportunity presented itself of a Celtic reaction against the +Anglicization of the reign of Malcolm III. The throne was seized by +Malcolm's brother, Donald Bane. Malcolm's eldest son, Duncan, whose +mother, Ingibjorg, had been a Dane, received assistance from Rufus, and +drove Donald Bane, after a reign of six months, into the distant North. +But after about six months he himself was slain in a small fight with +the Mormaer or Earl of the Mearns, and Donald Bane continued to reign +for about three years, in conjunction with Edmund, a son of Malcolm and +Margaret. But in 1097, Edgar, a younger brother of Edmund, again +obtained the help of Rufus and secured the throne. The reign of Edgar is +important in two respects. It put an end to the Celtic revival, and +reproduced the conditions of the time of Malcolm and Margaret. +Henceforward Celtic efforts were impossible except in the Highlands, and +the Celts of the Lowlands resigned themselves to the process of +Anglicization imposed upon them alike by ecclesiastical, political, and +commercial circumstances. It saw also the beginning of an influence +which was to prove scarcely less fruitful in results than the +Anglo-Saxon triumph of which we have spoken. In November, 1100, Edgar's +sister, Matilda, was married to the Norman King of England, Henry I, and +two years later, another sister, Mary, was married to Eustace, Count of +Boulogne, the son of the future King Stephen. These unions, with a son +and a grandson respectively of William the Conqueror, prepared the way +for the Norman Conquest of Scotland. Edgar died in January, 1106-7, and +his brother and successor, Alexander I, espoused an Anglo-Norman, +Sybilla, who is generally supposed to have been a natural daughter of +Henry I. On the death of Alexander, in 1124, these Norman influences +acquired a new importance under his brother David, the youngest son of +Malcolm and Margaret. During the troubles which followed his father's +death, David had been educated in England, and after the marriage of +Henry I and Matilda, had resided at the court of his brother-in-law, +till the death of Edgar, when he became ruler of Cumbria and the +southern portion of Lothian. He had married, in 1113-14, the daughter +and heiress of Waltheof, Earl of Huntingdon, who was also the widow of a +Norman baron. In this way the earldom of Huntingdon became attached to +the Scottish throne, and afforded an occasion for reviving the old +question of homage. Moreover, Waltheof of Huntingdon was the son of +Siward of Northumbria, and David regarded himself as, on this account, +possessing claims over Northumbria. + +David, as we have seen, had been brought up under Norman influences, and +it is under the son of the Saxon Margaret that the bloodless Norman +conquest of Scotland took place. Edgar had recognized the new English +nobility and settlers by addressing charters to all in his kingdom, +"both Scots and English"; his brother, David, speaks of "French and +English, Scots and Galwegians". The charters are, of course, addressed +to barons and land-owners, and their evidence refers to the English and +Anglo-Norman nobility. The Norman fascination, which had been turned to +such good account in England, in Italy, and in the Holy Land, had +completely vanquished such English prepossessions as David might have +inherited from his mother. Normans, like the Bruces and the Fitzalans +(afterwards the Stewarts), came to David's court and received from him +grants of land. The number of Norman signatures that attest his charters +show that his _entourage_ was mainly Norman. He was a very devout +Church-man (a "sair sanct for the Crown" as James VI called him), and +Norman prelate and Norman abbot helped to increase the total of Norman +influence. He transformed Scotland into a feudal country, gave grants of +land by feudal tenure, summoned a great council on the feudal principle, +and attempted to create such a monarchy as that of which Henry I was +laying the foundations. There can be little doubt that this strong +Norman influence helped to prepare the Scottish people for the French +alliance; but its more immediate effect was to bring about the existence +of an anti-national nobility. These great Norman names were to become +great in Scottish story; but it required a long process to make their +bearers, in any sense, Scotsmen. Most of them had come from England, +many of them held lands in England, and none of them could be expected +to feel any real difference between themselves and their English +fellows. + +During the reign of Henry I, Anglo-Norman influences thus worked a great +change in Scotland. On Henry's death, David, as the uncle of the Empress +Matilda, immediately took up arms on her behalf. Stephen, with the +wisdom which characterized the beginning of his reign, came to terms +with him at Durham. David did not personally acknowledge the usurper, +but his son, Henry, did him homage for Huntingdon and some possessions +in the north (1136). In the following year, David claimed +Northumberland for Henry as the representative of Siward, and, on +Stephen's refusal, again adopted the cause of the empress. The usual +invasion of England followed, and after some months of ravaging, a short +truce, and a slight Scottish victory gained at Clitheroe on the Ribble, +in June, 1138, the final result was David's great defeat in the battle +of the Standard, fought near Northallerton on the 22nd August, 1138. + +The battle of the Standard possesses no special interest for students of +the art of war. The English army, under William of Albemarle and Walter +l'Espec, was drawn up in one line of battle, consisting of knights in +coats of mail, archers, and spearmen. The Scots were in four divisions; +the van was composed of the Picts of Galloway, the right wing was led by +Prince Henry, and the men of Lothian were on the left. Behind fought +King David, with the men of Moray. The Galwegians made several +unsuccessful attempts upon the English centre. Prince Henry led his +horse through the English left wing, but the infantry failed to follow, +and the prince lost his advantage by a premature attempt to plunder. The +Scottish right made a pusillanimous attempt on the English left, and the +reserve began to desert King David, who collected the remnants of his +army and retired in safety to a height above Cowton Moor, the scene of +the fight. Prince Henry was left surrounded by the enemy, but saved the +position by a clever stratagem, and rejoined his father. Mr. Oman +remarks that the battle was "of a very abnormal type for the twelfth +century, since the side which had the advantage in cavalry made no +attempt to use it, while that which was weak in the all-important arm +made a creditable attempt to turn it to account by breaking into the +hostile flank.... Wild rushes of unmailed clansmen against a steady +front of spears and bows never succeeded; in this respect Northallerton +is the forerunner of Dupplin, Halidon Hill, Flodden, and Pinkie."[34] +The chief interest, for our purpose, attaching to the battle of the +Standard, is connected with the light it throws upon the racial +complexion of the country seventy years after the Norman Conquest. Our +chief authorities are the Hexham chroniclers and Ailred of Rivaulx[35], +English writers of the twelfth century. They speak of David's host as +composed of Angli, Picti, and Scoti. The Angli alone contained mailed +knights in their ranks, and David's first intention was to send these +mail-clad warriors against the English, while the Picts and Scots were +to follow with sword and targe. The Galwegians and the Scots from beyond +Forth strongly opposed this arrangement, and assured the king that his +unarmed Highlanders would fight better than "these Frenchmen". The king +gave the place of honour to the Galwegians, and altered his whole plan +of battle. The whole context, and the Earl of Strathern's sneer at +"these Frenchmen", would seem to show that the "Angli" are, at all +events, clearly distinguished from the Picts of Galloway and the Scots +who, like Malise of Strathern, came from beyond the Forth. It is +probable that the "Angli" were the men of Lothian; but it must also be +recollected both that the term included the Anglo-Norman nobility +("these Frenchman") and the English settlers who had followed Queen +Margaret, and that David was fighting in an English quarrel and in the +interests of an English queen. The knights who wore coats of mail were +entirely Anglo-Norman, and it is against them that the claim of the +Highlanders is particularly directed. When Richard of Hexham tells us +that Angles, Scots, and Picts fell out by the way, as they returned +home, he means to contrast the men of Lothian and the new Anglo-Norman +nobility with the Picts of Galloway and the Highlanders from north of +the Forth, and this unusual application of the term _Angli_, to a +portion of the Scottish army, is an indication, not that the Lowlanders +were entirely English, but that there was a strong jealousy between the +Scots and the new English nobility. The "Angli" are, above all others, +the knights in mail.[36] + +It is not possible to credit David with any real affection for the +cause of the empress or with any higher motive than selfish greed, and +it can scarcely be claimed that he kept faith with Stephen. Such, +however, were the difficulties of the English king, that, in spite of +his crushing defeat, David reaped the advantages of victory. Peace was +made in April, 1139, by the Treaty of Durham, which secured to Prince +Henry the earldom of Northumberland, as an English fief. The Scottish +border line, which had successively enclosed Strathclyde and part of +Cumberland, and the Lothians, now extended to the Tees. David gave +Stephen some assistance in 1139, but on the victory of the Empress +Maud[37] at Lincoln, in 1141, David deserted the captive king, and was +present, on the empress's side, at her defeat at Winchester, in 1141. +Eight years later he entered into an agreement with the claimant, Henry +Fitz-Empress, afterwards Henry II, by which the eldest son of the +Scottish king was to retain his English fiefs, and David was to aid +Henry against Stephen. An unsuccessful attempt on England followed--the +last of David's numerous invasions. When he died, in 1153, he left +Scotland in a position of power with regard to England such as she was +never again to occupy. The religious devotion which secured for him a +popular canonization (he was never actually canonized) can scarcely +justify his conduct to Stephen. But it must be recollected that, +throughout his reign, there is comparatively little racial antagonism +between the two countries. David interfered in an English civil war, and +took part, now on one side, and now on the other. But the whole effect +of his life was to bring the nations more closely together through the +Norman influences which he encouraged in Scotland. His son and heir held +great fiefs in England,[38] and he granted tracts of land to +Anglo-Norman nobles. A Bruce and a Balliol, who each held possessions +both in Scotland and in England, tried to prevent the battle of the +Standard. Their well-meant efforts proved fruitless; but the fact is +notable and significant. + +David's eldest son, the gallant Prince Henry, who had led the wild +charge at Northallerton, predeceased his father in 1152. He left three +sons, of whom the two elder, Malcolm and William, became successively +kings of Scotland, while from the youngest, David, Earl of Huntingdon, +were descended the claimants at the first Inter-regnum. It was the fate +of Scotland, as so often again, to be governed by a child; and a strong +king, Henry II, was now on the throne of England. As David I had taken +advantage of the weakness of Stephen, so now did Henry II benefit by the +youth of Malcolm IV. In spite of the agreement into which Henry had +entered with David in 1149, he, in 1157, obtained from Malcolm, then +fourteen years of age, the resignation of his claims upon +Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. In return for this, +Malcolm received a confirmation of the earldom of Huntingdon (cf. p. +18). The abandonment of the northern claims seems to have led to a +quarrel, for Henry refused to knight the Scots king; but, in the +following year, Malcolm accompanied Henry in his expedition to Toulouse, +and received his knighthood at Henry's hands. Malcolm's subsequent +troubles were connected with rebellions in Moray and in Galloway against +the new _regime_, and with the ambition of Somerled, the ruler of +Argyll, and of the still independent western islands. The only occasion +on which he again entered into relations with England was in 1163, when +he met Henry at Woodstock and did homage to his eldest son, who became +known as Henry III, although he never actually reigned. As usual, there +is no statement precisely defining the homage; it must not be forgotten +that the King of Scots was also Earl of Huntingdon. + +Malcolm died in 1165, and was succeeded by his brother, William the +Lion, who reigned for nearly fifty years. Henry was now in the midst of +his great struggle with the Church, but William made no attempt to use +the opportunity. He accepted the earldom of Huntingdon from Henry, and +in 1170, when the younger Henry was crowned in Becket's despite, William +took the oath of fealty to him as Earl of Huntingdon. But in 1173-74, +when the English king's ungrateful son organized a baronial revolt, +William decided that his chance had come. His grandfather, David, had +made him Earl of Northumberland, and the resignation which Henry had +extorted from the weakness of Malcolm IV could scarcely be held as +binding upon William. So William marched into England to aid the rebel +prince, and, after some skirmishes and the usual ravaging, was surprised +while tilting near Alnwick, and made a captive. He was conveyed to the +castle of Falaise in Normandy, and there, on December 8th, 1174, as a +condition of his release, he signed the Treaty of Falaise, which +rendered the kingdom of Scotland, for fifteen years, unquestionably the +vassal of England.[39] The treaty acknowledged Henry II as overlord of +Scotland, and expressly stated the dependence of the Scottish Church +upon that of England. The relations of the churches had been an +additional cause of difficulty since the time of St. Margaret, and the +present arrangement was in no sense final. A papal legate held a council +in Edinburgh in 1177, and ten years afterwards Pope Clement III took the +Scottish Church directly under his own protection. + +About the political relationship there could be no such doubt. William +stood, theoretically, if not actually, in much the same position to +Henry II, as John Baliol afterwards occupied to Edward I. It was not +till the accession of Richard I that William recovered his freedom. The +castles in the south of Scotland which had been delivered to the English +were restored, and the independence of Scotland was admitted, on +William's paying Richard the sum of 10,000 marks. This agreement, dated +December, 1189, annulled the terms of the Treaty of Falaise, and left +the position of William the Lion exactly what it had been at the death +of Malcolm IV. He remained liegeman for such lands as the Scottish kings +had, in times past, done homage to England. The agreement with Richard I +is certainly not incompatible with the Scottish position that the +homage, before the Treaty of Falaise, applied only to the earldom of +Huntingdon; but the usual vagueness was maintained, and the arrangement +in no way determines the question of the homage paid by the earlier +Scottish kings. For a hundred years after this date, the two countries +were never at war. William had difficulties with John; in 1209, an +outbreak of hostilities seemed almost certain, but the two kings came to +terms. The long reign of William came to an end in 1214. His son and +successor, Alexander II, joined the French party in England which was +defeated at Lincoln in 1216. Alexander made peace with the regent, +resigned all claims to Northumberland, and did homage for his English +possessions--the most important of which was the earldom of Huntingdon, +which had, since 1190, been held by his uncle, David, known as David of +Huntingdon. In 1221, he married Joanna, sister of Henry III. Another +marriage, negotiated at the same time, was probably of more real +importance. Margaret, the eldest daughter of William the Lion, became +the wife of the Justiciar of England, Hubert de Burgh. Mr. Hume Brown +has pointed out that immediately on the fall of Hubert de Burgh, a +dispute arose between Henry and Alexander. The English king desired +Alexander to acknowledge the Treaty of Falaise, and this Alexander +refused to do. The agreement, which averted an appeal to the sword, was, +on the whole, favourable to Scotland. Nothing was said about homage for +this kingdom. David of Huntingdon had died in 1119, and Alexander gave +up the southern earldom, but received a fief in the northern counties, +always coveted of the kings of Scotland. This arrangement is known as +the Treaty of York (1236). Some trifling incidents and the second +marriage of Alexander, which brought Scotland into closer touch with +France (he married Marie, daughter of Enguerand de Coucy), nearly +provoked a rupture in 1242, but the domestic troubles of Henry and +Alexander alike prevented any breach of the long peace which had +subsisted since the capture of William the Lion. In 1249, the Scottish +king died, and his son and successor,[40] Alexander III, was knighted by +Henry of England, and, in 1251, married Margaret, Henry's eldest +daughter. The relations of Alexander to Henry III and to Edward I will +be narrated in the following chapter. Not once throughout his reign was +any blood spilt in an English quarrel, and the story of his reign forms +no part of our subject. Its most interesting event is the battle of +Largs. The Scottish kings had, for some time, been attempting to annex +the islands, and, in 1263, Hakon of Norway invaded Scotland as a +retributive measure. He was defeated at the battle of Largs, and, in +1266, the Isles were annexed to the Scottish crown. The fact that this +forcible annexation took place, after a struggle, only twenty years +before the death of Alexander III, must be borne in mind in connection +with the part played by the Islanders in the War of Independence. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 34: _Art of War in the Middle Ages_, p. 391.] + +[Footnote 35: Cf. App. A.] + +[Footnote 36: In the final order of battle, David seems to have +attempted to bring all classes of his subjects together, and the +divisions have a political as well as a military purpose. The right wing +contained Anglo-Norman knights and men from Strathclyde and Teviotdale, +the left wing men from Lothian and Highlanders from Argyll and the +islands, and King David's reserve was composed of more knights along +with men from Moray and the region north of the Forth.] + +[Footnote 37: The Empress Maud, daughter of Henry I, and niece of David, +must be carefully distinguished from Queen Maud, wife of Stephen, and +cousin of David, who negotiated the Treaty of Durham.] + +[Footnote 38: Ailred credits Bruce with a long speech, in which he tries +to convince David that his real friends are not his Scottish subjects, +but his Anglo-Norman favourites, and that, accordingly, he should keep +on good terms with the English.] + +[Footnote 39: William's English earldom of Huntingdon, which had been +forfeited, was restored, in 1185, and was conferred by William upon his +brother, David, the ancestor of the claimants of 1290.] + +[Footnote 40: As Alexander III was the last king of Scotland who ruled +before the War of Independence, it is interesting to note that he was +crowned at Scone with the ancient ceremonies, and as the representative +of the Celtic kings of Scotland. Fordun tells us that the coronation +took place on the sacred stone at Scone, on which all Scottish kings had +sat, and that a Highlander appeared and read Alexander's Celtic +genealogy (Annals XLVIII. Cf. App. A). There is no indication that +Alexander's subjects, from the Forth to the Moray Firth, were "stout +Northumbrian Englishmen", who had, for no good reason, drifted away from +their English countrymen, to unite them with whom Edward I waged his +Scottish wars.] + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE SCOTTISH POLICY OF EDWARD I + +1286-1296 + + +When Alexander III was killed, on the 19th March, 1285-86, the relations +between England and Scotland were such that Edward I was amply justified +in looking forward to a permanent union. Since the ill-fated invasion of +William the Lion in 1174, there had been no serious warfare between the +two countries, and in recent years they had become more and more +friendly in their dealings with each other. The late king had married +Edward's sister, Margaret, and the child-queen was her grand-daughter; +Alexander and Margaret had been present at the English King's coronation +in 1274; and, in addition to these personal connections, Scotland had +found England a friend in its great final struggle with the Danes. The +misfortunes which had overtaken Scotland in the premature deaths[41] of +Alexander and his three children might yet prove a very real blessing, +if they prepared the way for the creation of a great island kingdom, +which should be at once free and united. The little Margaret, the Maid +of Norway, Edward's grand-niece, had been acknowledged heir to the +throne of her grandfather, in February, 1283-84, and on his death her +succession was admitted. The Great Council met at Scone in April, 1286, +and appointed six Guardians of the Kingdom. It was no easy task which +was entrusted to them, for the claim of a child and a foreigner could +not but be disputed by the barons who stood nearest to the throne. The +only rival who attempted to rebel was Robert Bruce of Annandale, who had +been promised the succession by Alexander II, and had been disappointed +of the fulfilment of his hopes by the birth of the late king in 1241. +The deaths of two of the guardians added to the difficulties of the +situation, and it was with something like relief that the Scots heard +that Eric of Norway, the father of their queen, wished to come to an +arrangement with Edward of England, in whose power he lay. The result of +Eric's negotiations with Edward was that a conference met at Salisbury +in 1289, and was attended, on Edward's invitation, by four Scottish +representatives, who included Robert Bruce and three of the guardians. +Such were the troubles of the country that the Scots willingly acceded +to Edward's proposals, which gave him an interest in the government of +Scotland, and they heard with delight that he contemplated the marriage +of their little queen to his son Edward, then two years of age. The +English king was assured of the satisfaction which such a marriage would +give to Scotland, and the result was that, by the Treaty of Brigham, in +1290, the marriage was duly arranged. Edward had previously obtained the +necessary dispensation from the pope. + +The eagerness with which the Scots welcomed the proposal of marriage was +sufficient evidence that the time had come for carrying out Edward's +statesmanlike scheme, but the conditions which were annexed to it should +have warned him that there were limits to the Scottish compliance with +his wishes. Scotland was not in any way to be absorbed by England, +although the crowns would be united in the persons of Edward and +Margaret. Edward wisely made no attempt to force Scotland into any more +complete union, although he could not but expect that the union of the +crowns would prepare the way for a union of the kingdoms. He certainly +interpreted in the widest sense the rights given him by the treaty of +Brigham, but when the Scots objected to his demand that all Scottish +castles should be placed in his power, he gave way without rousing +further suspicion or indignation. Hitherto, his policy had been +characterized by the great sagacity which he had shown in his conduct of +English affairs; it is impossible to refuse either to sympathize with +his ideals or to admire the tact he displayed in his negotiations with +Scotland. His considerateness extended even to the little Maid of +Norway, for whose benefit he victualled, with raisins and other fruit, +the "large ship" which he sent to conduct her to England. But the large +ship returned to England with a message from King Eric that he would not +entrust his daughter to an English vessel. The patient Edward sent it +back again, and it was probably in it that the child set sail in +September, 1290. Some weeks later, Bishop Fraser of St. Andrews, one of +the guardians, and a supporter of the English interest, wrote to Edward +that he had heard a "sorrowful rumour" regarding the queen.[42] The +rumour proved to be well-founded; in circumstances which are unknown to +us, the poor girl-queen died on her voyage, and her death proved a fatal +blow to the work on which Edward had been engaged for the last four +years. + +Of the thirteen[43] competitors who put forward claims to the crown, +only three need be here mentioned. They were each descended from David, +Earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion and grandson of David I. +The claimant who, according to the strict rules of primogeniture, had +the best right was John Balliol, the grandson of Margaret, the eldest +daughter of Earl David. His most formidable opponent was Robert Bruce of +Annandale, the son of Earl David's second daughter, Isabella, who based +his candidature on the fact that he was the grandson, whereas Balliol +was the great-grandson, of the Earl of Huntingdon, through whom both the +rivals claimed. The third, John Hastings, was the grandson of David's +youngest daughter, Ada. Bishop Fraser, in the letter to which we have +already referred, urged Edward I to interfere in favour of John Balliol, +who might be employed to further English interests in Scotland. The +English king thereupon decided to put forward a definite claim to be +lord paramount, and, in virtue of that right, to decide the disputed +succession. + +Since Richard I had restored his independence to William the Lion, in +1189, the question of the overlordship had lain almost entirely dormant. +On John's succession, William had done homage "saving his own right", +but whether the homage was for Scotland or solely for his English fiefs +was not clear. His successor, Alexander II, aided Louis of France +against the infant Henry III, and, after the battle of Lincoln, came to +an agreement with the regent, by which he did homage to Henry III, but +only for the earldom of Huntingdon and his other possessions in Henry's +kingdom. After the fall of Hubert de Burgh, Henry used his influence +with Pope Gregory IX, who looked upon the English king as a valuable +ally in the great struggle with Frederick II, to persuade the pope to +order the King of Scots to acknowledge Henry as his overlord (1234). +Alexander refused to comply with the papal injunction, and the matter +was not definitely settled. Henry made no attempt to enforce his claim, +and merely came to an agreement with Alexander regarding the English +possessions of the Scottish king (1236). During the minority of +Alexander III, when Henry was, for two years, the real ruler of Scotland +(1255-1257), he described himself not as lord paramount, but as chief +adviser of the Scottish king. Lastly, when, in 1278, Alexander III took +a solemn oath of homage to Edward at Westminster, he, according to the +Scottish account of the affair, made an equally solemn avowal that to +God alone was his homage due for the kingdom of Scotland, and Edward had +accepted the homage thus rendered. + +It is thus clear that Edward regarded the claim of the overlordship as a +"trump card" to be played only in special circumstances, and these +appeared now to have arisen. The death of the Maid of Norway had +deprived him of his right to interfere in the affairs of Scotland, and +had destroyed his hopes of a marriage alliance. It seemed to him that +all hope of carrying out his Scottish policy had vanished, unless he +could take advantage of the helpless condition of the country to obtain +a full and final recognition of a claim which had been denied for +exactly a hundred years. At first it seemed as if the scheme were to +prove satisfactory. The Norman nobles who claimed the throne declared, +after some hesitation, their willingness to acknowledge Edward's claim +to be lord paramount, and the English king was therefore arbiter of the +situation. He now obtained what he had asked in vain in the preceding +year--the delivery into English hands of all Scottish strongholds (June, +1291). Edward delayed his decision till the 17th November, 1292, when, +after much disputation regarding legal precedents, and many +consultations with Scottish commissioners and the English Parliament, he +finally adjudged the crown to John Balliol. It cannot be argued that the +decision was unfair; but Edward was fortunate in finding that the +candidate whose hereditary claim was strongest was also the man most +fitted to occupy the position of a vassal king. The new monarch made a +full and indisputable acknowledgment of his position as Edward's liege, +and the great seal of the kingdom of Scotland was publicly destroyed in +token of the position of vassalage in which the country now stood. Of +what followed it is difficult to speak with any certainty. Balliol +occupied the throne for three and a half years, and was engaged, during +the whole of that period, in disputes with his superior. The details +need not detain us. Edward claimed to be final judge in all Scottish +cases; he summoned Balliol to his court to plead against one of the +Scottish king's own vassals, and to receive instructions with regard to +the raising of money for Edward's needs. It may fairly be said that +Edward's treatment of Balliol does give grounds for the view of Scottish +historians that the English king was determined, from the first, to goad +his wretched vassal into rebellion in order to give him an opportunity +of absorbing the country in his English kingdom. On the other hand, it +may be argued that, if this was Edward's aim, he was singularly +unfortunate in the time he chose for forcing a crisis. He was at war +with Philip IV of France; Madoc was raising his Welsh rebellion; and +Edward's seizure of wool had created much indignation among his own +subjects. However this may be, it is certain that Balliol, rankling with +a sense of injustice caused by the ignominy which Edward had heaped upon +him, and rendered desperate by the complaints of his own subjects, +decided, by the advice of the Great Council, to disown his allegiance to +the King of England, and to enter upon an alliance with France. It is +noteworthy that the policy of the French alliance, as an anti-English +movement, which became the watchword of the patriotic party in Scotland, +was inaugurated by John Balliol. The Scots commenced hostilities by some +predatory incursions into the northern counties of England in 1295-96. + +Whether or not Edward was waiting for the opportunity thus given him, he +certainly took full advantage of it. Undisturbed by his numerous +difficulties, he marched northwards to the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed. +Tradition tells that he was exasperated by insults showered upon him by +the inhabitants, but the story cannot go far to excuse the massacre +which followed the capture of the town. After more than a century of +peace, the first important act of war was marked by a brutality which +was a fitting prelude to more than two centuries of fierce and bloody +fighting. On Edward's policy of "Thorough," as exemplified at Berwick, +must rest, to some extent, the responsibility for the unnecessary +ferocity which distinguished the Scottish War of Independence. It was, +from a military stand-point, a complete and immediate success; +politically, it was unquestionably a failure. From Berwick-on-Tweed +Edward marched to Dunbar, cheered by the formal announcement of +Balliol's renunciation of his allegiance. He easily defeated the Scots +at Dunbar, in April, 1296, and continued an undisturbed progress through +Scotland, the castles of Dunbar, Roxburgh, Edinburgh, and Stirling +falling into his hands. Balliol determined to submit, and, on the 7th +July, 1296, he met Edward in the churchyard of Stracathro, near Brechin, +and formally resigned his office into the hands of his overlord. Balliol +was imprisoned in England for three years, but, in July, 1299, he was +permitted to go to his estate of Bailleul, in Normandy, where he +survived till April, 1313. + +Edward now treated Scotland as a conquered country under his own +immediate rule. He continued his progress, by Aberdeen, Banff, and +Cullen, to Elgin, whence, in July, 1296, he marched southwards by Scone, +whence he carried off the Stone of Fate, which is now part of the +Coronation Chair in Westminster Abbey. He also despoiled Scotland of +many of its early records, which might serve to remind his new subjects +of their forfeited independence. He did not at once determine the new +constitution of the country, but left it under a military occupation, +with John de Warrenne, Earl of Surrey, as Governor, Hugh de Cressingham +as Treasurer, and William Ormsby as Justiciar. All castles and other +strong places were in English hands, and Edward regarded his conquest as +assured. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 41: David, the youngest child of Alexander and Margaret of +England, died in June, 1281; Alexander, his older brother, in January, +1283-84; and their sister, Margaret, Queen of Norway, in April, 1283. +Neither Alexander nor David left any issue, and the little daughter of +the Queen of Norway was only about three years old when her grandfather, +Alexander III, was killed.] + +[Footnote 42: Nat. MSS. i. 36, No. LXX.] + +[Footnote 43: Cf. Table, App. C.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE + +1297-1328 + + +Edward I had failed to recognize the difference between the Scottish +barons and the Scottish people, to which we have referred in a former +chapter. To the Norman baron, who possessed lands in England and +Scotland alike, it mattered little that he had now but one liege lord +instead of two suzerains. To the people of Scotland, proud and +high-spirited, tenacious of their long traditions of independence, +resentful of the presence of foreigners, it could not but be hateful to +find their country governed by a foreign soldiery. The conduct of +Edward's officials, and especially of Cressingham and Ormsby, and the +cruelty of the English garrisons, served to strengthen this national +feeling, and it only remained for it to find a leader round whom it +might rally.[44] A leader arose in the person of Sir William Wallace, a +heroic and somewhat mysterious figure, who first attracted notice in +the autumn of 1296, and, by the spring of the following year, had +gathered round him a band of guerilla warriors, by whose help he was +able to make serious attacks upon the English garrisons of Lanark and +Scone (May, 1297). These exploits, of little importance in themselves, +sufficed to attract the popular feeling towards Wallace. The domestic +difficulties of Edward I rendered the time opportune for a rising, and, +despite the failure of an ill-conceived and badly-managed attempt on the +part of some of the more patriotic barons, which led to the submission +of Irvine, in 1297, the little army which Wallace had collected rapidly +grew in courage and in numbers, and its leader laid siege to the castle +of Dundee. He had now attained a position of such importance that Surrey +and Cressingham found it necessary to take strong measures against him, +and they assembled at Stirling, whither Wallace marched to meet them. +The battle of Stirling Bridge (or, more strictly, Cambuskenneth Bridge) +was fought on September 11th, 1297. Wallace, with his army of knights +and spearmen, took up his position on the Abbey Craig, with the Forth +between him and the English. Less than a mile from the Scottish camp was +a small bridge over the river, giving access to the Abbey of +Cambuskenneth. Surrey rashly attempted to cross this bridge, in the face +of the Scots, and Wallace, after a considerable number of the enemy had +been allowed to reach the northern bank, ordered an attack. The English +failed to keep the bridge, and their force became divided. Surrey was +unable to offer any assistance to his vanguard, and they fell an easy +prey to the Scots, while the English general, with the remnants of his +army, retreated to Berwick. + +Stirling was the great military key of the country, commanding all the +passes from south to north, and the great defeat which the English had +sustained placed the country in the power of Wallace. Along with an +Andrew de Moray, of whose identity we know nothing, he undertook the +government of the country, corresponded in the name of Scotland with +Luebeck and Hamburg, and took the offensive against England in an +expedition which ravaged as far south as Hexham. To the great monastery +of Hexham he granted protection in the name of "the leaders of the army +of Scotland",[45] although he was not successful in restraining the +ferocity of his followers. The document in question is granted in the +name of John, King of Scotland, and in a charter dated March 1298,[46] +Wallace describes himself as Guardian of the Kingdom of Scotland, acting +for the exiled Balliol. In the following summer, Edward marched into +Scotland, and although his forces were in serious difficulties from want +of food, he went forward to meet Wallace, who held a strong position at +Falkirk. Wallace prepared to meet Edward by drawing up his spearmen in +four great "schiltrons" or divisions, with a reserve of cavalry. His +flanks were protected by archers, and he had also placed archers between +the divisions of spearmen. On the English side, Edward himself commanded +the centre, the Earls of Norfolk and Hereford the right, and the Bishop +of Durham the left. The Scottish defeat was the result of a combination +of archers and cavalry. The first attack of the English horse was +completely repulsed by the spearmen. "The front ranks", says Mr. Oman, +"knelt with their spear-butts fixed in the earth; the rear ranks +levelled their lances over their comrades' heads; the thick-set grove of +twelve-foot spears was far too dense for the cavalry to penetrate." But +Edward withdrew the cavalry and ordered the archers to send a shower of +arrows on the Scots. Wallace's cavalry made no attempt to interfere with +the archers; the Scottish bowmen were too few to retaliate; and, when +the English horse next charged, they found many weak points in the +schiltrons, and broke up the Scottish host. + +As the battle of Stirling had created the power of Wallace, so that of +Falkirk completely destroyed it. He almost immediately resigned his +office of guardian (mainly, according to tradition, because of the +jealousy with which the great barons regarded him), and took refuge in +France. Edward was still in the midst of difficulties, both foreign and +domestic, and he was unable to reduce the country. The Scots elected new +guardians, who regarded themselves as regents, not for Edward but for +Balliol. They included John Comyn and Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, the +future king. The guardians were successful in persuading both Philip IV +of France and Pope Boniface VIII to intervene in their favour, but +Edward disregarded the papal interference, and though he was too busy to +complete his conquest, he sent an army into Scotland in each of the +years 1300, 1301, and 1302. Military operations were almost entirely +confined to ravaging; but, in February 1302-3, Comyn completely defeated +at Rosslyn, near Edinburgh, an English army under Sir John Segrave and +Ralph de Manton, whom Edward had ordered to make a foray in Scotland +about the beginning of Lent. In the summer of 1303, the English king, +roused perhaps by this small success, and able to give his undivided +attention to Scotland, conducted an invasion on a larger scale. In +September, he traversed the country as far north as Elgin, and, +remaining in Scotland during the winter of 1303-4, he set to work in the +spring to reduce the castle of Stirling, which still held out against +him. When the garrison surrendered, in July, 1304, Scotland lay at +Edward's feet. Comyn had already submitted to the English king, and +Edward's personal vindictiveness was satisfied by the capture of Wallace +by Sir John Menteith, a Scotsman who had been acting in the English +interest. Wallace was taken to London, subjected to a mock trial, +tortured, and put to death with ignominy. On the 23rd August, 1305, his +head was placed on London Bridge, and portions of his body were sent to +Scotland. His memory served as an inspiration for the cause of freedom, +and it is held in just reverence to the present hour. If it is true that +he did not scruple to go beyond what we should regard as the limits of +honourable warfare, it must be remembered that he was fighting an enemy +who had also disregarded these limits, and much may be forgiven to brave +men who are resisting a gratuitous war of conquest. When he died, his +work seemed to have failed. But he had shown his countrymen how to +resist Edward, and he had given sufficient evidence of the strength of +national feeling, if only it could find a suitable leader. The English +had to learn the lesson which, five centuries later, Napoleon had to +learn in Spain, and Scotland cannot forget that Wallace was the first to +teach it. + +It is not less pathetic to turn to Edward's scheme for the government of +Scotland. It bears the impress of a mind which was that of a statesman +and a lawyer as well as a soldier. It is impossible to deny a tribute of +admiration to its wisdom, or to question the probability of its success +in other circumstances. Had the course of events been more propitious +for Edward's great plan, Scotland and England might have been spared +much suffering. But Edward failed to realize that the Scots could no +longer regard him as the friend and ally to whose son they had willingly +agreed to marry their queen. He was now but a military conqueror in +temporary possession of their country, an enemy to be resisted by any +means. The new constitution was foredoomed to failure. Carrying out his +scheme of 1296, Edward created no vassal-king, but placed Scotland under +his own nephew, John of Brittany; he interfered as little as might be +with the customs and laws of the country; he placed over it eight +justiciars with sheriffs under them. In 1305, Edward's Parliament, which +met at London, was attended by Scottish representatives. The +incorporation of the country with its larger neighbour was complete, but +it involved as little change as was possible in the circumstances. + +The Parliament of 1305 was attended by Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, +who attended not as a representative of Scotland, but as an English +lord. Bruce was the grandson of the Robert Bruce of Annandale who had +been promised the crown by Alexander II, and who had been one of the +claimants of 1290. His grandfather had done homage to Edward, and Bruce +himself had been generally on the English side, and had fought against +Wallace at Falkirk. When John Balliol had decided to rebel, he had +transferred the lands of Annandale from the Bruces to the Comyns, and +they had been restored by Edward I after Balliol's submission. From 1299 +to 1303, Bruce had been associated with Comyn in the guardianship of the +kingdom, but, like Comyn, had submitted to Edward. Nobody in Scotland +could now think of a restoration of Balliol, and if there was to be a +Scottish king at all, it must obviously be either Comyn or Bruce. The +claim of John Comyn the younger was much stronger than that of his +father had been. The elder Comyn had claimed on account of his descent +from Donald Bane, the brother and successor of Malcolm Canmore; but the +younger Comyn had an additional claim in right of his mother, who was a +sister of John Balliol. Between Bruce and Comyn there was a +long-standing feud. In 1299, at a meeting of the Great Council of +Scotland at Peebles, Comyn had attacked Bruce, and they could only be +separated by the use of violence. On the 10th February, 1305-6, Bruce +and the Comyn met in the church of the convent of the Minorite Friars at +Dumfries. Tradition tells that they met to adjust their conflicting +claims, with a view to establishing the independence of the country in +the person of one or other of the rivals; that a dispute arose in which +they came to blows; and that Bruce, after inflicting a severe wound upon +his enemy, left the church. "I doubt I have slain the Red Comyn," he +said to his followers. "Doubt?" was the reply of Sir Roger Fitzpatrick, +"I'll mak siccar." The actual circumstances of the affair are unknown to +us; but Bruce may fairly be relieved of the suspicion of any +premeditation, because it is most unlikely that he would have needlessly +chosen to offend the Church by committing a murder within sanctuary. The +real interest attaching to the circumstances lies in the tradition that +the object of the meeting was to organize a resistance against Edward I. +Whether this was so or not, there can be no doubt that the result of the +conference compelled the Bruce to place himself at the head of the +national cause. A Norman baron, born in England, he was by no means the +natural leader for whose appearance men looked, and there was a grave +chance of his failing to arouse the national sentiment. But the murder +of one claimant to the Scottish throne at the hands of the only other +possible candidate, who thus placed himself in the position of undoubted +heir, could scarcely have been forgiven by Edward I, even if the Comyn +had not, for the past two years, proved a faithful servant of the +English king. There was no alternative, and, on the 27th March, 1306, +Robert, Earl of Carrick and Lord of Annandale, was crowned King of the +Scots at Scone. The ancient royal crown of the Scottish kings had been +removed by Balliol in 1296, and had fallen into the hands of Edward, but +the Countess of Buchan placed on the Bruce's head a hastily made coronet +of gold. + +It was far from an auspicious beginning. It is difficult to give Bruce +credit for much patriotic feeling, although, as we have seen, he had +been one of the guardians who had maintained a semblance of +independence. The death of the Comyn had thrown against him the whole +influence of the Church; he was excommunicate, and it was no sin to slay +him. The powerful family, whose head had been cut off by his hand, had +vowed revenge, and its great influence was on the side of the English. +It is no small tribute to the force of the sentiment of nationality that +the Scots rallied round such a leader, and it must be remembered that, +from whatever reason the Bruce adopted the national cause, he proved in +every respect worthy of a great occasion, and as time passed, he came to +deserve the place he occupies as the hero of the epic of a nation's +freedom. + +The first blow in the renewed struggle was struck at Methven, near +Perth, where, on the 19th June, 1306, the Earl of Pembroke inflicted a +defeat upon King Robert. The Lowlands were now almost entirely lost to +him; he sent his wife[47] and child to Kildrummie Castle in +Aberdeenshire, whence they fled to the sanctuary of St. Duthac, near +Tain. In August, Bruce was defeated at Dalry, by Alexander of Lorn, a +relative of the Comyn. In September, Kildrummie Castle fell, and Nigel +Bruce, King Robert's brother, fell into the hands of the English and was +put to death at Berwick. To complete the tale of catastrophes, the +Bruce's wife and daughter, two of his sisters, and other two of his +brothers, along with the Countess of Buchan, came into the power of the +English king. Edward placed some of the ladies in cages, and put to +death Sir Thomas Bruce and Alexander Bruce, Dean of Glasgow (February, +1306-7). Meanwhile, King Robert had found it impossible to maintain +himself even in his own lands of Carrick, and he withdrew to the island +of Rathlin, where he wintered. Undeterred by this long series of +calamities, he took the field in the spring of 1307, and now, for the +first time, fortune favoured him. On the 10th May, he defeated the +English, under Pembroke, at Loudon Hill, in Ayrshire. He had been joined +by his brother Edward and by the Lord James of Douglas (the "Black +Douglas"), and the news of his success, slight as it was, helped to +increase at once the spirit and the numbers of his followers. His +position, however, was one of extreme difficulty; he was still only a +king in name, and, in reality, the leader of a guerilla warfare. Edward +was marching northwards at the head of a large army, determined to crush +his audacious subject. But Fate had decreed that the Hammer of the Scots +was never again to set foot in Scotland. At Burgh-on-Sand, near +Carlisle, within sight of his unconquered conquest, the great Edward +breathed his last. His death was the turning-point in the struggle. The +reign of Edward II in England is a most important factor in the +explanation of Bruce's success. + +With the death of Edward I the whole aspect of the contest changes. The +English were no longer conducting a great struggle for a statesmanlike +ideal, as they had been under Edward I--however impossible he himself +had made its attainment. There is no longer any sign of conscious +purpose either in their method or in their aims. The nature of the +warfare at once changed; Edward II, despite his father's wish that his +bones should be carried at the head of the army till Scotland was +subdued, contented himself with a fruitless march into Ayrshire, and +then returned to give his father a magnificent burial in Westminster +Abbey. King Robert was left to fight his Scottish enemies without their +English allies. These Scottish enemies may be divided into two +classes--the Anglo-Norman nobles who had supported the English cause +more or less consistently, and the personal enemies of the Bruce, who +increased in numbers after the murder of Comyn. Among the great families +thus alienated from the cause of Scotland were the Highlanders of Argyll +and the Isles, some of the men of Badenach, and certain Galloway clans. +But that this opposition was personal, and not racial, is shown by the +fact that, from the first, some of these Highlanders were loyal to +Bruce, _e.g._ Sir Nigel Campbell and Angus Og. We shall see, further, +that after the first jealousies caused by Comyn's death and Bruce's +success had passed away, the men of Argyll and the Isles took a more +prominent part on the Scottish side. In December, 1307, Bruce routed +John Comyn, the successor of his old rival, at Slains, on the +Aberdeenshire coast, and in the following May, when Comyn had obtained +some slight English assistance, he inflicted a final defeat upon him at +Inverurie. The power of the Comyns in their hereditary earldom of Buchan +had now been suppressed, and King Robert turned his attention to their +allies in the south. In the autumn of 1308, he himself defeated +Alexander of Lorn and subdued the district of Argyll, his brother Edward +reduced Galloway to subjection, and Douglas, along with Randolph, Earl +of Moray, was successful in Tweeddale. Thus, within three years from the +death of Comyn, Bruce had broken the power of the great families, whose +enmity against him had been aroused by that event. One year later the +other great misfortune, which had been brought upon him by the same +cause, was removed by an act which is important evidence at once of the +strength of the anti-English feeling in the country, and of the +confidence which Bruce had inspired. On the 24th February, 1309-10, the +clergy of Scotland met at Dundee and made a solemn declaration[48] of +fealty to King Robert as their lawful king. Scotland was thus united in +its struggle for independence under King Robert I. + +It now remained to attack the English garrisons who held the castles of +Scotland. An invasion conducted by Edward II in 1310 proved fruitless, +and the English king returned home to enter on a long quarrel with the +Lords Ordainers, and to see his favourite, Gaveston, first exiled and +then put to death. While the attention of the rulers of England was thus +occupied, Bruce, for the first time since Wallace's inroad of 1297, +carried the war into the enemy's country, invading the north of England +both in 1311 and in 1312. Meanwhile the strongholds of the country were +passing out of the English power. Linlithgow was recovered in 1311; +Perth in January, 1312-13; and Roxburgh a month later. The romantic +capture of the castle of Edinburgh, by Randolph, Earl of Moray, in +March, 1313, is one of the classical stories of Scottish history, and +in the summer of the same year, King Robert restored the Scottish rule +in the Isle of Man. In November, 1313, only Stirling Castle remained in +English hands, and Edward Bruce rashly agreed to raise the siege on +condition that the garrison should surrender if they were not relieved +by June 24th, 1314. Edward II determined to make a heroic effort to +maintain this last vestige of English conquest, and his attempt to do so +has become irrevocably associated with the Field of Bannockburn. + +In his preparations for the great struggle, which was to determine the +fate of Scotland, the Bruce carefully avoided the errors which had led +to Wallace's defeat at Falkirk. He selected a position which was +covered, on one side by the Bannock Burn and a morass, and, on the other +side, by the New Park or Forest. His front was protected by the stream +and by the famous series of "pottes", or holes, covered over so as to +deceive the English cavalry. The choice of this narrow position not only +prevented the possibility of a flank attack, but also forced the great +army of Edward II into a small space, where its numbers became a +positive disadvantage. King Robert arranged his infantry in four +divisions; in front were three schiltrons of pikemen, under Randolph, +Edward Bruce, and Sir James Douglas, and Bruce himself commanded the +reserve, which was composed of Highlanders from Argyll and the Islands +and of the men of Carrick.[49] Sir Robert Keith, the Marischal, was in +charge of a small body of cavalry, which did good service by driving +back, at a critical moment, such archers as made their way through the +forest. The English army was in ten divisions, but the limited area in +which they had to fight interfered with their arrangement. As at +Falkirk, the English cavalry made a gallant but useless charge against +the schiltrons, but it was not possible again to save the day by means +of archers, for the archers had no room to deploy, and could only make +vain efforts to shoot over the heads of the horsemen. Bruce strengthened +the Scots with his reserve, and then ensued a general action along the +whole line. The van of the English army was now thoroughly demoralized, +and their comrades in the rear could not, in these narrow limits, press +forward to render any assistance. King Robert's camp-followers, at this +juncture, rushed down a hill behind the Scottish army, and they appeared +to the English as a fresh force come to assist the enemy. The result was +the loss of all sense of discipline: King Edward's magnificent host fled +in complete rout and with great slaughter, and the cause of Scottish +freedom was won. + +The victory of Bannockburn did not end the war, for the English refused +to acknowledge the hard-won independence of Scotland, and fighting +continued till the year 1327. The Scots not only invaded England, but +adopted the policy of fighting England in Ireland, and English reprisals +in Scotland were uniformly unsuccessful. Bruce invaded England in 1315; +in the same year, his brother Edward landed with a Scottish army at +Carrickfergus, in the hope of obtaining a throne for himself. He was +crowned King of Ireland in May, 1316, and during that and the following +year, King Robert was personally in Ireland, giving assistance to his +brother. But, in 1318, Edward Bruce was defeated and slain near Dundalk, +and, with his death, this phase of the Bruce's English policy +disappears. A few months before the death of Edward Bruce, King Robert +had captured the border town of Berwick-on-Tweed, which had been held by +the English since 1298. In 1319, Edward II sent an English army to +besiege Berwick, and the Scots replied by an invasion of England in the +course of which Douglas and Randolph defeated the English at +Mitton-on-Swale in Yorkshire. The English were led by the Archbishop of +York, and so many clerks were killed that the battle acquired the name +of the Chapter of Mitton. The war lingered on for three years more. The +year 1322 saw an invasion of England by King Robert and a +counter-invasion of Scotland by Edward II, who destroyed the Abbey of +Dryburgh on his return march. This expedition was, as usual, fruitless, +for the Scots adopted their usual tactics of leaving the country waste +and desolate, and the English army could obtain no food. In October of +the same year King Robert made a further inroad into Yorkshire, and won +a small victory at Biland Abbey. At last, in March, 1323, a truce was +made for thirteen years, but as Edward II persisted in declining to +acknowledge the independence of Scotland, it was obvious that peace +could not be long maintained. + +During the fourteen years which followed his victory of Bannockburn, +King Robert was consolidating his kingdom. He had obtained recognition +even in the Western Highlands and Islands, and the sentiment of the +whole nation had gathered around him. The force of this sentiment is +apparent in connection with ecclesiastical difficulties. When Pope John +XXII attempted to make peace in 1317 and refused to acknowledge the +Bruce as king, the papal envoys were driven from the kingdom. For this +the country was placed under the papal ban, and when, in 1324, the pope +offered both to acknowledge King Robert and to remove the +excommunication, on condition that Berwick should be restored to the +English, the Scots refused to comply with his condition. A small +rebellion in 1320 had been firmly repressed by king and Parliament. The +birth of a son to King Robert, on the 5th March, 1323-24, had given +security to the dynasty, and, at the great Parliament which met at +Cambuskenneth in 1326, at which Scottish burghs were, for the first +time, represented, the clergy, the barons, and the people took an oath +of allegiance to the little Prince David, and, should his heirs fail, to +Robert, the son of Bruce's daughter, Marjorie, and her husband, Robert, +the High Steward of Scotland. The same Parliament put the financial +position of the monarch on a satisfactory footing by granting him a +tenth penny of all rents. + +The deposition and murder of Edward II created a situation of which the +King of Scots could not fail to take advantage. The truce was broken in +the summer of 1327 by an expedition into England, conducted by Douglas +and Randolph, and the hardiness of the Scottish soldiery surprised the +English and warned them that it was impossible to prolong the contest in +the present condition of the two countries. The regents for the young +Edward III resolved to come to terms with Bruce. The treaty of +Northampton, dated 17th March, 1327-28, is still preserved in Edinburgh. +It acknowledged the complete independence of Scotland and the royal +dignity of King Robert. It promised the restoration of all the symbols +of Scottish independence which Edward I had removed, and it arranged a +marriage between Prince David, the heir to the Scottish throne, and +Joanna, the sister of the young king of England. A marriage ceremony +between the two children was solemnized in the following May, but the +Stone of Fate was never removed from Westminster, owing, it is said, to +the opposition of the abbot. The succession of James VI to the throne of +England, nearly three centuries later, was accepted as the fulfilment of +the prophecy attached to the Coronation Stone, "Lapis ille grandis": + + "Ni fallat fatam, Scoti, quocunque locatum, + Invenient lapidem, regnare tenentur ibidem". + +Thus closed the portion of Scottish history which is known as the War of +Independence. The condemnation of the policy of Edward I lies simply in +its results. He found the two nations at peace and living together in +amity; he left them at war and each inspired with a bitter hatred of the +other. A policy which aimed at the unification of the island and at +preventing Scotland from proving a source of danger to England, and +which resulted in a warfare covering, almost continuously, more than two +hundred and fifty years, and which, after the lapse of four centuries, +left the policy of Scotland a serious difficulty to English ministers, +can scarcely receive credit for practical sagacity, however wise its +aim. It created for England a relentless and irritating (if not always a +dangerous) enemy, invariably ready to take advantage of English +difficulties. England had to fight Scotland in France and in Ireland, +and Edward IV and Henry VII found the King of Scots the ally of the +House of Lancaster, and the protector of Perkin Warbeck. Only the +accident of the Reformation rendered it possible to disengage Scotland +from its alliance with France, and to bring about a union with England. +Till the emergence of the religious question the English party in +Scotland consisted of traitors and mercenaries, and their efforts to +strengthen English influence form the most discreditable pages of +Scottish history. + +We are not here dealing with the domestic history of Scotland; but it is +impossible to avoid a reference to the subject of the influence of the +Scottish victory upon the Scots themselves. It has been argued that +Bannockburn was, for Scotland, a national misfortune, and that Bruce's +defeat would have been for the real welfare of the country. There are, +of course, two stand-points from which we may approach the question. The +apologist of Bannockburn might lay stress on the different effects of +conquest and a hard-won independence upon the national character, and +might fairly point to various national characteristics which have been, +perhaps, of some value to civilization, and which could hardly have been +fostered in a condition of servitude. On the other hand, there arises a +question as to material prosperity. It must be remembered that we are +not here discussing the effect of a peaceful and amicable union, such as +Edward first proposed, but of a successful war of conquest; and in this +connection it is only with thankfulness and gratitude to Wallace and to +Bruce that the Scotsman can regard the parallel case of Ireland, which, +from a century before the time of Edward I, had been annexed by +conquest. The story we have just related goes to create a reasonable +probability that the fate of Scotland could not have been different; +but, further, leaving all such problems of the "might have been", we may +submit that the misery of Scotland in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and +sixteenth centuries has been much exaggerated. It is true that the +borders were in a condition of perpetual feud, and that minorities and +intrigues gravely hampered the progress of the country. But, more +especially in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, there are not +wanting indications of prosperity. The chapter of Scottish history which +tells of the growth of burghs has yet to be written. The construction of +magnificent cathedrals and religious houses, and the rise of three +universities, must not be left out of account. Gifts to the infant +universities, the records of which we possess, prove that for humble +folk the tenure of property was comparatively secure, and that there was +a large amount of comfort among the people. Under James IV, trade and +commerce prospered, and the Scottish navy rivalled that of the Tudors. +The century in which Scottish prosperity received its most severe blows +immediately succeeded the Union of the Crowns. If for three hundred +years the civilizing influence of England can scarcely be traced in the +history of Scottish progress, that of France was predominant, and +Scotland cannot entirely regret the fact. Scotland, from the date of +Bannockburn to that of Pinkie, will not suffer from a comparison with +the England which underwent the strain of the long French wars, the +civil broils of Lancaster and York, and the oppression of the Tudors. +Moreover, there is one further consideration which should not be +overlooked. The postponement of an English union till the seventeenth +century enabled Scotland to work out its own reformation of religion in +the way best adapted to the national needs, and it is difficult to +estimate, from the material stand-point alone, the importance of this +factor in the national progress. The inspiration and the education which +the Scottish Church has given to the Scottish people has found one +result in the impulse it has afforded to the growth of material +prosperity, and it is not easy to regret that Scotland, at the date of +the Reformation, was free to work out its own ecclesiastical destiny. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 44: There is no indication of any racial division in the +attitude of the Scots. Some Highlanders, from various personal causes, +are found on the English side at the beginning of the War of +Independence; but Mr. Lang has shown that of the descendants of Somerled +of Argyll, the ancestor of the Lords of the Isles, only one fought +against Wallace, while the Celts of Moray and Badenach and the Highland +districts of Aberdeenshire, joined his standard. The behaviour of the +Highland chiefs is similar to that of the Lowland barons. If there is +any racial feeling at all, it is not Celtic _v._ Saxon, but Scandinavian +_v._ Scottish, and it is connected with the recent conquest of the +Isles. But even of this there is little trace, and the behaviour of the +Islesmen is, on the whole, marvellously loyal.] + +[Footnote 45: Hemingburgh, ii, 141-147.] + +[Footnote 46: _Diplomata Scotiae_, xliii, xliv.] + +[Footnote 47: Bruce had married, 1st, Isabella, daughter of the 10th +Earl of Mar, by whom he had a daughter, Marjorie, and 2nd, in 1302, +Elizabeth de Burgh, daughter of the Earl of Ulster.] + +[Footnote 48: Nat. MSS. ii. 12, No. XVII. The original is preserved in +the Register House.] + +[Footnote 49: Pinkerton suggests that King Robert adopted this +arrangement because he was unable to trust the Highlanders, but this is +unlikely, as their leader, Angus Og, had been consistently faithful to +him throughout.] + + + + +CHAPTER V + +EDWARD III AND SCOTLAND + +1328-1399 + + +Almost immediately after the conclusion of the Treaty of Northampton, +the conditions of government in England and Scotland were reversed. +Since the death of Edward I, Scotland, under a strong king, had gained +by the weakness of the English sovereign; now England, under the +energetic rule of Edward III, was to profit by the death of King Robert +and by the succession of a minor. On the 7th June, 1329, King Robert +died (probably a leper) at his castle of Cardross, on the Clyde, and +left the Scottish throne to his five-year-old son, David II. In October +of the following year the young Edward III of England threw off the yoke +of the Mortimers and established his personal rule, and came almost +immediately into conflict with Scotland. The Scottish regent was +Randolph or Ranulph, Earl of Moray, the companion of Bruce and the Black +Douglas[50] in the exploits of the great war. Possibly because Edward +III had afforded protection to the Pretender, Edward Balliol, the +eldest son of John Balliol, and had received him at the English court, +Randolph refused to carry out the provisions of the Treaty of +Northampton, by which their lands were to be restored to the +"Disinherited", _i.e._ to barons whose property in Scotland had been +forfeited because they had adopted the English side in the war. A +somewhat serious situation was thus created, and Edward, not +unnaturally, took advantage of it to disown the Treaty of Northampton, +which had been negotiated by the Mortimers during his minority, and +which was extremely unpopular in England. He at once recognized Edward +Balliol as King of Scotland. The only defence of Randolph's action is +the probability that he suspected Edward to be in search of a pretext +for refusing to be bound by a treaty made in such circumstances, and if +a struggle were to ensue, it was certainly desirable not to increase the +power of the English party. Edward proceeded to assist Balliol in an +expedition to Scotland, which Mr. Lang describes as "practically an +Anglo-Norman filibustering expedition, winked at by the home government, +the filibusters being neither more nor less Scottish than most of our +_noblesse_". But before Balliol reached Scotland, the last of the +paladins whose names have been immortalized by the Bruce's wars, had +disappeared from the scene. Randolph died at Musselburgh in July, 1332, +and Scotland was left leaderless. The new regent, the Earl of Mar, was +quite incapable of dealing with the situation. When Balliol landed at +Kinghorn in August, he made his way unmolested till he reached the river +Earn, on his way to Perth. The regent had taken up a position near +Dupplin, and was at the head of a force which considerably outnumbered +the English. But the Scots had failed to learn the lesson taught by +Edward I at Falkirk and by Bruce at Bannockburn. The English succeeded +in crossing the Earn by night, and took up a position opposite the hill +on which the Scots were encamped. Their archers were so arranged as +practically to surround the Scots, who attacked in three divisions, +armed with pikes, making no attempt even to harass the thin lines of +archers who were extended on each side of the English main body. But the +unerring aim of the archers could not fail to render the Scottish attack +innocuous. The English stood their ground while line after line of the +Scots hurled themselves against them, only to be struck down by the +gray-goose shafts. At last the attack degenerated into a complete rout, +and the English made good their victory by an indiscriminate massacre. + +The immediate result of the battle of Dupplin Moor was that "Edward I of +Scotland" entered upon a reign which lasted almost exactly twelve weeks. +He was crowned at Scone on September 24th, 1332, and unreservedly +acknowledged himself the vassal of the King of England. On the 16th +December the new king was at Annan, when an unexpected attack was made +upon him by a small force, led, very appropriately, by a son of +Randolph, Earl of Moray, and by the young brother of the Lord James of +Douglas. Balliol fled to Carlisle, "one leg booted and the other naked", +and there awaited the help of his liege lord, who prepared to invade +Scotland in May. Meanwhile the patriotic party had failed to take +advantage of their opportunity. Sir Andrew Moray of Bothwell, the regent +chosen to succeed Mar (who had fallen at Dupplin), had been captured in +a skirmish near Roxburgh, either in November, 1332, or in April, 1333, +and was succeeded in turn by Sir Archibald Douglas, the hero of the +Annan episode, but destined to be better known as "Tyneman the Unlucky". +The young king had been sent for safety to France. + +In April, Balliol was again in Scotland, and, in May, Edward III began +to besiege Berwick, which had been promised him by Balliol. To defend +Berwick, the Scots were forced to fight a pitched battle, which proved a +repetition of Dupplin Moor. Berwick had promised to surrender if it were +not relieved by a fixed date. When the day arrived, a small body of +Scots had succeeded in breaking through the English lines, and Sir +Archibald Douglas had led a larger force to ravage Northumberland. On +these grounds Berwick held that it had been in fact relieved; but +Edward III, who lacked his grandfather's nice appreciation of situations +where law and fact are at variance, replied by hanging a hostage. The +regent was now forced to risk a battle in the hope of saving Berwick, +and he marched southwards, towards Berwick, with a large army. Edward, +following the precedent of Dupplin, occupied a favourable position at +Halidon Hill, with his front protected by a marsh. He drew up his line +in the order that had been so successful at Dupplin, and the same result +followed. Each successive body of Scottish pikemen was cut down by a +shower of English arrows, before being able even to strike a blow. The +regent was slain, and Moray, his companion in arms, fled to France, soon +to return to strike another blow for Scotland. + +The victory of Halidon added greatly to the popularity of Edward III, +for the English looked upon the shame of Bannockburn as avenged, and +they sang: + + "Scots out of Berwick and out of Aberdeen, + At the Burn of Bannock, ye were far too keen, + Many guiltless men ye slew, as was clearly seen. + King Edward has avenged it now, and fully too, I ween, + He has avenged it well, I ween. Well worth the while! + I bid you all beware of Scots, for they are full of guile. + + "'Tis now, thou rough-foot, brogue-shod Scot, that begins thy care, + Then boastful barley-bag-man, thy dwelling is all bare. + False wretch and forsworn, whither wilt thou fare? + Hie thee unto Bruges, seek a better biding there! + There, wretch, shalt thou stay and wait a weary while; + Thy dwelling in Dundee is lost for ever by thy guile."[51] + +In Scotland, the party of independence was, for the time, helpless. +Edward and Balliol divided the country between them. The eight counties +of Dumfries, Roxburgh, Berwick, Selkirk, Peebles, Haddington, Edinburgh, +and Linlithgow formed the English king's share of the spoil, along with +a reassertion of his supremacy over the rest of Scotland. English +officers began to rule between the Tweed and the Forth. But the cause of +independence was never really hopeless. Balliol and the English party +were soon weakened by internal dissensions, and the leaders on the +patriotic side were not slow to take advantage of the opportunities thus +given them. It was, indeed, necessary to send King David and his wife to +France, and they landed at Boulogne in May, 1334. But from France, in +return, came the young Earl of Moray, who, along with Robert the High +Steward, son of Marjory Bruce, and next heir to the throne, took up the +duties of guardians. The arrival of Moray gave fresh life to the cause, +but there is little interest in the records of the struggle. The Scots +won two small successes at the Borough-Muir of Edinburgh and at +Kilblain. But the victory in the skirmish at the Borough-Muir (August, +1335) was more unfortunate than defeat, for it deprived Scotland for +some time of the services of the Earl of Moray. He had captured Guy de +Namur and conducted him to the borders, and was himself taken prisoner +while on his journey northwards. Sir Andrew Moray of Bothwell, who had +been made guardian after the battle of Dupplin, and was captured in +April, 1333, had now been ransomed, and he was again recognized as +regent for David II. So strong was the Scottish party that Balliol had +to flee to England for assistance, and, in 1336, Edward III again +appeared in Scotland. It was not a very heroic effort for the future +victor of Crecy; he marched northwards to Elgin, and, on his way home, +burned the town of Aberdeen. + +As in the first war the turning-point had proved to be the death of +Edward I in the summer of 1307, so now, exactly thirty years later, came +another decisive event. In the autumn of 1337, Edward III first styled +himself King of France, and the diversion of his energies from the Scots +to their French allies rendered possible the final overthrow of Balliol +and the Scottish traitors. The circumstances are, however, parallel only +to the extent that an intervention of fortune rendered possible the +victory of Scottish freedom. In 1337 there was no great leader: the hour +had come, but not the man. For the next four years, castle after castle +fell into Scottish hands; many of the tales are romantic enough, but +they do not lead to a Bannockburn. The only incident of any significance +is the defence of the castle of Dunbar. The lord of Dunbar was the Earl +of March, whose record throughout the troubles had been far from +consistent, but who was now a supporter of King David, largely through +the influence of his wife, famous as "Black Agnes", a daughter of the +great Randolph, Earl of Moray. From January to June, 1338, Black Agnes +held Dunbar against English assaults by sea and land. Many romantic +incidents have been related of these long months of siege: the stories +of the Countess's use of a dust-cloth to repair the damage done by the +English siege-machines to the battlements, and of her prophecy, made +when the Earl of Salisbury brought a "sow" or shed fitted to protect +soldiers in the manner of the Roman _testudo_, + + "Beware, Montagow, + For farrow shall thy sow", + +and fulfilled by dropping a huge stone on the machine and thus +scattering its occupants, "the litter of English pigs"--these, and her +"love-shafts", which, as Salisbury said, "pierce to the heart", are +among the most wonderful of historical fairy tales. In the end the +English had to raise the siege: + + "Came I early, came I late, + I found Agnes at the gate", + +they sang as the explanation of their failure. + +The defence of Dunbar was followed by the surrender of Perth and the +capture of the castles of Stirling and Edinburgh, and in June, 1341, +David II returned to Scotland, from which Balliol had fled. David was +now seventeen years of age, and he had a great opportunity. Scotland was +again free, and was prepared to rally round its national sovereign and +the son of the Bruce. The English foe was engaged in a great struggle +with France, and difficulties had arisen between the English king and +his Parliament. But the unworthy son of the great Robert proved only a +source of weakness to his supporters. The only redeeming feature of his +policy is that it was, at first, inspired by loyalty to his French +protectors. In their interest he made, in the year of the Crecy +campaign, an incursion into England, thus ending a truce made in 1343. +After the usual preliminary ravaging, he reached Neville's Cross, near +Durham, in the month of October. There he found a force prepared to meet +him, led, as at Northallerton and at Mitton, by the clergy of the +northern province. The battle was a repetition of Dupplin and Halidon +Hill, and a rehearsal of Homildon and Flodden. Scots and English alike +were drawn up in the usual three divisions; the left, centre, and right +being led respectively, on the one side, by Robert the Steward, King +David, and Randolph, and, on the other, by Rokeby, Archbishop Neville, +and Henry Percy. The English archers were, as usual, spread out so as to +command both the Scottish wings. They were met by no cavalry charge, and +they soon threw the Scottish left into confusion, and prepared the way +for an assault upon the centre. Randolph was killed; the king was +captured, and for eleven years he remained a prisoner in England. +Meanwhile Robert the Steward (still the heir to the throne, for David +had no children) ruled in Scotland. There is reason for believing that, +in 1352, David was allowed to go to Scotland to raise a ransom, and, two +years later, an arrangement was actually made for his release. But +Robert the Steward and David had always been on bad terms, and, after +everything had been formally settled, the Scots decided to remain loyal +to their French allies. Hostilities recommenced; in August, 1355, the +Scots won a small victory at Nesbit in Berwickshire, and captured the +town of Berwick. Early in the following year it was retaken by Edward +III, who proclaimed himself the successor of Balliol, and mercilessly +ravaged the Lowlands. So great was his destruction of churches and +religious houses that the invasion is remembered as the "Burned +Candlemas". Peace was made in 1357, and David's ransom was fixed at +100,000 marks. It was a huge sum; but in connection with the efforts +made to raise it the burgesses acquired some influence in the government +of the country. + +David's residence in France and in England had entirely deprived him of +sympathy with the national aspirations of his subjects. He loved the +gay court of Edward III, and the Anglo-Norman chivalry had deeply +affected him. He hated his destined successor, and he had been charmed +by Edward's personality. Accordingly we find him, seven years after his +return to Scotland, again making a journey to England. It is a striking +fact that the son of the victor of Bannockburn should have gone to +London to propose to sell the independence of Scotland to the grandson +of Edward I. The difficulty of paying the yearly instalment of his +ransom made a limit to his own extravagant expenditure, and he now +offered, instead of money, an acknowledgment of either Edward himself or +one of his sons as the heir to the Scottish throne. The result of this +proposal was to change the policy of Edward. He abandoned the Balliol +claim and the traditional Edwardian policy in Scotland, and accepted +David's offer. David returned to Scotland and laid before his Parliament +the less violent of the two schemes, the proposal that, in the event of +his dying childless, Prince Lionel of England should succeed (1364). + + "To that said all his lieges, Nay; + Na their consent wald be na way, + That ony Ynglis mannys sone + In[to] that honour suld be done, + Or succede to bere the Crown, + Off Scotland in successione, + Sine of age and off vertew there + The lauchfull airis appearand ware." + +So the proposal to substitute an "English-man's son" for the lawful +heirs proved utterly futile. Equally vain were any attempts of the Scots +to mitigate Edward's rigour in the exaction of the ransom, and Edward +reverted to his earlier policy, disowned King David, and prepared for +another Scottish campaign to vindicate his right as the successor of +Balliol, who had died in 1363. But English energies were once more +diverted at a critical moment. The Black Prince had involved himself in +serious troubles in Gascony, and England was called upon to defend its +conquests in France. In 1369 a truce was made between Scotland and +England, to last for fourteen years. + +David II died, unregretted, in February, 1370-1371. It was fortunate for +Scotland that the miserable seven years which remained to Edward III, +and the reign of his unfortunate grandson, were so full of trouble for +England. Robert the Steward succeeded his uncle without much difficulty. +He was fifty-six years of age, already an old man for those days, eight +years the senior of the nephew whom he succeeded. The main lines of the +foreign policy of his reign may be briefly indicated; but its chief +interest lies in a series of border raids, the story of which is too +intricate and of too slight importance to concern us. The new king began +by entering into an agreement with France, of a more definite +description than any previous arrangement, and the year 1372 may be +taken as marking the formal inauguration of the Franco-Scottish League. +The truce with England was continued and was renewed in 1380, three +years before the date originally fixed for its expiry. The renewal was +necessitated by various acts of hostility which had rendered it, in +effect, a dead letter. The English were still in possession of such +Scottish strongholds as Roxburgh, Berwick, and Lochmaben, and round +these there was continual warfare. The Scots sacked the town of Roxburgh +in 1377, but without regaining the castle, and, in 1378, they again +obtained possession of Berwick. John of Gaunt, who had forced the +government of his nephew to acknowledge his importance as a factor in +English politics, was entrusted with the command of an army directed +against Scotland. He met the Scottish representatives at Berwick, which +was again in English hands, and agreed to confirm the existing truce, +which was maintained till 1384, when Scotland was included in the +English truce with France. The truce, which was to last for eight +months, was negotiated in France in January, 1383-84. In February and +March, John of Gaunt conducted a ravaging expedition into Scotland as +far as Edinburgh. During the Peasants' Revolt he had taken refuge in +Scotland, and the chroniclers tell us that the expedition of 1384 was +singularly merciful. Still, it was an act of war, and the Scots may +reasonably have expressed surprise, when, in April, the French +ambassadors (who had been detained in England since February) arrived in +Edinburgh, and announced that Scotland and England had been at peace +since January. About the same time there occurred two border forays. +Some French knights, with their Scottish hosts, made an incursion into +England, and the Percies, along with the Earl of Nottingham, conducted a +devastating raid in Scotland, laying waste the Lothians. About the date +of both events there is some doubt; probably the Percy invasion was in +retaliation for the French affair. But all the time the two countries +were nominally at peace, and it was not till May, 1385, that they were +technically in a state of war. In that month a French army was sent to +aid the Scots, and, under the command of John de Vienne, it took part in +an incursion on a somewhat larger scale than the usual raids. The +English replied, in the month of August, by an invasion conducted by +Richard II in person, at the head of a large army, while the Scots, +declining a battle, wasted Cumberland. Richard sacked Edinburgh and +burned the great religious houses of Dryburgh, Melrose, and Newbattle, +but was forced to retire without having made any real conquest. The +Scots adopted their invariable custom of retreating after laying waste +the country, so as to deprive the English of provender; even the +impatience of their French allies failed to persuade them to give +battle to King Richard's greatly superior forces. From Scotland the +English king marched to London, to commence the great struggle which led +to the impeachment of Suffolk and the rise of the Lords Appellant. While +England was thus occupied, the Scots, under the Earl of Fife, second son +of Robert II (better known as the Duke of Albany), and the Earl of +Douglas, made great preparations for an invasion. Fife took his men into +the western counties and ravaged Cumberland and Westmoreland, but +without any important incident. Douglas attacked the country of his old +enemies, the Percies, and won the victory of Otterburn or Chevy Chase +(August, 1388), the most romantic of all the fights between Scots and +English. The Scots lost their leader, but the English were completely +defeated, and Harry Hotspur, the son of Northumberland, was made a +prisoner. Chevy Chase is the subject of many ballads and legends, and it +is indissolubly connected with the story of the House of Douglas: + + "Hosts have been known at that dread sound to yield, + And, Douglas dead, his name hath won the field". + +From the date of Otterburn to the accession of Henry IV there was peace +between Scotland and England, except for the never-ending border +skirmishes. Robert II died in 1390, and was succeeded by his eldest son, +John, Earl of Carrick, who took the title of Robert III, to avoid the +unlucky associations of the name of John, which had acquired an +unpleasant notoriety from John Balliol as well as John of England and +the unfortunate John of France. Under the new king the treaty with +France was confirmed, but continuous truces were made with England till +the deposition of Richard II. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 50: Douglas disappeared from the scene immediately after King +Robert's death, taking the Bruce's heart with him on a pilgrimage to +Palestine. He was killed in August, 1330, while fighting the Moors in +Spain, on his way to the Holy Land.] + +[Footnote 51: Minot. Tr. F. York Powell.] + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +SCOTLAND, LANCASTER, AND YORK + +1400-1500 + + +When Henry of Lancaster placed himself on his cousin's throne, Scotland +was divided between the supporters of the Duke of Rothesay, the eldest +son of Robert III and heir to the crown, and the adherents of the Duke +of Albany, the brother of the old king. In 1399, Rothesay had just +succeeded his uncle as regent, and to him, as to Henry IV, there was a +strong temptation to acquire popularity by a spirited foreign policy. +The Scots hesitated to acknowledge Henry as King of England, and he, in +turn, seems to have resolved upon an invasion of Scotland as the first +military event of his reign. He, accordingly, raised the old claim of +homage, and marched into Scotland to demand the fealty of Robert III and +his barons. As usual, we find in Scotland some malcontents, who form an +English party. The leader of the English intrigue on this occasion was +the Scots Earl of March,[52] the son of Black Agnes. The Duke of +Rothesay had been betrothed to the daughter of March, but had married +in February, 1399-1400, a daughter of the Earl of Douglas, the +hereditary foe of March. The Dunbar allegiance had always been doubtful, +and it was only the influence of the great countess that had brought it +to the patriotic side. In August, 1400, Henry marched into Scotland, and +besieged for three days the castle of Edinburgh, which was successfully +defended by the regent, while Albany was at the head of an army which +made no attempt to interfere with Henry's movements. Difficulties in +Wales now attracted Henry's attention, and he left Scotland without +having accomplished anything, and leaving the record of the mildest and +most merciful English invasion of Scotland. The necessities of his +position in England may explain his abstaining from spoiling religious +houses as his predecessors had done, but the chroniclers tell us that he +gave protection to every town that asked it. While Henry was suppressing +the Welsh revolt and negotiating with his Parliament, Albany and +Rothesay were struggling for the government of Scotland. Rothesay fell +from power in 1401, and in March, 1402, he died at Falkland. +Contemporary rumour and subsequent legend attributed his death to +Albany, and, as in the case of Richard II, the method of death was +supposed to be starvation. Sir Walter has told the story in _The Fair +Maid of Perth_. Albany, who had succeeded him as regent or guardian, +made no effort to end the meaningless war with England, which went +fitfully on. An idiot mendicant, who was represented to be Richard II, +gave the Scots their first opportunity of supporting a pretender to the +English throne; but the pretence was too ridiculous to be seriously +maintained. The French refused to take any part in such a scheme, and +the pseudo-Richard served only to annoy Henry IV, and scarcely gave even +a semblance of significance to the war, which really degenerated into a +series of border raids, one of which was of unusual importance. Henry +had no intention of seriously prosecuting the claim of homage, and the +continuance of hostilities is really explained by the ill-will between +March and Douglas and the old feud between the Douglases and the +Percies. In June, 1402, the Scots were defeated in a skirmish at Nesbit +in Berwickshire (the scene of a small Scottish victory in 1355), and, in +the following September, occurred the disaster of Homildon Hill. Douglas +and Murdoch Stewart, the eldest son of Albany, had collected a large +army, and the incursion was raised to the level of something like +national importance. They marched into England and took up a strong +position on Homildon Hill or Heugh. The Percies, under Northumberland +and Hotspur, sent against them a body of English archers, who easily +outranged the Scottish bowmen, and threw the army into confusion. Then +ensued, as at Dupplin and Halidon Hill, a simple massacre. Murdoch +Stewart and Douglas were taken captive with several other Scots lords. +Close on Homildon Hill followed the rebellion of the Percies, and the +result of the English victory at Homildon was merely to create a new +difficulty for Henry IV. The sudden nature of the Percy revolt is +indicated by the fact that, when Albany marched to relieve a Scottish +stronghold which they were besieging, he found that the enemy had +entered into an alliance with the House of Douglas, their ancient foes, +and were turning their arms against the English king. Percy and Douglas +fought together at Shrewsbury, while the Earl of March was in the ranks +of King Henry. + +The battle of Shrewsbury was fought in July, 1403. In 1405, +Northumberland, a traitor for a second time, took refuge in Scotland, +and received a dubious protection from Albany, who was ready to sell him +should any opportunity arise. A truce which had been arranged between +Scotland and England expired in April, 1405, and the two countries were +technically in a state of war, although there were no great military +operations in progress.[53] In the spring of 1406, Albany sent the heir +to the Scottish throne, Prince James, to be educated in France. The +vessel in which he sailed was captured by the English off Flamborough +Head, and the prince was taken to Henry IV. It has been a tradition in +Scotland that James was captured in time of truce, and Wyntoun uses the +incident to point a moral with regard to the natural deceitfulness of +the English heart: + + "It is of English nationn + The common kent conditionn + Of Truth the virtue to forget, + When they do them on winning set, + And of good faith reckless to be + When they do their advantage see." + +But it would seem clear that the truce had expired, and that the English +king was bound to no treaty of peace. His son's capture was immediately +followed by the death of King Robert III, who sank, broken-hearted, into +the grave. Albany continued to rule, and maintained a series of truces +with England till his death in 1420. The peace was occasionally broken +in intervals of truce, and the advantage was usually on the side of the +Scots. In 1409 the Earl of March returned to his allegiance and received +back his estates. In the same year his son recovered Fast Castle (on St. +Abb's Head), and the Scots also recovered Jedburgh. + +Albany's attention was now diverted by a danger threatened by the +Highland portion of the kingdom. Scotland, south of Forth and Clyde, +along with the east coast up to the Moray Firth, had been rapidly +affected by the English, French, and Norman influences, of which we +have spoken. The inhabitants of the more remote Highland districts and +of the western isles had remained uncorrupted by civilization of any +kind, and ever since the reign of Malcolm Canmore there had been a +militant reaction against the changes of St. Margaret and David I; from +the eleventh century to the thirteenth, the Scottish kings were scarcely +ever free from Celtic pretenders and Celtic revolts.[54] The inhabitants +of the west coast and of the isles were very largely of Scandinavian +blood, and it was not till 1266 that the western isles definitely passed +from Norway to the Scottish crown. The English had employed several +opportunities of allying themselves with these discontented Scotsmen; +but Mr. Freeman's general statement, already quoted, that "the true +Scots, out of hatred to the Saxons nearest them, leagued with the Saxons +farther off", is very far from a fair representation of the facts. We +have seen that Highlander and Islesman fought under David I at the +battle of the Standard, against the "Saxons farther off", and that +although the death of Comyn ranged against Bruce the Highlanders of +Argyll, numbers of Highlanders were led to victory at Bannockburn by +Earl Randolph; and Angus Og and the Islesmen formed part of the Scottish +reserves and stood side by side with the men of Carrick, under the +leadership of King Robert. During the troubles which followed King +Robert's death, the Lords of the Isles had resumed their general +attitude of opposition. It was an opposition very natural in the +circumstances, the rebellion of a powerful vassal against a weak central +government, a reaction against the forces of civilization. But it has +never been shown that it was an opposition in any way racial; the +complaint that the Lowlands of Scotland have been "rent by the Saxon +from the Gael", in the manner of a racial dispossession, belongs to "The +Lady of the Lake", not to sober history. All Scotland, indeed, has now, +in one sense, been "rent by the Saxon" from the Celt. "Let no one doubt +the civilization of these islands," wrote Dr. Johnson, in Skye, "for +Portree possesses a jail." The Highlands and islands have been the last +portions of Scotland to succumb to Anglo-Saxon influences; that the +Lowlands formed an earlier victim does not prove that their racial +complexion is different. The incident of which we have now to speak has +frequently been quoted as a crowning proof of the difference between the +Lowlanders and the "true Scots". Donald of the Isles had a quarrel with +the Regent Albany, and, in 1408, entered into an agreement with Henry +IV, to whom he owned allegiance. But this very quarrel arose about the +earldom of Ross, which was claimed by Donald (himself a grandson of +Robert II) in right of his wife, a member of the Leslie family. The +"assertor of Celtic nationality" was thus the son of one Lowland woman +and the husband of another. When he entered the Scottish mainland his +progress was first opposed, not by the Lowlanders, but by the Mackays of +Caithness, who were defeated near Dingwall, and the Frasers immediately +afterwards received what the historians of the Clan Donald term a +"well-merited chastisement".[55] Donald pursued his victorious march to +Aberdeenshire, tempted by the prospect of plundering Aberdeen. It is +interesting to note that, while the battle which has given significance +to the record of the dispute was fought for the Lowland town of Aberdeen +in a Lowland part of Aberdeenshire, the very name of the town is Celtic, +and the district in which the battlefield of Harlaw is situated abounds +to this day in Celtic place-names, and, not many miles away, the Gaelic +tongue may still be heard at Braemar or at Tomintoul. It was not to a +racial battle between Celt and Saxon that the Earl of Mar and the +Provost of Aberdeen, aided by the Frasers, marched out to Harlaw, in +July, 1411, to meet Donald of the Isles. Had the clansmen been +victorious there would certainly have been a Celtic revival; but this +was not the danger most dreaded by the victorious Lowlanders. The battle +of Harlaw was part of the struggle with England. Donald of the Isles was +the enemy of Scottish independence, and his success would mean English +supremacy. He had taken up the role of "the Disinherited" of the +preceding century, just as the Earl of March had done some years before. +As time passed, and civilization progressed in the Lowlands while the +Highlands maintained their integrity, the feeling of separation grew +more strongly marked; and as the inhabitants of the Lowlands +intermarried with French and English, the differences of blood became +more evident and hostility became unavoidable. But any such abrupt +racial division as Mr. Freeman drew between the true Scots and the +Scottish Lowlanders stands much in need of proof. + +Harlaw was an incident in the never-ending struggle with England. It was +succeeded, in 1416 or 1417, by an unfortunate expedition into England, +known as the "Foul Raid", and after the Foul Raid came the battle of +Bauge. They are all part of one and the same story; although Harlaw +might seem an internal complication and Bauge an act of unprovoked +aggression, both are really as much part of the English war as is the +Foul Raid or the battle of Bannockburn itself. The invasion of France by +Henry V reminded the Scots that the English could be attacked on French +soil as well as in Northumberland. So the Earl of Buchan, a son of +Albany, was sent to France at the head of an army, in answer to the +dauphin's request for help. In March, 1421, the Scots defeated the +English at Bauge and captured the Earl of Somerset. The death of Henry +V, in the following year, and the difficulties of the English government +led to the return of the young King of Scots. The Regent Albany had been +succeeded in 1420 by his son, who was weak and incompetent, and Scotland +longed for its rightful king. James had been carefully educated in +England, and the dreary years of his captivity have enriched Scottish +literature by the _King's Quair_: + + "More sweet than ever a poet's heart + Gave yet to the English tongue". + +Albany seems to have made all due efforts to obtain his nephew's +release, and James was in constant communication with Scotland. He had +been forced to accompany Henry V to France, and was present at the siege +of Melun, where Henry refused quarter to the Scottish allies of France, +although England and Scotland were at war. Although constantly +complaining of his imprisonment, and of the treatment accorded to him in +England, James brought home with him, when his release was negotiated in +1423-24, an English bride, Joan Beaufort, the heroine of the _Quair_. +She was the daughter of Somerset, who had been captured at Bauge, and +grand-daughter of John of Gaunt. + +The troublous reign of James I gave him but little time for conducting a +foreign war, and the truce which was made when the king was ransomed +continued till 1433. It had been suggested that the peace between +England and Scotland should extend to the Scottish troops serving in +France, but no such clause was inserted in the actual arrangement made, +and it is almost certain that James could not have enforced it, even had +he wished to do so. He gave, however, no indication of holding lightly +the ties that bound Scotland to France, and, in 1428, agreed to the +marriage of his infant daughter, Margaret, to the dauphin. Meanwhile, +the Scottish levies had been taking their full share in the struggle for +freedom in which France was engaged. At Crevant, near Auxerre, in July, +1423, the Earl of Buchan, now Constable of France, was defeated by +Salisbury, and, thirteen months later, Buchan and the Earl of Douglas +(Duke of Touraine) fell on the disastrous field of Verneuil. At the +Battle of the Herrings (an attack upon a French convoy carrying Lenten +food to the besiegers of Orleans, made near Janville, in February, +1429), the Scots, under the new constable, Sir John Stewart of Darnley, +committed the old error of Halidon and Homildon, and their impetuous +valour could not avail against the English archers. They shared in the +victory of Pathay, gained by the Maid of Orleans in June 1429, almost on +the anniversary of Bannockburn, and they continued to follow the Maid +through the last fateful months of her warfare. So great a part had +Scotsmen taken in the French wars that, on the expiry of the truce in +1433, the English offered to restore not only Roxburgh but also Berwick +to Scotland. But the French alliance was destined to endure for more +than another century, and James declined, thus bringing about a slight +resuscitation of warlike operations. The Scots won a victory at +Piperden, near Berwick, in 1435 or 1436, and in the summer of 1436, when +the Princess Margaret was on her way to France to enter into her +ill-starred union with the dauphin, the English made an attempt to take +her captive. James replied by an attempt upon Roxburgh, but gave it up +without having accomplished anything, and returned to spend his last +Christmas at Perth. His twelve years in Scotland had been mainly +occupied in attempts to reduce his rebellious subjects, especially in +the Highlands, to obedience and loyalty, and he had roused much +implacable resentment. So the poet-king was murdered at Perth in +February, 1436-37, and his English widow was left to guard her son, the +child sovereign, now in his seventh year. It was probably under her +influence that a truce of nine years was made. + +When the truce came to an end, Scotland was in the interval between the +two contests with the House of Douglas which mark the reign of James II. +William the sixth earl and his brother David had been entrapped and +beheaded by the governors of the boy king in November, 1440, and the +new earl, James the Gross, died in 1443, and was succeeded by his son, +William, the eighth earl, who remained for some years on good terms with +the king. Accordingly, we find that, when the English burned the town of +Dunbar in May, 1448, Douglas replied, in the following month, by sacking +Alnwick. Retaliation came in the shape of an assault upon Dumfries in +the end of June, and the Scots, with Douglas at their head, burned +Warkworth in July. The successive attacks on Alnwick and Warkworth +roused the Percies to a greater effort, and, in October, they invaded +Scotland, and were defeated at the battle of Sark or Lochmaben +Stone.[56] In 1449 the Franco-Scottish League was strengthened by the +marriage of King James to Marie of Gueldres. + +Now began the second struggle with the Douglases. Their great +possessions, their rights as Wardens of the Marches, their prestige in +Scottish history made them dangerous subjects for a weak royal house. +Since the death of the good Lord James their loyalty to the kings of +Scotland had not been unbroken, and it is probable that their +suppression was inevitable in the interests of a strong central +government. But the perfidy with which James, with his own hand, +murdered the Earl, in February, 1451-52, can scarcely be condoned, and +it has created a sympathy for the Douglases which their history scarcely +merits. James had now entered upon a decisive struggle with the great +House, which a temporary reconciliation with the new earl, in 1453, only +served to prolong. The quarrel is interesting for our purpose because it +largely decided the relations between Scotland and the rival lines of +Lancaster and York. In 1455, when the Douglases were finally suppressed +and their estates were forfeited, the Yorkists first took up arms +against Henry VI. Douglas had attempted intrigues with the Lord of the +Isles, with the Lancastrians, and with the Yorkists in turn, and, about +1454, he came to an understanding with the Duke of York. We find, +therefore, during the years which followed the first battle of St. +Albans, a revival of active hostilities with England. In 1456, James +invaded England and harried Northumberland in the interests of the +Lancastrians. During the temporary loss of power by the Duke of York, in +1457, a truce was concluded, but it was broken after the reconciliation +of York to Henry VI in 1458, and when the battle of Northampton, in +July, 1460, left the Yorkists again triumphant, James marched to attempt +the recovery of Roxburgh.[57] James I, as we have seen, had abandoned +the siege of Roxburgh Castle only to go to his death; his son found his +death while attempting the same task. On Sunday, the 3rd of August, +1460, he was killed by the bursting of a cannon, the mechanism of which +had attracted his attention and made him, according to Pitscottie, "more +curious than became him or the majesty of a king". + +The year 1461 saw Edward IV placed on his uneasy throne, and a boy of +ten years reigning over the turbulent kingdom of Scotland. The Scots had +regained Roxburgh a few days after the death of King James, and they +followed up their success by the capture of Wark. But a greater triumph +was in store. When Margaret of Anjou, after rescuing her husband, Henry +VI, at the second battle of St. Albans, in February, 1461, met, in +March, the great disaster of Towton, she fled with Henry to Scotland, +where she had been received when preparing for the expedition which had +proved so unfortunate. On her second visit she brought with her the +surrender of Berwick, which, in April, 1461, became once more a Scots +town, and was represented in the Parliament which met in 1469. In +gratitude for the gift, the Scots made an invasion of England in June, +1461, and besieged Carlisle, but were forced to retire without having +afforded any real assistance to the Lancastrian cause. There was now a +division of opinion in Scotland with regard to supporting the +Lancastrian cause. The policy of the late king was maintained by the +great Bishop Kennedy, who himself entertained Henry VI in the Castle of +St. Andrews. But the queen-mother, Mary of Gueldres, was a niece of the +Duke of Burgundy, and was, through his influence, persuaded to go over +to the side of the White Rose. While Edward IV remained on unfriendly +terms with Louis XI of France, Kennedy had not much difficulty in +resisting the Yorkist proclivities of the queen-mother, and in keeping +Scotland loyal to the Red Rose. They were able to render their allies +but little assistance, and their opposition gave the astute Edward IV an +opportunity of intrigue. John of the Isles took advantage of the +minority of James III to break the peace into which he had been brought +by James II, and the exiled Earl of Douglas concluded an agreement +between the Lord of the Isles and the King of England. But when, in +October, 1463, Edward IV came to terms with Louis XI, Bishop Kennedy was +willing to join Mary of Gueldres in deserting the doomed House of +Lancaster. Mary did not live to see the success of her policy; but peace +was made for a period of fifteen years, and Scotland had no share in the +brief Lancastrian restoration of 1470. The threatening relations between +England and France nearly led to a rupture in 1473, but the result was +only to strengthen the agreement, and it was arranged that the infant +heir of James III should marry the Princess Cecilia, Edward's daughter. +In 1479-80, when the French were again alarmed by the diplomacy of +Edward IV, we find an outbreak of hostilities, the precise cause of +which is somewhat obscure. It is certain that Edward made no effort to +preserve the peace, and he sent, in 1481, a fleet to attack the towns on +the Firth of Forth, in revenge for a border raid for which James had +attempted to apologize. Edward was unable to secure the services of his +old ally, the Lord of the Isles, who had been again brought into +subjection in the interval of peace, and who now joined in the national +preparations for war with England. But there was still a rebel Earl of +Douglas with whom to plot, and Edward was fortunate in obtaining the +co-operation of the Duke of Albany, brother of James III, who had been +exiled in 1479. Albany and Edward made a treaty in 1482, in which the +former styled himself "Alexander, King of Scotland", and promised to do +homage to Edward when he should obtain his throne. The only important +events of the war are the recapture of Berwick, in August, 1482, and an +invasion of Scotland by the Duke of Gloucester. Berwick was never again +in Scottish hands. Albany was unable to carry out the revolution +contemplated in his treaty with Edward IV; but he was reinstated, and +became for three months Lieutenant-General of the Realm of Scotland. In +March, 1482-83, he resigned this office, and, after a brief interval, in +which he was reconciled to King James, was again forfeited in July, +1483. Edward IV had died on the 9th of April, and Albany was unable to +obtain any English aid. Along with the Earl of Douglas he made an +attempt upon Scotland, but was defeated at Lochmaben in July, 1484. +Thereafter, both he and his ally pass out of the story: Douglas died a +prisoner in 1488; Albany escaped to France, where he was killed at a +tournament in 1485; he left a son who was to take a great part in +Scottish politics during the minority of James V. + +Richard III found sufficient difficulty in governing England to prevent +his desiring to continue unfriendly relations with Scotland, and he +made, on his accession, something like a cordial peace with James III. +It was arranged that James, now a widower,[58] should marry Elizabeth +Woodville, widow of Edward IV, and that his heir, Prince James, should +marry a daughter of the Duke of Suffolk. James did not afford Richard +any assistance in 1485, and after the battle of Bosworth he remained on +friendly terms with Henry VII. A controversy about Berwick prevented the +completion of negotiations for marriage alliances, but friendly +relations were maintained till the revolution of 1488, in which James +III lost his life. Both James and his rebellious nobles, who had +proclaimed his son as king, attempted to obtain English assistance, but +it was given to neither side. + +The new king, James IV, was young, brave, and ambitious. He was +specially interested in the navy, and in the commercial prosperity of +Scotland. It was scarcely possible that, in this way, difficulties with +England could be avoided, for Henry VII was engaged in developing +English trade, and encouraged English shipping. Accordingly, we find +that, while the two countries were still nominally at peace, they were +engaged in a naval warfare. Scotland was fortunate in the possession of +some great sea-captains, notable among whom were Sir Andrew Wood and Sir +Andrew Barton.[59] In 1489, Sir Andrew Wood, with two ships, the _Yellow +Carvel_ and the _Flower_, inflicted a severe defeat upon five English +vessels which were engaged in a piratical expedition in the Firth of +Forth. Henry VII, in great wrath, sent Stephen Bull, with "three great +ships, well-manned, well-victualled, and well-artilleried", to revenge +the honour of the English navy, and after a severe fight Bull and his +vessels were captured by the Scots. There was thus considerable +irritation on both sides, and while the veteran intriguer, the Duchess +of Burgundy, attempted to obtain James's assistance for the pretender, +Perkin Warbeck, the pseudo-Duke of York, Henry entered into a compact +with Archibald, Earl of Angus, well-known to readers of _Marmion_. The +treachery of Angus led, however, to no immediate result, and peace was +maintained till 1495, although the French alliance was confirmed in +1491. The rupture of 1495 was due solely to the desire of James to aid +Maximilian in the attempt to dethrone Henry VII in the interests of +Warbeck. Henry, on his part, made every effort to retain the friendship +of the Scottish king, and offered a marriage alliance with his eldest +daughter, Margaret. James, however, was determined to strike a blow for +his protege, and in November, 1495, Warbeck landed in Scotland, was +received with great honour, assigned a pension, and wedded to the Lady +Katharine Gordon, daughter of the greatest northern lord, the Earl of +Huntly. In the following April, Ferdinand and Isabella, who were +desirous of separating Scotland from France, tried to dissuade James +from supporting Warbeck, and offered him a daughter in marriage, +although the only available Spanish princess was already promised to +Prince Arthur of England. But all efforts to avoid war were of no avail, +and in September, 1496, James marched into England, ravaged the English +borders, and returned to Scotland. The English replied by small border +forays, but James's enthusiasm for his guest rapidly cooled; in July, +1497, Warbeck left Scotland. James did not immediately make peace, +holding himself possibly in readiness in the event of Warbeck's +attaining any success. In August he again invaded England, and attacked +Norham Castle, provoking a counter-invasion of Scotland by the Earl of +Surrey. In September, Warbeck was captured, and, in the same month, a +truce was arranged between Scotland and England, by the Peace of Aytoun. +There was, in the following year, an unimportant border skirmish; but +with the Peace of Aytoun ended this attempt of the Scots to support a +pretender to the English crown. The first Scottish interference in the +troubles of Lancaster and York had been on behalf of the House of +Lancaster; the story is ended with this Yorkist intrigue. When next +there arose circumstances in any way similar, the sympathies of the +Scots were enlisted on the side of their own Royal House of Stuart. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 52: George Dunbar, Earl of March, must be carefully +distinguished from the child, Edmund Mortimer, the English Earl of +March, grandson of Lionel of Clarence, and direct heir to the English +throne after Richard II.] + +[Footnote 53: In the summer of 1405 the English ravaged Arran, and the +Scots sacked Berwick. There were also some naval skirmishes later in the +year.] + +[Footnote 54: Cf. App. B.] + +[Footnote 55: _The Clan Donald_, vol. i, p. 154. The Mackenzies were +also against the Celtic hero.] + +[Footnote 56: There is great doubt as to whether these events belong to +the year 1448 or 1449. Mr. Lang, with considerable probability, assigns +them to 1449.] + +[Footnote 57: James's army contained a considerable proportion of +Islesmen, who, as at Northallerton and at Bannockburn, fought _against_ +"the Saxons farther off".] + +[Footnote 58: He had married, in 1469, Margaret, daughter of Christian I +of Denmark. The islands of Orkney and Shetland were assigned as payment +for her dowry, and so passed, a few years later, under the Scottish +Crown.] + +[Footnote 59: Cf. _The Days of James IV_, by Mr. G. Gregory Smith, in +the series of "Scottish History from Contemporary Writers".] + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE + +1500-1542 + + +When, in 1501, negotiations were in progress for the marriage of James +IV to Margaret Tudor, Polydore Virgil tells us that the English Council +raised the objection that Margaret or her descendants might succeed to +the throne of England. "If it should fall out so," said Henry, "the +realm of England will suffer no evil, since it will not be the addition +of England to Scotland, but of Scotland to England." It is obvious that +the English had every reason for desiring to stop the irritating +opposition of the Scots, which, while it never seriously endangered the +realm, was frequently a cause of annoyance, and which hampered the +efforts of English diplomacy. The Scots, on the other hand, were +separated from the English by the memories of two centuries of constant +warfare, and they were bound by many ties to the enemies of England. The +only King of Scots, since Alexander III, who had been on friendly terms +with England, was James III, and his enemies had used the fact as a +weapon against him. His successor had already twice refused the +proffered English alliance, and when he at length accepted Henry's +persistent proposal and the thrice-offered English princess, it was only +after much hesitation and upon certain strict conditions. No Englishmen +were to enter Scotland "without letters commendatory of their own +sovereign lord or safe conduct of his Warden of the Marches". The +marriage, though not especially flattering to the dignity of a monarch +who had been encouraged to hope for the hand of a daughter of Spain, was +notable as involving a recognition (the first since the Treaty of +Northampton) of the King of Scots as an independent sovereign. On the +8th of August, 1503, Margaret was married to James in the chapel of +Holyrood. She was received with great rejoicing; the poet Dunbar, whom a +recent visit to London had convinced that the English capital, with its +"beryl streamis pleasant ... where many a swan doth swim with wingis +fair", was "the flower of cities all", wrote the well-known poem on the +Union of the Thistle and the Rose to welcome this second English +Margaret to Scotland. But the time was not yet ripe for any real union +of the Thistle and the Rose. Peace continued till the death of Henry +VII; but during these years England was never at war with France. James +threatened war with England in April, 1505, in the interests of the Duke +of Gueldres; in 1508, he declined to give an understanding that he would +not renew the old league with France, and he refused to be drawn, by +Pope Julius II, into an attitude of opposition to that country. Even +before the death of Henry VII, in 1509, there were troubles with regard +to the borders, and it was evident that the "perpetual peace" arranged +by the treaty of marriage was a sheer impossibility. + +Henry VIII succeeded to the throne of England in April, 1509; three +years and five months later, in September, 1513, was fought the battle +of Flodden. The causes may soon be told. They fall under three heads. +James and Henry were alike headstrong and impetuous, and they were alike +ambitious of playing a considerable part in European affairs. They were, +moreover, brothers-in-law, and, in the division of the inheritance of +Henry VII, the King of England had, with characteristic Tudor avarice, +retained jewels and other property which had been left to his sister, +the Queen of Scots. In the second place, the ancient jealousies were +again roused by disputes on the borders, and by naval warfare. James had +long been engaged in "the building of a fleet for the protection of our +shores"; in 1511, he had built the _Great Michael_, for which, it was +said, the woods of Fife had been wasted. The Scottish fleet was +frequently involved in quarrels with Henry's ships, and in August, 1511, +the English took two Scottish vessels, which they alleged to be pirates, +and Andrew Barton was slain in the fighting. James demanded redress, +but, says Hall, "the King of England wrote with brotherly salutations +to the King of Scots of the robberies and evil doings of Andrew Barton; +and that it became not one prince to lay a breach of a league to another +prince, in doing justice upon a pirate or thief".[60] These personal +irritations and petty troubles might have proved harmless, and, had no +European complications intervened, it is possible that there might have +"from Fate's dark book a leaf been torn", the leaf which tells of +Flodden Field. But, in 1511, Julius II formed the Holy League against +France, and by the end of the year it included Spain, Austria, and +England. The formation of a united Europe against the ancient ally of +Scotland thoroughly alarmed James. It was true that, at the moment, +England was willing to be friendly; but, should France be subdued, +whither might Scotland look for help in the future? James used every +effort to prevent the League from carrying out their project; he +attempted to form a coalition of Denmark, France, and Scotland, and +wrote to his uncle, the King of Denmark, urging him to declare for the +Most Christian King. He wrote Henry offering to "pardon all the damage +done to us and our kingdom, the capture of our merchant ships, the +slaughter and imprisonment of our subjects", if only Henry would +"maintain the universal concord of the Church". He made a vigorous +appeal to the pope himself, beseeching him to keep the peace. His +efforts were, of course, futile, nor was France in such extreme danger +as he supposed. But the chance of proving himself the saviour of France +appealed strongly to him, and, when there came to him, in the spring of +1513, a message from the Queen of France, couched in the bygone language +of chivalry, and urging him, as her knight, to break a lance for her on +English soil, James could no longer hesitate. Henry persevered in his +warlike measures against France, and James, after one more despairing +effort to act as mediator, began his preparations for an invasion of +England. His wisest counsellors were strongly opposed to war: most +prominent among them was his father's faithful servant, Bishop +Elphinstone, the founder of the University of Aberdeen. Elphinstone was +a saint, a scholar, and a statesman, and he was probably the only man in +Scotland who could influence the king. During the discussion of the +French alliance he urged delay, but was overborne by the impetuous +patriotism of the younger nobles, whose voice was, as ever, for war. So, +war it was. Bitter letters of defiance passed between the two kings, +and, in August, 1513, James led his army over the border. Lowlanders, +Highlanders, and Islesmen had alike rallied round his banner; once again +we find the "true Scots leagued", not "with", but against "the Saxons +farther off". The Scots took Norham Castle and some neighbouring +strongholds to prevent their affording protection to the English, and +then occupied a strong position on Flodden Edge. The Earl of Surrey, who +was in command of the English army, challenged James to a pitched +battle, and James accepted the challenge. Meanwhile, Surrey completely +outmanoeuvred the King of Scots, crossing the Till and marching +northwards so as to get between James and Scotland. James seems to have +been quite unsuspicious of this movement, which was protected by some +rising ground. The Scots had failed to learn the necessity of scouting. +Surrey, when he had gained his end, recrossed the Till, and made a march +directly southwards upon Flodden. James cannot have been afraid of +losing his communications, for his force was well-provisioned, and +Surrey was bound by the terms of his own challenge to fight immediately; +but he decided to abandon Flodden Edge for the lower ridge of Brankston, +and in a cloud of smoke, which not only rendered the Scots invisible to +the enemy but likewise concealed the enemy from the Scots, King James +and his army rushed upon the English. The battle began with artillery, +the superiority of the English in which forced the Scots to come to +close quarters. Then + + "Far on the left, unseen the while, + Stanley broke Lennox and Argyle"; + +on the English right, Sir Edmund Howard fell back before the charge of +the Scottish borderers, who, forthwith, devoted themselves to plunder. +The centre was fiercely contested; the Lord High Admiral of England, a +son of Surrey, defeated Crawford and Montrose, and attacked the division +with which James himself was encountering Surrey, while the archers on +the left of the English centre rendered unavailing the brave charge of +the Highlanders. With artillery and with archery the English had drawn +the Scottish attack, and the battle of Flodden was but a variation on +every fight since Dupplin Moor. Finally the Scots formed themselves into +a ring of spearmen, and the English, with their arrows and their long +bills, kept up a continuous attack. The story has been told once for +all: + + "But yet, though thick the shafts as snow, + Though charging knights as whirlwinds go, + Though bill-men ply the ghastly blow, + Unbroken was the ring; + The stubborn spearmen still made good + Their dark impenetrable wood, + Each stepping where their comrade stood + The instant that he fell. + No thought was there of dastard flight; + Link'd in the serried phalanx tight + Groom fought like noble, squire like knight, + As fearlessly and well; + Till utter darkness closed her wing + O'er their thin host and wounded king." + +No defeat had ever less in it of disgrace. The victory of the English +was hard won, and the valour displayed on the stricken field saved +Scotland from any further results of Surrey's triumph. The results were +severe enough. Although the Scots could boast of their dead king that + + "No one failed him; he is keeping + Royal state and semblance still", + +they had lost the best and bravest of the land. Scarcely a family record +but tells of an ancestor slain at Flodden, and many laments have come +down to us for "The Flowers of the Forest". But, although the disaster +was overwhelming, and the loss seemed irreparable at the time, though +the defeat at Flodden was not less decisive than the victory of +Bannockburn, the name of Flodden, notwithstanding all this, recalls but +an incident in our annals. Bannockburn is an incident in English +history, but it is the great turning-point in the story of Scotland; the +historian cannot regard Flodden as more than incidental to both. + +When James V succeeded his father he was but one year old, and his +guardian, in accordance with the desire of James IV, was the +queen-mother, Margaret Tudor. Her subsequent career is one long tale of +intrigue, too elaborate and intricate to require a full recapitulation +here. The war lingered on, in a desultory fashion, till May, 1515. Lord +Dacre ravaged the borders, and the Scots replied by a raid into England; +but there is nothing of any interest to relate. From the accession of +Francis I, in 1515, the condition of politics in Scotland, as of all +Europe, was influenced and at times dominated by his rivalry with the +Emperor. The unwonted desire of France for peace and alliance with +England placed the Scots in a position of considerable difficulty, and +the difficulty was accentuated by the more than usually distracted state +of the country during the minority of the king. In August, 1514, +Margaret (who had in the preceding April given birth to a posthumous +child to James IV) was married to the Earl of Angus, the grandson of +Archibald Bell-the-Cat. It was felt that the sister of Henry VIII and +the wife of a Douglas could scarcely prove a suitable guardian of a +Stewart throne, and the Scots invited the Duke of Albany, son of the +traitor duke, and cousin of the late king, to come over to Scotland and +undertake the government. Despite some efforts of Henry to prevent him, +Albany came to Scotland in May, 1515. He was a French nobleman, +possessed large estates in France, and, although he was, ere long, +heir-presumptive to the Scottish throne, could speak no language but +French. When he arrived in Scotland he found against him the party of +Margaret and Angus, while the Earls of Lennox and Arran were his ardent +supporters. The latter nobleman was the grandson of James II, being the +son of the Princess Mary and James, Lord Hamilton, and he was, +therefore, the next heir to the throne after Albany. The interests of +both might be endangered should Margaret and Angus become all-powerful, +and so we find them acting together for some time. Albany was +immediately made regent of Scotland, and the care of the young king and +his brother, the baby Duke of Ross, was entrusted to him. It required +force to obtain possession of the children, but the regent succeeded in +doing so in August, in time to defeat a scheme of Henry VIII for +kidnapping the princes. The queen-mother fled to England, where, in +October, she bore to Angus a daughter, Margaret, afterwards Countess of +Lennox and mother of the unfortunate Darnley. She then proceeded to pay +a visit to Henry VIII. Meanwhile, in Scotland, Albany was finding many +difficulties. Arran was now in rebellion against him, and now in +alliance with him. In May, 1516, Angus himself, leaving his imperious +wife in England, made terms with the regent. The infant Duke of Ross had +died in the end of 1515, and only the boy king stood between Albany and +the throne. In 1517 Albany returned to France to cement more closely the +old alliance, and remained in France till 1521. Margaret immediately +returned to Scotland, and, had she behaved with any degree of wisdom, +might have greatly strengthened her brother's tortuous Scottish policy. +But a Tudor and a Douglas could not be other than an ill-matched pair, +and Margaret was already tired of her husband. In 1518, she informed +her brother that she desired to divorce Angus. Henry, whose own +matrimonial adventures were still in the future, and to whom Angus was +useful, scolded his sister in true Tudor fashion, and told her that, +alike by the laws of God and man, she must stick to her husband. A +formal reconciliation took place, but, henceforth, Margaret's one desire +was to be free, and to this she subordinated all other considerations. +In 1519, she came to an understanding with Arran, her husband's +bitterest foe, and in the summer of the same year we find Henry +marvelling much at the "tender letters" she sent to France, in which she +urged the return of Albany, whose absence from Scotland had been the +main aim of English policy since Flodden. While Francis I and Henry VIII +were on good terms, Albany was detained in France; but when, in 1521, +their relations became strained, he returned to Scotland to find Angus +in power. Scotland rallied round him, and in February, 1522, Angus, in +turn, retired to France, while Henry VIII devoted his energies to the +prevention of a marriage between his amorous sister and the handsome +Albany. The regent led an army to the borders and began to organize an +invasion, for which the north of England was ill-prepared, but was +outwitted by Henry's agent, Lord Dacre, who arranged an armistice which +he had no authority to conclude. Albany then returned to France, and +the Scots, refusing Henry's offer of peace, had to suffer an invasion by +Surrey, which was encouraged by Margaret, who was again on the English +side. When Albany came back in September, 1523, he easily won over the +fickle queen; but, after an unsuccessful attack on Wark, he left +Scotland for ever in May, 1524. + +No sooner had Albany disappeared from the scene than Margaret entered +into a new intrigue with the Earl of Arran; it had one important result, +the "erection" of the young king, who now, at the age of twelve years, +became the nominal ruler of the country. This manoeuvre was executed +with the connivance of the English, to whose side Margaret had again +deserted. For some time Arran and Margaret remained at the head of +affairs, but the return of the Earl of Angus at once drove the +queen-mother into the opposite camp, and she became reconciled to the +leader of the French party, Archbishop Beaton, whom she had imprisoned +shortly before. Angus, who had been the paid servant of England +throughout all changes since 1517, assumed the government. The alliance +between England and France, which followed the disaster to Francis I at +Pavia, seriously weakened the supporters of French influence in +Scotland, and Angus made a three years' truce in 1525. In the next year, +Arran transferred his support to Angus, who held the reins of power till +the summer of 1528. The chief event of this period is the divorce of +Queen Margaret, who immediately married a youth, Henry Stewart, son of +Lord Evandale, and afterwards known as Lord Methven. + +The fall of Angus was brought about by the conduct of the young king +himself, who, tired of the tyranny in which he was held, and escaping +from Edinburgh to Stirling, regained his freedom. Angus had to flee to +England, and James passed under the influence of his mother and her +youthful husband. In 1528 he made a truce with England for five years. +During these years James showed leanings towards the French alliance, +while Henry was engaged in treasonable intrigues with Scottish nobles, +and in fomenting border troubles. But the truce was renewed in 1533, and +a more definite peace was made in 1534. Henry now attempted to enlist +James as an ally against Rome, and, by the irony of fate, offered him, +as a temptation to become a Protestant, the hand of the Princess Mary. +James refused to break with the pope, and negotiations for a meeting +between the two kings fell through--fortunately, for Henry was prepared +to kidnap James. The King of Scots arranged in 1536 to marry a daughter +of the Duc de Vendome, but, on seeing her, behaved much as Henry VIII +was to do in the case of Anne of Cleves, except that he definitely +declined to wed her at all. Being in France, he made a proposal for the +Princess Madeleine, daughter of Francis I, and was married to her in +January, 1536-37. This step naturally annoyed Henry, who refused James a +passport through England, on the ground that "no Scottish king had ever +entered England peacefully except as a vassal". So James returned by sea +with his dying bride, and reached Scotland to find numerous troubles in +store for him--among them, intrigues brought about by his mother's wish +to obtain a divorce from her third husband. Madeleine died in July, +1537, and the relations between James and Henry VIII (now a widower by +the death of Jane Seymour) were further strained by the fact that nephew +and uncle alike desired the hand of Mary of Guise, widow of the Duke de +Longueville, who preferred her younger suitor and married him in the +following summer. These two French marriages are important as marking +James's final rejection of the path marked out for him by Henry VIII. +The husband of a Guise could scarcely remain on good terms with the +heretic King of England; but Henry, with true Tudor persistency, did not +give up hope of bending his nephew to his will, and spent the next few +years in negotiating with James, in trying to alienate him from Cardinal +Beaton--the great supporter of the French alliance,--and in urging the +King of Scots to enrich himself at the expense of the Church. As late as +1541, a meeting was arranged at York, whither Henry went, to find that +his nephew did not appear. James was probably wise, for we know that +Henry would not have scrupled to seize his person. Border troubles +arose; Henry reasserted the old claim of homage and devised a scheme to +kidnap James. Finally he sent the Earl of Angus, who had been living in +England, with a force to invade Scotland, and this without the formality +of declaring war. Henry, in fact, was acting as a suzerain punishing a +vassal who had refused to appear when he was summoned. The English +ravaged the county of Roxburgh in 1542; the Scottish nobles declined to +cross the border in what they asserted to be a French quarrel; and in +November a small Scottish force was enclosed between Solway Moss and the +river Esk, and completely routed. The ignominy of this fresh disaster +broke the king's heart. On December 8th was born the hapless princess +who is known as _the_ Queen of Scots. The news brought small comfort to +the dying king, who was still mourning the sons he had lost in the +preceding year. "'Adieu,' he said, 'farewell; it came with a lass and it +will pass with a lass.' And so", adds Pitscottie, "he recommended +himself to the mercy of Almighty God, and spake little from that time +forth, but turned his back unto his lords, and his face unto the wall." +Six days later the end came. With "a little smile of laughter", and +kissing his hand to the nobles who stood round, he breathed his last. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 60: Gregory Smith, p. 123.] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE PARTING OF THE WAYS + +1542-1568 + + +Mary of Guise, thus for the second time a widow, was left the sole +protector of the infant queen, against the intrigues of Henry VIII and +the treachery of the House of Douglas. Fortunately, Margaret Tudor had +predeceased her son in October, 1541, and her death left one disturbing +element the less. But the situation which the dowager had to face was +much more perplexed than that which confronted any other of the long +line of Scottish queen-mothers. During the reign of James V the Reformed +doctrines had been rapidly spreading in Scotland. It was at one time +possible that James V might follow the example of Henry VIII, and a +considerable section of his subjects would have welcomed the change. His +death added recruits to the Protestant cause; the greater nobles now +strongly desired an alienation of Church property, because they could +take advantage of the royal minority to seize it for their private +advantage. The English party no longer consisted only of outlawed +traitors; there were many honest Scots who felt that alliance with a +Protestant kingdom must replace the old French league. The main +interest had come to be not nationality but religion, and Scotland must +decide between France and England. The sixteenth century had already, in +spite of all that had passed, made it evident that Scots and English +could live on terms of peace, and the reign of James IV, which had +witnessed the first attempt at a perpetual alliance, was remembered as +the golden age of Scottish prosperity. The queen-mother was, by birth +and by education, committed to the maintenance of the old religion and +of the French alliance. The task was indeed difficult. Ultimate success +was rendered impossible by causes over which she possessed no kind of +control; a temporary victory was rendered practicable only by the folly +of Henry VIII. + +The history of Henry's intrigues becomes at this point very intricate, +and we must be content with a mere outline. On James's death he +conceived the plan of seizing the Scottish throne, and for this purpose +he entered into an agreement with the Scottish prisoners taken at Solway +Moss. They professed themselves willing to seize Mary and Cardinal +Beaton, and so to deprive the national party of their leaders. Then came +the news that the Earl of Arran had been appointed regent in December, +1542. He was heir-presumptive to the throne, and so was unlikely to +acquiesce in Henry's scheme, and the traitors were instructed to deal +with him as they thought necessary. But the traitors, who had, of +course, been joined by the Earl of Angus, proved false to Henry and were +falsely true to Scotland. They imprisoned Beaton, but did not deliver +him up to the English, and they came to terms with Arran; nor did they +carry out Henry's projects further than to permit the circulation of +"haly write, baith the new testament and the auld, in the vulgar toung", +and to enter into negotiations for the marriage of the young queen to +the Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VI. The conditions they made were +widely different from those suggested by Henry. Full precautions were +taken to secure the independence of the country both during Mary's +minority and for the future. Strongholds were to be retained in Scottish +hands; should there be no child of the marriage, the union would +determine, and the proper heir would succeed to the Scottish throne. In +any case, no union of the kingdoms was contemplated, although the crowns +might be united. These terms were slightly modified in the following +May. Beaton, who had escaped to St. Andrews, did not oppose the treaty, +but made preparations for war. The treaty was agreed to, and the war of +intrigues went on, Henry offering almost any terms for the possession of +the little queen. Finally, in September, Arran joined the cardinal, +became reconciled to the Church, and left Henry to intrigue with the +Earl of Lennox, the next heir after Arran. + +Hostilities broke out in the end of 1543, when the Scots, enraged by +Henry's having attacked some Scottish shipping, declared the treaty +annulled. In the spring of 1544, the Earl of Hertford conducted his +expedition into Scotland. The "English Wooing", as it was called, took +the form of a massacre without regard to age or sex. The instructions +given to Hertford by Henry and his council read like quotations from the +book of Joshua. He was to leave none remaining, where he encountered any +resistance. Hertford, abandoning the usual methods of English invaders, +came by sea, took Leith, burned Edinburgh, and ravaged the Lothians. +Lennox attempted to give up Dumbarton to the English, but his treachery +was discovered and he fled to England, where he married Margaret, the +daughter of Angus and niece of Henry VIII, by whom he became, in 1545, +the father of Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, who thus stood within the +possibility of succession, in his own right, to both kingdoms. Angus and +his brother, Sir George Douglas, seized the opportunity given them by +the misery caused by the English atrocities to make a move against Arran +and Beaton, and seized the person of the queen-mother. But their success +was brought to an end by the meeting of a Parliament, summoned by Arran, +in December, 1544, and the Douglases were reconciled and restored to +their estates, deeming this the most profitable step for themselves. +Their breach with Henry was widened by the events of the next two +months. A body of Englishmen, under Sir Ralph Eure, defeated Arran at +Melrose, and desecrated the abbey, the sepulchre of the Douglas family. +In revenge, Angus, along with Arran, fell upon the English at Ancrum +Moor in Roxburghshire, and inflicted on them a total defeat. This was +followed by a second invasion of Hertford (this time by land). He +ravaged the borders in merciless fashion. A counter-invasion by an army +of Scots and French auxiliaries had proved futile owing to the +incompetence or the treachery of Angus, who almost immediately returned +to the English side. About the same time a descendant of the Lord of the +Isles whom James IV had crushed made an agreement with Henry, but was of +little use to his cause. Beaton, after some successful fighting on the +borders, in the end of 1545, went to St. Andrews in the beginning of +1546. On the 1st March, George Wishart, who had been condemned on a +charge of heresy, was hanged, and his body was burned at the stake. On +May 29th the more fierce section of the Protestant party took their +revenge by murdering the great cardinal in cold blood. We are not here +concerned with Beaton's private character or with his treatment of +heretics. His public actions, as far as foreign relations are concerned, +are marked by a consistent patriotic aim. He represented the long line +of Scottish churchmen who had striven to maintain the integrity of the +kingdom and the alliance with France. He had shown great ability and +tact, and in politics he had been much more honest than his opponents. +But for his support of the queen-dowager in 1542-43, and but for his +maintaining the party to which Arran afterwards attached himself, it is +possible that Scotland might have passed under the yoke of Henry VIII in +1543, instead of being peacefully united to England sixty years later. +With him disappeared any remaining hope of the French party. "We may say +of old Catholic Scotland", writes Mr. Lang, "as said the dying Cardinal: +'Fie, all is gone'." + +Though Beaton was dead, the effects of his work remained. He had saved +the situation at the crisis of December, 1542, and the insensate cruelty +of Henry VIII had made it impossible that the Cardinal's work should +fall to pieces at once. It seemed at first as if the only difference was +that the castle of St. Andrews was held by the English party. Ten months +after Beaton's death, the small Protestant garrison was joined by John +Knox, who was present when the regent succeeded, with help from France, +in reducing the castle in July, 1547. Its defenders, including Knox, +were sent as galley-slaves to France. Henry VIII had died in the +preceding January, but Hertford (now Protector Somerset) continued the +Scottish policy of the preceding reign. In the summer of 1547 he made +his third invasion of Scotland, marked by the usual barbarity. In the +course of it, on 10th September, was fought the last battle between +Scots and English. Somerset met the Scots, under Arran, at Pinkiecleuch, +near Edinburgh, and by the combined effect of artillery and a cavalry +charge, completely defeated them with great slaughter. The English, +after some further devastation, returned home, and the Scots at once +entered into a treaty with France, which had been at war with England +since 1544. It was agreed that the young queen should marry the dauphin, +the eldest son of Henry II. While negotiations were in progress, she was +placed for safety, first in the priory of Inchmahome, an island in the +lake of Menteith, and afterwards in Dumbarton Castle. In June, 1548, a +large number of French auxiliaries were sent to Scotland, and, in the +beginning of August, Mary was sent to France. The English failed to +capture her, and she landed about 13th August. The war lingered on till +1550. The Scots gradually won back the strongholds which had been seized +by the English, and, although their French allies did good service, +serious jealousies arose, which greatly weakened the position of the +French party. Finally, Scotland was included in the peace made between +England and France in 1550. + +All the time, the Reformed faith was rapidly gaining adherents, and +when, in April, 1554, the queen-dowager succeeded Arran (now Duke of +Chatelherault) as regent, she found the problem of governing Scotland +still more difficult. The relations with England had, indeed, been +simplified by the accession of a Roman Catholic queen in England, but +the Spanish marriage of Mary Tudor made it difficult for a Guise to +obtain any help from her. She continued the policy of obtaining French +levies, and the irritation they caused was a considerable help to her +opponents. Knox had returned to Scotland in 1555, and, except for a +visit to Geneva in 1556-57, spent the rest of his life in his native +country. In 1557 was formed the powerful assembly of Protestant clergy +and laymen who took the title of "the Congregation of the Lord", and +signed the National Covenant which aimed at the abolition of Roman +Catholicism. Their hostility to the queen-regent was intensified by the +events of the year 1558-59. In April, 1558, Queen Mary was married to +the dauphin, and her husband received the crown-matrimonial and became +known as King of Scots. Scotland seemed to have passed entirely under +France. We know that there was some ground for the Protestant alarm, +because the girl queen had been induced to sign documents which +transferred her rights, in case of her decease without issue, to the +King of France and his heirs. These documents were in direct antagonism +to the assurance given to the Scottish Parliament of the maintenance of +national independence. The French alliance seemed to have gained a +complete triumph, while the shout of joy raised by its supporters was +really the swan-song of the cause. Knox and the Congregation had +rendered it for ever impossible. + +Nor was it long before this became apparent. In November, 1558, Mary +Tudor died, and England was again Protestant. Henry II ordered Francis +and Mary to assume the arms of England, in virtue of Mary's descent from +Margaret Tudor, which made her in Roman Catholic eyes the rightful Queen +of England, Elizabeth being born out of wedlock. The Protestant Queen of +England had thus an additional motive for opposition to the government +of Mary of Guise and her daughter. It was unfortunate for the +queen-regent that, at this particular juncture, she was entering into +strained relations with the Reformers. Hitherto she had succeeded in +satisfying Knox himself; but, in the beginning of 1559, she adopted more +severe measures, and the lords of the congregation began to discuss a +treasonable alliance with England, which proved the beginning of the +end. The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis set the French government free to +pay greater attention to the progress of Scottish affairs, and Mary of +Guise forthwith denounced the leading Protestant preachers as heretics. +It was much too late. The immediate result was the Perth riots of May +and June, 1559, which involved the destruction of the religious houses +which were the glory of the Fair City. The aspect of affairs was so +threatening that the regent came to terms, and promised that she would +take no vengeance on the people of Perth, and that she would not leave a +French garrison in the town. The regent kept her word in garrisoning the +town with Scotsmen, but her introduction of a French bodyguard, in +attendance on her own person, was regarded as a breach of her promise. +The destruction of religious buildings continued, although Knox did his +endeavour to save the palace of Scone. The Protestants held St. Andrews +while the regent entered into negotiations which they considered to be a +mere subterfuge for gaining time, and, on the 29th June, they marched +upon Edinburgh. In July, 1559, occurred the sudden death of Henry II; +Francis and Mary succeeded, and the supreme power in France and in +Scotland passed to the House of Guise. The Protestants who had been +making overtures to Cecil and Elizabeth declared, in October, that the +regent had been deposed. This bold step was justified by the help +received from England, and by the indignation caused by the excesses of +the regent's French troops in Scotland. So far had religious emotion +outrun the sentiment of nationality that the Protestants were willing to +admit almost any English claim. The result of Elizabeth's treaty with +the rebels was that they were enabled to besiege Leith, by means of an +English fleet, while the regent took refuge in Edinburgh Castle. The +English attack on Leith was unsuccessful, but the dangerous illness of +the queen-mother led to the conclusion of peace. A truce was made on +condition that all foreign soldiers, French and English alike, should +leave Scotland, and that the Scottish claim to the English throne should +be abandoned. On the 11th June, 1560, Mary died. The wisdom of the +policy of her later years may be questioned, but her conduct during her +widowhood forms a strange contrast to that of her Tudor mother-in-law in +similar circumstances. It is probable that her intentions were honest +enough, and that the Protestant indignation at her "falsehoods" was +based on invincible misunderstanding. Her gracious charm of manner was +the concomitant of a tolerance rare in the sixteenth century; and she +died at peace with all men, and surrounded by those who had been in arms +against her, receiving "all her nobles with all pleasure, with a +pleasant countenance, and even embracing them with a kiss of love". + +Her death set the lords of the congregation free to carry out their +ecclesiastical programme. In August Roman Catholicism was abolished by +the Scottish Parliament and the celebration of the mass forbidden, under +severe penalties. There remained the question of the ratification of the +Treaty of Edinburgh, the final form of the agreement by which peace had +been made. The young Queen of Scots objected to the treaty on the ground +that it included a clause that "the most Christian King and Queen Mary, +and each of them, abstain henceforth from using the title and bearing +the arms of the kingdom of England or of Ireland".[61] She interpreted +the word "henceforth" as involving an absolute renunciation of her claim +to the English throne, and so prejudicing her succession, should she +survive Elizabeth. Cecil had suggested to the Scots that it might be +advisable to raise the claim of the Lord James Stewart, an illegitimate +son of James V, and afterwards Earl of Moray, to the throne, or to +support that of the House of Hamilton. The Scots improved on this +suggestion, and proposed that Elizabeth should marry the Earl of Arran, +the eldest son of the Duke of Chatelherault, who might succeed to the +throne. There were many reasons why Elizabeth should not wed the +imbecile Arran, and it may safely be said that she never seriously +considered the project although she continued to trifle with the +suggestion, which formed a useful form of intrigue against Mary. + +The situation was considerably altered by the death of Francis II, in +December, 1560. That event was, on the whole, welcome to Elizabeth, for +it destroyed the power of the Guises, and Mary Stuart[62] had now to +face her Scottish difficulties without French aid. She was not on good +terms with her mother-in-law, Catherine de Medici, who now controlled +the destinies of France, and it was evident that she must accept the +fact of the Scottish Reformation, and enter upon a conflict with the +theocratic tendencies of the Church and with the Scottish nobles who +were the pensioners of Elizabeth. On the other hand, although Francis II +was dead, his widow survived, young, beautiful, charming, and a queen. +The dissolution of her first marriage had removed an actual difficulty +from the path of the English queen, but, after all, it only meant that +she might be able to contract an alliance still more dangerous. As early +as December 31st, 1560, Throckmorton warned Elizabeth that she must +"have an eye to" the second marriage of Mary Stuart.[63] The Queen of +England had a choice of alternatives. She might prosecute the intrigue +with the Earl of Arran, capture Mary on her way to Scotland, and boldly +adopt the position of the leader of Protestantism. There were, however, +many difficulties, ecclesiastical, foreign, and personal, in such a +course. Arran was an impossible husband; Knox and the lords of the +congregation made good allies but bad subjects; and the inevitable +struggle with Spain would be precipitated. The other course was to +attempt to win Mary's confidence, and to prevent her from contracting an +alliance with the Hapsburgs, which was probably what Elizabeth most +feared. This was the alternative finally adopted by the Queen of +England; but, very characteristically, she did not immediately abandon +the other possibility. On the pretext that Mary refused to confirm the +Treaty of Edinburgh, her cousin declined to grant her request for a +safe-conduct from France to Scotland, and spoke of the Scottish queen in +terms which Mary took the first opportunity of resenting. "The queen, +your mistress," she remarked to the English ambassador who brought the +refusal, "doth say that I am young and do lack experience. Indeed I +confess I am younger than she is, and do want experience; but I have age +enough and experience to use myself towards my friends and kinsfolk +friendly and uprightly; and I trust my discretion shall not so fail me +that my passion shall move me to use other language of her than it +becometh of a queen and my next kinswoman."[64] + +When, in August, 1561, Mary did sail from France to Scotland, Elizabeth +made an effort to capture her. It was characteristically hesitating, and +it succeeded only in giving Mary an impression of Elizabeth's hostility. +Some months later Elizabeth imprisoned the Countess of Lennox, the +mother of Darnley, for giving God thanks because "when the queen's +ships were almost near taking of the Scottish queen, there fell down a +mist from heaven that separated them and preserved her".[65] The arrival +of Mary in Scotland effectually put an end to the Arran intrigue, but +the girl-widow of scarcely nineteen years had many difficulties with +which to contend. As a devout Roman Catholic, she had to face the +relentless opposition of Knox and the congregation, who objected even to +her private exercise of her own faith. As the representative of the +French alliance, now but a dead cause, she was confronted by an English +party which included not only her avowed enemies but many of her real or +pretended friends. Her brother, the Lord James Stewart, whom she made +Earl of Moray, and who guided the early policy of her reign, was +constantly in Elizabeth's pay, as were most of her other advisers. Her +secretary, Maitland of Lethington, the most distinguished and the ablest +Scottish statesman of his day, had, as the fixed aim of his policy, a +good understanding with England. Furthermore, she was disliked by all +the nobles who had seized upon the property of the Church and added it +to their own possessions. Up to the age of twenty-five she had, by Scots +law, the right of recalling all grants of land made during her minority, +and her greedy nobles knew well that the victory of Roman Catholicism +meant the restoration of Church lands. Her relations with France were +uncertain, and the Guises found their attention fully occupied at home. +As the next heir to the throne of England, she was bound to be very +careful in her dealings with Elizabeth. United by every tie of blood and +sentiment to Rome and the Guises, she was forced, for reasons of policy, +to remain on good terms with Protestantism and the Tudor Queen of +England. The first years of Mary's reign in Scotland were marked by the +continuance of good relations between herself and her half-brother, whom +she entrusted with the government of the kingdom. In 1562 she suppressed +the most powerful Catholic noble in Scotland, the Earl of Huntly. The +result of this policy was to raise an unfounded suspicion in England and +Spain that the Queen of Scots was "no more devout towards Rome than for +the sustentation of her uncles".[66] The indignation felt at Mary's +conduct among Roman Catholics in England and in Spain may have been one +of the reasons for Elizabeth's adopting a more distinctly Protestant +position in 1562. In the Act of Supremacy of that year the first avowed +reference is made to the authority used by Henry VIII and Edward VI, +_i.e._ the Supreme Headship of the Church. It at all events made +Elizabeth's position less difficult, because Spain and Austria were not +likely to attack England in the interests of a queen whose orthodoxy was +doubtful. + +Meanwhile Elizabeth was directing all her efforts to prevent Mary from +contracting a second marriage, and, at all hazards, to secure that she +should not marry Don Carlos of Spain or the Archduke of Austria. Her +persistent endeavours to bribe Scottish nobles were directed, with +considerable acuteness, to creating an English party strong enough to +deter foreign princes from "seeking upon a country so much at her +devotion".[67] She warned Mary that any alliance with "a mighty prince" +would offend England[68] and so imperil her succession. Mary, on her +part, was attempting to obtain a recognition of her position as "second +person" [heir presumptive], and she professed her willingness to take +Elizabeth's advice in the all-important matter of her marriage. The +English queen made various suggestions, and found objections to them +all. Finally she proposed that Mary should marry her own favourite, +Leicester, and a long correspondence followed. It was suggested that the +two queens should have an interview, but this project fell through. +Elizabeth, of course, was too fondly attached to Leicester to see him +become the husband of her beautiful rival; Mary, on her part, despised +the "new-made earl", and Leicester himself apologized to Mary's +ambassador for the presumption of the proposal, "alleging the invention +of that proposition to have proceeded from Master Cecil, his secret +enemy".[69] While the Leicester negotiations were in progress, the Earl +of Lennox, who had been exiled in 1544, returned to Scotland with his +son Henry, Lord Darnley, a handsome youth, eighteen years of age. As +early as May, 1564, Knox suspected that Mary intended to marry +Darnley.[70] There is little doubt that it was a love-match; but there +were also political reasons, for Darnley was, after Mary herself, the +nearest heir to Elizabeth's throne, and only the Hamiltons stood between +him and the crown of Scotland. He had been born and educated in England, +as also had been his mother, the daughter of Angus and Margaret Tudor, +and Elizabeth might have used him as against Mary's claim. That claim +the English queen refused to acknowledge, although, in the end of 1564, +Murray and Maitland of Lethington tried their utmost to persuade her to +do so. + +On the 29th July, 1565, Mary was married to Darnley in the chapel of +Holyrood. Elizabeth chose to take offence, and Murray raised a +rebellion. There are two stories of plots: there are hints of a scheme +to capture Mary and Darnley; and Murray, on the other hand, alleged that +Darnley had entered into a conspiracy to kidnap him. It is, at all +events, certain that Murray raised a revolt and that the people rallied +to Mary, who drove her brother across the border. Elizabeth received +Murray with coldness, and asked him "how he, being a rebel to her sister +of Scotland, durst take the boldness upon him to come within her +realm?"[71] But Murray, confident in Elizabeth's promise of aid, knew +what this hypocritical outburst was worth, and the English queen soon +afterwards wrote to Mary in his favour. The motive which Murray alleged +for his revolt was his fear for the true religion in view of Mary's +marriage to Darnley, nominally a Roman Catholic; but his position with +regard to the Rizzio Bond renders it, as we shall see, somewhat +difficult to give him credit for sincerity. It is more likely that he +was ambitious of ruling the kingdom with Mary as a prisoner. About +Elizabeth's complicity there can be no doubt.[72] + +Mary's troubles had only begun. On the 16th January, 1566, Randolph, the +English ambassador, wrote from Edinburgh: "I cannot tell what mislikings +of late there hath been between her grace and her husband; he presses +earnestly for the matrimonial crown, which she is loth hastily to +grant". Darnley, in fact, had proved a vicious fool, and was possessed +of a fool's ambition. Rizzio, Mary's Italian secretary, who had urged +the Darnley marriage, strongly warned Mary against giving her husband +any real share in the government, and Darnley determined that Rizzio +should be "removed".[73] He therefore entered into a conspiracy with his +natural enemies, the Scottish nobles, who professed to be willing to +secure the throne for this youth whom they despised and hated. The plot +involved the murder of Rizzio, the imprisonment of Mary, the +crown-matrimonial for Darnley, and the return of Murray and his +accomplices, who were still in exile. The English government was, of +course, privy to the scheme.[74] The murder was carried out, in +circumstances of great brutality, on the night of the 9th March. Mary's +condition of health, "having then passed almost to the end of seven +months in our birth", renders the carrying out of the deed in her +presence, and while Rizzio was her guest, almost certainly an attempt +upon the queen's own life. There were numberless opportunities of +slaying Rizzio elsewhere, and the ghastly details--the sudden appearance +of Ruthven, hollow, pale, just risen from a sick bed, the pistol of Ker +of Faudonside,--are so rich in dramatic effect that one can scarcely +doubt what _denouement_ was intended. The plot failed in its main +purpose. Rizzio, indeed, was killed, and Murray made his appearance next +morning and obtained forgiveness. The queen "embracit him and kisset +him, alleging that in caice he had bene at hame, he wald not have +sufferit her to have bene sa uncourterly handlit". But the success ended +here. Mary won over her husband, and together they escaped and fled to +Dunbar. Darnley deserted his accomplices, proclaimed his innocence, and +strongly urged the punishment of the murderers. They, of course, threw +themselves on the hospitality of Queen Elizabeth, who sent them money, +and lied to Mary,[75] who did not put too much faith in her cousin's +assurances. On June 19th, a prince was born in Edinburgh Castle, but the +event brought about only a partial reconciliation between his unhappy +parents. Mary was shamefully treated by her worthless husband, and in +the following November her nobles suggested to her the project of a +divorce. Darnley, however, was not doomed to the fate which overtook his +descendants, the life of a king without a crown. He had awakened the +enmity of men whose feuds were blood-feuds, and the Rizzio conspirators +were not likely to forgive the upstart youth whose inconstancy had +foiled their plan for Mary's fall, and whose treachery had involved them +in exile. Darnley had proved useless even as a tool for the nobles, he +had offended Mary and disgusted everybody in Scotland, and there were +many who were willing to do without him. At this point a new tool was +ready to the hands of the discontented barons. The Earl of Bothwell, +whether with Mary's consent or not, aspired to the queen's hand, and +devised a plan for the murder of Darnley. On the night of the 10th +February, 1566-67, the wretched boy, not yet twenty-one years of age, +was strangled,[76] and the house in which he had been living was blown +up with gunpowder. Public opinion accused Bothwell of the murder; he was +tried and found innocent, and Parliament put its seal upon his +acquittal. On the 24th April he seized the person of the queen as she +was travelling from Linlithgow to Edinburgh, and Mary married him on the +15th May. _Mense malum Maio nubere vulgus ait._ The nobles almost +immediately raised a rebellion, professedly to deliver the queen from +the thraldom of Bothwell. On June 15th she surrendered at Carberry Hill, +and the nobles disregarded a pledge of loyalty to the queen given on +condition of her abandoning Bothwell, alleging that she was still in +correspondence with him. They now accused her of murdering her husband, +and imprisoned her in Lochleven Castle. The whole affair is wrapped in +mystery, but it is impossible to give the Earl of Morton and the other +nobles any credit for honesty of purpose. There can be little doubt that +they used Bothwell for their own ends, and, while they represented the +murder as the result of a domestic conspiracy between the queen and +Bothwell, they afterwards, when quarrelling among themselves, hurled at +each other accusations of participation in the plot, and their leader, +the Earl of Morton, died on the scaffold as a criminal put to death for +the murder of Darnley. This, of course, does not exclude the hypothesis +of Mary's guilt, and while the view of Hume or of Mr. Froude could not +now be seriously advanced in its entirety, it is only right to say that +a majority of historians are of opinion that she, at least, connived at +the murder. The question of her implication as a principal in the plot +depends upon the authenticity of the documents known as the "Casket +Letters", which purported to be written by the queen to Bothwell, and +which the insurgent lords afterwards produced as evidence against +her.[77] + +Moray had left Scotland in the end of April. When he returned in the +beginning of August he found that the prisoner of Lochleven, to whom he +owed his advancement and his earldom, had been forced to sign a deed of +abdication, nominating himself as regent for her infant son. On the 15th +August he went to Lochleven and saw his sister, as he had done after the +murder of Rizzio, when she was a prisoner in Holyrood. Till an hour past +midnight, Elizabeth's pensioner preached to the unfortunate princess on +righteousness and judgment, leaving her "that night in hope of nothing +but of God's mercy". It was merely a threat; Mary's life was safe, for +Elizabeth, roused, for once, to a feeling of generosity, had forbidden +Moray to make any attempt on that. Next morning he graciously accepted +the regency and left his sister's prison with her kisses on his +lips.[78] + +On the 2nd May, 1568, Mary escaped from Lochleven, and her brother at +once prepared a hostile force to meet her. Her army, composed largely of +Protestants, marched towards Dunbarton Castle, where they desired to +place the queen for safe keeping. The regent intercepted her at +Langside, and inflicted a complete defeat upon her forces. Mary was +again a fugitive, and her followers strongly urged her to take refuge in +France. But Elizabeth had given her a promise of protection, and Mary, +impelled by some fateful impulse, resolved to throw herself on the mercy +of her kinswoman.[79] On the 16th day of May, her little boat crossed +the Solway. When the Queen of Scots, the daughter of the House of Guise, +the widow of a monarch of the line of Valois, set foot on English soil +as a suppliant for the protection which came to her only by death, the +last faint hope must have faded out of the hearts of the few who still +longed for an independent Scotland, bound by gratitude and by ancient +tradition to the ally who, more than once, had proved its salvation. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 61: Cf. the present writer's "Mary, Queen of Scots" (Scottish +History from Contemporary Writers).] + +[Footnote 62: The spelling "Stuart", which Queen Mary brought with her +from France, now superseded the older "Stewart".] + +[Footnote 63: Foreign Calendar: Elizabeth, December 31st, 1560.] + +[Footnote 64: _Cabala, Sive Scrinia Sacra_, pp. 345-349.] + +[Footnote 65: Foreign Calendar, May 7th, 1562.] + +[Footnote 66: Foreign Calendar, June 8th, 1562.] + +[Footnote 67: Foreign Calendar, March 31st, 1561.] + +[Footnote 68: Foreign Calendar, 20th August, 1563.] + +[Footnote 69: Sir James Melville's _Memoirs_, pp. 116-130 (Bannatyne +Club).] + +[Footnote 70: Laing's _Knox_, vi, p. 541.] + +[Footnote 71: Laing's _Knox_, vol. ii, p. 513. Melville's _Memoirs_, p. +134.] + +[Footnote 72: Foreign Calendar, July-December, 1565.] + +[Footnote 73: The evidence for the scandal which associated Mary's name +with that of Rizzio will be found in Mr. Hay Fleming's _Mary, Queen of +Scots_, pp. 398-401. It is very far indeed from being conclusive.] + +[Footnote 74: Foreign Calendar, March, 1566.] + +[Footnote 75: Mary to Elizabeth, July, 1566. Keith's History, ii, p. +442.] + +[Footnote 76: It is almost certain that Darnley was murdered before the +explosion.] + +[Footnote 77: Mary's defenders point out that her 25th birthday fell in +November, 1567, and that it was necessary to prevent her from taking any +steps for the restitution of Church land; and they look on the plot as +devised by Bothwell and the other nobles, the latter aiming at using +Bothwell as a tool to ruin Mary. On the question of the Casket Letters, +see Mr. Lang's _Mystery of Mary Stuart_.] + +[Footnote 78: Keith's History, ii, pp. 736-739.] + +[Footnote 79: In forming any moral judgment with regard to Elizabeth's +conduct towards Mary, it must be remembered that Mary fled to England +trusting to the English Queen's invitation.] + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE UNION OF THE CROWNS + +1568-1625 + + +When Mary fled to England, Elizabeth refused to see her, on the ground +that she ought first to clear herself from the suspicion of guilt in +connection with the murder of Darnley. In the end, Mary agreed that the +case should be submitted to the judgment of a commission appointed by +Elizabeth, and she appeared as prosecuting Moray and his friends as +rebels and traitors. They defended themselves by bringing accusations +against Mary, and produced the Casket Letters and other documents in +support of their assertions. Mary asked to be brought face to face with +her accusers; Elizabeth thought the claim "very reasonable", and refused +it. Mary then asked for copies of the letters produced as evidence +against her, and when her request was pressed upon Elizabeth's notice by +La Mothe Fenelon, the French ambassador, he was informed that +Elizabeth's feelings had been hurt by Mary's accusing her of +partiality.[80] Mary's commissioners then withdrew, and Elizabeth closed +the case, with the oracular decision that, "nothing has been adduced +against the Earl of Moray and his adherents, as yet, that may impair +their honour or allegiances; and, on the other part, there has been +nothing sufficiently produced nor shown by them against the queen, their +sovereign, whereby the Queen of England should conceive or take any evil +opinion of the queen, her good sister, for anything yet seen". So +Elizabeth's "good sister" was subjected to a rigorous imprisonment, and +the Earl of Moray returned to Scotland, with an increased allowance of +English gold. Henceforth the successive regents of Scotland had to guide +their policy in accordance with Elizabeth's wishes. If they rebelled, +she could always threaten to release her prisoner, and, once or twice in +the course of those long, weary years, Mary, whose nature was buoyant, +actually dared to hope that Elizabeth would replace her on her throne. +While Mary was plotting, and hope deferred was being succeeded by hope +deferred and vain illusion by vain illusion, events moved fast. In +November, 1569, the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland raised a +rebellion in her favour, which was easily suppressed. In January, 1570, +Moray was assassinated at Linlithgow, and the Earl of Lennox, the father +of Darnley, and the traitor of Mary's minority, succeeded to the +regency, while Mary's Scottish supporters, who had continued to fight +for her desperate cause, were strengthened by the accession of Maitland +of Lethington, who, with Kirkaldy of Grange, also a recruit from the +king's party, held Edinburgh Castle for the queen. Mary's hopes were +further raised by the rebellion of the Duke of Norfolk, whose marriage +with the Scottish queen had been suggested in 1569. Letters from the +papal agent, Rudolfi, were discovered, and, in June, 1572, Norfolk was +put to death. Lennox had been killed in September, 1571, and his +successor, the Earl of Mar, was approached on the subject of taking +Mary's life. Elizabeth was unwilling to accept the responsibility for +the deed, and proposed to deliver up Mary to Mar, on the understanding +that she should be immediately killed. Mar, who was an honourable man, +declined to listen to the proposal. But, after his death, which occurred +in October, 1572, the new regent, the Earl of Morton, professed his +willingness to undertake the accomplishment of the deed, if Elizabeth +would openly acknowledge it. This she refused to do, and the plot +failed. It is characteristic that the last Douglas to play an important +part in Scottish history should be the leading actor in such a plot as +this. + +The castle of Edinburgh fell in June, 1573, and with its surrender +passed away Mary's last chance in Scotland. Morton held the regency till +1578, when he was forced to resign, and the young king, now twelve years +old, became the nominal ruler. In 1581, Morton was condemned to death as +"airt and pairt" in Darnley's murder, and Elizabeth failed in her +efforts to save him. Mary entered into negotiations with Elizabeth for +her release and return to Scotland as joint-sovereign with James VI, and +the English queen played with her prisoner, while, all the time, she was +discussing projects for her death. The key to the policy of James is his +desire to secure the succession to the English crown. To that end he was +willing to sacrifice all other considerations; nor had he, on other +grounds, any desire to share his throne with his mother. In 1585, he +negotiated a league with England, which, however, contained a provision +that "the said league be without prejudice in any sort to any former +league or alliance betwixt this realm and any other auld friends and +confederates thereof, except only in matters of religion, wheranent we +do fully consent the league be defensive and offensive". As we are at +the era of religious wars, the latter section of the clause goes far to +neutralize the former. Scotland was at last at the disposal of the +sovereign of England. Even the tragedy of Fotheringay scarcely produced +a passing coldness. On the 8th February, 1587, Elizabeth's warrant was +carried out, and Mary's head fell on the block. She was accused of +plotting for her own escape and against Elizabeth's life. It is probable +that she had so plotted, and it would be childish to express surprise or +indignation. The English queen, on her part, had injured her kinswoman +too deeply to render it possible to be generous now. Mary had sent her, +on her arrival in England, "a diamond jewel, which", as she afterwards +reminded her, "I received as a token from you, and with assurance to be +succoured against my rebels, and even that, on my retiring towards you, +you would come to the very frontiers in order to assist me, which had +been confirmed to me by divers messengers".[81] Had the protection thus +promised been vouchsafed, it might have spared Elizabeth many years of +trouble. But it was now too late, and the relentless logic of events +forced her to complete the tale of her treachery and injustice by a deed +which she herself could not but regard as a crime. But while this excuse +may be made for the deed itself, there can be no apology for the manner +of it. The Queen of England stooped to urge her servants to murder her +kinswoman; when they refused, she was mean enough to contrive so as to +throw the responsibility upon her secretary, Davison. After Mary's +death, she wrote to King James and expressed her sincere regret at +having cut off the head of his mother by accident. James accepted the +apology, and, in the following year, made preparations against the +Armada. Had the son of Mary Stuart been otherwise constituted, it would +scarcely have been safe for Elizabeth to persevere in the execution of +his mother; an alliance between Scotland and Spain might have proved +dangerous for England. But Elizabeth knew well the type of man with whom +she had to deal, and events proved that she was wise in her generation. +And James, on his part, had his reward. Elizabeth died in March, 1603, +and her successor was the King of Scots, who entered upon a heritage, +which had been bought, in the view of his Catholic subjects, by the +blood of his mother, and which was to claim as its next victim his +second son. Within eighty-five years of his accession, his House had +lost not only their new kingdom, but their ancestral throne as well. In +all James's references to the Union, it is clear that he regarded that +event from the point of view of the monarch; had it proved of as little +value to his subjects as to the Stuart line there would have been small +reason for remembering it to-day. The Union of England and Scotland was +one of the events most clearly fore-ordained by a benignant fate: but it +is difficult to feel much sympathy for the son who would not risk its +postponement, when, by the possible sacrifice of his personal ambition, +he might have saved the life of his mother. + +There are certain aspects of James's life in Scotland that explain his +future policy, and they are, therefore, important for our purpose. In +the first place, he spent his days in one long struggle with the +theocratic Church system which had been brought to Scotland by Knox and +developed by his great successor, Andrew Melville. The Church Courts, +local and central, had maintained the old ecclesiastical jurisdiction, +and they dealt out justice with impartial hand. In all questions of +morality, religion, education, and marriage the Kirk Session or the +Presbytery or the General Assembly was all-powerful. The Church was by +far the most important factor in the national life. It interfered in +numberless ways with legislative and executive functions: on one +occasion King James consulted the Presbytery of Edinburgh about the +raising of a force to suppress a rebellion,[82] and, as late as 1596, he +approached the General Assembly with reference to a tax, and promised +that "his chamber doors sould be made patent to the meanest minister in +Scotland; there sould not be anie meane gentleman in Scotland more +subject to the good order and discipline of the Kirk than he would +be".[83] Andrew Melville had told him that "there is twa kings and twa +kingdomes in Scotland. Thair is Chryst Jesus the King and his Kingdom +the Kirk, whase subject King James the Saxt is: and of whase Kingdom +nocht a King, nor a lord, nor a heid, bot a member."[84] James had done +his utmost to assert his authority over the Church. He had tried to +establish Episcopacy in Scotland to replace the Presbyterian system, and +had succeeded only to a very limited extent. "Presbytery", he said, +"agreeth as well with a king as God with the Devil." So he went to +England, not only prepared to welcome the episcopal form of +church-government and to graciously receive the episcopal adulation so +freely showered upon him, but also determined to suppress, at all +hazards, "the proud Puritanes, who, claining to their Paritie, and +crying, 'We are all but vile wormes', yet will judge and give Law to +their king, but will be judged nor controlled by none".[85] "God's +sillie vassal" was Melville's summing-up of the royal character in +James's own presence. "God hath given us a Solomon", exulted the Bishop +of Winchester, and he recorded the fact in print, that all the world +might know. James was wrong in mistaking the English Puritans for the +Scottish Presbyterians. Alike in number, in influence, and in aim, his +new subjects differed from his old enemies. English Puritanism had +already proved unsuited to the genius of the nation, and it had given up +all hope of the abolition of Episcopacy. The Millenary Petition asked +only some changes in the ritual of the Church and certain moderate +reforms. Had James received their requests in a more reasonable spirit, +he might have succeeded in reconciling, at all events, the more moderate +section of them to the Church, and at the very first it seemed as if he +were likely to win for himself the blessing of the peace-maker, which +he was so eager to obtain. But just at this crisis he found the first +symptoms of Parliamentary opposition, and here again his training in +Scotland interfered. The Church and the Church alone had opposed him in +Scotland; he had never discovered that a Parliament could be other than +subservient.[86] It was, therefore, natural for him to connect the +Parliamentary discontent with Puritan dissatisfaction. Scottish Puritans +had employed the General Assembly as their main weapon of offence; their +English fellows evidently desired to use the House of Commons as an +engine for similar purposes. Therefore said King James, "I shall make +them conform themselves, or I will harry them out of the land, or else +do worse". So he "did worse", and prepared the way for the Puritan +revolution. If the English succession enabled the king to suppress the +Scottish Assembly, the Assembly had its revenge, for the fear of it +brought a snare, and James may justly be considered one of the founders +of English dissent. + +A violent hatred of the temporal claims of the Church also affected +James's attitude to Roman Catholicism. His Catholic subjects in Scotland +had not been in a position to do him any harm, and the son of Mary +Stuart could not but have some sympathy for his mother's +fellow-sufferers. Accordingly, we find him telling his first Parliament: +"I acknowledge the Roman Church to be our Mother Church, although +defiled with some infirmities and corruption". But, after the Gunpowder +Plot, and when he was engaged in a controversy with Cardinal Perron +about the right of the pope to depose kings, he came to prove that the +pope is Antichrist and "our Mother Church" none other than the Scarlet +Woman. His Scottish experience revealed clearly enough that the claims +of Rome and Geneva were identical in their essence. There is on record +an incident that will serve to illustrate his position. In 1615, the +Scottish Privy Council reported to him the case of a Jesuit, John +Ogilvie. He bade them examine Ogilvie: if he proved to be but a priest +who had said mass, he was to go into banishment; but if he was a +practiser of sedition, let him die. The unfortunate priest showed in his +reply that he held the same view of the royal supremacy as did the +Presbyterian clergy. It was enough: they hanged him. + +Once more, James's Irish policy seems to have been influenced by his +experience of the Scottish Highlands. He had conceived the plan which +was afterwards carried out in the Plantation of Ulster--"planting +colonies among them of answerable inland subjects, that within short +time may reforme and civilize the best-inclined among them; rooting out +or transporting the barbarous or stubborne sort, and planting civilitie +in their roomes".[87] Although James continued to carry on his efforts +in this direction after 1603, yet it may be said that the English +succession prevented his giving effect to his scheme, and that it also +interfered with his intentions regarding the abolition of hereditary +jurisdictions, which remained to "wracke the whole land" till after the +Rising of 1745. + +On the 5th April, 1603, King James set out from Edinburgh to enter upon +the inheritance which had fallen to him "by right divine". His departure +made considerable changes in the condition of Scotland. The absence of +any fear of an outbreak of hostilities with the "auld enemy" was a great +boon to the borders, but there was little love lost between the two +countries. The union of the crowns did not, of course, affect the +position of Scotland to England in matters of trade, and beyond some +thirty years of peace, James's ancient kingdom gained but little. King +James, who possessed considerable powers of statesmanship, if not much +practical wisdom, devised the impossible project of a union of the +kingdoms in 1604. "What God hathe conjoyned", he said, "let no man +separate. I am the Husband, and all the whole Isle is my lawful wife.... +I hope, therefore, that no man will be so unreasonable as to think that +I, that am a Christian King under the Gospel, should be a Polygamist +and husband to two wives." He desired to see a complete union--one king, +one law, one Church. Scotland would, he trusted, "with time, become but +as Cumberland and Northumberland and those other remote and northern +shires". Commissioners were appointed, and in 1606 they produced a +scheme which involved commercial equality except with regard to cloth +and meat, the exception being made by mutual consent. The discussion on +the Union question raised the subject of naturalization, and the rights +of the _post-nati_, _i.e._ Scots born after James's accession to the +throne. The royal prerogative became involved in the discussion and a +test case was prepared. Some land in England was bought for the infant +grandson of Lord Colvill, or Colvin, of Culross. An action was raised +against two defendants who refused him possession of the land, and they +defended themselves on the ground that the child, as an alien, could not +possess land in England. It was decided that he, as a natural-born +subject of the King of Scotland, was also a subject of the King of +England. This decision, and the repeal of the laws treating Scotland as +a hostile country, proved the only result of the negotiations for union. +The English Parliament would not listen to any proposal for commercial +equality, and the king had to abandon his cherished project. + +James had boasted to his English Parliament that, if they agreed to +commercial equality, the Scottish estates would, in three days, adopt +English law. It is doubtful if the acquiescence even of the Scottish +Parliament would have gone so far; but there can be no doubt that the +English succession had made James more powerful in Scotland than any of +his predecessors had been. "Here I sit", he said, "and governe Scotland +with my pen. I write and it is done, and by a clearke of the councell I +governe Scotland now, which others could not doe by the sword." The +boast was justified by the facts. The king's instructions to his Privy +Council, which formed the Scottish executive, are of the most +dictatorial description. James gives his orders in the tone of a man who +is accustomed to unswerving obedience, and he does not hesitate to +reprove his erring ministers in the severest terms of censure. The whole +business of Parliament was conducted by the Lords of the Articles, who +represented the spiritual and temporal lords, and the Commons. All the +bishops were the king's creatures, and by virtue of their position, +entirely dependent on him. It was therefore arranged that the prelates +should choose representatives of the temporal lords, and they took care +to select men who supported the king's policy. The peers were allowed to +choose representatives of the bishops, and could not avoid electing the +king's friends, while the representatives of the spiritual and temporal +lords choose men to appear for the small barons and the burgesses. In +this way the efficient power of Parliament was completely monopolized, +and none dared to dispute the king's will. Even the Church was reduced +to an unwilling submission, which, from its very nature, could only be +temporary. He forbade the meeting of a General Assembly; and the +convening of an Assembly at Aberdeen, in defiance of his command, in +1605, served to give him an opportunity of imprisoning or banishing the +Presbyterian leaders. He had to give up his scheme of abolishing the +Presbyterian Church courts, and contented himself with engrafting on to +the existing system the institution of Episcopacy, which had practically +been in abeyance since 1560, although Scotland was never without its +titular prelates. Bishops were appointed in 1606; presbyteries and +synods were ordered to elect perpetual moderators, and the scheme was +devised so that the moderator of almost every synod should be a bishop. +The members of the Linlithgow Convention, which accepted this scheme, +were specially summoned by the king, and it was in no sense a free +Assembly of the Church. But the royal power was, for the present, +irresistible; in 1610 an Assembly which met at Glasgow established +Episcopacy, and its action was, in 1612, ratified by the Scots +Parliament. Three of the Scottish bishops[88] received English orders, +to ensure the succession; but, to prevent any claim of superiority, +neither English primate took any part in the ceremony. In 1616, the +Assembly met at Aberdeen, and the king made five proposals, which are +known as the Five Articles of Perth, from their adoption there in 1618. +The Five Articles included:--(1) The Eucharist to be received kneeling; +(2) the administration of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper to sick +persons in private houses; (3) the administration of Baptism in private +houses in cases of necessity; (4) the recognition of Christmas, Good +Friday, Easter, and Pentecost; and (5) the episcopal benediction. +Scottish opposition centred round the first article, which was not +welcomed even by the Episcopalian party, and it required the king's +personal interference to enforce it in Holyrood Chapel, during his stay +in Edinburgh in 1616-17. His proposal to erect in the chapel +representations of patriarchs and saints shocked even the bishops, on +whose remonstrances he withdrew his orders, incidentally administering a +severe rebuke to the recalcitrant prelates, "at whose ignorance he could +not but wonder". Not till the following year were the articles accepted +at Perth, under fear of the royal displeasure, and considerable +difficulty was experienced in enforcing them. + +The only other Scottish measures of James's reign that demand mention +are his attempts to carry out his policy of plantations in the +Highlands. As a whole, the scheme failed, and was productive of +considerable misery, but here and there it succeeded, and it tended to +increase the power of the government. The end of the reign is also +remarkable for attempts at Scottish colonization, resulting in the +foundation of Nova Scotia, and in the Plantation of Ulster. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 80: Fenelon, i, 133 and 162.] + +[Footnote 81: Mary to Elizabeth, 8th Nov., 1582. Strickland's _Letters +of Mary Stuart_, i, p. 294.] + +[Footnote 82: Calderwood, _History of the Kirk of Scotland_, v, 341-42.] + +[Footnote 83: _Ibid_, pp. 396-97.] + +[Footnote 84: James Melville's _Autobiography and Diary_, p. 370.] + +[Footnote 85: _Basilikon Doron_.] + +[Footnote 86: Cf. the present writer's _Scottish Parliament before the +Union of the Crowns_.] + +[Footnote 87: _Basilikon Doron_.] + +[Footnote 88: The old controversy about the relation of the Church of +Scotland to the sees of York and Canterbury had been finally settled, in +1474, by the erection of St. Andrews into a metropolitan see. Glasgow +was made an archbishopric in 1492.] + + + + +CHAPTER X + +"THE TROUBLES IN SCOTLAND" + + +The new reign had scarcely begun when trouble arose between King Charles +and his Scottish subjects. On the one hand, he alienated the nobles by +an attempt, partially successful, to secure for the Church some of its +ancient revenues. More serious still was his endeavour to bring the +Scottish Church into uniformity with the usage of the Church of England. +James had understood that any further attempt to alter the service or +constitution of the Church of Scotland would infallibly lead to serious +trouble. He had given up an intention of introducing a new prayer-book +to supersede the "Book of Common Order", known as "Knox's Liturgy", +which was employed in the Church, though not to the exclusion of +extemporary prayers. When Charles came to Edinburgh to be crowned, in +1633, he made a further attempt in this direction, and, although he had +to postpone the introduction of this particular change, he left a most +uneasy feeling, not only among the Presbyterians, but also among the +bishops themselves. An altar was erected in Holyrood Chapel, and behind +it was a crucifix, before which the clergy made genuflexions. He erected +Edinburgh into a bishopric, with the Collegiate Church of St. Giles for +a cathedral, and the Bishops of Edinburgh, as they followed in rapid +succession, gained the reputation of innovators and supporters of Laud +and the English. Even more dangerous in its effect was a general order +for the clergy to wear surplices. It was widely disobeyed, but it +created very great alarm. + +In 1635, canons were issued for the Church of Scotland, which owed their +existence to the dangerous meddling of Laud, now Archbishop of +Canterbury. James, who loved Episcopacy, had dreaded the influence of +Laud in Scotland; his fear was justified, for it was given to Laud to +make an Episcopal Church impossible north of the Tweed. Although certain +of the Scottish bishops had expressed approval of these canons, they +were enjoined in the Church by royal authority, and the Scots, whose +theory of the rights of the Church was much more "high" than that of +Laud, would, on this account alone, have met them with resistance. But +the canons used words and phrases which were intolerable to Scottish +ears. They spoke of a "chancel" and they commended auricular confession; +they gave the Scottish bishops something like the authority of their +English brethren, to the detriment of minister and kirk-session, and +they made the use of a new prayer-book compulsory, and forbade any +objection to it. Two years elapsed before the book was actually +introduced. It was English, and it had been forced upon the Church by +the State, and, worse than this, it was associated with the hated name +of Laud and with his suspected designs upon the Protestant religion. +When it came it was found to follow the English prayer-book almost +exactly; but such changes as there were seemed suspicious in the +extreme. In the communion service the rubric preceding the prayer of +consecration read thus: "During the time of consecration he shall stand +at such a part of the holy table where he may with the more ease and +decency use both his hands". The reference to both hands was suspected +to mean the Elevation of the Host, and this suspicion was confirmed by +the omission of the sentences "Take and eat this in remembrance that +Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith, with +thanksgiving", and "Drink this in remembrance that Christ's blood was +shed for thee, and be thankful", from the words of administration. On +more general grounds, too, strong objection was taken to the book, and +on July 23rd, 1637, there occurred the famous riot in St. Giles's, which +has become connected with the name of Jennie Geddes. The objection was +not, in any sense, to read prayers in themselves; the Book of Common +Order had been read in St. Giles's that very morning. The difficulty lay +in the particular book, and it is notable that the cries which have come +down to us as prefacing the riot are all indicative of a suspected +attempt to reintroduce Roman Catholicism. "The mass is entered upon us." +"Baal is in the Church." "Darest thou sing mass in my lug." + +The Privy Council was negligent in punishing the rioters, and it soon +became evident that they had public opinion behind them. Alexander +Henderson, who ministered to a Fifeshire congregation in the old Norman +church of Leuchars, and whom the king was to meet in other +circumstances, issued a respectful and moderate protest, in which he did +not deal with the particular points at issue, but asserted the +ecclesiastical independence of Scotland. Riots continued to disturb +Edinburgh, and Charles was impotent to suppress them. He refused +Henderson's "Supplication"; its supporters drew up a second petition +boldly asking that the bishops should be tried as the real authors of +the disturbances, and, in November, 1637, they chose a body of +commissioners to represent them. These commissioners, and some +sub-committees of them, are known in Scottish history as The Tables, the +name being applied to several different bodies. Charles replied to the +second petition in wrathful terms, and it was decided to revive the +National Covenant of 1581, to renounce popery. It had been drawn up +under fear of a popish plot, and was itself an expansion of the Covenant +of 1557. To it was now added a declaration suited to immediate +necessities. On the 1st and 2nd March, 1638, it was signed by vast +multitudes in the churchyard of Greyfriars, in Edinburgh, and it +continued to be signed, sometimes under pressure, throughout the land. +Hamilton, Charles's agent in Scotland, was quite unable to meet the +situation. In the end Charles had to agree to the meeting of a General +Assembly in Glasgow, in November, 1638. Hamilton, the High Commissioner, +attempted to obtain the ejection of laymen and to create a division +among his opponents. When he failed in this, he dissolved the Assembly +in the king's name. At the instance of Henderson, supported by Argyll, +the Assembly refused to acknowledge itself dissolved, and proceeded to +abolish Episcopacy and re-establish the Presbyterian form of Church +government. + +The king, on his part, began to concert measures with his Privy Council +for the subjugation of Scotland. The "Committee on Scotch affairs" of +the English Privy Council was obviously unconstitutional, but matters +were fast drifting towards civil war, and it was no time to consider +constitutional niceties. It is much more important that the committee +was divided and useless. Wentworth, writing from Ireland, advised the +king to maintain a firm attitude, but not to provoke an outbreak of war +at so inconvenient a moment. Charles again attempted a compromise. He +offered to withdraw Laud's unlucky service-book, the new canons, and +even the Articles of Perth, and to limit the power of the bishops; and +he asked the people to sign the Covenant of 1580-81, on which the new +Covenant was based, but which, of course, contained no reference to +immediate difficulties. But it was too late; the sentiment of religious +independence had become united to the old feeling of national +independence, and war was inevitable. The Scots were fortunate in their +leaders. In the end of 1638 there returned to Scotland from Germany, +Alexander Leslie, the great soldier who had fought for Protestantism +under Gustavus Adolphus. In February, 1639, he took command of the army +of the Covenant, which had been largely reinforced by veterans from the +Thirty Years' War. A more attractive personality than Leslie's was that +of the young Earl of Montrose, who had attached himself with enthusiasm +to the national cause, and had attempted to convert the people of +Aberdeen to covenanting principles. Charles, on his part, asserted that +his throne was in danger, and that the Scottish preparations constituted +a menace to the kingdom of England, and so attempted to rouse enthusiasm +for himself. + +While the king was preparing to reinforce the loyalist Marquis of Huntly +at Aberdeen, the news came that the garrisons of Edinburgh and Dunbarton +had surrendered to the insurgents (March, 1639), who, a few days later, +seized the regalia at Dalkeith. On March 30th Aberdeen fell into the +hands of Montrose and Leslie, and Huntly was soon practically a +prisoner. Charles had by this time reached York, and it was now evident +that he had entirely miscalculated the strength of the enemy. He had +hoped to subdue Scotland through Hamilton and Huntly; he now saw that, +if Scotland was to be conquered at all, it must be through an English +army. The first blood in the Civil War was shed near Turriff, in +Aberdeenshire (May 14th, 1639), where some of Huntly's supporters gained +a slight success, after which the city of Aberdeen fell into their hands +for some ten days, when it was reoccupied by the Covenanters. Meanwhile +Charles and Leslie had been facing each other near Berwick; the former +unwilling to risk his raw levies against Leslie's trained soldiers, +while the Covenanters were not desirous of entering into a war in which +they might find the whole strength of England ultimately arrayed against +them. On the 18th June the two parties entered into the Pacification of +Berwick, in accordance with which both armies were to be disbanded, and +Charles promised to allow a free General Assembly and a free Parliament +to govern Scotland. While the pacification was being signed at Berwick, +a battle was in progress at Aberdeen, where, on June 18th-19th, Montrose +gained a victory, at the Bridge of Dee, over the Earl of Aboyne, the +eldest son of the Marquis of Huntly. For the third time, Montrose +spared the city of Aberdeen, and Scotland settled down to a brief period +of peace. + +It was clear that the pacification was only a truce, for no exact terms +had been agreed upon, and both sides thoroughly distrusted each other. +Disputes immediately arose about the constitution of Parliament and the +Assembly. Charles refused to rescind the acts constituting Episcopacy +legal, and it is clear that he never intended to keep his promise to the +Scots, who, on their part, were too suspicious of his good faith to +carry out their part of the agreement. In the end Assembly and +Parliament alike abolished Episcopacy, and Parliament passed several +acts to ensure its own supremacy. Charles refused to assent to these +Acts, and prorogued Parliament from November, 1639, to June, 1640. The +result of the king's evident disinclination to implement the Treaty of +Berwick, was an interesting attempt to undo the work of the preceding +century by a reversion to the old policy of a French alliance. It was, +of course, impossible thus to turn back, and Richelieu met the Scottish +offers with a decisive rebuff, while the fact of these treasonable +negotiations became known to Charles, and embittered the already bitter +controversy. A new attempt at negotiation failed, and in June, 1640, the +second Bishops' War began. As usual the north suffered, especially from +the fierceness of the Earl of Argyll, who disliked the more moderate +policy advocated by Montrose. The king's English difficulties were +increasing, and the Scots had now many sympathizers among Englishmen, +who looked upon them as fighting for the same cause of Protestantism and +constitutional government. + +In August the Scots invaded England for the first time since the +minority of Mary Stuart, and, on August 28th, they defeated a portion of +the king's army at Newburn, a ford near Newcastle. The town was +immediately occupied, and from Newcastle the invaders advanced to the +Tees and seized Durham. Charles was forced, a second time, to give way. +In October he agreed that the Scottish army of occupation should be paid +until the English Parliament, which he was about to summon, might make a +final arrangement. By Parliament alone could the Scots be paid, and +thus, by a strange irony of fate, the occupation of the northern +counties by a Scottish army was, for the time, the best guarantee of +English liberties. There were, however, points on which the Scottish +army and the English Parliament found it difficult to agree, and it was +not till August, 1641, that the Scots recrossed the Tweed. Charles, who +hoped to enlist the sympathy of the Scots in his struggle with the +English Parliament, paid a second visit to Edinburgh, where he gave his +assent to the abolition of Episcopacy, and to the repeal of the Acts +which had given rise to the dispute. But it became evident that the +Parliament, and not the king, was to bear rule in Scotland. The king's +stay in Edinburgh was marked by what is known as "The Incident", a +mysterious plot to capture Argyll and Hamilton, who was now the ally of +Argyll. It was supposed that the king was cognizant of the plan; he had +to defend himself from the accusation, and was declared guiltless in the +matter. At the time of the Incident, Argyll fled, but soon returned, and +Charles had to yield to him in all things. Parliament, under Argyll, +appointed all officials. Argyll himself was made a marquis, and Leslie +became Earl of Leven. There was a general amnesty, and among those who +obtained their liberty was the Earl of Montrose, who had been imprisoned +in May for making terms with the king. In November, 1641, Charles left +Scotland for London, to face the English Parliament. He can scarcely +have hoped for Scottish aid, and when, a few months later, he was on the +verge of hostilities and made a request for assistance, it was twice +refused. + +With the general course of the Great Rebellion we are not here +concerned. It is important for our purpose to notice that it affected +Scotland in two ways. The course of events converted, on the one hand, +the Episcopalian party into a Royalist party, and placed at its head the +Covenanter, Montrose. On the other hand, the National Covenant was +transformed into the Solemn League and Covenant, which had for its aim +the establishment of Presbytery in England as well as in Scotland. This +"will o' the wisp" of covenanted uniformity led the Scottish Church into +somewhat strange places. As early as January, 1643, Montrose had offered +to strike a blow for the king in Scotland, but Charles would not take +the responsibility of beginning the strife. In August negotiations began +for the extension of the covenant to England. The Solemn League and +Covenant, which provided for the abolition of Episcopacy in England, was +adopted by the Convention of Estates at Edinburgh on August 17th, and in +the following month it passed both Houses of Parliament in England, and +was taken both by the House of Commons and by the Assembly of Divines at +Westminster. Its only ultimate results were the substitution in Scotland +of the Westminster Confession of Faith, Catechisms, and Directory for +Public Worship, in place of the older Scottish documents, and the +approximation of Scottish Presbytery to English Puritanism, involving a +distinct departure from the ideals of the Scottish Reformation, and the +introduction into Scotland of a form of Sabbatarianism which has come to +be regarded as distinctively Scottish, but which owes its origin, +historically, to English Nonconformity.[89] Its immediate effects were +the short-lived predominance of Presbytery in England, and the crossing +of the Tweed, in January, 1644, by a Scottish army in the pay of the +English Parliament. The part taken by the Scottish army in the war was +not unimportant. In April they aided Fairfax in the siege of York; in +July they took an honourable share in the battle of Marston Moor; they +were responsible for the Uxbridge proposals which provided for peace on +the basis of a Presbyterian settlement. In June, 1645, they advanced +southwards to Mansfield, and, after the surrender of Carlisle, on June +28th, and its occupation by a Scottish garrison, Leven proceeded to +Alcester and thereafter laid siege to Hereford, an attempt which events +in Scotland forced him to abandon. Finally, in May, 1646, the king +surrendered to the Scottish army at Newark, which had been invested by +Leven since the preceding November. + +While the Scottish army was thus aiding the Parliamentary cause, the +Earl of Montrose had created an important diversion on the king's side +in Scotland itself. In April, 1644, he occupied Dumfries and made an +unsuccessful attempt on the Scottish Lowlands. In May Charles conferred +on him a marquisate, and in August he prepared to renew the struggle. To +his old foes, the Gordons, he first looked for assistance, but was +finally compelled to raise his forces in the Highlands, and to obtain +Irish aid. On September 1st he gained his first victory at Tippermuir, +near Perth, on which he had marched with his Highland host. From Perth +he marched on Aberdeen, gaining some reinforcements from the northern +gentry, and in particular from the Earl of Airlie. Once again Montrose +fought a battle which delivered the city of Aberdeen into his power +(September 13th), but now he was unwilling or unable to protect the +captured town, which was cruelly ravaged. From Aberdeen Montrose +proceeded by Rothiemurchus to Blair Athole, but suddenly turned +backwards to Aberdeenshire, where he defended Fyvie Castle, slipped past +Argyll, and again reached Blair Athole. The enemies of Argyll crowded to +his banner, but his army was still small when, in December, 1644, he +made his descent upon Argyll, and reached the castle of Inverary. From +Inverary he went northwards, ravaging as he went, till he found, at Loch +Ness, that there was an army of 5000 men under the Earl of Seaforth +prepared to resist his advance, while Argyll was behind him at +Inverlochy. Although Argyll's army considerably outnumbered his own, +Montrose turned southwards and made a rapid dash at Argyll's forces as +they lay at Inverlochy, and won a complete victory, the news of which +dispersed Seaforth's men and enabled Montrose to invite Charles to a +country which lay at his mercy. At Elgin he was joined by the heir of +the Marquis of Huntly, his forces increased, and the excommunication +which the Church immediately published against him seemed of but little +importance. On April 4th he seized Dundee, and on May 9th won a fresh +victory at Auldearn, which was followed, in rapid succession, by a +victory at Alford in July, and in August by the "crowning mercy" of +Kilsyth, which made him master of the situation, and forced Leven to +raise the siege of Hereford. From Kilsyth he marched to Glasgow, where +both the Highlanders and the Gordons began to desert him. From England, +Leven sent David Leslie to meet Montrose as he marched by the Lothians +into the border counties. On September 13th, 1645, just one year after +his victory at Aberdeen, Montrose was completely defeated at +Philiphaugh. He escaped, but his power was broken, and he was unable +henceforth to take any important share in the war. + +When Charles surrendered himself to the Scots, in May, 1646, his friends +in Scotland were helpless, and he had to meet the Presbyterian leaders +without any hope beyond that of being able to take advantage of the +differences of opinion between Presbyterians and Independents, which +were fast assuming critical importance. The king held at Newcastle a +conference with Alexander Henderson, which led to no definite result. In +the end the Scots offered to adopt the king's cause if he would accept +Presbyterianism. This he declined to do, and his refusal left the Scots +no choice except keeping him a prisoner or surrendering him to his +English subjects. They owed him no gratitude, and, while it might be +chivalrous, it could scarcely be expedient to retain his person. While +he was unwilling to accede to their conditions they were powerless to +give him any help. He was therefore handed over to the commissioners of +the English Parliament, and the Scots, on the 30th January, 1647, +returned home, having been paid, as the price of the king's surrender, +the money promised them by the English Parliament when they entered into +the struggle in 1644. + +In the end of 1647 the Scots again entered into the long series of +negotiations with the king. When Charles was a prisoner at Newport, and +while he was arranging terms with the English, he entered into a secret +agreement with commissioners from Scotland. The "Engagement", as it was +called, embodied the conditions which Charles had refused at +Newcastle--the recognition of Presbytery in Scotland and its +establishment in England for three years, the king being allowed +toleration for his own form of worship. The Engagement was by no means +unanimously carried in the Scottish Parliament, and its results were +disastrous to Charles himself. It caused the English Parliament to pass +the vote of No Addresses, and the second civil war, which it helped to +provoke, had a share in bringing about his death. The Duke of Hamilton +led a small army into England, where in August 17th, 1648, it was +totally defeated by Cromwell at Preston. Meanwhile the Hamilton party +had lost power in Scotland, and when Cromwell entered Scotland, Argyll, +who had opposed the Engagement, willingly agreed to his conditions, and +accepted the aid of three English regiments. In the events of the next +six months Scotland had no part nor lot. The responsibility for the +king's death rests on the English Government alone. + +The news of the execution of the king was at once followed by the fall +of Argyll and his party. The Scots had no sympathy with English +republicanism, and they were alarmed by the growth of Independency in +England. On February 5th Charles II was proclaimed King of Great +Britain, France, and Ireland, and the Scots declared themselves ready to +defend his cause by blood, if only he would take the Covenant. This the +young king refused to do while he had hopes of success in Ireland. +Meanwhile three of his most loyal friends perished on the scaffold. The +English, who held the Duke of Hamilton as a prisoner, put him to death +on March 9th, 1649, and on the 22nd day of the same month the Marquis of +Huntly was beheaded at Edinburgh. On April 27th, Montrose, who had +collected a small army and taken the field in the northern Highlands, +was defeated at Carbisdale and taken prisoner. On the 25th May he was +hanged in Edinburgh, and with his death the story is deprived of its +hero. + +The pressure of misfortune finally drove Charles to accept the Scottish +offers. Even while Montrose was fighting his last battle, his young +master was negotiating with the Covenanters. Conferences were held at +Breda in the spring of 1650, and Charles landed at the mouth of the +river Spey on the 3rd July, having taken the Covenant. In the middle of +the same month Cromwell crossed the Tweed at the head of an English +army. The Scots, under Leven and David Leslie, took up a position near +Edinburgh, and, after a month's fruitless skirmishing, Cromwell had to +retire to Dunbar, whither Leslie followed him. By a clever manoeuvre, +Leslie intercepted Cromwell's retreat on Berwick, while he also seized +Doon Hill, an eminence commanding Dunbar. The Parliamentary Committee, +under whose authority Leslie was acting, forced him to make an attack to +prevent Cromwell's force from escaping by sea. The details of the battle +have been disputed, and the most convincing account is that given by Mr. +Firth in his "Cromwell". When Leslie left the Doon Hill his left became +shut in between the hill and "the steep ravine of the Brock burn", while +his centre had not sufficient room to move. Cromwell, therefore, after a +feint on the left, concentrated his forces against Leslie's right, and +shattered it. The rout was complete, and Leslie had to retreat to +Stirling, while the Lowlands fell into Cromwell's hands. Cromwell was +conciliatory, and a considerable proportion of Presbyterians took up an +attitude hostile to the king's claims. The supporters of Charles were +known as Resolutioners, or Engagers, and his opponents as Protesters or +Remonstrants. The consequence was that the old Royalists and +Episcopalians began to rejoin Charles. Before the battle of Dunbar +(September 2nd) Charles had been really a prisoner in the hands of the +Covenanters, who had ruled him with a rod of iron. As the stricter +Presbyterians withdrew, and their places were filled by the "Malignants" +whom they had excluded from the king's service, the personal importance +of Charles increased. On January 1st, 1651, he was crowned at Scone, and +in the following summer he took up a position near Stirling, with Leslie +as commander of his army. Cromwell outmanoeuvred Leslie and seized +Perth, and the royal forces retaliated by the invasion of England, which +ended in the defeat of Worcester on September 3rd, 1651, exactly one +year after Dunbar. The king escaped and fled to France. + +Scotland was now unable to resist Monk, whom Cromwell had left behind +him when he went southwards to defeat Charles at Worcester. On the 14th +August he captured Stirling, and on the 28th the Committee of Estates +was seized at Alyth and carried off to London. There was no further +attempt at opposition, and all Scotland, for the first time since the +reign of Edward I, was in military occupation by English troops. The +property of the leading supporters of Charles II was confiscated. In +1653 the General Assembly was reduced to pleading that "we were an +ecclesiastical synod, a spiritual court of Jesus Christ, which meddled +not with anything civil"; but their unwonted humility was of no avail to +save them. An earlier victim than the Assembly was the Scottish +Parliament. It was decided in 1652 that Scotland should be incorporated +with England, and from February of that year till the Restoration, the +kingdom of Scotland ceased to exist. The "Instrument" of Government of +1653 gave Scotland thirty members in the British Parliament. Twenty were +allotted to the shires--one to each of the larger shires and one to each +of nine groups of less important shires. There were also eight groups of +burghs, each group electing one member, and two members were returned by +the city of Edinburgh. Between 1653 and 1655 Scotland was governed by +parliamentary commissioners, and, from 1655 onwards, by a special +council. The Court of Session was abolished, and its place taken by a +Commission of Justice.[90] The actual union dates from 1654, when it was +ratified by the Supreme Council of the Commonwealth of England, but +Scotland was under English rule from the battle of Worcester. The wise +policy of allowing freedom of trade, like the improvement in the +administration of justice, failed to reconcile the Scots to the union, +and, to the end, it required a military force to maintain the new +government. + +As Scotland had no share in the execution of Charles I, so it had none +in the restoration of his son. The "Committee of Estates", which met +after the 29th of May, was not lacking in loyalty. All traces of the +union were swept away, and the pressure of the new Navigation Act was +severely felt in contrast to the freedom of trade that had been the +great boon of the Commonwealth. But worse evils were in store. The +"Covenanted monarch" was determined to restore Episcopacy in Scotland, +and for this purpose he employed as a tool the notorious James Sharpe, +who had been sent up to London to plead the cause of Presbytery with +Monk. Sharpe returned to Scotland in the spring of 1661 as Archbishop of +St. Andrews. Parliament met by royal authority and passed a General Act +Rescissory, which rendered void all acts passed since 1638. The +episcopal form of church government was immediately established. The +Privy Council received enlarged powers, and was again completely +subservient to the king. The execution of Argyll atoned for the death of +Montrose, in the eyes of Royalists, and two notable ecclesiastical +politicians, Johnston of Warriston and James Guthrie, were also put to +death. An Indemnity Act was passed, but many men found that the king's +pardon had its price. On October 1st, 1662, an act was passed ordering +recusant ministers to leave their parishes, and the council improved on +the English Five Mile Act, by ordering that no recusant minister should, +on pain of treason, reside within twenty miles of his parish, within six +miles of Edinburgh or any cathedral town, or within three miles of any +royal burgh. A Court of High Commission, which had been established by +James VI in 1610, was again entrusted with all religious cases. The +effect of these harsh measures was to rouse the insurrections which are +the most notable feature of the reign. In 1666 the Covenanters were +defeated at the battle of Pentland, or Rullion Green, and those who were +suspected of a share in the rising were subjected to examination under +torture, which now became one of the normal features of Charles's brutal +government. Prisoners were hanged or sent as slaves to the plantations. +In 1669, an Indulgence was passed, permitting Presbyterian services +under certain conditions, but in 1670, Parliament passed a Conventicle +Act, making it a capital crime to "preach, expound scripture, or pray", +at any unlicensed meeting. On May 5th, 1679, Sharpe was assassinated +near St. Andrews. The murderers escaped, and some of them joined the +Covenanters of the west. The Government had determined to put a stop to +the meetings of conventicles, and had chosen for this purpose John +Graham of Claverhouse. On the 11th June, Claverhouse was defeated at +Drumclog, but eleven days later he routed the Covenanting army at +Bothwell Bridge, and took over a thousand prisoners. Only seven were +executed, but the others were imprisoned in Greyfriars' churchyard, and +a large number of them were sold as plantation slaves. A small rising at +Aird's Moss in Ayrshire, in 1680, was easily suppressed. In 1681 the +Scottish Parliament prescribed as a test the disavowal of the National +Covenant of 1638 and the Solemn League and Covenant of 1644, and it +declared that any attempt to alter the succession involved the subjects +"in perjury and rebellion". In connection with the Test Act, an +opportunity was found for convicting the Earl of Argyll[91] of treason. +His property was confiscated, but he himself was allowed to escape. The +last years of the reign, under the administration of the Duke of York, +were marked by exceptional cruelty in connection with the religious +persecutions. The expeditions of Claverhouse, the case of the Wigtown +martyrs, and the horrible cruelties of the torture-room have given to +these years the title of "the Killing time". + +The Scottish Parliament welcomed King James VII with fulsome adulation. +But the new king was scarcely seated on the throne before a rebellion +broke out. The Earl of Argyll adopted the cause of Monmouth, landed in +his own country, and marched into Lanarkshire. His attempt was an entire +failure: nobody joined his standard, and he himself, failing to make +good his retreat, was captured and executed without a new trial. The +Parliament again enforced the Test Act, and renewed the Conventicle Act, +making it a capital offence even to be present at a conventicle. The +persecutions continued with renewed vigour. James failed in persuading +even the obsequious Parliament to give protection to the Roman +Catholics. He attempted to obtain the same end by a Declaration of +Indulgence, of which the Covenanters might be unable to avail +themselves, but in its final form, issued in May, 1688, it included +them. The conjunction of popery and absolute prerogative thoroughly +alarmed the Scots, and the news of the English Revolution was received +with general satisfaction. The effect of the long struggle had been to +weaken the country in many ways. Thousands of her bravest sons had died +on the scaffold or on the battle-field or in the dungeons of Dunnottar, +or had been exiled to the plantations. Trade and commerce had declined. +The records of the burghs show us how harbours were empty and houses +ruinous, where, a century earlier, there had been a thriving trade. +Scotland in 1688 was in every way, unless in moral discipline, poorer +than she had been while England was still the "auld enemy". + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 89: Sabbath observance had been introduced from England six +centuries earlier. Cf. p. 14.] + +[Footnote 90: Justices of the peace were appointed throughout the +country, and heritable jurisdictions were abolished.] + +[Footnote 91: The son of the Marquis who was executed in 1661. The +earldom, but not the marquisate, had been restored in 1663.] + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE UNION OF THE PARLIAMENTS + +1689-1707 + + +On April 4th, 1689, a Convention of the Estates of Scotland met to +consider the new situation which had been created by the course of +events in England. They had no difficulty in determining their course of +action, nor any scruples about deposing James, who was declared to have +forfeited his right to the crown. A list was drawn up of the king's +misdeeds. They included "erecting schools and societies of Jesuits, +making papists officers of state", taxation and the maintenance of a +standing army without consent of Parliament, illegal imprisonments, +fines, and forfeitures, and interference with the charters of burghs. +The crown was then offered to William and Mary, but upon certain +strictly defined conditions. All the acts of the late king which were +included in the list of his offences must be recognized as illegal: no +Roman Catholic might be King or Queen of Scotland; and the new +sovereigns must agree to the re-establishment of Presbytery as the +national religion. It was obvious that the nation was not unanimous. + + "To the Lords of Convention, 'twas Claverhouse spoke, + Ere the King's crown go down there are crowns to be broke." + +The opponents of the revolution settlement consisted mainly of the old +Royalist and Episcopalian party, the representatives of those who had +followed Montrose to victory, and the supporters of the Restoration +Government. As the Great Rebellion had made Royalists of the Scottish +Episcopalians, so the Revolution could not but convert them into +Jacobites. Their leader was James Graham of Claverhouse, who retreated +from Edinburgh to the north to prepare for a campaign against the new +government. The discontent was not confined to the Episcopalian party. +Such Roman Catholics as there were in Scotland at the time were prepared +to take up arms for a Stuart king who was a devout adherent of their +religion. Moreover, the Presbyterians themselves were not united. A +party which was to grow in strength, and which now included a +considerable number of extreme Presbyterians, still longed, in spite of +their experience of Charles II, for a covenanted king, and looked with +great distrust upon William and Mary. The triumphant party of moderate +Presbyterians, who probably represented most faithfully the feeling of +the nation, acted throughout with considerable wisdom. The acceptance of +the crown converted the Convention into a Parliament, and the Estates +set themselves to obtain, in the first place, their own freedom from the +tyranny of the committee known as the "Lords of the Articles", through +which James VI and his successors had kept the Parliament in +subjection. William was unwilling to lose entirely this method of +controlling his new subjects, but he had to give way. The Parliament +rescinded the Act of Charles II asserting his majesty's supremacy "over +all persons and in all causes ecclesiastical" as "inconsistent with the +establishment of Church government now desired", but, in the military +crisis which threatened them, they proceeded no further than to bring in +an Act abolishing Prelacy and all superiority of office in the Church of +Scotland. + +While William's first Parliament was debating, his enemies were entering +upon a struggle which was destined to be brief. Edinburgh Castle held +out for King James till June 14th, 1689, when its captain, the Duke of +Gordon, capitulated. Graham of Claverhouse, now Viscount Dundee, had +collected an army of Highlanders, against whom William sent General +Mackay, a Scotsman who had served in Holland. Mackay followed Dundee +through the Highlands to Elgin and on to Inverness, and finally, after +many wanderings, the two armies met in the pass of Killiecrankie. Dundee +and his Highlanders were victorious, but Dundee himself was killed in +the battle, and his death proved a fatal blow to the Jacobite cause. +After some delay Mackay was able to attain the object for which the +battle had been fought--the possession of Blair Athole Castle. The +military resistance soon came to an end. + +The ecclesiastical settlement followed the suppression of the +rebellion. The deprivation of nonjuring clergymen had been proceeding +since the establishment of the new Government, and in 1690 an act was +passed restoring to their parishes the Presbyterian clergy who had been +ejected under Charles II. A small temporary provision was made for their +successors, who were now, in turn, expelled. On the 26th May, 1690, the +Parliament adopted the Confession of Faith, although it refused to be +committed to the Covenant. The Presbyterian form of Church government +was established; but King William succeeded in maintaining some check on +the General Assembly, and toleration was granted to such Episcopalian +dissenters as were willing to take the oath of allegiance. On the other +hand, acceptance of the Confession of Faith was made a test for +professors in the universities. The changes were carried out with little +disturbance to the peace, there was no blood spilt, and except for some +rough usage of Episcopalians in the west (known as the "rabbling of the +curates"), there was nothing in the way of outrage or insult. The credit +of the settlement belongs to William Carstares, afterwards Principal of +the University of Edinburgh, whose tact and wisdom overcame many +difficulties. + +The personal union of Scotland and England had created no special +difficulties while both countries were under the rule of an absolute +monarch. The policy of both was alike, because it was guided by one +supreme ruler. But the accession of a constitutional king, with a +parliamentary title, at once created many problems difficult of +solution, and made a more complete union absolutely necessary. The Union +of 1707 was thus the natural consequence of the Revolution of 1689, +although, at the time of the Revolution, scrupulous care was taken, +alike by the new king and by his English Parliament, to recognize the +existence of Scotland as a separate kingdom. The Scottish Parliament, +which regarded itself as the ruler of the country, found itself hampered +and restricted by William's action. It was allowed no voice on questions +of foreign policy, and its conduct of home affairs met with not +infrequent interference, which roused the indignation of Scottish +politicians, and especially of the section which followed Fletcher of +Saltoun. Several causes combined to add to the unpopularity which +William had acquired through the occasional friction with the +Parliament. Scotland had ceased to have any interest in the war, and its +prolongation constituted a standing grievance, of which the partisans of +the Stuarts were not slow to avail themselves. + +There were two events, in particular, which roused widespread resentment +in Scotland. These were the Massacre of Glencoe, and the failure of the +scheme for colonizing the Isthmus of Darien. The story of Glencoe has +been often told. The 31st December, 1691, had been appointed as the +latest day on which the government would receive the submission of the +Highland chiefs. MacDonald of Glencoe delayed till the last moment, and +then proceeded to Fort-William, where a fortress had just been erected, +to take the oath in the presence of its commander, who had no power to +receive it. From Fort-William he had to go to Inverary, to take the oath +before the sheriff of Argyll, and he did so on the 6th January, 1692. +The six days' delay placed him and his clan in the power of men who were +unlikely to show any mercy to the name of MacDonald. Acting under +instructions from King William, the nature of which has been matter of +dispute, Campbell of Glenlyon, acting with the knowledge of Breadalbane +and Sir John Dalrymple of Stair, the Secretary of State, and as their +tool, entered the pass of Glencoe on the 1st February, 1692. The +MacDonalds, trusting in the assurances which had been given by the +Government, seem to have suspected no evil from this armed visit of +their traditional enemies, the Campbells, and received them with +hospitality. While they were living peaceably, all possible retreat was +being cut off from the unfortunate MacDonalds by the closing of the +passes, and on the 13th effect was given to the dastardly scheme. It +failed, however, to achieve its full object--the extirpation of the +clan. Many escaped to the hills; but the chief himself and over thirty +others were murdered in cold blood. The news of the massacre roused a +fierce flame of indignation, not only in the Highlands, but throughout +the Lowlands as well, and the Jacobites did not fail to make use of it. +A commission was appointed to enquire into the circumstances, and it +severely censured Dalrymple, and charged Breadalbane with treason, while +many blamed, possibly unjustly, the king himself. + +The other grievance was of a different nature. About 1695, William +Paterson, the founder of the Bank of England, suggested the formation of +a Scottish company to trade to Africa and the Indies. It was originally +known as the African Company, but it was destined to be popularly +remembered by the name of its most notable failure--the Darien Company. +It received very full powers from the Scottish Parliament, powers of +military colonization as well as trading privileges. These powers +aroused great jealousy and indignation in England, and the House of +Commons decided that, as the company had its headquarters in London, the +directors were guilty of high crimes and misdemeanours. There followed a +failure of the English capital on which the promoters had reckoned, but +shares to the value of L400,000 (on which L219,094 was paid up) were +subscribed in Scotland. At first the company was a prosperous trading +concern, but its only attempt at colonization involved it in ruin. +Paterson wished his fellow-countrymen to found a colony in the Isthmus +of Panama, and to attract thither the whole trade of North and South +America. The ports of the colony were to be open to ships of all +nations. In the end of 1698 twelve hundred Scots landed on the shore of +the Gulf of Darien, without organization and without the restraint of +responsibility to any government. They soon had difficulties with their +Spanish neighbours, and the English colonists at New York, Barbadoes, +and Jamaica were warned to render them no assistance. Disease and famine +completed the tale of misery, and the first colonists deserted their +posts. Their successors, who arrived to find empty huts, surrounded by +lonely Scottish graves, were soon in worse plight, and they were driven +out by a band of Spaniards. The unfortunate company lingered on for some +time, but merely as traders. The Scots blamed the king's ill-will for +their failure, and he became more than ever unpopular in Scotland. The +moral of the whole story was that only through the corporate union of +the two countries could trade jealousies and the danger of rival schemes +of colonization be avoided. + +In the reign of Charles II the Scots, who felt keenly the loss of the +freedom of trade which they had enjoyed under Cromwell, had themselves +broached the question of union, and William had brought it forward at +the beginning of his reign. It was, however, reserved for his successor +to see it carried. In March, 1702, the king died. The death of "William +II", as his title ran in the kingdom of Scotland, was received with a +feeling amounting almost to satisfaction. The first English Parliament +of Queen Anne agreed to the appointment of commissioners to discuss +terms of union, and the Estates of Scotland chose representatives to +meet them. But the English refused to give freedom of trade, and so the +negotiations broke down. In reply, the Scottish Parliament removed the +restrictions on the import of wines from France, with which country +England was now at war. In the summer of 1703 the Scots passed an Act of +Security, which invested the Parliament with the power of the crown in +case of the queen's dying without heirs, and entrusted to it the choice +of a Protestant sovereign "from the royal line". It refused to such king +or queen, if also sovereign of England, the power of declaring war or +making peace without the consent of Parliament, and it enacted that the +union of the crowns should determine after the queen's death unless +Scotland was admitted to equal trade and navigation privileges with +England. Further, the act provided for the compulsory training of every +Scotsman to bear arms, in order that the country might, if necessary, +defend its independence by the sword. The queen's consent to the Act of +Security was refused, and the bitterness of the national feeling was +accentuated by the suspicion of a Jacobite plot. Parliament had been +adjourned on 16th September, 1703. When it met in 1704 it again passed +the Act of Security, and an important section began to argue that the +royal assent was merely a usual form, and not an indispensable +authentication of an act. For some time, it seemed as if the two +countries were on the brink of war. But, as the union of the crowns had +been rendered possible by the self-restraint of a nation who could +accept their hereditary enemy as their hereditary sovereign, so now +Queen Anne's advisers resolved, with patient wisdom, to secure, at all +hazards, the union of the kingdoms. + +It was not an easy task, even in England, for there could be no union +without complete freedom of trade, and many Englishmen were most +unwilling to yield on this point. In Scotland the difficulties to be +overcome were much greater. The whole nation, irrespective of politics +and religion, felt bitterly the indignity of surrendering the +independent existence for which Scotland had fought for four hundred +years. It could not but be difficult to reconcile an ancient and +high-spirited people to incorporation with a larger and more powerful +neighbour, and the whole population mourned the approaching loss of +their Parliament and their autonomy. Almost every section had special +reasons for opposing the measure. For the Jacobites an Act of Union +meant that Scotland was irretrievably committed to the Hanoverian +succession, and whatever force the Jacobites might be able to raise +after the queen's death must take action in the shape of a rebellion +against the _de facto_ government. It deprived them of all hope of +seizing the reins of power, and of using the machinery of government in +Scotland for the good of their cause--a _coup d'etat_ of which the Act +of Security gave considerable chance. On this very account the +triumphant Presbyterians were anxious to carry the union scheme, and the +correspondence of the Electress Sophia proves that the negotiations for +union were looked upon at Hanover as solely an important factor in the +succession controversy. But the recently re-established Presbyterian +Church of Scotland regarded with great anxiety a union with an +Episcopalian country, and hesitated to place their dearly won freedom at +the mercy of a Parliament the large majority of whom were Episcopalians. +The more extreme Presbyterians, and especially the Cameronians of the +west, were bitterly opposed to the project. They protested against +becoming subject to a Parliament in whose deliberations the English +bishops had an important voice, and against accepting a king who had +been educated as a Lutheran, and they clamoured for covenanted +uniformity and a covenanted monarch. By a curious irony of fate, the +Scottish Episcopalians were forced by their Jacobite leanings to act +with the extreme Presbyterians, and to oppose the scheme of amalgamation +with an Episcopalian country. The legal interest was strongly against a +proposal that might reduce the importance of Scots law and of Scottish +lawyers, while the populace of Edinburgh were furious at the suggestion +of a union, whose result must be to remove at once one of the glories of +their city and a valuable source of income. There was still another body +of opponents. The reign of William had been remarkable for the rise of +political parties. The two main factions were known as Williamites and +Cavaliers, and in addition to these there had grown up a Patriot or +Country party. It was brought into existence by the enthusiasm of +Fletcher of Saltoun, and it was based upon an antiquarian revival which +may be compared with the mediaeval attempts to revive the Republic of +Rome. The aim of the patriots was to maintain the independence of +Scotland, and they attempted to show that the Scottish crown had never +been under feudal obligations to England, and that the Scottish +Parliament had always possessed sovereign rights, and could govern +independently of the will of the monarch. They were neither Jacobites +nor Hanoverians; but they held that if the foreign domination, of which +they had complained under William, were to continue, it mattered little +whether it emanated from St. Germains or from the Court of St. James's, +and they had combined with the Jacobites to pass the Act of Security. + +Such was the complicated situation with which the English Government had +to deal. Their first step was to advise Queen Anne to assent to the Act +of Security, and so to conserve the dignity and _amour propre_ of the +Scottish Parliament. Commissioners were then appointed to negotiate for +a union. No attempt was made to conciliate the Jacobites, for no attempt +could have met with any kind of success. Nor did the commissioners make +any effort to satisfy the more extreme Presbyterians, who sullenly +refused to acknowledge the union when it became an accomplished fact, +and who remained to hamper the Government when the Jacobite troubles +commenced. An assurance that there would be no interference with the +Church of Scotland as by law established, and a guarantee that the +universities would be maintained in their _status quo_, satisfied the +moderate Presbyterians, and removed their scruples. Unlike James VI and +Cromwell, the advisers of Queen Anne declared their intention of +preserving the independent Scots law and the independent Scottish courts +of justice, and these guarantees weakened the arguments of the Patriot +party. But above all the English proposals won the support of the +ever-increasing commercial interest in Scotland by conceding freedom of +trade in a complete form. They agreed that "all parts of the United +Kingdom of Great Britain be under the same regulations, prohibitions, +and restrictions, and liable to equal impositions and duties for export +and import". The adjustment of financial obligations was admitted to +involve some injustice to Scotland, and an "equivalent" was allowed, to +compensate for the responsibility now accruing to Scotland in connection +with the English National Debt. It remained to adjust the representation +of Scotland in the united Parliament. It was at first proposed to allow +only thirty-eight members, but the number was finally raised to +forty-five. Thirty of these represented the shires. Each shire was to +elect one representative, except the three groups of Bute and Caithness, +Clackmannan and Kinross, and Nairn and Cromarty. In each group the +election was made alternately by the two counties. Thus Bute, +Clackmannan, and Nairn each sent a member in 1708, and Caithness, +Kinross, and Cromarty in 1710. The device is sufficiently unusual to +deserve mention. The burghs were divided into fifteen groups, each of +which was given one member. In this form, after considerable difficulty, +the act was carried both in Scotland and in England. It was a union much +less extensive than that which had been planned by James VI or that +which had been in actual force under Cromwell. The existence of a +separate Church, governed differently from the English Establishment, +and the maintenance of a separate legal code and a separate judicature +have helped to preserve some of the national characteristics of the +Scots. Not for many years did the union become popular in Scotland, and +not for many years did the two nations become really united. It might, +in fact, be said that the force of steam has accomplished what law has +failed to do, and that the real incorporation of Scotland with England +dates from the introduction of railways. + + + + + APPENDIX A + + REFERENCES TO THE HIGHLANDERS IN MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE + + + ~I. AELRED (12th Century)~ + + _Account of the Battle of the Standard_ + + "Rex interim, coactis in unum comitibus, optimisque regni sui + proceribus, coepit cum eis de belli ratione tractare, placuitque + plurimis, ut quotquot aderant armati milites et sagittarii cunctum + praeirent exercitum, quatenus armati armatos impeterent, milites + congrederentur militibus, sagittae sagittis obviarent. Restitere + Galwenses, dicentes sui esse juris primam construere aciem.... Cum + rex militum magis consiliis acquiescere videretur, Malisse comes + Stradarniae plurimum indignatus: 'Quid est,' inquit, 'o rex, quod + Gallorum te magis committis voluntati, cum nullus eorum cum armis + suis me inermem sit hodie praecessurus in bello?' ... Tunc rex ... + ne tumultus hac altercatione subitus nasceretur, Galwensium cessit + voluntati. Alteram aciem filius regis et milites sagittariique cum + eo, adjunctis sibi Cumbrensibus et Tevidalensibus cum magna + sagacitate constituit.... Conjunxerat se ei ejusque interfuit aciei + Eustacius filius Joannis de magnis proceribus Angliae ... qui a + rege Anglorum ideo recesserat.... Tertium cuneum Laodonenses cum + Insulanis et Lavernanis fecerunt. Rex in sua acie Scotos et + Muranenses retinuit, nonnullos etiam de militibus Anglis et Francis + ad sui corporis custodiam deputavit."--Aelred, _De Bello + Standardii_, Migne, _Patrologia Latina_, vol. cxcv, col. 702-712. + + ~2. JOHN OF FORDUN (d. 1394?)~ + + (_a_) _Description of the Highlanders_ + + "Mores autem Scotorum secundum diversitatem linguarum variantur; + duabus enim utuntur linguis, Scotica videlicet, et Teutonica; cujus + linguae gens maritimas possidet et planas regiones: linguae vero + gens Scoticae montanas inhabitat, et insulas ulteriores. Maritima + quoque domestica gens est, et culta, fida, patiens, et urbana; + vestitu siquidem honesta, civilis atque pacifica; circa cultum + divinum devota, sed et obviandis hostium injuriis semper prona. + Insulana vero, sive montana, ferma gens est et indomita, rudis et + immorigerata, raptu capax, otium diligens, ingenio docilis et + callida; forma spectabilis, sed amictu deformis; populo quidem + Anglorum et linguae, sed et propriae nationi, propter linguarum + diversitatem, infesta jugiter et crudelis. Regi tamen et regno + fidelis et obediens, nec non faciliter legibus subdita, si + regatur.... Scotica gens ea ab initio est quae quondam in Hibernia + fuit, et ei similis per omnia, lingua, moribus, et + natura."--_Scoti-chronicon_, Bk. ii, ch. ix. + + This contrast between the Highlanders and the civilized Scots must + be read in the light of Fordun's general view of the work of the + descendants of Malcolm Canmore. He describes how David I changed + the Lowlanders into civilized men, but never hints that he did so + by introducing Englishmen. He represents the whole nation (outside + the old Northumbrian kingdom) as Picts and Scots, on whose + antiquity he lays stress, and merely mentions that Malcolm Canmore + welcomed English refugees. The following extracts show that he + looked upon the Lowlanders, not as a separate race from the + Highlanders, but simply as men of the same barbarian race who had + been civilized by David:-- + + "Unde tota illa gentis illius barbaries mansuefacta, tanta se mox + benevolentia et humilitate substravit, ut naturalis oblita + saevitiae, legibus quas regia mansuetudo dictabat, colla + submitteret, et pacem quam eatenus nesciebat, gratanter + acciperet."--Bk. v, ch. xxxvii. + + "Ipse vero pretiosis vestibus pallia tua pilosa mutavit et antiquam + nuditatem byssa et purpura texit. Ipse barbaros mores tuos + Christiana religione composuit...."--Bk. v, ch. xliii. + + + (_b_) _Coronation of Alexander III as a king of Scots_ + + "Ipso quoque rege super cathedram regalem, scilicet, lapidem, + sedente, sub cujus pedibus comites ceterique nobiles sua vestimenta + coram lapide curvatis genibus sternebant. Qui lapis in eodem + monasterio reverenter ob regum Albaniae consecrationem servatur. + Nec uspiam aliquis regum in Scocia regnare solebat,[92] nisi super + eundem lapidem regium in accipiendum nomen prius sederet in Scona, + sede vero superiori, videlicet Albaniae constituta regibus ab + antiquis. Et ecce, peractus singulis, quidam Scotus montanus ante + thronum subito genuflectens materna lingua regem inclinato capite + salutavit hiis Scoticis verbis, dicens:--'Benach de Re Albanne + Alexander, mac Alexander, mac Vleyham, mac Henri, mac David', et + sic pronunciando regum Scotorum genealogiam usque in finem legebat. + Quod ita Latine sonat:--'Salve rex Albanorum Alexander, filii + Alexandri ... filii Mane, filii Fergusii, primi Scotorum regis in + Albania'. Qui quoque Fergusius fuit filius Feredach, quamvis a + quibusdam dicitur filius Ferechere, parum tamen discrepant in sono. + Haec discrepantia forte scriptoris constat vitio propter + difficultatem loquelae. Deinde dictam genealogiam dictus Scotus ab + homine in hominem continuando perlegit donec ad primum Scotum, + videlicet, Iber Scot. pervenit."--_Annals_, xlviii. + + ~3. BOOK OF PLUSCARDEN (written in the latter half of the 15th + century)~ + + _Account of Harlaw_ + + "Item anno Domini M deg.CCCCXI fuit conflictus de Harlaw, in + Le Gariach, per Donaldum de Insulis contra Alexandrum comitem de + Mar et vicecomitem Angusiae, ubi multi nobiles ceciderunt in bello. + Eodem anno combusta est villa de Cupro casualiter."--Bk. x, ch. + xxii. + + ~4. WALTER BOWER (d. 1449)~ + + _Account of Harlaw_ + + "Anno Dom. millesimo quadringentesimo undecimo, in vigilia sancti + Jacobi Apostoli, conflictus de Harlaw in Marria, ubi Dovenaldus de + Insulis cum decem millibus de insulanis et hominibus suis de Ross + hostiliter intravit terram cis montes, omnia conculcans et + depopulans, ac in vastitatem redigens; sperens in illa expeditione + villam regiam de Abirdene spoliare, et consequenter usque ad aquam + de Thya suae subjicere ditioni. Et quia in tanta multitudine ferali + occupaverunt terram sicut locustae, conturbati sunt omnes de + dominica terra qui videbant eos, et timuit omnis homo. Cui occurrit + Alexander Stewart, comes de Marr, cum Alexandro Ogilby vicecomite + de Angus, qui semper et ubique justitiam dilexit, cum potestate de + Mar et Garioch, Angus et Mernis, et facto acerrimo congressu, + occisi sunt ex parte comitis de Mar Jacobus Scrymgeour + constabularius de Dunde, Alexander de Irevin, Robertus de Malvile + et Thomas Murrave milites, Willelmus de Abirnethy ... et alii + valentes armigeri, necnon Robertus David consul de Abirdene, cum + multis burgensibus. De parte insulanorum cecidit campidoctor. + Maclane nomine, et dominus Dovenaldus capitaneus fugatus, et ex + parte ejus occisi nongenti et ultra, ex parte nostra quingenti, et + fere omnes generosi de Buchane."--Lib. xv, ch. xxi. + + ~5. JOHN MAJOR OR MAIR (1469-1550)~ + + _(a) References to the Scottish nation, and description of the + Gaelic-speaking population_ + + "Cum enim Aquitaniam, Andegaviam, Normanniam, Hiberniam, Valliamque + Angli haberent, adhuc sine bellis in Scotia civilibus, nihil in ea + profecerunt, et jam mille octingentos et quinquaginta annos in + Britannia Scoti steterunt, hodierno die non minus potentes et ad + bellum propensi quam unquam fuerint...."--_Greater Britain_, Bk. i. + ch. vii. + + "Praeterea, sicut Scotorum, uti diximus, duplex est lingua, ita + mores gemini sunt. Nam in nemoribus Septentrionalibus et montibus + aliqui nati sunt, hos altae terrae, reliquos imae terrae viros + vocamus. Apud exteros priores Scoti sylvestri, posteriores + domestici vocantur, lingua Hibernica priores communiter utuntur, + Anglicana posteriores. Una Scotiae medietas Hibernice loquitur, et + nos omnes cum Insulanis in sylvestrium societate deputamus. In + veste, cultu et moribus, reliquis puta domesticis minus honesti + sunt, non tamen minus ad bellum praecipites, sed multo magis, tum + quia magis boreales, tum quia in montibus nati et sylvicolae, + pugnatiores suapte natura sunt. Penes tamen domitos est totius + regni pondus et regimen, quia melius vel minus male quam alii + politizant."--Bk. i, ch. viii. + + "Adhuc Scotiae ferme medietas Hibernice loquitur, et a paucis + retroactis diebus plures Hibernice loquuti sunt."--Bk. i, ch. ix. + + + _(b) Account of Harlaw_ + + "Anno 1411, praelium Harlaw apud Scotos famigeratum commissum est. + Donaldus insularum comes decies mille viris clarissimis + sylvestribus Scotis munitus, Aberdoniam urbem insignam et alia loca + spoliare proposuit; contra quem Alexander Steuartus comes Marrae, + et Alexander Ogilvyus Angusiae vice-comes suos congregant et + Donaldo Insularum apud Harlaw occurrunt. Fit atrox et acerrima + pugna; nec cum exteris praelium periculosius in tanto numero unquam + habitum est; sic quod in schola grammaticali juvenculi ludentes, ad + partes oppositas nos solemus retrahere, dicentes nos praelium de + Harlaw struere velle. Licet communius a vulgo dicatur quod + sylvestres Scoti erant victi, ab annalibus tamen oppositum invenio: + solum Insularum comes coactus est retrocedere, et plures occisos + habuit quam Scoti domiti...."--Bk. vi, ch. x. + + ~6. HECTOR BOECE (1465?-1536)~ + + _(a) Account of the differences between Highlanders and Lowlanders_ + + "Nos vero qui in confinio Angliae sedes habemus, sicut Saxonum + linguam per multa commercia bellaque ab illis didicimus nostramque + deseruimus; ita priscos omnes mores reliquimus, priscusque nobis + scribendi mos ut et sermo incognitus est. At qui montana incolunt + ut linguam ita et caetera prope omnia arctissime tuentur.... + Labentibus autem seculis idque maxime circa Malcolmi Canmoir + tempora mutari cuncta coeperunt. Vicinis enim Britannis primum a + Romanis subactis ocioque enervatis, ac postea a Saxonibus expulsis + commilitii eorum commercio nonnihil, mox Pictis quoque deletis ubi + affinitate Anglis coniungi coepimus, expanso, ut ita dicam, gremio + mores quoque eorum amplexi imbibimus. Minus enim prisca patrum + virtus in pretio esse coeperat, permanente nihilominus vetere + gloriae cupiditate. Verum haud recta insistentes via umbras + germanae gloriae non veram sectabantur, cognomina sibi nobilitatis + imponentes, eaque Anglorum more ostentantes atque iactantes, quum + antea is haberi esseque nobilissimus soleret, qui virtute non + opibus, qui egregiis a se factis non maiorum suorum clarus erat. + Hinc illae natae sunt Ducum, Comitum, ac reliquorum id genus ad + ostentationem confictae appellationes. Quum antea eiusdem + potestatis esse solerent, qui Thani id est quaestores regii + dicebantur illis muneribus ob fidem virtutemque donari."--_Scotorum + Regni Descriptio_, prefixed to his History. + + + _(b) Account of Harlaw_ + + "Exortum est subinde ex Hebridibus bellum duce Donaldo Hebridiano + injuria a gubernatore affecto. Nam Wilhelmus comes Rossensis filius + Hugonis, is quem praelio ad Halidounhil periisse supra memoratum + est,[93] duas habuit filias, quarum natu maiorem Waltero Leslie + viro nobilissimo coniugem dedit una cum Rossiae comitatu. Walterus + susceptis ex ea filio Alexandro nomine, quem comitem Rossiae fecit, + et filia, quam Donaldo Hebridiano uxorem dedit, defunctus est. + Alexander ex filia Roberti gubernatoris, quam duxerat, unam + duntaxat filiam reliquit, Eufemiam nomine, quae admodum adhuc + adolescentula erat, dum pater decederet, parumque rerum perita. Eam + gubernator [Albany], blanditiis an minis incertum, persuasam + induxit, ut resignato in ipsum comitatu Rossensi, ab eo rursum + reciperet his legibus, ut si ipsa sine liberis decederet, ad filium + eius secundo natum rediret. Quod si neque ille masculam prolem + reliquisset, tum Robertus eius frater succederet, ac si in illo + quoque defecisset soboles, tum ad regem rediret Rossia. Quibus + astute callideque peractis haud multo post Eufemia adhuc virgo + moritur, ut ferebatur, opera gubernatoris sublata, ut ad filium + comitatus veniret. Ita Ioannes, quum antea Buthquhaniae comes + fuisset Rossiae comitatum acquisivit, et unicam tantum filiam + reliquit, quam Willelmus a Setoun eques auratus in coniugem + accepit; unde factum est ut eius familiae principes ius sibi + Buthquhaniae vendicent. At Donaldus qui amitam Eufemiae Alexandri + Leslie sororem, uxorem habebat, ubi Eufemiam defunctam audivit, a + gubernatore postulavit ex haereditate Rossiae comitatum; ubi quum + ille nihil aequi respondisset, collecta ex Hebridibus ingenti manu, + partim vi, partim benevolentia, secum ducens Rossiam invadit, nee + magno negotio in ditionem suam redegit, Rossianis verum recipere + haeredem haud quaquam recusantibus. Verum eo successu non + contentus, nec se in eorum quae iure petiverat, finibus continens, + Moraviam. Bogaevallem iisque vicinas regiones hostiliter + depopulando in Gareotham pervenit, Aberdoniam, uti minitabatur, + direpturus. Caeterum in tempore obvians temeritati eius Alexander + Stuart Alexandri filii Roberti regis secundi comitis Buthquhaniae + nothus, Marriae comes ad Hairlau (vicus est pugna mox ibi gesta + cruentissima insignis) haud expectatis reliquis auxiliis cum eo + congressus est. Qua re factum est, ut dum auxilia sine ordinibus + (nihil tale suspicantes) cum magna neglegentia advenirent, permulti + eorum caesi sint, adeoque ambigua fuerit victoria, ut utrique se in + proximos montes desertis castris victoria cedentes receperint. + Nongenti ex Hebridianis et iis qui Donaldo adhaeserant cecidere cum + Makgillane et Maktothe praecipuis post Donaldum ducibus. Ex Scotis + adversae partis vir nobilis Alexander Ogilvy Angusiae vice-comes + singulari iustitia ac probitate praeditus, Jacobus Strimger + Comestabulis Deidoni magno animo vir ac insigni virtute, et ad + posteros clarus, Alexander Irrvein a Drum ob praecipuum robur + conspicuus, Robertus Maul a Pammoir, Thomas Moravus, Wilhelmus + Abernethi a Salthon, Alexander Strathon a Loucenstoun, Robertus + Davidstoun Aberdoniae praefectus; hi omnes equites aurati cum + multis aliis nobilibus eo praelio occubere. Donaldus victoriam + hostibus prorsus concedens, tota nocte quanta potuit celeritate ad + Rossiam contendit, ac inde qua proxime dabatur, in Hebrides se + recepit. Gubernator in sequenti anno cum valido exercitu Hebrides + oppugnare parans, Donaldum veniam supplicantem, ac omnia + praestiturum damna illata pollicentem, nec deinceps iniuriam ullam + illaturum iurantem in gratiam recepit."--_Scotorum Historiae_, Lib. + xvi. + + ~7. JOHN LESLEY (1527-1596)~ + + _Contrast between Highlanders and Lowlanders_ + + "Angli etenim sicut et politiores Scoti antiqua illa Saxonum + lingua, quae nunc Anglica dicitur promiscue, alia tamen atque alia + dialecto loquuntur. Scotorum autem reliqui quos exteri (quod + majorum suorum instituta, ac antiquam illam simplicemque amiciendi + ac vivendi formam mordicus adhuc teneant) feros et sylvestres, + montanos dicimus, prisca sua Hibernica lingua utuntur."--_De Gestis + Scotorum_, Lib. i. (_De Populis Regnis et Linguis_.) + + ~8. GEORGE BUCHANAN (1506-1582)~ + + _Account of Harlaw_ + + "Altero vero post anno, qui fuit a Christo 1411, Donaldus Insulanus + OEbudarum dominus cum Rossiam iuris calumnia per Gubernatorem + sibi ablatam, velut proximus haeres (uti erat) repeteret, ac nihil + aequi impetraret, collectis insulanorum decem millibus in + continentem descendit; ac Rossiam facile occupavit, cunctis + libenter ad iusti domini imperium redeuntibus. Sed ea Rossianorum + parendi facilitas animum praedae avidum ad maiora audenda impulit. + In Moraviam transgressus eam praesidio destitutam statim in suam + potestatem redegit. Deinde Bogiam praedabundus transivit; et iam + Abredoniae imminebat. Adversus hunc subitum et inexpectatum hostem + Gubernator copias parabat; sed cum magnitudo et propinquitas + periculi auxilia longinqua expectare non sineret, Alexander Marriae + Comes ex Alexandro Gubernatoris fratre genitus cum tota ferme + nobilitate trans Taum ad Harlaum vicum ei se objecit. Fit praelium + inter pauca cruentum et memorabile: nobilium hominum virtute de + omnibus fortunis, deque gloria adversus immanem feritatem + decertante. Nox eos diremit magis pugnando lassos, quam in alteram + partem re inclinata adeoque incertus fuit eius pugnae exitus, ut + utrique cum recensuissent, quos viros amisissent, sese pro victis + gesserint. Hoc enim praelio tot homines genere, factisque clari + desiderati sunt, quot vix ullus adversus exteros conflictus per + multos annos absumpsisse memoratur. Itaque vicus ante obscurus ex + eo ad posteritatem nobilitatus est."--_Rerum Scotorum Historia_, + Lib. x. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 92: This was written after the stone had been carried to +England.] + +[Footnote 93: He had fallen in the front rank of the Scottish army at +Halidon Hill.] + + + + + APPENDIX B + + THE FEUDALIZATION OF SCOTLAND + + +The object of this Appendix is to give a summary of the process by which +Anglo-Norman feudalism came to supersede the earlier Scottish +civilization. For a more detailed account, the reader is referred to +Skene's _Celtic Scotland_, Robertson's _Scotland under her Early Kings_, +and Mr. Lang's _History of Scotland_. + +The kingdom[94] of which Malcolm Canmore became the ruler in 1058 was +not inhabited by clans. It had been, from of old, divided into seven +provinces, each of which was inhabited by tribes. The tribe or tuath was +governed by its own chief or king (Ri or Toisech); each province or Mor +Tuath was governed by Ri Mor Tuath or Mormaer,[95] and these seven +Mormaers seem (in theory, at all events) to have elected the national +king, and to have acted as his advisers. The tribe was divided into +freemen and slaves, and freemen and slaves alike were subdivided into +various classes--noble and simple; serfs attached to land, and personal +bondmen. The land was held, not by the tribe in general, but by the +_ciniod_ or near kin of the _flath_ or senior of each family within the +tribe. On the death of a senior, the new senior was chosen (generally +with strict regard to primogeniture) from among the nearest in blood, +and all who were within three degrees of kin to him, shared in the +joint-proprietary of the proceeds of the land. The senior had special +privileges and was the representative and surety of the _ciniod_, and +the guardian of their common interests. After the third generation, a +man ceased to be reckoned among the _ciniod_, and probably received a +small personal allotment. Most of his descendants would thus be +landless, or, if they held land, would do so by what soon amounted to +servile tenure. Thus the majority of the tribe had little or nothing to +lose by the feudalization that was approaching. + +The changes of Malcolm's reign are concerned with the Church, not with +land-tenure. But the territorialization of the Church, and the abolition +of the ecclesiastical system of the tribe, foreshadowed the innovations +that Malcolm's son was to introduce. We have seen that an anti-English +reaction followed the deaths of Malcolm and Margaret. This is important +because it involved an expulsion of the English from Scotland, which may +be compared with the expulsion of the Normans from England after the +return of Godwin. Our knowledge of the circumstances is derived from the +following statement of Symeon of Durham:-- + + "Qua [Margerita] mortua, Dufenaldum regis Malcolmi fratrem Scotti + sibi in regem elegerunt, et omnes Anglos qui de curia regis + extiterunt, de Scotia expulerunt. Quibus auditis, filius regis + Malcolmi Dunechan regem Willelmum, cui tune militavit, ut ei regnum + sui patris concederet, petiit, et impetravit, illique fidelitatem + juravit. Et sic ad Scotiam cum multitudine Anglorum et Normannorum + properavit, et patruum suum Dufenaldum de regno expulit, et in loco + ejus regnavit. Deinde nonnulli Scottorum in unum congregati, + homines illius pene omnes peremerunt. Ipse vero vix cum paucis + evasit. Veruntamen post haec illum regnare permiserunt, ea ratione, + ut amplius in Scotiam nec Anglos nec Normannos introduceret, + sibique militare permitteret."-_Rolls Series edn._, vol. ii, p. + 222. + +It was not till the reign of Alexander I (1107-1124) that the new +influences made any serious modification of ancient custom. The peaceful +Edgar had surrounded himself with English favourites, and had granted +Saxon charters to Saxon landholders in the Lothians. His brother, +Alexander, made the first efforts to abolish the old Celtic tenure. In +1114, he gave a charter to the monastery of Scone, and not only did the +charter contemplate the direct holding of land from the king, but the +signatories or witnesses described themselves as Earls, not as Mormaers. +The monastery was founded to commemorate the suppression of a revolt of +the Celts of Moray, and the earls who witnessed the charter bore Celtic +names. This policy of taking advantage of rebellions to introduce +English civilization became a characteristic method of the kings of +Scotland. Alexander's successor, David I, set himself definitely to +carry on the work which his brother had begun. He found his opportunity +in the rising of Malcolm MacHeth, Earl of Moray. To this rising we have +already referred in the Introduction. It was the greatest effort made +against the innovations of the anti-national sons of Malcolm Canmore, +and its leader, Malcolm MacHeth, was the representative of a rival line +of kings. David had to obtain the assistance, not only of the +Anglo-Normans by whom he himself was surrounded, but also of some of the +barons of Northumberland and Yorkshire, with whom he had a connection as +Earl of Huntingdon, for the descendant of the Celtic kings of Scotland +was himself an English baron. We have seen that David captured MacHeth +and forfeited the lands of Moray, which he regranted, on feudal terms, +to Anglo-Normans or to native Scots who supported the king's new policy. +The war with England interrupted David's work, as a long struggle with +the Church had prevented his brother, Alexander, from giving full scope +to the principles that both had learned in the English Court; but, by +the end of David's reign, the lines of future development had been quite +clearly laid down. The Celtic Church had almost disappeared. The bishops +of St. Andrews, Dunkeld, Moray, Glasgow, Ross, Caithness, Aberdeen, +Dunblane, Brechin, and Galloway were great royal officers, who +inculcated upon the people the necessity of adopting the new political +and ecclesiastical system. The Culdee monasteries were dying out; north +of the Forth, Scone had been founded by Alexander I as a pioneer of the +new civilization, and, after the defeat of Malcolm MacHeth and the +settlement of Moray, David, in 1150, founded the Abbey of Kinloss. The +Celtic official terms were replaced by English names; the Mormaer had +become the Earl, the Toisech was now the Thane, and Earl and Thane alike +were losing their position as the royal representative, as David +gradually introduced the Anglo-Norman _vice-comes_ or sheriff, who +represented the royal Exchequer and the royal system of justice. David's +police regulations tended still further to strengthen the nascent +Feudalism; like the kings of England, he would have none of the +"lordless man, of whom no law can be got", and commendation was added to +the forces which produced the disintegration of the tribal system. Not +less important was the introduction of written charters. Alexander had +given a written charter to the monastery of Scone; David gave private +charters to individual land-owners, and made the possession of a charter +the test of a freeholder. Finally, it is from David's reign that +Scottish burghs take their origin. He encouraged the rise of towns as +part of the feudal system. The burgesses were tenants-in-chief of the +king, held of him by charter, and stood in the same relation to him as +other tenants-in-chief. So firmly grounded was this idea that, up to +1832, the only Scottish burgesses who attended Parliament were +representatives of the ancient Royal Burghs, and their right depended, +historically, not on any gift of the franchise, but on their position as +tenants-in-chief. That there were strangers among the new burgesses +cannot be doubted; Saxons and Normans mingled with Danes and Flemish +merchants in the humble streets of the villages that were protected by +the royal castle and that grew into Scottish towns; but their numbers +were too few to give us any ground for believing that they were, in any +sense, foreign colonies, or that they seriously modified the ethnic +character of the land. Men from the country would, for reasons of +protection, or from the impulse of commerce, find their way into the +towns; it is certain that the population of the towns did not migrate +into the country. The real importance of the towns lies in the part they +played in the spread of the English tongue. To the influence of Court +and King, of land tenure, of law and police, of parish priest and monk, +and Abbot and Bishop, was added the persuasive force of commercial +interest. + +The death of David I, in 1153, was immediately followed by Celtic +revolts against Anglo-Norman order. The province of Moray made a final +effort on behalf of Donald Mac Malcolm MacHeth, the son of the Malcolm +MacHeth of the previous reign, and of a sister of Somerled of Argyll, +the ancestor of the Lord of the Isles. The new king, Malcolm IV, the +grandson of David, easily subdued this rising, and it is in connection +with its suppression that Fordun makes the statement, quoted in the +Introduction, about the displacement of the population of Moray. There +is no earlier authority for it than the fourteenth century, and the +inherent probability in its favour is so very slight that but little +weight can reasonably be assigned to it. David had already granted Moray +to Anglo-Normans who were now in possession of the Lowland portion and +who ruled the Celtic population. We should expect to hear something +definite of any further change in the Lowlands, and a repopulation of +the Highlands of Moray was beyond the limits of possibility. The king, +too, had little time to carry out such a measure, for he had immediately +to face a new rebellion in Galloway; he reigned for twelve years in all, +and was only twenty-four years of age when he died. The only truth in +Fordun's statement is probably that Malcolm IV carried on the policy of +David I in regard to the land-owners of Moray, and forfeited the +possessions of those who had taken part in MacHeth's rising. In +Galloway, a similar policy was pursued. Some of the old nobility, +offended perhaps by Malcolm's attendance on Henry II at Toulouse, in his +capacity as an English baron, joined the defeated Donald MacHeth in an +attempt upon Malcolm, at Perth, in 1160. MacHeth took refuge in +Galloway, which the king had to invade three times before bringing it +into subjection. Before his death, in 1165, Galloway was part of the +feudal kingdom of Scotland. + +Only once again was the security of the Anglo-Celtic dynasty seriously +threatened by the supporters of the older civilization. When William the +Lion, brother and successor of Malcolm IV, was the prisoner of Henry II, +risings took place both in Galloway and in Moray. A Galloway chieftain, +by name Gilbert, maintained an independent rule to his death in 1185, +when William came to terms with his nephew and successor, Roland. In the +north, Donald Bane Mac William, a great-grandson of Malcolm Canmore, +raised the standard of revolt in 1181, and it was not till 1187 that the +rebellion was finally suppressed, and Donald Bane killed. There were +further risings, in Moray in 1214 (on the accession of Alexander II), +and in Galloway in 1235. The chronicler, Walter of Coventry, tells us +that these revolts were occasioned by the fact that recent Scottish +kings had proved themselves Frenchmen rather than Scots, and had +surrounded themselves solely with Frenchmen. This is the real +explanation of the support given to the Celtic pretenders. A new +civilization is not easily imposed upon a people. Elsewhere in Scotland, +the process was more gradual and less violent. In the eastern Lowlands +there were no pretenders and no rebellions, and traces of the earlier +civilization remained longer than in Galloway and in Moray. "In Fife +alone", says Mr. Robertson, "the Earl continued in the thirteenth +century to exercise the prerogatives of a royal Maor, and, in the reign +of David I, we find in Fife what is practically the clan MacDuff."[96] +Neither in the eastern Lowlands, nor in the more disturbed districts of +Moray and Galloway, is there any evidence of a radical change in the +population. The changes were imposed from above. Mr. Lang has pointed +out that we do not hear "of feuds consequent on the eviction of prior +holders.... The juries, from Angus to Clyde, are full of Celtic names of +the gentry. The Steward (FitzAlan) got Renfrew, but the _probi +homines_, or gentry, remain Celtic after the reigns of David and +William."[97] The contemporary chronicler, Aelred, gives no hint that +David replaced his Scottish subjects by an Anglo-Norman population; he +admits that he was terrible to the men of Galloway, but insists that he +was beloved of the Scots. It must not be forgotten that the new system +brought Anglo-Norman justice and order with it, and must soon have +commended itself by its practical results. The grants of land did not +mean dispossession. The small owners of land and the serfs acquiesced in +the new rule and began to take new names, and the Anglo-Norman strangers +were in actual possession, not of the land itself, but of the +_privilegia_ owed by the land. Even with regard to the great lords, the +statements have been slightly exaggerated; Alexander II was aided in +crushing the rebellion of 1214-15 by Celtic earls, and in 1235 he +subdued Galloway by the aid of a Celtic Earl of Ross. + + * * * * * + +We have attempted to explain the Anglicization of Scotland, south and +east of "the Highland line", by the combined forces of the Church, the +Court, Feudalism, and Commerce, and it is unnecessary to lay further +stress upon the importance of these elements in twelfth century life. It +may be interesting to compare with this the process by which the +Scottish Highlands have been Anglicized within the last century and a +half. It must, in the first place, be fully understood that the interval +between the twelfth century and the suppression of the last Jacobite +rising was not void of development even in the Highlands. "It is in the +reign of David the First", says Mr. Skene,[98] "that the sept or clan +first appears as a distinct and prominent feature in the social +organization of the Gaelic population", and it is not till the reign of +Robert III that he finds "the first appearance of a distinct clan". +Between the end of the fourteenth century and the middle of the +eighteenth, the clan had developed a complete organization, consisting +of the chief and his kinsmen, the common people of the same blood, and +the dependants of the clan. Each clan contained several septs, founded +by such descendants of chiefs as had obtained a definite possession in +land. The writer of _Letters from a Gentleman in the North of Scotland +in 1726_, mentions that the Highland clans were "subdivided into smaller +branches of fifty or sixty men, who deduce their original from their +particular chieftains, and rely upon them as their more immediate +protectors and defenders". + +The Hanoverian government had thus to face, in 1746, a problem in some +respects more difficult than that which the descendants of Malcolm +Canmore had solved. The clan organization was complete, and clan loyalty +had assumed the form of an extravagant devotion; a hostile feeling had +arisen between Highlands and Lowlands, and all feeling of common +nationality had been lost. There was no such important factor as the +Church to help the change; religion was, on the whole, perhaps rather +adverse than favourable to the process of Anglicization. On the other +hand, the task was, in other aspects, very much easier. The Highlands +had been affected by the events of the seventeenth century, and the +chiefs were no longer mere freebooters and raiders. The Jacobite rising +had weakened the Highlands, and the clans had been divided among +themselves. It was not a united opposition that confronted the +Government. Above all, the methods of land-tenure had already been +rendered subject to very considerable modification. Since the reign of +James VI, the law had been successful in attempting to ignore "all +Celtic usages inconsistent with its principles", and it "regarded all +persons possessing a feudal title as absolute proprietors of the land, +and all occupants of the land who could not show a right derived from +the proprietor, as simple tenants".[99] Thus the strongest support of +the clan system had been removed before the suppression of the clans. +The Government of George II placed the Highlands under military +occupation, and began to root out every tendency towards the persistence +of a clan organization. The clan, as a military unit, ceased to exist +when the Highlanders were disarmed, and as a unit for administrative +purposes when the heritable jurisdictions were abolished, and it could +no longer claim to be a political force of any kind, for every vestige +of independence was removed. The only individual characteristic left to +the clan or to the Highlander was the tartan and the Celtic garb, and +its use was prohibited under very severe penalties. These were measures +which were not possible in the days of David as they were in those of +George. But a further step was common to both centuries--the forfeiture +of lands, and although a later Government restored many of these to +descendants of the attainted chiefs, the magic spell had been broken, +and the proprietor was no longer the head of the clan. Such measures, +and the introduction of sheep-farming, had, within sixty years, changed +the whole face of the Highlands. + +Another century has been added to Sir Walter's _Sixty Years Since_, and +it may be argued that all the resources of modern civilisation have +failed to accomplish, in that period, what the descendants of Malcolm +Canmore effected in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. This is true +as far as language is concerned, but only with regard to language. The +Highlanders have not forgotten the Gaelic tongue as the Lowlanders had +forgotten it by the outbreak of the War of Independence.[100] Various +facts account for this. One of the features of recent days is an +antiquarian revival, which has tended to preserve for Highland children +the great intellectual advantage of a bi-lingual education. The very +severance of the bond between chieftain and clan has helped to +perpetuate the ancient language, for the people no longer adopt the +speech of their chief, as, in earlier days, the Celt of Moray or of Fife +adopted the tongue spoken by his Anglo-Norman lord, or learned by the +great men of his own race at the court of David or of William the Lion. +The Bible has been translated into Gaelic, and Gaelic has become the +language of Highland religion. In the Lowlands of the twelfth century, +the whole influence of the Church was directed to the extermination of +the Culdee religion, associated with the Celtic language and with Celtic +civilization. Above all, the difference lies in the rise of burghs in +the Lowlands. Speech follows trade. Every small town on the east coast +was a school of English language. Should commerce ever reach the +Highlands, should the abomination of desolation overtake the waterfalls +and the valleys, and other temples of nature share the degradation of +the Falls of Foyers, we may then look for the disappearance of the +Gaelic tongue. + +Be all this as it may, it is undeniable that there has been in the +Highlands, since 1745, a change of civilization without a displacement +of race. We venture to think that there is some ground for the view that +a similar change of civilization occurred in the Lowlands between 1066 +and 1286, and, similarly, without a racial dispossession. We do not deny +that there was some infusion of Anglo-Saxon blood between the Forth and +the Moray Firth in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; but there is no +evidence that it was a repopulation. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 94: In this discussion the province of Lothian is not +included.] + +[Footnote 95: Ri Mortuath is an Irish term. We find, more usually, in +Scotland, the Mormaer.] + +[Footnote 96: _Op. cit._, vol. i, p. 254.] + +[Footnote 97: _History of Scotland_, vol. i, pp. 135-6.] + +[Footnote 98: _Celtic Scotland_, vol. iii, pp. 303, 309.] + +[Footnote 99: _Celtic Scotland_, vol. iii, p. 368.] + +[Footnote 100: It should of course be recollected that the Gaelic tongue +must have persisted in the vernacular speech of the Lowlands long after +we lose all traces of it as a literary language.] + + + + + APPENDIX C + + TABLE OF THE COMPETITORS OF 1290 + + (_Names of the thirteen Competitors are in bold type_) + + + Duncan I + (1034-1040) + | + +---------------------------+-------------------------------------+ + | | + Malcolm III (Canmore) Donald Bane + (1057-8-1093) (1093-1097) + | | + David I (1134-1753) | + | | + Prince Henry | + | | + +------------------------------------+-------------+------+ | + | | | | | + | | | | | + William the Lion David Ada | | + (1165-1214) Earl of m. the Count | | + | Huntingdon of Holland | | + | | | | | + | | | Marjorie | + | | | m. John | + | | | Lindesay | + | | | | | + +-------------+------+------+------+------+ +--------+------+ | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | + Alexander II Isabella | Margaret | Henry | Isabella m. | | | | + (1214-1249) m. Robert | m. Eustace | Galithly | Robert | | | | + | Ros | Vesci | | | Bruce | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | Ada | Aufrica m. | Margaret m. | Ada | | | + | | m. Patrick, | William Say | Alan of | m. Henry | | | + | | Earl of | | | Galloway | Hastynges | | | + | | Dunbar | | | | | | | | | + +-------+ | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | + Alexander III | | | | | | | | | | | | + (1249-1285-6) | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | Marjorie | | | | | Devorguilla | Henry | | | + | | | | | | | m. John | Hastynges | | | + | | | | | | | Balliol | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | + Margaret m. | ~William~ | ~William~ | ~Patrick~ | ~Robert~ | ~Florent~, | ~John Comyn~ + ~Eric II~ | ~Ros~ | ~Vesci~ | ~Galithly~ | ~Bruce~ | Count | m. a sister of + ~of Norway~ | | | | | | of Holland | John Balliol + | | | | | | | | | + | ~Nicolas~ ~Patrick~ ~Roger~ ~John Balliol~ | ~John~ ~Robert~ | + | ~Sovles~ ~of Dunbar~ ~Mandeville~ (1292-1296) | ~Hastynges~ ~Pinkeny~ | + | | | | + | | Robert | + Margaret, the | Earl of Carrick | + Maid of Norway | | John Comyn + (1285-6-1290) | | (stabbed + | | by Bruce in + | | 1305-6) + Edward Balliol | + | + Robert I + (1306-1329) + + + + + + INDEX + + + Abbey Craig, 42. + + Aberdeen, xv, xxiii, xxvii, xxix, xxx, xxxi, 40, 68, 70, 87, 162, 163, + 164, 169, 170, 202. + ---- Assembly at, 154, 155. + ---- Bishop of, 206. + ---- University of, xxxi, 105. + + Aberdeenshire, xvii, xxxiv, 51, 87, 163, 169. + + Abernethy, 12. + + Abirdene, Robert of, 198. + + Aboyne, Earl of, 163. + + _Acts of the Parliament of Scotland_, xxi. + + Ada, daughter of Earl David, 35. + + Aelred of Rivaulx, 21, 195. + + Aethelstan, 5. + + Aird's Moss, rising at, 178. + + Airlie, Earl of, 169. + + Albany, 201. + ---- Alexander, Duke of, 96, 97. + ---- Duke of, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 88, 89. + ---- 3rd Duke of, 109, 110, 111, 112. + + Alcester, 168. + + Alexander I, 17, 205, 207. + ---- II, 28, 29, 32, 35, 36, 47, 209, 210. + ---- III, 29, 30, 31, 36, 101, 197. + ---- Earl of Mar, 198, 199. + ---- son of Alexander III, 31. + ---- of Lorn, 51, 53. + ---- of Ross, 201. + + Alford, victory at, 170. + + Alnwick, 13, 26. + ---- sacking of, 92. + + Alyth, 174. + + Ancrum Moor, battle of, 120. + + Angus, 198, 209. + + Angus, Earl Archibald, 99. + ---- grandson of Earl Archibald, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 118, 119, + 120, 133. + Angus Og, 53, 56, 85. + + Annan, 67. + + Annandale, 32, 47, 48, 50. + + Anne, Queen, 188, 189, 192. + ---- of Cleves, 113. + + "Answer to ane Helandmanis Invective", xxxiv. + + _Antiquite de la Nation et de la Langue + des Celtes autrement appellez Gaulois_, 2. + + Antony, Bishop of Durham, 44. + + Argyll, Bishop of, xxxiv. + ---- Earl of, 178. + ---- Highlanders of, 52, 55, 85, 106. + ---- Marquis and Earl of, 161, 164, 166, 169, 172, 176. + + Argyllshire, xxiii, 3, 23, 25, 185. + + Armada, 145. + + Arran, 83. + ---- Earl of (Chatelherault), 109, 110, 111, 112, 117, 118, 119, 120, + 122, 123. + ---- Earl of, son of Chatelherault, 127, 128, 130. + + Arthur, Prince, 99. + + _Auchinleck Chronicle_, xxxiv. + + Auldearn, victory at, 170. + + Auxerre, 90. + + Ayr, xvii. + + Ayrshire, xxix, xxxiv, 51, 52, 178. + + Aytoun, Peace of, 100. + + + Badenach, Celts of, 41, 53. + + Bailleul, estate of, 39. + + Bakewell, 5. + + Balliol, Edward, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 72, 73, 75. + ---- John, 27, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 43, 45, 48, 50, 65, 79. + + Banff, 40. + + Bannockburn, battle of, xiv, xxiv, 55, 58, 61, 63, 66, 68, 74, 85, 88, + 90, 93, 108. + Barbadoes, 187. + + Barbour's _Bruce_, xxvi, xxvii. + + Barton, Sir Andrew, 98, 103. + + Bauge, battle of, 88, 89. + + Beaton, Cardinal, 112, 114, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121. + + Beaufort, Joan, 89. + + Becket, Thomas, 26. + + Berwick, 3, 39, 43, 51, 57, 58, 73, 76, 83, 91, 94, 96, 163, 173. + ---- county of, 69, 73, 82. + ---- pacification of, 163. + ---- siege of, 67, 68. + ---- Treaty of, 164. + + Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, 44. + + Biland Abbey, 58. + + Birnam Wood, 9. + + Bishops' War, 164. + + "Black Agnes", 71. + + Blair Athole, 169. + ---- Castle, 182. + + Blind Harry's _Wallace_, xxvii, xxxiii. + + Boece, Hector, xxvii, xxviii, xxix, xxxi, 9, 200. + + Boniface VIII, 45. + + "Book of the Howlat", the, xxxiii. + + "Book of Pluscarden", the, xxx, 198. + + Borough-Muir of Edinburgh, 69. + + Bosworth, battle of, 97. + + Bothwell, 67, 70. + ---- Earl of, 136, 137, 138. + ---- Bridge, battle of, 178. + + Boulogne, 69. + + Bower, Walter, xxx, 198. + + Braemar, 87. + + Brankston ridge, 106. + + Breadalbane, Marquis of, 185, 186. + + Brechin, 39. + ---- Bishop of, 206. + + Breda, Conference at, 173. + + Bridge of Dee, battle of, 163. + + Brigham, Treaty of, 33. + + Brittany, 1. + + Brockburn, 173. + + Brown, Mr. Hume, x. + + Bruce, Alexander, 51, + ---- Edward, 51, 55, 57. + ---- Marjory, 51, 59, 69. + ---- Nigel, 51. + ---- Robert I, xxiv, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, + 59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 72, 85, 86. + ---- Robert of Annandale, 32, 34, 35, 47. + ---- Sir Thomas, 51. + + Bruces, the, 13, 18, 24, 48. + + Bruges, 68. + + Buchan, Countess of, 50, 51. + ---- earldom of, 53. + ---- Earl of, 88, 90. + ---- men of, 198. + + Buchanan, George, xxxii, 203. + + Bull, Stephen, 98. + + Burgh, Elizabeth de, 51. + ---- Hubert de, 28, 35. + + Burghead, xvii. + + Burgh-on-Sands, 52. + + Burgundy, Duchess of, 98. + ---- Duke of, 95. + + "Burned Candlemas", 73. + + Burton, Mr. Hill, xiii, xxiv, xxvi, xxx, xxxi, xxxii. + + Bute, 193. + + + Caesar, Julius, 1, 2. + + Caithness, xxiii, 87, 193. + ---- Bishop of, 206. + + Calderwood's _History of the Kirk_, 147. + + Cambuskenneth, Abbey of, 43. + ---- Bridge, battle of, 42. + ---- Parliament at, 59. + + Camden's _Britannia_, xxxiii. + + Campbell, Sir Nigel, 53. + + Campbell of Glenlyon, 185. + + Canute, 8. + + Carberry Hill, 137. + + Carbisdale, defeat at, 172. + + Cardross, castle of, 64. + + Carham, battle of, 8. + + Carlisle, 52, 67, 94, 168. + + Carrick, xxiv, 47, 51. + + ---- earldom of, 45. + + ---- men of, 56, 85. + + Carrickfergus, 57. + + Carstares, William, 183. + + Casket Letters, 138, 141. + + Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty of, 124. + + Cecil, Lord Burleigh, 125, 127, 133. + + Cecilia, d. of Edward IV, 96. + + Charles I, 157, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, + 171, 176. + ---- II, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 181, 182, 183, 187. + + Chatelherault, Duke of, 123. + + Chester, 7. + + Chevy Chase, battle of, 78. + + Clackmannan, 193. + + Clarence, Lionel of, 74, 80. + + Clement III, 27. + + Clitheroe, victory at, 20. + + Clyde, river, 64, 84, 209. + + Colvin of Culross, 152. + + Comyn, John, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53, 85. + + Comyns, the, 48. + + Conventicle Act, 177, 179. + + Cowton Moor, 200. + + Crawford, defeat of, 107. + + Crecy, battle of, 70, 72. + + Cressingham, Hugh of, 40, 41. + + Crevant, battle of, 90. + + Cromarty, 193. + + Cromwell, Oliver, 172, 173, 174, 187, 192, 193. + + Cullen, 40. + + Cumberland, 13, 23, 25, 151 + ---- ravaged, 78. + + Cumbria, 6, 12, 17, 195. + + Cupar, xxx, 198. + + + Dacre, Lord, 108, 111. + + Dalkeith, 163. + + Dalriada, kingdom of, 3, 4. + + Dalry, defeat at, 51. + + Dalrymple, Father James, xxix. + ---- Sir John, of Stair, 185, 186. + + "Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins", xxxv. + + Darc, Joan, 90. + + Darien Scheme, 184, 186, 187. + + Darnley, 90. + ---- Lord, 110, 119, 129, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143. + + David I, xix, xxi, xxii, xxiv, xxvii, xxviii, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, + 24, 25, 26, 34, 85, 196, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213. + ---- II, 59, 64, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75. + ---- Earl of Huntingdon, 24, 28, 34, 35, 206. + ---- son of Alexander III, 31. + + Davidstone, Robert, 202. + + Davison, Secretary, 145. + + Declaration of Indulgence, 179. + + De Coucy, Enguerand, 29. + ---- Marie, 29. + + Dee, river, 7. + + _De Northynbrorum Comitibus_, 7. + + Derbyshire, 5. + + Dingwall, defeat near, 87. + + Don Carlos, 132. + + Donald, Clan of, 87. + + Donald Bane, 16, 48, 209. + ---- of the Isles, xiv, xxv, xxx, 86, 87, 148, 199, 201, 202, 203. + + Doon Hill, 173. + + Douglas, David, 91. + ---- Earl of, 78, 81, 82, 92. + ---- 6th Earl William, 91. + ---- 8th Earl William, 92, 95, 96, 97. + ---- Gavin, xxvii. + ---- House of, xxx, xxxiii, 83, 116. + ---- Lord James, 51, 53, 57, 59, 67. + ---- Lord James the Good, 92. + ---- Lord James the Gross, 92. + ---- Sir Archibald, 67. + + Douglas, Sir George, 119. + ---- Sir James, 55. + + Douglases, the, xxiii, xxv, 82, 92, 93. + + Drumclog, battle of, 178. + + Dryburgh, Abbey of, 57, 58, 77. + + Dumbarton, 119, 162. + + Dumfries, 92, 168. + ---- convent of, 48. + ---- county of, 69. + + Dunbar, 4, 136. + ---- battle of (1296), 39. + ---- battle of (1650), 173, 174. + ---- burning of, 92. + ---- castle of, 70, 71. + ---- earldom of, 12. + ---- William, xxxiv, xxxv, 102. + + Dunbarton Castle, 139. + + Dunblane, Bishop of, 206. + + Duncan I, 8, 9. + + Duncan, son of Malcolm III, 16. + ---- of Lorne, xxxv. + + Dundalk, defeat at, 57. + + Dundee, xxiii, 170, 198. + ---- castle of, 42. + ---- meeting at, 54. + + Dunkeld, Bishop of, 206. + + Dunottar, castle of, 179. + + Dunsinane, 9. + + Dupplin Moor, battle of, 21, 66, 67, 68, 70, 72, 82, 108. + + Durham, city of, 19, 72, 165. + ---- Treaty of, 23. + + + Eadred, 6. + + Earn, river, 66. + + Edderton, xvii. + + Edgar, 7, 205. + + Edgar, son of Malcolm III, 16, 17, 18. + + Edgar the Atheling, 11, 13. + + Edinburgh, 4, 27, 45, 59, 76, 77, 113, 119, 125, 137, 151, 157, 161, 162, + 165, 166, 172, 173, 175, 181. + ---- Bishop of, 158. + ---- castle of, 39, 54, 71, 81, 126, 136, 143, 182. + ---- Convention at, 167. + ---- county of, 69. + ---- Presbytery of, 147. + ---- riots in, 160. + ---- Treaty of, 126, 127, 129. + ---- University of, 183. + + Edmund the Magnificent, 6, 16. + + Edward I, x, xi, xii, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, + 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 59, 60, 62, 64, 66, + 70, 74, 179. + ---- II, 32, 33, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59. + ---- III, 59, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74, 75. + ---- IV, 61, 94, 95, 96, 97. + ---- VI, 118, 131. + ---- the Black Prince, 75. + ---- the Elder, 5. + + Edwin, 4. + + Egfrith, 12. + + Elgin, 40, 45, 70, 182. + Elizabeth, Queen, x, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, + 136, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146. + + Elphinstone, Bishop, xxix, 105. + + "English Wooing", the, 119. + + Eric of Norway, 32, 34. + + Esk, river, 115. + + Eugenia, 201. + + Eure, Sir Ralph, 120. + + Eustace of Boulogne, 17. + + Eustacius, 195. + + Evandale, Lord, 113. + + + _Fair Maid of Perth_, 81. + + Fairfax, Lord, 168. + + Falaise, castle of, 26. + ---- Treaty of, 27, 28. + + Falkirk, battle of, xvii, 44, 55, 56, 66. + + Falkland, 81. + + Falls of Foyers, 213. + + Fast Castle, 84. + + Fenelon, La Mothe, 141. + + Ferdinand of Spain, 99. + + Feredach, 197. + + Fergus, 197. + + Fife, xi, xiii, xv, xvii, xviii, xix, xxiii, xxxiv, 103. + ---- Celts of, 213. + ---- Earl of, 78. + + Fifeshire, 160. + + Firth, Mr. C., 173. + + FitzAlan, or Steward, 210. + + Fitzalans, the, 18. + + Fitzpatrick, Sir Roger, 49. + + Five Mile Act, 177. + + Flamborough Head, 83. + + Fletcher of Saltoun, 184, 191. + + Flodden, battle of, xxiv, 21, 72, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 111. + + Florence of Worcester, 7, 9. + + _Flower_, the, 98. + + "Flyting", xxxiv. + + Fordun, John of, xxii, xxvii, xxx, 196, 208. + + Forfar, xvii, xix. + + Fort-William, 185. + + Forth, Firth of, xii, 3, 5, 12, 21, 22, 42, 69, 84, 96, 98, 213. + + Fotheringay Castle, 144. + + "Foul Raid", the, 88. + + Francis I, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114. + ---- II, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128. + + Fraser, Bishop, 34, 35. + + Frasers, the, 87. + + Frederick II, the Emperor, 35. + + Freeman, Edward, x, xii, xv, xxiv, 6, 7, 85, 88. + + Froude, Mr., 138. + + Fyvie Castle, 169. + + + Galloway, xiii, xxi, xxii, xxiii, 22, 25, 208, 209, 210. + ---- Bishop of, 206. + + Gascony, 75. + + Gaul, 1. + + Gaveston, Piers, 54. + + Geddes, Jennie, 159. + + Geneva, 123, 150. + + George II, 212. + + Gilbert of Galloway, 209. + + Giraldus Cambrensis, xxvi, xxxii. + + Glasgow, 51, 170. + ---- Assembly at, 154, 161. + ---- Bishop of, 206. + ---- University of, xxxiv. + + Glencoe, Massacre of, 184, 185. + + Gloucester, Duke of, 96. + ---- meeting at, 13. + + Godwin, Earl, 205. + + Gordon, Duke of, 182. + ---- Lady Katharine, 99. + + Gordons, the, xxiii, 168, 170. + + Gospatric of Northumberland, 12. + + Graham, John, of Claverhouse, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182. + + _Great Michael_, the, 103. + + Green, J.R., x, xi, xiii. + + Gregory IX, 35. + + Greyfriars, church of, 161, 178. + + Gruoch, wife of Mormaor, 8. + + Gueldres, Duke of, 102. + + Guise, Mary of, 114, 116, 117, 124, 125, 126. + + Gunpowder Plot, 150. + + Gustavus Adolphus, 162. + + Guthrie, James, 176. + + + Haddington, xxxi, 3. + ---- county of, 69. + + Hakon of Norway, 29. + + Halidon Hill, battle of, 21, 68, 72, 90, 201. + + Hall, the chronicler, 104. + + Hamburg, 43. + + Hamilton, Duke and Marquis of, 161, 163, 166, 171, 172. + + Hamiltons, the, 133. + + Hapsburgs, the, 129. + + Harlaw, battle of, xiii, xxiv, xxv, xxix, xxxi, xxxii, 87, 88, 198, 199, + 200, 201, 202, 203. + + Hastings, John, 35. + + Hebrides, xxix, 8. + + Henderson, Alexander, 160, 161, 170. + + Henry I, 17, 19. + + Henry II, 23, 25, 26, 27, 208, 209. + ---- III, 28, 29, 35, 36. + ---- IV, xxv, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86. + ---- V, 88, 89. + ---- VI, 93, 94, 95. + ---- VII, 61, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103. + ---- VIII, x, 103, 104, 105, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, + 118, 119, 120, 121, 131. + ---- II of France, 122, 124, 125. + ---- Prince of Scotland, 20, 23, 24. + + Hereford, Earl of, 44. + ---- siege of, 168, 170. + + Herrings, battle of, 90. + + Hertford, Earl of, 119, 120, 121. + + Hexham Chronicle, 21. + ---- monastery of, 43. + + Holland, Richard, xxxiii. + + Holyrood, 102, 133, 138, 155, 157. + + Homildon Hill, battle of, 72, 82, 83, 90. + + Hotspur, Sir Harry, 78, 82. + + Howard, Sir Edmund, 106. + + Hugo of Ross, 201. + + Humber, river, xii. + + Hume, the historian, 138. + + Huntingdon, earldom of, 18, 19, 25, 26, 27, 28, 35. + + Huntly, Earl of, 99, 131. + ---- Marquis of, 162, 163, 164, 169, 172. + + + Ida, 3. + + Inchmahome priory, 122. + + Ingibjorg, 16. + + "Instrument" of Government, 175. + + Inverary, 185. + ---- Castle, 169. + + Inverlochy, 169. + + Inverness, 182. + + Inverurie, defeat at, 53. + + Irevin, Alexander, 198. + + Irvine, submission of, 42. + + Isabella, daughter of Earl David, 35. + ---- of Spain, 99. + + Italy, 18. + + + Jamaica, 187. + + James I, 83, 84, 89, 90, 91, 93. + ---- II, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 109. + ---- III, 95, 96, 97, 98, 101. + ---- IV, xxiv, xxvii, xxviii, xxxv, 62, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, + 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 117, 120. + ---- V, xxvii, 97, 108, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 127. + ---- VI, x, xxxiv, 19, 60, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, + 153, 154, 155, 157, 158, 177, 181, 192, 193, 211. + ---- VII, 178, 179, 180, 182. + ---- Lord Hamilton, 109. + + Janville, 90. + + Jedburgh, 84. + + Joanna, daughter of Edward II, 60. + + ---- daughter of John, 28. + John, 28, 35, 79, 195. + + ---- XXII, the Pope, 58. + ---- of Brittany, 47. + ---- of Carrick, 78. + ---- of France, 79. + ---- of Gaunt, 76, 89. + ---- of the Isles, 95, 96. + ---- of Wallingford, 7. + + Johnson, Dr., 86. + + Johnston, J.B., xvi, 4. + + Johnston of Warriston, 170. + + Julius II, 103, 104. + + + Keith, Sir Robert, 56. + + Kennedy, Bishop, 95. + ---- Walter, xxxiv, xxxv. + + Kenneth Macalpine, 4. + + Kenneth of Scotland, 7. + + Ker of Faudonside, 135. + + Kilblain, victory at, 69. + + Kildrummie Castle, 51. + + Killiecrankie, battle of, 182. + + Kilsyth, victory at, 170. + + Kinghorn, 66. + + _Kings Quair_, 89. + + Kinloss, Abbey of, 207. + + Kinross, 193. + + Kirkaldy of Grange, 142. + + Kirkcudbright, xvii. + + Knox, John, 121, 123, 124, 125, 128, 130, 133, 146. + + + _Lady of the Lake_, the, xi, xxxvii, 86. + + Lanark, 42. + + Lanarkshire, 179. + + Lang, Mr. Andrew, x, xi, 7, 41, 65, 92, 121, 204. + + Langside, battle of, 139. + + Largs, battle of, 29, 30. + + Laud, Archbishop, 158, 159, 162. + + Laurencekirk, xvii. + + Leicester, Earl of, 132. + + Leith, 119. + ---- besieged, 126. + + Lennox, Earl of, 106, 108, 109, 119, 133, 142, 143. + + Lesley, John, xxix, 203. + + Leslie, Alexander, 201. + ---- Alexander, Earl of Leven, 162, 163, 166, 168, 170, 173, 174. + ---- David, 170, 173. + ---- family of, 86. + ---- Walter, 201. + + Leuchars, church of, 160. + + Lincoln, battle of (1216), 28. + ---- victory at, 23. + + Linlithgow, 54, 137, 142. + ---- Convention at, 154. + ---- county of, 69. + + Lochleven Castle, 137, 138, 139. + + Lochmaben, 76. + ---- battle of, 97. + ---- Stone, battle of, 92. + + Loch Ness, 169. + + London, xxxvi, 46, 73, 78, 102, 166, 174, 176. + + Longueville, Duc de, 114. + + Lords of the Articles, 153, 181. + + Lords Ordainers, 54. + + Lothians, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xvii, xix, xxxiv, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 17, 22, + 23, 77, 119, 170, 206. + + Loudon Hill, battle of, 51. + + Louis IX, 35. + + Louis XI, 95. + + Lubeck, 43. + + + MacAlexander, 197. + + Macbeth, 8, 9. + + MacDavid, 197. + + MacDonald of Glencoe, 185. + + MacDuff, Clan of, 209. + + Macfadyane, xxxv. + + MacGregor, Red Duncan, 4. + + MacHenry, 197. + + MacHeth, xxi, 206, 207, 208. + + Mackay, General, 182. + + Mackays, the, 87. + + Mackenzies, the, 87. + + MacLane, 198. + + Madeline, daughter of Francis I, 113, 114. + + Madoc of Wales, 38. + + Mahomet, xxxv. + + Maitland of Lethington, 130, 133, 142. + + Major, John, xxvi, xxviii, xxix, xxx, xxxi, xxxii, 199. + + Malcolm I, 6. + ---- II, xii, 7, 8, 9. + ---- III (Canmore), xvii, xix, xx, xxi, xxix, xxxvii, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, + 16, 17, 48, 85, 196, 200, 204, 205, 206, 209, 211, 212. + ---- IV, xxii, 24, 25, 26, 27, 208. + + Malvile, Robert de, 198. + + Man, Isle of, 55. + + Mansfield, town of, 168. + + Manton, Ralph de, 45. + + Mar, Alexander, 203. + ---- 10th Earl of, 50. + ---- 11th Earl of, 65, 66, 67. + ---- 12th Earl of, 87. + ---- Earls of, xxx, 143, 202. + ---- Isabella of, 50. + + March, Edmund, Earl of, 80. + ---- George, Earl of, 71, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 88. + + Margaret, daughter of Alexander III, 31. + ---- daughter of Angus, 110, 119, 129, 133. + ---- daughter of Christian I, 97. + ---- daughter of David, 34. + ---- daughter of Henry III, 31. + ---- daughter of Henry VII, 99, 101, 102, 103, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, + 113, 114, 116, 124, 133. + ---- daughter of James I, 90, 91. + ---- daughter of William the Lion, 28. + ---- grand-daughter of Alexander III, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36. + ---- Saint, xix, xxvii, 27, 85. + ---- wife of Canmore, xiv, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 205. + ---- of Anjou, 94. + + Marston Moor, battle of, 168. + + Mary, Queen of Scots, xxix, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, + 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141, + 142, 143, 144, 145, 149, 165. + ---- II, 180, 181. + ---- daughter of Henry VIII, 113, 123, 124. + ---- daughter of James II, 109. + ---- wife of Eustace, 17. + ---- of Gueldres, 95. + + Matilda, the Empress, 19, 20, 23. + ---- wife of Henry I, 17. + + Maximilian the Emperor, 99. + + Mearns, Earl of, 16. + ---- the, xvii, 198. + + Medici, Catherine de, 128. + + Melrose Abbey, 77, 120. + + Melun, siege of, 89. + + Melville, Andrew, 147, 148. + + Menteith, Lake of, 122. + ---- Sir John, 46. + + Methven, 50. + ---- Lord, 113. + + Midlothian, 3. + + Millenary Petition, the, 148. + + Mitton-on-Swale, battle of, 57, 72. + + Monk, General, 174, 176. + + Monmouth, Duke of, 179. + + Montgomerie, Alexander, xxxiv, xxxvi. + + Montrose, Marquis of, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, + 173, 176, 181. + + Moors, the, 64. + + Mor Tuath, 204. + + Moray, Andrew of, 43. + ---- Bishop of, 206. + ---- Celts, 206, 208, 213. + ---- earldom of, xxi, xxii, 8. + ---- Firth, xii, xvii, 4, 84, 213. + ---- Sir Andrew, 67, 70. + ---- Thomas, 198, 202. + + Morayshire, xxi, 25. + + Mormaers, the, 204, 206. + + Mortimers, the, 64, 65. + + Morton, Earl of, 137, 138, 143. + + Musselburgh, 65. + + + Namur, Guy de, 70. + + Napoleon, 46. + + National Covenant, 160, 162, 166, 178. + + Navigation Act, 176. + + Nectansmere, battle of, 12. + + Nesbit, skirmish at, 82. + ---- victory at, 73. + + Neville, Archbishop, 72. + + Neville's Cross, battle of, 72. + + Newark, 168. + + Newbattle Abbey, 77. + + Newburn, battle of, 165. + + Newcastle, 13, 165. + ---- Propositions of, 170. + + Newport, 171. + + New York, 187. + + Norfolk, Duke of, 143. + + Norham Castle, 100, 105. + + Normandy, 26, 40. + + Northallerton, xxiv, 20, 21, 24, 72, 93. + + Northampton, battle of, 93. + ---- Treaty of, 59, 64, 65, 101. + + Northumberland, xxii, 11, 12, 18, 19, 25, 67, 88, 93, 151, 206. + ---- earldom of, 23, 26, 28. + ---- Earl of, 78, 82, 83, 142. + + Northumbria, xii, xxxiii, 4, 5. + + Northumbria, Earl of, 7, 8, 9. + + Nottingham, Earl of, 77. + + Nova Scotia, 156. + + + Ogilby, Alexander, 198, 199, 202. + + Ogilvie, John, 150. + + Oman, Mr., xii, 21, 44. + + Orkneys, 8, 97. + + Orleans, siege of, 90. + + Ormsby, William, 40, 41. + + Otterburn, battle of, 78. + + Owen of Strathclyde, 8. + + Owre, Donald, xxxv. + + Oxford, xxxiv. + + + Palestine, 18, 64. + + Panama, Isthmus of, 187. + + Paterson, William, 186, 187. + + Pathay, victory of, 90. + + Pavia, battle of, 112. + + Peasants' Revolt, 76. + + Pedro de Ayala, xxxii. + + Peebles, 48. + ---- county of, 69. + + Pembroke, Earl of, 50, 51. + + Pentland, battle of, 177. + ---- Firth of, 5. + + Percies, the, 77, 78, 82, 83, 92. + + Percy, Henry, 72. + + Perron, Cardinal, 150. + + Perth, xxxi, 50, 54, 66, 91, 168, 169, 174, 208. + ---- Five Articles of, 155, 162. + ---- riots in, 124, 125. + ---- surrender of, 71. + + Pezron, Paul Ives, 2. + + Philip IV, 38, 45. + + Philiphaugh, defeat at, 170. + + Pinkerton's suggestion, 56. + + Pinkie, battle of, 21, 63, 122. + + Piperden, victory of, 91. + + Pitscottie, 94, 115. + + _Post-nati_ case, 152. + + Preston, battle of, 172. + + + Randolph, Earl of Moray, 53, 54, 55, 57, 59, 64, 65, 67, 71, 85. + ---- Earl of Moray, the younger, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73. + ---- the ambassador, 134. + + Rathlin, island of, 51. + + Ratisbon, xxix. + + Regnold, King, 5. + + Renfrew, 10. + + Rhys, Dr., 3. + + Richard I, 27, 35. + ---- II, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82. + ---- III, 97. + + Richard of Hexham, 22. + + Richelieu, Cardinal, 164. + + Rizzio, David, 134, 135, 136, 138. + + Robert II, the Steward, 59, 69, 72, 73, 75, 78, 86. + ---- III, 78, 80, 81, 84, 210. + ---- the High Steward, 59. + ---- of Normandy, 13. + + Robertson, E.W., xxi, xxii, xxxvii, 5, 209. + + Rokeby, 72. + + Ross, Bishop of, xxix, 206. + ---- county of, xxiii, xxxi. + ---- Duke of, 110. + ---- earldom of, 86. + ---- Earl of, 201, 202, 203, 210. + + Rosslyn, defeat at, 45. + + Rothesay, Duke of, 80, 81. + + Rothiemurchus, 169. + + Roxburgh, 39, 54, 91, 93. + ---- castle of, 94. + ---- county of, 69, 76, 115, 120. + ---- skirmish at, 67. + + Rudolfi, 143. + + Rullion Green, battle of, 177. + + Ruthven, Earl of, 135. + + + St. Abb's Head, 84. + + St. Albans, 1st battle of, 93. + ---- 2nd battle of, 94. + + St. Andrews, 34, 118, 120, 121, 125, 177. + ---- Archbishop of, 176, 206. + ---- castle of, 95. + + St. Duthac, 51. + + St. Germains, 191. + + St. Giles' Collegiate Church, 158, 159. + + St. James's, 191. + + Salisbury, Earl of, 70. + ---- meeting at, 32. + + Sark, battle of, 92. + + Scone, 32, 40, 42, 66, 174. + + _Scoti-chronicon_, xxx. + + Scott, Sir Walter, xviii, 81, 212. + + Scrymgeour, James, 198. + + Seaforth, Earl of, 169. + + Segrave, Sir John, 45. + + Selkirk, county of, 69. + + Seymour, Jane, 114. + + Shakespeare, 9. + + Sharpe, James, 176, 177. + + Shetlands, 8, 97. + + Shrewsbury, battle of, 83. + + Siward of Northumbria, 9, 18, 20. + + Skene's _Celtic Scotland_, 204, 210. + + Skye, xviii, xxvii, 86. + + Slains, rout at, 53. + + Smith, Mr. G. Gregory, 98, 104. + + Solemn League and Covenant, 167, 172, 173, 178. + + Solway, the, 139. + ---- Moss, battle of, 115, 117. + + Somerled of Argyll, 25, 41, 208. + + Somerset, Earl of, 88. + + Sophia of Hanover, 190. + + Spain, 46, 64, 104, 128, 131, 132, 146. + + Spey, river, 173. + + Standard, battle of, 20, 21, 24, 85, 195. + + Stanley, 106. + + Stephen, 17, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25. + + Stewart, Henry, 113. + ---- Lord James, 127, 130, 133, 134, 135, 138, 139, 141, 142. + ---- Murdoch, 82. + ---- Sir John, 90. + + Stirling, 113, 173, 174. + ---- battle of, 42, 44. + ---- castle of, 34, 45, 55, 71. + + Stracathro, 39. + + Stradarniae comes, 195. + + Strathclyde, 5, 6, 8, 9, 23. + + Strathern, Earl of, 22. + + Strathon, Alexander, 202. + + Strickland, Miss, 145. + + Stuart, Alexander, 202. + + Stuarts, the, xx, 18, 100. + + Suffolk, Earl of, 78. + + Surrey, Earl of, 100, 106, 107, 108, 112. + + Sybilla, daughter of Henry I, 17. + + Symeon of Durham, 7, 205. + + + Tables, the, 160. + + Tain, xvii, 51. + + _Tales of a Grandfather_, xviii. + + Tay, xi, xii, xiii, xxx. + + Tees, 23, 165. + + Test Act, 178, 179. + + Teviotdale, 23. + + "The Incident", 166. + + Thirty Years' War, 162. + + Throckmorton, 126. + + Till, river, 106. + + Tippermuir, victory at, 168. + + Tomintoul, 87. + + Toulouse, 25, 208. + + Touraine, Duke of, 90. + + Towton, battle of, 94. + + Tudors, the, 63. + + Turnberry, xvii. + + Turriff, battle of, 163. + + Tweed, 13, 69, 158, 165, 168, 173. + + Tweeddale, 53. + + "Tyneman the Unlucky", 67. + + + Ulster, Plantation of, 150, 156. + + Uxbridge, Proposals of, 168. + + + Vendome, Duc de, 113. + + Verneuil, battle of, 90. + + Vienne, John de, 77. + + Virgil, Polydore, xxxii, 101. + + + Wales, 1, 81. + + Wallace, William, xxxiii, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, 54, 55, 62. + + Walter l'Espec, 20. + ---- of Coventry, 209. + + Waltheof, 18. + + Warbeck, Perkin, 61, 99, 100. + + Warenne, John of, 40, 43. + + Wark, attack on, 112. + ---- capture of, 94. + + Warkworth, castle of, 92. + + _Waverley_, xviii, xxxvii. + + Wentworth, Lord Strafford, 161. + + Wessex, 5. + + Westminster, 36. + ---- Abbey, 36, 40, 52, 60. + ---- Assembly, 167. + + Westmoreland, 25, 78. + ---- Earl of, 142. + + Wigtown, martyrs of, 178. + + Winchester, Bishop of, 148. + ---- Chronicle, 5. + ---- defeat at, 23. + + Wishart, George, 120. + + William I, xiv, xv, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17. + ---- III, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 187, 188, 191. + + William the Lion, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 34, 35, 205, 209, 210, 213. + ---- Earl of Ross, 201. + ---- of Albemarle, 20. + ---- of Newburgh, xix. + ---- Rufus, 13, 16. + + Wood, Sir Andrew, 98. + + Woodstock, homage at, 25. + + Woodville, Elizabeth, 97. + + Worcester, battle of, 174, 175. + + Wyntoun, 84. + + + _Yellow Carvel_, 98. + + York, 168. + + York, Archbishop of, 57. + ---- Duke of, 98. + ---- meeting at, 114. + ---- reconciliation of, 93. + ---- siege of, 168. + ---- Treaty of, 29. + + Yorkshire, xv, xxii, 57, 58, 206. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Outline of the Relations between +England and Scotland (500-1707), by Robert S. 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