diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:49:13 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:49:13 -0700 |
| commit | 0a68128e622e9934bed8e4b137fef22d9e080085 (patch) | |
| tree | d7f6343d00f6d82ffb8e77031f6a3db48d01bcbf | |
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-8.txt | 9049 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 196489 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 4615718 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/16587-h.htm | 9122 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/front.png | bin | 0 -> 293070 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-013.png | bin | 0 -> 233062 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-043.png | bin | 0 -> 256707 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-061.png | bin | 0 -> 285071 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-065.png | bin | 0 -> 262313 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-078.png | bin | 0 -> 296959 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-094.png | bin | 0 -> 324524 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-109.png | bin | 0 -> 265290 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-153.png | bin | 0 -> 173372 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-175.png | bin | 0 -> 183895 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-193.png | bin | 0 -> 200813 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-225.png | bin | 0 -> 134435 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-236.png | bin | 0 -> 178034 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-246.png | bin | 0 -> 179476 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-252.png | bin | 0 -> 197775 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-278.png | bin | 0 -> 152430 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-289.png | bin | 0 -> 192382 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-315.png | bin | 0 -> 195209 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-340.png | bin | 0 -> 230849 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587-h/images/image-347.png | bin | 0 -> 176786 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587.txt | 9049 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 16587.zip | bin | 0 -> 196407 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
29 files changed, 27236 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/16587-8.txt b/16587-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..66fa0de --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9049 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Historical Tales, Vol 5 (of 15), by Charles Morris + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Historical Tales, Vol 5 (of 15) + The Romance of Reality, German + +Author: Charles Morris + +Release Date: August 24, 2005 [EBook #16587] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES, VOL 5 (OF 15) *** + + + + +Produced by Janet Blenkinship and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Édition d'Élite + +Historical Tales + +The Romance of Reality + +By + +CHARLES MORRIS + +_Author of "Half-Hours with the Best American Authors," "Tales from the +Dramatists," etc._ + +IN FIFTEEN VOLUMES + +Volume V + +German + +J.B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY + +PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON + +Copyright, 1893, by J.B. Lippincott Company. + +Copyright, 1904, by J.B. Lippincott Company. + +Copyright, 1908, by J.B. Lippincott Company. + +_CONTENTS_ + + + PAGE + +HERMANN, THE HERO OF GERMANY 7 + +ALBION AND ROSAMOND 19 + +THE CAREER OF GRIMOALD 28 + +WITTEKIND, THE SAXON PATRIOT 37 + +THE RAIDS OF THE SEA-ROVERS 47 + +THE CAREER OF BISHOP HATTO 58 + +THE MISFORTUNES OF DUKE ERNST 64 + +THE REIGN OF OTHO II 69 + +THE FORTUNES OF HENRY THE FOURTH 77 + +THE ANECDOTES OF MEDIÆVAL GERMANY 92 + +FREDERICK BARBAROSSA AND MILAN 105 + +THE CRUSADE OF FREDERICK II 118 + +THE FALL OF THE GHIBELLINES 129 + +THE TRIBUNAL OF THE HOLY VEHM 138 + +WILLIAM TELL AND THE SWISS PATRIOTS 148 + +THE BLACK DEATH AND THE FLAGELLANTS 162 + +THE SWISS AT MORGARTEN 170 + +A MAD EMPEROR 176 + +SEMPACH AND ARNOLD WINKELRIED 187 + +ZISKA, THE BLIND WARRIOR 198 + +THE SIEGE OF BELGRADE 210 + +LUTHER AND THE INDULGENCES 217 + +SOLYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT AT GUNTZ 229 + +THE PEASANTS AND THE ANABAPTISTS 238 + +THE FORTUNES OF WALLENSTEIN 252 + +THE END OF TWO GREAT SOLDIERS 265 + +THE SIEGE OF VIENNA 277 + +THE YOUTH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 288 + +VOLTAIRE AND FREDERICK THE GREAT 305 + +SCENES FROM THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR 315 + +THE PATRIOTS OF THE TYROL 328 + +THE OLD EMPIRE AND THE NEW 343 + + + + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +GERMAN. + + PAGE + +MAXIMILIAN RECEIVING VENETIAN DELEGATION 7 + +RETURN OF HERMANN AFTER HIS VICTORY OVER THE ROMANS 13 + +THE BAPTISM OF WITTEKIND 43 + +THE MOUSE-TOWER ON THE RHINE 61 + +PEASANT WEDDING PROCESSION 65 + +SCENE OF MONASTIC LIFE 78 + +THUSNELDA IN THE GERMANICUS TRIUMPH 94 + +THE AMPHITHEATRE AT MILAN 109 + +STATUE OF WILLIAM TELL 153 + +THE CASTLE OF PRAGUE 175 + +STATUE OF ARNOLD WINKELRIED 193 + +STATUE OF LUTHER AT WORMS 225 + +THE MOSQUE OF SOLYMAN, CONSTANTINOPLE 236 + +OLD HOUSES AT MÜNSTER 246 + +WALLENSTEIN 252 + +THE PARLIAMENT HOUSE IN VIENNA 278 + +STATUE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT, UNTER DEN LINDEN, BERLIN 289 + +SANS SOUCI, PALACE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 315 + +THE LAST DAY OF ANDREAS HOFER 340 + +A GERMAN MILK WAGON 347 + + +[Illustration: MAXIMILIAN RECEIVING VENETIAN DELEGATION.] + + + + +_HERMANN, THE HERO OF GERMANY._ + + +In the days of Augustus, the emperor of Rome in its golden age of +prosperity, an earnest effort was made to subdue and civilize barbarian +Germany. Drusus, the step-son of the emperor, led the first army of +invasion into this forest-clad land of the north, penetrating deeply +into the country and building numerous forts to guard his conquests. His +last invasion took him as far as the Elbe. Here, as we are told, he +found himself confronted by a supernatural figure, in the form of a +woman, who waved him back with lofty and threatening air, saying, "How +much farther wilt thou advance, insatiable Drusus? It is not thy lot to +behold all these countries. Depart hence! the term of thy deeds and of +thy life is at hand." Drusus retreated, and died on his return. + +Tiberius, his brother, succeeded him, and went far to complete the +conquest he had begun. Germany seemed destined to become a Roman +province. The work of conquest was followed by efforts to civilize the +free-spirited barbarians, which, had they been conducted wisely, might +have led to success. One of the Roman governors, Sentius, prefect of the +Rhine, treated the people so humanely that many of them adopted the arts +and customs of Rome, and the work of overcoming their barbarism was +well begun. He was succeeded in this office by Varus, a friend and +confidant of the emperor, but a man of very different character, and one +who not only lacked military experience and mental ability, but utterly +misunderstood the character of the people he was dealing with. They +might be led, they could not be driven into civilization, as the new +prefect was to learn. + +All went well as long as Varus remained peacefully in his head-quarters, +erecting markets, making the natives familiar with the attractive wares +of Rome, instructing them in civilized arts, and taking their sons into +the imperial army. All went ill when he sought to hasten his work by +acts of oppression, leading his forces across the Weser into the land of +the Cherusci, enforcing there the rigid Roman laws, and chastising and +executing free-born Germans for deeds which in their creed were not +crimes. Varus, who had at first made himself loved by his kindness, now +made himself hated by his severity. The Germans brooded over their +wrongs, awed by the Roman army, which consisted of thirty thousand +picked men, strongly intrenched, their camps being impregnable to their +undisciplined foes. Yet the high-spirited barbarians felt that this army +was but an entering wedge, and that, if not driven out, their whole +country would gradually be subdued. + +A patriot at length arose among the Cherusci, determined to free his +country from the intolerable Roman yoke. He was a handsome and athletic +youth, Arminius, or Hermann as the Germans prefer to name him, of noble +descent, and skilled alike in the arts of war and of oratory, his +eloquence being equal to his courage. He was one of the sons of the +Germans who had served in the Roman armies, and had won there such +distinction as to gain the honors of knighthood and citizenship. Now, +perceiving clearly the subjection that threatened his countrymen, and +filled with an ardent love of liberty, he appeared among them, and +quickly filled their dispirited souls with much of his own courage and +enthusiasm. At midnight meetings in the depths of the forests a +conspiracy against Varus and his legions was planned, Hermann being the +chosen leader of the perilous enterprise. + +It was not long before this conspiracy was revealed. The German control +over the Cherusci had been aided by Segestus, a treacherous chief, whose +beautiful and patriotic daughter, Thusnelda, had given her hand in +marriage to Hermann, against her father's will. Filled with revengeful +anger at this action, and hoping to increase his power, Segestus told +the story of the secret meetings, which he had discovered, to Varus, and +bade him beware, as a revolt against him might at any moment break out. +He spoke to the wrong man. Pride in the Roman power and scorn of that of +the Germans had deeply infected the mind of Varus, and he heard with +incredulous contempt this story that the barbarians contemplated rising +against the best trained legions of Rome. + +Autumn came, the autumn of the year 9 A.D. The long rainy season of the +German forests began. Hermann decided that the time had arrived for the +execution of his plans. He began his work with a deceitful skill that +quite blinded the too-trusting Varus, inducing him to send bodies of +troops into different parts of the country, some to gather provisions +for the winter supply of the camps, others to keep watch over some +tribes not yet subdued. The Roman force thus weakened, the artful German +succeeded in drawing Varus with the remainder of his men from their +intrenchments, by inducing one of the subjected tribes to revolt. + +The scheme of Hermann had, so far, been completely successful. Varus, +trusting to his representations, had weakened his force, and now +prepared to draw the main body of his army out of camp. Hermann remained +with him to the last, dining with him the day before the starting of the +expedition, and inspiring so much confidence in his faithfulness to Rome +that Varus refused to listen to Segestus, who earnestly entreated him to +take Hermann prisoner on the spot. He even took Hermann's advice, and +decided to march on the revolted tribe by a shorter than the usual +route, oblivious to the fact that it led through difficult mountain +passes, shrouded in forests and bordered by steep and rocky acclivities. + +The treacherous plans of the patriotic German had fully succeeded. While +the Romans were toiling onward through the straitened passes, Hermann +had sought his waiting and ambushed countrymen, to whom he gave the +signal that the time for vengeance had come. Then, as if the dense +forests had borne a sudden crop of armed men, the furious barbarians +poured out in thousands upon the unsuspecting legionaries. + +A frightful storm was raging. The mountain torrents, swollen by the +downpour of rain, over--flowed their banks and invaded the passes, along +which the Romans, encumbered with baggage, were wearily dragging onward +in broken columns. Suddenly, to the roar of winds and waters, was added +the wild war-cry of the Germans, and a storm of arrows, javelins, and +stones hurtled through the disordered ranks, while the barbarians, +breaking from the woods, and rushing downward from the heights, fell +upon the legions with sword and battle-axe, dealing death with every +blow. + +Only the discipline of the Romans saved them from speedy destruction. +With the instinct of their training they hastened to gather into larger +bodies, and their resistance, at first feeble, soon became more +effective. The struggle continued until night-fall, by which time the +surviving Romans had fought their way to a more open place, where they +hastily intrenched. But it was impossible for them to remain there. +Their provisions were lost or exhausted, thousands of foes surrounded +them, and their only hope lay in immediate and rapid flight. + +Sunrise came. The soldiers had recovered somewhat from the fatigue of +the day before. Setting fire to what baggage remained in their hands, +they began a retreat fighting as they went, for the implacable enemy +disputed every step. The first part of their route lay through an open +plain, where they marched in orderly ranks. But there were mountains +still to pass, and they quickly found themselves in a wooded and +pathless valley, in whose rugged depths defence was almost impossible. +Here they fell in thousands before the weapons of their foes. It was but +a small body of survivors that at length escaped from that deadly defile +and threw up intrenchments for the night in a more open spot. + +With the dawn of the next day they resumed their progress, and were at +no great distance from their stronghold of Aliso when they found their +progress arrested by fresh tribes, who assailed them with murderous +fury. On they struggled, fighting, dying, marking every step of the +route with their dead. Varus, now reduced to despair, and seeing only +slaughter or captivity before him, threw himself on his sword, and died +in the midst of those whom his blind confidence had led to destruction. +Of the whole army only a feeble remnant reached Aliso, which fort they +soon after abandoned and fought their way to the Rhine. While this was +going on, the detachments which Varus had sent out in various directions +were similarly assailed, and met the same fate as had overtaken the main +body of the troops. + +[Illustration: RETURN OF HERMANN AFTER HIS VICTORY OVER THE ROMANS.] + +No more frightful disaster had ever befallen the Roman arms. Many +prisoners had been taken, among them certain judges and lawyers, who +were the chief objects of Hermann's hate, and whom he devoted to a +painful death. He then offered sacrifices to the gods, to whom he +consecrated the booty, the slain, and the leading prisoners, numbers of +them being slain on the altars of his deities. These religious +ceremonies completed, the prisoners who still remained were distributed +among the tribes as slaves. The effort of Varus to force Roman customs +and laws upon the Germans had led to a fearful retribution. + +When the news of this dreadful event reached Rome, that city was filled +with grief and fear. The heart of Augustus, now an old man, was stricken +with dismay at the slaughter of the best soldiers of the empire. With +neglected dress and person he wandered about the rooms and halls of the +palace, his piteous appeal, "Varus, give me back my legions!" showing +how deeply the disaster had pierced his soul. Hasty efforts were at once +made to prevent the possible serious consequences of the overthrow of +the slain legions. The Romans on the Rhine intrenched themselves in all +haste. The Germans in the imperial service were sent to distant +provinces, and recruits were raised in all parts of the country, their +purpose being to protect Gaul from an invasion by the triumphant tribes. +Yet so great was the fear inspired by the former German onslaughts, and +by this destructive outbreak, that only threats of death induced the +Romans to serve. As it proved, this defensive activity was not needed. +The Germans, satisfied, as it seemed, with expelling the Romans from +their country, destroyed their forts and military roads, and settled +back into peace, with no sign of a desire to cross the Rhine. + +For six years peace continued. Augustus died, and Tiberius became +emperor of Rome. Then, in the year 14 A.D., an effort was made to +reconquer Germany, an army commanded by the son of Drusus, known to +history under the name of Germanicus, attacking the Marsi, when +intoxicated and unarmed after a religious feast. Great numbers of the +defenceless tribesmen were slain, but the other tribes sprung to arms +and drove the invader back across the Rhine. + +In the next year Hermann was again brought into the fray. Segestus had +robbed him of his wife, the beautiful patriot Thusnelda, who hitherto +had been his right hand in council in his plans against the Roman foe. +Hermann besieged Segestus to regain possession of his wife, and pressed +the traitor so closely that he sent his son Sigismund to Germanicus, who +was again on the German side of the Rhine, imploring aid. The Roman +leader took instant advantage of this promising opportunity. He advanced +and forced Hermann to raise the siege, and himself took possession of +Thusnelda, who was destined soon afterwards to be made the leading +feature in a Roman triumph. Segestus was rewarded for his treason, and +was given lands in Gaul, his life being not safe among the people he had +betrayed. As for the daughter whom he had yielded to Roman hands, her +fate troubled little his base soul. + +Thusnelda is still a popular character in German legend, there being +various stories extant concerning her. One of these relates that, when +she lay concealed in the old fort of Schellenpyrmont, she was warned by +the cries of a faithful bird of the coming of the Romans, who were +seeking stealthily to approach her hiding-place. + +The loss of his beloved wife roused Hermann's heroic spirit, and spread +indignation among the Germans, who highly esteemed the noble-hearted +consort of their chief. They rose hastily in arms, and Hermann was soon +at the head of a large army, prepared to defend his country against the +invading hosts of the Romans. But as the latter proved too strong to +face in the open field, the Germans retreated with their families and +property, the country left by them being laid waste by the advancing +legions. + +Germanicus soon reached the scene of the late slaughter, and caused the +bones of the soldiers of Varus to be buried. But in doing this he was +obliged to enter the mountain defiles in which the former army had met +its fate. Hermann and his men watched the Romans intently from forest +and hilltop. When they had fairly entered the narrow valleys, the adroit +chief appeared before them at the head of a small troop, which retreated +as if in fear, drawing them onward until the whole army had entered the +pass. + +Then the fatal signal was given, and the revengeful Germans fell upon +the legionaries of Germanicus as they had done upon those of Varus, +cutting them down in multitudes. But Germanicus was a much better +soldier than Varus. He succeeded in extricating the remnant of his men, +after they had lost heavily, and in making an orderly retreat to his +ships, which awaited him upon the northern coast whence he had entered +the country. There were two other armies, one of which had invaded +Germany from the coast of Friesland, and was carried away by a flood, +narrowly escaping complete destruction. The third had entered from the +Rhine. This was overtaken by Hermann while retreating over the long +bridges which the Romans had built across the marshes of Münsterland, +and which were now in a state of advanced decay. Here it found itself +surrounded by seemingly insuperable dangers, being, in part of its +route, shut up in a narrow dell, into which the enemy had turned the +waters of a rapid stream. While defending their camp, the waters poured +upon the soldiers, rising to their knees, and a furious tempest at the +same time burst over their heads. Yet discipline, again prevailed. They +lost heavily, but succeeded in cutting their way through their enemies +and reaching the Rhine. + +In the next year, 17 A.D., Germanicus again invaded Germany, sailing +with a thousand ships through the northern seas and up the Ems. Flavus, +the brother of Hermann, who had remained in the service of Rome, was +with him, and addressed his patriotic brother from the river-side, +seeking to induce him to desert the German cause, by painting in +glowing colors the advantage of being a Roman citizen. Hermann, furious +at his desertion of his country, replied to him with curses, as the only +language worthy to use to a traitor, and would have ridden across the +stream to kill him, but that he was held back by his men. + +A battle soon succeeded, the Germans falling into an ambuscade artfully +laid by the Roman leader, and being defeated with heavy loss. Germanicus +raised a stately monument on the spot, as a memorial of his victory. The +sight of this Roman monument in their country infuriated the Germans, +and they attacked the Romans again, this time with such fury, and such +slaughter on both sides, that neither party was able to resume the fight +when the next day dawned. Germanicus, who had been very severely +handled, retreated to his ships and set sail. On his voyage the heavens +appeared to conspire against him. A tempest arose in which most of the +vessels were wrecked and many of the legionaries lost. When he returned +to Rome, shortly afterwards, a fort on the Taunus was the only one which +Rome possessed in Germany. Hermann had cleared his country of the foe. +Yet Germanicus was given a triumph, in which Thusnelda walked, laden +with chains, to the capitol. + +The remaining events in the life of this champion of German liberty were +few. While the events described had been taking place in the north of +Germany, there were troubles in the south. Here a chieftain named +Marbodius, who, like Hermann, had passed his youth in the Roman armies, +was the leader of several powerful tribes. He lacked the patriotism of +Hermann, and sought to ally himself with the Romans, with the hope of +attaining to supreme power in Germany. + +Hermann sought to rouse patriotic sentiments in his mind, but in vain, +and the movements of Marbodius having revealed his purposes, a coalition +was formed against him, with Hermann at its head. He was completely +defeated, and southern Germany saved from Roman domination, as the +northern districts had already been. + +Peace followed, and for several years Hermann remained general-in-chief +of the German people, and the acknowledged bulwark of their liberties. +But envy arose; he was maligned, and accused of aiming at sovereignty, +as Marbodius had done; and at length his own relations, growing to hate +and fear him, conspired against and murdered him. + +Thus ignobly fell the noblest of the ancient Germans, the man whose +patriotism saved the realm of the Teutonic tribes from becoming a +province of the empire of Rome. Had not Hermann lived, the history of +Europe might have pursued a different course, and the final downfall of +the colossus of the south been long averted, Germany acting as its +bulwark of defence instead of becoming the nursery of its foes. + + + + +_ALBOIN AND ROSAMOND._ + + +Of the Teutonic invaders of Italy none are invested with more interest +than the Lombards,--the Long Beards, to give them their original title. +Legend yields us the story of their origin, a story of interest enough +to repeat. A famine had been caused in Denmark by a great flood, and the +people, to avoid danger of starvation, had resolved to put all the old +men and women to death, in order to save the food for the young and +strong. This radical proposition was set aside through the advice of a +wise woman, named Gambara, who suggested that lots should be drawn for +the migration of a third of the population. Her counsel was taken and +the migration began, under the leadership of her two sons. These +migrants wore beards of prodigious length, whence their subsequent name. + +They first entered the land of the Vandals, who refused them permission +to settle. This was a question to be decided at sword's point, and war +was declared. Both sides appealed to the gods for aid, Gambara praying +to Freya, while the Vandals invoked Odin, who answered that he would +grant the victory to the party he should first behold at the dawn of the +coming day. + +The day came. The sun rose. In front of the Danish host were stationed +their women, who had loosened their long hair, and let it hang down over +their faces. "Who are these with long beards?" demanded Odin, on seeing +these Danish amazons. This settled the question of victory, and also +gave the invaders a new name, that of Longobardi,--due, in this legend, +to the long hair of the women instead of the long beards of the men. +There are other legends, but none worth repeating. + +The story of their king Alboin, with whom we have particularly to deal, +begins, however, with a story which may be in part legendary. They were +now in hostile relations with the Gepidæ, the first nation to throw off +the yoke of the Huns. Alboin, son of Audoin, king of the Longobardi, +killed Thurismund, son of Turisend, king of the Gepidæ, in battle, but +forgot to carry away his arms, and thus returned home without a trophy +of his victory. In consequence, his stern father refused him a seat at +his table, as one unworthy of the honor. Such was the ancient Lombard +custom, and it must be obeyed. + +The young prince acknowledged the justice of this reproof, and +determined to try and obtain the arms which were his by right of +victory. Selecting forty companions, he boldly visited the court of +Turisend, and openly demanded from him the arms of his son. It was a +daring movement, but proved successful. The old king received him +hospitably, as the custom of the time demanded, though filled with grief +at the loss of his son. He even protected him from the anger of his +subjects, whom some of the Lombards had provoked by their insolence of +speech. The daring youth returned to his father's court with the arms +of his slain foe, and won the seat of honor of which he had been +deprived. + +Turisend died, and Cunimund, his son, became king. Audoin died, and +Alboin became king. And now new adventures of interest occurred. In his +visit to the court of Turisend, Alboin had seen and fallen in love with +Rosamond, the beautiful daughter of Cunimund. He now demanded her hand +in marriage, and as it was scornfully refused him, he revenged himself +by winning her honor through force and stratagem. War broke out in +consequence, and the Gepidæ were conquered, Rosamond falling to Alboin +as part of the trophies of victory. + +We are told that in this war Alboin sought the aid of Bacan, chagan of +the Avars, promising him half the spoil and all the land of the Gepidæ +in case of victory. He added to this a promise of the realm of the +Longobardi, in case he should succeed in winning for them a new home in +Italy, which country he proposed to invade. + +About fifteen years before, some of his subjects had made a warlike +expedition to Italy. Their report of its beauty and fertility had +kindled a spirit of emulation in the new generation, and inspired the +young and warlike king with ambitious hopes. His eloquence added to +their desire. He not only described to them in glowing words the land of +promise which he hoped to win, but spoke to their senses as well, by +producing at the royal banquets the fairest fruits that grew in that +garden land of Europe. His efforts were successful. No sooner was his +standard erected, and word sent abroad that Italy was his goal, than the +Longobardi found their strength augmented by hosts of adventurous youths +from the surrounding peoples. Germans, Bulgarians, Scythians, and others +joined in ranks, and twenty thousand Saxon warriors, with their wives +and children, added to the great host which had flocked to the banners +of the already renowned warrior. + +It was in the year 568 that Alboin, followed by the great multitude of +adventurers he had gathered, and by the whole nation of the Longobardi, +ascended the Julian Alps, and looked down from their summits on the +smiling plains of northern Italy to which his success was thenceforward +to give the name of Lombardy, the land of the Longobardi. + +Four years were spent in war with the Romans, city after city, district +after district, falling into the hands of the invaders. The resistance +was but feeble, and at length the whole country watered by the Po, with +the strong city of Pavia, fell into the hands of Alboin, who divided the +conquered lands among his followers, and reduced their former holders to +servitude. Alboin made Pavia his capital, and erected strong +fortifications to keep out the Burgundians, Franks, and other nations +which were troubling his new-gained dominions. This done, he settled +down to the enjoyment of the conquest which he had so ably made and so +skilfully defended. + +History tells us that the Longobardi cultivated their new lands so +skilfully that all traces of devastation soon vanished, and the realm +grew rich in its productions. Their freemen distinguished themselves +from the other German conquerors by laboring to turn the waste and +desert tracts into arable soil, while their king, though unceasingly +watchful against his enemies, lived among his people with patriarchal +simplicity, procuring his supplies from the produce of his farms, and +making regular rounds of inspection from one to another. It is a picture +fitted for a more peaceful and primitive age than that turbulent period +in which it is set. + +But now we have to do with Alboin in another aspect,--his domestic +relations, his dealings with his wife Rosamond, and the tragic end of +all the actors in the drama of real life which we have set out to tell. +The Longobardi were barbarians, and Alboin was no better than his +people; a strong evidence of which is the fact that he had the skull of +Cunimund, his defeated enemy and the father of his wife, set in gold, +and used it as a drinking cup at his banquets. + +Doubtless this brutality stirred revengeful sentiments in the mind of +Rosamond. An added instance of barbarian insult converted her outraged +feelings into a passion for revenge. Alboin had erected a palace near +Verona, one of the cities of his new dominion, and here he celebrated +his victories with a grand feast to his companions in arms. Wine flowed +freely at the banquet, the king emulating, or exceeding, his guests in +the art of imbibing. Heated with his potations, in which he had drained +many cups of Rhætian or Falernian wine, he called for the choicest +ornament of his sideboard, the gold-mounted skull of Cunimund, and drank +its full measure of wine amid the loud plaudits of his drunken guests. + +"Fill it again with wine," he cried; "fill it to the brim; carry this +goblet to the queen, and tell her that it is my desire and command that +she shall rejoice with her father." + +Rosamond's heart throbbed with grief and rage on hearing this inhuman +request. She took the skull in trembling hands, and murmuring in low +accents, "Let the will of my lord be obeyed," she touched it to her +lips. But in doing so she breathed a silent prayer, and resolved that +the unpardonable insult should be washed out in Alboin's blood. + +If she had ever loved her lord, she felt now for him only the bitterness +of hate. She had a friend in the court on whom she could depend, +Helmichis, the armor-bearer of the king. She called on him for aid in +her revenge, and found him willing but fearful, for he knew too well the +great strength and daring spirit of the chief whom he had so often +attended in battle. He proposed, therefore, that they should gain the +aid of a Lombard of unequalled strength, Peredeus by name. This +champion, however, was not easily to be won. The project was broached to +him, but the most that could be gained from him was a promise of +silence. + +Failing in this, more shameful methods were employed. Such was +Rosamond's passion for revenge that the most extreme measures seemed to +her justifiable. Peredeus loved one of the attendants of the queen. +Rosamond replaced this frail woman, sacrificed her honor to her +vengeance, and then threatened to denounce Peredeus to the king unless +he would kill the man who had so bitterly wronged her. + +Peredeus now consented. He must kill the king or the king would kill +him, for he felt that Rosamond was quite capable of carrying out her +threat. Having thus obtained the promise of the instruments of her +vengeance, the queen waited for a favorable moment to carry out her dark +design. The opportunity soon came. The king, heavy with wine, had +retired from the table to his afternoon slumbers. Rosamond, affecting +solicitude for his health and repose, dismissed his attendants, closed +the palace gates, and then, seeking her spouse, lulled him to rest by +her tender caresses. + +Finding that he slumbered, she unbolted the chamber door, and urged her +confederates to the instant performance of the deed of blood. They +entered the room with stealthy tread, but the quick senses of the +warrior took the alarm, he opened his eyes, saw two armed men advancing +upon him, and sprang from his couch. His sword hung beside him, and he +attempted to draw it, but the cunning hand of Rosamond had fastened it +securely in the scabbard. The only weapon remaining was a small +foot-stool. This he used with vigor, but it could not long protect him +from the spears of his assailants, and he quickly fell dead beneath +their blows. His body was buried beneath the stairway of the palace, and +thus tragically ended the career of the founder of the kingdom of +Lombardy. + +But the story of Rosamond's life is not yet at an end. The death of +Alboin was followed by another tragic event, which brought her guilty +career to a violent termination. The wily queen had not failed to +prepare for the disturbances which might follow the death of the king. +The murder of Alboin was immediately followed by her marriage with +Helmichis, whose ambition looked to no less a prize than the throne of +Lombardy. The queen was surrounded by a band of faithful Gepidæ, with +whose aid she seized the palace and made herself mistress of Verona, the +Lombard chiefs flying in alarm. But the assassination of the king who +had so often led them to victory filled the Longobardi with indignation, +the chiefs mustered their bands and led them against the stronghold of +the guilty couple, and they in their turn, were forced to fly for their +lives. Helmichis and Rosamond, with her daughter, her faithful Gepidæ, +and the spoils of the palace, took ship down the Adige and the Po, and +were transported in a Greek vessel to the port of Ravenna, where they +hoped to find shelter and safety. + +Longinus, the Greek governor of Ravenna, gave willing refuge to the +fugitives, the more so as the great beauty of Rosamond filled him with +admiration. She had not been long there, indeed, before he offered her +his hand in marriage. Rosamond, moved by ambition or a return of his +love, accepted his offer. There was, it is true, an obstacle in the way. +She was already provided with a husband. But the barbarian queen had +learned the art of getting rid of inconvenient husbands. Having, +perhaps, grown to detest the tool of her revenge, now that the purpose +of her marriage with him had failed, she set herself to the task of +disposing of Helmichis, this time using the cup instead of the sword. + +As Helmichis left the bath he received a wine-cup from the hands of his +treacherous wife, and lifted it to his lips. But no sooner had he tasted +the liquor, and felt the shock that it gave his system, than he knew +that he was poisoned. Death, a speedy death, was in his veins, but he +had life enough left for revenge. Seizing his dagger, he pressed it to +the breast of Rosamond, and by threats of instant death compelled her to +drain the remainder of the cup. In a few minutes both the guilty +partners in the death of Alboin had breathed their last. + +When Longinus was, at a later moment, summoned into the room, it was to +find his late guests both dead upon the floor. The poison had faithfully +done its work. Thus ended a historic tragedy than which the stage +possesses few of more striking dramatic interest and opportunities for +histrionic effect. + + + + +_THE CAREER OF GRIMOALD._ + + +The Avars, led by Cacan, their king, crossed, in the year 611, the +mountains of Illyria and Lombardy, killed Gisulph, the grand duke, with +all his adherents, in battle, and laid siege to the city of Friuli, +behind whose strong walls Romilda, the widow of Gisulph, had taken +refuge. These events formed the basis of the romantic, and perhaps +largely legendary, story we have to tell. + +One day, so we are told, Romilda, gazing from the ramparts of the city, +beheld Cacan, the young khan of the Avars, engaged in directing the +siege. So handsome to her eyes appeared the youthful soldier that she +fell deeply in love with him at sight, her passion growing until, in +disregard of honor and patriotism, she sent him a secret message, +offering to deliver up to him the city on condition of becoming his +wife. The khan, though doubtless despising her treachery to her people, +was quick to close with the offer, and in a short time Friuli was in his +hands. + +This accomplished, he returned to Hungary, taking with him Romilda and +her children, of whom there were four sons and four daughters. Cacan +kept his compact with the traitress, marrying her with the primitive +rites of the Hungarians. But her married life was of the shortest. He +had kept his word, and such honor as he possessed was satisfied. The +morning after his marriage, moved perhaps by detestation of her +treachery, he caused the hapless Romilda to be impaled alive. It was a +dark end to a dark deed, and the perfidy of the woman had been matched +by an equal perfidy on the part of the man. + +The children of Romilda were left in the hands of the Avars. Of her +daughters, one subsequently married a duke of Bavaria and another a duke +of Allemania. The four sons, one of whom was Grimoald, the hero of our +story, managed to escape from their savage captors, though they were +hotly pursued. In their flight, Grimoald, the youngest, was taken up +behind Tafo, the oldest; but in the rapid course he lost his hold and +fell from his brother's horse. + +Tafo, knowing what would be the fate of the boy should he be captured, +turned and galloped upon him lance in hand, determined that he should +not fall alive into the hands of his cruel foes. But Grimoald's +entreaties and Tafo's brotherly affection induced him to change his +resolution, and, snatching up the boy, he continued his flight, the +pursuing Avars being now close at hand. + +Not far had they ridden before the same accident occurred. Grimoald +again fell, and Tafo was now obliged to leave him to his fate, the +fierce pursuers being too near to permit him either to kill or save the +unlucky boy. On swept Tafo, up swept the Avars, and one of them, +halting, seized the young captive, threw him behind him on his horse, +and rode on after his fellows. + +Grimoald's peril was imminent, but he was a child with the soul of a +warrior. As his captor pushed on in the track of his companions, the +brave little fellow suddenly snatched a knife from his belt, and in an +instant had stabbed him to the heart with his own weapon Tossing the +dead body from the saddle, Grimoald seized the bridle and rode swiftly +on, avoiding the Avars, and in the end rejoining his flying brothers. It +was a deed worthy the childhood of one who was in time to become a +famous warrior. + +The fugitives reached Lombardy, where Tafo was hospitably received by +the king, and succeeded his father as Grand Duke of Friuli. Grimoald was +adopted by Arigil, Duke of Benevento, in whose court he grew to manhood, +and in whose service his courage and military ability were quickly +shown. There were wars between Benevento and the Greeks of southern +Italy, and in these the young soldier so greatly distinguished himself +that on the death of Arigil he succeeded him as Duke of Benevento. + +Meanwhile, troubles arose in Lombardy. Tafo had been falsely accused, by +an enemy of the queen, of criminal relations with her, and was put to +death by the king. Her innocence was afterwards proved, and on the death +of Ariowald the Lombards treated her with the greatest respect, and +raised Rotharis, her second husband, to the throne. He, too, died, and +Aribert, uncle of the queen, was next made king. On his death, his two +sons, Bertarit and Godebert, disputed the succession. A struggle ensued +between the rival brothers, in the course of which Grimoald was brought +into the dispute. + +The events here briefly described had taken place while Grimoald was +engaged in the Greek wars of his patron, Duke Arigil. When he succeeded +the latter in the ducal chair, the struggle between Bertarit and +Godebert was going on, and the new Duke of Benevento declared in favor +of the latter, who was his personal friend. + +A scheme of treachery, of a singular character, put an end to their +friendship and to the life of Godebert. A man who was skilled in the +arts of dissimulation, and who was secretly in the pay of Bertarit, +persuaded Godebert that his seeming friend, Duke Grimoald, was really +his enemy, and was plotting his destruction. He told the same story to +Grimoald, making him believe that Godebert was his secret foe. In proof +of his words he told each of them that the other wore armor beneath his +clothes, through fear of assassination by his assumed friend. + +The suspicion thus artfully aroused produced the very state of things +which the agent of mischief had declared to exist. Each of the friends +put on armor, as a protection against treachery from the other, and when +they sought to test the truth of the spy's story it seemed fully +confirmed. Each discovered that the other wore secret armor, without +learning that it had just been assumed. + +The two close friends were thus converted by a plotting Iago into +distrustful enemies, each fearing and on guard against assassination by +the other. The affair ended tragically. Grimoald was no sooner fully +convinced of the truth of what had been told him than he slew his +supposed enemy, deeming it necessary to save his own life. The dark +scheme had succeeded. Treason and falsehood had sown death between two +friends. + +Bertarit, his rival removed, deemed the throne now securely his. But the +truth underlying the tragedy we have described became known, and the +Lombards, convinced of the innocence of Grimoald, and scorning the +treachery by which he had been led on to murder, dismissed Bertarit's +pretensions and placed Grimoald on the throne. His career had been a +strange but highly successful one. From his childhood captivity to the +Avars he had risen to the high station of King of Lombardy, a position +fairly earned by his courage and ability. + +We are not yet done with the story of this distinguished warrior. +Bertarit had taken the field against him, and civil war desolated +Lombardy, an unhappy state of affairs which was soon taken advantage of +by the foes of the distracted kingdom. The enemy who now appeared in the +field was Constans, the Greek emperor, who laid siege to Benevento, +hoping to capture it while Grimoald was engaged in hostilities with +Bertarit in the north. + +Grimoald had left his son, Romuald, in charge of the city. On learning +of the siege he despatched a trusty friend and officer, Sesuald by +name, with some troops, to the relief of the beleaguered stronghold, +proposing to follow quickly himself with the main body of his army. + +And now occurred an event nobly worthy of being recorded in the annals +of human probity and faithfulness, one little known, but deserving to be +classed with those that have become famous in history. When men erect +monuments to courage and virtue, the noble Sesuald should not be +forgotten. + +This brave man fell into the hands of the emperor, who sought to use him +in a stratagem to obtain possession of Benevento. He promised him an +abundance of wealth and honors if he would tell Romuald that his father +had died in battle, and persuade him to surrender the city. Sesuald +seems to have agreed, for he was led to the walls of the city that he +might hold the desired conference with Romuald. Instead, however, of +carrying out the emperor's design, he cried out to the young chief, "Be +firm, Grimoald approaches"; then, hastily telling him that he had +forfeited his life by those words, he begged him in return to protect +his wife and children, as the last service he could render him. + +Sesuald was right. Constans, furious at his words, had his head +instantly struck off; and then, with a barbarism worthy of the times, +had it flung from a catapult into the heart of the city. The ghastly +trophy was brought to Romuald, who pressed it to his lips, and deeply +deplored the death of his father's faithful friend. + +This was the last effort of the emperor. Fearing to await the arrival +of Grimoald, he raised the siege and retreated towards Naples, hotly +pursued by the Lombards. The army of Grimoald came up with the +retreating Greeks, and a battle was imminent, when a Lombard warrior of +giant size, Amalong by name, spurring upon a Greek, lifted him from the +saddle with his lance, and rode on holding him poised in the air. The +sight of this feat filled the remaining Greeks with such terror that +they broke and fled, and their hasty retreat did not cease till they had +found shelter in Sicily. + +After this event Bertarit, finding it useless to contend longer against +his powerful and able opponent, submitted to Grimoald. Yet this did not +end their hostile relations. The Lombard king, distrusting his late foe, +of whose treacherous disposition he already had abundant evidence, laid +a plan to get rid of him by murdering him in his bed. This plot was +discovered by a servant of the imperilled prince, who aided his master +to escape, and, the better to secure his retreat, placed himself in his +bed, being willing to risk death in his lord's service. + +Grimoald discovered the stratagem of the faithful fellow, but, instead +of punishing him for it, he sought to reward him, attempting to attach +him to his own service as one whose fidelity would make him valuable to +any master. The honest servant refused, however, to desert his old lord +for a new service, and entreated so earnestly for permission to join +his master, who had taken refuge in France, that Grimoald set him free, +doubtless feeling that such faithfulness was worthy of encouragement. + +In France Bertarit found an ally in Chlotar II., who took up arms +against the Lombards in his aid. Grimoald, however, defeated him by a +shrewd stratagem. He feigned to retreat in haste, leaving his camp, +which was well stored with provisions, to fall into the hands of the +enemy. Deeming themselves victorious, the Franks hastened to enjoy the +feast of good things which the Lombards had left behind. But in the +midst of their repast Grimoald suddenly returned, and, falling upon them +impetuously, put most of them to the sword. + +In the following year (666 A.D.) he defeated another army by another +stratagem. The Avars had invaded Lombardy, with an army which far +out-numbered the troops which Grimoald could muster against them. In +this state of affairs he artfully deceived his foes as to the strength +of his army by marching and countermarching his men within their view, +each time dressed in uniform of different colors, and with varied +standards and insignia of war. The invaders, deeming that an army +confronted them far stronger than their own, withdrew in haste, leaving +Grimoald master of the field. + +We are further told of the king of the Lombards whose striking history +we have concisely given, that he gave many new laws to his country, and +that in his old age he was remarkable for his bald head and long white +beard. He died in 671, sixty years after the time when his mother acted +the traitress, and suffered miserably for her crime. After his death, +the exiled Bertarit was recalled to the throne of Lombardy, and Romuald +succeeded his father as Duke of Benevento, the city which he had held so +bravely against the Greeks. + + + + +_WITTEKIND, THE SAXON PATRIOT._ + + +As Germany, in its wars with the Romans, found its hero in the great +Arminius, or Hermann; and as England, in its contest with the Normans, +found a heroic defender in the valiant Hereward; so Saxony, in its +struggle with Charlemagne, gave origin to a great soul, the indomitable +patriot Wittekind, who kept the war afoot years after the Saxons would +have yielded to their mighty foe, and, like Hereward, only gave up the +struggle when hope itself was at an end. + +The career of the defender of Saxony bears some analogy to that of the +last patriot of Saxon England. As in the case of Hereward, his origin is +uncertain, and the story of his life overlaid with legend. He is said to +have been the son of Wernekind, a powerful Westphalian chief, +brother-in-law of Siegfried, a king of the Danes; yet this is by no +means certain, and his ancestry must remain in doubt. He came suddenly +into the war with the great Frank conqueror, and played in it a +strikingly prominent part, to sink again out of sight at its end. + +The attempt of Charlemagne to conquer Saxony began in 772. Religion was +its pretext, ambition its real cause. Missionaries had been sent to the +Saxons during their great national festival at Marclo. They came back +with no converts to report. As the Saxons had refused to be converted by +words, fire and sword were next tried as assumed instruments for +spreading the doctrines of Christ, but really as effective means for +extending the dominion of the monarch of the Franks. + +In his first campaign in Saxony, Charlemagne marched victoriously as far +as the Weser, where he destroyed the celebrated Irminsúl, a famous +object of Saxon devotion, perhaps an image of a god, perhaps a statue of +Hermann that had become invested with divinity. The next year, Charles +being absent in Italy, the Saxons broke into insurrection, under the +leadership of Wittekind, who now first appears in history. With him was +associated another patriot, Alboin, Duke of Eastphalia. + +Charles returned in the succeeding year, and again swept in conquering +force through the country. But a new insurrection called him once more +to Italy, and no sooner had he gone than the eloquent Wittekind was +among his countrymen, entreating them to rise in defence of their +liberties. A general levy took place, every able man crowded to the +ranks, and whole forests were felled to form abatis of defence against a +marching enemy. + +Again Charles came at the head of his army of veterans, and again the +poorly-trained Saxon levies were driven in defeat from his front. He now +established a camp in the heart of the country, and had a royal +residence built at Paderborn, where he held a diet of the great vassals +of the crown and received envoys from foreign lands. Hither came +delegates from the humbled Saxons, promising peace and submission, and +pledging themselves by oaths and hostages to be true subjects of Charles +the Great. But Wittekind came not. He had taken refuge at the court of +Siegfried, the pagan king of the Danes, where he waited an opportunity +to strike a new blow for liberty. + +Not content with their pledges and promises, the conqueror sought to win +over his new subjects by converting them to Christianity in the +wholesale way in which this work was then usually performed. The Saxons +were baptized in large numbers, the proselyting method pursued being, as +we are told, that all prisoners of war _must_ be baptized, while of the +others all who were reasonable _would_ be baptized, and the inveterately +unreasonable might be _bribed_ to be baptized. Doubtless, as a historian +remarks, the Saxons found baptism a cool, cleanly, and agreeable +ceremony, while their immersion in the water had little effect in +washing out their old ideas and washing in new ones. + +The exigencies of war in his vast empire now called Charlemagne to +Spain, where the Arabs had become troublesome and needed chastisement. +Not far had he marched away when Wittekind was again in Saxony, passing +from tribe to tribe through the forests of the land, and with fiery +eloquence calling upon his countrymen to rise against the invaders and +regain the freedom of which they had been deprived. Heedless of their +conversion, disregarding their oaths of allegiance, filled with the +free spirit which had so long inspired them, the chiefs and people +listened with approval to his burning words, seized their arms, and flew +again to war. The priests were expelled from the country, the churches +they had built demolished, the castles erected by the Frank monarch +taken and destroyed, and the country was laid waste up to the walls of +Cologne, its Christian inhabitants being exterminated. + +But unyielding as Wittekind was, his great antagonist was equally +resolute and persistent. When he had finished his work with the Arabs, +he returned to Saxony with his whole army, fought a battle in 779 in the +dry bed of the Eder, and in 780 defeated Wittekind and his followers in +two great battles, completely disorganizing and discouraging the Saxon +bands, and again bringing the whole country under his control. This +accomplished, he stationed himself in their country, built numerous +fortresses upon the Elbe, and spent the summer of 780 in missionary +work, gaining a multitude of converts among the seemingly subdued +barbarians. The better to make them content with his rule he treated +them with great kindness and affability, and sent among them +missionaries of their own race, being the hostages whom he had taken in +previous years, and who had been educated in monasteries. All went well, +the Saxons were to all appearance in a state of peaceful satisfaction, +and Charles felicitated himself that he had finally added Saxony to his +empire. + +He deceived himself sadly. He did not know the spirit of the free-born +Saxons, or the unyielding perseverance of their patriotic leader. In the +silent depths of their forests, and in the name of their ancient gods, +they vowed destruction to the invading Franks, and branded as traitors +all those who professed Christianity except as a stratagem to deceive +their powerful enemy. Entertaining no suspicion of the true state of +affairs, Charlemagne at length left the country, which he fancied to be +fully pacified and its people content. With complete confidence in his +new subjects, he commissioned his generals, Geil and Adalgis, to march +upon the Slavonians beyond the Elbe, who were threatening France with a +new barbarian invasion. + +They soon learned that there was other work to do. In a brief time the +irrepressible Wittekind was in the field again, with a new levy of +Saxons at his back, and the tranquillity of the land, established at +such pains, was once more in peril. Theoderic, one of Charlemagne's +principal generals, hastily marched towards them with what men he could +raise, and on his way met the army sent to repel the Slavonians. They +approached the Saxon host where it lay encamped on the Weser, behind the +Sundel mountain, and laid plans to attack it on both sides at once. But +jealousy ruined these plans, as it has many other well-laid schemes. The +leaders of the Slavonian contingent, eager to rob Theoderic of glory, +marched in haste on the Saxons, attacked them in their camp, and were so +completely defeated and overthrown that but a moity of their army +escaped from the field. The appearance of these fugitives in the camp of +Theoderic was the first he knew of the treachery of his fellow generals +and their signal punishment. + +The story of this dreadful event was in all haste borne to Charlemagne. +His army had been destroyed almost as completely as that of Varus on a +former occasion, and in nearly the same country. The distressing tidings +filled his soul with rage and a bitter thirst for revenge. He had done +his utmost to win over the Saxons by lenity and kindness, but this +course now seemed to him useless, if not worse than useless. He +determined to adopt opposite measures and try the effect of cruelty and +severe retribution. Calling together his forces until he had a great +army under his command, he marched into Saxony torch and sword in hand, +and swept the country with fire and steel. All who would not embrace +Christianity were pitilessly exterminated. Thousands were driven into +the rivers to be baptized or drowned. Carnage, desolation, and +destruction marked the path of the conqueror. Never had a country been +more frightfully devastated by the hand of war. + +All who were concerned in the rebellion were seized, so far as Charles +could lay hands on them. When questioned, they lay all the blame on +Wittekind. He was the culprit, they but his instruments. But Wittekind +had vanished, the protesting chiefs and people were in the conqueror's +hands, and, bent on making an awful example, he had no less than four +thousand five hundred of them beheaded in one day. It was a frightful +act of vengeance, which has ever since remained an ineradicable blot on +the memory of the great king. + +[Illustration: THE BAPTISM OF WITTEKIND.] + +Its effect was what might have been anticipated. Instead of filling the +Saxons with terror, it inspired them with revengeful fury. They rose as +one man, Wittekind and Alboin at their head, and attacked the French +with a fury such as they had never before displayed. The remorseless +cruelty with which they had been treated was repaid in the blood of the +invaders, and in the many petty combats that took place the hardy and +infuriated barbarians proved invincible against their opponents. Even in +a pitched battle, fought at Detmold, in which Wittekind led the Saxons +against the superior forces of Charlemagne, they held their own against +all his strength and generalship, and the victory remained undecided. +But they were again brought to battle upon the Hase, and now the +superior skill and more numerous army of the great conqueror prevailed. +The Saxons were defeated with great slaughter, and the French advanced +as far as the Elbe. The war continued during the succeeding year, by the +end of which the Saxons had become so reduced in strength that further +efforts at resistance would have been madness. + +The cruelty which Charlemagne had displayed, and which had proved so +signally useless, was now replaced by a mildness much more in conformity +with his general character; and the Saxons, exhausted with their +struggles, and attracted by the gentleness with which he treated them, +showed a general disposition to submit. But Wittekind and his +fellow-chieftain Alboin were still at large, and the astute conqueror +well knew that there was no security in his new conquest unless they +could be brought over. He accordingly opened negotiations with them, +requesting a personal conference, and pledging his royal word that they +should be dealt with in all faith and honesty. The Saxon chiefs, +however, were not inclined to put themselves in the power of a king +against whom they had so long and desperately fought without stronger +pledge than his bare word. They demanded hostages. Charlemagne, who +fully appreciated the value of their friendship and submission, freely +acceded to their terms, sent hostages, and was gratified by having the +indomitable chiefs enter his palace at Paderborn. + +Wittekind was well aware that his mission as a Saxon leader was at an +end. The country was subdued, its warriors slain, terrorized, or won +over, and his single hand could not keep up the war with France. He, +therefore, swore fealty to Charlemagne, freely consented to become a +Christian, and was, with his companion, baptized at Attigny in France. +The emperor stood his sponsor in baptism, received him out of the font, +loaded him with royal gifts, and sent him back with the title of Duke of +Saxony, which he held as a vassal of France. Henceforward he seems to +have observed good faith to Charlemagne, for his name now vanishes from +history, silence in this case being a pledge of honor and peacefulness. + +But if history here lays him down, legend takes him up, and yields us a +number of stories concerning him not one of which has any evidence to +sustain it, but which are curious enough to be worth repeating. It gives +us, for instance, a far more romantic account of his conversion than +that above told. This relates that, in the Easter season of 785,--the +year of his conversion,--Wittekind stole into the French camp in the +garb of a minstrel or a mendicant, and, while cautiously traversing it, +bent on spying out its weaknesses, was attracted to a large tent within +which Charlemagne was attending the service of the mass. Led by an +irresistible impulse, the pagan entered the tent, and stood gazing in +spellbound wonder at the ceremony, marvelling what the strange and +impressive performance meant. As the priest elevated the host, the +chief, with astounded eyes, beheld in it the image of a child, of +dazzling and unearthly beauty. He could not conceal his surprise from +those around him, some of whom recognized in the seeming beggar the +great Saxon leader, and took him to the emperor. Wittekind told +Charlemagne of his vision, begged to be made a Christian, and brought +over many of his countrymen to the fold of the true church by the +shining example of his conversion. + +Legend goes on to tell us that he became a Christian of such hot zeal +as to exact a bloody atonement from the Frisians for their murder of +Boniface and his fellow-priests a generation before. It further tells us +that he founded a church at Enger, in Westphalia, was murdered by +Gerold, Duke of Swabia, and was buried in the church he had founded, and +in which his tomb was long shown. In truth, the people came to honor him +as a saint, and though there is no record of his canonization, a saint's +day, January 7, is given him, and we are told of miracles performed at +his tomb. + +So much for the dealings of Christian legend with this somewhat +unsaintly personage. Secular legend, for it is probably little more, has +contented itself with tracing his posterity, several families of Germany +deriving their descent from him, while he is held to have been the +ancestor of the imperial house of the Othos. Some French genealogists go +so far as to trace the descent of Hugh Capet to this hero of the Saxon +woods. In truth, he has been made to some extent the Roland or the +Arthur of Saxony, though fancy has not gone so far in his case as in +that of the French paladin and the Welsh hero of knight-errantry, for, +though he and his predecessor Hermann became favorite characters in +German ballad and legend, the romance heroes of that land continued to +be the mythical Siegfried and his partly fabulous, partly historical +companions of the epical song of the Nibelung. + + + + +_THE RAIDS OF THE SEA-ROVERS._ + + +While Central and Southern Europe was actively engaged in wars by land, +Scandinavia, that nest of pirates, was as actively engaged in wars by +sea, sending its armed galleys far to the south, to plunder and burn +wherever they could find footing on shore. Not content with plundering +the coasts, they made their way up the streams, and often suddenly +appeared far inland before an alarm could be given. Wherever they went, +heaps of the dead and the smoking ruins of habitations marked their +ruthless course. They did not hesitate to attack fortified cities, +several of which fell into their hands and were destroyed. They always +fought on foot, but such was their strength, boldness, and activity that +the heavy-armed cavalry of France and Germany seemed unable to endure +their assault, and was frequently put to flight. If defeated, or in +danger of defeat, they hastened back to their ships, from which they +rarely ventured far and rowed away with such speed that pursuit was in +vain. For a long period they kept the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts +of Europe in such terror that prayers were publicly read in the churches +for deliverance from them, and the sight of their dragon beaked ships +filled the land with terror. + +In 845 a party of them assailed and took Paris, from which they were +bought off by the cowardly and ineffective method of ransom, seven +thousand pounds of silver being paid them. In 853 another expedition, +led by a leader named Hasting, one of the most dreaded of the Norsemen, +again took Paris, marched into Burgundy, laying waste the country as he +advanced, and finally took Tours, to which city much treasure had been +carried for safe-keeping. Charles the Bald, who had bought off the +former expedition with silver, bought off this one with gold, offering +the bold adventurer a bribe of six hundred and eighty-five pounds of the +precious metal, to which he added a ton and a half of silver, to leave +the country. + +From France, Hasting set sail for Italy, where his ferocity was aided by +a cunning which gives us a deeper insight into his character. Rome, a +famous but mystical city to the northern pagans, whose imaginations +invested it with untold wealth and splendor, was the proposed goal of +the enterprising Norseman, who hoped to make himself fabulously wealthy +from its plunder. With a hundred ships, filled with hardy Norse pirates, +he swept through the Strait of Gibraltar and along the coasts of Spain +and France, plundering as he went till he reached the harbor of Lucca, +Italy. + +As to where and what Rome was, the unlettered heathen had but the +dimmest conception. Here before him lay what seemed a great and rich +city, strongly fortified and thickly peopled. This must be Rome, he told +himself; behind those lofty walls lay the wealth which he so earnestly +craved; but how could it be obtained? Assault on those strong +fortifications would waste time, and perhaps end in defeat. If the city +could be won by stratagem, so much the better for himself and his men. + +The shrewd Norseman quickly devised a promising plan within the depths +of his astute brain. It was the Christmas season, and the inhabitants +were engaged in the celebration of the Christmas festival, though, +doubtless, sorely troubled in mind by that swarm of strange-shaped +vessels in their harbor, with their stalwart crews of blue-eyed +plunderers. + +Word was sent to the authorities of the city that the fleet had come +thither from no hostile intent, and that all the mariners wished was to +obtain the favor of an honorable burial-place for their chieftain, who +had just died. If the citizens would grant them this, they would engage +to depart after the funeral without injury to their courteous and +benevolent friends. The message--probably not expressed in quite the +above phrase--was received in good faith by the unsuspecting Lombards, +who were glad enough to get rid of their dangerous visitors on such +cheap terms, and gratified to learn that these fierce pagans wished +Christian burial for their chief. Word was accordingly sent to the ships +that the authorities granted their request, and were pleased with the +opportunity to oblige the mourning crews. + +Not long afterwards a solemn procession left the fleet, a coffin, draped +in solemn black, at its head, borne by strong carriers. As mourners +there followed a large deputation of stalwart Norsemen, seemingly +unarmed, and to all appearance lost in grief. With slow steps they +entered the gates and moved through the streets of the city, chanting +the death-song of the great Hasting, until the church was reached, and +they had advanced along its crowded aisle to the altar, where stood the +priests ready to officiate at the obsequies of the expired freebooter. + +The coffin was set upon the floor, and the priests were about to break +into the solemn chant for the dead, when suddenly, to the surprise and +horror of the worshippers, the supposed corpse sprang to life, leaped up +sword in hand, and with a fierce and deadly blow struck the officiating +bishop to the heart. Instantly the seeming mourners, who had been chosen +from the best warriors of the fleet, flung aside their cloaks and +grasped their arms, and a carnival of death began in that crowded +church. + +It was not slaughter, however, that Hasting wanted, but plunder. Rushing +from the church, the Norsemen assailed the city, looting with free hand, +and cutting down all who came in their way. No long time was needed by +the skilful freebooters for this task, and before the citizens could +recover from the mortal terror into which they had been thrown, the +pagan plunderers were off again for their ships, laden with spoil, and +taking with them as captives a throng of women and maidens, the most +beautiful they could find. + +This daring affair had a barbarous sequel. A storm arising which +threatened the loss of his ships, the brutal Hasting gave orders that +the vessels should be lightened by throwing overboard plunder and +captives alike. Saved by this radical method, the sea-rovers quickly +repaid themselves for their losses by sailing up the Rhone, and laying +the country waste through many miles of Southern France. + +The end of this phase of Hasting's career was a singular one. In the +year 860 he consented to be baptized as a Christian, and to swear +allegiance to Charles the Bald of France, on condition of receiving the +title of Count of Chartres, with a suitable domain. It was a wiser +method of disarming a redoubtable enemy than that of ransoming the land, +which Charles had practised with Hasting on a previous occasion. He had +converted a foe into a subject, upon whom he might count for defence +against those fierce heathen whom he had so often led to battle. + +While France, England, and the Mediterranean regions formed the favorite +visiting ground of the Norsemen, they did not fail to pay their respects +in some measure to Germany, and during the ninth century, their period +of most destructive activity, the latter country suffered considerably +from their piratical ravages. Two German warriors who undertook to guard +the coasts against their incursions are worthy of mention. One of these, +Baldwin of the Iron Arm, Count of Flanders, distinguished himself by +seducing Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald of France, who, young as +she was, was already the widow of two English kings, Ethelwolf and his +son Ethelbold. Charles was at first greatly enraged, but afterwards +accepted Baldwin as his son-in-law, and made him lord of the district. +The second was Robert the Strong, Count of Maine, a valiant defender of +the country against the sea-kings. He was slain in a bloody battle with +them, near Anvers, in 866. This distinguished warrior was the ancestor +of Hugh Capet, afterwards king of France. + +For some time after his death the Norsemen avoided Germany, paying their +attentions to England, where Alfred the Great was on the throne. About +880 their incursions began again, and though they were several times +defeated with severe slaughter, new swarms followed the old ones, and +year by year fresh fleets invaded the land, leaving ruin in their paths. + +Up the rivers they sailed, as in France, taking cities, devastating the +country, doing more damage each year than could be repaired in a decade. +Aix-la-Chapelle, the imperial city of the mighty Charlemagne, fell into +their hands, and the palace of the great Charles, in little more than +half a century after his death, was converted by these marauders into a +stable. Well might the far-seeing emperor have predicted sorrow and +trouble for the land from these sea-rovers, as he is said to have done, +on seeing their many-oared ships from a distance. Yet even his foresight +could scarcely have imagined that, before he was seventy years in the +grave, the vikings of the north would be stabling their horses in the +most splendid of his palaces. + +The rovers attacked Metz, and Bishop Wala fell while bravely fighting +them before its gates. City after city on the Rhine was taken and burned +to the ground. The whole country between Liège, Cologne, and Mayence was +so ravaged as to be almost converted into a desert. The besom of +destruction, in the hands of the sea-kings, threatened to sweep Germany +from end to end, as it had swept the greater part of France. + +The impunity with which they raided the country was due in great part to +the indolent character of the monarch. Charles the Fat, as he was +entitled, who had the ambitious project of restoring the empire of +Charlemagne, and succeeded in combining France and Germany under his +sceptre, proved unable to protect his realm from the pirate rovers. Like +his predecessor, Charles the Bald of France, he tried the magic power of +gold and silver, as a more effective argument than sharpened steel, to +rid him of these marauders. Siegfried, their principal leader, was +bought off with two thousand pounds of gold and twelve thousand pounds +of silver, to raise which sum Charles seized all the treasures of the +churches. In consideration of this great bribe the sea-rover consented +to a truce for twelve years. His brother Gottfried was bought off in a +different method, being made Duke of Friesland and vassal of the +emperor. + +These concessions, however, did not put an end to the depredations of +the Norsemen. There were other leaders than the two formidable brothers, +and other pirates than those under their control, and the country was +soon again invaded, a strong party advancing as far as the Moselle, +where they took and destroyed the city of Treves. This marauding band, +however, dearly paid for its depredations. While advancing through the +forest of Ardennes, it was ambushed and assailed by a furious multitude +of peasants and charcoal-burners, before whose weapons ten thousand of +the Norsemen fell in death. + +This revengeful act of the peasantry was followed by a treacherous deed +of the emperor, which brought renewed trouble upon the land. Eager to +rid himself of his powerful and troublesome vassal in Friesland, Charles +invited Gottfried to a meeting, at which he had the Norsemen +treacherously murdered, while his brother-in-law Hugo was deprived of +his sight. It was an act sure to bring a bloody reprisal. No sooner had +news of it reached the Scandinavian north than a fire of revengeful rage +swept through the land, and from every port a throng of oared galleys +put to sea, bent upon bloody retribution. Soon in immense hordes they +fell upon the imperial realm, forcing their way in mighty hosts up the +Rhine, the Maese, and the Seine, and washing out the memory of +Gottfried's murder in torrents of blood, while the brand spread ruin far +and wide. + +The chief attack was made on Paris, which the Norsemen invested and +besieged for a year and a half. The march upon Paris was made by sea and +land, the marauders making Rouen their place of rendezvous. From this +centre of operations Rollo--the future conqueror and Duke of Normandy, +now a formidable sea-king--led an overland force towards the French +capital, and on his way was met by an envoy from the emperor, no less a +personage than the Count of Chartres, the once redoubtable Hasting, now +a noble of the empire. + +"Valiant sirs," he said to Rollo and his chiefs, "who are you that come +hither, and why have you come?" + +"We are Danes," answered Rollo, proudly; "all of us equals, no man the +lord of any other, but lords of all besides. We are come to punish these +people and take their lands. And you, by what name are you called?" + +"Have you not heard of a certain Hasting," was the reply, "a sea-king +who left your land with a multitude of ships, and turned into a desert a +great part of this fair land of France?" + +"We have heard of him," said Rollo, curtly. "He began well and ended +badly." + +"Will you submit to King Charles?" asked the envoy, deeming it wise, +perhaps, to change the subject. + +"We will submit to no one, king or chieftain. All that we gain by the +sword we are masters and lords of. This you may tell to the king who has +sent you. The lords of the sea know no masters on land." + +Hasting left with his message, and Rollo continued his advance to the +Seine. Not finding here the ships of the maritime division of the +expedition, which he had expected to meet, he seized on the boats of the +French fishermen and pursued his course. Soon afterwards a French force +was met and put to flight, its leader, Duke Ragnold, being killed. This +event, as we are told, gave rise to a new change in the career of the +famous Hasting. A certain Tetbold or Thibaud, of Northman birth, came to +him and told him that he was suspected of treason, the defeat of the +French having been ascribed to secret information furnished by him. +Whether this were true, or a mere stratagem on the part of his +informant, it had the desired effect of alarming Hasting, who quickly +determined to save himself from peril by joining his old countrymen and +becoming again a viking chief. He thereupon sold his countship to +Tetbold, and hastened to join the army of Norsemen then besieging Paris. +As for the cunning trickster, he settled down into his cheaply bought +countship, and became the founder of the subsequent house of the Counts +of Chartres. + +The siege of Paris ended in the usual manner of the Norseman invasions +of France,--that of ransom. Charles marched to its relief with a strong +army, but, instead of venturing to meet his foes in battle, he bought +them off as so often before, paying them a large sum of money, granting +them free navigation of the Seine and entrance to Paris, and confirming +them in the possession of Friesland. This occurred in 887. A year +afterwards he lost his crown, through the indignation of the nobles at +his cowardice, and France and Germany again fell asunder. + +The plundering incursions continued, and soon afterwards the new +emperor, Arnulf, nephew of Charles the Fat, a man of far superior energy +to his deposed uncle, attacked a powerful force of the piratical +invaders near Louvain, where they had encamped after a victory over the +Archbishop of Mayence. In the heat of the battle that followed, the +vigilant Arnulf perceived that the German cavalry fought at a +disadvantage with their stalwart foes, whose dexterity as foot-soldiers +was remarkable. Springing from his horse, he called upon his followers +to do the same. They obeyed, the nobles and their men-at-arms leaping to +the ground and rushing furiously on foot upon their opponents. The +assault was so fierce and sudden that the Norsemen gave way, and were +cut down in thousands, Siegfried and Gottfried--a new Gottfried +apparently--falling on the field, while the channel of the Dyle, across +which the defeated invaders sought to fly, was choked with their +corpses. + +This bloody defeat put an end to the incursions of the Norsemen by way +of the Rhine. Thenceforward they paid their attention to the coast of +France, which they continued to invade until one of their great leaders, +Rollo, settled in Normandy as a vassal of the French monarch, and served +as an efficient barrier against the inroads of his countrymen. + +As to Hasting, he appears to have returned to his old trade of +sea-rover, and we hear of him again as one of the Norse invaders of +England, during the latter part of the reign of Alfred the Great. + + + + +_THE CAREER OF BISHOP HATTO._ + + +We have now to deal with a personage whose story is largely legendary, +particularly that of his death, a highly original termination to his +career having arisen among the people, who had grown to detest him. But +Bishop Hatto played his part in the history as well as in the legend of +Germany, and the curious stories concerning him may have been based on +the deeds of his actual life. It was in the beginning of the tenth +century that this notable churchman flourished as Archbishop of Mayence, +and the emperor-maker of his times. In connection with Otho, Duke of +Saxony, he placed Louis, surnamed the Child,--for he was but seven years +of age,--on the imperial throne, and governed Germany in his name. Louis +died in 911, while still a boy, and with him ended the race of +Charlemagne in Germany. Conrad, Duke of Franconia, was chosen king to +succeed him, but the astute churchman still remained the power behind +the throne. + +In truth, the influence and authority of the church at that time was +enormous, and many of its potentates troubled themselves more about the +affairs of the earth than those of heaven. Hatto, while a zealous +churchman, was a bold, energetic, and unscrupulous statesman, and +raised himself to an almost unlimited power in France and Southern +Germany by his arts and influence, Otho of Saxony aiding him in his +progress to power. Two of his opponents, Henry and Adelhart, of +Babenberg, took up arms against him, and came to their deaths in +consequence. Adalbert, the opponent of the Norsemen, was his next +antagonist, and Hatto, through his influence in the diet, had him put +under the ban of the empire. + +Adalbert, however, vigorously resisted this decree, taking up arms in +his own defence, and defeating his opponent in the field. But soon, +being closely pressed, he retired to his fortress of Bamberg, which was +quickly invested and besieged. Here he defended himself with such energy +that Hatto, finding that the outlawed noble was not to be easily subdued +by force, adopted against him those spiritual weapons, as he probably +considered them, in which he was so trained an adept. + +Historians tell us that the priest, with a pretence of friendly purpose, +offered to mediate between Adalbert and his enemies, promising him, if +he would leave his stronghold to appear before the assembled nobles of +the diet, that he should have a free and safe return. Adalbert accepted +the terms, deeming that he could safely trust the pledged word of a high +dignitary of the church. Leaving the gates of his castle, he was met at +a short distance beyond by the bishop, who accosted him in his +friendliest tone, and proposed that, as their journey would be somewhat +long, they should breakfast together within the castle before starting. + +Adalbert assented and returned to the fortress with his smooth-tongued +companion, took breakfast with him, and then set out with him for the +diet. Here he was sternly called to answer for his acts of opposition to +the decree of the ruling body of Germany, and finding that the tide of +feeling was running strongly against him, proposed to return to his +fortress in conformity with the plighted faith of Bishop Hatto. Hatto, +with an aspect of supreme honesty, declared that he had already +fulfilled his promise. He had agreed that Adalbert should have a free +and safe return to his castle. This had been granted him. He had +returned there to breakfast without opposition of any sort. The word of +the bishop had been fully kept, and now, as a member of the diet, he +felt free to act as he deemed proper, all his obligations to the accused +having been fulfilled. Just how far this story accords with the actual +facts we are unable to say, but Adalbert, despite his indignant protest, +was sentenced to death and beheaded. + +Hatto had reached his dignity in the church by secular instead of +ecclesiastic influence, and is credited with employing his power in this +and other instances with such lack of honor and probity that he became +an object of the deepest popular contempt and execration. His name was +derided in the popular ballads, and he came to be looked upon as the +scapegoat of the avarice and licentiousness of the church in that +irreligious mediæval age. Among the legends concerning him is one +relating to Henry, the son of his ally, Otho of Saxony, who died in 912. +Henry had long quarrelled with the bishop, and the fabulous story goes +that, to get rid of his high-spirited enemy, the cunning churchman sent +him a gold chain, so skilfully contrived that it would strangle its +wearer. + +[Illustration: THE MOUSE-TOWER ON THE RHINE.] + +The most famous legend about Hatto, however, is that which tells the +manner of his death. The story has been enshrined in poetry by +Longfellow, but we must be content to give it in plain prose. It tells +us that a famine occurred in the land, and that a number of peasants +came to the avaricious bishop to beg for bread. By his order they were +shut up in a great barn, which then was set on fire, and its miserable +occupants burned to death. + +And now the cup of Hatto's infamy was filled, and heaven sent him +retribution. From the ruins of the barn issued a myriad of mice, which +pursued the remorseless bishop, ceaselessly following him in his every +effort to escape their avenging teeth. At length the wretched sinner, +driven to despair, fled for safety to a strong tower standing in the +middle of the Rhine, near Bingen, with the belief that the water would +protect him from his swarming foes. But the mice swam the stream, +invaded the tower, and devoured the miserable fugitive. As evidence of +the truth of this story we are shown the tower, still standing, and +still known as the Mäusethurm, or Mouse Tower. It must be said, however, +that this tradition probably refers to another Bishop Hatto, of +somewhat later date. Its utterly fabulous character, of course, will be +recognisable by all. + +So much for Bishop Hatto and his fate. It may be said, in conclusion, +that his period was one of terror and excitement in Germany, sufficient +perhaps to excuse the overturning of ideas, and the replacement of +conceptions of truth and honor by their opposites. The wild Magyars had +invaded and taken Hungary, and were making savage inroads into Germany +from every quarter. The resistance was obstinate, the Magyars were +defeated in several severe battles, yet still their multitudes swarmed +over the borders, and carried terror and ruin wherever they came. These +invaders were as ferocious in disposition, as fierce in their onsets, as +invincible through contempt of death, and as formidable through their +skilful horsemanship, as the Huns had been before them. So rapid were +their movements, and so startling the suddenness with which they would +appear in and vanish from the heart of the country, that the terrified +people came to look upon them as possessed of supernatural powers. Their +inhuman love of slaughter and their destructive habits added to the +terror with which they were viewed. They are said to have been so +bloodthirsty, that in their savage feasts after victory they used as +tables the corpses of their enemies slain in battle. It is further said +that it was their custom to bind the captured women and maidens with +their own long hair as fetters, and drive them, thus bound, in flocks +to Hungary. + +We may conclude with a touching story told of these unquiet and +misery-haunted times. Ulrich, Count of Linzgau, was, so the story goes, +taken prisoner by the Magyars, and long held captive in their hands. +Wendelgarde, his beautiful wife, after waiting long in sorrow for his +return, believed him to be dead, and resolved to devote the remainder of +her life to charity and devotion. Crowds of beggars came to her castle +gates, to whom she daily distributed alms. One day, while she was thus +engaged, one of the beggars suddenly threw his arms around her neck and +kissed her. Her attendants angrily interposed, but the stranger waved +them aside with a smile, and said,-- + +"Forbear, I have endured blows and misery enough during my imprisonment +without needing more from you; I am Ulrich, your lord." + +Truly, in this instance, charity brought its reward. + + + + +_THE MISFORTUNES OF DUKE ERNST._ + + +In the reign of Conrad II., Emperor of Germany, took place the event +which we have now to tell, one of those interesting examples of romance +which give vitality to history. On the death of Henry II., the last of +the great house of the Othos, a vast assembly from all the states of the +empire was called together to decide who their next emperor should be. +From every side they came, dukes, margraves, counts and barons, attended +by hosts of their vassals; archbishops, bishops, abbots, and other +churchmen, with their proud retainers; Saxons, Swabians, Bavarians, +Bohemians, and numerous other nationalities, great and small; all +marching towards the great plain between Worms and Mayence, where they +gathered on both sides of the Rhine, until its borders seemed covered by +a countless multitude of armed men. The scene was a magnificent one, +with its far-spreading display of rich tents, floating banners, showy +armor, and everything that could give honor and splendor to the +occasion. + +We are not specially concerned with what took place. There were two +competitors for the throne, both of them Conrad by name. By birth they +were cousins, and descendants of the emperor Conrad I. The younger of +these, but the son of the elder brother, and the most distinguished for +ability, was elected, and took the throne as Conrad II. He was to prove +one of the noblest sovereigns that ever held the sceptre of the German +empire. The election decided, the great assembly dispersed, and back to +their homes marched the host of warriors who had collected for once with +peaceful purpose. + +[Illustration: PEASANT WEDDING PROCESSION.] + +Two years afterwards, in 1026, Conrad crossed the Alps with an army, and +marched through Italy, that land which had so perilous an attraction for +German emperors, and so sadly disturbed the peace and progress of the +Teutonic realm. Conrad was not permitted to remain there long. Troubles +in Germany recalled him to his native soil. Swabia had broken out in hot +troubles. Duke Ernst, step-son of Conrad, claimed Burgundy as his +inheritance, in opposition to the emperor himself, who had the better +claim. He not only claimed it, but attempted to seize it. With him were +united two Swabian counts of ancient descent, Rudolf Welf, or Guelph, +and Werner of Kyburg. + +Swabia was in a blaze when Conrad returned. He convoked a great diet at +Ulm, as the legal means of settling the dispute. Thither Ernst came, at +the head of his Swabian men-at-arms, and still full of rebellious +spirit, although his mother, Gisela, the empress, begged him to submit +and to return to his allegiance. + +The angry rebel, however, soon learned that his followers were not +willing to take up arms against the emperor. They declared that their +oath of allegiance to their duke did not release them from their higher +obligations to the emperor and the state, that if their lord was at feud +with the empire it was their duty to aid the latter, and that if their +chiefs wished to quarrel with the state, they must fight for themselves. + +This defection left the rebels powerless. Duke Ernst was arrested and +imprisoned on a charge of high treason. Eudolf was exiled. Werner, who +took refuge in his castle, was besieged there by the imperial troops, +against whom he valiantly defended himself for several months. At +length, however, finding that his stronghold was no longer tenable, he +contrived to make his escape, leaving the nest to the imperialists empty +of its bird. + +Three years Ernst remained in prison. Then Conrad restored him to +liberty, perhaps moved by the appeals of his mother Gisela, and promised +to restore him to his dukedom of Swabia if he would betray the secret of +the retreat of Werner, who was still at large despite all efforts to +take him. + +This request touched deeply the honor of the deposed duke. It was much +to regain his ducal station; it was more to remain true to the fugitive +who had trusted and aided him in his need. + +"How can I betray my only true friend?" asked the unfortunate duke, with +touching pathos. + +His faithfulness was not appreciated by the emperor and his nobles. They +placed Ernst under the ban of the empire, and thus deprived him of rank, +wealth, and property, reducing him by a word from high estate to abject +beggary. His life and liberty were left him, but nothing more, and, +driven by despair, he sought the retreat of his fugitive friend Werner, +who had taken refuge in the depths of the Black Forest. + +Here the two outlaws, deprived of all honest means of livelihood, became +robbers, and entered upon a life of plunder, exacting contributions from +all subjects of the empire who fell into their hands. They soon found a +friend in Adalbert of Falkenstein, who gave them the use of his castle +as a stronghold and centre of operations, and joined them with his +followers in their freebooting raids. + +For a considerable time the robber chiefs maintained themselves in their +new mode of life, sallying from the castle, laying the country far and +wide under contribution, and returning to the fortress for safety from +pursuit. Their exactions became in time so annoying, that the castle was +besieged by a strong force of Swabians, headed by Count Mangold of +Veringen, and the freebooters were closely confined within their walls. +Impatient of this, a sally in force was made by the garrison, headed by +the two robber chiefs, and an obstinate contest ensued. The struggle +ended in the death of Mangold on the one side and of Ernst and Werner on +the other, with the definite defeat and dispersal of the robber band. + +Thus ended an interesting episode of mediæval German history. But the +valor and misfortunes of Duke Ernst did not die unsung. He became a +popular hero, and the subject of many a ballad, in which numerous +adventures were invented for him during his career as an opponent of the +emperor and an outlaw in the Black Forest. For the step-son of an +emperor to be reduced to such a strait was indeed an event likely to +arouse public interest and sympathy, and for centuries the doings of the +robber duke were sung. + +In the century after his death the imagination of the people went to +extremes in their conception of the adventures of Duke Ernst, mixing up +ideas concerning him with fancies derived from the Crusades, the whole +taking form in a legend which is still preserved in the popular ballad +literature of Germany. This strange conception takes Ernst to the East, +where he finds himself opposed by terrific creatures in human and brute +form, they being allegorical representations of his misfortunes. Each +monster signifies an enemy. He reaches a black mountain, which +represents his prison. He is borne into the clouds by an old man; this +is typical of his ambition. His ship is wrecked on the Magnet mountain; +a personification of his contest with the emperor. The nails fly out of +the ship and it falls to pieces; an emblem of the falling off of his +vassals. There are other adventures, and the whole circle of legends is +a curious one, as showing the vagaries of imagination, and the strong +interest taken by the people in the fortunes and misfortunes of their +chieftains. + + + + +_THE REIGN OF OTHO II._ + + +Otho II., Emperor of Germany,--Otho the Red, as he was called, from his +florid complexion,--succeeded to the Western Empire in 973, when in his +eighteenth year of age. His reign was to be a short and active one, and +attended by adventures and fluctuations of fortune which render it +worthy of description. Few monarchs have experienced so many of the ups +and downs of life within the brief period of five years, through which +his wars extended. + +As heir to the imperial title of Charlemagne, he was lord of the ancient +palace of the great emperor, at Aix-la-Chapelle, and here held court at +the feast of St. John in the year 978. All was peace and festivity +within the old imperial city, all war and threat without it. While Otho +and his courtiers, knights and ladies, lords and minions, were enjoying +life with ball and banquet, feast and frivolity, in true palatial +fashion, an army was marching secretly upon them, with treacherous +intent to seize the emperor and his city at one full swoop. Lothaire, +King of France, had in haste and secrecy collected an army, and, without +a declaration of hostilities, was hastening, by forced marches, upon +Aix-la-Chapelle. + +It was an act of treachery utterly undeserving of success. But it is not +always the deserving to whom success comes, and Otho heard of the rapid +approach of this army barely in time to take to flight, with his +fear-winged flock of courtiers at his heels, leaving the city an easy +prey to the enemy. Lothaire entered the city without a blow, plundered +it as if he had taken it by storm, and ordered that the imperial eagle, +which was erected in the grand square of Charles the Great, should have +its beak turned westward, in token that Lorraine now belonged to France. + +Doubtless the great eagle turned creakingly on its support, thus moved +by the hand of unkingly perfidy, and impatiently awaited for time and +the tide of affairs to turn its beak again to the east. It had not long +to wait. The fugitive emperor hastily called a diet of the princes and +nobles at Dortmund, told them in impassioned eloquence of the faithless +act of the French king, and called upon them for aid against the +treacherous Lothaire. Little appeal was needed. The honor of Germany was +concerned. Setting aside all the petty squabbles which rent the land, +the indignant princes gathered their forces and placed them under Otho's +command. By the 1st of October the late fugitive found himself at the +head of a considerable army, and prepared to take revenge on his +perfidious enemy. + +Into France he marched, and made his way with little opposition, by +Rheims and Soissons, until the French capital lay before his eyes. Here +the army encamped on the right bank of the Seine, around Montmartre, +while their cavalry avenged the plundering of Aix-la-Chapelle by laying +waste the country for many miles around. The French were evidently as +little prepared for Otho's activity as he had been for Lothaire's +treachery, and did not venture beyond the walls of their city, leaving +the country a defenceless prey to the revengeful anger of the emperor. + +The Seine lay between the two armies, but not a Frenchman ventured to +cross its waters; the garrison of the city, under Hugh Capet,--Count of +Paris, and soon to become the founder of a new dynasty of French +kings,--keeping closely within its walls. These walls proved too strong +for the Germans, and as winter was approaching, and there was much +sickness among his troops, the emperor retreated, after having +devastated all that region of France. But first he kept a vow that he +had made, that he would cause the Parisians to hear a _Te Deum_ such as +they had never heard before. In pursuance of this vow, he gathered upon +the hill of Montmartre all the clergymen whom he could seize, and forced +them to sing his anthem of victory with the full power of their lungs. +Then, having burned the suburbs of Paris, and left his lance quivering +in the city gate, he withdrew in triumph, having amply punished the +treacherous French king. Aix-la-Chapelle fell again into his hands; the +eyes of the imperial eagle were permitted once more to gaze upon +Germany, and in the treaty of peace that followed Lorraine was declared +to be forever a part of the German realm. + +Two years afterwards Otho, infected by that desire to conquer Italy +which for centuries afterwards troubled the dreams of German emperors, +and brought them no end of trouble, crossed the Alps and descended upon +the Italian plains, from which he was never to return. Northern Italy +was already in German hands, but the Greeks held possessions in the +south which Otho claimed, in view of the fact that he had married +Theophania, the daughter of the Greek emperor at Constantinople. To +enforce this claim he marched upon the Greek cities, which in their turn +made peace with the Arabs, with whom they had been at war, and gathered +garrisons of these bronzed pagans alike from Sicily and Africa. + +For two years the war continued, the advantage resting with Otho. In 980 +he reached Rome, and there had a secret interview with Hugh Capet, whom +he sustained in his intention to seize the throne of France, still held +by his old enemy Lothaire. In 981 he captured Naples, Taranto, and other +cities, and in a pitched battle near Cotrona defeated the Greeks and +their Arab allies. Abn al Casem, the terror of southern Italy, and +numbers of his Arab followers, were left dead upon the field. + +On the 13th of July, 982, the emperor again met the Greeks and their +Arab allies in battle, and now occurred that singular adventure and +reverse of fortune which has made this engagement memorable. The battle +took place at a point near the sea-shore, in the vicinity of Basantello, +not far from Taranto, and at first went to the advantage of the +imperial forces. They attacked the Greeks with great impetuosity, and, +after a stubborn defence, broke through their ranks, and forced them +into a retreat, which was orderly conducted. + +It was now mid-day. The victors, elated with their success and their +hopes of pillage, followed the retreating columns along the banks of the +river Corace, feeling so secure that they laid aside their arms and +marched leisurely and confidently forward. It was a fatal confidence. At +one point in their march the road led between the river and a ridge of +serried rocks, which lay silent beneath the mid-day sun. But silent as +they seemed, they were instinct with life. An ambuscade of Arabs +crouched behind them, impatiently waiting the coming of the unsuspecting +Germans. + +Suddenly the air pealed with sound, the "Allah il Allah!" of the +fanatical Arabs; suddenly the startled eyes of the imperialists saw the +rugged rocks bursting, as it seemed, into life; suddenly a horde of +dusky warriors poured down upon them with scimitar and javelin, +surrounding them quickly on all sides, cutting and slashing their way +deeply into the disordered ranks. The scattered troops, stricken with +dismay, fell in hundreds. In their surprise and confusion they became +easy victims to their agile foes, and in a short time nearly the whole +of that recently victorious army were slain or taken prisoners. Of the +entire force only a small number broke through the lines of their +environing foes. + +The emperor escaped almost by miracle. His trusty steed bore him +unharmed through the crowding Arabs. He was sharply pursued, but the +swift animal distanced the pursuers, and before long he reached the +sea-shore, over whose firm sands he guided his horse, though with little +hope of escaping his active foes. Fortunately, he soon perceived a Greek +vessel at no great distance from the shore, a vision which held out to +him a forlorn hope of escape. The land was perilous; the sea might be +more propitious; he forced his faithful animal into the water, and swam +towards the vessel, in the double hope of being rescued and remaining +unknown. + +He was successful in both particulars. The crew willingly took him on +board, ignorant of his high rank, but deeming him to be a knight of +distinction, from whom they could fairly hope for a handsome ransom. His +situation was still a dangerous one, should he become known, and he +could not long hope to remain incognito. In truth, there was a slave on +board who knew him, but who, for purposes of his own, kept the perilous +secret. He communicated by stealth with the emperor, told him of his +recognition, and arranged with him a plan of escape. In pursuance of +this he told the Greeks that their captive was a chamberlain of the +emperor, a statement which Otho confirmed, and added that he had +valuable treasures at Rossano, which, if they would sail thither, they +might take on board as his ransom. + +The Greek mariners, deceived by the specious tale, turned their vessel's +prow towards Rossano, and on coming near that city, shifted their +course towards the shore. Otho had been eagerly awaiting this +opportunity. When they had approached sufficiently near to the land, he +suddenly sprang from the deck into the sea, and swam ashore with a +strength and swiftness that soon brought him to the strand. In a short +time afterwards he entered Rossano, then held by his forces, and joined +his queen, who had been left in that city. + +This singular adventure is told with a number of variations by the +several writers who have related it, most of them significant of the +love of the marvellous of the old chroniclers. One writer tells us that +the escaping emperor was pursued and attacked by the Greek boatmen, and +that he killed forty of them with the aid of a soldier, named Probus, +whom he met on the shore. By another we are told that the Greeks +recognized him, that he enticed them to the shore by requesting them to +take on board his wife and treasures, which had been left at Rossano, +and that he sent young men on board disguised as female attendants of +his wife, by whose aid he seized the vessel. All the stories agree, +however, in saying that Theophania jeeringly asked the emperor whether +her countrymen had not put him in mortal fear,--a jest for which the +Germans never forgave her. + +To return to the domain of fact, we have but further to tell that the +emperor, full of grief and vexation at the loss of his army, and the +slaughter of many of the German and Italian princes and nobles who had +accompanied him, returned to upper Italy, with the purpose of collecting +another army. + +All his conquests in the south had fallen again into the hands of the +enemy, and his work remained to be done over again. He held a grand +assembly in Verona, in which he had his son Otho, three years old, +elected as his successor. From there he proceeded to Rome, in which city +he was attacked by a violent fever, brought on by the grief and +excitement into which his reverses had thrown his susceptible and +impatient mind. He died December 7, 983, and was buried in the church of +St. Peter, at Rome. + +The fancy of the chroniclers has surrounded his death with legends, +which are worth repeating as curious examples of what mediæval writers +offered and mediæval readers accepted as history. One of them tells the +story of a naval engagement between Otho and the Greeks, in which the +fight was so bitter that the whole sea around the vessels was stained +red with blood. The emperor won the victory, but received a mortal +wound. + +Another story, which does not trouble itself to sail very close to the +commonplace, relates that Otho met his end by being whipped to death on +Mount Garganus by the angels, among whom he had imprudently ventured +while they were holding a conclave there. These stories will serve as +examples of the degree of credibility of many of the ancient chronicles +and the credulity of their readers. + + + + +_THE FORTUNES OF HENRY THE FOURTH._ + + +At the festival of Easter, in the year 1062, a great banquet was given +in the royal palace at Kaiserswerth, on the Rhine. The Empress Agnes, +widow of Henry III., and regent of the empire, was present, with her +son, then a boy of eleven. A pious and learned woman was the empress, +but she lacked the energy necessary to control the unquiet spirits of +her times. Gentleness and persuasion were the means by which she hoped +to influence the rude dukes and haughty archbishops of the empire, but +qualities such as these were wasted on her fierce subjects, and served +but to gain her the contempt of some and the dislike of others. A plot +to depose the weakly-mild regent and govern the empire in the name of +the youthful monarch was made by three men, Otto of Norheim, the +greatest general of the state, Ekbert of Meissen, its most valiant +knight, and Hanno, Archbishop of Cologne, its leading churchman. These +three men were present at the banquet, which they had fixed upon as the +occasion for carrying out their plot. + +The feast over, the three men rose and walked with the boy monarch to a +window of the palace that overlooked the Rhine. On the waters before +them rode at anchor a handsome vessel, which the child looked upon with +eyes of delight. + +[Illustration: SCENE OF MONASTIC LIFE.] + +"Would you like to see it closer?" asked Hanno. "I will take you on +board, if you wish." + +"Oh, will you?" pleaded the boy. "I shall be so glad." + +The three conspirators walked with him to the stream, and rowed out to +the vessel, the empress viewing them without suspicion of their design. +But her doubts were aroused when she saw that the anchor had been raised +and that the sails of the vessel were being set. Filled with sudden +alarm she left the palace and hastened to the shore, just as the +kidnapping craft began to move down the waters of the stream. + +At the same moment young Henry, who had until now been absorbed in +gazing delightedly about the vessel, saw what was being done, and heard +his mother's cries. With courage and resolution unusual for his years he +broke, with a cry of anger, from those surrounding him, and leaped into +the stream, with the purpose of swimming ashore. But hardly had he +touched the water when Count Ekbert sprang in after him, seized him +despite his struggles, and brought him back to the vessel. + +The empress entreated in pitiful accents for the return of her son, but +in vain; the captors of the boy were not of the kind to let pity +interfere with their plans; on down the broad stream glided the vessel, +the treacherous vassals listening in silence to the agonized appeals of +the distracted mother, and to the mingled prayers and demands of the +young emperor to be taken back. The country people, furious on learning +that the emperor had been stolen, and was being carried away before +their eyes, pursued the vessel for some distance on both sides of the +river. But their cries and threats were of no more avail than had been +the mother's tears and prayers. The vessel moved on with increasing +speed, the three kidnappers erect on its deck, their only words being +those used to cajole and quiet their unhappy prisoner, whom they did +their utmost to solace by promises and presents. + +The vessel continued its course until it reached Cologne, where the +imperial captive was left under the charge of the archbishop, his two +confederates fully trusting him to keep close watch and ward over their +precious prize. The empress was of the same opinion. After vainly +endeavoring to regain her lost son from his powerful captors, she +resigned the regency and retired with a broken heart to an Italian +convent, in which the remainder of her sad life was to be passed. + +The unhappy boy soon learned that his new lot was not to be one of +pleasure. He had a life of severe discipline before him. Bishop Hanno +was a stern and rigid disciplinarian, destitute of any of the softness +to which the lad had been accustomed, and disposed to rule all under his +control with a rod of iron. He kept his youthful captive strictly +immured in the cloister, where he had to endure the severest discipline, +while being educated in Latin and the other learning of the age. + +The regency given up by Agnes was instantly assumed by the ambitious +churchman, and a decree to that effect was quickly passed by the lords +of the diet, on the grounds that Hanno was the bishop of the diocese in +which the emperor resided. The character of Hanno is variously +represented by historians. While some accuse him of acts of injustice +and cruelty, others speak of him as a man of energy, yet one whose holy +life, his paternal care for his see, and his zealous reformation of +monasteries and foundation of churches, gained him the character of a +saint. + +Young Henry remained but a year or two in the hands of this stern +taskmaster. An imperative necessity called Hanno to Italy, and he was +obliged to leave the young monarch under the charge of Adalbert, +Archbishop of Bremen, a personage of very different character from +himself. Adalbert, while a churchman of great ability, was a courtier +full of ambitious views. He was one of the most polished and learned men +of his time, at once handsome, witty, and licentious, his character +being in the strongest contrast to the stern harshness of Hanno and the +coarse manners of the nobles of that period. + +It would have been far better, however, for Henry could he have remained +under the control of Hanno, with all his severity. It is true that the +kindness and gentleness of Adalbert proved a delightful change to the +growing boy, and the unlimited liberty he now enjoyed was in pleasant +contrast to his recent restraint, while the gravity and severe study of +Hanno's cloister were agreeably replaced by the gay freedom of +Adalbert's court, in which the most serious matters were treated as +lightly as a jest. But the final result of the change was that the boy's +character became thoroughly corrupted. Adalbert surrounded his youthful +charge with constant alluring amusements, using the influence thus +gained to obtain new power in the state for himself, and places of honor +and profit for his partisans. He inspired him also with a contempt for +the rude-mannered dukes of the empire, and for what he called the stupid +German people, while he particularly filled the boy's mind with a +dislike for the Saxons, with whom the archbishop was at feud. All this +was to have an important influence on the future life of the growing +monarch. + +It was more Henry's misfortune than his fault that he grew up to manhood +as a compound of sensuality, levity, malice, treachery, and other mean +qualities, for his nature had in it much that was good, and in his +after-life he displayed noble qualities which had been long hidden under +the corrupting faults of his education. The crime of the ambitious +nobles who stole him from his pious and gentle mother went far to ruin +his character, and was the leading cause of the misfortunes of his life. + +As to the character of the youthful monarch, and its influence upon the +people, a few words may suffice. His licentious habits soon became a +scandal and shame to the whole empire, the more so that the mistresses +with whom he surrounded himself were seen in public adorned with gold +and precious stones which had been taken from the consecrated vessels of +the church. His dislike of the Saxons was manifested in the scorn with +which he treated this section of his people, and the taxes and enforced +labors with which they were oppressed. + +The result of all this was an outbreak of rebellion. Hanno, who had +beheld with grave disapproval the course taken by Adalbert, now exerted +his great influence in state affairs, convoked an assembly of the +princes of the empire, and cited Henry to appear before it. On his +refusal, his palace was surrounded and his person seized, while Adalbert +narrowly escaped being made prisoner. He was obliged to remain in +concealment during the three succeeding years, while the indignant +Saxons, taking advantage of the opportunity for revenge, laid waste his +lands. + +The licentious young ruler found his career of open vice brought to a +sudden end. The stern Hanno was again in power. Under his orders the +dissolute courtiers were dispersed, and Henry was compelled to lead a +more decorous life, a bride being found for him in the person of Bertha, +daughter of the Italian Margrave of Susa, to whom he had at an earlier +date been affianced. She was a woman of noble spirit, but, +unfortunately, was wanting in personal beauty, in consequence of which +she soon became an object of extreme dislike to her husband, a dislike +which her patience and fidelity seemed rather to increase than to +diminish. + +The feeling of the young monarch towards his dutiful wife was overcome +in a singular manner, which is well worth describing. Henry at first was +eager to free himself from the tie that bound him to the unloved Bertha, +a resolution in which he was supported by Siegfried, Archbishop of +Mayence, who offered to assist him in getting a divorce. At a diet held +at Worms, Henry demanded a separation from his wife, to whom he +professed an unconquerable aversion. His efforts, however, were +frustrated by the pope's legate, who arrived in Germany during these +proceedings, and the licentious monarch, finding himself foiled in these +legal steps, sought to gain his end by baser means. He caused beautiful +women and maidens to be seized in their homes and carried to his palace +as ministers to his pleasure, while he exposed the unhappy empress to +the base solicitations of his profligate companions, offering them large +sums if they could ensnare her, in her natural revulsion at his +shameless unfaithfulness. + +But the virtue of Bertha was proof against all such wiles, and the story +goes that she turned the tables on her vile-intentioned husband in an +amusing and decisive manner. On one occasion, as we are informed, the +empress appeared to listen to the solicitations of one of the would-be +seducers, and appointed a place and time for a secret meeting with this +profligate. The triumphant courtier duly reported his success to Henry, +who, overjoyed, decided to replace him in disguise. At the hour fixed he +appeared and entered the chamber named by Bertha, when he suddenly found +himself assailed by a score of stout servant-maids, armed with rods, +which they laid upon his back with all the vigor of their arms. The +surprised Lothario ran hither and thither to escape their blows, crying +out that he was the king. In vain his cries; they did not or would not +believe him; and not until he had been most soundly beaten, and their +arms were weary with the exercise, did they open the door of the +apartment and suffer the crest-fallen reprobate to escape. + +This would seem an odd means of gaining the affection of a truant +husband, but it is said to have had this effect upon Henry, his wronged +wife from that moment gaining a place in his heart, into which she had +fairly cudgelled herself. The man was really of susceptible disposition, +and her invincible fidelity had at length touched him, despite himself. +From that moment he ceased his efforts to get rid of her, treated her +with more consideration, and finally settled down to the fact that a +beautiful character was some atonement for a homely face, and that +Bertha was a woman well worthy his affection. + +We have now to describe the most noteworthy event in the life of Henry +IV., and the one which has made his name famous in history,--his contest +with the great ecclesiastic Hildebrand, who had become pope under the +title of Gregory VII. Though an aged man when raised to the papacy, +Gregory's vigorous character displayed itself in a remarkable activity +in the enhancement of the power of the church. His first important step +was directed against the scandals of the priesthood in the matter of +celibacy, the marriage of priests having become common. A second decree +of equal importance followed. Gregory forbade the election of bishops by +the laity, reserving this power to the clergy, under confirmation by the +pope. He further declared that the church was independent of the state, +and that the extensive lands held by the bishops were the property of +the church, and free from control by the monarch. + +These radical decrees naturally aroused a strong opposition, in the +course of which Henry came into violent controversy with the pope. +Gregory accused Henry openly of simony, haughtily bade him to come to +Rome, and excommunicated the bishops who had been guilty of the same +offence. The emperor, who did not know the man with whom he had to deal, +retorted by calling an assembly of the German bishops at Worms, in which +the pope was declared to be deposed from his office. + +The result was very different from that looked for by the volatile young +ruler. The vigorous and daring pontiff at once placed Henry himself +under interdict, releasing his subjects from their oath of allegiance, +and declaring him deprived of the imperial dignity. The scorn with which +the emperor heard of this decree was soon changed to terror when he +perceived its effect upon his people. The days were not yet come in +which the voice of the pope could be disregarded. With the exception of +the people of the cities and the free peasantry, who were opposed to +the papal dominion, all the subjects of the empire deserted Henry, +avoiding him as though he were infected with the plague. The Saxons flew +to arms; the foreign garrisons were expelled; the imprisoned princes +were released; all the enemies whom Henry had made rose against him; and +in a diet, held at Oppenheim, the emperor was declared deposed while the +interdict continued, and the pope was invited to visit Augsburg; in +order to settle the affairs of Germany. The election of a successor to +Henry was even proposed, and, to prevent him from communicating with the +pope, his enemies passed a decree that he should remain in close +residence at Spires. + +The situation of the recently great monarch had suddenly become +desperate. Never had a decree of excommunication against a crowned ruler +been so completely effective. The frightened emperor saw but one hope +left, to escape to Italy before the princes could prevent him, and +obtain release from the interdict at any cost, and with whatever +humiliation it might involve. With this end in view he at once took to +flight, accompanied by Bertha, his infant son, and a single knight, and +made his way with all haste towards the Alps. + +The winter was one of the coldest that Germany had ever known, the Rhine +remaining frozen from St. Martin's day of 1076 to April, 1077. About +Christmas of this severe winter the fugitives reached the snow-covered +Alps, having so far escaped the agents of their enemies, and crossed +the mountains by the St. Bernard pass, the difficulty of the journey +being so great that the empress had to be slid down the precipitous +paths by ropes in the hands of guides, she being wrapped in an ox-hide +for protection. + +Italy was at length reached, after the greatest dangers and hardships +had been surmounted. Here Henry, much to his surprise, found prevailing +a very different spirit from that which he had left behind him. The +nobles, who cordially hated Gregory, and the bishops, many of whom were +under interdict, hailed his coming with joy, with the belief "that the +emperor was coming to humiliate the haughty pope by the power of the +sword." He might soon have had an army at his back, but that he was too +thoroughly downcast to think of anything but conciliation, and to the +disgust of the Italians insisted on humiliating himself before the +powerful pontiff. + +Gregory was little less alarmed than the emperor on learning of Henry's +sudden arrival in Italy. He was then on his way to Augsburg, and, in +doubt as to the intentions of his enemy, took hasty refuge in the castle +of Canossa, then held by the Countess Matilda, recently a widow, and the +most powerful and influential princess in Italy. + +But the alarmed pope was astonished and gratified when he learned that +the emperor, instead of intending an armed assault upon him, had applied +to the Countess Matilda, asking her to intercede in his behalf with the +pontiff. Gregory's acute mind quickly perceived the position in which +Henry stood, and, with great severity, he at first refused to speak of a +reconciliation, but referred all to the diet; then, on renewed +entreaties, he consented to receive Henry at Canossa, if he would come +alone, and as a penitent. The castle was surrounded with three walls, +within the second of which Henry was admitted, his attendants being left +without. He had laid aside every badge of royalty, being clothed in +penitential dress and barefoot, and fasting and praying from morning to +evening. For a second and even a third day was he thus kept, and not +until the fourth day, moved at length by the solicitations of Matilda +and those about him, did Gregory grant permission for Henry to enter his +presence. An interview now took place, in which the pope consented to +release the penitent emperor from the interdict. One of the conditions +of this release was he should leave to Gregory the settlement of affairs +in Germany, and to give up all exercise of his imperial power until he +should be granted permission to exercise it again. + +This agreement was followed by a solemn mass, after which Gregory spoke +to the following effect: As regarded the crimes of which Henry had +accused him, he could easily bring evidence in disproof of the charges +made, but he would invoke the judgment of God alone. "May the body of +Jesus Christ, which I am about to receive," he said, "be the witness of +my innocence. I beseech the Almighty thus to dispel all suspicions, if +I am innocent; to strike me dead on the spot, if guilty." + +He then received one-half the Sacred Host, and turning to the king, +offered him the remaining half, bidding him to follow his example, if he +held himself to be guiltless. Henry refused the ordeal, doubtless +because he did not dare to risk the penalty, and was glad enough to +escape from the presence of the pope, a humble penitent. + +This ended Henry's career of humiliation. It was followed by a period of +triumph. On leaving the castle of Canossa he found the people of +Lombardy so indignant at his cowardice, that their scorn induced him to +break the oath he had just taken, gather an army, and assail the castle, +in which he shut up the pope so closely that he could neither proceed to +Augsburg nor return to Rome. + +This siege, however, was not of long continuance. Henry soon found +himself recalled to Germany, where his enemies had elected Rudolf, Duke +of Swabia, emperor in his stead. A war broke out, which continued for +several years, at the end of which Gregory, encouraged by a temporary +success of Rudolf's party, pronounced in his favor, invested him with +the empire as a fief of the papacy, and once more excommunicated Henry. +It proved a false move. Henry had now learned his own power, and ceased +to fear the pope. He had strong support in the cities and among the +clergy, whom Gregory's severity had offended, and immediately convoked a +council, by which the pope was again deposed, and the Archbishop of +Ravenna elected in his stead, under the title of Clement III. + +In this year, 1080, a battle took place in which Rudolf was mortally +wounded, and the party opposed to Henry left without a leader, though +the war continued. And now Henry, seeing that he could trust his cause +in Germany to the hands of his lieutenants, determined to march upon his +pontifical foe in Italy, and take revenge for his bitter humiliation at +Canossa. + +He crossed the Alps, defeated the army which Matilda had raised in the +pope's cause, and laid siege to Rome, a siege which continued without +success for the long period of three years. At length the city was +taken, Wilprecht von Groitsch, a Saxon knight, mounting the walls, and +making his way with his followers into the city, aided by treachery from +within. Gregory hastily shut himself up in the castle of St. Angelo, in +which he was besieged by the Romans themselves, and from which he bade +defiance to Henry with the same inflexible will as ever. Henry offered +to be reconciled with him if he would crown him, but the vigorous old +pontiff replied that, "He could only communicate with him when he had +given satisfaction to God and the church." The emperor, thereupon, +called the rival pope, Clement, to Rome, was crowned by him, and +returned to Germany, leaving Clement in the papal chair and Gregory +still shut up in St. Angelo. + +But a change quickly took place in the fortunes of the indomitable old +pope. Robert Guiscard, Duke of Normandy, who had won for himself a +principality in lower Italy, now marched to the relief of his friend +Gregory, stormed and took the city at the head of his Norman +freebooters, and at once began the work of pillage, in disregard of +Gregory's remonstrances. The result was an unusual one. The citizens of +Rome, made desperate by their losses, gathered in multitudes and drove +the plunderers from their city, and Gregory with them. The Normans, thus +expelled, took the pope to Salerno, where he died the following year, +1085, his last words being, "I have loved justice and hated iniquity, +therefore do I die in exile." + +As for his imperial enemy, the remainder of his life was one of +incessant war. Years of battle were needed to put down his enemies in +the state, and his triumph was quickly followed by the revolt of his own +son, Henry, who reduced his father so greatly that the old emperor was +thrown into prison and forced to sign an abdication of the throne. It is +said that he became subsequently so reduced that he was forced to sell +his boots to obtain means of subsistence, but this story may reasonably +be doubted. Henry died in 1106, again under excommunication, so that he +was not formally buried in consecrated ground until 1111, the interdict +being continued for five years after his death. + + + + +_ANECDOTES OF MEDIÆVAL GERMANY._ + + +THE WIVES OF WEINSBERG. + +In the year of grace 1140 a German army, under Conrad III., emperor, +laid siege to the small town of Weinsberg, the garrison of which +resisted with a most truculent and disloyal obstinacy. Germany, which +for centuries before and after was broken into warring factions, to such +extent that its emperors could truly say, "uneasy lies the head that +wears a crown," was then divided between the two strong parties of the +Welfs and the Waiblingers,--or the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, as +pronounced by the Italians and better known to us. The Welfs were a +noble family whose ancestry could be traced back to the days of +Charlemagne. The Waiblingers derived their name from the town of +Waiblingen, which belonged to the Hohenstaufen family, of which the +Emperor Conrad was a representative. + +And now, as often before and after, the Guelphs, and Ghibellines were at +war, Duke Welf holding Weinsberg vigorously against his foes of the +imperial party, while his relative, Count Welf of Altorf, marched to his +relief. A battle ensued between emperor and count, which ended in the +triumph of the emperor and the flight of the count. And this battle is +worthy of mention, as distinguished from the hundreds of battles which +are unworthy of mention, from the fact that in it was first heard a +war-cry which continued famous for centuries afterwards. The German +war-cry preceding this period had been "Kyrie Eleison" ("Lord, have +mercy upon us!" a pious invocation hardly in place with men who had +little mercy upon their enemies). But now the cry of the warring +factions became "Hie Weif," "Hie Waiblinger," softened in Italy into +"The Guelph," "The Ghibelline," battle-shouts which were long afterwards +heard on the field of German war, and on that of Italy as well, for the +factions of Germany became also the factions of this southern realm. + +So much for the origin of Guelph and Ghibelline, of which we may further +say that a royal representative of the former party still exists, in +King Edward VII. of England, who traces his descent from the German +Welfs. And now to return to the siege of Weinsberg, to which Conrad +returned after having disposed of the army of relief. The garrison still +were far from being in a submissive mood, their defence being so +obstinate, and the siege so protracted, that the emperor, incensed by +their stubborn resistance, vowed that he would make their city a +frightful example to all his foes, by subjecting its buildings to the +brand and its inhabitants to the sword. Fire and steel, he said, should +sweep it from the face of the earth. + +[Illustration: THUSNELDA IN THE GERMANICUS TRIUMPH.] + +Weinsberg at length was compelled to yield, and Conrad, hot with anger, +determined that his cruel resolution should be carried out to the +letter, the men being put to the sword, the city given to the flames. +This harsh decision filled the citizens with terror and despair. A +deputation was sent to the angry emperor, humbly praying for pardon, but +he continued inflexible, the utmost concession he would make being that +the women might withdraw, as he did not war with them. As for the men, +they had offended him beyond forgiveness, and the sword should be their +lot. On further solicitation, he added to the concession a proviso that +the women might take away with them all that they could carry of their +most precious possessions, since he did not wish to throw them destitute +upon the world. + +The obdurate emperor was to experience an unexampled surprise. When the +time fixed for the departure of the women arrived, and the city gates +were thrown open for their exit, to the astonishment of Conrad, and the +admiration of the whole army, the first to appear was the duchess, who, +trembling under the weight, bore upon her shoulders Duke Welf, her +husband. After her came a long line of other women, each bending beneath +the heavy burden of her husband, or some dear relative among the +condemned citizens. + +Never had such a spectacle been seen. So affecting an instance of +heroism was it, and so earnest and pathetic were the faces appealingly +upturned to him, that the emperor's astonishment quickly changed to +admiration, and he declared that women like these had fairly earned +their reward, and that each should keep the treasure she had borne. +There were those around him with less respect for heroic deeds, who +sought to induce him to keep his original resolution, but Conrad, who +had it in him to be noble when not moved by passion, curtly silenced +them with the remark, "An emperor keeps his word." He was so moved by +the scene, indeed, that he not only spared the men, but the whole city, +and the doom of sword and brand, vowed against their homes, was +withdrawn through admiration of the noble act of the worthy wives of +Weinsberg. + + +A KING IN A QUANDARY. + +From an old chronicle we extract the following story, which is at once +curious and interesting, as a picture of mediæval manners and customs, +though to all seeming largely legendary. + +Henry, the bishop of Utrecht, was at sword's point with two lords, those +of Aemstel and Woerden, who hated him from the fact that a kinsman of +theirs, Goswin by name, had been deposed from the same see, through the +action of a general chapter. In reprisal these lords, in alliance with +the Count of Gebria, raided and laid waste the lands of the bishopric. +Time and again they visited it with plundering bands, Henry manfully +opposing them with his followers, but suffering much from their +incursions. At length the affair ended in a peculiar compact, in which +both sides agreed to submit their differences to the wager of war, in a +pitched battle, which was to be held on a certain day in the green +meadows adjoining Utrecht. + +When the appointed day came both sides assembled with their vassals, the +lords full of hope, the bishop exhorting his followers to humble the +arrogance of these plundering nobles. The Archbishop of Cologne was in +the city of Utrecht at the time, having recently visited it. He, as +warlike in disposition as the bishop himself, gave Henry a precious +ring, saying to him,-- + +"My son, be courageous and confident, for this day, through the +intercession of the holy confessor St. Martin, and through the virtue of +this ring, thou shalt surely subdue the pride of thy adversaries, and +obtain a renowned victory over them. In the meantime, while thou art +seeking justice, I will faithfully defend this city, with its priests +and canons, in thy behalf, and will offer up prayers to the Lord of +Hosts for thy success." + +Bishop Henry, his confidence increased by these words, led from the +gates a band of fine and well armed warriors to the sound of warlike +trumpets, and marched to the field, where he drew them up before the +bands of the hostile lords. + +Meanwhile, tidings of this fray had been borne to William, king of the +Romans, who felt it his duty to put an end to it, as such private +warfare was forbidden by law. Hastily collecting all the knights and +men-at-arms he could get together without delay, he marched with all +speed to Utrecht, bent upon enforcing peace between the rival bands. As +it happened, the army of the king reached the northern gate of the city +just as the bishop's battalion had left the southern gate, the one party +marching in as the other marched out. + +The archbishop, who had undertaken the defence of the city, and as yet +knew nothing of this royal visit, after making an inspection of the city +under his charge, gave orders to the porters to lock and bar all the +gates, and keep close guard thereon. + +King William was not long in learning that he was somewhat late, the +bishop having left the city. He marched hastily to the southern gate to +pursue him, but only to find that he was himself in custody, the gates +being firmly locked and the keys missing. He waited awhile impatiently. +No keys were brought. Growing angry at this delay, he gave orders that +the bolts and bars should be wrenched from the gates, and efforts to do +this were begun. + +While this was going on, the archbishop was in deep affliction. He had +just learned that the king was in Utrecht with an army, and imagined +that he had come with hostile purpose, and had taken the city through +the carelessness of the porters. Followed by his clergy, he hastened to +where the king was trying to force a passage through the gates, and +addressed him appealingly, reminding him that justice and equity were +due from kings to subjects. + +"Your armed bands, I fear, have taken this city," he said, "and you have +ordered the locks to be broken that you may expel the inhabitants, and +replace them with persons favorable to your own interests. If you +propose to act thus against justice and mercy, you injure me, your +chancellor, and lessen your own honor. I exhort you, therefore, to +restore me the city which you have unjustly taken, and relieve the +inhabitants from violence." + +The king listened in silence and surprise to this harangue, which was +much longer than we have given it. At its end, he said,-- + +"Venerable pastor and bishop, you have much mistaken my errand in +Utrecht. I come here in the cause of justice, not of violence. You know +that it is the duty of kings to repress wars and punish the disturbers +of peace. It is this that brings us here, to put an end to the private +war which we learn is being waged. As it stands, we have not conquered +the city, but it has conquered us. To convince you that no harm is meant +to Bishop Henry and his good city of Utrecht, we will command our men to +repair to their hostels, lay down their arms, and pass their time in +festivity. But first the purpose for which we have come must be +accomplished, and this private feud be brought to an end." + +That the worthy archbishop was delighted to hear these words, need not +be said. His fears had not been without sound warrant, for those were +days in which kings were not to be trusted, and in which the cities +maintained a degree of political independence that often proved +inconvenient to the throne. As may be imagined, the keys were quickly +forthcoming and the gates thrown open, the king being relieved from his +involuntary detention, and given an opportunity to bring the bishop's +battle to an end. + +He was too late; it had already reached its end. While King William was +striving to get out of the city, which he had got into with such ease, +the fight in the green meadows between the bishops and the lords had +been concluded, the warlike churchman coming off victor. Many of the +lords' vassals had been killed, more put to flight, and themselves taken +prisoners. At the vesper-bell Henry entered the city with his captives, +bound with ropes, and was met at the gates by the king and the +archbishop. At the request of King William he pardoned and released his +prisoners, on their promise to cease molesting his lands, and all ended +in peace and good will. + + +COURTING BY PROXY. + +Frederick von Stauffen, known as the One-eyed, being desirous of +providing his son Frederick (afterwards the famous emperor Frederick +Barbarossa) with a wife, sent as envoy for that purpose a handsome young +man named Johann von Würtemberg, whose attractions of face and manner +had made him a general favorite. It was the beautiful daughter of Rudolf +von Zähringen who had been selected as a suitable bride for the future +emperor, but when the handsome ambassador stated the purpose of his +visit to the father, he was met by Rudolf with the joking remark, "Why +don't you court the damsel for yourself?" + +The suggestion was much to the taste of the envoy. He took it seriously, +made love for himself to the attractive Princess Anna, and won her love +and the consent of her father, who had been greatly pleased with his +handsome and lively visitor, and was quite ready to confirm in earnest +what he had begun in jest. + +Frederick, the One-eyed, still remained to deal with, but that worthy +personage seems to have taken the affair as a good joke, and looked up +another bride for his son, leaving to Johann the maiden he had won. This +story has been treated as fabulous, but it is said to be well founded. +It has been repeated in connection with other persons, notably in the +case of Captain Miles Standish and John Alden, in which case the fair +maiden herself is given the credit of admonishing the envoy to court for +himself. It is very sure, however, that this latter story is a fable. It +was probably founded on the one we have given. + + +THE BISHOP'S WINE-CASKS. + +Adalbert of Treves was a bandit chief of note who, in the true fashion +of the robber barons of mediæval Germany, dwelt in a strong-walled +castle, which was garrisoned by a numerous band of men-at-arms, as fond +of pillage as their leader, and equally ready to follow him on his +plundering expeditions and to defend his castle against his enemies. +Our noble brigand paid particular heed to the domain of Peppo, Bishop of +Treves, whose lands he honored with frequent unwelcome visits, +despoiling lord and vassal alike, and hastening back from his raids to +the shelter of his castle walls. + +This was not the most agreeable state of affairs for the worthy bishop, +though how it was to be avoided did not clearly appear. It probably did +not occur to him to apply to the emperor, Henry II., the mediæval German +emperors having too much else on hand to leave them time to attend to +matters of minor importance. Peppo therefore naturally turned to his own +kinsmen, friends, and vassals, as those most likely to afford him aid. + +Bishop Peppo could wield sword and battle-axe with the best bishop, +which is almost equivalent to saying with the best warrior, of his day, +and did not fail to use, when occasion called, these carnal weapons. But +something more than the battle-axes of himself and vassals was needed to +break through the formidable walls of Adalbert's stronghold, which +frowned defiance to the utmost force the bishop could muster. Force +alone would not answer, that was evident. Stratagem was needed to give +effect to brute strength. If some way could only be devised to get +through the strong gates of the robber's stronghold, and reach him +behind his bolts and bars, all might be well; otherwise, all was ill. + +In this dilemma, a knightly vassal of the bishop, Tycho by name, +undertook to find a passage into the castle of Adalbert, and to punish +him for his pillaging. One day Tycho presented himself at the gate of +the castle, knocked loudly thereon, and on the appearance of the guard, +asked him for a sup of something to drink, being, as he said, overcome +with thirst. + +He did not ask in vain. It is a pleasant illustration of the hospitality +of that period to learn that the traveller's demand was unhesitatingly +complied with at the gate of the bandit stronghold, a brimming cup of +wine being brought for the refreshment of the thirsty wayfarer. + +"Thank your master for me," said Tycho, on returning the cup, "and tell +him that I shall certainly repay him with some service for his good +will." + +With this Tycho journeyed on, sought the bishopric, and told Peppo what +he had done and what he proposed to do. After a full deliberation a +definite plan was agreed upon, which the cunning fellow proceeded to put +into action. The plan was one which strongly reminds us of that adopted +by the bandit chief in the Arabian story of the "Forty Thieves," the +chief difference being that here it was true men, not thieves, who were +to be benefited. + +Thirty wine casks of capacious size were prepared, and in each was +placed instead of its quota of wine a stalwart warrior, fully armed with +sword, shield, helmet, and cuirass. Each cask was then covered with a +linen cloth, and ropes were fastened to its sides for the convenience of +the carriers. This done, sixty other men were chosen as carriers, and +dressed as peasants, though really they were trained soldiers, and each +had a sword concealed in the cask he helped to carry. + +The preparations completed, Tycho, accompanied by a few knights and by +the sixty carriers and their casks, went his way to Adalbert's castle, +and, as before, knocked loudly at its gates. The guard again appeared, +and, on seeing the strange procession, asked who they were and for what +they came. + +"I have come to repay your chief for the cup of wine he gave me," said +Tycho. "I promised that he should be well rewarded for his good will, +and am here for that purpose." + +The warder looked longingly at the array of stout casks, and hastened +with the message to Adalbert, who, doubtless deeming that the gods were +raining wine, for his one cup to be so amply returned, gave orders that +the strangers should be admitted. Accordingly the gates were opened, and +the wine-bearers and knights filed in. + +Reaching the castle hall, the casks were placed on the floor before +Adalbert and his chief followers, Tycho begging him to accept them as a +present in return for his former kindness. As to receive something for +nothing was Adalbert's usual mode of life, he did not hesitate to accept +the lordly present, and Tycho ordered the carriers to remove the +coverings. In a very few seconds this was done, when out sprang the +armed men, the porters seized their swords from the casks, and in a +minute's time the surprised bandits found themselves sharply attacked. +The stratagem proved a complete success. Adalbert and his men fell +victims to their credulity, and the fortress was razed to the ground. + +The truth of this story we cannot vouch for. It bears too suspicious a +resemblance to the Arabian tale to be lightly accepted as fact. But its +antiquity is unquestionable, and it may be offered as a faithful picture +of the conditions of those centuries of anarchy when every man's hand +was for himself and might was right. + + + + +_FREDERICK BARBAROSSA AND MILAN._ + + +A proud old city was Milan, heavy with its weight of years, rich and +powerful, arrogant and independent, the capital of Lombardy and the lord +of many of the Lombard cities. For some twenty centuries it had existed, +and now had so grown in population, wealth, and importance, that it +could almost lay claim to be the Rome of northern Italy. But its day of +pride preceded not long that of its downfall, for a new emperor had come +to the German throne, Frederick the Red-bearded, one of the ablest, +noblest, and greatest of all that have filled the imperial chair. + +Not long had he been on the throne before, in the long-established +fashion of German emperors, he began to interfere with affairs in Italy, +and demanded from the Lombard cities recognition of his supremacy as +Emperor of the West. He found some of them submissive, others not so. +Milan received his commands with contempt, and its proud magistrates +went so far as to tear the seal from the imperial edict and trample it +underfoot. + +In 1154 Frederick crossed the Alps and encamped on the Lombardian plain. +Soon deputations from some of the cities came to him with complaints +about the oppression of Milan, which had taken Lodi, Como, and other +towns, and lorded it over them exasperatingly. Frederick bade the proud +Milanese to answer these complaints, but in their arrogance they refused +even to meet his envoys, and he resolved to punish them severely for +their insolence. + +But the time was not yet. He had other matters to attend to. Four years +passed before he was able to devote some of his leisure to the Milanese. +They had in the meantime managed to offend him still more seriously, +having taken the town of Lodi and burnt it to the ground, for no other +crime than that it had yielded him allegiance. After him marched a +powerful army, nearly one hundred and twenty thousand strong, at the +very sight of whose myriad of banners most of the Lombard cities +submitted without a blow. Milan was besieged. Its resistance was by no +means obstinate. The emperor's principal wish was to win it over to his +side, and probably the authorities of the city were aware of his lenient +disposition, for they held out no long time before his besieging +multitude. + +All that the conqueror now demanded was that the proud municipality +should humble itself before him, swear allegiance, and promise not to +interfere with the freedom of the smaller cities. On the 6th of +September a procession of nobles and churchmen defiled before him, +barefooted and clad in tattered garments, the consuls and patricians +with swords hanging from their necks, the others with ropes round their +throats, and thus, with evidence of the deepest humility, they bore to +the emperor the keys of the proud city. + +"You must now acknowledge that it is easier to conquer by obedience than +with arms," he said. Then, exacting their oaths of allegiance, placing +the imperial eagle upon the spire of the cathedral, and taking with him +three hundred hostages, he marched away, with the confident belief that +the defiant resistance of Milan was at length overcome. + +He did not know the Milanese. When, in the following year, he attempted +to lay a tax upon them, they rose in insurrection and attacked his +representatives with such fury that they could scarcely save their +lives. On an explanation being demanded, they refused to give any, and +were so arrogantly defiant that the emperor pronounced their city +outlawed, and wrathfully vowed that he would never place the crown upon +his head again until he had utterly destroyed this arrant nest of +rebels. + +It was not to prove so easy a task. Frederick began by besieging +Cremona, which was in alliance with Milan, and which resisted him so +obstinately that it took him seven months to reduce it to submission. In +his anger he razed the city to the ground and scattered its inhabitants +far and wide. + +Then came the siege of Milan, which was so vigorously defended that +three years passed before starvation threw it into the emperor's hands. +So virulent were the citizens that they several times tried to rid +themselves of their imperial enemy by assassination. On one occasion, +when Frederick was performing his morning devotions in a solitary spot +upon the river Ada, a gigantic fellow attacked him and tried to throw +him into the stream. The emperor's cries for help brought his attendants +to the spot, and the assailant, in his turn, was thrown into the river. +On another occasion an old, misshapen man glided into the camp, bearing +poisoned wares which he sought to dispose of to the emperor. Frederick, +fortunately, had been forewarned, and he had the would-be assassin +seized and executed. + +It was in the spring of 1162 that the city yielded, hunger at length +forcing it to capitulate. Now came the work of revenge. Frederick +proceeded to put into execution the harsh vow he had made, after +subjecting its inhabitants to the greatest humiliations which he could +devise. + +For three days the consuls and chief men of the city, followed by the +people, were obliged to parade before the imperial camp, barefooted and +dressed in sackcloth, with tapers in their hands and crosses, swords, +and ropes about their necks. On the third day more than a hundred of the +banners of the city were brought out and laid at the emperor's feet. +Then, in sign of the most utter humiliation, the great banner of their +pride, the Carocium--a stately iron tree with iron leaves, drawn on a +cart by eight oxen--was brought out and bowed before the emperor. +Frederick seized and tore down its fringe, while the whole people cast +themselves on the ground, wailing and imploring mercy. + +The emperor was incensed beyond mercy, other than to grant them their +lives. He ordered that a part of the wall should be thrown down, and +rode through the breach into the city. Then, after deliberation, he +granted the inhabitants their lives, but ordered their removal to four +villages, several miles away, where they were placed under the care of +imperial functionaries. As for Milan, he decided that it should be +levelled with the ground, and gave the right to do this, at their +request, to the people of Lodi, Cremona, Pavia, and other cities which +had formerly been oppressed by proud Milan. + +[Illustration: THE AMPHITHEATRE AT MILAN.] + +The city was first pillaged, and then given over to the hands of the +Lombards, who--such was the diligence of hatred--are said to have done +more in six days than hired workmen would have done in as many months. +The walls and forts were torn down, the ditches filled up, and the once +splendid city reduced to a frightful scene of ruin and desolation. Then, +at a splendid banquet at Pavia, in the Easter festival, the triumphant +emperor replaced the crown upon his head. + +His triumph was not to continue, nor the humiliation of Milan to remain +permanent. Time brings its revenges, as the proud Frederick was to +learn. For five years Milan lay in ruins, a home for owls and bats, a +scene of desolation to make all observers weep; and then arrived its +season of retribution. Frederick's downfall came from the hand of God, +not of man. A frightful plague broke out in the ranks of the German +army, then in Rome, carrying off nobles and men alike in such numbers +that it looked as if the whole host might be laid in the grave. +Thousands died, and the emperor was obliged to retire to Pavia with but +a feeble remnant of his numerous army, nearly the whole of it having +been swept away. In the following spring he was forced to leave Italy +like a fugitive, secretly and in disguise, and came so nearly falling +into the hands of his foes, that he only escaped by one of his +companions placing himself in his bed, to be seized in his stead, while +he fled under cover of the night. + +Immediately the humbled cities raised their heads. An alliance was +formed between them, and they even ventured to conduct the Milanese back +to their ruined homes. At once the work of rebuilding was begun. The +ditches, walls, and towers were speedily restored, and then each man +went to work on his own habitation. So great was the city that the work +of destruction had been but partial. Most of the houses, all the +churches, and portions of the walls remained, and by aid of the other +cities Milan soon regained its old condition. + +In 1174 Frederick reappeared in Italy, with a new army, and with hostile +intentions against the revolted cities. The Lombards had built a new +city, in a locality surrounded by rivers and marshes, and had enclosed +it with walls which they sought to make impregnable. This they named +Alexandria, in honor of the pope and in defiance of the emperor, and +against this Frederick's first assault was made. For seven months he +besieged it, and then broke into the very heart of the place, through a +subterranean passage which the Germans had excavated. To all appearance +the city was lost, yet chance and courage saved it. The brave defenders +attacked the Germans, who had appeared in the market-place; the tunnel, +through great good fortune, fell in; and in the end the emperor was +forced to raise the siege in such haste that he set fire to his own +encampment in his precipitate retreat. + +On May 29, 1176, a decisive battle was fought at Lignano, in which Milan +revenged itself on its too-rigorous enemy. The Carocium was placed in +the middle of the Lombard army, surrounded by three hundred youths, who +had sworn to defend it unto death, and by a body of nine hundred picked +cavalry, who had taken a similar oath. + +Early in the battle one wing of the Lombard army wavered under the sharp +attack of the Germans, and threw into confusion the Milanese ranks. +Taking advantage of this, the emperor pressed towards their centre, +seeking to gain the Carocium, with the expectation that its capture +would convert the disorder of the Lombards into a rout. On pushed the +Germans until the sacred standard was reached, and its decorations torn +down before the eyes of its sworn defenders. + +This indignity to the treasured emblem of their liberties gave renewed +courage to the disordered band. Their ranks re-established, they charged +upon the Germans with such furious valor as to drive them back in +disorder, cut through their lines to the emperor's station, kill his +standard-bearer by his side, and capture the imperial standard. +Frederick, clad in a splendid suit of armor, rushed against them at the +head of a band of chosen knights. But suddenly he was seen to fall from +his horse and vanish under the hot press of struggling warriors that +surged back and forth around the standard. + +This dire event spread instant terror through the German ranks. They +broke and fled in disorder, followed by the death-phalanx of the +Carocium, who cut them down in multitudes, and drove them back in +complete disorder and defeat. For two days the emperor was mourned as +slain, his unhappy wife even assuming the robes of widowhood, when +suddenly he reappeared, and all was joy again. He had not been seriously +hurt in his fall, and had with a few friends escaped in the tumult of +the defeat, and, under the protection of night, made his way with +difficulty back to Pavia. + +This defeat ended the efforts of Frederick against Milan, which had, +through its triumph over the great emperor, regained all its old proud +position and supremacy among the Lombard cities. The war ended with the +battle of Lignano, a truce of six years being concluded between the +hostile parties. For the ensuing eight years Frederick was fully +occupied in Germany, in wars with Henry the Lion, of the Guelph faction. +At the end of that time he returned to Italy, where Milan, which he had +sought so strenuously to humiliate and ruin, now became the seat of the +greatest honor he could bestow. The occasion was that of the marriage of +his son Henry to Constanza, the last heiress of Naples and Sicily of the +royal Norman race. This ceremony took place in Milan, in which city the +emperor caused the iron crown of the Lombards to be placed upon the head +of his son and heir, and gave him away in marriage with the utmost pomp +and festivity. Milan had won in its great contest for life and death. + +We may fitly conclude with the story of the death of the great +Frederick, who, in accordance with the character of his life, died in +harness. In his old age, having put an end to the wars in Germany and +Italy, he headed a crusade to the Holy Land, from which he was never to +return. It was the most interesting in many of its features of all the +crusades, the leaders of the host being, in addition to Frederick +Barbarossa, Richard Coeur de Lion of England, the hero of romance, the +wise Philip Augustus of France, and various others of the leading +potentates of Europe. + +It is with Frederick alone that we are concerned. In 1188 he set out, at +the head of one hundred and fifty thousand trained soldiers, on what was +destined to prove a disastrous expedition. Entering Hungary, he met with +a friendly reception from Bela, its king. Reaching Belgrade, he held +there a magnificent tournament, hanged all the robber Servians he could +capture for their depredations upon his ranks, and advanced into Greek +territory, where he punished the bad faith of the emperor, Isaac, by +plundering his country. Several cities were destroyed in revenge for the +assassination of pilgrims and of sick and wounded German soldiers by +their inhabitants. This done, Frederick advanced on Constantinople, +whose emperor, to save his city from capture, hastened to place his +whole fleet at the disposal of the Germans, glad to get rid of these +truculent visitors at any price. + +Reaching Asia Minor, the troubles of the crusaders began. They were +assailed by the Turks, and had to cut their way forward at every step. +Barbarossa had never shown himself a greater general. On one occasion, +when hard pressed by the enemy, he concealed a chosen band of warriors +in a large tent, the gift of the Queen of Hungary, while the rest of the +army pretended to fly. The Turks entered the camp and began pillaging, +when the ambushed knights broke upon them from the tent, the flying +soldiers turned, and the confident enemy was disastrously defeated. + +But as the army advanced its difficulties increased. A Turkish prisoner +who was made to act as a guide, being driven in chains before the army, +led the Christians into the gorges of almost impassable mountains, +sacrificing his life for his cause. Here, foot-sore and weary, and +tormented by thirst and hunger, they were suddenly attacked by ambushed +foes, stones being rolled upon them in the narrow gorges, and arrows and +javelins poured upon their disordered ranks. Peace was here offered +them by the Turks, if they would pay a large sum of money for their +release. In reply the indomitable emperor sent them a small silver coin, +with the message that they might divide this among themselves. Then, +pressing forward, he beat off the enemy, and extricated his army from +its dangerous situation. + +As they pushed on, the sufferings of the army increased. Water was not +to be had, and many were forced to quench their thirst by drinking the +blood of their horses. The army was now divided. Frederick, the son of +the emperor, led half of it forward at a rapid march, defeated the Turks +who sought to stop him, and fought his way into the city of Iconium. +Here all the inhabitants were put to the sword, and the crusaders gained +an immense booty. + +Meanwhile the emperor, his soldiers almost worn out with hunger and +fatigue, was surrounded with the army of the sultan. He believed that +his son was lost, and tears of anguish flowed from his eyes, while all +around him wept in sympathy. Suddenly rising, he exclaimed, "Christ +still lives, Christ conquers!" and putting himself at the head of his +knights, he led them in a furious assault upon the Turks. The result was +a complete victory, ten thousand of the enemy falling dead upon the +field. Then the Christian army marched to Iconium, where they found +relief from their hunger and weariness. + +After recruiting they marched forward, and on June 10, 1190, reached +the little river Cydnus, in Cilicia. Here the road and the bridge over +the stream were so blocked up with beasts of burden that the progress of +the army was greatly reduced. The bold old warrior, impatient to rejoin +his son Frederick, who led the van, would not wait for the bridge to be +cleared, but spurred his war-horse forward and plunged into the stream. +Unfortunately, he had miscalculated the strength of the current. Despite +the efforts of the noble animal, it was borne away by the swift stream, +and when at length assistance reached the aged emperor he was found to +be already dead. + +Never was a man more mourned than was the valiant Barbarossa by his +army, and by the Germans on hearing of his death. His body was borne by +the sorrowing soldiers to Antioch, where it was buried in the church of +St. Peter. His fate was, perhaps, a fortunate one, for it prevented him +from beholding the loss of the army, which was almost entirely destroyed +by sickness at the city in which his body was entombed. His son +Frederick died at the siege of Acre, or Ptolemais. + +As regards the Germans at home, they were not willing to believe that +their great emperor could be dead. Their superstitious faith gave rise +to legendary tales, to the effect that the valiant Barbarossa was still +alive, and would, some day, return to yield Germany again a dynasty of +mighty sovereigns. The story went that the noble emperor lay asleep in a +deep cleft of Kylfhaüser Berg, on the golden meadow of Thuringia. Here, +his head resting on his arm, he sits by a granite block, through which, +in the lapse of time, his red beard has grown. Here he will sleep until +the ravens no longer fly around the mountain, when he will awake to +restore the golden age to the world. + +Another legend tells us that the great Barbarossa sits, wrapped in deep +slumber, in the Untersberg, near Salzberg. His sleep will end when the +dead pear-tree on the Walserfeld, which has been cut down three times +but ever grows anew, blossoms. Then will he come forth, hang his shield +on the tree, and begin a tremendous battle, in which the whole world +will join, and in whose end the good will overcome the wicked, and the +reign of virtue return to the earth. + + + + +_THE CRUSADE OF FREDERICK II._ + + +A remarkable career was that of Frederick II. of Germany, grandson of +the great Barbarossa, crowned in 1215 under the immediate auspices of +the papacy, yet during all the remainder of his life in constant and +bitter conflict with the popes. He was, we are told, of striking +personal beauty, his form being of the greatest symmetry, his face +unusually handsome, and marked by intelligence, benevolence, and +nobility. Born in a rude age, his learning would have done honor to our +own. Son of an era in which poetry was scarcely known, he cultivated the +gay science, and was one of the earliest producers of the afterwards +favorite form known as the sonnet. An emperor of Germany, nearly his +whole life was spent in Sicily. Though ruler of a Christian realm, he +lived surrounded by Saracens, studying diligently the Arabian learning, +dwelling in what was almost a harem of Arabian beauties, and hesitating +not to give expression to the most infidel sentiments. The leader of a +crusade, he converted what was ordinarily a tragedy into a comedy, +obtained possession of Jerusalem without striking a blow or shedding a +drop of blood, and found himself excommunicated in the holy city which +he had thus easily restored to Christendom. Altogether we may repeat +that the career of Frederick II. was an extraordinary one, and amply +worthy our attention. + +The young monarch had grown up in Sicily, of which charming island he +became guardian after the death of his mother, Constanza. He was crowned +at Aix-la-Chapelle, having defeated his rival, Otho IV.; but spent the +greater part of his life in the south, holding his pleasure-loving court +at Naples and Palermo, where he surrounded himself with all the +refinements of life then possessed by the Saracens, but of which the +Christians of Europe were lamentably deficient. + +It was in 1220 that Frederick returned from Germany to Italy, leaving +his northern kingdom in the hands of the Archbishop of Cologne, as +regent. At Rome he received the imperial crown from the hands of the +pope, and, his first wife dying, married Yolinda de Lusignan, daughter +of John, ex-king of Jerusalem, in right of whom he claimed the kingdom +of the East. + +Shortly afterwards a new pope came to the papal chair, the gloomy +Gregory IX., whose first act was to order a crusade, which he desired +the emperor to lead. Despite the fact that he had married the heiress of +Jerusalem, Frederick was very reluctant to seek an enforcement of his +claim upon the holy city. He had pledged himself when crowned at +Aix-la-Chapelle, and afterwards on his coronation at Rome, to undertake +a crusade, but Honorius III., the pope at that time, readily granted him +delay. Such was not the case with Gregory, who sternly insisted on an +immediate compliance with his pledge, and whose rigid sense of decorum +was scandalized by the frivolities of the emperor, no less than was his +religious austerity by Frederick's open intercourse with the Sicilian +Saracens. + +The old contest between emperor and pope threatened to be opened again +with all its former virulence. It was deferred for a time by Frederick, +who, after exhausting all excuses for delay, at length yielded to the +exhortations of the pope and set sail for the Holy Land. The crusade +thus entered upon proved, however, to be simply a farce. In three days +the fleet returned, Frederick pleading illness as his excuse, and the +whole expedition came to an end. + +Gregory was no longer to be trifled with. He declared that the illness +was but a pretext, that Frederick had openly broken his word to the +church, and at once proceeded to launch upon the emperor the thunders of +the papacy, in a bull of excommunication. + +Frederick treated this fulmination with contempt, and appealed from the +pope to Christendom, accusing Rome of avarice, and declaring that her +envoys were marching in all directions, not to preach the word of God, +but to extort money from the people. + +"The primitive church," he said, "founded on poverty and simplicity, +brought forth numberless saints. The Romans are now rolling in wealth. +What wonder that the walls of the church are undermined to the base, and +threaten utter ruin." + +For this saying the pope launched against him a more tremendous +excommunication. In return the partisans of Frederick in Rome, raising +an insurrection, expelled the pope from that city. And now the +free-thinking emperor, to convince the world that he was not trifling +with his word, set sail of his own accord for the East, with as numerous +an army as he was able to raise. + +A remarkable state of affairs followed, justifying us in speaking of +this crusade as a comedy, in contrast with the tragic character of those +which had preceded it. Frederick had shrewdly prepared for success, by +negotiations, through his Saracen friends, with the Sultan of Egypt. On +reaching the Holy Land he was received with joy by the German knights +and pilgrims there assembled, but the clergy and the Knight Templars and +Hospitallers carefully kept aloof from him, for Gregory had despatched a +swift-sailing ship to Palestine, giving orders that no intercourse +should be held with the imperial enemy of the church. + +It was certainly a strange spectacle, for a man under the ban of the +church to be the leader in an expedition to recover the holy city. Its +progress was as strange as its inception. Had Frederick been the leader +of a Mohammedan army to recover Jerusalem from the Christians, his camp +could have been little more crowded with infidel delegates. He wore a +Saracen dress. He discussed questions of philosophy with Saracen +visitors. He received presents of elephants and of dancing-girls from +his friend the sultan, to whom he appealed: "Out of your goodness, and +your friendship for me, surrender to me Jerusalem as it is, that I may +be able to lift up my head among the kings of Christendom." + +Camel, the sultan, consented, agreeing to deliver up Jerusalem and its +adjacent territory to the emperor, on the sole condition that Mohammedan +pilgrims might have the privilege of visiting a mosque within the city. +These terms Frederick gladly accepted, and soon after marched into the +holy city at the head of his armed followers (not unarmed, as in the +case of Coeur de Lion), took possession of it with formal ceremony, +allowed the Mohammedan population to withdraw in peace, and repeopled +the city with Christians, A.D. 1229. + +He found himself in the presence of an extraordinary condition of +affairs. The excommunication against him was not only maintained, but +the pope actually went so far as to place Jerusalem and the Holy +Sepulchre under interdict. So far did the virulence of priestly +antipathy go that the Templars even plotted against Frederick's life. +Emissaries sent by them gave secret information to the sultan of where +he might easily capture the emperor. The sultan, with a noble +friendliness, sent the letter to Frederick, cautioning him to beware of +his foes. + +The break between emperor and pope had now reached its highest pitch of +hostility. Frederick proclaimed his signal success to Europe. Gregory +retorted with bitter accusations. The emperor, he said, had presented to +the sultan of Babylon the sword given him for the defence of the faith; +he had permitted the Koran to be preached in the Holy Temple itself; he +had even bound himself to join the Saracens, in case a Christian army +should attempt to cleanse the city and temple from Mohammedan +defilements. + +In addition to these charges, accusations of murder and other crimes +were circulated against him, and a false report of his death was +industriously circulated. Frederick found it necessary to return home +without delay. He crowned himself at Jerusalem, as no ecclesiastic could +be found who would perform the ceremony, and then set sail for Italy, +leaving Richard, his master of the horse, in charge of affairs in +Palestine. + +Reaching Italy, he soon brought his affairs into order. He had under his +command an army of thirty thousand Saracen soldiers, with whom it was +impossible for his enemies to tamper. A bitter recrimination took place +with the pope, in which the emperor managed to bring the general +sentiment of Europe to his side, offering to convict Gregory of himself +entering into negotiations with the infidels. Gregory, finding that he +was getting the worst of the controversy with his powerful and alert +enemy, now prudently gave way, having a horror of the shedding of blood. +Peace was made in 1230, the excommunication removed from the emperor, +and for nine years the conflict between him and the papacy was at an +end. + +We have told the story of Frederick's crusade, but the remainder of his +life is of sufficient interest to be given in epitome. In his government +of Sicily he showed himself strikingly in advance of the political +opinions of his period. He enacted a system of wise laws, instituted +representative parliaments, asserted the principle of equal rights and +equal duties, and the supremacy of the law over high and low alike. All +religions were tolerated, Jews and Mohammedans having equal freedom of +worship with Christians. All the serfs of his domain were emancipated, +private war was forbidden, commerce was regulated, cheap justice for the +poor was instituted, markets and fairs were established, large libraries +collected, and other progressive institutions organized. He established +menageries for the study of natural history, founded in Naples a great +university, patronized medical study, provided cheap schools, aided the +development of the arts, and in every respect displayed a remarkable +public spirit and political foresight. + +Yet splendid as was his career of development in secular affairs, his +private life, as well as his public conduct, was stained with flagrant +faults, and there was much in his doings that was frowned upon by the +pope. New quarrels arose; new wars broke out; the emperor was again +excommunicated; the unfortunate closing years of Frederick's career +began. Again there were appeals to Christendom; again Frederick's +Saracens marched through Italy; such was their success that the pope +only escaped by death from falling into the hands of his foe. But with a +new pope the old quarrel was resumed, Innocent IV. flying to France to +get out of reach of the emperor's hands, and desperately combating him +from this haven of refuge. + +The incessant conflict at length bowed down the spirit of the emperor, +now growing old. His good fortune began to desert him. In 1249 his son +Enzio, whom he had made king of Sicily, and who was the most chivalrous +and handsome of his children, was taken prisoner by the Bolognese, who +refused to accept ransom for him, although his father offered in return +for his freedom a silver ring equal in circumference to their city. In +the following year his long-tried friend and councillor, Peter de +Vincis, who had been the most trusted man in the empire, was accused of +having joined the papal party and of attempting to poison the emperor. +He offered Frederick a beverage, which he, growing suspicious, did not +drink, but had it administered to a criminal, who instantly expired. + +Whether Peter was guilty or not, his seeming defection was a sore blow +to his imperial patron. "Alas!" moaned Frederick, "I am abandoned by my +most faithful friends; Peter, the friend of my heart, on whom I leaned +for support, has deserted me and sought my destruction. Whom can I +trust? My days are henceforth doomed to pass in sorrow and suspicion." + +His days were near their end. Not long after the events narrated, while +again in the field at the head of a fresh army of Saracens, he was +suddenly seized with a mortal illness at Firenzuola, and died there on +the 13th of December, 1250, becoming reconciled with the church on his +deathbed. He was buried at Palermo. + +Thus died one of the most intellectual, progressive, free-thinking, and +pleasure-loving emperors of Germany, after a long reign over a realm in +which he seldom appeared, and an almost incessant period of warfare +against the head of a church of which he was supposed to be the imperial +protector. Seven crowns were his,--those of the kingdom of Germany and +of the Roman empire, the iron diadem of Lombardy, and those of Burgundy, +Sicily, Sardinia, and Jerusalem. But of all the realms under his rule +the smiling lands of Sicily and southern Italy were most to his liking, +and the scene of his most constant abode. Charming palaces were built by +him at Naples, Palermo, Messina, and several other places, and in these +he surrounded himself with the noblest bards and most beautiful women of +the empire, and by all that was attractive in the art, science, and +poetry of his times. Moorish dancing-girls and the arts and learning of +the East abounded in his court. The Sultan Camel presented him with a +rare tent, in which, by means of artfully contrived mechanism, the +movements of the heavenly bodies were represented. Michael Scott, his +astrologer, translated Aristotle's "History of Animals." Frederick +studied ornithology, on which he wrote a treatise, and possessed a +menagerie of rare animals, including a giraffe, and other strange +creatures. The popular dialect of Italy owed much to him, being elevated +into a written language by his use of it in his love-sonnets. Of the +poems written by himself, his son Enzio, and his friends, several have +been preserved, while his chancellor, Peter de Vincis, is said to have +originated the sonnet. + +We have already spoken of his reforms in his southern kingdom. It was +his purpose to introduce similar reforms into the government of Germany, +abolishing the feudal system, and creating a centralized and organized +state, with a well-regulated system of finance. But ideas such as these +were much too far in advance of the age. State and church alike opposed +them, and Frederick's intelligent views did not long survive him. +History must have its evolution, political systems their growth, and the +development of institutions has never been much hastened or checked by +any man's whip or curb. + +In 1781, when the tomb of Frederick was opened, centuries after his +death, the institutions he had advocated were but in process of being +adopted in Europe. The body of the great emperor was found within the +mausoleum, wrapped in embroidered robes, the feet booted and spurred, +the imperial crown on its head, in its hand the ball and sceptre, on its +finger a costly emerald. For five centuries and more Frederick had +slept in state, awaiting the verdict of time on the ideas in defence of +which his life had been passed in battle. The verdict had been given, +the ideas had grown into institutions, time had vouchsafed the +far-seeing emperor his revenge. + + + + +_THE FALL OF THE GHIBELLINES._ + + +The death of Frederick II., in 1250, was followed by a series of +misfortunes to his descendants, so tragical as to form a story full of +pathetic interest. His son Enzio, a man of remarkable beauty and valor, +celebrated as a Minnesinger, and of unusual intellectual qualities, had +been taken prisoner, as we have already told, by the Bolognese, and +condemned by them to perpetual imprisonment, despite the prayers of his +father and the rich ransom offered. For twenty-two years he continued a +tenant of a dungeon, and in this gloomy scene of death in life survived +all the sons and grandsons of his father, every one of whom perished by +poison, the sword, or the axe of the executioner. It is this dread story +of the fate of the Hohenstauffen imperial house which we have now to +tell. + +No sooner had Frederick expired than the enemies of his house arose on +every side. Conrad IV., his eldest son and successor, found Germany so +filled with his foes that he was forced to take refuge in Italy, where +his half-brother, Manfred, Prince of Taranto, ceded to him the +sovereignty of the Italian realm, and lent him his aid to secure it. The +royal brothers captured Capua and Naples, where Conrad signalized his +success by placing a bridle in the mouth of an antique colossal horse's +head, the emblem of the city. This insult made the inhabitants his +implacable foes. His success was but temporary. He died suddenly, as +also did his younger brother Henry, poisoned by his half-brother +Manfred, who succeeded to the kingship of the South. But with the +Guelphs in power in Germany, and the pope his bitter foe in Italy, he +was utterly unable to establish his claim, and was forced to cede all +lower Italy, except Taranto, to the pontiff. But a new and less +implacable pope being elected, the fortunes of Manfred suddenly changed, +and he was unanimously proclaimed king at Palermo in 1258. + +But the misfortunes of his house were to pursue him to the end. In +northern Italy, the Guelphs were everywhere triumphant. Ezzelino, one of +Frederick's ablest generals, was defeated, wounded, and taken prisoner. +He soon after died. His brother Alberich was cruelly murdered, being +dragged to death at a horse's tail. The other Ghibelline chiefs were +similarly butchered, the horrible scenes of bloodshed so working on the +feelings of the susceptible Italians that many of them did penance at +the grave of Alberich, arrayed in sackcloth. From this circumstance +arose the sect of the Flagellants, who ran through the streets, +lamenting, praying, and wounding themselves with thongs, as an atonement +for the sins of the world. + +In southern Italy, Manfred for a while was successful. In 1259 he +married Helena, the daughter of Michael of Cyprus and Ætolia, a maiden +of seventeen years, and famed far and wide for her loveliness. So +beautiful were the bridal pair, and such were the attractions of their +court, which, as in Frederick's time, was the favorite resort of +distinguished poets and lovely women, that a bard of the times declared, +"Paradise has once more appeared upon earth." + +Manfred, like his father and his brother Enzio, was a poet, being +classed among the Minnesingers. His marriage gave him the alliance of +Greece, and the marriage of Constance, his daughter by a former wife, to +Peter of Aragon, gained him the friendship of Spain. Strengthened by +these alliances, he was able to send aid to the Ghibellines in Lombardy, +who again became victorious. + +The Guelphs, alarmed at Manfred's growing power, now raised a Frenchman +to the papal throne, who induced Charles of Anjou, the brother of the +French monarch, to strike for the crown of southern Italy. Charles, a +gloomy, cold-blooded and cruel prince, gladly accepted the pope's +suggestions, and followed by a powerful body of French knights and +soldiers of fortune, set sail for Naples in 1266. Manfred had unluckily +lost the whole of his fleet in a storm, and was not able to oppose this +threatening invasion, which landed in Italy in his despite. + +Nor was he more fortunate with his land army. The clergy, in the +interest of the Guelph faction, tampered with his soldiers and sowed +treason in his camp. No sooner had Charles landed, than a mountain pass +intrusted to the defence of Riccardo di Caseta was treacherously +abandoned, and the French army allowed to advance unmolested as far as +Benevento, where the two armies met. + +In the battle that followed, Manfred defended himself gallantly, but, +despite all his efforts, was worsted, and threw himself desperately into +the thick of the fight, where he fell, covered with wounds. The bigoted +victor refused him honorable burial, on the score of heresy, but the +French soldiers, nobler-hearted than their leader, and touched by the +beauty and valor of their unfortunate opponent, cast each of them a +stone upon his body, which was thus buried under a mound which the +natives still know as the "rock of roses." + +The wife and children of Manfred met with a pitiable fate. On learning +of the sad death of her husband Helena sought safety in flight, with her +daughter Beatrice and her three infant sons, Henry, Frederick, and +Anselino; but she was betrayed to Charles, who threw her into a dungeon, +in which she soon languished and died. Of her children, her daughter +Beatrice was afterwards rescued by Peter of Aragon, who exchanged for +her a son of Charles of Anjou, whom he held prisoner; but the three boys +were given over to the cruellest fate. Immured in a narrow dungeon, and +loaded with chains, they remained thus half-naked, ill-fed, and untaught +for the period of thirty-one years. Not until 1297 were they released +from their chains and allowed to be visited by a priest and a physician. +Charles of Anjou, meanwhile, filled with the spirit of cruelty and +ambition, sought to destroy every vestige of the Hohenstauffen rule in +southern Italy, the scene of Frederick's long and lustrous reign. + +The death of Manfred had not extinguished all the princes of Frederick's +house. There remained another, Conradin, son of Conrad IV., Duke of +Swabia, a youthful prince to whom had descended some of the intellectual +powers of his noted grand-sire. He had an inseparable friend, Frederick, +son of the Margrave of Baden, of his own age, and like him enthusiastic +and imaginative, their ardent fancies finding vent in song. One of +Conradin's ballads is still extant. + +As the young prince grew older, the seclusion to which he was subjected +by his guardian, Meinhard, Count von Görtz, became so irksome to him +that he gladly accepted a proposal from the Italian Ghibellines to put +himself at their head. In 1267 he set out, in company with Frederick, +and with a following of some ten thousand men, and crossed the Alps to +Lombardy, where he met with a warm welcome at Verona by the Ghibelline +chiefs. + +Treachery accompanied him, however, in the presence of his guardian +Meinhard and Louis of Bavaria, who persuaded him to part with his German +possessions for a low price, and then deserted him, followed by the +greater part of the Germans. Conradin was left with but three thousand +men. + +The Italians proved more faithful. Verona raised him an army; Pisa +supplied him a large fleet; the Moors of Luceria took up arms in his +cause; even Rome rose in his favor, and drove out the pope, who +retreated to Viterbo. For the time being the Ghibelline cause was in the +ascendant. Conradin marched unopposed to Rome, at whose gates he was met +by a procession of beautiful girls, bearing flowers and instruments of +music, who conducted him to the capitol. His success on land was matched +by a success at sea, his fleet gaining a signal victory over that of the +French, and burning a great number of their ships. + +So far all had gone well with the youthful heir of the Hohenstauffens. +Henceforth all was to go ill. Conradin marched from Rome to lower Italy, +where he encountered the French army, under Charles, at Scurcola, drove +them back, and broke into their camp. Assured of victory, the Germans +grew careless, dispersing through the camp in search of booty, while +some of them even refreshed themselves by bathing. + +While thus engaged, the French reserve, who had watched their movements, +suddenly fell upon them and completely put them to rout. Conradin and +Frederick, after fighting bravely, owed their escape to the fleetness of +their steeds. They reached the sea at Astura, boarded a vessel, and were +about setting sail for Pisa, when they were betrayed into the hands of +their pursuers, taken prisoners, and carried back to Charles of Anjou. + +They had fallen into fatal hands; Charles was not the man to consider +justice or honor in dealing with a Hohenstauffen. He treated Conradin +as a rebel against himself, under the claim that he was the only +legitimate king, and sentenced both the princes, then but sixteen years +of age, to be publicly beheaded in the market-place at Naples. + +Conradin was playing at chess in prison when the news of this unjust +sentence was brought to him. He calmly listened to it, with the courage +native to his race. On October 22, 1268, he, with Frederick and his +other companions, was conducted to the scaffold erected in the +market-place, passing through a throng of which even the French +contingent looked on the spectacle with indignation. So greatly were +they wrought up, indeed, by the outrage, that Robert, Earl of Flanders, +Charles's son-in-law, drew his sword, and cut down the officer +commissioned to read in public the sentence of death. + +"Wretch!" he cried, as he dealt the blow, "how darest thou condemn such +a great and excellent knight?" + +Conradin met his fate with unyielding courage, saying, in his address to +the people,-- + +"I cite my judge before the highest tribunal. My blood, shed on this +spot, shall cry to heaven for vengeance. Nor do I esteem my Swabians and +Bavarians, my Germans, so low as not to trust that this stain on the +honor of the German nation will be washed out by them in French blood." + +Then, throwing his glove to the ground, he charged him who should raise +it to bear it to Peter, King of Aragon, to whom, as his nearest +relative, he bequeathed all his claims. The glove was raised by Henry, +Truchsess von Waldberg, who found in it the seal ring of the unfortunate +wearer. Thence-forth he bore in his arms the three black lions of the +Stauffen. + +In a minute more the fatal axe of the executioner descended, and the +head of the last heir of the Hohenstauffens rolled upon the scaffold. +His friend, Frederick, followed him to death, nor was the bloodthirsty +Charles satisfied until almost every Ghibelline in his hands had fallen +by the hand of the executioner. + +Enzio, the unfortunate son of Frederick who was held prisoner by the +Bolognese, was involved in the fate of his unhappy nephew. On learning +of the arrival of Conradin in Italy he made an effort to escape from +prison, which would have been successful but for an unlucky accident. He +had arranged to conceal himself in a cask, which was to be borne out of +the prison by his friends, but by an unfortunate chance one of his long, +golden locks fell out of the air-hole which had been made in the side of +the cask, and revealed the stratagem to his keepers. + +During his earlier imprisonment Enzio had been allowed some alleviation, +his friends being permitted to visit him and solace him in his +seclusion; but after this effort to escape he was closely confined, some +say, in an iron cage, until his death in 1272. + +Thus ended the royal race of the Hohenstauffen, a race marked by +unusual personal beauty, rich poetical genius, and brilliant warlike +achievements, and during whose period of power the mediæval age and its +institutions attained their highest development. + +As for the ruthless Charles of Anjou, he retained Apulia, but lost his +possessions in Sicily through an event which has become famous as the +"Sicilian Vespers." The insolence and outrages of the French had so +exasperated the Sicilians that, on the night of March 30, 1282, a +general insurrection broke out in this island, the French being +everywhere assassinated. Constance, the grand-daughter of their old +ruler, and Peter of Aragon, her husband, were proclaimed their +sovereigns by the Sicilians, and Charles, the son of Charles of Anjou, +fell into their hands. + +Constance was generous to the captive prince, and on hearing him remark +that he was happy to die on a Friday, the day on which Christ suffered, +she replied,-- + +"For love of him who suffered on this day I will grant thee thy life." + +He was afterwards exchanged for Beatrice, the daughter of the unhappy +Helena, whose sons, the last princes of the Hohenstauffen race, died in +the prison in which they had lived since infancy. + + + + +_THE TRIBUNAL OF THE HOLY VEHM._ + + +The ideas of law and order in mediæval Germany were by no means what we +now understand by those terms. The injustice of the strong and the +suffering of the weak were the rule; and men of noble lineage did not +hesitate to turn their castles into dens of thieves. The title "robber +baron," which many of them bore, sufficiently indicates their mode of +life, and turbulence and outrage prevailed throughout the land. + +But wrong did not flourish with complete impunity; right had not +entirely vanished; justice still held its sword, and at times struck +swift and deadly blows that filled with terror the wrong-doer, and gave +some assurance of protection to those too weak for self-defence. It was +no unusual circumstance to behold, perhaps in the vicinity of some +baronial castle, perhaps near some town or manorial residence, a group +of peasants gazing upwards with awed but triumphant eyes; the spectacle +that attracted their attention being the body of a man hanging from the +limb of a tree above their heads. + +Such might have been supposed to be some act of private vengeance or +bold outrage, but the exulting lookers-on knew better. For they +recognized the body, perhaps as that of the robber baron of the +neighboring castle, perhaps that of some other bold defier of law and +justice, while in the ground below the corpse appeared an object that +told a tale of deep meaning to their experienced eyes. This was a knife, +thrust to the hilt in the earth. As they gazed upon it they muttered the +mysterious words, "_Vehm gericht_," and quickly dispersed, none daring +to touch the corpse or disturb the significant signal of the vengeance +of the executioners. + +But as they walked away they would converse in low tones of a dread +secret tribunal, which held its mysterious meetings in remote places, +caverns of the earth or the depths of forests, at the dread hour of +midnight, its members being sworn by frightful oaths to utter secrecy. +Before these dark tribunals were judged, present or absent, the +wrong-doers of the land, and the sentence of the secret Vehm once given, +there was no longer safety for the condemned. The agents of vengeance +would be put upon his track, while the secret of his death sentence was +carefully kept from his ears. The end was sure to be a sudden seizure, a +rope to the nearest tree, a writhing body, the signal knife of the +executioners of the Vehm, silence and mystery. + +Such was the visible outcome of the workings of this dreaded court, of +whose sessions and secrets the common people of the land had exaggerated +conceptions, but whose sudden and silent deeds in the interest of +justice went far to repress crime in that lawless age. We have seen the +completion of the sentence, let us attend a session of this mysterious +court. + +Seeking the Vehmic tribunal, we do not find ourselves in a midnight +forest, nor in a dimly-lighted cavern or mysterious vault, as peasant +traditions would tell us, but in the hall of some ancient castle, or on +a hill-top, under the shade of lime-trees, and with an open view of the +country for miles around. Here, on the seat of justice, presides the +graf or count of the district, before him the sword, the symbol of +supreme justice, its handle in the form of the cross, while beside it +lies the _Wyd_, or cord, the sign of his power of life or death. Around +him are seated the _Schöffen_, or ministers of justice, bareheaded and +without weapons, in complete silence, none being permitted to speak +except when called upon in the due course of proceedings. + +The court being solemnly opened, the person cited to appear before it +steps forward, unarmed and accompanied by two sureties, if he has any. +The complaint against him is stated by the judge, and he is called upon +to clear himself by oath taken on the cross of the sword. If he takes +it, he is free. "He shall then," says an ancient work, "take a farthing +piece, throw it at the feet of the court, turn round and go his way. +Whoever attacks or touches him, has then, which all freemen know, broken +the king's peace." + +This was the ancient custom, but in later times witnesses were examined, +and the proceedings were more in conformity with those of modern +courts. If sentence of death was passed, the criminal was hanged at +once on the nearest tree. The minor punishments were exile and fine. If +the defendant refused to appear, after being three times cited, the +sentence of the Vehm was pronounced against him, a dreadful sentence, +ending in,-- + +"And I hereby curse his flesh and his blood; and may his body never +receive burial, but may it be borne away by the wind, and may the ravens +and crows, and wild birds of prey, consume and destroy him. And I +adjudge his neck to the rope, and his body to be devoured by the birds +and beasts of the air, sea, and land; but his soul I commend to our dear +Lord, if He will receive it." + +These words spoken, the judge cast forth the rope beyond the limits of +the court, and wrote the name of the condemned in the book of blood, +calling on the princes and nobles of the land, and all the inhabitants +of the empire, to aid in fulfilling this sentence upon the criminal, +without regard to relationship or any ties of kindred or affection +whatever. + +The condemned man was now left to the work of the ministers of justice, +the Schöffen of the court. Whoever should shelter or even warn him was +himself to be brought before the tribunal. The members of the court were +bound by a terrible oath, to be enforced by death, not to reveal the +sentence of the Holy Vehm, except to one of the initiated, and not to +warn the culprit, even if he was a father or a brother. Wherever the +condemned was found, whether in a house, a street, the high-road, or the +forest, he was seized and hanged to the nearest tree or post, if the +servants of the court could lay hands on him. As a sign that he was +executed by the Holy Vehm, and not slain by robbers, nothing was taken +from his body, and the knife was thrust into the ground beneath him. We +may further say that any criminal taken in the act by the Vehmic +officers of justice did not need to be brought before the court, but +might be hanged on the spot, with the ordinary indications that he was a +victim to the secret tribunal. + +A citation to appear before the Vehm was executed by two Schöffen, who +bore the letter of the presiding count to the accused. If they could not +reach him because he was living in a city or a fortress which they could +not safely enter, they were authorized to execute their mission +otherwise. They might approach the castle in the night, stick the +letter, enclosing a farthing piece, in the panel of the castle gate, cut +off three chips from the gate as evidence to the count that they had +fulfilled their mission, and call out to the sentinel on leaving that +they had deposited there a letter for his lord. If the accused had no +regular dwelling-place, and could not be met, he was summoned at four +different cross-roads, where was left at the east, west, north, and +south points a summons, each containing the significant farthing coin. + +It must not be supposed that the administration of justice in Germany +was confined to this Vehmic court. There were open courts of justice +throughout the land. But what were known as _Freistuhls,_ or free +courts, were confined to the duchy of Westphalia. Some of the sessions +of these courts were open, some closed, the Vehm constituting their +secret tribunal. + +Though complaints might be brought and persons cited to appear from +every part of Germany, a free court could only be held on Westphalian +ground, on the red earth, as it was entitled. Even the emperor could not +establish a free court outside of Westphalia. When the Emperor Wenceslas +tried to establish one in Bohemia, the counts of the empire decreed that +any one who should take part in it would incur the penalty of death. The +members of these courts consisted of Schöffen, nominated by the graf, or +presiding judge, and composed of ordinary members and the Wissenden or +Witan, the higher membership. The initiation of these members was a +singular and impressive ceremony. It could only take place upon the red +earth, or within the boundaries of Westphalia. Bareheaded and ungirt, +the candidate was conducted before the tribunal, and strictly questioned +as to his qualifications to membership. He must be free-born, of +Teutonic ancestry, and clear of any accusation of crime. + +This settled, a deep and solemn oath of fidelity was administered, the +candidate swearing by the Holy Law to guard the secrets of the Holy Vehm +from wife and child, father and mother, sister and brother, fire and +water, every creature on whom rain falls or sun shines, everything +between earth and heaven; to tell to the tribunal all offences known to +him, and not to be deterred therefrom by love or hate, gold, silver, or +precious stones. He was now intrusted with the very ancient password and +secret grip or other sign of the order, by which the members could +readily recognize each other wherever meeting, and was warned of the +frightful penalty incurred by those who should reveal the secrets of the +Vehm. This penalty was that the criminal should have his eyes bound and +be cast upon the earth, his tongue torn out through the back of his +neck, and his body hanged seven times higher than ordinary criminals. In +the history of the court there is no instance known of the oath of +initiation being broken. For further security of the secrets of the +Vehm, no mercy was given to strangers found within the limits of the +court. All such intruders were immediately hung. + +The number of the Schöffen, or members of the free courts, was very +great. In the fourteenth century it exceeded one hundred thousand. +Persons of all ranks joined them, princes desiring their ministers, +cities their magistrates, to apply for membership. The emperor was the +supreme presiding officer, and under him his deputy, the stadtholder of +the duchy of Westphalia, while the local courts, of which there were one +or more in each district of the duchy, were under the jurisdiction of +the grafs or counts of their districts. + +The Vehm could consider criminal actions of the greatest diversity, +cases of mere slander or defamation of character being sometimes brought +before it. Any violation of the ten commandments was within its +jurisdiction. It particularly devoted itself to secret crimes, such as +magic, witchcraft, or poisoning. Its agents of justice were bound to +make constant circuits, night and day, with the privilege, as we have +said, if they caught a thief or murderer in the act, or obtained his +confession, to hang him at once on the nearest tree, with the knife as +signal of their commission. + +Of the origin of this strange court we have no certain knowledge. +Tradition ascribes it to Charlemagne, but that needs confirmation. It +seems rather to have been an outgrowth of an old Saxon system, which +also left its marks in the systems of justice of Saxon England, where +existed customs not unlike those of the Holy Vehm. + +Mighty was the power of these secret courts, and striking the traditions +to which they have given rise, based upon their alleged nocturnal +assemblies, their secret signs and solemn oaths, their mysterious +customs, and the implacable persistency with which their sentences +sought the criminal, pursuing him for years, and in whatever corner of +the empire he might take refuge, while there were none to call its +ministers of justice to account for their acts if the terrible knife had +been left as evidence of their authority. + +Such an association, composed of thousands of men of all classes, from +the highest to the lowest,--for common freemen, mechanics, and citizens +shared the honor of membership with knights and even princes,--bound +together by a band of inviolable secrecy, and its edicts carried out so +mysteriously and ruthlessly, could not but attain to a terrible power, +and produce a remarkable effect upon the imagination of the people. "The +prince or knight who easily escaped the judgment of the imperial court, +and from behind his fortified walls defied even the emperor himself, +trembled when in the silence of the night he heard the voices of the +_Freischöffen_ at the gate of his castle, and when the free count +summoned him to appear at the ancient _malplatz_, or plain, under the +lime-tree, or on the bank of a rivulet upon that dreaded soil, the +Westphalian or red ground. And that the power of those free courts was +not exaggerated by the mere imagination, excited by terror, nor in +reality by any means insignificant, is proved by a hundred undeniable +examples, supported by records and testimonies, that numerous princes, +counts, knights, and wealthy citizens were seized by these Schöffen of +the secret tribunal, and, in execution of its sentence, perished by +their hands." + +An institution so mysterious and wide-spread as this could not exist +without some degree of abuse of power. Unworthy persons would attain +membership, who would use their authority for the purpose of private +vengeance. This occasional injustice of the Vehmic tribunal became more +frequent as time went on, and by the end of the fifteenth century many +complaints arose against the free courts, particularly among the clergy. +Civilization was increasing, and political institutions becoming more +developed, in Germany; the lords of the land grew restive under the +subjection of their people to the acts of a secret and strange tribunal, +no longer supported by imperial power. Alliances of princes, nobles, and +citizens were made against the Westphalian courts, and their power +finally ceased, without any formal decree of abrogation. + +In the sixteenth century the Vehm still possessed much strength; in the +seventeenth it had grown much weaker; in the eighteenth only a few +traces of it remained; at Gehmen, in Münster, the secret tribunal was +only finally extinguished by a decree of the French legislature in 1811. +Even to the present day there are peasants who have taken the oath of +the Schöffen, whose secrecy they persistently maintain, and who meet +annually at the site of some of the old free courts. The principal signs +of the order are indicated by the letters S.S.G.G., signifying _stock, +stein, gras, grein_ (stick, stone, grass, tears), though no one has been +able to trace the mysterious meaning these words convey as symbols of +the mystic power of the ancient _Vehm gericht_. + + + + +_WILLIAM TELL AND THE SWISS PATRIOTS._ + + +"In the year of our Lord 1307," writes an ancient chronicler, "there +dwelt a pious countryman in Unterwald beyond the Kernwald, whose name +was Henry of Melchthal, a wise, prudent, honest man, well to do and in +good esteem among his country-folk, moreover, a firm supporter of the +liberties of his country and of its adhesion to the Holy Roman Empire, +on which account Beringer von Landenberg, the governor over the whole of +Unterwald, was his enemy. This Melchthaler had some very fine oxen, and +on account of some trifling misdemeanor committed by his son, Arnold of +Melchthal, the governor sent his servant to seize the finest pair of +oxen by way of punishment, and in case old Henry of Melchthal said +anything against it, he was to say that it was the governor's opinion +that the peasants should draw the plough themselves. The servant +fulfilled his lord's commands. But as he unharnessed the oxen, Arnold, +the son of the countryman, fell into a rage, and striking him with a +stick on the hand, broke one of his fingers. Upon this Arnold fled, for +fear of his life, up the country towards Uri, where he kept himself long +secret in the country where Conrad of Baumgarten from Altzelen lay hid +for having killed the governor of Wolfenschiess, who had insulted his +wife, with a blow of his axe. The servant, meanwhile, complained to his +lord, by whose order old Melchthal's eyes were torn out. This tyrannical +action rendered the governor highly unpopular, and Arnold, on learning +how his good father had been treated, laid his wrongs secretly before +trusty people in Uri, and awaited a fit opportunity for avenging his +father's misfortune." + +Such was the prologue to the tragic events which we have now to tell, +events whose outcome was the freedom of Switzerland and the formation of +that vigorous Swiss confederacy which has maintained itself until the +present day in the midst of the powerful and warlike nations which have +surrounded it. The prologue given, we must proceed with the main scenes +of the drama, which quickly followed. + +As the story goes, Arnold allied himself with two other patriots, Werner +Stauffacher and Walter Fürst, bold and earnest men, the three meeting +regularly at night to talk over the wrongs of their country and consider +how best to right them. Of the first named of these men we are told that +he was stirred to rebellion by the tyranny of Gessler, governor of Uri, +a man who forms one of the leading characters of our drama. The rule of +Gessler extended over the country of Schwyz, where in the town of +Steinen, in a handsome house, lived Werner Stauffacher. As the governor +passed one day through this town he was pleasantly greeted by Werner, +who was standing before his door. + +"To whom does this house belong?" asked Gessler. + +Werner, fearing that some evil purpose lay behind this question, +cautiously replied,-- + +"My lord, the house belongs to my sovereign lord the king, and is your +and my fief." + +"I will not allow peasants to build houses without my consent," returned +Gessler, angered at this shrewd reply, "or to live in freedom as if they +were their own masters. I will teach you better than to resist my +authority." + +So saying, he rode on, leaving Werner greatly disturbed by his +threatening words. He returned into his house with heavy brow and such +evidence of discomposure that his wife eagerly questioned him. Learning +what the governor had said, the good lady shared his disturbance, and +said,-- + +"My dear Werner, you know that many of the country-folk complain of the +governor's tyranny. In my opinion, it would be well for some of you, who +can trust one another, to meet in secret, and take counsel how to throw +off his wanton power." + +This advice seemed so judicious to Werner that he sought his friend +Walter Fürst, and arranged with him and Arnold that they should meet and +consider what steps to take, their place of meeting being at Rütli, a +small meadow in a lonely situation, closed in on the land side by high +rocks, and opening on the Lake of Lucerne. Others joined them in their +patriotic purpose, and on the night of the Wednesday before Martinmas, +in the year 1307, each of the three led to the place of meeting ten +others, all as resolute and liberty-loving as themselves. These +thirty-three good and true men, thus assembled at the midnight hour in +the meadow of Rütli, united in a solemn oath that they would devote +their lives and strength to the freeing of their country from its +oppressors. They fixed the first day of the coming year for the +beginning of their work, and then returned to their homes, where they +kept the strictest secrecy, occupying themselves in housing their cattle +for the winter and in other rural labors, with no indication that they +cherished deeper designs. + +During this interval of secrecy another event, of a nature highly +exasperating to the Swiss, is said to have happened. It is true that +modern critics declare the story of this event to be solely a legend and +that nothing of the kind ever took place. However that be, it has ever +since remained one of the most attractive of popular tales, and the +verdict of the critics shall not deter us from telling again this +oft-repeated and always welcome story. + +We have named two of the many tyrannical governors of Switzerland, the +deputies there of Albert of Austria, then Emperor of Germany, whose +purpose was to abolish the privileges of the Swiss and subject the free +communes to his arbitrary rule. The second named of these, Gessler, +governor of Uri and Schwyz, whose threats had driven Werner to +conspiracy, occupied a fortress in Uri, which he had built as a place of +safety in case of revolt, and a centre of tyranny. "Uri's prison" he +called this fortress, an insult to the people of Uri which roused their +indignation. Perceiving their sullenness, Gessler resolved to give them +a salutary lesson of his power and their helplessness. + +On St. Jacob's day he had a pole erected in the market-place at Altdorf, +under the lime-trees there growing, and directed that his hat should be +placed on its top. This done, the command was issued that all who passed +through the market-place should bow and kneel to this hat as to the king +himself, blows and confiscation of property to be the lot of all who +refused. A guard was placed around the pole, whose duty was to take note +of every man who should fail to do homage to the governor's hat. + +On the Sunday following, a peasant of Uri, William Tell by name, who, as +we are told, was one of the thirty-three sworn confederates, passed +several times through the market-place at Altdorf without bowing or +bending the knee to Gessler's hat. This was reported to the governor, +who summoned Tell to his presence, and haughtily asked him why he had +dared to disobey his command. + +"My dear lord," answered Tell, submissively, "I beg you to pardon me, +for it was done through ignorance and not out of contempt. If I were +clever, I should not be called Tell. I pray your mercy; it shall not +happen again." + +[Illustration: STATUE OF WILLIAM TELL.] + +The name Tell signifies dull or stupid, a meaning in consonance with his +speech, though not with his character. Yet stupid or bright, he had the +reputation of being the best archer in the country, and Gessler, knowing +this, determined on a singular punishment for his fault. Tell had +beautiful children, whom he dearly loved. The governor sent for these, +and asked him,-- + +"Which of your children do you love the best?" + +"My lord, they are all alike dear to me," answered Tell. + +"If that be so," said Gessler, "then, as I hear that you are a famous +marksman, you shall prove your skill in my presence by shooting an apple +off the head of one of your children. But take good care to hit the +apple, for if your first shot miss you shall lose your life." + +"For God's sake, do not ask me to do this!" cried Tell in horror. "It +would be unnatural to shoot at my own dear child. I would rather die +than do it." + +"Unless you do it, you or your child shall die," answered the governor +harshly. + +Tell, seeing that Gessler was resolute in his cruel project, and that +the trial must be made or worse might come, reluctantly agreed to it. He +took his cross-bow and two arrows, one of which he placed in the bow, +the other he stuck behind in his collar. The governor, meanwhile, had +selected the child for the trial, a boy of not more than six years of +age, whom he ordered to be placed at the proper distance, and himself +selected an apple and placed it on the child's head. + +Tell viewed these preparations with startled eyes, while praying +inwardly to God to shield his dear child from harm. Then, bidding the +boy to stand firm and not be frightened, as his father would do his best +not to harm him, he raised the perilous bow. + +The legend deals too briefly with this story. It fails to picture the +scene in the market-place. But there, we may be sure, in addition to +Gessler and his guards, were most of the people of Uri, their hearts +burning with sympathy for their countryman and hatred of the tyrant, +their feelings almost wrought up to the point of attacking Gessler and +his guards, and daring death in defence of their liberties. There also +we may behold in fancy the brave child, scarcely old enough to +appreciate the magnitude of his peril, but looking with simple faith +into the kind eyes of his father, who stands firm of frame but trembling +in heart before him, the death-dealing bow in his hand. + +In a minute more the bow is bent, Tell's unerring eye glances along the +shaft, the string twangs sharply, the arrow speeds through the air, and +the apple, pierced through its centre, is borne from the head of the +boy, who leaps forward with a glad cry of triumph, while the unnerved +father, with tears of joy in his eyes, flings the bow to the ground and +clasps his child to his heart. + +"By my faith, Tell, that is a wonderful shot!" cried the astonished +governor. "Men have not belied you. But why have you stuck another arrow +in your collar?" + +"That is the custom among marksmen," Tell hesitatingly answered. + +"Come, man, speak the truth openly and without fear," said Gessler, who +noted Tell's hesitancy. "Your life is safe; but I am not satisfied with +your answer." + +"Then," said Tell, regaining his courage, "if you would have the truth, +it is this. If I had struck my child with the first arrow, the other was +intended for you; and with that I should not have missed my mark." + +The governor started at these bold words, and his brow clouded with +anger. + +"I promised you your life," he exclaimed, "and will keep my word; but, +as you cherish evil intentions against me, I shall make sure that you +cannot carry them out. You are not safe to leave at large, and shall be +taken to a place where you can never again behold the sun or the moon." + +Turning to his guards, he bade them seize the bold marksman, bind his +hands, and take him in a boat across the lake to his castle at Küssnach, +where he should do penance for his evil intentions by spending the +remainder of his life in a dark dungeon. The people dared not interfere +with this harsh sentence; the guards were too many and too well armed. +Tell was seized, bound, and hurried to the lake-side, Gessler +accompanying. + +The water reached, he was placed in a boat, his cross-bow being also +brought and laid beside the steersman. As if with purpose to make sure +of the disposal of his threatening enemy, Gessler also entered the +boat, which was pushed off and rowed across the lake towards Brunnen, +from which place the prisoner was to be taken overland to the governor's +fortress. + +Before they were half-way across the lake, however, a sudden and violent +storm arose, tossing the boat so frightfully that Gessler and all with +him were filled with mortal fear. + +"My lord," cried one of the trembling rowers to the governor, "we will +all go to the bottom unless something is done, for there is not a man +among us fit to manage a boat in this storm. But Tell here is a skilful +boatman, and it would be wise to use him in our sore need." + +"Can you bring us out of this peril?" asked Gessler, who was no less +alarmed than his crew. "If you can, I will release you from your bonds." + +"I trust, with God's help, that I can safely bring you ashore," answered +Tell. + +By Gessler's order his bonds were then removed, and he stepped aft and +took the helm, guiding the boat through the storm with the skill of a +trained mariner. He had, however, another object in view, and had no +intention to let the tyrannical governor bind his free limbs again. He +bade the men to row carefully until they reached a certain rock, which +appeared on the lake-side at no great distance, telling them that he +hoped to land them behind its shelter. As they drew near the spot +indicated, he turned the helm so that the boat struck violently against +the rock, and then, seizing the cross-bow which lay beside him, he +sprang nimbly ashore, and thrust the boat with his foot back into the +tossing waves. The rock on which he landed is, says the chronicler, +still known as Tell's Rock, and a small chapel has been built upon it. + +The story goes on to tell us that the governor and his rowers, after +great danger, finally succeeded in reaching the shore at Brunnen, at +which point they took horse and rode through the district of Schwyz, +their route leading through a narrow passage between the rocks, the only +way by which they could reach Küssnach from that quarter. On they went, +the angry governor swearing vengeance against Tell, and laying plans +with his followers how the runaway should be seized. The deepest dungeon +at Küssnach, he vowed, should be his lot. + +He little dreamed what ears heard his fulminations and what deadly peril +threatened him. On leaving the boat, Tell had run quickly forward to the +passage, or hollow way, through which he knew that Gessler must pass on +his way to the castle. Here, hidden behind the high bank that bordered +the road, he waited, cross-bow in hand, and the arrow which he had +designed for the governor's life in the string, for the coming of his +mortal foe. + +Gessler came, still talking of his plans to seize Tell, and without a +dream of danger, for the pass was silent and seemed deserted. But +suddenly to his ears came the twang of the bow he had heard before that +day; through the air once more winged its way a steel-barbed shaft, the +heart of a tyrant, not an apple on a child's head, now its mark. In an +instant more Gessler fell from his horse, pierced by Tell's fatal shaft, +and breathed his last before the eyes of his terrified servants. On that +spot, the chronicler concludes, was built a holy chapel, which is +standing to this day. + +Such is the far-famed story of William Tell. How much truth and how much +mere tradition there is in it, it is not easy to say. The feat of +shooting an apple from a person's head is told of others before Tell's +time, and that it ever happened is far from sure. But at the same time +it is possible that the story of Tell, in its main features, may be +founded on fact. Tradition is rarely all fable. + +We are now done with William Tell, and must return to the doings of the +three confederates to whom fame ascribes the origin of the liberty of +Switzerland. In the early morning of January 1, 1308, the date they had +fixed for their work to begin, as Landenberg was leaving his castle to +attend mass at Sarnen, he was met by twenty of the mountaineers of +Unterwald, who, as was their custom, brought him a new-year's gift of +calves, goats, sheep, fowls, and hares. Much pleased with the present, +he asked the men to take the animals into the castle court, and went on +his way towards Sarnen. + +But no sooner had the twenty men passed through the gates than a horn +was loudly blown, and instantly each of them drew from beneath his +doublet a steel blade, which he fixed upon the end of his staff. At the +sound of the horn thirty other men rushed from a neighboring wood, and +made for the open gates. In a very few minutes they joined their +comrades in the castle, which was quickly theirs, the garrison being +overpowered. + +Landenberg fled in haste on hearing the tumult, but was pursued and +taken. But as the confederates had agreed with each other to shed no +blood, they suffered this arch villain to depart, after making him swear +to leave Switzerland and never return to it. The news of the revolt +spread rapidly through the mountains, and so well had the confederates +laid their plans, that several other castles were taken by stratagem +before the alarm could be given. Their governors were sent beyond the +borders. Day by day news was brought to the head-quarters of the +patriots, on Lake Lucerne, of success in various parts of the country, +and on Sunday, the 7th of January, a week from the first outbreak, the +leading men of that part of Switzerland met and pledged themselves to +their ancient oath of confederacy. In a week's time they had driven out +the Austrians and set their country free. + +It must be admitted that there is no contemporary proof of this story, +though the Swiss accept it as authentic history, and it has not been +disproved. The chief peril to the new confederacy lay with Albert of +Austria, the dispossessed lord of the land, but the patriotic Swiss +found themselves unexpectedly relieved from the execution of his +threats of vengeance. His harshness and despotic severity had made him +enemies alike among people and nobles, and when, in the spring of 1308, +he sought the borders of Switzerland, with the purpose of reducing and +punishing the insurgents, his career was brought to a sudden and violent +end. + +A conspiracy had been formed against him by his nephew, the Duke of +Swabia, and others who accompanied him in this journey. On the 1st of +May they reached the Reuss River at Windisch, and, as the emperor +entered the boat to be ferried across, the conspirators pushed into it +after him, leaving no room for his attendants. Reaching the opposite +shore, they remounted their steeds and rode on while the boat returned +for the others. Their route lay through the vast cornfields at the base +of the hills whose highest summit was crowned by the great castle of +Hapsburg. + +They had gone some distance, when John of Swabia suddenly rushed upon +the emperor, and buried his lance in his neck, exclaiming, "Such is the +reward of injustice!" Immediately two others rode upon him, Rudolph of +Balm stabbing him with his dagger, while Walter of Eschenbach clove his +head in twain with his sword. This bloody work done, the conspirators +spurred rapidly away, leaving the dying emperor to breathe his last with +his head supported in the lap of a poor woman, who had witnessed the +murder and hurried to the spot. + +This deed of blood saved Switzerland from the vengeance which the +emperor had designed. The mountaineers were given time to cement the +government they had so hastily formed, and which was to last for +centuries thereafter, despite the efforts of ambitious potentates to +reduce the Swiss once more to subjection and rob them of the liberty +they so dearly loved. + + + + +_THE BLACK DEATH AND THE FLAGELLANTS._ + + +The middle of the fourteenth century was a period of extraordinary +terror and disaster to Europe. Numerous portents, which sadly frightened +the people, were followed by a pestilence which threatened to turn the +continent into an unpeopled wilderness. For year after year there were +signs in the sky, on the earth, in the air, all indicative, as men +thought, of some terrible coming event. In 1337 a great comet appeared +in the heavens, its far-extending tail sowing deep dread in the minds of +the ignorant masses. During the three succeeding years the land was +visited by enormous flying armies of locusts, which descended in myriads +upon the fields, and left the shadow of famine in their track. In 1348 +came an earthquake of such frightful violence that many men deemed the +end of the world to be presaged. Its devastations were widely spread. +Cyprus, Greece, and Italy were terribly visited, and it extended through +the Alpine valleys as far as Bâsle. Mountains sank into the earth. In +Carinthia thirty villages and the tower of Villach were ruined. The air +grew thick and stifling. There were dense and frightful fogs. Wine +fermented in the casks. Fiery meteors appeared in the skies. A gigantic +pillar of flame was seen by hundreds descending upon the roof of the +pope's palace at Avignon. In 1356 came another earthquake, which +destroyed almost the whole of Bâsle. What with famine, flood, fog, +locust swarms, earthquakes, and the like, it is not surprising that many +men deemed the cup of the world's sins to be full, and the end of the +kingdom of man to be at hand. + +An event followed that seemed to confirm this belief. A pestilence broke +out of such frightful virulence that it appeared indeed as if man was to +be swept from the earth. Men died in hundreds, in thousands, in myriads, +until in places there were scarcely enough living to bury the dead, and +these so maddened with fright that dwellings, villages, towns, were +deserted by all who were able to fly, the dying and dead being left +their sole inhabitants. It was the pestilence called the "Black Death," +the most terrible visitation that Europe has ever known. + +This deadly disease came from Asia. It is said to have originated in +China, spreading over the great continent westwardly, and descending in +all its destructive virulence upon Europe, which continent it swept as +with the besom of destruction. The disease appears to have been a very +malignant type of what is known as the plague, a form of pestilence +which has several times returned, though never with such virulence as on +that occasion. It began with great lassitude of the body, and rapid +swellings of the glands of the groin and armpits, which soon became +large boils. Then followed, as a fatal symptom, large black or +deep-blue spots over the body, from which came the name of "Black +Death." Some of the victims became sleepy and stupid; others were +incessantly restless. The tongue and throat grew black; the lungs +exhaled a noisome odor; an insatiable thirst was produced. Death came in +two or three days, sometimes on the very day of seizure. Medical aid was +of no avail. Doctors and relatives fled in terror from what they deemed +a fatally contagious disease, and the stricken were left to die alone. +Villages and towns were in many places utterly deserted, no living +things being left, for the disease was as fatal to dogs, cats, and swine +as to men. There is reason to believe that this, and other less +destructive visitations of plague, were due to the action of some of +those bacterial organisms which are now known to have so much to do with +infectious diseases. This particular pestilence-breeder seems to have +flourished in filth, and the streets of the cities of Europe of that day +formed a richly fertile soil for its growth. Men prayed to God for +relief, instead of cleaning their highways and by-ways, and relief came +not. + +Such was its character, what were its ravages? Never before or since has +a pestilence brought such desolation. Men died by millions. At Bâsle it +found fourteen thousand victims; at Strasburg and Erfurt, sixteen +thousand; in the other cities of Germany it flourished in like +proportion. In Osnabrück only seven married couples remained unseparated +by death. Of the Franciscan Minorites of Germany, one hundred and +twenty-five thousand died. + +Outside of Germany the fury of the pestilence was still worse; from east +to west, from north to south, Europe was desolated. The mortality in +Asia was fearful. In China there are said to have been thirteen million +victims to the scourge; in the rest of Asia twenty-four millions. The +extreme west was no less frightfully visited. London lost one hundred +thousand of its population; in all England a number estimated at from +one-third to one-half the entire population (then probably numbering +from three to five millions) were swept into the grave. If we take +Europe as a whole, it is believed that fully a fourth of its inhabitants +were carried away by this terrible scourge. For two years the pestilence +raged, 1348 and 1349. It broke out again in 1361-62, and once more in +1369. + +The mortality caused by the plague was only one of its disturbing +consequences. The bonds of society were loosened; natural affection +seemed to vanish; friend deserted friend, mothers even fled from their +children; demoralization showed itself in many instances in reckless +debauchery. An interesting example remains to us in Boccaccio's +"Decameron," whose stories were told by a group of pleasure-lovers who +had fled from plague-stricken Florence. + +In many localities the hatred of the Jews by the people led to frightful +excesses of persecution against them, they being accused by their +enemies of poisoning the wells. From Berne, where the city councils +gave orders for the massacre, it spread over the whole of Switzerland +and Germany, many thousands being murdered. At Mayence it is said that +twelve thousand Jews were massacred. At Strasburg two thousand were +burned in one pile. Even the orders of the emperor failed to put an end +to the slaughter. All the Jews who could took refuge in Poland, where +they found a protector in Casimir, who, like a second Ahasuerus, +extended his aid to them from love for Esther, a beautiful Jewess. From +that day to this Poland has swarmed with Jews. + +This persecution was discountenanced by Pope Clement VI. in two bulls, +in the first of which he ordered that the Jews should not be made the +victims of groundless charges or injured in person or property without +the sentence of a lawful judge. The second affirmed the innocence of the +Jews in the persecution then going on and ordered the bishops to +excommunicate all those who should continue it. + +Of the beneficial results of the religious excitement may be named the +earnest labors of the order of Beguines, an association of women for the +purpose of attending the sick and dying, which had long been in +existence, but was particularly active and useful during this period. We +may name also the Beghards and Lollards, whose extravagances were to +some extent outgrowths of earnest piety, and their lives strongly +contrasted with the levity and luxury of the higher ecclesiastics. These +societies of poor and mendicant penitents were greatly increased by the +religious excitement of the time, which also gave special vitality to +another sect, the Flagellants, which, as mentioned in a former article, +first arose in 1260, during the excesses of bloodshed of the Guelphs of +northern Italy, and thence spread over Europe. After a period of +decadence they broke out afresh in 1349, as a consequence of the deadly +pestilence. + +The members of this sect, seeing no hope of relief from human action, +turned to God as their only refuge, and deemed it necessary to +propitiate the Deity by extraordinary sacrifices and self-tortures. The +flame of fanaticism, once started, spread rapidly and widely. Hundreds +of men, and even boys, marched in companies through the roads and +streets, carrying heavy torches, scourging their naked shoulders with +knotted whips, which were often loaded with lead or iron, singing +penitential hymns, parading in bands which bore banners and were +distinguished by white hats with red crosses. + +Women as well as men took part in these fanatical exercises, marching +about half-naked, whipping each other frightfully, flinging themselves +on the earth in the most public places of the towns and scourging their +bare backs and shoulders till the blood flowed. Entering the churches, +they would prostrate themselves on the pavement, with their arms +extended in the form of a cross, chanting their rude hymns. Of these +hymns we may quote the following example: + + "Now is the holy pilgrimage. + Christ rode into Jerusalem, + And in his hand he bore a cross; + May Christ to us be gracious. + Our pilgrimage is good and right." + +The Flagellants did not content themselves with these public +manifestations of self-sacrifice. They formed a regular religious order, +with officers and laws, and property in common. At night, before +sleeping, each indicated to his brothers by gestures the sins which +weighed most heavily on his conscience, not a word being spoken until +absolution was granted by one of them in the following form: + + "For their dear sakes who torture bore, + Rise, brother, go and sin no more." + +Had this been all they might have been left to their own devices, but +they went farther. The day of judgment, they declared, was at hand. A +letter had been addressed from Jerusalem by the Creator to his sinning +creatures, and it was their mission to spread this through Europe. They +preached, confessed, and forgave sins, declared that the blood shed in +their flagellations had a share with the blood of Christ in atoning for +sin, that their penances were a substitute for the sacraments of the +church, and that the absolution granted by the clergy was of no avail. +They taught that all men were brothers and equal in the sight of God, +and upbraided the priests for their pride and luxury. + +These doctrines and the extravagances of the Flagellants alarmed the +pope, Clement VI., who launched against the enthusiasts a bull of +excommunication, and ordered their persecution as heretics. This course, +at first, roused their enthusiasm to frenzy. Some of them even pretended +to be the Messiah, one of these being burnt as a heretic at Erfurt. +Gradually, however, as the plague died away, and the occasion for this +fanatical outburst vanished, the enthusiasm of the Flagellants went with +it, and they sunk from sight. In 1414 a troop of them reappeared in +Thuringia and Lower Saxony, and even surpassed their predecessors in +wildness of extravagance. With the dying out of this manifestation this +strange mania of the middle ages vanished, probably checked by the +growing intelligence of mankind. + + + + +_THE SWISS AT MORGARTEN_ + + +On a sunny autumn morning, in the far-off year 1315, a gallant band of +horsemen wound slowly up the Swiss mountains, their forest of spears and +lances glittering in the ruddy beams of the new-risen sun, and extending +down the hill-side as far as the eye could reach. In the vanguard rode +the flower of the army, a noble cavalcade of knights, clad in complete +armor, and including nearly the whole of the ancient nobility of +Austria. At the head of this group rode Duke Leopold, the brother of +Frederick of Austria, and one of the bravest knights and ablest generals +of the realm. Following the van came a second division, composed of the +inferior leaders and the rank and file of the army. + +Switzerland was to be severely punished, and to be reduced again to the +condition from which seven years before it had broken away; such was the +dictum of the Austrian magnates. With the army came Landenberg, the +oppressive governor who had been set free on his oath never to return to +Switzerland. He was returning in defiance of his vow. With it are also +said to have been several of the family of Gessler, the tyrant who fell +beneath Tell's avenging arrow. The birds of prey were flying back, eager +to fatten on the body of slain liberty in Switzerland. + +Up the mountains wound the serried band, proud in their panoply, +confident of easy victory, their voices ringing out in laughter and +disdain as they spoke of the swift vengeance that was about to fall on +the heads of the horde of rebel mountaineers. The duke was as gay and +confidant as any of his followers, as he proudly bestrode his noble +war-horse, and led the way up the mountain slopes towards the district +of Schwyz, the head-quarters of the base-born insurgents. He would +trample the insolent boors under his feet, he said, and had provided +himself with an abundant supply of ropes with which to hang the leaders +of the rebels, whom he counted on soon having in his power. + +All was silent about them as they rode forward; the sun shone +brilliantly; it seemed like a pleasure excursion on which they were +bound. + +"The locusts have crawled to their holes," said the duke, laughingly; +"we will have to stir them out with the points of our lances." + +"The poor fools fancied that liberty was to be won by driving out one +governor and shooting another," answered a noble knight. "They will find +that the eagle of Hapsburg does not loose its hold so easily." + +Their conversation ceased as they found themselves at the entrance to a +pass, through which the road up the mountains wound, a narrow avenue, +wedged in between hills and lakeside. The silence continued unbroken +around the rugged scene as the cavalry pushed in close ranks through the +pass, filling it, as they advanced, from side to side. They pushed +forward; beyond this pass of Morgarten they would find open land again +and the villages of the rebellious peasantry; here all was solitude and +a stillness that was almost depressing. + +Suddenly the stillness was broken. From the rugged cliffs which bordered +the pass came a loud shout of defiance. But more alarming still was the +sound of descending rocks, which came plunging down the mountain side, +and in an instant fell with a sickening thud on the mail-clad and +crowded ranks below. Under their weight the iron helmets of the knights +cracked like so many nut-shells; heads were crushed into shapeless +masses, and dozens of men, a moment before full of life, hope, and +ambition, were hurled in death to the ground. + +Down still plunged the rocks, loosened by busy hands above, sent on +their errand of death down the steep declivities, hurling destruction +upon the dense masses below. Escape was impossible. The pass was filled +with horsemen. It would take time to open an avenue of flight, and still +those death-dealing rocks came down, smashing the strongest armor like +pasteboard, strewing the pass with dead and bleeding bodies. + +And now the horses, terrified, wounded, mad with pain and alarm, began +to plunge and rear, trebling the confusion and terror, crushing fallen +riders under their hoofs, adding their quota to the sum of death and +dismay. Many of them rushed wildly into the lake which bordered one side +of the pass, carrying their riders to a watery death. In a few minutes' +time that trim and soldierly array, filled with hope of easy victory and +disdain of its foes, was converted into a mob of maddened horses and +frightened men, while the rocky pass beneath their feet was strewn +thickly with the dying and the dead. + +Yet all this had been done by fifty men, fifty banished patriots, who +had hastened back on learning that their country was in danger, and +stationing themselves among the cliffs above the pass, had loosened and +sent rolling downwards the stones and huge fragments of rock which lay +plentifully there. + +While the fifty returned exiles were thus at work on the height of +Morgarten, the army of the Swiss, thirteen hundred in number, was posted +on the summit of the Sattel Mountain opposite, waiting its opportunity. +The time for action had come. The Austrian cavalry of the vanguard was +in a state of frightful confusion and dismay. And now the mountaineers +descended the steep hill slopes like an avalanche, and precipitated +themselves on the flank of the invading force, dealing death with their +halberds and iron-pointed clubs until the pass ran blood. + +On every side the Austrian chivalry fell. Escape was next to impossible, +resistance next to useless. Confined in that narrow passage, confused, +terrified, their ranks broken by the rearing and plunging horses, +knights and men-at-arms falling with every blow from their vigorous +assailants, it seemed as if the whole army would be annihilated, and not +a man escape to tell the tale. + +Numbers of gallant knights, the flower of the Austrian, nobility, fell +under those vengeful clubs. Numbers were drowned in the lake. A +halberd-thrust revenged Switzerland on Landenberg, who had come back to +his doom. Two of the Gesslers were slain. Death held high carnival in +that proud array which had vowed to reduce the free-spirited +mountaineers to servitude. + +Such as could fled in all haste. The van of the army, which had passed +beyond those death-dealing rocks, the rear, which had not yet come up, +broke and fled in a panic of fear. Duke Leopold narrowly escaped from +the vengeance of the mountaineers, whom he had held in such contempt. +Instead of using the ropes he had brought with him to hang their chiefs, +he fled at full speed from the victors, who were now pursuing the +scattered fragments of the army, and slaying the fugitives in scores. +With difficulty the proud duke escaped, owing his safety to a peasant, +who guided him through narrow ravines and passes as far as Winterthur, +which he at length reached in a state of the utmost dejection and +fatigue. The gallantly-arrayed army which he had that morning led, with +blare of trumpets and glitter of spears, with high hope and proud +assurance of victory, up the mountain slopes, was now in great part a +gory heap in the rocky passes, the remainder a scattered host of wearied +and wounded fugitives. Switzerland had won its freedom. + +The day before the Swiss confederates, apprised of the approach of the +Austrians, had come together, four hundred men from Uri, three hundred +from Unterwald, the remainder from Schwyz. They owed their success to +Rudolphus Redin, a venerable patriot, so old and infirm that he could +scarcely walk, yet with such reputation for skill and prudence in war +that the warriors halted at his door in their march, and eagerly asked +his advice. + +[Illustration: THE CASTLE OF PRAGUE.] + +"Our grand aim, my sons," said he, "as we are so inferior in numbers, +must be to prevent Duke Leopold from gaining any advantage by his +superior force." + +He then advised them to occupy the Morgarten and Sattel heights, and +fall on the Austrians when entangled in the pass, cutting their force in +two, and assailing it right and left. They obeyed him implicitly, with +what success we have seen. The fifty men who had so efficiently begun +the fray had been banished from Schwyz through some dispute, but on +learning their country's danger had hastily returned to sacrifice their +lives, if need be, for their native land. + +Thus a strong and well-appointed army, fully disciplined and led by +warriors famed for courage and warlike deeds, was annihilated by a small +band of peasants, few of whom had ever struck a blow in war, but who +were animated by the highest spirit of patriotism and love of liberty, +and welcomed death rather than a return to their old state of slavery +and oppression. The short space of an hour and a half did the work. +Austria was defeated and Switzerland was free. + + + + +_A MAD EMPEROR._ + + +If genius to madness is allied, the same may be said of eccentricity, +and certainly Wenceslas, Emperor of Germany and King of Bohemia, had an +eccentricity that approached the vagaries of the insane. The oldest son +of Charles IV., he was brought up in pomp and luxury, and was so +addicted to sensual gratification that he left the empire largely to +take care of itself, while he gave his time to the pleasures of the +bottle and the chase. Born to the throne, he was crowned King of Bohemia +when but three years of age, was elected King of the Romans at fifteen, +and two years afterwards, in 1378, became Emperor of Germany, when still +but a boy, with regard for nothing but riot and rude frolic. + +So far as affairs of state were concerned, the volatile youth either +totally neglected them or treated them with a ridicule that was worse +than neglect. Drunk two-thirds of his time, he now dismissed the most +serious matters with a rude jest, now met his councillors with brutal +fits of rage. The Germans deemed him a fool, and were not far amiss in +their opinion; but as he did not meddle with them, except in holding an +occasional useless diet at Nuremberg, they did not meddle with him. The +Bohemians, among whom he lived, his residence being at Prague, found his +rule much more of a burden. They were exposed to his savage caprices, +and regarded him as a brutal and senseless tyrant. + +That there was method in his madness the following anecdote will +sufficiently show. Former kings had invested the Bohemian nobles with +possessions which he, moved by cupidity, determined to have back. This +is the method he took to obtain them. All the nobles of the land were +invited to meet him at Willamow, where he received them in a black tent, +which opened on one side into a white, and on the other into a red one. +Into this tent of ominous hue the waiting nobles were admitted, one at a +time, and were here received by the emperor, who peremptorily bade them +declare what lands they held as gifts from the crown. + +Those who gave the information asked, and agreed to cede these lands +back to the crown, were led into the white tent, where an ample feast +awaited them. Those who refused were dismissed with frowns into the red +tent, where they found awaiting them the headsman's fatal block and axe. +The hapless guests were instantly seized and beheaded. + +This ghastly jest, if such it may be considered, proceeded for some time +before the nobles still waiting learned what was going on. When at +length a whisper of the frightful mystery of the red tent was borne to +their ears, there were no longer any candidates for its favors. The +emperor found them eagerly willing to give up the ceded lands, and all +that remained found their way to the white tent and the feast. + +The emperor's next act of arbitrary tyranny was directed against the +Jews. One of that people had ridiculed the sacrament, in consequence of +which three thousand Jews of Prague were massacred by the populace of +that city. Wenceslas, instead of punishing the murderers, as justice +would seem to have demanded, solaced his easy conscience by punishing +the victims, declaring all debts owed by Christians to Jews to be null +and void. + +His next act of injustice and cruelty was perpetrated in 1393, and arose +from a dispute between the crown and the church. One of the royal +chamberlains had caused two priests to be executed on the accusation of +committing a flagrant crime. This action was resented by the Archbishop +of Prague, who declared that it was an encroachment upon the prerogative +of the church, which alone had the right to punish an ecclesiastic. He, +therefore, excommunicated the chamberlain. + +This action of the daring churchman threw the emperor into such a +paroxysm of rage that the archbishop, knowing well the man he had to +deal with, took to flight, saving his neck at the expense of his +dignity. The furious Wenceslas, finding that the chief offender had +escaped, vented his wrath on the subordinates, several of whom were +seized. One of them, the dean, moved by indignation, dealt the emperor +so heavy a blow on the head with his sword-knot as to bring the blood. +It does not appear that he was made to suffer for his boldness, but two +of the lower ecclesiastics, John of Nepomuk and Puchnik, were put to +the rack to make them confess facts learned by them in the confessional. +They persistently refused to answer. Wenceslas, infuriated by their +obstinacy, himself seized a torch and applied it to their limbs to make +them speak. They were still silent. The affair ended in his ordering +John of Nepomuk to be flung headlong, during the night, from the great +bridge over the Moldau into the stream. A statue now marks the spot +where this act of tyranny was performed. + +The final result of the emperor's cruelty was one which he could not +have foreseen. He had made a saint of Nepomuk. The church, appreciating +the courageous devotion of the murdered ecclesiastic to his duty in +keeping inviolate the secrets of the confessional, canonized him as a +martyr, and made him the patron saint of Bohemia. + +Puchnik escaped with his life, and eventually with more than his life. +The tyrant's wrath was followed by remorse,--a feeling, apparently, +which rarely troubled his soul,--and he sought to atone for his cruelty +to one churchman by loading the other with benefits. But his mad fury +changed to as mad a benevolence, and he managed to make a jest of his +gratuity. Puchnik was led into the royal treasury, and the emperor +himself, thrusting his royal hands into his hoards of gold, filled the +pockets, and even the boots, of the late sufferer with the precious +coin. This done, Puchnik attempted to depart, but in vain. He found +himself nailed to the floor, so weighed down with gold that he was +unable to stir. Before he could move he had to disgorge much of his +new-gained wealth, a proceeding to which churchmen in that age do not +seem to have been greatly given. Doubtless the remorseful Wenceslas +beheld this process with a grim smile of royal humor on his lips. + +The emperor had a brother, Sigismund by name, a man not of any high +degree of wisdom, but devoid of his wild and immoderate temper. +Brandenburg was his inheritance, though he had married the daughter of +the King of Hungary and Poland, and hoped to succeed to those countries. +There was a third brother, John, surnamed "Von Görlitz." Sigismund was +by no means blind to his brother's folly, or to the ruin in which it +threatened to involve his family and his own future prospects. This last +exploit stirred him to action. Concerting with some other princes of the +empire, he suddenly seized Wenceslas, carried him to Austria, and +imprisoned him in the castle of Wiltberg, in that country. + +A fair disposal, this, of a man who was scarcely fit to run at large, +most reasonable persons would say; but all did not think so. John von +Görlitz, the younger brother of the emperor, fearing public scandal from +such a transaction, induced the princes who held him to set him free. It +proved a fatal display of kindness and family affection for himself. The +imperial captive was no sooner free than, concealing the wrath which he +felt at his incarceration, he invited to a banquet certain Bohemian +nobles who had aided in it. They came, trusting to the fact that the +tiger's claws seemed sheathed. They had no sooner arrived than the claws +were displayed. They were all seized, by the emperor's order, and +beheaded. Then the dissimulating madman turned on his benevolent brother +John, who had taken control of affairs in Bohemia during his +imprisonment, and poisoned him. It was a new proof of the old adage, it +is never safe to warm a frozen adder. + +The restoration of Wenceslas was followed by other acts of folly. In the +following year, 1395, he sold to John Galcazzo Visconti, of Milan, the +dignity of a duke in Lombardy, a transaction which exposed him to +general contempt. At a later date he visited Paris, and here, in a +drunken frolic, he played into the hands of the King of France by ceding +Genoa to that country, and by recognizing the antipope at Avignon, +instead of Boniface IX. at Rome. These acts filled the cup of his folly. +The princes of the empire resolved to depose him. A council was called, +before which he was cited to appear. He refused to come, and was +formally deposed, Rupert, of the Palatinate, being elected in his stead. +Ten years afterwards, in 1410, Rupert died, and Sigismund became Emperor +of Germany. + +Meanwhile, Wenceslas remained King of Bohemia, in spite of his brother +Sigismund, who sought to oust him from this throne also. He took him +prisoner, indeed, but trusted him to the Austrians, who at once set him +free, and the Bohemians replaced him on the throne. Some years +afterwards, war continuing, Wenceslas sought to get rid of his brother +Sigismund in the same manner as he had disposed of his brother John, by +poison. He was successful in having it administered to Sigismund and his +ally, Albert of Austria, in their camp before Zuaym. Albert died, but +Sigismund was saved by a rude treatment which seems to have been in +vogue in that day. He was suspended by the feet for twenty-four hours, +so that the poison ran out of his mouth. + +The later events in the life of Wenceslas have to do with the most +famous era in the history of Bohemia, the reformation in that country, +and the stories of John Huss and Ziska. The fate of Huss is well known. +Summoned before the council at Constance, and promised a safe-conduct by +the Emperor Sigismund, he went, only to find the emperor faithless to +his word and himself condemned and burnt as a heretic. This base act of +treachery was destined to bring a bloody retribution. It infuriated the +reformers in Bohemia, who, after brooding for several years over their +wrongs, broke out into an insurrection of revenge. + +The leader of this outbreak was an officer of experience, named John +Ziska, a man who had lost one eye in childhood, and who bitterly hated +the priesthood for a wrong done to one of his sisters. The martyrdom of +Huss threw him into such deep and silent dejection, that one day the +king, in whose court he was, asked him why he was so sad. + +"Huss is burnt, and we have not yet avenged him," replied Ziska. + +"I can do nothing in that direction," said Wenceslas; adding, +carelessly, "you might attempt it yourself." + +This was spoken as a jest, but Ziska took it in deadly earnest. He, +aided by his friends, roused the people, greatly to the alarm of the +king, who ordered the citizens to bring their arms to the royal castle +of Wisherad, which commanded the city of Prague. + +Ziska heard the command, and obeyed it in his own way. The arms were +brought, but they came in the hands of the citizens, who marched in long +files to the fortress, and drew themselves up before the king, Ziska at +their head. + +"My gracious and mighty sovereign, here we are," said the bold leader; +"we await your commands; against what enemy are we to fight?" + +Wenceslas looked at those dense groups of armed and resolute men, and +concluded that his purpose of disarming them would not work. Assuming a +cheerful countenance, he bade them return home and keep the peace. They +obeyed, so far as returning home was concerned. In other matters they +had learned their power, and were bent on exerting it. + +Nicolas of Hussinez, Huss's former lord, and Ziska's seconder in this +outbreak, was banished from the city by the king. He went, but took +forty thousand men with him, who assembled on a mountain which was +afterwards known by the biblical name of Mount Tabor. Here several +hundred tables were spread for the celebration of the Lord's Supper, +July 22, 1419. + +Wenceslas, in attempting to put a summary end to the disturbance in the +city, quickly made bad worse. He deposed the Hussite city council in the +Neustadt, the locality of greatest disturbance, and replaced it by a new +one in his own interests. This action filled Prague with indignation, +which was redoubled when the new council sent two clamorous Hussites to +prison. On the 30th of July Ziska led a strong body of his partisans +through the streets to the council-house, and sternly demanded that the +prisoners should be set free. + +The councillors hesitated,--a fatal hesitation. A stone was flung from +one of the windows. Instantly the mob stormed the building, rushed into +the council-room, and seized the councillors, thirteen of whom, Germans +by birth, were flung out of the windows. They were received on the pikes +of the furious mob below, and the whole of them murdered. + +This act of violence was quickly followed by others. The dwelling of a +priest, supposed to have been that of the seducer of Ziska's sister, was +destroyed and its owner hanged; the Carthusian monks were dragged +through the streets, crowned with thorns, and other outrages perpetrated +against the opponents of the party of reform. + +A few days afterwards the career of Wenceslas, once Emperor of Germany, +now King of Bohemia, came to an abrupt end. On August 16 he suddenly +died,--by apoplexy, say some historians, while others say that he was +suffocated in his palace by his own attendants. The latter would seem a +fitting end for a man whose life had been marked by so many acts of +tyrannous violence, some of them little short of insanity. + +Whatever its cause, his death removed the last restraint from the mob. +On the following day every church and monastery in Prague was assailed +and plundered, their pictures were destroyed, and the robes of the +priests were converted into flags and dresses. Many of these buildings +are said to have been splendidly decorated, and the royal palace, which +was also destroyed, had been adorned by Wenceslas and his father with +the richest treasures of art. We are told that on the walls of a garden +belonging to the palace the whole of the Bible was written. While the +work of destruction went on, a priest formed an altar in the street of +three tubs, covered by a broad table-top, from which all day long he +dispensed the sacrament in both forms. + +The excesses of this outbreak soon frightened the wealthier citizens, +who dreaded an assault upon their wealth, and, in company with Sophia, +the widow of Wenceslas, they sent a deputation to the emperor, asking +him to make peace. He replied by swearing to take a fearful revenge on +the insurgents. The insurrection continued, despite this action of the +nobles and the threats of the emperor. Ziska, finding the citizens too +moderate, invited into the city the peasants, who were armed with +flails, and committed many excesses. + +Forced by the moderate party to leave the city, Ziska led his new +adherents to Mount Tabor, which he fortified and prepared to defend. +They called themselves the "people of God," and styled their Catholic +opponents "Moabites," "Amalekites," etc., declaring that it was their +duty to extirpate them. Their leader entitled himself "John Ziska, of +the cup, captain, in the hope of God, of the Taborites." + +But having brought the story of the Emperor Wenceslas to an end, we must +stop at this point. The after-life of John Ziska was of such stir and +interest, and so filled with striking events, that we shall deal with it +by itself, in a sequel to the present story. + + + + +_SEMPACH AND ARNOLD WINKELRIED._ + + +Seventy years had passed since the battle of Morgarten, through which +freedom came to the lands of the Swiss. Throughout that long period +Austria had let the liberty-loving mountaineers alone, deterred by the +frightful lesson taught them in the bloody pass. In the interval the +confederacy had grown more extensive. The towns of Berne, Zurich, +Soleure, and Zug had joined it; and now several other towns and +villages, incensed by the oppression and avarice of their Austrian +masters, threw off the foreign yoke and allied themselves to the Swiss +confederacy. It was time for the Austrians to be moving, if they would +retain any possessions in the Alpine realm of rocks. + +Duke Leopold of Austria, a successor to the Leopold who had learned so +well at Morgarten how the Swiss could strike for liberty, and as bold +and arrogant as he, grew incensed at the mountaineers for taking into +their alliance several towns which were subject to him, and vowed not +only to chastise these rebels, but to subdue the whole country, and put +an end to their insolent confederacy. His feeling was shared by the +Austrian nobles, one hundred and sixty-seven of whom joined in his +warlike scheme, and agreed to aid him in putting down the defiant +mountaineers. + +War resolved upon, the Austrians laid a shrewd plan to fill the Swiss +confederates with terror in advance of their approach. Letters declaring +war were sent to the confederate assembly by twenty distinct expresses, +with the hope that this rapid succession of threats would overwhelm them +with fear. The separate nobles followed with their declarations. On St. +John's day a messenger arrived from Würtemberg bearing fifteen +declarations of war. Hardly had these letters been read when nine more +arrived, sent by John Ulric of Pfirt and eight other nobles. Others +quickly followed; it fairly rained declarations of war; the members of +the assembly had barely time to read one batch of threatening +fulminations before another arrived. Letters from the lords of Thurn +came after those named, followed by a batch from the nobles of +Schaffhausen. This seemed surely enough, but on the following day the +rain continued, eight successive messengers arriving, who bore no less +than forty-three declarations of war. + +It seemed as if the whole north was about to descend in a cyclone of +banners and spears upon the mountain land. The assembly sat breathless +under this torrent of threats. Had their hearts been open to the +invasion of terror they must surely have been overwhelmed, and have +waited in the supineness of fear for the coming of their foes. + +But the hearts of the Swiss were not of that kind. They were too full of +courage and patriotism to leave room for dismay. Instead of awaiting +their enemies with dread, a burning impatience animated their souls. If +liberty or death were the alternatives, the sooner the conflict began +the more to their liking it would be. The cry of war resounded through +the country, and everywhere, in valley and on mountain, by lake-side and +by glacier's rim, the din of hostile preparation might have been heard, +as the patriots arranged their affairs and forged and sharpened their +weapons for the coming fray. + +Far too impatient were they to wait for the coming of Leopold and his +army. There were Austrian nobles and Austrian castles within their land. +No sooner was the term of the armistice at an end than the armed +peasantry swarmed about these strongholds, and many a fortress, long the +seat of oppression, was taken and levelled with the ground. The war-cry +of Leopold and the nobles had inspired a different feeling from that +counted upon. + +It was not long before Duke Leopold appeared. At the head of a large and +well-appointed force, and attended by many distinguished knights and +nobles, he marched into the mountain region and advanced upon Sempach, +one of the revolted towns, resolved, he said, to punish its citizens +with a rod of iron for their daring rebellion. + +On the 9th of July, 1386, the Austrian cavalry, several thousands in +number, reached the vicinity of Sempach, having distanced the +foot-soldiers in the impatient haste of their advance. Here they found +the weak array of the Swiss gathered on the surrounding heights, and as +eager as themselves for the fray. It was a small force, no stronger +than that of Morgarten, comprising only about fourteen hundred +poorly-armed men. Some carried halberds, some shorter weapons, while +some among them, instead of a shield, had only a small board fastened to +the left arm. It seemed like madness for such a band to dare contend +with the thousands of well-equipped invaders. But courage and patriotism +go far to replace numbers, as that day was to show. + +Leopold looked upon his handful of foes, and decided that it would be +folly to wait for the footmen to arrive. Surely his host of nobles and +knights, with their followers, would soon sweep these peasants, like so +many locusts, from their path. Yet he remembered the confusion into +which the cavalry had been thrown at Morgarten, and deeming that +horsemen were ill-suited to an engagement on those wooded hill-sides, he +ordered the entire force to dismount and attack on foot. + +The plan adopted was that the dismounted knights and soldiers should +join their ranks as closely as possible, until their front presented an +unbroken wall of iron, and thus arrayed should charge the enemy spear in +hand. Leaving their attendants in charge of their horses, the serried +column of footmen prepared to advance, confident of sweeping their foes +to death before their closely-knit line of spears. + +Yet this plan of battle was not without its critics. The Baron of +Hasenburg, a veteran soldier, looked on it with disfavor, as contrasted +with the position of vantage occupied by the Swiss, and cautioned the +duke and his nobles against undue assurance. + +"Pride never served any good purpose in peace or war," he said. "We had +much better wait until the infantry come up." + +This prudent advice was received with shouts of derision by the nobles, +some of whom cried out insultingly,-- + +"Der Hasenburg hat ein Hasenherz" ("Hasenburg has a hare's heart," a +play upon the baron's name). + +Certain nobles, however, who had not quite lost their prudence, tried to +persuade the duke to keep in the rear, as the true position for a +leader. He smiled proudly in reply, and exclaimed with impatience,-- + +"What! shall Leopold be a mere looker-on, and calmly behold his knights +die around him in his own cause? Never! here on my native soil with you +I will conquer or perish with my people." So saying, he placed himself +at the head of the troops. + +And now the decisive moment was at hand. The Swiss had kept to the +heights while their enemy continued mounted, not venturing to face such +a body of cavalry on level ground. But when they saw them forming as +foot-soldiers, they left the hills and marched to the plain below. Soon +the unequal forces confronted each other; the Swiss, as was their +custom, falling upon their knees and praying for God's aid to their +cause; the Austrians fastening their helmets and preparing for the fray. +The duke even took the occasion to give the honor of knighthood to +several young warriors. + +The day was a hot and close one, the season being that of harvest, and +the sun pouring down its unclouded and burning rays upon the combatants. +This sultriness was a marked advantage to the lightly-dressed +mountaineers as compared with the armor-clad knights, to whom the heat +was very oppressive. + +The battle was begun by the Swiss, who, on rising from their knees, +flung themselves with impetuous valor on the dense line of spears that +confronted them. Their courage and fury were in vain. Not a man in the +Austrian line wavered. They stood like a rock against which the waves of +the Swiss dashed only to be hurled back in death. The men of Lucerne, in +particular, fought with an almost blind rage, seeking to force a path +through that steel-pointed forest of spears, and falling rapidly before +the triumphant foe. + +Numbers of the mountaineers lay dead or wounded. The line of spears +seemed impenetrable. The Swiss began to waver. The enemy, seeing this, +advanced the flanks of his line so as to form a half-moon shape, with +the purpose of enclosing the small body of Swiss within a circle of +spears. It looked for the moment as if the struggle were at an end, the +mountaineers foiled and defeated, the fetters again ready to be locked +upon the limbs of free Switzerland. + +But such was not to be. There was a man in that small band of patriots +who had the courage to accept certain death for his country, one of +those rare souls who appear from time to time in the centuries and win +undying fame by an act of self-martyrdom. Arnold of Winkelried was his +name, a name which history is not likely soon to forget, for by an +impulse of the noblest devotion this brave patriot saved the liberties +of his native land. + +[Illustration: STATUE OF ARNOLD WINKELRIED.] + +Seeing that there was but one hope for the Swiss, and that death must be +the lot of him who gave them that hope, he exclaimed to his comrades, in +a voice of thunder,-- + +"Faithful and beloved confederates, I will open a passage to freedom and +victory! Protect my wife and children!" + +With these words, he rushed from his ranks, flung himself upon the +enemy's steel-pointed line, and seized with his extended arms as many of +the hostile spears as he was able to grasp, burying them in his body, +and sinking dead to the ground. + +His comrades lost not a second in availing themselves of this act of +heroic devotion. Darting forward, they rushed over the body of the +martyr to liberty into the breach he had made, forced others of the +spears aside, and for the first time since the fray began reached the +Austrians with their weapons. + +A hasty and ineffective effort was made to close the breach. It only +added to the confusion which the sudden assault had caused. The line of +hurrying knights became crowded and disordered. The furious Swiss broke +through in increasing numbers. Overcome with the heat, many of the +knights fell from exhaustion, and died without a wound, suffocated in +their armor. Others fell below the blows of the Swiss. The line of +spears, so recently intact, was now broken and pierced at a dozen +points, and the revengeful mountaineers were dealing death upon their +terrified and feebly-resisting foes. + +The chief banner of the host had twice sunk and been raised again, and +was drooping a third time, when Ulric, a knight of Aarburg, seized and +lifted it, defending it desperately till a mortal blow laid him low. + +"Save Austria! rescue!" he faltered with his dying breath. + +Duke Leopold, who was pushing through the confused throng, heard him and +caught the banner from his dying hand. Again it waved aloft, but now +crimsoned with the blood of its defender. + +The Swiss, determined to capture it, pressed upon its princely bearer, +surrounded him, cut down on every side the warriors who sought to defend +him and the standard. + +"Since so many nobles and knights have ended their days in my cause, let +me honorably follow them," cried the despairing duke, and in a moment he +rushed into the midst of the hostile ranks, vanishing from the eyes of +his attendants. Blows rained on his iron mail. In the pressure of the +crowd he fell to the earth. While seeking to raise himself again in his +heavy armor, he cried, in his helpless plight, to a Swiss soldier, who +had approached him with raised weapon,-- + +"I am the Prince of Austria." + +The man either heard not his words, or took no heed of princes. The +weapon descended with a mortal blow. Duke Leopold of Austria was dead. + +The body of the slain duke was found by a knight, Martin Malterer, who +bore the banner of Freiburg. On recognizing him, he stood like one +petrified, let the banner fall from his hand, and then threw himself on +the body of the prince, that it might not be trampled under foot by the +contending forces. In this position he soon received his own +death-wound. + +By this time the state of the Austrians was pitiable. The signal for +retreat was given, and in utter terror and dismay they fled for their +horses. Alas, too late! The attendants, seeing the condition of their +masters, and filled with equal terror, had mounted the horses, and were +already in full flight. + +Nothing remained for the knights, oppressed with their heavy armor, +exhausted with thirst and fatigue, half suffocated with the scorching +heat, assailed on every side by the light-armed and nimble Swiss, but to +sell their lives as dearly as possible. In a short time more all was at +an end. The last of the Austrians fell. On that fatal field there had +met their death, at the hands of the small body of Swiss, no less than +six hundred and fifty-six knights, barons, and counts, together with +thousands of their men-at-arms. + +Thus ended the battle of Sempach, with its signal victory to the Swiss, +one of the most striking which history records, if we consider the great +disproportion in numbers and in warlike experience and military +equipment of the combatants. It secured to Switzerland the liberty for +which they had so valiantly struck at Morgarten seventy years before. + +But all Switzerland was not yet free, and more blows were needed to win +its full liberty. The battle of Næfels, in 1388, added to the width of +the free zone. In this the peasants of Glarus rolled stones on the +Austrian squadrons, and set fire to the bridges over which they fled, +two thousand five hundred of the enemy, including a great number of +nobles, being slain. In the same year the peasants of Valais defeated +the Earl of Savoy at Visp, putting four thousand of his men to the +sword. The citizens of St. Gall, infuriated by the tyranny of the +governor of the province of Schwendi, broke into insurrection, attacked +the castle of Schwendi, and burnt it to the ground. The governor +escaped. All the castles in the vicinity were similarly dealt with, and +the whole district set free. + +Shortly after 1400 the citizens of St. Gall joined with the peasants +against their abbot, who ruled them with a hand of iron. The Swabian +cities were asked to decide the dispute, and decided that cities could +only confederate with cities, not with peasants, thus leaving the +Appenzellers to their fate. At this decision the herdsmen rose in arms, +defeated abbot and citizens both, and set their country free, all the +neighboring peasantry joining their band of liberty. A few years later +the people of this region joined the confederation, which now included +nearly the whole of the Alpine country, and was strong enough to +maintain its liberty for centuries thereafter. It was not again subdued +until the legions of Napoleon trod over its mountain paths. + + + + +_ZISKA, THE BLIND WARRIOR._ + + +Sigismund, Emperor of Germany, had sworn to put an end to the Hussite +rebellion in Bohemia, and to punish the rebels in a way that would make +all future rebels tremble. But Sigismund was pursuing the old policy of +cooking the hare before it was caught. He forgot that the indomitable +John Ziska and the iron-flailed peasantry stood between him and his vow. +He had first to conquer the reformers before he could punish them, and +this was to prove no easy task. + +The dreadful work of religious war began with the burning of Hussite +preachers who had ventured from Bohemia into Germany. This was an +argument which Ziska thoroughly understood, and he retorted by +destroying the Bohemian monasteries, and burning the priests alive in +barrels of pitch. "They are singing my sister's wedding song," exclaimed +the grim barbarian, on hearing their cries of torture. Queen Sophia, +widow of Wenceslas, the late king, who had garrisoned all the royal +castles, now sent a strong body of troops against the reformers. The +army came up with the multitude, which was largely made up of women and +children, on the open plain near Pilsen. The cavalry charged upon the +seemingly helpless mob. But Ziska was equal to the occasion. He ordered +the women to strew the ground with their gowns and veils, and the +horses' feet becoming entangled in these, numbers of the riders were +thrown, and the trim lines of the troops broken. + +Seeing the confusion into which they had been thrown, Ziska gave the +order to charge, and in a short time the army that was to defeat him was +flying in a panic across the plain, a broken and beaten mob. Another +army marched against him, and was similarly defeated; and the citizens +of Prague, finding that no satisfactory terms could be made with the +emperor, recalled Ziska, and entered into alliance with him. The +one-eyed patriot was now lord of the land, all Bohemia being at his beck +and call. + +Meanwhile Sigismund, the emperor, was slowly gathering his forces to +invade the rebellious land. The reign of cruelty continued, each side +treating its prisoners barbarously. The Imperialists branded theirs with +a cup, the Hussites theirs with a cross, on their foreheads. The +citizens of Breslau joined those of Prague, and emulated them by +flinging their councillors out of the town-house windows. In return the +German miners of Kuttenberg threw sixteen hundred Hussites down the +mines. Such is religious war, the very climax of cruelty. + +In June, 1420, the threatened invasion came. Sigismund led an army, one +hundred thousand strong, into the revolted land, fulminating vengeance +as he marched. He reached Prague and entered the castle of Wisherad, +which commanded it. Ziska fortified the mountain of Witlow (now called +Ziskaberg), which also commanded the city. Sigismund, finding that he +had been outgeneralled, and that his opponent held the controlling +position, waited and temporized, amusing himself meanwhile by assuming +the crown of Bohemia, and sowing dissension in his army by paying the +Slavonian and Hungarian troops with the jewels taken from the royal +palaces and the churches, while leaving the Germans unpaid. The Germans, +furious, marched away. The emperor was obliged to follow. The +ostentatious invasion was at an end, and scarcely a blow had been +struck. + +But Sigismund had no sooner gone than trouble arose in Prague. The +citizens, the nobility, and Ziska's followers were all at odds. The +Taborites--those strict republicans and religious reformers who had made +Mount Tabor their head-quarters--were in power, and ruled the city with +a rod of iron, destroying all the remaining splendor of the churches and +sternly prohibiting every display of ostentation by the people. Death +was named as the punishment for such venial faults as dancing, gambling, +or the wearing of rich attire. The wine-cellars were rigidly closed. +Church property was declared public property, and it looked as if +private wealth would soon be similarly viewed. The peasants declared +that it was their mission to exterminate sin from the earth. + +This tyranny so incensed the nobles and citizens that they rose in +self-defence, and Ziska, finding that Prague had grown too hot to hold +him, deemed it prudent to lead his men away. Sigismund took immediate +advantage of the opportunity by marching on Prague. But, quick as he +was, there were others quicker. The more moderate section of the +reformers, the so-called Horebites,--from Mount Horeb, another place of +assemblage,--entered the city, led by Hussinez, Huss's former lord, and +laid siege to the royal fortress, the Wisherad. Sigismund attempted to +surprise him, but met with so severe a repulse that he fled into +Hungary, and the Wisherad was forced to capitulate, this ancient palace +and its church, both splendid works of art, being destroyed. Step by +step the art and splendor of Bohemia were vanishing in this despotic +struggle between heresy and the papacy. + +As the war went on, Ziska, its controlling spirit, grew steadily more +abhorrent of privilege and distinction, more bitterly fanatical. The +ancient church, royalty, nobility, all excited his wrath. He was +republican, socialist, almost anarchist in his views. His idea of +perfection lay in a fraternity composed of the children of God, while he +trusted to the strokes of the iron flail to bear down all opposition to +his theory of society. The city of Prachaticz treated him with mockery, +and was burnt to the ground, with all its inhabitants. The Bishop of +Nicopolis fell into his hands, and was flung into the river. As time +went on, his war of extermination against sinners--that is, all who +refused to join his banner--grew more cruel and unrelenting. Each city +that resisted was stormed and ruined, its inhabitants slaughtered, its +priests burned. Hussite virtue had degenerated into tyranny of the worst +type. Yet, while thus fanatical himself, Ziska would not permit his +followers to indulge in insane excesses of religious zeal. A party arose +which claimed that the millennium was at hand, and that it was their +duty to anticipate the coming of the innocence of Paradise, by going +naked, like Adam and Eve. These Adamites committed the maddest excesses, +but found a stern enemy in Ziska, who put them down with an unsparing +hand. + +In 1421 Sigismund again roused himself to activity, incensed by the +Hussite defiance of his authority. He incited the Silesians to invade +Bohemia, and an army of twenty thousand poured into the land, killing +all before them,--men, women, and children. Yet such was the terror that +the very name of Ziska now excited, that the mere rumor of his approach +sent these invaders flying across the borders. + +But, in the midst of his career of triumph, an accident came to the +Bohemian leader which would have incapacitated any less resolute man +from military activity. During the siege of the castle of Raby a +splinter struck his one useful eye and completely deprived him of sight. +It did not deprive him of power and energy. Most men, under such +circumstances, would have retired from army leadership, but John Ziska +was not of that calibre. He knew Bohemia so thoroughly that the whole +land lay accurately mapped out in his mind. He continued to lead his +army, to marshal his men in battle array, to command them in the field +and the siege, despite his blindness, always riding in a carriage, close +to the great standard, and keeping in immediate touch with all the +movements of the war. + +Blind as he was, he increased rather than diminished the severity of his +discipline, and insisted on rigid obedience to his commands. As an +instance of this we are told that, on one occasion, having compelled his +troops to march day and night, as was his custom, they murmured and +said,-- + +"Day and night are the same to you, as you cannot see; but they are not +the same to us." + +"How!" he cried. "You cannot see! Well, set fire to a couple of +villages." + +The blind warrior was soon to have others to deal with than his Bohemian +foes. Sigismund had sent forward another army, which, in September, +1421, invaded the country. It was driven out by the mere rumor of +Ziska's approach, the soldiers flying in haste on the vague report of +his coming. But in November the emperor himself came, leading a horde of +eighty thousand Hungarians, Servians, and others, savage fellows, whose +approach filled the moderate party of the Bohemians with terror. Ziska's +men had such confidence in their blind chief as to be beyond terror. +They were surrounded by the enemy, and enclosed in what seemed a trap. +But under Ziska's orders they made a night attack on the foe, broke +through their lines, and, to the emperor's discomfiture, were once more +free. + +On New Year's day, 1422, the two armies came face to face near Zollin. +Ziska drew up his men in battle array and confidently awaited the attack +of the enemy. But the inflexible attitude of his men, the terror of his +name, or one of those inexplicable influences which sometimes affect +armies, filled the Hungarians with a sudden panic, and they vanished +from the front of the Bohemians without a blow. Once more the emperor +and the army which he had led into the country with such high confidence +of success were in shameful flight, and the terrible example which he +had vowed to make of Bohemia was still unaccomplished. + +The blind chief vigorously and relentlessly pursued, overtaking the +fugitives on January 8 near Deutschbrod. Terrified at his approach, they +sought to escape by crossing the stream at that place on the ice. The +ice gave way, and numbers of them were drowned. Deutschbrod was burned +and its inhabitants slaughtered in Ziska's cruel fashion. + +This repulse put an end to invasions of Bohemia while Ziska lived. There +were intestine disturbances which needed to be quelled, and then the +army of the reformers was led beyond the boundaries of the country and +assailed the imperial dominions, but the emperor held aloof. He had had +enough of the blind terror of Bohemia, the indomitable Ziska and his +iron-flailed peasants. New outbreaks disturbed Bohemia. Ambitious nobles +aspired to the kingship, but their efforts were vain. The army of the +iron flail quickly put an end to all such hopes. + +In 1423 Ziska invaded Moravia and Austria, to keep his troops employed, +and lost severely in doing so. In 1424 his enemies at home again made +head against him, led an army into the field, and pursued him to +Kuttenberg. Here he ordered his men to feign a retreat, then, while the +foe were triumphantly advancing, he suddenly turned, had his +battle-chariot driven furiously down the mountain-side upon their lines, +and during the confusion thus caused ordered an attack in force. The +enemy were repulsed, their artillery was captured, and Kuttenberg set in +flames, as Ziska's signal of triumph. + +Shortly afterwards, his enemies at home being thoroughly beaten, the +indomitable blind chief marched upon Prague, the head-quarters of his +foes, and threatened to burn this city to the ground. He might have done +so, too, but for his own men, who broke into sedition at the threat. + +Procop, Ziska's bravest captain, advised peace, to put an end to the +disasters of civil war. His advice was everywhere re-echoed, the demand +for peace seemed unanimous, Ziska alone opposing it. Mounting a cask, +and facing his discontented followers, he exclaimed,-- + +"Fear internal more than external foes. It is easier for a few, when +united, to conquer, than for many, when disunited. Snares are laid for +you; you will be entrapped, but it will not be my fault." + +Despite his harangue, however, peace was concluded between the +contending factions, and a large monument raised in commemoration +thereof, both parties heaping up stones. Ziska entered the city in +solemn procession, and was met with respect and admiration by the +citizens. Prince Coribut, the leader of the opposite party and the +aspirant to the crown, came to meet him, embraced him, and called him +father. The triumph of the blind chief over his internal foes was +complete. + +It seemed equally complete over his external foes. Sigismund, unable to +conquer him by force of arms, now sought to mollify him by offers of +peace, and entered into negotiations with the stern old warrior. But +Ziska was not to be placated. He could not trust the man who had broken +his plighted word and burned John Huss, and he remained immovable in his +hostility to Germany. Planning a fresh attack on Moravia, he began his +march thither. But now he met a conquering enemy against whose arms +there was no defence. Death encountered him on the route, and carried +him off October 12, 1424. + +Thus ends the story of an extraordinary man, and the history of a series +of remarkable events. Of all the peasant outbreaks, of which there were +so many during the mediæval period, the Bohemian was the only one--if we +except the Swiss struggle for liberty--that attained measurable success. +This was due in part to the fact that it was a religious instead of an +industrial revolt, and thus did not divide the country into sharp ranks +of rich and poor; and in greater part to the fact that it had an able +leader, one of those men of genius who seem born for great occasions. +John Ziska, the blind warrior, leading his army to victory after +victory, stands alone in the gallery of history. There were none like +him, before or after. + +He is pictured as a short, broad-shouldered man, with a large, round, +and bald head. His forehead was deeply furrowed, and he wore a long +moustache of a fiery red hue. This, with his blind eye and his final +complete blindness, yields a well-defined image of the man, that +fanatical, remorseless, indomitable, and unconquerable avenger of the +martyred Huss, the first successful opponent of the doctrines of the +church of Rome whom history records. + +The conclusion of the story of the Hussites may be briefly given. For +years they held their own, under two leaders, known as Procop Holy and +Procop the Little, defying the emperor, and at times invading the +empire. The pope preached a crusade against them, but the army of +invasion was defeated, and Silesia and Austria were invaded in reprisal +by Procop Holy. + +Seven years after the death of Ziska an army of invasion again entered +Bohemia, so strong in numbers that it seemed as if that war-drenched +land must fall before it. In its ranks were one hundred and thirty +thousand men, led by Frederick of Brandenburg. Their purposes were seen +in their actions. Every village reached was burned, till two hundred had +been given to the flames. Horrible excesses were committed. On August +14, 1431, the two armies, the Hussite and the Imperialist, came face to +face near Tauss. The disproportion in numbers was enormous, and it +looked as if the small force of Bohemians would be swallowed up in the +multitude of their foes. But barely was the Hussite banner seen in the +distance when the old story was told over again, the Germans broke into +sudden panic, and fled _en masse_ from the field. The Bavarians were the +first to fly, and all the rest speedily followed. Frederick of +Brandenburg and his troops took refuge in a wood. The Cardinal Julian, +who had preached a crusade against Bohemia, succeeded for a time in +rallying the fugitives, but at the first onset of the Hussites they +again took to flight, suffering themselves to be slaughtered without +resistance. The munitions of war were abandoned to the foe, including +one hundred and fifty cannon. + +It was an extraordinary affair, but in truth the flight was less due to +terror than to disinclination of the German soldiers to fight the +Hussites, whose cause they deemed to be just and glorious, and the +influence of whose opinions had spread far beyond the Bohemian border. +Rome was losing its hold over the mind of northern Europe outside the +limits of the land of Huss and Ziska. + +Negotiations for peace followed. The Bohemians were invited to Bâsle, +being granted a safe-conduct, and promised free exercise of their +religion coming and going, while no words of ridicule or reproach were +to be permitted. On January 9, 1433, three hundred Bohemians, mounted on +horseback, entered Bâsle, accompanied by an immense multitude. It was a +very different entrance from that of Huss to Constance, nearly twenty +years before, and was to have a very different termination. Procop Holy +headed the procession, accompanied by others of the Bohemian leaders. A +signal triumph had come to the party of religious reform, after twenty +years of struggle. + +For fifty days the negotiations continued. Neither side would yield. In +the end, the Bohemians, weary of the protracted and fruitless debate, +took to their horses again, and set out homewards. This brought their +enemies to terms. An embassy was hastily sent after them, and all their +demands were conceded, though with certain reservations that might prove +perilous in the future. They went home triumphant, having won freedom of +religious worship according to their ideas of right and truth. + +They had not long reached home when dissensions again broke out. The +emperor took advantage of them, accepted the crown of Bohemia, entered +Prague, and at once reinstated the Catholic religion. The fanatics flew +to arms, but after a desperate struggle were annihilated. The Bohemian +struggle was at an end. In the following year the emperor Sigismund +died, having lived just long enough to win success in his long conflict. +The martyrdom of Huss, the valor and zeal of Ziska, appeared to have +been in vain. Yet they were not so, for the seeds they had sown bore +fruit in the following century in a great sectarian revolt which +affected all Christendom and permanently divided the Church. + + + + +_THE SIEGE OF BELGRADE_ + + +The empire of Rome finally reached its end, not in the fifth century, as +ordinarily considered, but in the fifteenth; not at Rome, but at +Constantinople, where the Eastern empire survived the Western for a +thousand years. At length, in 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople, +set a broad foot upon the degenerate empire of the East, and crushed out +the last feeble remnants of life left in the pygmy successor of the +colossus of the past. + +And now Europe, which had looked on with clasped hands while the Turks +swept over the Bosphorus and captured Constantinople, suddenly awoke to +the peril of its situation. A blow in time might have saved the Greek +empire. The blow had not been struck, and now Europe had itself to save. +Terror seized upon the nations which had let their petty intrigues stand +in the way of that broad policy in which safety lay, for they could not +forget past instances of Asiatic invasion. The frightful ravages wrought +by the Huns and the Avars were far in the past, but no long time had +elapsed since the coming of the Magyars and the Mongols, and now here +was another of those hordes of murderous barbarians, hanging like a +cloud of war on the eastern skirt of Europe, and threatening to rain +death and ruin upon the land. The dread of the nations was not amiss. +They had neglected to strengthen the eastern barrier to the Turkish +avalanche. Now it threatened their very doors, and they must meet it at +home. + +The Turks were not long in making their purpose evident. Within two +years after the fall of Constantinople they were on the march again, and +had laid siege to Belgrade, the first obstacle in their pathway to +universal conquest. The Turkish cannons were thundering at the doors of +Europe. Belgrade fallen, Vienna would come next, and the march of the +barbarians might only end at the sea. + +And yet, despite their danger, the people of Germany remained supine. +Hungary had valiantly defended itself against the Turks ten years +before, without aid from the German empire. It looked now as if Belgrade +might be left to its fate. The brave John Hunyades and his faithful +Hungarians were the only bulwarks of Europe against the foe, for the +people seemed incapable of seeing a danger a thousand miles away. The +pope and his legate John Capistrano, general of the Capuchins, were the +only aids to the valiant Hunyades in his vigorous defence. They preached +a crusade, but with little success. Capistrano traversed Germany, +eloquently calling the people to arms against the barbarians. The result +was similar to that on previous occasions, the real offenders were +neglected, the innocent suffered. The people, instead of arming against +the Turks, turned against the Jews, and murdered them by thousands. +Whatever happened in Europe,--a plague, an invasion, a famine, a +financial strait,--that unhappy people were in some way held +responsible, and mediæval Europe seemed to think it could, at any time, +check the frightful career of a comet or ward off pestilence by +slaughtering a few thousands of Jews. It cannot be said that it worked +well on this occasion; the Jews died, but the Turks surrounded Belgrade +still. + +Capistrano found no military ardor in Germany, in princes or people. The +princes contented themselves with ordering prayers and ringing the +Turkish bells, as they were called. The people were as supine as their +princes. He did, however, succeed, by the aid of his earnest eloquence, +in gathering a force of a few thousands of peasants, priests, scholars, +and the like; a motley host who were chiefly armed with iron flails and +pitchforks, but who followed him with an enthusiasm equal to his own. +With this shadow of an army he joined Hunyades, and the combined force +made its way in boats down the Danube into the heart of Hungary, and +approached the frontier fortress which Mahomet II. was besieging with a +host of one hundred and sixty thousand men, and which its defender, the +brother-in-law of John Hunyades, had nearly given up for lost. + +On came the flotilla,--the peasants with their flails and forks and +Hunyades with his trained soldiers,--and attacked the Turkish fleet with +such furious energy that it was defeated and dispersed, and the allied +forces made their way into the beleaguered city. Capistrano and his +followers were full of enthusiasm. He was a second Peter the Hermit, +his peasant horde were crusaders, fierce against the infidels, +disdaining death in God's cause; neither leader nor followers had a +grain of military knowledge or experience, but they had, what is +sometimes better, courage and enthusiasm. + +John Hunyades _had_ military experience, and looked with cold disfavor +on the burning and blind zeal of his new recruits. He was willing that +they should aid him in repelling the furious attacks of the Turks, but +to his trained eyes an attack on the well-intrenched camp of the enemy +would have been simple madness, and he sternly forbade any such suicidal +course, even threatening death to whoever should attempt it. + +In truth, his caution seemed reasonable. An immense host surrounded the +city on the land side, and had done so on the water side, also, until +the Christian flotilla had sunk, captured, and dispersed its boats. Far +as the eye could see, the gorgeously-embellished tents of the Turkish +army, with their gilded crescents glittering in the sun, filled the +field of view. Cannon-mounted earthworks threatened the walls from every +quarter. Squadrons of steel-clad horsemen swept the field. The crowding +thousands of besiegers pressed the city day and night. Even defence +seemed useless. Assault on such a host appeared madness to experienced +eyes. Hunyades seemed wise in his stern disapproval of such an idea. + +Yet military knowledge has its limitations, when it fails to take into +account the power of enthusiasm. Blind zeal is a force whose +possibilities a general does not always estimate. It is capable of +performing miracles, as Hunyades was to learn. His orders, his threats +of death, had no restraining effect on the minds of the crusaders. They +had come to save Europe from the Turks, and they were not to be stayed +by orders or threats. What though the enemy greatly outnumbered them, +and had cannons and scimitars against their pikes and flails, had they +not God on their side, and should God's army pause to consider numbers +and cannon-balls? They were not to be restrained; attack they would, and +attack they did. + +The siege had made great progress. The reinforcement had come barely in +time. The walls were crumbling under the incessant bombardment. +Convinced that he had made a practicable breach, Mahomet, the sultan, +ordered an assault in force. The Turks advanced, full of barbarian +courage, climbed the crumbled walls, and broke, as they supposed, into +the town, only to find new walls frowning before them. The vigorous +garrison had built new defences behind the old ones, and the +disheartened assailants learned that they had done their work in vain. + +This repulse greatly discouraged the sultan. He was still more +discouraged when the crusaders, irrepressible in their hot enthusiasm, +broke from the city and made a fierce attack upon his works. Capistrano, +seeing that they were not to be restrained, put himself at their head, +and with a stick in one hand and a crucifix in the other, led them to +the assault. It proved an irresistible one. The Turks could not sustain +themselves against these flail-swinging peasants. One intrenchment after +another fell into their hands, until three had been stormed and taken. +Their success inspired Hunyades. Filled with a new respect for his +peasant allies, and seeing that now or never was the time to strike, he +came to their aid with his cavalry, and fell so suddenly and violently +upon the Turkish rear that the invaders were put to rout. + +Onward pushed the crusaders and their allies; backward went the Turks. +The remaining intrenchments were stubbornly defended, but that storm of +iron flails, those pikes and pitchforks, wielded by the zeal of +enthusiasts, were not to be resisted, and in the end all that remained +of the Turkish army broke into panic flight, the sultan himself being +wounded, and more than twenty thousand of his men left dead upon the +field. + +It was a signal victory. Miraculous almost, when one considers the great +disproportion of numbers. The works of the invaders, mounted with three +hundred cannon, and their camp, which contained an immense booty, fell +into the hands of the Christians, and the power of Mahomet II. was so +crippled that years passed before he was in condition to attempt a +second invasion of Europe. + +The victors were not long to survive their signal triumph. The valiant +Hunyades died shortly after the battle, from wounds received in the +action or from fatal disease. Capistrano died in the same year (1456). +Hunyades left two sons, and the King of Hungary repaid his services by +oppressing both, and beheading one of these sons. But the king himself +died during the next year, and Matthias Corvinus, the remaining son of +Hunyades, was placed by the Hungarians on their throne. They had given +their brave defender the only reward in their power. + +If the victory of Hunyades and Capistrano--the nobleman and the +monk--had been followed up by the princes of Europe, the Turks might +have been driven from Constantinople, Europe saved from future peril at +their hands, and the tide of subsequent history gained a cleaner and +purer flow. But nothing was done; the princes were too deeply interested +in their petty squabbles to entertain large views, and the Turks were +suffered to hold the empire of the East, and quietly to recruit their +forces for later assaults. + + + + +_LUTHER AND THE INDULGENCES._ + + +Late in the month of April, in the year 1521, an open wagon containing +two persons was driven along one of the roads of Germany, the horse +being kept at his best pace, while now and then one of the occupants +looked back as if in apprehension. This was the man who held the reins. +The other, a short but presentable person, with pale, drawn face, lit by +keen eyes, seemed too deeply buried in thought to be heedful of +surrounding affairs. When he did lift his eyes they were directed ahead, +where the road was seen to enter the great Thuringian forest. Dressed in +clerical garb, the peasants who passed probably regarded him as a monk +on some errand of mercy. The truth was that he was a fugitive, fleeing +for his life, for he was a man condemned, who might at any moment be +waylaid and seized. + +On entering the forest the wagon was driven on until a shaded and lonely +dell was reached, seemingly a fitting place for deeds of violence. +Suddenly from the forest glades rode forth four armed and masked men, +who stopped the wagon, sternly bade the traveller to descend and mount a +spare horse they had with them, and rode off with him, a seeming +captive, through the thick woodland. + +As if in fear of pursuit, the captors kept at a brisk pace, not drawing +rein until the walls of a large and strong castle loomed up near the +forest border. The gates flew open and the drawbridge fell at their +demand, and the small cavalcade rode into the powerful stronghold, the +entrance to which was immediately closed behind them. It was the castle +of Wartburg, near Eisenach, Saxony, within whose strong walls the man +thus mysteriously carried off was to remain hidden from the world for +the greater part of the year that followed. + +The monk-like captive was just then the most talked of man in Germany. +His seemingly violent capture had been made by his friends, not by his +foes, its purpose being to protect him from his enemies, who were many +and threatening. Of this he was well aware, and welcomed the castle as a +place of refuge. He was, in fact, the celebrated Martin Luther, who had +just set in train a religious revolution of broad aspect in Germany, and +though for the time under the protection of a safe-conduct from the +emperor Charles V., had been deemed in imminent danger of falling into +an ambush of his foes instead of one of his friends. + +That he might not be recognised by those who should see him at Wartburg, +his ecclesiastic robe was exchanged for the dress of a knight, he wore +helmet and sword instead of cassock and cross and let his beard grow +freely. Thus changed in appearance, he was known as Junker George +(Chevalier George) to those in the castle, and amused himself at times +by hunting with his knightly companions in the neighborhood. The +greater part of his time, however, was occupied in a difficult literary +task, that of translating the Bible into German. The work thus done by +him was destined to prove as important in a linguistic as in a +theological sense, since it fixed the status of the German language for +the later period to the same extent as the English translation of the +Bible in the time of James I. aided to fix that of English speech. + +Leaving Luther, for the present, in his retreat at Wartburg Castle, we +must go back in his history and tell the occasion of the events just +narrated. No man, before or after his time, ever created so great a +disturbance in German thought, and the career of this fugitive monk is +one of great historical import. + +A peasant by birth, the son of a slate-cutter named Hans Luther, he so +distinguished himself as a scholar that his father proposed to make him +a lawyer, but a dangerous illness, the death of a near friend, and the +exhortations of an eloquent preacher, so wrought upon his mind that he +resolved instead to become a monk, and after going through the necessary +course of study and mental discipline was ordained priest in May, 1507. +The next year he was appointed a professor in the university of +Wittenberg. There he remained for the next ten years of his life, when +an event occurred which was to turn the whole current of his career and +give him a prominence in theological history which few other men have +ever attained. + +In 1517 Pope Leo X. authorized an unusually large issue of indulgences, +a term which signifies a remission of the temporal punishment due to +sin, either in this life or the life to come; the condition being that +the recipient shall have made a full confession of his sins and by his +penitence and purpose of amendment fitted himself to receive the pardon +of God, through the agency of the priest. He was also required to +perform some service in the aid of charity or religion, such as the +giving of alms. + +At the time of the Crusades the popes had granted to all who took part +in them remission from church penalties. At a later date the same +indulgence was granted to penitents who aided the holy wars with money +instead of in person. At a still later date remission from the penalties +of sin might be obtained by pious work, such as building churches, etc. +When the Turks threatened Europe, those who fought against them obtained +indulgence. In the instance of the issue of indulgences by Leo X. the +pious work required was the giving of alms in aid of the completion of +the great cathedral of St. Peter's at Rome. + +This purpose did not differ in character from others for which +indulgences had previously been granted, and there is nothing to show +that any disregard of the requisite conditions was authorized by the +pope; but there is reason to believe that some of the agents for the +disposal of these indulgences went much beyond the intention of the +decree. This was especially the case in the instance of a Dominican +monk named Tetzel, who is charged with openly asserting what few or no +other Catholics appear to have ever claimed, that the indulgences not +only released the purchasers from the necessity of penance, but absolved +them from all the consequences of sin in this world or the next. + +We shall not go into the details of the venalities charged against +Tetzel, whose field of labor was in Saxony, but they seem to have been +sufficient to cause a strong feeling of dissatisfaction, which at length +found a voice in Martin Luther, who preached vigorously against Tetzel +and his methods and wrote to the princes and bishops begging them to +refuse this irreligious dealer in indulgences a passage through their +dominions. + +The near approach of Tetzel to Wittenberg roused Luther to more decided +action. He now wrote out ninety-five propositions in which he set forth +in the strongest language his reasons for opposing and his view of the +pernicious effects of Tetzel's doctrine of indulgences. These he nailed +to the door of the Castle church of Wittenberg. The effect produced by +them was extraordinary. The news of the protest spread with the greatest +rapidity and within a fortnight copies of it had been distributed +throughout Germany. Within five or six weeks it was being read over a +great part of Europe. On all sides it aroused a deep public interest and +excitement and became the great sensation of the day. + +We cannot go into the details of what followed. Luther's propositions +were like a thunderbolt flung into the mind of Germany. Everywhere deep +thought was aroused and a host of those who had been displeased with +Tetzel's methods sustained him in his act. Other papers from his pen +followed in which his revolt from the Church of Rome grew wider and +deeper. His energetic assault aroused a number of opponents and an +active controversy ensued; ending in Luther's being cited to appear +before Cajetan, the pope's legate, at Augsburg. From this meeting no +definite result came. After a heated argument Cajetan ended the +controversy with the following words: + +"I can dispute no longer with this beast; it has two wicked eyes and +marvellous thoughts in its head." + +Luther's view of the matter was much less complimentary. He said of the +legate,-- + +"He knows no more about the Word than a donkey knows of harp-playing." + +In the next year, 1519, a discussion took place at Leipzig, between +Luther on the one hand, aided by his friends Melanchthon and Carlstadt, +and a zealous and talented ecclesiastic, Dr. Eck, on the other. Eck was +a vigorous debater,--in person, in voice, and in opinion,--but as Luther +was not to be silenced by his argument, he ended by calling him "a +gentile and publican," and wending his way to Borne, where he expressed +his opinion of the new movement, demanded that the heretic should be +made to feel the heavy hand of church discipline. + +Back he came soon to Germany, bearing a bull from the pope, in which +were extracts from Luther's writings stated to be heretical, and which +must be publicly retracted within sixty days under threat of +excommunication. This the ardent agent tried to distribute through +Germany, but to his surprise he found that Germany was in no humor to +receive it. Most of the magistrates forbade it to be made public. Where +it was posted upon the walls of any town, the people immediately tore it +down. In truth, Luther's heresy had with extraordinary rapidity become +the heresy of Germany, and he found himself with a nation at his back, a +nation that admired his courage and supported his opinions. + +His most decisive step was taken on the 10th of December, 1520. On that +day the faculty and students of the University of Wittenberg, convoked +by him, met at the Elster gate of the town. Here a funeral pile was +built up by the students, one of the magistrates set fire to it, and +Luther, amid approving shouts from the multitude, flung into the flames +the pope's bull, and with it the canonical law and the writings of Dr. +Eck. In this act he decisively broke loose from and defied the Church of +Rome, sustained in his radical step of revolt apparently by all +Wittenberg, and by a large body of converts to his views throughout +Germany. + +The bold reformer found friends not only among the lowly, but among the +powerful. The Elector of Saxony was on his side, and openly accused the +pope of acting the unjust judge, by listening to one side and not the +other, and of needlessly agitating the people by his bull. Ulrich von +Hutten, a favorite popular leader, was one of the zealous proselytes of +the new doctrines. Franz von Sickingen, a knight of celebrity, was +another who offered Luther shelter, if necessary, in his castles. + +And now came a turning-point in Luther's career, the most dangerous +crisis he was to reach, and the one that needed the utmost courage and +most inflexible resolution to pass it in safety. It was that which has +become famous as the "Diet of Worms." Germany had gained a new emperor, +Charles V., under whose sceptre the empire of Charlemagne was in great +part restored, for his dominions included Germany, Spain, and the +Netherlands. This young monarch left Spain for Germany in 1521, and was +no sooner there than he called a great diet, to meet at Worms, that the +affairs of the empire might be regulated, and that in particular this +religious controversy, which was troubling the public mind, should be +settled. + +Thither came the princes and potentates of the realm, thither great +dignitaries of the church, among them the pope's legate, Cardinal +Alexander, who was commissioned to demand that the emperor and the +princes should call Luther to a strict account, and employ against him +the temporal power. But to the cardinal's astonishment he found that the +people of Germany had largely seceded from the papal authority. +Everywhere he met with writings, songs, and pictures in which the holy +father was treated with contempt and mockery. Even himself, as the +pope's representative, was greeted with derision, and his life at times +was endangered, despite the fact that he came in the suite of the +emperor. + +[Illustration: STATUE OF LUTHER AT WORMS.] + +The diet assembled, the cardinal, as instructed, demanded that severe +measures should be taken against the arch-heretic: the Elector of +Saxony, on the contrary, insisted that Luther should be heard in his own +defence; the emperor and the princes agreed with him, silencing the +cardinal's declaration that the diet had no right or power to question +the decision of the pope, and inviting Luther to appear before the +imperial assembly at Worms, the emperor granting him a safe-conduct. + +Possibly Charles thought that the insignificant monk would fear to come +before that august body, and the matter thus die out. Luther's friends +strongly advised him not to go. They had the experience of John Huss to +offer as argument. But Luther was not the man to be stopped by dread of +dignitaries or fear of penalties. He immediately set out from Wittenberg +for Worms, saying to his protesting friends, "Though there were as many +devils in the city as there are tiles on the roofs, still I would go." + +His journey was an ovation. The people flocked by thousands to greet and +applaud him. On his arrival at Worms two thousand people gathered and +accompanied him to his lodgings. When, on the next day, April 18, 1521, +the grand-marshal of the empire conducted him to the diet, he was +obliged to lead him across gardens and through by-ways to avoid the +throng that filled the streets of the town. + +When entering the hall, he was clapped on the shoulder by a famous +knight and general of the empire, Georg von Frundsberg, who said, "Monk, +monk, thou art in a strait the like of which myself and many leaders, in +the most desperate battles, have never known. But if thy thoughts are +just, and thou art sure of thy cause, go on, in God's name; and be of +good cheer; He will not forsake thee." + +Luther was not an imposing figure as he stood before the proud assembly +in the imperial hall. He had just recovered from a severe fever, and was +pale and emaciated. And standing there, unsupported by a single friend, +before that great assembly, his feelings were strongly excited. The +emperor remarked to his neighbor, "This man would never succeed in +making a heretic of _me_." + +But though Luther's body was weak, his mind was strong. His air quickly +became calm and dignified. He was commanded to retract the charges he +had made against the church. In reply he acknowledged that the writings +produced were his own, and declared that he was not ready to retract +them, but said that "If they can convince me from the Holy Scriptures +that I am in error, I am ready with my own hands to cast the whole of my +writings into the flames." + +The chancellor replied that what he demanded was retraction, not +dispute. This Luther refused to give. The emperor insisted on a simple +recantation, which Luther declared he could not make. For several days +the hearing continued, ending at length in the threatening declaration +of the emperor, that "he would no longer listen to Luther, but dismiss +him at once from his presence, and treat him as he would a heretic." + +There was danger in this, the greatest danger. The emperor's word had +been given, it is true; but an emperor had broken his word with John +Huss, and his successor might with Martin Luther. Charles was, indeed, +importuned to do so, but replied that his imperial word was sacred, even +if given to a heretic, and that Luther should have an extension of the +safe-conduct for twenty-one days, during his return home. + +Luther started home. It was a journey by no means free from danger. He +had powerful and unscrupulous enemies. He might be seized and carried +off by an ambush of his foes. How he was saved from peril of this sort +we have described. It was his friend and protector, Frederick, the +Elector of Saxony, who had placed the ambush of knights, his purpose +being to put Luther in a place of safety where he could lie concealed +until the feeling against him had subsided. Meanwhile, at Worms, when +the period of the safe-conduct had expired, Luther was declared out of +the ban of the empire, an outlaw whom no man was permitted to shelter, +his works were condemned to be burned wherever found, and he was +adjudged to be seized and held in durance subject to the will of the +emperor. + +What had become of the fugitive no one knew. The story spread that he +had been murdered by his enemies. For ten months he remained in +concealment and when he again appeared it was to combat a horde of +fanatical enthusiasts who had carried his doctrines to excess and were +stirring up all Germany by their wild opinions. The outbreak drew Luther +back to Wittenberg, where for eight days he preached with great +eloquence against the fanatics and finally succeeded in quelling the +disturbance. + +From that time forward Luther continued the guiding spirit of the +Protestant revolt and was looked upon with high consideration by most of +the princes of Germany, his doctrines spreading until, during his +lifetime, they extended to Moravia, Bohemia, Denmark and Sweden. Then, +in 1546, he died at Eisleben, near the castle in which he had dwelt +during the most critical period of his life. + + + + +_SOLYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT AT GUNTZ._ + + +Solyman the Magnificent, Sultan of Turkey, had collected an army of +dimensions as magnificent as his name, and was on his march to overwhelm +Austria and perhaps subject all western Europe to his arms. A few years +before he had swept Hungary with his hordes, taken and plundered its +cities of Buda and Pesth, and made the whole region his own. Belgrade, +which had been so valiantly defended against his predecessor, had fallen +into his infidel hands. The gateways of western Europe were his; he had +but to open them and march through; doubtless there had come to him +glorious dreams of extending the empire of the crescent to the western +seas. And yet the proud and powerful sultan was to be checked in his +course by an obstacle seemingly as insignificant as if the sting of a +hornet should stop the career of an elephant. The story is a remarkable +one, and deserves to be better known. + +Vast was the army which Solyman raised. He had been years in gathering +men and equipments. Great work lay before him, and he needed great means +for its accomplishment. It is said that three hundred thousand men +marched under his banners. So large was the force, so great the quantity +of its baggage and artillery, that its progress was necessarily a slow +one, and sixty days elapsed during its march from Constantinople to +Belgrade. + +Here was time for Ferdinand of Austria to bring together forces for the +defence of his dominions against the leviathan which was slowly moving +upon them. He made efforts, but they were not of the energetic sort +which the crisis demanded, and had the Turkish army been less unwieldly +and more rapid, Vienna might have fallen almost undefended into +Solyman's hands. Fortunately, large bodies move slowly, and the sultan +met with an obstacle that gave the requisite time for preparation. + +On to Belgrade swept the grand army, with its multitude of standards and +all the pomp and glory of its vast array. The slowness with which it +came was due solely to its size, not in any sense to lack of energy in +the warlike sultan. An anecdote is extant which shows his manner of +dealing with difficulties. He had sent forward an engineer with orders +to build a bridge over the river Drave, to be constructed at a certain +point, and be ready at a certain time. The engineer went, surveyed the +rapid stream, and sent back answer to the sultan that it was impossible +to construct a bridge at that point. + +But Solyman's was one of those magnificent souls that do not recognize +the impossible. He sent the messenger back to the engineer, in his hand +a linen cord, on his lips this message: + +"Your master, the sultan, commands you, without consideration of the +difficulties, to complete the bridge over the Drave. If it be not ready +for him on his arrival, he will have you strangled with this cord." + +The bridge was built. Solyman had learned the art of overcoming the +impossible. He was soon to have a lesson in the art of overcoming the +difficult. + +Belgrade was in due time reached. Here the sultan embarked his artillery +and heavy baggage on the Danube, three thousand vessels being employed +for that purpose. They were sent down the stream, under sufficient +escort, towards the Austrian capital, while the main army, lightened of +much of its load, prepared to march more expeditiously than heretofore +through Hungary towards its goal. + +Ferdinand of Austria, alarmed at the threatening approach of the Turks, +had sent rich presents and proposals of peace to Solyman at Belgrade; +but those had the sole effect of increasing his pride and making him +more confidant of victory. He sent an insulting order to the ambassadors +to follow his encampment and await his pleasure, and paid no further +heed to their pacific mission. + +The Save, an affluent of the Danube, was crossed, and the army lost +sight of the great stream, and laid its course by a direct route through +Sclavonia towards the borders of Styria, the outlying Austrian province +in that direction. It was the shortest line of march available, the +distance to be covered being about two hundred miles. On reaching the +Styrian frontier, the Illyrian mountain chain needed to be crossed, and +within it lay the obstacle with which Solyman had to contend. + +The route of the army led through a mountain pass. In this pass was a +petty and obscure town, Guntz by name, badly fortified, and garrisoned +by a mere handful of men, eight hundred in all. Its principal means of +defence lay in the presence of an indomitable commander, Nicholas +Jurissitz, a man of iron nerve and fine military skill. + +Ibrahim Pasha, who led the vanguard of the Turkish force, ordered the +occupation of this mountain fortress, and learned with anger and +mortification that Guntz had closed its gates and frowned defiance on +his men. Word was sent back to Solyman, who probably laughed in his +beard at the news. It was as if a fly had tried to stop an ox. + +"Brush it away and push onward," was probably the tenor of his orders. + +But Guntz was not to be brushed away. It stood there like an awkward +fact, its guns commanding the pass through which the army must march, a +ridiculous obstacle which had to be dealt with however time might press. + +The sultan sent orders to his advance-guard to take the town and march +on. Ibrahim Pasha pushed forward, assailed it, and found that he had not +men enough for the work. The little town with its little garrison had +the temper of a shrew, and held its own against him valiantly. A few +more battalions were sent, but still the town held out. The sultan, +enraged at this opposition, now despatched what he considered an +overwhelming force, with orders to take the town without delay, and to +punish the garrison as they deserved for their foolish obstinacy. But +what was his surprise and fury to receive word that the pigmy still held +out stubbornly against the leviathan, that all their efforts to take it +were in vain, and that its guns commanded and swept the pass so that it +was impossible to advance under its storm of death-dealing balls. + +Thundering vengeance, Solyman now ordered his whole army to advance, +sweep that insolent and annoying obstacle from the face of the earth, +and then march on towards the real goal of their enterprise, the still +distant city of Vienna, the capital and stronghold of the Christian +dogs. + +Upon Guntz burst the whole storm of the war, against Guntz it thundered, +around Guntz it lightened; yet still Guntz stood, proud, insolent, +defiant, like a rock in the midst of the sea, battered by the waves of +war's tempest, yet rising still in unyielding strength, and dashing back +the bloody spray which lashed its walls in vain. + +Solyman's pride was roused. That town he must and would have. He might +have marched past it and left it in the rear, though not without great +loss and danger, for the pass was narrow and commanded by the guns of +Guntz, and he would have had to run the gantlet of a hailstorm of iron +balls. But he had no thought of passing it; his honor was involved. +Guntz must be his and its insolent garrison punished, or how could +Solyman the Magnificent ever hold up his head among monarchs and +conquerors again? + +On every side the town was assailed; cannon surrounded it and poured +their balls upon its walls; they were planted on the hills in its rear; +they were planted on lofty mounds of earth which overtopped its walls +and roofs; from every direction they thundered threat; to every +direction Guntz thundered back defiance. + +An attempt was made to undermine the walls, but in vain; the commandant, +Jurissitz, was far too vigilant to be reached by burrowing. Breach after +breach was made in the walls, and as quickly repaired, or new walls +built. Assault after assault was made and hurled back. Every effort was +baffled by the skill, vigor, and alertness of the governor and the +unyielding courage of his men, and still the days went by and still +Guntz stood. + +Solyman, indignant and alarmed, tried the effect of promises, bribes, +and threats. Jurissitz and his garrison should be enriched if they +yielded; they should die under torture if they persisted. These efforts +proved as useless as cannon-balls. The indomitable Jurissitz resisted +promises and threats as energetically as he had resisted shot and balls. + +The days went on. For twenty-eight days that insignificant fortress and +its handful of men defied the great Turkish army and held it back in +that mountain-pass. In the end the sultan, with all his pride and all +his force, was obliged to accept a feigned submission and leave +Jurissitz and his men still in possession of the fortress they had held +so long and so well. + +They had held it long enough to save Austria, as it proved. While the +sultan's cannon were vainly bombarding its walls, Europe was gathering +around Vienna in defence. From every side troops hurried to the +salvation of Austria from the Turks. Italy, the Netherlands, Bohemia. +Poland, Germany, sent their quotas, till an army of one hundred and +thirty thousand men were gathered around Vienna, thirty thousand of them +being cavalry. + +Solyman was appalled at the tidings brought him. It had become a +question of arithmetic to his barbarian intellect. If Guntz, with less +than a thousand men, could defy him for a month, what might not Vienna +do with more than a hundred thousand? Winter was not far away. It was +already September. He was separated from his flotilla of artillery. Was +it safe to advance? He answered the question by suddenly striking camp +and retreating with such haste that his marauding horsemen, who were out +in large numbers, were left in ignorance of the movement, and were +nearly all taken or cut to pieces. + +Thus ingloriously ended one of the most pretentious invasions of Europe. +For three years Solyman had industriously prepared, gathering the +resources of his wide dominion to the task and fulminating infinite +disaster to the infidels. Yet eight hundred men in a petty mountain town +had brought this great enterprise to naught and sent back the mighty +army of the grand Turk in inglorious retreat. + +[Illustration: THE MOSQUE OF SOLYMAN, CONSTANTINOPLE.] + +The story of Guntz has few parallels in history; the courage and ability +of its commander were of the highest type of military worthiness; yet +its story is almost unknown and the name of Jurissitz is not classed +among those of the world's heroes. Such is fame. + +There is another interesting story of the doings of Solyman and the +gallant defence of a Christian town, which is worthy of telling as an +appendix to that just given. The assault at Guntz took place in the year +1532. In 1566, when Solyman was much older, though perhaps not much +wiser, we find him at his old work, engaged in besieging the small +Hungarian town of Szigeth, west of Mohacs and north of the river Drave, +a stronghold surrounded by the small stream Almas almost as by the +waters of a lake. It was defended by a Croatian named Zrinyr and a +garrison of twenty-five hundred men. + +Around this town the Turkish army raged and thundered in its usual +fashion. Within it the garrison defended themselves with all the spirit +and energy they could muster. Step by step the Turks advanced. The +outskirts of the town were destroyed by fire and the assailants were +within its walls. The town being no longer tenable, Zrinyr took refuge, +with what remained of the garrison, in the fortress, and still bade +defiance to his foes. + +Solyman, impatient at the delay caused by the obstinacy of the defender, +tried with him the same tactics he had employed with Jurissitz many +years before,--those of threats and promises. Tempting offers of wealth +proving of no avail, the sultan threatened the bold commander with the +murder of his son George, a prisoner in his hands. This proved equally +unavailing, and the siege went on. + +It went on, indeed, until Solyman was himself vanquished, and by an +enemy he had not taken into account in his thirst for glory--the grim +warrior Death. Temper killed him. In a fit of passion he suddenly died. +But the siege went on. The vizier concealed his death and kept the +batteries at work, perhaps deeming it best for his own fortunes to be +able to preface the announcement of the sultan's death with a victory. + +The castle walls had been already crumbling under the storm of balls. +Soon they were in ruins. The place was no longer tenable. Yet Zrinyr was +as far as ever from thoughts of surrender. He dressed himself in his +most magnificent garments, filled his pockets with gold, "that they +might find something on his corpse," and dashed on the Turks at the head +of what soldiers were left. He died, but not unrevenged. Only after his +death was the Turkish army told that their great sultan was no more and +that they owed their victory to the shadow of the genius of Solyman the +Magnificent. + + + + +THE PEASANTS AND THE ANABAPTISTS. + + +Germany, in great part, under the leadership of Martin Luther, had +broken loose from the Church of Rome, the ball which he had set rolling +being kept in motion by other hands. The ideas of many of those who +followed him were full of the spirit of fanaticism. The pendulum of +religious thought, set in free swing, vibrated from the one extreme of +authority to the opposite extreme of license, going as far beyond Luther +as he had gone beyond Rome. There arose a sect to which was given the +name of Anabaptists, from its rejection of infant baptism, a sect with a +strange history, which it now falls to us to relate. + +The new movement, indeed, was not confined to matters of religion. The +idea of freedom from authority once set afloat, quickly went further +than its advocates intended. If men were to have liberty of thought, why +should they not have liberty of action? So argued the peasantry, and not +without the best of reasons, for they were pitifully oppressed by the +nobility, weighed down with feudal exactions to support the luxury of +the higher classes, their crops destroyed by the horses and dogs of +hunting-parties, their families ill-treated and insulted by the +men-at-arms who were maintained at their expense, their flight from +tyranny to the freedom of the cities prohibited by nobles and citizens +alike, everywhere enslaved, everywhere despised, it is no wonder they +joined with gladness in the revolutionary sentiment and made a vigorous +demand for political liberty. + +As a result of all this an insurrection broke out,--a double +insurrection in fact,--here of the peasantry for their rights, there of +the religious fanatics for their license. Suddenly all Germany was +upturned by the greatest and most dangerous outbreak of the laboring +classes it had ever known, a revolt which, had it been ably led, might +have revolutionized society and founded a completely new order of +things. + +In 1522 the standard of revolt was first raised, its signal a golden +shoe, with the motto, "Whoever will be free let him follow this ray of +light." In 1524 a fresh insurrection broke out, and in the spring of the +following year the whole country was aflame, the peasants of southern +Germany being everywhere in arms and marching on the strongholds of +their oppressors. + +Their demands were by no means extreme. They asked for a board of +arbitration, to consist of the Archduke Ferdinand, the Elector of +Saxony, Luther, Melanchthon, and several preachers, to consider their +proposed articles of reform in industrial and political concerns. These +articles covered the following points. They asked the right to choose +their own pastors, who were to preach the word of God from the Bible; +the abolition of dues, except tithes to the clergy; the abolition of +vassalage; the rights of hunting and fishing, and of cutting wood in the +forests; reforms in rent, in the administration of justice, and in the +methods of application of the laws; the restoration of communal property +illegally seized; and several other matters of the same general +character. + +They asked in vain. The princes ridiculed the idea of a court in which +Luther should sit side by side with the archduke. Luther refused to +interfere. He admitted the oppression of the peasantry, severely +attacked the princes and nobility for their conduct, but deprecated the +excesses which the insurgents had already committed, and saw no safety +from worse evils except in putting down the peasantry with a strong +hand. + +The rejection of the demands of the rebellious peasants was followed by +a frightful reign of license, political in the south, religious in the +north. Everywhere the people were in arms, destroying castles, burning +monasteries, and forcing numbers of the nobles to join them, under pain +of having their castles plundered and burned. The counts of Hohenlohe +were made to enter their ranks, and were told, "Brother Albert and +brother George, you are no longer lords but peasants, and we are the +lords of Hohenlohe." Other nobles were similarly treated. Various +Swabian nobles fled for safety, with their families and treasures, to +the city and castle of Weinsberg. The castle was stormed and taken, and +the nobles, seventy in number, were forced to run the gantlet between +two lines of men armed with spears, who stabbed them as they passed. It +was this deed that brought out a pamphlet from Luther, in which he +called on all the citizens of the empire to put down "the furious +peasantry, to strangle, to stab them, secretly and openly, as they can, +as one would kill a mad dog." + +There was need for something to be done if Germany was to be saved from +a revolution. The numbers of the insurgents steadily increased. Many of +the cities were in league with them, several of the princes entered in +negotiation concerning their demands; in Thuringia the Anabaptists, +under the lead of a fanatical preacher named Thomas Münzer, were in full +revolt; in Saxony, Hesse, and lower Germany the peasantry were in arms; +there was much reason to fear that the insurgents and fanatics would +join their forces and pour like a rushing torrent through the whole +empire, destroying all before them. Of the many peasant revolts which +the history of mediævalism records this was the most threatening and +dangerous, and called for the most strenuous exertions to save the +institutions of Germany from a complete overthrow. + +At the head of the main body of insurgents was a knight of notorious +character, the famed Goetz von Berlichingen,--Goetz with the Iron Hand, +as he is named,--a robber baron whose history had been one of feud and +contest, and of the plunder alike of armed foes and unarmed travellers. +Goethe has honored him by making him the hero of a drama, and the +peasantry sought to honor him by making him the leader of their march of +destruction. This worthy had lost his hand during youth, and replaced it +with a hand of iron. He was bold, daring, and unscrupulous, but scarcely +fitted for generalship, his knowledge of war being confined to the +tactics of highway robbery. Nor can it be said that his leadership of +the peasants was voluntary. He was as much their prisoner as their +general, his service being an enforced one. + +With the redoubtable Goetz at their head the insurgents poured onward, +spreading terror before them, leaving ruin behind them. Castles and +monasteries were destroyed, until throughout Thuringia, Franconia, +Swabia, and along the Rhine as far as Lorraine the homes of lords and +clergy were destroyed, and a universal scene of smoking ruins replaced +the formerly stately architectural piles. + +We cannot go further into the details of this notable outbreak. The +revolt of the southern peasantry was at length brought to an end by an +army collected by the Swabian league, and headed by George Truchsess of +Waldburg. Had they marched against him in force he could not have +withstood their onset. But they occupied themselves in sieges, +disregarding the advice of their leaders, and permitted themselves to be +attacked and beaten in detail. Seeing that all was at an end, Goetz von +Berlichingen secretly fled from their ranks and took refuge in his +castle. Many of the bodies of peasantry dispersed. Others made head +against the troops and were beaten with great slaughter. All was at an +end. + +Truchsess held a terrible court of justice in the city of Würzburg, in +which his jester Hans acted as executioner, and struck off the heads of +numbers of the prisoners, the bloody work being attended with laughter +and jests, which added doubly to its horror. All who acknowledged that +they had read the Bible, or even that they knew how to read and write, +were instantly beheaded. The priest of Schipf, a gouty old man who had +vigorously opposed the peasants, had himself carried by four of his men +to Truchsess to receive thanks for his services. Hans, fancying that he +was one of the rebels, slipped up behind him, and in an instant his head +was rolling on the floor. + +"I seriously reproved my good Hans for his untoward jest," was the easy +comment of Truchsess upon this circumstance. + +Throughout Germany similar slaughter of the peasantry and wholesale +executions took place. In many places the reprisal took the dimensions +of a massacre, and it is said that by the end of the frightful struggle +more than a hundred thousand of the peasants had been slain. As for its +political results, the survivors were reduced to a deeper state of +servitude than before. Thus ended a great struggle which had only needed +an able leader to make it a success and to free the people from feudal +bonds. It ended like all the peasant outbreaks, in defeat and renewed +oppression. As for the robber chief Goetz, while he is said by several +historians to have received a sentence of life imprisonment, Menzel +states that he was retained in prison for two years only. + +In Thuringia, as we have said, the revolt was a religious one, it being +controlled by Thomas Münzer, a fanatical Anabaptist. He pretended that +he had the gift of receiving divine revelations, and claimed to be +better able to reveal Christian truth than Luther. God had created the +earth, he said, for believers, all government should be regulated by the +Bible and revelation, and there was no need of princes, priests, or +nobles. The distinction between rich and poor was unchristian, since in +God's kingdom all should be alike. Nicholas Storch, one of Münzer's +preachers, surrounded himself with twelve apostles and seventy-two +disciples, and claimed that an angel brought him divine messages. + +Driven from Saxony by the influence of Luther, Münzer went to Thuringia, +and gained such control by his preaching and his doctrines over the +people of the town of Mülhausen that all the wealthy people were driven +away, their property confiscated, and the sole control of the place fell +into his hands. + +So great was the disturbance caused by his fanatical teachings and the +exertions of his disciples that Luther again bestirred himself, and +called on the princes for the suppression of Münzer and his fanatical +horde. A division of the army was sent into Thuringia, and came up with +a large body of the Anabaptists near Frankenhausen, on May 15, 1525. +Münzer was in command of the peasants. The army officers, hoping to +bring them to terms by lenient measures, offered to pardon them if they +would give up their leaders and peacefully retire to their homes. This +offer might have been effective but for Münzer, who, foreseeing danger +to himself, did his utmost to awaken the fanaticism of his followers. + +It happened that a rainbow appeared in the heavens during the +discussion. This, he declared, was a messenger sent to him from God. His +ignorant audience believed him, and for the moment were stirred up to a +mad enthusiasm which banished all thoughts of surrender. Rushing in +their fury on the ambassadors of peace and pardon, they stabbed them to +death, and then took shelter behind their intrenchments, where they +prepared for a vigorous defence. + +Their courage, however, did not long endure the vigorous assault made by +the troops of the elector. In vain they looked for the host of angels +which Münzer had promised would come to their aid. Not the glimpse of an +angel's wing appeared in the sky. Münzer himself took to flight, and his +infatuated followers, their blind courage vanished, fell an easy prey to +the swords of the soldiers. + +The greater part of the peasant horde were slain, while Münzer, who had +concealed himself from pursuit in the loft of a house in Frankenhausen, +was quickly discovered, dragged forth, put to the rack, and beheaded, +his death putting an end to that first phase of the Anabaptist outbreak. + +[Illustration: OLD HOUSES AT MÜNSTER.] + +After this event, several years passed during which the Anabaptists kept +quiet, though their sect increased. Then came one of the most remarkable +religious revolts which history records. Persecution in Germany had +caused many of the new sectarians to emigrate to the Netherlands, where +their preachings were effective, and many new members were gained. But +the persecution instigated by Charles V. against heretics in the +Netherlands fell heavily upon them and gave rise to a new emigration, +great numbers of the Anabaptists now seeking the town of Münster, the +capital of Westphalia. The citizens of this town had expelled their +bishop, and had in consequence been treated with great severity by +Luther, in his effort to keep the cause of religious reform separate +from politics. The new-comers were received with enthusiasm, and the +people of Münster quickly fell under the influence of two of their +fanatical preachers, John Matthiesen, a baker, of Harlem, and John +Bockhold, or Bockelson, a tailor, of Leyden. + +Münster soon became the seat of an extraordinary outburst of profligacy, +fanaticism, and folly. The Anabaptists took possession of the town, +drove out all its wealthy citizens, elected two of themselves--a +clothier named Knipperdolling and one Krechting--as burgomasters, and +started off in a remarkable career of self-government under Anabaptist +auspices. + +A community of property was the first measure inaugurated. Every person +was required to deposit all his possessions, in gold, silver, and other +articles of value, in a public treasury, which fell under the control of +Bockelson, who soon made himself lord of the city. All the images, +pictures, ornaments, and books of the churches, except their Bibles, +were publicly burned. All persons were obliged to eat together at public +tables, all made to work according to their strength and without regard +to their former station, and a general condition of communism was +established. Bockelson gave himself out as a prophet, and quickly gained +such influence over the people that they were ready to support him in +the utmost excesses of folly and profligacy. + +One of the earliest steps taken was to authorize each man to possess +several wives, the number of women who had sought Münster being six +times greater than the men. John Bockelson set the example by marrying +three at once. His licentious example was quickly followed by others, +and for a full year the town continued a scene of unbridled profligacy +and mad license. One of John's partisans, claiming to have received a +divine communication, saluted him as monarch of the whole globe, the +"King of Righteousness," his title of royalty being "John of Leyden," +and declared that heaven had chosen him to restore the throne of David. +Twenty-eight apostles were selected and sent out, charged to preach the +new gospel to the whole earth and to bring its inhabitants to +acknowledge the divinely-commissioned king. Their success was not +great, however. Wherever they came they were seized and immediately +executed, the earth showing itself very unwilling to accept John of +Leyden as its king. + +In August, 1534, an army, led by Francis of Waldeck, the expelled +bishop, who was supported by the landgrave of Hesse and several other +princes, advanced and laid siege to the city, which the Anabaptists +defended with furious zeal. In the first assault, which was made on +August 30, the assailants were repulsed with severe loss. They then +settled down to the slower but safer process of siege, considering it +easier to starve out than to fight out their enthusiastic opponents. + +One of the two leaders of the citizens, John Matthiesen, made a sortie +against the troops with only thirty followers, filled with the idea that +he was a second Gideon, and that God would come to his aid to defeat the +oppressors of His chosen people. The aid expected did not come, and +Matthiesen and his followers were all cut down. His death left John of +Leyden supreme. He claimed absolute authority in the new "Zion," +received daily fresh visions from heaven, which his followers implicitly +believed and obeyed, and indulged in wild excesses which only the insane +enthusiasm of his followers kept them from viewing with disgust. Among +his mad freaks was that of running around the streets naked, shouting, +"The King of Zion is come." His lieutenant Knipperdolling, not to be +outdone in fanaticism, followed his example, shouting, "Every high place +shall be brought low." Immediately the mob assailed the churches and +pulled down all the steeples. Those who ventured to resist the monarch's +decrees were summarily dealt with, the block and axe, with +Knipperdolling as headsman, quickly disposing of all doubters and +rebels. + +Such was the doom of Elizabeth, one of the prophet's wives, who declared +that she could not believe that God had condemned so many people to die +of hunger while their king was living in abundance. John beheaded her +with his own hands in the market-place, and then, in insane frenzy, +danced around her body in company with his other wives. Her loss was +speedily repaired. The angels were kept busy in picking out new wives +for the inspired tailor, till in the end he had seventeen in all, one of +whom, Divara by name, gained great influence by her spirit and beauty. + +While all this was going on within the city, the army of besiegers lay +encamped about it, waiting patiently till famine should subdue the +stubborn courage of the citizens. Numbers of nobles flocked thither by +way of pastime, in the absence of any other wars to engage their +attention. Nor were the citizens without aid from a distance. Parties of +their brethren from Holland and Friesland sought to relieve them, but in +vain. All their attempts were repelled, and the siege grew straiter than +ever. + +The defence from within was stubborn, women and boys being enlisted in +the service. The boys stood between the men and fired arrows effectively +at the besiegers. The women poured lime and melted pitch upon their +heads. So obstinate was the resistance that the city might have held out +for years but for the pinch of famine. The effect of this was +temporarily obviated by driving all the old men and the women who could +be spared beyond the walls; but despite this the grim figure of +starvation came daily nearer and nearer, and the day of surrender or +death steadily approached. + +A year at length went by, the famine growing in virulence with the +passing of the days. Hundreds perished of starvation, yet still the +people held out with a fanatical courage that defied assault, still +their king kept up their courage by divine revelations, and still he +contrived to keep himself sufficiently supplied with food amid his +starving dupes. + +At length the end came. Some of the despairing citizens betrayed the +town by night to the enemy. On the night of June 25, 1535, two of them +opened the gates to the bishop's army, and a sanguinary scene ensued. +The betrayed citizens defended themselves desperately, and were not +vanquished until great numbers of them had fallen and the work of famine +had been largely completed by the sword. John of Leyden was made +prisoner, together with his two chief men,--Knipperdolling, his +executioner, and Krechting, his chancellor,--they being reserved for a +slower and more painful fate. + +For six months they were carried through Germany, enclosed in iron +cages, and exhibited as monsters to the people. Then they were taken +back to Münster, where they were cruelly tortured, and at length put to +death by piercing their hearts with red-hot daggers. + +Their bodies were placed in iron cages, and suspended on the front of +the church of St. Lambert, in the market-place of Münster, while the +Catholic worship was re-established in that city. The cages, and the +instruments of torture, are still preserved, probably as salutary +examples to fanatics, or as interesting mementos of Münster's past +history. + +The Münster madness was the end of trouble with the Anabaptists. They +continued to exist, in a quieter fashion, some of them that fled from +persecution in Germany and Holland finding themselves exposed to almost +as severe a persecution in England. As a sect they have long since +vanished, while the only trace of their influence is to be seen in those +recent sects that hold the doctrine of adult baptism. + +The history of mankind presents no parallel tale to that we have told. +It was an instance of insanity placed in power, of lunacy ruling over +ignorance and fanaticism; and the doings of John of Leyden in Münster +may be presented as an example alike of the mad extremes to which +unquestioned power is apt to lead, and the vast capabilities of faith +and trust which exist in uneducated man. + + + + +_THE FORTUNES OF WALLENSTEIN._ + +[Illustration: WALLENSTEIN.] + +Wallenstein was in power, Wallenstein the mysterious, the ambitious, the +victorious; soldier of fortune and arbiter of empires; reader of the +stars and ally of the powers of darkness; poor by birth and rich by +marriage and imperial favor; an extraordinary man, surrounded by mystery +and silence, victorious through ability and audacity, rising from +obscurity to be master of the emperor, and falling at length by the hand +of assassination. In person he was tall and thin, in countenance sallow +and lowering, his eyes small and piercing, his forehead high and +commanding, his hair short and bristling, his expression dark and +sinister. Fortune was his deity, ambition ruled him with the sway of a +tyrant; he was born with the conquering instinct, and in the end handed +over all Germany, bound and captive, to his imperial master, and retired +to brood new conquests. + +Albert von Wallenstein was Bohemian by birth, Prague being his native +city. His parents were Lutherans, but they died, and he was educated as +a Catholic. He travelled with an astrologer, and was taught cabalistic +lore and the secrets of the stars, which he ever after believed to +control his destiny. His fortune began in his marriage to an aged but +very wealthy widow, who almost put an end to his career by +administering to him a love-potion. He had already served in the army, +fought against the Turks in Hungary, and with his wife's money raised a +regiment for the wars in Bohemia. A second marriage with a rich countess +added to his wealth; he purchased, at a fifth of their value, about +sixty estates of the exiled Bohemian nobility, and paid for them in +debased coin; the emperor, in recognition of his services, made him Duke +of Friedland, in which alone there were nine towns and fifty-seven +castles and villages; his wealth, through these marriages, purchases, +and gifts, steadily increased till he became enormously rich, and the +wealthiest man in Germany, next to the emperor. + +This extraordinary man was born in an extraordinary time, a period +admirably calculated for the exercise of his talents, and sadly suited +to the suffering of mankind in consequence. It was the period of the +frightful conflict known as the Thirty Years' War. A century had passed +since the Diet of Worms, in which Protestantism first boldly lifted its +head against Catholicism. During that period the new religious doctrines +had gained a firm footing in Germany. Charles V. had done his utmost to +put them down, and, discouraged by his failure, had abdicated the +throne. In his retreat he is said to have amused his leisure in seeking +to make two watches go precisely alike. The effort proved as vain as +that to make two people think alike, and he exclaimed, "Not even two +watches, with similar works, can I make to agree, and yet, fool that I +was, I thought I should be able to control like the works of a watch +different nations, living under diverse skies, in different climes, and +speaking varied languages." Those who followed him were to meet with a +similar result. + +The second effort to put down Protestantism by arms began in 1618, and +led to that frightful outbreak of human virulence, the Thirty Years' +War, which made Germany a desert, but left religion as it found it. The +emperor, Ferdinand II., a rigid Catholic, bitterly opposed to the spread +of Protestantism, had ordered the demolition of two new churches built +by the Bohemian Protestants. His order led to instant hostilities. Count +Thurn, a fierce Bohemian nobleman, had the emperor's representatives, +Slawata and Martinitz by name, flung out of the window of the +council-chamber in Prague, a height of seventy or more feet, and their +secretary Fabricius flung after them. It was a terrible fall, but they +escaped, for a pile of litter and old papers lay below. Fabricius fell +on Martinitz, and, polite to the last, begged his pardon for coming down +upon him so rudely. This act of violence, which occurred on May 23, +1618, is looked upon as the true beginning of the dreadful war. + +Matters moved rapidly. Bohemia was conquered by the imperial armies, its +nobles exiled or executed, its religion suppressed. This victory gained, +an effort was made to suppress Lutheranism in Upper Austria. It led to a +revolt, and soon the whole country was in a flame of war. Tilly and +Pappenheim, the imperial commanders, swept all before them, until they +suddenly found themselves opposed by a man their equal in ability, Count +Mansfeld, who had played an active part in the Bohemian wars. + +A diminutive, deformed, sickly-looking man was Mansfeld, but he had the +soul of a soldier in his small frame. No sooner was his standard raised +than the Protestants flocked to it, and he quickly found himself at the +head of twenty thousand men. But as the powerful princes failed to +support him he was compelled to subsist his troops by pillage, an +example which was followed by all the leaders during that dreadful +contest. + +And now began a frightful struggle, a game of war on the chess-board of +a nation, in which the people were the helpless pawns and suffered alike +from friends and foes. Neither side gained any decisive victory, but +both sides plundered and ravaged, the savage soldiery, unrestrained and +unrestrainable, committing cruel excesses wherever they came. + +Such was the state of affairs which preceded the appearance of +Wallenstein on the field of action. The soldiers led by Tilly were those +of the Catholic League; Ferdinand, the emperor, had no troops of his own +in the field; Wallenstein, discontented that the war should be going on +without him, offered to raise an imperial army, paying the most of its +expenses himself, but stipulating, in return, that he should have +unlimited control. The emperor granted all his demands, and made him +Duke of Friedland as a preliminary reward, Wallenstein agreeing to raise +ten thousand men. + +No sooner was his standard raised than crowds flocked to it, and an army +of forty thousand soldiers of fortune were soon ready to follow him to +plunder and victory. His fame as a soldier, and the free pillage which +he promised, had proved irresistible inducements to war-loving +adventurers of all nations and creeds. In a few months the army was +raised and fully equipped, and in the autumn of 1625 took the field, +growing as it marched. + +Christian IV., the Lutheran king of Denmark, had joined in the war, and +Tilly, jealous of Wallenstein, vigorously sought to overcome his new +adversaries before his rival could reach the field of conflict. He +succeeded, too, in great measure, reducing many of the Protestant towns +and routing the army of the Danish king. + +Meanwhile, Wallenstein came on, his army growing until sixty thousand +men--a wild and undisciplined horde--followed his banners. Mansfeld, who +had received reinforcements from England and Holland, opposed him, but +was too weak to face him successfully in the field. He was defeated on +the bridge of Dessau, and marched rapidly into Silesia, whither +Wallenstein, much to his chagrin, was compelled to follow him. + +From Silesia, Mansfeld marched into Hungary, still pursued by +Wallenstein. Here he was badly received, because he had not brought the +money expected by the king. His retreat cut off, and without the means +of procuring supplies in that remote country, the valiant warrior found +himself at the end of his resources. Return was impossible, for +Wallenstein occupied the roads. In the end he was forced to sell his +artillery and ammunition, disband his army, and proceed southward +towards Venice, whence he hoped to reach England and procure a new +supply of funds. But on arriving at the village of Urakowitz, in Bosnia, +his strength, worn out by incessant struggles and fatigues, gave way, +and the noble warrior, the last hope of Protestantism in Germany, as it +seemed, breathed his last, a disheartened fugitive. + +On feeling the approach of death, he had himself clothed in his military +coat, and his sword buckled to his side. Thus equipped, and standing +between two friends, who supported him upright, the brave Mansfeld +breathed his last. His death left his cause almost without a supporter, +for the same year his friend, Duke Christian of Brunswick, expired, and +with them the Protestants lost their only able leaders; King Christian +of Denmark, their principal successor, being greatly wanting in the +requisites of military genius. + +Ferdinand seemed triumphant and the cause of his opponents lost. All +opposition, for the time, was at an end. Tilly, whose purposes were the +complete restoration of Catholicism in Germany, held the provinces +conquered by him with an iron hand. Wallenstein, who seemingly had in +view the weakening of the power of the League and the raising of the +emperor to absolutism, broke down all opposition before his irresistible +march. + +His army had gradually increased till it numbered one hundred thousand +men,--a host which it cost him nothing to support, for it subsisted on +the devastated country. He advanced through Silesia, driving all his +enemies before him; marched into Holstein, in order to force the King of +Denmark to leave Germany; invaded and devastated Jutland and Silesia; +and added to his immense estate the duchy of Sagan and the whole of +Mecklenburg, which latter was given him by the emperor in payment of his +share of the expenses of the war. This raised him to the rank of prince. +As for Denmark, he proposed to get rid of its king and have Ferdinand +elected in his stead. + +The career of this incomprehensible man had been strangely successful. +Not a shadow of reverse had met him. What he really intended no one +knew. As his enemies decreased he increased his forces. Was it the +absolutism of the emperor or of himself that he sought? Several of the +princes appealed to Ferdinand to relieve their dominions from the +oppressive burden of war, but the emperor was weaker than his general, +and dared not act against him. The whole of north Germany lay prostrate +beneath the powerful warrior, and obeyed his slightest nod. He lived in +a style of pomp and ostentation far beyond that of the emperor himself. +His officers imitated him in extravagance. Even his soldiers lived in +luxury. To support this lavish display many thousands of human beings +languished in misery, starvation threatened whole provinces, and +destitution everywhere prevailed. + +From Mecklenburg, Wallenstein fixed his ambitious eyes on Pomerania, +which territory he grew desirous of adding to his dominions. Here was an +important commercial city, Stralsund, a member of the Hanseatic League, +and one which enjoyed the privilege of self-government. It had +contributed freely to the expenses of the imperial army, but +Wallenstein, in furtherance of his designs upon Pomerania, now +determined to place in it a garrison of his own troops. + +This was an interference with their vested rights which roused the wrath +of the citizens of Stralsund. They refused to receive the troops sent +them: Wallenstein, incensed, determined to teach the insolent burghers a +lesson, and bade General Arnim to march against and lay siege to the +place, doubting not that it would be quickly at his mercy. + +He was destined to a disappointment. Stralsund was to put the first +check upon his uniformly successful career. The citizens defended their +walls with obstinate courage. Troops, ammunition, and provisions were +sent them from Denmark and Sweden, and they continued to oppose a +successful resistance to every effort to reduce them. + +This unlooked for perversity of the Stralsunders filled the soul of +Wallenstein with rage. It seemed to him unexampled insolence that these +merchants should dare defy his conquering troops. "Even if this +Stralsund be linked by chains to the very heavens above," he declared, +"still I swear it shall fall!" + +He advanced in person against the city and assailed it with his whole +army, bringing all the resources at his command to bear against its +walls. But with heroic courage the citizens held their own. Weeks +passed, while he continued to thunder upon it with shot and shell. The +Stralsunders thundered back. His most furious assaults were met by them +with a desperate valor which in time left his ranks twelve thousand men +short. In the end, to his unutterable chagrin, he was forced to raise +the siege and march away, leaving the valiant burghers lords of their +homes. + +The war now seemingly came to its conclusion. The King of Denmark asked +for peace, which the emperor granted, and terms were signed at Lübeck on +May 12, 1629. The contest was, for the time being, at an end, for there +was no longer any one to oppose the emperor. For twelve years it had +continued, its ravages turning rich provinces into deserts, and making +beggars and fugitives of wealthy citizens. The opposition of the +Protestants was at an end, and there were but two disturbing elements of +the seemingly pacific situation. + +One of these was the purpose which the Catholic party soon showed to +suppress Protestantism and bring what they considered the heretical +provinces again under the dominion of the pope. The other was the army +of Wallenstein, whose intolerable tyranny over friends and foes alike +had now passed the bounds of endurance. From all sides complaints +reached the emperor's ears, charges of pillage, burnings, outrages, and +shameful oppressions of every sort inflicted by the imperial troops upon +the inhabitants of the land. So many were the complaints that it was +impossible to disregard them. The whole body of princes--every one of +whom cordially hated Wallenstein--joined in the outcry, and in the end +Ferdinand, with some hesitation, yielded to their wishes, and bade the +general to disband his forces. + +Would he obey? That was next to be seen. The mighty chief was in a +position to defy princes and emperor if he chose. The plundering bands +who followed him were his own, not the emperor's soldiers; they knew but +one master and were ready to obey his slightest word; had he given the +order to advance upon Vienna and drive the emperor himself from his +throne, there is no question but that they would have obeyed. As may be +imagined, then, the response of Wallenstein was awaited in fear and +anxiety. Should ambition counsel him to revolution, the very foundations +of the empire might be shaken. What, then, was the delight of princes +and people when word came that he had accepted the emperor's command +without a word, and at once ordered the disbanding of his troops. + +The stars were perhaps responsible for this. Astrology was his passion, +and the planetary conjunctions seemed then to be in favor of submission. +The man was superstitious, with all his clear-sighted ability, and +permitted himself to be governed by influences which have long since +lost their force upon men's minds. + +"I do not complain against or reproach the emperor," he said to the +imperial deputies; "the stars have already indicated to me that the +spirit of the Elector of Bavaria holds sway in the imperial councils. +But his majesty, in dismissing his troops, is rejecting the most +precious jewel of his crown." + +The event which we have described took place in September, 1630. +Wallenstein, having paid off and dispersed his great army to the four +winds, retired to his duchy of Friedland, and took up his residence at +Gitschen, which had been much enlarged and beautified by his orders. +Here he quietly waited and observed the progress of events. + +He had much of interest to observe. The effort of Ferdinand and his +advisers to drive Protestantism out of Germany had produced an effect +which none of them anticipated. The war, which had seemed at an end, was +quickly afoot again, with a new leader of the Protestant cause, new +armies, and new fortunes. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, had come to +the rescue of his threatened fellow-believers, and before the army of +Wallenstein had been dissolved the work of the peace-makers was set +aside, and the horrors of war returned. + +The dismissed general had now left Gitschen for Bohemia, where he dwelt +upon his estates in a style of regal luxury, and in apparent disregard +of the doings of emperors and kings. His palace in Prague was royal in +its adornments, and while his enemies were congratulating themselves on +having forced him into retirement, he had Italian artists at work +painting on the walls of this palace his figure in the character of a +conqueror, his triumphal car drawn by four milk-white steeds, while a +star shone above his laurel-crowned head. Sixty pages, of noble birth, +richly attired in blue and gold velvet, waited upon him, while some of +his officers and chamberlains had served the emperor in the same rank. +In his magnificent stables were three hundred horses of choice breeds, +while the daily gathering of distinguished men in his halls was not +surpassed by the assemblies of the emperor himself. + +Yet in his demeanor there was nothing to show that he entertained a +shadow of his former ambition. He affected the utmost ease and +tranquillity of manner, and seemed as if fully content with his present +state, and as if he cared no longer who fought the wars of the world. + +But inwardly his ambition had in no sense declined. He beheld the +progress of the Swedish conqueror with secret joy, and when he saw Tilly +overthrown at Leipsic, and the fruits of twelve years of war wrested +from the emperor at a single blow, his heart throbbed high with hope. +His hour of revenge upon the emperor had come. Ferdinand must humiliate +himself and come for aid to his dismissed general, for there was not +another man in the kingdom capable of saving it from the triumphant foe. + +He was right. The emperor's deputies came. He was requested, begged, to +head again the imperial armies. He received the envoys coldly. Urgent +persuasions were needed to induce him to raise an army of thirty +thousand men. Even then he would not agree to take command of it. He +would raise it and put it at the emperor's disposal. + +He planted his standard; the men came; many of them his old followers. +Plenty and plunder were promised, and thousands flocked to his tents. By +March of 1632 the thirty thousand men were collected. Who should command +them? There was but one, and this the emperor and Wallenstein alike +knew. They would follow only the man to whose banner they had flocked. + +The emperor begged him to take command. He consented, but only on +conditions to which an emperor has rarely agreed. Wallenstein was to +have exclusive control of the army, without interference of any kind, +was to be given irresponsible control over all the provinces he might +conquer, was to hold as security a portion of the Austrian patrimonial +estates, and after the war might choose any of the hereditary estates of +the empire for his seat of retirement. The emperor acceded, and +Wallenstein, clothed with almost imperial power, marched to war. His +subsequent fortunes the next narrative must declare. + + + + +_THE END OF TWO GREAT SOLDIERS._ + + +Two armies faced each other in central Bavaria, two armies on which the +fate of Germany depended, those of Gustavus Adolphus, the right hand of +Protestantism, and of Wallenstein, the hope of Catholic imperialism. +Gustavus was strongly intrenched in the vicinity of Nuremberg, with an +army of but sixteen thousand men. Wallenstein faced him with an army of +sixty thousand, yet dared not attack him in his strong position. He +occupied himself in efforts to make his camp as impregnable as that of +his foeman, and the two great opponents lay waiting face to face, while +famine slowly decimated their ranks. + +It was an extraordinary position. Both sides depended for food on +foraging, and between them they had swept the country clean. The +peasantry fled in every direction from Wallenstein's pillaging troops, +who destroyed all that they could not carry away. It had become a +question with the two armies which could starve the longest, and for +three months they lay encamped, each waiting until famine should drive +the other out. Surely such a situation had never before been known. + +What had preceded this event? A few words will tell. Ferdinand the +emperor had, with the aid of Tilly and Wallenstein, laid all Germany +prostrate at his feet. Ferdinand the zealot had, by this effort to +impose Catholicism on the Protestant states, speedily undone the work of +his generals, and set the war on foot again. Gustavus Adolphus, the hero +of Sweden, had come to the aid of the oppressed Protestants of Germany, +borne down all before him, and quickly won back northern Germany from +the oppressor's hands. + +And now the cruelty of that savage war reached its culminating point. +When Germany submitted to the emperor, one city did not submit. +Magdeburg still held out. All efforts to subdue it proved fruitless, and +it continued free and defiant when all the remainder of Germany lay +under the emperor's control. + +It was to pay dearly for the courage of its citizens. When the war broke +out again, Magdeburg was besieged by Tilly with his whole force. After a +most valiant defence it was taken by storm, and a scene of massacre and +ruin followed without a parallel in modern wars. When it ended, +Magdeburg was no more. Of its buildings all were gone, except the +cathedral and one hundred and thirty-seven houses. Of its inhabitants +all had perished, except some four thousand who had taken refuge in the +cathedral. Man, woman, and child, the sword had slain them all, Tilly +being in considerable measure responsible for the massacre, for he was +dilatory in ordering its cessation. When at length he did act there was +little to save. All Europe thrilled with horror at the dreadful news, +and from that day forward fortune fled from the banners of Count Tilly. + +On September 7, 1631, the armies of Gustavus and Tilly met at Leipsic, +and a terrible battle ensued, in which the imperialists were completely +defeated and all the fruits of their former victories torn from their +hands. In the following year Tilly had his thigh shattered by a +cannon-ball at the battle of the Lech, and died in excruciating agonies. + +Such were the preludes to the scene we have described. The Lutheran +princes everywhere joined the victorious Gustavus; Austria itself was +threatened by his irresistible arms; and the emperor, in despair, called +Wallenstein again to the command, yielding to the most extreme demands +of this imperious chief. + +The next scene was that we have described, in which the armies of +Gustavus and Wallenstein lay face to face at Nuremberg, each waiting +until starvation should force the other to fight or to retreat. + +Gustavus had sent for reinforcements, and his army steadily grew. That +of Wallenstein dwindled away under the assaults of famine and +pestilence. A large convoy of provisions intended for Wallenstein was +seized by the Swedes. Soon afterwards Gustavus was so strongly +reinforced that his army grew to seventy thousand men. At his back lay +Nuremberg, his faithful ally, ready to aid him with thirty thousand +fighting men besides. As his force grew that of Wallenstein shrank, +until by the end of the siege pestilence and want had reduced his army +to twenty-four thousand men. + +The Swedes were the first to yield in this game of starvation. As their +numbers grew their wants increased, and at length, furious with famine, +they made a desperate assault upon the imperial camp. They were driven +back, with heavy loss. Two weeks more Gustavus waited, and then, +despairing of drawing his opponent from his works, he broke camp and +marched with sounding trumpets past his adversary's camp, who quietly +let him go. The Swedes had lost twenty thousand men, and Nuremberg ten +thousand of her inhabitants, during this period of hunger and slaughter. + +This was in September, 1632. In November of the same year the two armies +met again, on the plain of Lützen, in Saxony, not far from the scene of +Tilly's defeat, a year before. Wallenstein, on the retreat of Gustavus, +had set fire to his own encampment and marched away, burning the +villages around Nuremberg and wasting the country as he advanced, with +Saxony as his goal. Gustavus, who had at first marched southward into +the Catholic states, hastened to the relief of his allies. On the 15th +of November the two great opponents came once more face to face, +prepared to stake the cause of religious freedom in Germany on the issue +of battle. + +Early in the morning of the 16th Gustavus marshalled his forces, +determined that that day should settle the question of victory or +defeat. Wallenstein had weakened his ranks by sending Count Pappenheim +south on siege duty, and the Swedish king, without waiting for +reinforcements, decided on an instant attack. + +Unluckily for him the morning dawned in fog. The entire plain lay +shrouded. It was not until after eleven o'clock that the mist rose and +the sun shone on the plain. During this interval Count Pappenheim, for +whom Wallenstein had sent in haste the day before, was speeding north by +forced marches, and through the chance of the fog was enabled to reach +the field while the battle was at its height. + +The troops were drawn up in battle array, the Swedes singing to the +accompaniment of drums and trumpets Luther's stirring hymn, and an ode +composed by the king himself: "Fear not, thou little flock." They were +strongly contrasted with the army of their foe, being distinguished by +the absence of armor, light colored (chiefly blue) uniforms, quickness +of motion, exactness of discipline, and the lightness of their +artillery. The imperialists, on the contrary, wore old-fashioned, +close-fitting uniforms, mostly yellow in color, cuirasses, thigh-pieces, +and helmets, and were marked by slow movements, absence of discipline, +and the heaviness and unmanageable character of their artillery. The +battle was to be, to some extent, a test of excellence between the new +and the old ideas in war. + +At length the fog rose and the sun broke out, and both sides made ready +for the struggle. Wallenstein, though suffering from a severe attack of +his persistent enemy, the gout, mounted his horse and prepared his +troops for the assault. His infantry were drawn up in squares, with the +cavalry on their flanks, in front a ditch defended by artillery. His +purpose was defensive, that of Gustavus offensive. The Swedish king +mounted in his turn, placed himself at the head of his right wing, and, +brandishing his sword, exclaimed, "Now, onward! May our God direct us! +Lord! Lord! help me this day to fight for the glory of Thy name!" Then, +throwing aside his cuirass, which annoyed him on account of a slight +wound he had recently received, he cried, "God is my shield!" and led +his men in a furious charge upon the cannon-guarded ditch. + +The guns belched forth their deadly thunders, many fell, but the +remainder broke irresistibly over the defences and seized the battery, +driving the imperialists back in disorder. The cavalry, which had +charged the black cuirassiers of Wallenstein, was less successful. They +were repulsed, and the cuirassiers fiercely charged the Swedish infantry +in flank, driving it back beyond the trenches. + +This repulse brought on the great disaster of the day. Gustavus, seeing +his infantry driven back, hastened to their aid with a troop of horse, +and through the disorder of the field became separated from his men, +only a few of whom accompanied him, among them Francis, Duke of +Saxe-Lauenburg. His short-sightedness, or the foggy condition of the +atmosphere, unluckily brought him too near a party of the black +cuirassiers, and in an instant a shot struck him, breaking his left arm. + +"I am wounded; take me off the field," he said to the Duke of Lauenburg, +and turned his horse to retire from the perilous vicinity. + +As he did so a second ball struck him in the back. "My God! My God!" he +exclaimed, falling from the saddle, while his horse, which had been +wounded in the neck, dashed away, dragging the king, whose foot was +entangled in the stirrup, for some distance. + +The duke fled, but Luchau, the master of the royal horse, shot the +officer who had wounded the king. The cuirassiers advanced, while +Leubelfing, the king's page, a boy of eighteen, who had alone remained +with him, was endeavoring to raise him up. + +"Who is he?" they asked. + +The boy refused to tell, and was shot and mortally wounded. + +"I am the King of Sweden!" Gustavus is said to have exclaimed to his +foes, who had surrounded and were stripping him. + +On hearing this they sought to carry him off, but a charge of the +Swedish cavalry at that moment drove them from their prey. As they +retired they discharged their weapons at the helpless king, one of the +cuirassiers shooting him through the head as he rushed past his +prostrate form. + +The sight of the king's charger, covered with blood, and galloping with +empty saddle past their ranks, told the Swedes the story of the +disastrous event. The news spread rapidly from rank to rank, carrying +alarm wherever it came. Some of the generals wished to retreat, but Duke +Bernhard of Weimar put himself at the head of a regiment, ran its +colonel through for refusing to obey him, and called on them to follow +him to revenge their king. + +His ardent appeal stirred the troops to new enthusiasm. Regardless of a +shot that carried away his hat, Bernhard charged at their head, broke +over the trenches and into the battery, retook the guns, and drove the +imperial troops back in confusion, regaining all the successes of the +first assault. + +The day seemed won. It would have been but for the fresh forces of +Pappenheim, who had some time before reached the field, only to fall +before the bullets of the foe. His men took an active part in the fray, +and swept backward the tide of war. The Swedes were again driven from +the battery and across the ditch, with heavy loss, and the imperialists +regained the pivotal point of the obstinate struggle. + +But now the reserve corps of the Swedes, led by Kniphausen, came into +action, and once more the state of the battle was reversed. They charged +across the ditch with such irresistible force that the position was for +the third time taken, and the imperialists again driven back. This ended +the desperate contest. Wallenstein ordered the retreat to be sounded. +The dead Gustavus had won the victory. + +A thick fog came on as night fell and prevented pursuit, even if the +weariness of the Swedes would have allowed it. They held the field, +while Wallenstein hastened away, his direction of retreat being towards +Bohemia. The Swedes had won and lost, for the death of Gustavus was +equivalent to a defeat, and the emperor, with unseemly rejoicing, +ordered a Te Deum to be sung in all his cities. + +On the following day the Swedes sought for the body of their king. They +found it by a great stone, which is still known as the Swedish stone. It +had been so trampled by the hoofs of charging horses, and was so covered +with blood from its many wounds, that it was difficult to recognize. The +collar, saturated with blood, which had fallen into the hands of the +cuirassiers, was taken to Vienna and presented to the emperor, who is +said to have shed tears on seeing it. The corpse was laid in state +before the Swedish army, and was finally removed to Stockholm, where it +was interred. + +Thus perished one of the great souls of Europe, a man stirred deeply by +ambition, full of hopes greater than he himself acknowledged, a military +hero of the first rank, and one disposed to prosecute war with a +humanity far in advance of his age. He severely repressed all excesses +of his soldiery, was solicitous for the security of citizens and +peasantry, and strictly forbade any revengeful reprisals on Catholic +cities for the frightful work done by his opponents upon the +Protestants. Seldom has a conqueror shown such magnanimity and nobility +of sentiment, and his untimely death had much to do with exposing +Germany to the later desolation of that most frightful of religious +wars. + +His defeated foe, Wallenstein, was not long to survive him. After his +defeat he acted in a manner that gave rise to suspicions that he +intended to play false to the emperor. He executed many of his officers +and soldiers in revenge for their cowardice, as he termed it, recruited +his ranks up to their former standard, but remained inactive, while +Bernhard of Weimar was leading the Swedes to new successes. + +His actions were so problematical, indeed, that suspicion of his motives +grew more decided, and at length a secret conspiracy was raised against +him with the connivance of the emperor. Wallenstein, as if fearful of an +attempt to rob him of his power, had his superior officers assembled at +a banquet given at Pilsen, in January, 1634. A fierce attack of gout +prevented him from presiding, but his firm adherents, Field-Marshals +Illo and Terzka, took his place, and all the officers signed a compact +to adhere faithfully to the duke in life and death as long as he should +remain in the emperor's service. Some signed it who afterwards proved +false to him, among them Field-Marshal Piccolomini, who afterwards +betrayed him. + +Just what designs that dark and much revolving man contemplated it is +not easy to tell. It may have been treachery to the emperor, but he was +not the man to freely reveal his secrets. The one person he trusted was +Piccolomini, whose star seemed in favorable conjunction with his own. +To him he made known some of his projected movements, only to find in +the end that his trusted confidant had revealed them all to the emperor. + +The plot against Wallenstein was now put into effect, the emperor +ordering his deposition from his command, and appointing General Gablas +to replace him, while a general amnesty for all his officers was +announced. Wallenstein was quickly taught how little he could trust his +troops and officers. Many of his generals fell from him at once. A few +regiments only remained faithful, and even in their ranks traitors +lurked. With but a thousand men to follow him he proceeded to Eger, and +from there asked aid of Bernhard of Weimar, as if he purposed to join +with those against whom he had so long fought. Bernhard received the +message with deep astonishment, and exclaimed, moved by his belief that +Wallenstein was in league with the devil,-- + +"He who does not trust in God can never be trusted by man!" + +The great soldier of fortune was near his end. The stars were powerless +to save him. It was not enough to deprive him of his command, his +enemies did not deem it safe to let him live. One army gone, his wealth +and his fame might soon bring him another, made up of those mercenary +soldiers of all nations, and of all or no creeds, who would follow Satan +if he promised them plunder. His death had been resolved upon, and the +agent chosen for its execution was Colonel Butler, one of the officers +who had accompanied him to Eger. + +It was late in February, 1634. On the night fixed for the murder, +Wallenstein's faithful friends, Illo, Terzka, Kinsky, and Captain +Neumann were at a banquet in the castle of Eger. The agents of death +were Colonel Butler, an Irish officer named Lesley, and a Scotchman +named Gordon, while the soldiers employed were a number of dragoons, +chiefly Irish. + +In the midst of the dinner the doors of the banqueting hall were burst +open, and the assassins rushed upon their victims, killing them as they +sat, with the exception of Terzka, who killed two of his assailants +before he was despatched. + +From this scene of murder the assassins rushed to the quarters of +Wallenstein. It was midnight and he had gone to bed. He sprang up as his +door was burst open, and Captain Devereux, one of the party, rushed with +drawn sword into the room. + +"Are you the villain who would sell the army to the enemy and tear the +crown from the emperor's head?" he shouted. + +Wallenstein's only answer was to open his arms and receive the blow +aimed at his breast. He died without a word. Thus, with a brief interval +between, had fallen military genius and burning ambition in two +forms,--that of the heroic Swede and that of the ruthless Bohemian. + + + + +_THE SIEGE OF VIENNA._ + + +Once more the Grand Turk was afoot. Straight on Vienna he had marched, +with an army of more than two hundred thousand men. At length he had +reached the goal for which he had so often aimed, the Austrian capital, +while all western Europe was threatened by his arms. The grand vizier, +Kara Mustapha, headed the army, which had marched straight through +Hungary without wasting time in petty sieges, and hastened towards the +imperial city with scarce a barrier in its path. + +Consternation filled the Viennese as the vast army of the Turks rolled +steadily nearer and nearer, pillaging the country as it came, and moving +onward as irresistibly and almost as destructively as a lava flow. The +emperor and his court fled in terror. Many of the wealthy inhabitants +followed, bearing with them such treasures as they could convey. The +land lay helpless under the shadow of terror which the coming host threw +far before its columns. + +But pillage takes time. The Turks, through the greatness of their +numbers, moved slowly. Some time was left for action. The inhabitants of +the city, taking courage, armed for defence. The Duke of Lorraine, whose +small army had not ventured to face the foe, left twelve thousand men in +the city, and drew back with the remainder to wait for reinforcements. +Count Rüdiger of Stahrenberg was left in command, and made all haste to +put the imperilled city in a condition of defence. + +[Illustration: THE PARLIAMENT HOUSE IN VIENNA.] + +On came the Turks, the smoke of burning villages the signal of their +approach. On the 14th of June, 1683, their mighty army appeared before +the walls, and a city of tents was built that covered a space of six +leagues in extent. + +Their camp was arranged in the form of a crescent, enclosing within its +boundaries a promiscuous mass of soldiers and camp-followers, camels, +and baggage-wagons, which seemed to extend as far as the eye could +reach. In the centre was the gorgeous tent of the vizier, made of green +silk, and splendid with its embroidery of gold, silver, and precious +stones, while inside it was kept the holy standard of the prophet. +Marvellous stories are told of the fountains, baths, gardens, and other +appliances of Oriental luxury with which the vizier surrounded himself +in this magnificent tent. + +Two days after the arrival of the Turkish host the trenches were opened, +the cannon placed, and the siege of Vienna began. For more than two +centuries the conquerors of Constantinople had kept their eyes fixed on +this city as a glorious prize. Now they had reached it, and the thunder +of their cannon around its walls was full of threat for the West. Vienna +once theirs, it was not easy to say where their career of conquest would +be stayed. + +Fortunately, Count Rüdiger was an able and vigilant soldier, and +defended the city with a skill and obstinacy that baffled every effort +of his foes. The Turks, determined on victory, thundered upon the walls +till they were in many parts reduced to heaps of ruins. With incessant +labor they undermined them, blew up the strongest bastions, and laid +their plans to rush into the devoted city, from which they hoped to gain +a glorious booty. But active as they were the besieged were no less so. +The damage done by day was repaired by night, and still Vienna turned a +heroic face to its thronging enemies. + +Furious assaults were made, multitudes of the Turks rushing with savage +cries to the breaches, only to be hurled back by the obstinate valor of +the besieged. Every foot of ground was fiercely contested, the struggle +at each point being desperate and determined. It was particularly so +around the Löbel bastion, where scarcely an inch of ground was left +unstained by the blood of the struggling foes. + +Count Rüdiger, although severely wounded, did not let his hurt reduce +his vigilance. Daily he had himself carried round the circle of the +works, directing and cheering his men. Bishop Kolonitsch attended the +wounded, and with such active and useful zeal that the grand vizier sent +him a threat that he would have his head for his meddling. Despite this +fulmination of fury, the worthy bishop continued to use his threatened +head in the service of mercy and sympathy. + +But the numbers of the garrison grew rapidly less, and their incessant +duty wore them out with fatigue. The commandant was forced to threaten +death to any sentinel found asleep upon his post. A fire broke out +which was only suppressed with the greatest exertion. Famine also began +to invade the city, and the condition of the besieged grew daily more +desperate. Their only hope lay in relief from without, and this did not +come. + +Two months passed slowly by. The Turks had made a desert of the +surrounding country, and held many thousands of its inhabitants as +prisoners in their camp. Step by step they gained upon the defenders. By +the end of August they possessed the moat around the city walls. On the +4th of September a mine was sprung under the Burg bastion, with such +force that it shook half the city like an earthquake. The bastion was +rent and shattered for a width of more than thirty feet, portions of its +walls being hurled far and wide. + +Into the great breach made the assailants poured in an eager multitude. +But the defenders were equally alert, and drove them back with loss. On +the following day they charged again, and were again repulsed by the +brave Viennese, the ruined bastion becoming a very gulf of death. + +The Turks, finding their efforts useless, resumed the work of mining, +directing their efforts against the same bastion. On the 10th of +September the new mine was sprung, and this time with such effect that a +breach was made through which a whole Turkish battalion was able to +force its way. + +This city now was in the last extremity of danger; unless immediate +relief came all would soon be lost. The garrison had been much reduced +by sickness and wounds, while those remaining were so completely +exhausted as to be almost incapable of defence. Rüdiger had sent courier +after courier to the Duke of Lorraine in vain. In vain the lookouts +swept the surrounding country with their eyes in search of some trace of +coming aid. All seemed at an end. During the night a circle of rockets +was fired from the tower of St. Stephen's as a signal of distress. This +done the wretched Viennese waited for the coming day, almost hopeless of +repelling the hosts which threatened to engulf them. At the utmost a few +days must end the siege. A single day might do it. + +That dreadful night of suspense passed away. With the dawn the wearied +garrison was alert, prepared to strike a last blow for safety and +defence, and to guard the yawning breach unto death. They waited with +the courage of despair for an assault which did not come. Hurried and +excited movements were visible in the enemy's camp. Could succor be at +hand? Yes, from the summit of the Kahlen Hill came the distant report of +three cannon, a signal that filled the souls of the garrison with joy. +Quickly afterwards the lookouts discerned the glitter of weapons and the +waving of Christian banners on the hill. The rescuers were at hand, and +barely in time to save the city from its almost triumphant foes. + +During the siege the Christian people outside had not been idle. +Bavaria, Saxony, and the lesser provinces of the empire mustered their +forces in all haste, and sent them to the reinforcement of Charles of +Lorraine. To their aid came Sobieski, the chivalrous King of Poland, +with eighteen thousand picked men at his back. He himself was looked +upon as a more valuable reinforcement than his whole army. He had +already distinguished himself against the Turks, who feared and hated +him, while all Europe looked to him as its savior from the infidel foe. + +There were in all about seventy-seven thousand men in the army whose +vanguard ascended the Kahlen Hill on that critical 11th of September, +and announced its coming to the beleaguered citizens by its three signal +shots. The Turks, too confident in their strength, had thoughtlessly +failed to occupy the heights, and by this carelessness gave their foes a +position of vantage. In truth, the vizier, proud in his numbers, viewed +the coming foe with disdain, and continued to pour a shower of bombs and +balls upon the city while despatching what he deemed would be a +sufficient force to repel the enemy. + +On the morning of September 12, Sobieski led his troops down the hill to +encounter the dense masses of the Moslems in the plain below. This +celebrated chief headed his men with his head partly shaved, in the +Polish fashion, and plainly dressed, though he was attended by a +brilliant retinue. In front went an attendant bearing the king's arms +emblazoned. Beside him was another who carried a plume on the point of +his lance. On his left rode his son James, on his right Charles of +Lorraine. Before the battle he knighted his son and made a stirring +address to his troops, in which he told them that they fought not for +Vienna alone, but for all Christendom; not for an earthly sovereign, but +for the King of kings. + +Early in the day the left wing of the army had attacked and carried the +village of Nussdorf, on the Danube, driving out its Turkish defenders +after an obstinate resistance. It was about mid-day when the King of +Poland led the right wing into the plain against the dense battalions of +Turkish horsemen which there awaited his assault. + +The ringing shouts of his men told the enemy that it was the dreaded +Sobieski whom they had to meet, their triumphant foe on many a +well-fought field. At the head of his cavalry he dashed upon their +crowded ranks with such impetuosity as to penetrate to their very +centre, carrying before him confusion and dismay. So daring was his +assault that he soon found himself in imminent danger, having ridden +considerably in advance of his men. Only a few companions were with him, +while around him crowded the dense columns of the foe. In a few minutes +more he would have been overpowered and destroyed, had not the German +cavalry perceived his peril and come at full gallop to his rescue, +scattering with the vigor of their charge the turbaned assailants, and +snatching him from the very hands of death. + +So sudden and fierce was the assault, so poorly led the Turkish +horsemen, and so alarming to them the war-cry of Sobieski's men, that in +a short time they were completely overthrown, and were soon in flight +in all directions. This, however, was but a partial success. The main +body of the Turkish army had taken no part. Their immense camp, with its +thousands of tents, maintained its position, and the batteries continued +to bombard the city as if in disdain of the paltry efforts of their +foes. + +Yet it seems to have been rather rage and alarm than disdain that +animated the vizier. He is said to have, in a paroxysm of fury, turned +the scimitars of his followers upon the prisoners in his camp, +slaughtering thirty thousand of these unfortunates, while bidding his +cannoneers to keep up their assault upon the city. + +These evidences of indecision and alarm in their leader filled the Turks +with dread. They saw their cavalry battalions flying in confusion, heard +the triumphant trumpets of their foes, learned that the dreaded Polish +king was at the head of the irresistible charging columns, and yet +beheld their commander pressing the siege as if no foe were in the +field. It was evident that the vizier had lost his head through fright. +A sudden terror filled their souls. They broke and fled. While Sobieski +and the other leaders were in council to decide whether the battle +should be continued that evening or left till the next morning, word was +brought them that the enemy was in full flight, running away in every +direction. + +They hastened out. The tidings proved true. A panic had seized the +Turks, and, abandoning tents, cannon, baggage, everything, they were +flying in wild haste from the beleaguered walls. The alarm quickly +spread through their ranks. Those who had been firing on the city left +their guns and joined in the flight. From rank to rank, from division to +division, it extended, until the whole army had decamped and was +hastening in panic terror over the plain, hotly pursued by the +death-dealing columns of the Christian cavalry, and thinking only of +Constantinople and safety. + +The booty found in the camp was immense. The tent of the grand vizier +alone was valued at nearly half a million dollars, and the whole spoil +was estimated as worth fifteen million dollars. The king wrote to his +wife as follows: + +"The whole of the enemy's camp, together with their artillery and an +incalculable amount of property, has fallen into our hands. The camels +and mules, together with the captive Turks, are driven away in herds, +while I myself am become the heir of the grand vizier. The banner which +was usually borne before him, together with the standard of Mohammed, +with which the sultan had honored him in this campaign, and the tents, +wagons, and baggage, are all fallen to my share; even some of the +quivers captured among the rest are alone worth several thousand +dollars. It would take too long to describe all the other objects of +luxury found in his tents, as, for instance, his baths, fountains, +gardens, and a variety of rare animals. This morning I was in the city, +and found that it could hardly have held out more than five days. Never +before did the eye of man see a work of equal magnitude despatched with +a vigor like that with which they blew up, and shattered to pieces, huge +masses of stone and rocks." + +Sobieski, on entering Vienna, was greeted with the warmest gratitude and +enthusiasm by crowds of people, who looked upon him as their deliverer. +The governor, Count Rüdiger, grasped his hand with affection, the +populace followed him in his every movement, while cries of "Long live +the king!" everywhere resounded. Never had been a more signal delivery, +and the citizens were beside themselves with joy. + +In this siege the Turks had lost forty-eight thousand men. Twenty +thousand more fell on the day of battle, and an equal number during the +retreat. It is said that in the tent of the grand vizier were found +letters from Louis XIV. containing the full plan of the siege, and to +the many crimes of ambition of this monarch seems to be added that of +bringing this frightful peril upon Europe for his own selfish ends. As +for the unlucky vizier, he was put to death by strangling, by order of +the angry sultan, on his reaching Belgrade. It is said that his head, +found on the taking of Belgrade by Eugene, years afterwards, was sent to +Bishop Kolonitsch, whose own head the vizier had threatened to take in +revenge for his labors among the wounded of Vienna. + +The war with the Turks continued, with some few intermissions, for +fifteen years afterwards. It ended to the great advantage of the +Christian armies. One after another the fortresses of Hungary were +wrested from their hands, and in the year 1687 they were totally +defeated at Mohacz by the Duke of Lorraine and Prince Eugene, and the +whole of Hungary torn from their grasp. + +In 1697 another great victory over them was won by Eugene, at Zenta, by +which the power of the Turks was completely broken. Belgrade, which they +had long held, fell into his hands, and a peace was signed which +confirmed Austria in the possession of all Hungary. From that time +forward the terror which the Turkish name had so long inspired vanished, +and the siege of Vienna may be looked upon as the concluding act in the +long array of invasions of Europe by the Mongolian hordes of Asia. It +was to be followed by the gradual recovery, now almost consummated, of +their European dominions from their hands. + + + + +_THE YOUTH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT._ + + +An extraordinarily rude, coarse, and fierce old despot was Frederick +William, first King of Prussia, son of the great Elector and father of +Frederick the Great. He hated France and the French language and +culture, then so much in vogue in Europe; he despised learning and +science; ostentation was to him a thing unknown; and he had but two +passions, one being to possess the tallest soldiers in Europe, the other +to have his own fierce will in all things on which he set his mind. +About all that we can say in his favor is that he paid much attention to +the promotion of education in his realm, many schools being opened and +compulsory attendance enforced. + +Of the fear with which he inspired many of his subjects, and the methods +he took to overcome it, there is no better example than that told in +relation to a Jew, whom the king saw as he was riding one day through +Berlin. The poor Israelite was slinking away in dread, when the king +rode up, seized him, and asked in harsh tones what ailed him. + +"Sire, I was afraid of you," said the trembling captive. + +"Fear me! fear me, do you?" exclaimed the king in a rage, lashing his +riding-whip across the man's shoulders with every word. "You dog! I'll +teach you to love me!" + +[Illustration: STATUE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT, UNTER DEN LINDEN, +BERLIN.] + +It was in some such fashion that he sought to make his son love him, and +with much the same result. In fact, he seemed to entertain a bitter +dislike for the beautiful and delicate boy whom fortune had sent him as +an heir, and treated him with such brutal severity that the unhappy +child grew timid and fearful of his presence. This the harsh old despot +ascribed to cowardice, and became more violent accordingly. + +On one occasion when young Frederick entered his room, something having +happened to excite his rage against him, he seized him by the hair, +flung him violently to the floor, and caned him until he had exhausted +the strength of his arm on the poor boy's body. His fury growing with +the exercise of it, he now dragged the unresisting victim to the +windows, seized the curtain cord, and twisted it tightly around his +neck. Frederick had barely strength enough to grasp his father's hand +and scream for help. The old brute would probably have strangled him had +not a chamberlain rushed in and saved him from the madman's hands. + +The boy, as he grew towards man's estate, developed tastes which added +to his father's severity. The French language and literature which he +hated were the youth's delight, and he took every opportunity to read +the works of French authors, and particularly those of Voltaire, who was +his favorite among writers. This predilection was not likely to +overcome the fierce temper of the king, who discovered his pursuits and +flogged him unmercifully, thinking to cane all love for such enervating +literature, as he deemed it, out of the boy's mind. In this he failed. +Germany in that day had little that deserved the name of literature, and +the expanding intellect of the active-minded youth turned irresistibly +towards the tabooed works of the French. + +In truth, he needed some solace for his expanding tastes, for his +father's house and habits were far from satisfactory to one with any +refinement of nature. The palace of Frederick William was little more +attractive than the houses of the humbler citizens of Berlin. The floors +were carpetless, the rooms were furnished with common bare tables and +wooden chairs, art was conspicuously absent, luxury wanting, comfort +barely considered, even the table was very parsimoniously served. + +The old king's favorite apartment in all his places of residence was his +smoking-room, which was furnished with a deal table covered with green +baize and surrounded by hard chairs. This was his audience-chamber, his +hall of state, the room in which the affairs of the kingdom were decided +in a cloud of smoke and amid the fumes of beer. Here sat generals in +uniform, ministers of state wearing their orders, ambassadors and noble +guests from foreign realms, all smoking short Dutch pipes and breathing +the vapors of tobacco. Before each was placed a great mug of beer, and +the beer-casks were kept freely on tap, for the old despot insisted that +all should drink or smoke whether or not they liked beer and tobacco, +and he was never more delighted than when he could make a guest drunk or +sicken him with smoke. For food, when they were in need of it, bread and +cheese and similar viands might be had. + +A strange picture of palatial grandeur this. Fortune had missed +Frederick William's true vocation in not making him an inn-keeper in a +German village instead of a king. Around this smoke-shrouded table the +most important affairs of state were discussed. Around it the rudest +practical jokes were perpetrated. Gundling, a beer-bibbing author, whom +the king made at once his historian and his butt, was the principal +sufferer from these frolics, which displayed abundantly that absence of +wit and presence of brutality which is the characteristic of the +practical joke. As if in scorn of rank and official dignity, Frederick +gave this sot and fool the title of baron and created him chancellor and +chamberlain of the palace, forcing him always to wear an absurdly +gorgeous gala dress, while to show his disdain of learned pursuits he +made him president of his Academy of Sciences, an institution which, in +its condition at that time, was suited to the presidency of a Gundling. + +For these dignities he made the poor butt suffer. On one occasion the +kingly joker had a brace of bear cubs laid in Gundling's bed, and the +drunken historian tossed in between them, with little heed of the danger +to which he exposed the poor victim of his sport. On another occasion, +when Gundling grew sullen and refused to leave his room, the king and +his boon companions besieged him with rockets and crackers, which they +flung in at the open window. A third and more elaborate trick was the +following. The king had the door of Gundling's room walled up, so that +the drunken dupe wandered the palace halls the whole night long, vainly +seeking his vanished door, getting into wrong rooms, disturbing sleepers +to ask whither his room had flown, and making the palace almost as +uncomfortable for its other inmates as for himself. He ended his journey +in the bear's den, where he got a severe hug for his pains. + +Such were the ideas of royal dignity, of art, science, and learning, and +of wit and humor, entertained by the first King of Prussia, the +coarse-mannered and brutal-minded progenitor of one of the greatest of +modern monarchs. His ideas of military power were no wiser or more +elevated. His whole soul was set on having a play army, a brigade of +tall recruits, whose only merit lay in their inches above the ordinary +height of humanity. Much of the revenues of the kingdom were spent upon +these giants, whom he had brought from all parts of Europe, by strategy +and force where cash and persuasion did not avail. His agents were +everywhere on the lookout for men beyond the usual stature, and on more +than one occasion blood was shed in the effort to kidnap recruits, while +some of his crimps were arrested and executed. More than once Prussia +was threatened with war for the practices of its king, yet so eager was +he to add to the number of his giants that he let no such difficulties +stand in his way. + +His tall recruits were handsomely paid and loaded with favors. To one +Irishman of extraordinary stature he paid one thousand pounds, while the +expense of watching and guarding him while bringing him from Ireland was +two hundred pounds more. It is said that in all twelve million dollars +left the country in payment for these showy and costly giants. + +By his various processes of force, fraud, and stratagem he collected +three battalions of tall show soldiers, comprising at one time several +thousand men. Not content with the unaided work of nature in providing +giants, he attempted to raise a gigantic race in his own dominions, +marrying his grenadiers to the tallest women he could find. There is +nothing to show that the result of his efforts was successful. + +The king's giants found life by no means a burden. They enjoyed the +highest consideration in Berlin, were loaded with favors, and presented +with houses, lands, and other evidences of royal grace, while their only +duties were show drills and ostentatious parades. They were too costly +and precious to expose to the dangers of actual war. When Frederick +William's son came to the throne the military career of the giants +suddenly ended. They were disbanded, pensioned off, or sent to invalid +institutions, with secret instructions to the officers that if any of +them tried to run away no hinderance should be placed in their path to +freedom. + +It is, however, with Frederick William's treatment of his son that we +are principally concerned. As the boy grew older his predilection for +the culture and literature of France increased, and under the influence +of his favorite associates, two young men named Katte and Keith, a +degree of licentiousness was developed in his habits. To please his +father he accepted a position in the army, but took every opportunity to +throw aside the hated uniform, dress in luxurious garments, solace +himself with the flute, bury himself among his books, and enjoy the +society of the women he admired and the friends he loved. He was +frequently forced to attend the king's smoking-parties, where he seems +to have avoided smoking and drinking as much as possible, escaping from +the scene before it degenerated into an orgy of excess, in which it was +apt to terminate. + +These tastes and tendencies were not calculated to increase the love of +the brutal old monarch for his son, and the life of the boy became +harder to bear as he grew older. His sister Wilhelmina was equally +detested by the harsh old king, who treated them both with shameful +brutality, knocking them down and using his cane upon them on the +slightest provocation, confining them and sending them food unfit to +eat, omitting to serve them at table, and using disgusting means to +render their food unpalatable. + +"The king almost starved my brother and me," says the princess. "He +performed the office of carver, and helped everybody excepting us two, +and when there happened to be something left in a dish, he would spit +upon it to prevent us from eating it. On the other hand, I was treated +with abundance of abuse and invectives, being called all day long by all +sorts of names, no matter who was present. The king's anger was +sometimes so violent that he drove my brother and me away, and forbade +us to appear in his presence except at meal-times." + +This represented the state of affairs when they were almost grown up, +and is a remarkable picture of court habits and manners in Germany in +the early part of the eighteenth century. The scene we have already +described, in which the king attempted to strangle his son with the +curtain cord, occurred when Frederick was in his nineteenth year, and +was one of the acts which gave rise to his resolution to run away, the +source of so many sorrows. + +Poor Frederick's lot had become too hard to bear. He was bent on flight. +His mother was the daughter of George I. of England, and he hoped to +find at the English court the happiness that failed him at home. He +informed his sister of his purpose, saying that he intended to put it +into effect during a journey which his father was about to make, and in +which opportunities for flight would arise. Katte, he said, was in his +interest; Keith would join him; he had made with them all the +arrangements for his flight. His sister endeavored to dissuade him, but +in vain. His father's continued brutality, and particularly his use of +the cane, had made the poor boy desperate. He wrote to Lieutenant +Katte,-- + +"I am off, my dear Katte. I have taken such precautions that I have +nothing to fear. I shall pass through Leipsic, where I shall assume the +name of Marquis d'Ambreville. I have already sent word to Keith, who +will proceed direct to England. Lose no time, for I calculate on finding +you at Leipsic. Adieu, be of good cheer." + +The king's journey took place. Frederick accompanied him, his mind full +of his projected flight. The king added to his resolution by +ill-treatment during the journey, and taunted him as he had often done +before, saying,-- + +"If my father had treated me so, I would soon have run away; but you +have no heart; you are a coward." + +This added to the prince's resolution. He wrote to Katte at Berlin, +repeating to him his plans. But now the chapter of accidents, which have +spoiled so many well-laid plots, began. In sending this letter he +directed it "_via_ Nürnberg," but in his haste or agitation forgot to +insert Berlin. By ill luck there was a cousin of Katte's, of the same +name, at Erlangen, some twelve miles off. The letter was delivered to +and read by him. He saw the importance of its contents, and, moved by an +impulse of loyalty, sent it by express to the king at Frankfort. + +Another accident came from Frederick's friend Keith being appointed +lieutenant, his place as page to the prince being taken by his brother, +who was as stupid as the elder Keith was acute. The royal party had +halted for the night at a village named Steinfurth. This the prince +determined to make the scene of his escape, and bade his page to call +him at four in the morning, and to have horses ready, as he proposed to +make an early morning call upon some pretty girls at a neighboring +hamlet. He deemed the boy too stupid to trust with the truth. + +Young Keith managed to spoil all. Instead of waking the prince, he +called his valet, who was really a spy of the king's, and who, +suspecting something to be amiss, pretended to fall asleep again, while +heedfully watching. Frederick soon after awoke, put on a coat of French +cut instead of his uniform, and went out. The valet immediately roused +several officers of the king's suite, and told them his suspicions. Much +disturbed, they hurried after the prince. + +After searching through the village, they found him at the horse-market +leaning against a cart. His dress added to their suspicions, and they +asked him respectfully what he was doing there. He answered sharply, +angry at being discovered. + +"For God's sake, change your coat!" exclaimed Colonel Rochow. "The king +is awake, and will start in half an hour. What would be the consequence +if he were to see you in this dress?" + +"I promise you that I will be ready before the king," said Frederick. +"I only mean to take a little turn." + +While they were arguing, the page arrived with the horses. The prince +seized the bridle of one of them, and would have leaped upon it but for +the interference of those around him, who forced him to return to the +barn in which the royal party had found its only accommodation for that +night. Here he was obliged to put on his uniform, and to restrain his +anger. + +During the day the valet and others informed the king of what had +occurred. He said nothing, as there were no proofs of the prince's +purpose. That night they reached Frankfort. Here the king received, the +next morning, the letter sent him by Katte's cousin. He showed it to two +of his officers, and bade them on peril of their heads to keep a close +watch on the prince, and to take him immediately to the yacht on which +the party proposed to travel the next day by water to Wesel. + +The king embarked the next morning, and as soon as he saw the prince his +smothered rage burst into fury. He grasped him violently by the collar, +tore his hair out by the roots, and struck him in the face with the knob +of his stick till the blood ran. Only by the interference of the two +officers was the unhappy youth saved from more extreme violence. + +His sword was taken from him, his effects were seized by the king, and +his papers burned by his valet before his face,--in which he did all +concerned "an important service." + +At the request of his keepers the prince was taken to another yacht. On +reaching the bridge of boats at the entrance to Wesel, he begged +permission to land there, so that he might not be known. His keepers +acceded, but he was no sooner on land than he ran off at full speed. He +was stopped by a guard, whom the king had sent to meet him, and was +conducted to the town-house. Not a word was said to the king about this +attempt at flight. + +The next day Frederick was brought before his father, who was in a +raging passion. + +"Why did you try to run away?" he furiously asked. + +"Because," said Frederick, firmly, "you have not treated me like your +son, but like a base slave." + +"You are an infamous deserter, and have no honor." + +"I have as much as you," retorted the prince. "I have done no more than +I have heard you say a hundred times that you would do if you were in my +place." + +This answer so incensed the old tyrant that he drew his sword in fury +from its scabbard, and would have run the boy through had not General +Mosel hastily stepped between, and seized the king's arm. + +"If you must have blood, stab me," he said; "my old carcass is not good +for much; but spare your son." + +These words checked the king's brutal fury. He ordered them to take the +boy away, and listened with more composure to the general, who entreated +him not to condemn the prince without a hearing, and not to commit the +unpardonable crime of becoming his son's executioner. + +Events followed rapidly upon this discovery. Frederick contrived to +despatch a line in pencil to Keith. "Save yourself," he wrote; "all is +discovered." Keith at once fled, reached the Hague, where he was +concealed in the house of Lord Chesterfield, the English ambassador, and +when searched for there, succeeded in escaping to England in a +fishing-boat. He was hung in effigy in Prussia, but became a major of +cavalry in the service of Portugal. + +Katte was less fortunate. He was warned in time to escape, and the +marshal who was sent to arrest him purposely delayed, but he lost +precious time in preparation, and was seized while mounting his horse. + +His arrest filled the queen with terror. Numerous letters were in his +possession which had been written by herself and her daughter to the +prince royal. In these they had often spoken with great freedom of the +king. It might be ruinous should these letters fall into his hands. + +Some friend sent the portfolio supposed to contain them to the queen. It +was locked, corded, and sealed. The trouble about the seal was overcome +by an old valet, who had found in the palace garden one just like it. +The portfolio was opened, and the queen's fears found to be correct. It +contained the letters, not less than fifteen hundred in all. They were +all hastily thrown into the fire,--too hastily, for many of them were +innocent of offence. + +But it would not do to return an empty portfolio. The queen and her +daughter immediately began to write letters to replace the burned ones, +taking paper of each year's manufacture to prevent discovery. For three +days they diligently composed and wrote, and in that period fabricated +no less than six or seven hundred letters. These far from filled the +portfolio, but the queen packed other things into it, and then locked +and sealed it, so that no change in its appearance could be perceived. +This done, it was restored to its place. + +We must hasten over what followed. On the king's return his first +greeting to his wife was, "Your good-for-nothing son is dead." He +immediately demanded the portfolio, tore it open, and carried away the +letters which had been so recently concocted. In a few minutes he +returned, and on seeing his daughter broke out into a fury of rage, his +eyes glaring, his mouth foaming. + +"Infamous wretch!" he shouted; "dare you appear in my presence? Go keep +your scoundrel of a brother company." + +He seized her as he spoke and struck her several times violently in the +face, one blow on the temple hurling her to the floor. Mad with rage, he +would have trampled on her had not the ladies present got her away. The +scene was a frightful one. The queen, believing her son dead, and +completely unnerved, ran wildly around the room, shrieking with agony. +The king's face was so distorted with rage as to be frightful to look +at. His younger children were around his knees, begging him with tears +to spare their sister. Wilhelmina, her face bruised and swollen, was +supported by one of the ladies of the court. Rarely had insane rage +created a more distressing spectacle. + +In the end the king acknowledged that Frederick was still alive, but +vowed that he would have his head off as a deserter, and that +Wilhelmina, his confederate, should be imprisoned for life. He left the +room at length to question Katte, who was being brought before him, +harshly exclaiming as he did so, "Now I shall have evidence to convict +the scoundrel Fritz and that blackguard Wilhelmina. I shall find plenty +of reasons to have their heads off." + +But we must hasten to the conclusion. Both the captives were tried by +court-martial, on the dangerous charge of desertion from the army. The +court which tried Frederick proved to be subservient to the king's will. +They pronounced sentence of death on the prince royal. Katte was +sentenced to imprisonment for life, on the plea that his crime had been +only meditated, not committed. The latter sentence did not please the +despot. He changed it himself from life imprisonment to death, and with +a refinement of cruelty ordered the execution to take place under the +prince's window, and within his sight. + +On the 5th of November, 1730, Frederick, wearing a coarse prison dress, +was conducted from his cell in the fortress of Cüstrin to a room on the +lower floor, where the window-curtains, let down as he entered, were +suddenly drawn up. He saw before him a scaffold hung with black, which +he believed to be intended for himself, and gazed upon it with +shuddering apprehension. When informed that it was intended for his +friend, his grief and pain became even more acute. He passed the night +in that room, and the next morning was conducted again to the window, +beneath which he saw his condemned friend, accompanied by soldiers, an +officer, and a minister of religion. + +"Oh," cried the prince, "how miserable it makes me to think that I am +the cause of your death! Would to God I were in your place!" + +"No," replied Katte; "if I had a thousand lives, gladly would I lay them +down for you." + +Frederick swooned as his friend moved on. In a few minutes afterwards +Katte was dead. It was long before the sorrowing prince recovered from +the shock of that cruel spectacle. + +Whether the king actually intended the execution of his son is +questioned. As it was, earnest remonstrances were addressed to him from +the Kings of Sweden and Poland, the Emperor of Germany, and other +monarchs. He gradually recovered from the insanity of his rage, and, on +humble appeals from his son, remitted his sentence, requiring him to +take a solemn oath that he was converted from his infidel beliefs, that +he begged a thousand pardons from his father for his crimes, and that +he repented not having been always obedient to his father's will. + +This done, Frederick was released from prison, but was kept under +surveillance at Cüstrin till February, 1732, when he was permitted to +return to Berlin. He had been there before on the occasion of his +sister's marriage, in November, 1731, the poor girl gladly accepting +marriage to a prince she had never seen as a means of escape from a king +of whom she had seen too much. With this our story ends. Father and son +were reconciled, and lived to all appearance as good friends until 1740, +when the old despot died, and Frederick succeeded him as king. + + + + +_VOLTAIRE AND FREDERICK THE GREAT._ + + +Voltaire, who was an adept in the art of making France too hot to hold +him, had gone to Prussia, as a place of rest for his perturbed spirit, +and, in response to the repeated invitations of his ardent admirer, +Frederick the Great. It was a blunder on both sides. If they had wished +to continue friends, they should have kept apart. Frederick was +autocratic in his ways and thoughts; Voltaire embodied the spirit of +independence in thought and speech. The two men could no more meet +without striking fire than flint and steel. Moreover, Voltaire was +normally satirical, restless, inclined to vanity and jealousy, and that +terrible pen of his could never be brought to respect persons and +places. With a martinet like Frederick, the visit was sure to end in a +quarrel, despite the admiration of the prince for the poet. + +Frederick, though a German king, was French in his love for the Gallic +literature, philosophy, and language. He cared little for German +literature--there was little of it in his day worth caring for--and +always wrote and spoke in French, while French wits and thinkers who +could not live in safety in straitlaced Paris, gained the amplest scope +for their views in his court. Voltaire found three such emigrants +there, Maupertuis, La Mettrie, and D'Arnaud. He was received by them +with enthusiasm, as the sovereign of their little court of free thought. +Frederick had given him a pension and the post of chamberlain,--an +office with very light duties,--and the expatriated poet set himself out +to enjoy his new life with zest and animation. + +"A hundred and fifty thousand victorious soldiers," he wrote to Paris, +"no attorneys, opera, plays, philosophy, poetry, a hero who is a +philosopher and a poet, grandeur and graces, grenadiers and muses, +trumpets and violins, Plato's symposium, society and freedom! Who would +believe it? It is all true, however." + +"It is Cæsar, it is Marcus Aurelius, it is Julian, it is sometimes Abbé +Chaulieu, with whom I sup," he further wrote; "there is the charm of +retirement, there is the freedom of the country, with all those little +delights which the lord of a castle who is a king can procure for his +very obedient humble servants and guests. My own duties are to do +nothing. I enjoy my leisure. I give an hour a day to the King of Prussia +to touch up a bit his works in prose and verse; I am his grammarian, not +his chamberlain ... Never in any place in the world was there more +freedom of speech touching the superstitions of men, and never were they +treated with more banter and contempt. God is respected, but all they +who have cajoled men in His name are treated unsparingly." + +It was, in short, an Eden for a free-thinker; but an Eden with its +serpent, and this serpent was the envy, jealousy, and unrestrainable +satiric spirit of Voltaire. There was soon trouble between him and his +fellow-exiles. He managed to get Arnaud exiled from the country, and +gradually a coolness arose between him and Maupertuis, whom Frederick +had made president of the Berlin Academy. There were other quarrels and +complications, and Voltaire grew disgusted with the occupation of what +he slyly called "buck-washing" the king's French verses,--poor affairs +they were. Step by step he was making Berlin as hot as he had made +Paris. The new Adam was growing restless in his new Paradise. He wrote +to his niece,-- + +"So it is known by this time in Paris, my dear child, that we have +played the 'Mort de Cæsar' at Potsdam, that Prince Henry is a good +actor, has no accent, and is very amiable, and that this is the place +for pleasure? All this is true, but--The king's supper parties are +delightful; at them people talk reason, wit, science; freedom prevails +thereat; he is the soul of it all; no ill-temper, no clouds, at any rate +no storms; my life is free and well occupied,--but--Opera, plays, +carousals, suppers at Sans Souci, military manoeuvres, concerts, studies, +readings,--but--The city of Berlin, grand, better laid out than Paris; +palaces, play-houses, affable queens, charming princesses, maids of +honor beautiful and well-made, the mansion of Madame de Tyrconnel always +full and sometimes too much so,--but--but--My dear child, the weather +is beginning to settle down into a fine frost." + +Voltaire brought the frost. He got into a disreputable quarrel with a +Jew, and meddled in other affairs, until something very like a quarrel +arose between him and Frederick. The king wrote him a severe letter of +reprimand. The poet apologized. But immediately afterwards his +irrepressible spirit of mischief broke out in a new place. It was his +ill-humor with Maupertuis which now led him astray. He wrote a pamphlet, +full of wit and as full of bitterness, called "La diatribe du docteur +Akakia," so evidently satirizing Maupertuis that the king grew furious. +It was printed anonymously, and circulated surreptitiously in Berlin, +but a copy soon fell into Frederick's hand, who knew at once that but +one man in the kingdom was capable of such a production. He wrote so +severely to Voltaire that the malicious satirist was frightened and gave +up the whole edition of the pamphlet, which was burnt before his eyes in +the king's own closet, though Frederick could not help laughing at its +wit. + +But Voltaire's daring was equal to a greater defiance than Frederick +imagined. Despite the work of the flames, a copy of the diatribe found +its way to Paris, was printed there, and copies of it made their way +back to Prussia by mail. Everybody was reading it, everybody laughing, +people fought for copies of the satire, which spread over Europe. The +king, enraged by this treacherous disobedience, as he deemed it, +retorted on Voltaire by having the pamphlet burned in the Place d'Armes. + +This brought matters to a crisis. The next day Voltaire sent his +commissions and orders back to Frederick; the next, Frederick returned +them to him. He was bent on leaving Prussia at once, but wished to do it +without a quarrel with the king. + +"I sent the Solomon of the North," he wrote to Madame Denis, "for his +present, the cap and bells he gave me, with which you reproached me so +much. I wrote him a very respectful letter, for I asked him for leave to +go. What do you think he did? He sent me his great factotum, Federshoff, +who brought me back my toys; he wrote me a letter saying that he would +rather have me to live with than Maupertuis. What is quite certain is +that I would rather not live with either the one or the other." + +In truth, Frederick could not bear to lose Voltaire. Vexed as he was +with him, he was averse to giving up that charming conversation from +which he had derived so much enjoyment. Voltaire wanted to get away; +Frederick pressed him to stay. There was protestation, warmth, coolness, +a gradual breaking of links, letters from France urging the poet to +return, communications from Frederick wishing him to remain, and a +growing attraction from Paris drawing its flown son back to that centre +of the universe for a true Frenchman. + +At length Frederick yielded; Voltaire might go. The poet approached him +while reviewing his troops. + +"Ah! Monsieur Voltaire," said the king, "so you really intend to go +away?" + +"Sir, urgent private affairs, and especially my health, leave me no +alternative." + +"Monsieur, I wish you a pleasant journey." + +This was enough for Voltaire; in an hour he was in his carriage and on +the road to Leipsic. He thought he was done for the rest of his life +with the "exactions" and "tyrannies" of the King of Prussia. He was to +experience some more of them before he left the land. Frederick bided +his time. + +It was on March 26, 1753, that Voltaire left Potsdam. It was two months +afterwards before he reached Frankfort. He had tarried at Leipsic and at +Gotha, engaged in the latter place on a dry chronicle asked for by the +duchess, entitled "The Annals of the Empire." During this time also, in +direct disregard of a promise he had made Frederick, there appeared a +supplement to "Doctor Akakia," more offensive than the main text. It was +followed by a virulent correspondence with Maupertuis. Voltaire was +filling up the vials of wrath of the king. + +On May 31 he reached Frankfort. Here the blow fell. There occurred an +incident which has become famous in literary history, and which, while +it had some warrant on Frederick's side, tells very poorly for that +patron of literature. No unlettered autocrat could have acted with less +regard to the rights and proprieties of citizenship. + +"Here is how this fine adventure came about," writes Voltaire. "There +was at Frankfort one Freytag, who had been banished from Dresden and had +become an agent for the King of Prussia....He notified me, on behalf of +his Majesty, that I was not to leave Frankfort till I had restored the +valuable effects I was carrying away from his Majesty. + +"'Alack, sir, I am carrying away nothing from that country, if you +please, not even the smallest regret. What, pray, are those jewels of +the Brandenburg crown that you require?' + +"'It be, sir,' replied Freytag, 'the work of _poeshy_ of the king, my +gracious master.' + +"'Oh, I will give him back his prose and verse with all my heart,' +replied I, 'though, after all, I have more than one right to the work. +He made me a present of a beautiful copy printed at his expense. +Unfortunately, the copy is at Leipsic with my other luggage.' + +"Then Freytag proposed to me to remain at Frankfort until the treasure +which was at Leipsic should have arrived; and he signed an order for +it." + +The volume which Frederick wanted he had doubtless good reason to +demand, when it is considered that it was in the hands of a man who +could be as malicious as Voltaire. It contained a burlesque and +licentious poem, called the "Palladium," in which the king scoffed at +everybody and everything in a manner he preferred not to make public. +Voltaire in Berlin might be trusted to remain discreet. In Paris his +discretion could not be counted on. Frederick wanted the poem in his +own hands. + +There was delay in the matter; references to Frederick and returns; the +affair dragged on slowly. The package arrived. Voltaire, agitated at his +detention, ill and anxious, wanted to get away, in company with Madame +Denis, who had just joined him. Freytag refused to let him go. Very +unwisely, the poet determined to slip away, imagining that in a "free +city" like Frankfort he could not be disturbed. He was mistaken. The +freedom of Frankfort was subject to the will of Frederick. The poet +tells for himself what followed. + +"The moment I was off, I was arrested, I, my secretary and my people; my +niece is arrested; four soldiers drag her through the mud to a +cheesemonger's named Smith, who had some title or other of privy +councillor to the King of Prussia; my niece had a passport from the King +of France, and, what is more, she had never corrected the King of +Prussia's verses. They huddled us all into a sort of hostelry, at the +door of which were posted a dozen soldiers; we were for twelve days +prisoners of war, and we had to pay a hundred and forty crowns a day." + +Voltaire was furious; Madame Denis was ill, or feigned to be; she wrote +letter after letter to Voltaire's friends in Prussia, and to the king +himself. The affair was growing daily more serious. Finally the city +authorities themselves, who doubtless felt that they were not playing a +very creditable part, put an end to it by ordering Freytag to release +his prisoner. Voltaire, set free, travelled leisurely towards France, +which, however, he found himself refused permission to enter. He +thereupon repaired to Geneva, and thereafter, freed from the patronage +of princes and the injustice of the powerful, spent his life in a land +where full freedom of thought and action was possible. + +As for the worthy Freytag, he felicitated himself highly on the way he +had handled that dabbler in _poeshy_. "We would have risked our lives +rather than let him get away," he wrote; "and if I, holding a council of +war with myself, had not found him at the barrier but in the open +country, and he had refused to jog back, I don't know that I shouldn't +have lodged a bullet in his head. To such a degree had I at heart the +letters and writing of the king." + +The too trusty agent did not feel so self-satisfied on receiving the +opinion of the king. + +"I gave you no such orders as that," wrote Frederick. "You should never +make more noise than a thing deserves. I wanted Voltaire to give you up +the key, the cross, and the volume of poems I had intrusted to him; as +soon as all that was given up to you I can't see what earthly reason +could have induced you to make this uproar." + +It is very probable, however, that Frederick wished to humiliate +Voltaire, and the latter did not fail to revenge himself with that +weapon which he knew so well how to wield. In his poem of "La Loi +naturelle" he drew a bitter but truthful portrait of Frederick which +must have made that arbitrary gentleman wince. He was, says the poet,-- + + "Of incongruities a monstrous pile, + Calling men brothers, crushing them the while; + With air humane, a misanthropic brute; + Ofttimes impulsive, sometimes over-'cute; + Weak 'midst his choler, modest in his pride; + Yearning for virtue, lust personified; + Statesman and author, of the slippery crew; + My patron, pupil, persecutor too." + + + + +_SCENES FROM THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR._ + +[Illustration: SANS SOUCI, PALACE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.] + +The story of Frederick the Great is a story of incessant wars, wars +against frightful odds, for all Europe was combined against him, and for +seven years the Austrians, the French, the Russians, and the Swedes +surrounded his realm, with the bitter determination to crush him, if not +to annihilate the Prussian kingdom. England alone was on his side. +Russia had joined the coalition through anger of the Empress Elizabeth +at Frederick's satire upon her licentious life; France had joined it +through hostility to England; Austria had organized it from indignation +at Frederick's lawless seizure of Silesia; the army raised to operate +against Prussia numbered several hundred thousand men. + +For years Frederick fought them all single-handed, with a persistence, +an energy, and a resolute rising under the weight of defeat that +compelled the admiration even of his enemies, and in the end gave him +victory over them all. To the rigid discipline of his troops, his own +military genius, and his indomitable perseverance, he owed his final +success and his well-earned epithet of "The Great." + +The story of battle, stirring as it is, is apt to grow monotonous, and +we have perhaps inflicted too many battle scenes already upon our +readers, though we have selected only such as had some particular +feature of interest to enliven them. Out of Frederick's numerous battles +we may be able to present some examples sufficiently diverse from the +ordinary to render them worthy of classification, under the title of the +romance of history. + +Let us go back to the 5th of November, 1757. On that date the army of +Frederick lay in the vicinity of Rossbach, on the Saale, then occupied +by a powerful French army. The Prussian commander, after vainly +endeavoring to bring the Austrians to battle, had turned and marched +against the French, with the hope of driving them out of Saxony. + +His hope was not a very promising one. The French army was sixty +thousand strong. He had but little over twenty thousand men. While he +felt hope the French felt assurance. They had their active foe now in +their clutches, they deemed. With his handful of men he could not +possibly stand before their onset. He had escaped them more than once +before; this time they had him, as they believed. + +His camp was on a height, near the Saale. Towards it the French +advanced, with flying colors and sounding trumpets, as if with purpose +to strike terror into the ranks of their foes. That Frederick would +venture to stand before them they scarcely credited. If he should, his +danger would be imminent, for they had laid their plans to surround his +small force and, by taking the king and his army prisoners, end at a +blow the vexatious war. They calculated shrewdly but not well, for they +left Frederick out of the account in their plans. + +As they came up, line after line, column after column, they must have +been surprised by the seeming indifference of the Prussians. There were +in their ranks no signs of retreat and none of hostility. They remained +perfectly quiet in their camp, not a gun being fired, not a movement +visible, as inert and heedless to all seeming of the coming of the +French as though there were no enemy within a hundred miles. + +There was a marked difference between the make-up of the two armies, +which greatly reduced their numerical odds. Frederick's army was +composed of thoroughly disciplined and trained soldiers, every man of +whom knew his place and his duty, and could be trusted in an emergency. +The French, on the contrary, had brought all they could of Paris with +them; their army was encumbered with women, wig-makers, barbers, and the +like impedimenta, and confusion and gayety in their ranks replaced the +stern discipline of Frederick's camp. After the battle, the booty is +said to have consisted largely of objects of gallantry better suited for +a boudoir than a camp. + +The light columns of smoke that arose from the Prussian camp as the +French advanced indicated their occupation,--and that by no means +suggested alarm. They were cooking their dinners, with as much unconcern +as though they had not yet seen the coming enemy nor heard the clangor +of trumpets that announced their approach. Had the French commanders +been within the Prussian lines they would have been more astonished +still, for they would have seen Frederick with his staff and general +officers dining at leisure and with the utmost coolness and +indifference. There was no appearance of haste in their movements, and +no more in those of their men, whose whole concern just then seemed to +be the getting of a good meal. + +The hour passed on, the French came nearer, their trumpet clangor was +close at hand, every moment seemed to render the peril of the Prussians +more imminent, yet their inertness continued; it looked almost as though +they had given up the idea of defence. The confidence of the French must +have grown rapidly as their plan of surrounding the Prussians with their +superior numbers seemed more and more assured. + +But Frederick had his eye upon them. He was biding his time. Suddenly +there came a change. It was about half-past two in the afternoon. The +French had reached the position for which he had been waiting. Quickly +the staff officers dashed right and left with their orders. The trumpets +sounded. As if by magic the tents were struck, the men sprang to their +ranks and were drawn up in battle array, the artillery opened its fire, +the seeming inertness which had prevailed was with extraordinary +rapidity exchanged for warlike activity; the complete discipline of the +Prussian army had never been more notably displayed. + +The French, who had been marching forward with careless ease, beheld +this change of the situation with astounded eyes. They looked for +heaviness and slowness of movement among the Germans, and could scarcely +believe in the possibility of such rapidity of evolution. But they had +little time to think. The Prussian batteries were pouring a rain of +balls through their columns. And quickly the Prussian cavalry, headed by +the dashing Seidlitz, was in their midst, cutting and slashing with +annihilating vigor. + +The surprise was complete. The French found it impossible to form into +line. Everywhere their columns were being swept by musketry and +artillery, and decimated by the sabres of the charging cavalry. In +almost less time than it takes to tell it they were thrown into +confusion, overwhelmed, routed; in the course of less than half an hour +the fate of the battle was decided, and the French army completely +defeated. + +Their confidence of a short time before was succeeded by panic, and the +lately trim ranks fled in utter disorganization, so utterly broken that +many of the fugitives never stopped till they reached the other side of +the Rhine. + +Ten thousand prisoners fell into Frederick's hands, including nine +generals and numerous other officers, together with all the French +artillery, and twenty-two standards; while the victory was achieved with +the loss of only one hundred and sixty-five killed and three hundred and +fifty wounded on the Prussian side. The triumph was one of discipline +against over-confidence. No army under less complete control than that +of Frederick could have sprung so suddenly into warlike array. To this, +and to the sudden and overwhelming dash of Seidlitz and his cavalry, the +remarkable victory was due. + +Just one month from that date, on the 5th of December, another great +battle took place, and another important victory for Frederick the +Great. With thirty-four thousand Prussians he defeated eighty thousand +Austrians, while the prisoners taken nearly equalled in number his +entire force. + +The Austrians had taken the opportunity of Frederick's campaign against +the French to overrun Silesia. Breslau, its capital, with several other +strongholds, fell into their hands, and the probability was that if left +there during the winter they would so strongly fortify it as to defy any +attempt of the Prussian king to recapture it. + +Despite the weakness of his army Frederick decided to make an effort to +regain the lost province, and marched at once against the Austrians. +They lay in a strong position behind the river Lohe, and here their +leader, Field-Marshal Daun, wished to have them remain, having had +abundant experience of his opponent in the open field. This cautious +advice was not taken by Prince Charles, who controlled the movements of +the army, and whom several of the generals persuaded that it would be +degrading for a victorious army to intrench itself against one so much +inferior in numbers, and advised him to march out and meet the +Prussians. "The parade guard of Berlin," as they contemptuously +designated Frederick's army, "would never be able to make a stand +against them." + +The prince, who was impetuous in disposition, agreed with them, marched +out from his intrenchments, and met Frederick's army in the vast plain +near Leuthen. On December 5 the two armies came face to face, the lines +of the imperial force extending over a space of five miles, while those +of Frederick occupied a much narrower space. + +In his lack of numbers the Prussian king was obliged to substitute +celerity of movement, hoping to double the effectiveness of his troops +by their quickness of action. The story of the battle may be given in a +few words. A false attack was made on the Austrian right, and then the +bulk of the Prussian army was hurled upon their left wing, with such +impetuosity as to break and shatter it. The disorder caused by this +attack spread until it included the whole army. In three hours' time +Frederick had completely defeated his foes, one-third of whom were +killed, wounded, or captured, and the remainder put to flight. The field +was covered with the slain, and whole battalions surrendered, the +Prussians capturing in all twenty-one thousand prisoners. They took +besides one hundred and thirty cannon and three thousand baggage and +ammunition wagons. The victory was a remarkable example of the supremacy +of genius over mere numbers. Napoleon says of it, "That battle was a +master-piece. Of itself it is sufficient to entitle Frederick to a place +in the first rank of generals." It restored Silesia to the Prussian +dominions. + +There is one more of Frederick's victories of sufficiently striking +character to fit in with those already given. It took place in 1760, +several years after those described, years in which Frederick had +struggled persistently against overwhelming odds, and, though often +worsted, yet coming up fresh after every defeat, and unconquerably +keeping the field. + +He was again in Silesia, which was once more seriously threatened by the +Austrian forces. His position was anything but a safe one. The Austrians +almost surrounded him. On one side was the army of Field-Marshal Daun, +on the other that of General Lasci; in front was General Laudon. +Fighting day and night he advanced, and finally took up his position at +Liegnitz, where he found his forward route blocked, Daun having formed a +junction with Laudon. His magazines were at Breslau and Schweidnitz in +front, which it was impossible to reach; while his brother, Prince +Henry, who might have marched to his relief, was detained by the +Russians on the Oder. + +The position of Frederick was a critical one. He had only a few days' +supply of provisions; it was impossible to advance, and dangerous to +retreat; the Austrians, in superior numbers, were dangerously near him; +only fortune and valor could save him from serious disaster. In this +crisis of his career happy chance came to his aid, and relieved him from +the awkward and perilous situation into which he had fallen. + +The Austrians were keenly on the alert, biding their time and watchful +for an opportunity to take the Prussians at advantage. The time had now +arrived, as they thought, and they laid their plans accordingly. On the +night before the 15th of August Laudon set out on a secret march, his +purpose being to gain the heights of Puffendorf, from which the +Prussians might be assailed in the rear. At the same time the other +corps were to close in on every side, completely surrounding Frederick, +and annihilating him if possible. + +It was a well-laid and promising plan, but accident befriended the +Prussian king. Accident and alertness, we may say; since, to prevent a +surprise from the Austrians, he was in the habit of changing the +location of his camp almost every night. Such a change took place on the +night in question. On the 14th the Austrians had made a close +reconnoisance of his position. Fearing some hostile purpose in this, +Frederick, as soon as the night had fallen, ordered his tents to be +struck and the camp to be moved with the utmost silence, so as to avoid +giving the foe a hint of his purpose. As it chanced, the new camp was +made on those very heights of Puffendorf towards which Laudon was +advancing with equal care and secrecy. + +That there might be no suspicion of the Prussian movement, the +watch-fires were kept up in the old camp, peasants attending to them, +while patrols of hussars cried out the challenge every quarter of an +hour. The gleaming lights, the watch-cries of the sentinels, all +indicated that the Prussian army was sleeping on its old ground, without +suspicion of the overwhelming blow intended for it on the morrow. + +Meanwhile the king and his army had reached their new quarters, where +the utmost caution and noiselessness was observed. The king, wrapped in +his military cloak, had fallen asleep beside his watch-fire; Ziethen, +his valiant cavalry leader, and a few others of his principal officers, +being with him. Throughout the camp the greatest stillness prevailed, +all noise having been forbidden. The soldiers slept with their arms +close at hand, and ready to be seized at a moment's notice. Frederick +fully appreciated the peril of his situation, and was not to be taken by +surprise by his active foes. And thus the night moved on until midnight +passed, and the new day began its course in the small hours. + +About two o'clock a sudden change came in the situation. A horseman +galloped at full speed through the camp, and drew up hastily at the +king's tent, calling Frederick from his light slumbers. He was the +officer in command of the patrol of hussars, and brought startling news. +The enemy was at hand, he said; his advance columns were within a few +hundred yards of the camp. It was Laudon's army, seeking to steal into +possession of those heights which Frederick had so opportunely occupied. + +The stirring tidings passed rapidly through the camp. The soldiers were +awakened, the officers seized their arms and sprang to horse, the troops +grasped their weapons and hastened into line, the cannoneers flew to +their guns, soon the roar of artillery warned the coming Austrians that +they had a foe in their front. + +Laudon pushed on, thinking this to be some advance column which he could +easily sweep from his front. Not until day dawned did he discover the +true situation, and perceive, with astounded eyes, that the whole +Prussian army stood in line of battle on those very heights which he had +hoped so easily to occupy. + +The advantage on which the Austrian had so fully counted lay with the +Prussian king. Yet, undaunted, Laudon pushed on and made a vigorous +attack, feeling sure that the thunder of the artillery would be borne to +Daun's ears, and bring that commander in all haste, with his army, to +take part in the fray. + +But the good fortune which had so far favored Frederick did not now +desert him. The wind blew freshly in the opposite direction, and carried +the sound of the cannon away from Daun's hearing. Not the roar of a +piece of artillery came to him, and his army lay moveless during the +battle, he deeming that Laudon must now be in full possession of the +heights, and felicitating himself on the neat trap into which the King +of Prussia had fallen. While he thus rested on his arms, glorying in his +soul on the annihilation to which the pestilent Prussians were doomed, +his ally was making a desperate struggle for life, on those very heights +which he counted on taking without a shot. Truly, the Austrians had +reckoned without their foe in laying their cunning plot. + +Three hours of daylight finished the affray. Taken by surprise as they +were, the Austrians proved unable to sustain the vigorous Prussian +assault, and were utterly routed, leaving ten thousand dead and wounded +on the field, and eighty-two pieces of artillery in the enemy's hands. +Shortly afterwards Daun, advancing to carry out his share of the scheme +of annihilation, fell upon the right wing of the Prussians, commanded by +General Ziethen, and was met with so fierce an artillery fire that he +halted in dismay. And now news of Laudon's disaster was brought to him. +Seeing that the game was lost and himself in danger, he emulated his +associate in his hasty retreat. + +Fortune and alertness had saved the Prussian king from a serious danger, +and turned peril into victory. He lost no time in profiting by his +advantage, and was in full march towards Breslau within three hours +after the battle, the prisoners in the centre, the wounded--friend and +foe alike,--in wagons in the rear, and the captured cannon added to his +own artillery train. Silesia was once more delivered into his hands. + +Never in history had there been so persistent and indomitable a +resistance against overwhelming numbers as that which Frederick +sustained for so many years against his numerous foes. At length, when +hope seemed almost at an end, and it appeared as if nothing could save +the Prussian kingdom from overthrow, death came to the aid of the +courageous monarch. The Empress Elizabeth of Russia died, and +Frederick's bitterest foe was removed. The new monarch, Peter III., was +an ardent admirer of Frederick, and at once discharged all the Prussian +prisoners in his hands, and signed a treaty of alliance with Prussia. +Sweden quickly did the same, leaving Frederick with no opponents but the +Austrians. Four months more sufficed to bring his remaining foes to +terms, and by the end of the year 1762 the distracting Seven Years' War +was at an end, the indomitable Frederick remaining in full possession of +Silesia, the great bone of contention in the war. His resolution and +perseverance had raised Prussia to a high position among the kingdoms of +Europe, and laid the foundations of the present empire of Germany. + + + + +_THE PATRIOTS OF THE TYROL._ + + +On the 9th of April, 1809, down the river Inn, in the Tyrol, came +floating a series of planks, from whose surface waved little red flags. +What they meant the Bavarian soldiers, who held that mountain land with +a hand of iron, could not conjecture. But what they meant the peasantry +well knew. On the day before peace had ruled throughout the Alps, and no +Bavarian dreamed of war. Those flags were the signal for insurrection, +and on their appearance the brave mountaineers sprang at once to arms +and flew to the defence of the bridges of their country, which the +Bavarians were marching to destroy, as an act of defence against the +Austrians. + +On the 10th the storm of war burst. Some Bavarian sappers had been sent +to blow up the bridge of St. Lorenzo. But hardly had they begun their +work, when a shower of bullets from unseen marksmen swept the bridge. +Several were killed; the rest took to flight; the Tyrol was in revolt. + +News of this outbreak was borne to Colonel Wrede, in command of the +Bavarians, who hastened with a force of infantry, cavalry, and artillery +to the spot. He found the peasants out in numbers. The Tyrolean +riflemen, who were accustomed to bring down chamois from the mountain +peaks, defended the bridge, and made terrible havoc in the Bavarian +ranks. They seized Wrede's artillery and flung guns and gunners together +into the stream, and finally put the Bavarians to rout, with severe +loss. + +The Bavarians held the Tyrol as allies of the French, and the movement +against the bridges had been directed by Napoleon, to prevent the +Austrians from reoccupying the country, which had been wrested from +their hands. Wrede in his retreat was joined by a body of three thousand +French, but decided, instead of venturing again to face the daring foe, +to withdraw to Innsbruck. But withdrawal was not easy. The signal of +revolt had everywhere called the Tyrolese to arms. The passes were +occupied. The fine old Roman bridge over the Brenner, at Laditsch, was +blown up. In the pass of the Brixen, leading to this bridge, the French +and Bavarians found themselves assailed in the old Swiss manner, by +rocks and logs rolled down upon their heads, while the unerring rifles +of the hidden peasants swept the pass. Numbers were slain, but the +remainder succeeded in escaping by means of a temporary bridge, which +they threw over the stream on the site of the bridge of Laditsch. + +Of the Tyrolese patriots to whom this outbreak was due two are worthy of +special mention, Joseph Speckbacher, a wealthy peasant of Rinn, and the +more famous Andrew Hofer, the host of the Sand Inn at Passeyr, a man +everywhere known through the mountains, as he traded in wine, corn, and +horses as far as the Italian frontier. + +Hofer was a man of herculean frame and of a full, open, handsome +countenance, which gained dignity from its long, dark-brown beard, which +fell in rich curls upon his chest. His picturesque dress--that of the +Tyrol--comprised a red waistcoat, crossed by green braces, which were +fastened to black knee breeches of chamois leather, below which he wore +red stockings. A broad black leather girdle clasped his muscular form, +while over all was worn a short green coat. On his head he wore a +low-crowned, broad-brimmed Tyrolean hat, black in color, and ornamented +with green ribbons and with the feathers of the capercailzie. + +This striking-looking patriot, at the head of a strong party of +peasantry, made an assault, early on the 11th, upon a Bavarian infantry +battalion under the command of Colonel Bäraklau, who retreated to a +table-land named Sterzinger Moos, where, drawn up in a square, he +resisted every effort of the Tyrolese to dislodge him. Finally Hofer +broke his lines by a stratagem. A wagon loaded with hay, and driven by a +girl, was pushed towards the square, the brave girl shouting, as the +balls flew around her, "On with ye! Who cares for Bavarian dumplings!" +Under its shelter the Tyrolese advanced, broke the square, and killed or +made prisoners the whole of the battalion. + +Speckbacher, the other patriot named, was no less active. No sooner had +the signal of revolt appeared in the Inn than he set the alarm-bells +ringing in every church-tower through the lower valley of that stream, +and quickly was at the head of a band of stalwart Tyrolese. On the night +of the 11th he advanced on the city of Hall, and lighted about a hundred +watch-fires on one side of the city, as if about to attack it from that +quarter. While the attention of the garrison was directed towards these +fires, he crept through the darkness to the gate on the opposite side, +and demanded entrance as a common traveller. The gate was opened; his +hidden companions rushed forward and seized it; in a brief time the +city, with its Bavarian garrison, was his. + +On the 12th he appeared before Innsbruck, and made a fierce assault upon +the city in which he was aided by a murderous fire poured upon the +Bavarians by the citizens from windows and towers. The people of the +upper valley of the Inn flocked to the aid of their fellows, and the +place, with its garrison, was soon taken, despite their obstinate +defence. Dittfurt, the Bavarian leader, who scornfully refused to yield +to the peasant dogs, as he considered them, fought with tiger-like +ferocity, and fell at length, pierced by four bullets. + +One further act completed the freeing of the Tyrol from Bavarian +domination. The troops under Colonel Wrede had, as we have related, +crossed the Brenner on a temporary bridge, and escaped the perils of the +pass. Greater perils awaited them. Their road lay past Sterzing, the +scene of Hofer's victory. Every trace of the conflict had been +obliterated, and Wrede vainly sought to discover what had become of +Bäraklau and his battalion. He entered the narrow pass through which the +road ran at that place, and speedily found his ranks decimated by the +rifles of Hofer's concealed men. + +After considerable loss the column broke through, and continued its +march to Innsbruck, where it was immediately surrounded by a triumphant +host of Tyrolese. The struggle was short, sharp, and decisive. In a few +minutes several hundred men had fallen. In order to escape complete +destruction the rest laid down their arms. The captors entered Innsbruck +in triumph, preceded by the military band of the enemy, which they +compelled to play, and guarding their prisoners, who included two +generals, more than a hundred other officers, and about two thousand +men. + +In two days the Tyrol had been freed from its Bavarian oppressors and +their French allies and restored to its Austrian lords. The arms of +Bavaria were everywhere cast to the ground, and the officials removed. +But the prisoners were treated with great humanity, except in the single +instance of a tax-gatherer, who had boasted that he would grind down the +Tyrolese until they should gladly eat hay. In revenge, they forced him +to swallow a bushel of hay for his dinner. + +The freedom thus gained by the Tyrolese was not likely to be permanent +with Napoleon for their foe. The Austrians hastened to the defence of +the country which had been so bravely won for their emperor. On the +other side came the French and Bavarians as enemies and oppressors. +Lefebvre, the leader of the invaders, was a rough and brutal soldier, +who encouraged his men to commit every outrage upon the mountaineers. + +For some two or three months the conflict went on, with varying +fortunes, depending upon the conditions of the war between France and +Austria. At first the French were triumphant, and the Austrians withdrew +from the Tyrol. Then came Napoleon's defeat at Aspern, and the Tyrolese +rose and again drove the invaders from their country. In July occurred +Napoleon's great victory at Wagram, and the hopes of the Tyrol once more +sank. All the Austrians were withdrawn, and Lefebvre again advanced at +the head of thirty or forty thousand French, Bavarians, and Saxons. + +The courage of the peasantry vanished before this threatening invasion. +Hofer alone remained resolute, saying to the Austrian governor, on his +departure, "Well, then, I will undertake the government, and, as long as +God wills, name myself Andrew Hofer, host of the Sand at Passeyr, and +Count of the Tyrol." + +He needed resolution, for his fellow-chiefs deserted the cause of their +country on all sides. On his way to his home he met Speckbacher, +hurrying from the country in a carriage with some Austrian officers. + +"Wilt thou also desert thy country!" said Hofer to him in tones of sad +reproach. + +Another leader, Joachim Haspinger, a Capuchin monk, nicknamed Redbeard, +a man of much military talent, withdrew to his monastery at Seeben. +Hofer was left alone of the Tyrolese leaders. While the French advanced +without opposition, he took refuge in a cavern amid the steep rocks that +overhung his native vale, where he implored Heaven for aid. + +The aid came. Lefebvre, in his brutal fashion, plundered and burnt as he +advanced, and published a proscription list instead of the amnesty +promised. The natural result followed. Hofer persuaded the bold Capuchin +to leave his monastery, and he, with two others, called the western +Tyrol to arms. Hofer raised the eastern Tyrol. They soon gained a +powerful associate in Speckbacher, who, conscience-stricken by Hofer's +reproach, had left the Austrians and hastened back to his country. The +invader's cruelty had produced its natural result. The Tyrol was once +more in full revolt. + +With a bunch of rosemary, the gift of their chosen maidens, in their +green hats, the young men grasped their trusty rifles and hurried to the +places of rendezvous. The older men wore peacock plumes, the Hapsburg +symbol. With haste they prepared for the war. Cannon which did good +service were made from bored logs of larch wood, bound with iron rings. +Here the patriots built abatis; there they gathered heaps of stone on +the edges of precipices which rose above the narrow vales and passes. +The timber slides in the mountains were changed in their course so that +trees from the heights might be shot down upon the important passes and +bridges. All that could be done to give the invaders a warm welcome was +prepared, and the bold peasants waited eagerly for the coming conflict. + +From four quarters the invasion came, Lefebvre's army being divided so +as to attack the Tyrolese from every side, and meet in the heart of the +country. They were destined to a disastrous repulse. The Saxons, led by +Rouyer, marched through the narrow valley of Eisach, the heights above +which were occupied by Haspinger the Capuchin and his men. Down upon +them came rocks and trees from the heights. Rouyer was hurt, and many of +his men were slain around him. He withdrew in haste, leaving one +regiment to retain its position in the Oberau. This the Tyrolese did not +propose to permit. They attacked the regiment on the next day, in the +narrow valley, with overpowering numbers. Though faint with hunger and +the intense heat, and exhausted by the fierceness of the assault, a part +of the troops cut their way through with great loss and escaped. The +rest were made prisoners. + +The story is told that during their retreat, and when ready to drop with +fatigue, the soldiers found a cask of wine. Its head was knocked in by a +drummer, who, as he stooped to drink, was pierced by a bullet, and his +blood mingled with the wine. Despite this, the famishing soldiery +greedily swallowed the contents of the cask. + +A second _corps d'armée_ advanced up the valley of the Inn as far as +the bridges of Pruz. Here it was repulsed by the Tyrolese, and retreated +under cover of the darkness during the night of August 8. The infantry +crept noiselessly over the bridge of Pontlaz. The cavalry followed with +equal caution but with less success. The sound of a horse's hoof aroused +the watchful Tyrolese. Instantly rocks and trees were hurled upon the +bridge, men and horses being crushed beneath them and the passage +blocked. All the troops which had not crossed were taken prisoners. The +remainder were sharply pursued, and only a handful of them escaped. + +The other divisions of the invading army met with a similar fate. +Lefebvre himself, who reproached the Saxons for their defeat, was not +able to advance as far as they, and was quickly driven from the +mountains with greatly thinned ranks. He was forced to disguise himself +as a common soldier and hide among the cavalry to escape the balls of +the sharp-shooters, who owed him no love. The rear-guard was attacked +with clubs by the Capuchin and his men, and driven out with heavy loss. +During the night that followed all the mountains around the beautiful +valley of Innsbruck were lit up with watch-fires. In the valley below +those of the invaders were kept brightly burning while the troops +silently withdrew. On the next day the Tyrol held no foes; the invasion +had failed. + +Hofer placed himself at the head of the government at Innsbruck, where +he lived in his old simple mode of life, proclaimed some excellent +laws, and convoked a national assembly. The Emperor of Austria sent him +a golden chain and three thousand ducats. He received them with no show +of pride, and returned the following naïve answer: "Sirs, I thank you. I +have no news for you to-day. I have, it is true, three couriers on the +road, the Watscher-Hiesele, the Sixten-Seppele, and the Memmele-Franz, +and the Schwanz ought long to have been here. I expect the rascal every +hour." + +Meanwhile, Speckbacher and the Capuchin kept up hostilities successfully +on the eastern frontier. Haspinger wished to invade the country of their +foes, but was restrained by his more prudent associate. Speckbacher is +described as an open-hearted, fine-spirited fellow, with the strength of +a giant, and the best marksman in the country. So keen was his vision +that he could distinguish the bells on the necks of the cattle at the +distance of half a mile. + +His son Anderle, but ten years of age, was of a spirit equal to his own. +In one of the earlier battles of the war he had occupied himself during +the fight in collecting the enemy's balls in his hat, and so obstinately +refused to quit the field that his father had him carried by force to a +distant alp. During the present conflict, Anderle unexpectedly appeared +and fought by his father's side. He had escaped from his mountain +retreat. It proved an unlucky escape. Shortly afterwards, the father was +surprised by treachery and found himself surrounded with foes, who tore +from him his arms, flung him to the ground, and seriously injured him +with blows from a club. But in an instant more he sprang furiously to +his feet, hurled his assailants to the earth, and escaped across a wall +of rock impassable except to an expert mountaineer. A hundred of his men +followed him, but his young son was taken captive by his foes. The king, +Maximilian Joseph, attracted by the story of his courage and beauty, +sent for him and had him well educated. + +The freedom of the Tyrol was not to last long. The treaty of Vienna, +between the Emperors of Austria and France, was signed. It did not even +mention the Tyrol. It was a tacit understanding that the mountain +country was to be restored to Bavaria, and to reduce it to obedience +three fresh armies crossed its frontiers. They were repulsed in the +south, but in the north Hofer, under unwise advice, abandoned the +anterior passes, and the invaders made their way as far as Innsbruck, +whence they summoned him to capitulate. + +During the night of October 30 an envoy from Austria appeared in the +Tyrolese camp, bearing a letter from the Archduke John, in which he +announced the conclusion of peace and commanded the mountaineers to +disperse, and not to offer their lives as a useless sacrifice. The +Tyrolese regarded him as their lord, and obeyed, though with bitter +regret. A dispersion took place, except of the band of Speckbacher, +which held its ground against the enemy until the 3d of November, when +he received a letter from Hofer saying, "I announce to you that Austria +has made peace with France, and has forgotten the Tyrol." On receiving +this news he disbanded his followers, and all opposition ceased. + +The war was soon afoot again, however, in the native vale of Hofer, the +people of which, made desperate by the depredations of the Italian bands +which had penetrated their country, sprang to arms and resolved to +defend themselves to the bitter end. They compelled Hofer to place +himself at their head. + +For a time they were successful. But a traitor guided the enemy to their +rear, and defeat followed. Hofer escaped and took refuge among the +mountain peaks. Others of the leaders were taken and executed. The most +gallant among the peasantry were shot or hanged. There was some further +opposition, but the invaders pressed into every valley and disarmed the +people, the bulk of whom obeyed the orders given them and offered no +resistance. The revolt was quelled. + +Hofer took refuge at first, with his wife and child, in a narrow hollow +in the Kellerlager. This he soon left for a hut on the highest alps. He +was implored to leave the country, but he vowed that he would live or +die on his native soil. Discovery soon came. A peasant named Raffel +learned the location of his hiding-place by seeing the smoke ascend from +his distant hut. He foolishly boasted of his knowledge; his story came +to the ears of the French; he was arrested, and compelled to guide them +to the spot. Two thousand French were spread around the mountain; a +thousand six hundred ascended it; Hofer was taken. + +[Illustration: THE LAST DAY OF ANDREAS HOFER.] + +His captors treated him with brutal violence. They tore out his beard, +and dragged him pinioned, barefoot, and in his night-dress, over ice and +snow to the valley. Here he was placed in a carriage and carried to the +fortress of Mantua, in Italy. Napoleon, on news of the capture being +brought to him at Paris, sent orders to shoot him within twenty-four +hours. + +He died as bravely as he had lived. When placed before the firing-party +of twelve riflemen, he refused either to kneel or to allow himself to be +blindfolded. "I stand before my Creator," he exclaimed, in firm tones, +"and standing will I restore to him the spirit he gave." + +He gave the signal to fire, but the men, moved by the scene, missed +their aim. The first fire brought him to his knees, the second stretched +him on the ground, where a corporal terminated the cruel scene by +shooting him through the head. He died February 20, 1810. At a later +date his remains were borne back to his native alps, a handsome monument +of white marble was erected to his memory in the church at Innsbruck, +and his family was ennobled. + +Of the two other principal leaders of the Tyrolese, Haspinger, the +Capuchin, escaped to Vienna, which Speckbacher also succeeded in +reaching, after a series of perils and escapes which are well worth +relating. + +After the dispersal of his troops he, like Hofer, sought concealment in +the mountains where the Bavarians sought for him in troops, vowing to +"cut his skin into boot-straps if they caught him." He attempted to +follow the mountain paths to Austria, but at Dux found the roads so +blocked with snow that further progress was impossible. Here the +Bavarians came upon his track and attacked the house in which he had +taken refuge. He escaped by leaping from its roof, but was wounded in +doing so. + +For the twenty-seven days that followed he roamed through the snowy +mountain forests, in danger of death both from cold and starvation. Once +for four days together he did not taste food. At the end of this time he +found shelter in a hut at Bolderberg, where by chance he found his wife +and children, who had sought the same asylum. + +His bitterly persistent foes left him not long in safety here. They +learned his place of retreat, and pursued him, his presence of mind +alone saving him from capture. Seeing them approach, he took a sledge +upon his shoulders, and walked towards and past them as though he were a +servant of the house. + +His next place of refuge was in a cave on the Gemshaken, in which he +remained until the opening of spring, when he had the ill-fortune to be +carried by a snow-slide a mile and a half into the valley. It was +impossible to return. He crept from the snow, but found that one of his +legs was dislocated. The utmost he could do, and that with agonizing +pain, was to drag himself to a neighboring hut. Here were two men, who +carried him to his own house at Rinn. + +Bavarians were quartered in the house, and the only place of refuge open +to him was the cow-shed, where his faithful servant Zoppel dug for him a +hole beneath the bed of one of the cows, and daily supplied him with +food. His wife had returned to the house, but the danger of discovery +was so great that even she was not told of his propinquity. + +For seven weeks he remained thus half buried in the cow-shed, gradually +recovering his strength. At the end of that time he rose, bade adieu to +his wife, who now first learned of his presence, and again betook +himself to the high paths of the mountains, from which the sun of May +had freed the snow. He reached Vienna without further trouble. + +Here the brave patriot received no thanks for his services. Even a small +estate he had purchased with the remains of his property he was forced +to relinquish, not being able to complete the purchase. He would have +been reduced to beggary but for Hofer's son, who had received a fine +estate from the emperor, and who engaged him as his steward. Thus ended +the active career of the ablest leader in the Tyrolean war. + + + + +_THE OLD EMPIRE AND THE NEW._ + + +During the Christmas festival of the year 800 the crown of the imperial +dignity was placed at Rome on the head of Charles the Great, and the +Roman Empire of the West again came into being, so far as a dead thing +could be restored to life. For one thousand and six years afterwards +this title of emperor was retained in Germany, though the power +represented by it became at times a very shadowy affair. The authority +and influence of the emperors reached their culmination during the reign +of the Hohenstauffens (1138 to 1254). For a few centuries afterwards the +title represented an empire which was but a quarter fact, three-quarters +tradition, the emperor being duly elected by the diet of German princes, +but by no means submissively obeyed. The fraction of fact which remained +of the old empire perished in the Thirty Years' War. After that date the +title continued in existence, being held by the Hapsburgs of Austria as +an hereditary dignity, but the empire had vanished except as a tradition +or superstition. Finally, on the 6th of August, 1806, Francis II., at +the absolute dictum of Napoleon, laid down the title of "Emperor of the +Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation," and the long defunct empire was +finally buried. + +The shadow which remained of the empire of Charlemagne had vanished +before the rise of a greater and more vital thing, the empire of France, +brought into existence by the genius of Napoleon Bonaparte, the +successor of Charles the Great as a mighty conqueror. For a few years it +seemed as if the original empire might be restored. The power of +Napoleon, indeed, extended farther than that of his great predecessor, +all Europe west of Russia becoming virtually his. Some of the kings were +replaced by monarchs of his creation. Others were left upon their +thrones, but with their power shorn, their dignity being largely one of +vassalage to France. Not content with an empire that stretched beyond +the limits of that of Charlemagne or of the Roman Empire of the West, +Napoleon ambitiously sought to subdue all Europe to his imperial will, +and marched into Russia with nearly all the remaining nations of Europe +as his forced allies. + +His career as a conqueror ended in the snows of Muscovy and amid the +flames of Moscow. The shattered fragment of the grand army of conquest +that came back from that terrible expedition found crushed and dismayed +Germany rising into hostile vitality in its rear. Russia pursued its +vanquished invader, Prussia rose against him, Austria joined his foes, +and at length, in October, 1813, united Germany was marshalled in arms +against its mighty enemy before the city of Leipsic, the scene of the +great battles of the Thirty Years' War, nearly two centuries before. + +Here was fought one of the fiercest and most decisive struggles of that +quarter century of conflict. It was a fight for life, a battle to decide +the question of who should be lord of Europe. Napoleon had been brought +to bay. Despising to the last his foes, he had weakened his army by +leaving strong garrisons in the German cities, which he hoped to +reoccupy after he had beaten the German armies. On the 16th of October +the great contest began. It was fought fiercely throughout the day, with +successive waves of victory and defeat, the advantage at the end resting +with the allies through sheer force of numbers. The 17th was a day of +rest and negotiation, Napoleon vainly seeking to induce the Emperor of +Austria to withdraw from the alliance. While this was going on large +bodies of Swedes, Russians, and Austrians were marching to join the +German ranks, and the battle of the 18th was fought between a hundred +and fifty thousand French and a hostile army of double that strength, +which represented all northern and eastern Europe. + +The battle was one of frightful slaughter. Its turning-point came when +the Saxon infantry, which had hitherto fought on the French side, +deserted Napoleon's cause in the thick of the fight, and went over in a +body to the enemy. It was an act of treachery whose fatal effect no +effort could overcome. The day ended with victory in the hands of the +allies. The French were driven back close upon the walls of Leipsic, +with the serried columns of Germany and Russia closing them in, and +bent on giving no relaxation to their desperate foe. + +The struggle was at an end. Longer resistance would have been madness. +Napoleon ordered a retreat. But the Elster had to be crossed, and only a +single bridge remained for the passage of the army and its stores. All +night long the French poured across the bridge with what they could take +of their wagons and guns. Morning dawned with the rush and hurry of the +retreat still in active progress. A strong rear-guard held the town, and +Napoleon himself made his way across the bridge with difficulty through +the crowding masses. + +Hardly had he crossed when a frightful misfortune occurred. The bridge +had been mined, to blow it up on the approach of the foe. This duty had +been carelessly trusted to a subaltern, who, frightened by seeing some +of the enemy on the river-side, set fire hastily to the train. The +bridge blew up with a tremendous explosion, leaving a rear-guard of +twenty-five thousand men in Leipsic cut off from all hope of escape. +Some officers plunged on horseback into the stream and swam across. +Prince Poniatowsky, the gallant Pole, essayed the same, but perished in +the attempt. The soldiers of the rear-guard were forced to surrender as +prisoners of war. In this great conflict, which had continued for four +days, and in which the most of the nations of Europe took part, eighty +thousand men are said to have been slain. The French lost very heavily +in prisoners and guns. Only a hasty retreat to the Rhine saved the +remainder of their army from being cut off and captured. On the 20th +Napoleon succeeded in crossing that frontier river of his kingdom with +seventy thousand men, the remnant of the grand army with which he had +sought to hold Prussia after the disastrous end of the invasion of +Russia. + +[Illustration: A GERMAN MILK WAGON.] + +Germany was at length freed from its mighty foe. The garrisons which had +been left in its cities were forced to surrender as prisoners of war. +France in its turn was invaded, Paris taken, and Napoleon forced to +resign the imperial crown, and to retire from his empire to the little +island of Elba, near the Italian coast. In 1815 he returned, again set +Europe in flame with war, and fell once more at Waterloo, to end his +career in the far-off island of St. Helena. + +Thus ended the empire founded by the great conqueror. The next to claim +the imperial title was Louis Napoleon, who in 1851 had himself crowned +as Napoleon III. But his so-called empire was confined to France, and +fell in 1870 on the field of Sedan, himself and his army being taken +prisoners. A republic was declared in France, and the second French +empire was at an end. + +And now the empire of Germany was restored, after having ceased to exist +for sixty-five years. The remarkable success of William of Prussia gave +rise to a wide-spread feeling in the German states that he should assume +the imperial crown, and the old empire be brought again into existence +under new conditions; no longer hampered by the tradition of a Roman +empire, but as the title of united Germany. + +On December 18, 1870, an address from the North German Parliament was +read to King William at Versailles, asking him to accept the imperial +crown. He assented, and on January 18, 1871, an imposing ceremony was +held in the splendid Mirror Hall (_Galerie des Glaces_) of Louis XIV., +at the royal palace of Versailles. The day was a wet one, and the king +rode from his quarters in the prefecture to the great gates of the +château, where he alighted and passed through a lane of soldiers, the +roar of cannon heralding his approach, and rich strains of music +signalling his entrance to the hall. + +William wore a general's uniform, with the ribbon of the Black Eagle on +his breast. Helmet in hand he advanced slowly to the dais, bowed to the +assembled clergymen, and turned to survey the scene. There had been +erected an altar covered with scarlet cloth, which bore the device of +the Iron Cross. Right and left of it were soldiers bearing the standards +of their regiments. Attending on the king were the crown-prince, and a +brilliant array of the princes, dukes, and other rulers of the German +states arranged in semicircular form. Just above his head was a great +allegorical painting of the Grand Monarch, with the proud subscription, +"_Le Roi gouverne par lui même_," the motto of the autocrat. + +The ceremony began with the singing of psalms, a short sermon, and a +grand German chorale, in which all present joined. Then William, in a +loud but broken voice, read a paper, in which he declared the German +empire re-established, and the imperial dignity revived, to be invested +in him and his descendants for all future time, in accordance with the +will of the German people. + +Count Bismarck followed with a proclamation addressed by the emperor to +the German nation. As he ended, the Grand-Duke of Baden, William's +son-in-law, stepped out from the line, raised his helmet in the air, and +shouted in stentorian tones, "Long live the German Emperor William! +Hurrah!" + +Loud cheers and waving of swords and helmets responded to his stirring +appeal, the crown-prince fell on his knee to kiss the emperor's hand, +and a military band outside the hall struck up the German National +Anthem, while, as a warlike background to the scene, came the roar of +French cannon from Mount Valérien, still besieged by the Germans, their +warlike peal the last note of defiance from vanquished France. Ten days +afterwards Paris surrendered, and the war was at an end. On the 16th of +June the army made a triumphant entrance into Berlin, William riding at +its head, to be triumphantly hailed as emperor by his own people on his +own soil. All Germany, with the exception of Austria, was for the first +time fully united into an empire, the minor princes having ceased to +exist as ruling potentates. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Historical Tales, Vol 5 (of 15), by Charles Morris + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES, VOL 5 (OF 15) *** + +***** This file should be named 16587-8.txt or 16587-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/5/8/16587/ + +Produced by Janet Blenkinship and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/16587-8.zip b/16587-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..21c3fc9 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-8.zip diff --git a/16587-h.zip b/16587-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1c984e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h.zip diff --git a/16587-h/16587-h.htm b/16587-h/16587-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a24ea06 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/16587-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9122 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Historical Tales, The Romance of Reality, by Charles Morris. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;} /* page numbers */ + .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em; + float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em; + font-size: smaller; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;} + + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Historical Tales, Vol 5 (of 15), by Charles Morris + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Historical Tales, Vol 5 (of 15) + The Romance of Reality, German + +Author: Charles Morris + +Release Date: August 24, 2005 [EBook #16587] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES, VOL 5 (OF 15) *** + + + + +Produced by Janet Blenkinship and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<h1>Édition d'Élite</h1><p><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a></p> + +<h1>Historical Tales</h1> + +<h2>The Romance of Reality</h2> + +<h4>By</h4> + +<h3>CHARLES MORRIS</h3> + +<p class='center'><i>Author of "Half-Hours with the Best American Authors," "Tales from the +Dramatists," etc.</i></p> + +<p class='center'>IN FIFTEEN VOLUMES</p> + +<p class='center'>Volume V</p> + +<p class='center'>German</p> + +<p class='center'>J.B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY</p> + +<p class='center'>PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON</p> + +<p class='center'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>Copyright, 1893, by J.B. Lippincott Company.</p> + +<p class='center'>Copyright, 1904, by J.B. Lippincott Company.</p> + +<p class='center'>Copyright, 1908, by J.B. Lippincott Company.<br /><br /></p> + +<h3><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a><i>CONTENTS</i></h3> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#HERMANN_THE_HERO_OF_GERMANY">HERMANN, THE HERO OF GERMANY.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#ALBOIN_AND_ROSAMOND">ALBOIN AND ROSAMOND.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_CAREER_OF_GRIMOALD">THE CAREER OF GRIMOALD.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#WITTEKIND_THE_SAXON_PATRIOT">WITTEKIND, THE SAXON PATRIOT.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_RAIDS_OF_THE_SEA-ROVERS">THE RAIDS OF THE SEA-ROVERS.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_CAREER_OF_BISHOP_HATTO">THE CAREER OF BISHOP HATTO.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_MISFORTUNES_OF_DUKE_ERNST">THE MISFORTUNES OF DUKE ERNST.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_REIGN_OF_OTHO_II">THE REIGN OF OTHO II.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_FORTUNES_OF_HENRY_THE_FOURTH">THE FORTUNES OF HENRY THE FOURTH.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#ANECDOTES_OF_MEDIAEVAL_GERMANY">ANECDOTES OF MEDIÆVAL GERMANY.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#FREDERICK_BARBAROSSA_AND_MILAN">FREDERICK BARBAROSSA AND MILAN.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_CRUSADE_OF_FREDERICK_II">THE CRUSADE OF FREDERICK II.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_FALL_OF_THE_GHIBELLINES">THE FALL OF THE GHIBELLINES.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_TRIBUNAL_OF_THE_HOLY_VEHM">THE TRIBUNAL OF THE HOLY VEHM.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#WILLIAM_TELL_AND_THE_SWISS_PATRIOTS">WILLIAM TELL AND THE SWISS PATRIOTS.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_BLACK_DEATH_AND_THE_FLAGELLANTS">THE BLACK DEATH AND THE FLAGELLANTS.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_SWISS_AT_MORGARTEN">THE SWISS AT MORGARTEN.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#A_MAD_EMPEROR">A MAD EMPEROR.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#SEMPACH_AND_ARNOLD_WINKELRIED">SEMPACH AND ARNOLD WINKELRIED.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#ZISKA_THE_BLIND_WARRIOR">ZISKA, THE BLIND WARRIOR.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_SIEGE_OF_BELGRADE">THE SIEGE OF BELGRADE.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#LUTHER_AND_THE_INDULGENCES">LUTHER AND THE INDULGENCES.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#SOLYMAN_THE_MAGNIFICENT_AT_GUNTZ">SOLYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT AT GUNTZ.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_PEASANTS_AND_THE_ANABAPTISTS">THE PEASANTS AND THE ANABAPTISTS.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_FORTUNES_OF_WALLENSTEIN">THE FORTUNES OF WALLENSTEIN.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_END_OF_TWO_GREAT_SOLDIERS">THE END OF TWO GREAT SOLDIERS.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_SIEGE_OF_VIENNA">THE SIEGE OF VIENNA.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_YOUTH_OF_FREDERICK_THE_GREAT">THE YOUTH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#VOLTAIRE_AND_FREDERICK_THE_GREAT">VOLTAIRE AND FREDERICK THE GREAT.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#SCENES_FROM_THE_SEVEN_YEARS_WAR">SCENES FROM THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_PATRIOTS_OF_THE_TYROL">THE PATRIOTS OF THE TYROL.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_OLD_EMPIRE_AND_THE_NEW">THE OLD EMPIRE AND THE NEW.</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a></p><p><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3> + + +<h3>GERMAN.</h3> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'>PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Maximilian Receiving Venetian Delegation</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_6'>6</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Return of Hermann After His Victory Over the Romans</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Baptism of Wittekind</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Mouse-Tower on the Rhine</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_61'>61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Peasant Wedding Procession</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Scene of Monastic Life</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Thusnelda in the Germanicus Triumph</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Amphitheatre at Milan</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_109'>109</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Statue of William Tell</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_152'>152</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Castle of Prague</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_175'>175</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Statue of Arnold Winkelried</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_193'>193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Statue of Luther at Worms</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_225'>225</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Mosque of Solyman, Constantinople</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_236'>236</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Old Houses at Münster</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_246'>246</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Wallenstein</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_252'>252</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Parliament House in Vienna</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_278'>278</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Statue of Frederick The Great, Unter den Linden, Berlin</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_289'>289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Sans Souci, Palace of Frederick the Great</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_315'>315</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Last Day of Andreas Hofer</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_340'>340</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A German Milk Wagon</span></td><td align='center'><a href='#Page_347'>347</a><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><br /><br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/front.png" alt="MAXIMILLIAN RECEIVING VENETIAN DELEGATION." title="MAXIMILLIAN RECEIVING VENETIAN DELEGATION." /></div> +<h5>MAXIMILLIAN RECEIVING VENETIAN DELEGATION.</h5> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="HERMANN_THE_HERO_OF_GERMANY" id="HERMANN_THE_HERO_OF_GERMANY"></a><i>HERMANN, THE HERO OF GERMANY.</i></h3> + + +<p>In the days of Augustus, the emperor of Rome in its golden age of +prosperity, an earnest effort was made to subdue and civilize barbarian +Germany. Drusus, the step-son of the emperor, led the first army of +invasion into this forest-clad land of the north, penetrating deeply +into the country and building numerous forts to guard his conquests. His +last invasion took him as far as the Elbe. Here, as we are told, he +found himself confronted by a supernatural figure, in the form of a +woman, who waved him back with lofty and threatening air, saying, "How +much farther wilt thou advance, insatiable Drusus? It is not thy lot to +behold all these countries. Depart hence! the term of thy deeds and of +thy life is at hand." Drusus retreated, and died on his return.</p> + +<p>Tiberius, his brother, succeeded him, and went far to complete the +conquest he had begun. Germany seemed destined to become a Roman +province. The work of conquest was followed by efforts to civilize the +free-spirited barbarians, which, had they been conducted wisely, might +have led to success. One of the Roman governors, Sentius, prefect of the +Rhine, treated the people so humanely that many of them adopted the arts +and customs of Rome, and the work of overcoming their barbarism was +well<a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a> begun. He was succeeded in this office by Varus, a friend and +confidant of the emperor, but a man of very different character, and one +who not only lacked military experience and mental ability, but utterly +misunderstood the character of the people he was dealing with. They +might be led, they could not be driven into civilization, as the new +prefect was to learn.</p> + +<p>All went well as long as Varus remained peacefully in his head-quarters, +erecting markets, making the natives familiar with the attractive wares +of Rome, instructing them in civilized arts, and taking their sons into +the imperial army. All went ill when he sought to hasten his work by +acts of oppression, leading his forces across the Weser into the land of +the Cherusci, enforcing there the rigid Roman laws, and chastising and +executing free-born Germans for deeds which in their creed were not +crimes. Varus, who had at first made himself loved by his kindness, now +made himself hated by his severity. The Germans brooded over their +wrongs, awed by the Roman army, which consisted of thirty thousand +picked men, strongly intrenched, their camps being impregnable to their +undisciplined foes. Yet the high-spirited barbarians felt that this army +was but an entering wedge, and that, if not driven out, their whole +country would gradually be subdued.</p> + +<p>A patriot at length arose among the Cherusci, determined to free his +country from the intolerable Roman yoke. He was a handsome and athletic<a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a> +youth, Arminius, or Hermann as the Germans prefer to name him, of noble +descent, and skilled alike in the arts of war and of oratory, his +eloquence being equal to his courage. He was one of the sons of the +Germans who had served in the Roman armies, and had won there such +distinction as to gain the honors of knighthood and citizenship. Now, +perceiving clearly the subjection that threatened his countrymen, and +filled with an ardent love of liberty, he appeared among them, and +quickly filled their dispirited souls with much of his own courage and +enthusiasm. At midnight meetings in the depths of the forests a +conspiracy against Varus and his legions was planned, Hermann being the +chosen leader of the perilous enterprise.</p> + +<p>It was not long before this conspiracy was revealed. The German control +over the Cherusci had been aided by Segestus, a treacherous chief, whose +beautiful and patriotic daughter, Thusnelda, had given her hand in +marriage to Hermann, against her father's will. Filled with revengeful +anger at this action, and hoping to increase his power, Segestus told +the story of the secret meetings, which he had discovered, to Varus, and +bade him beware, as a revolt against him might at any moment break out. +He spoke to the wrong man. Pride in the Roman power and scorn of that of +the Germans had deeply infected the mind of Varus, and he heard with +incredulous contempt this story that the barbarians contemplated rising +against the best trained legions of Rome.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>Autumn came, the autumn of the year 9 A.D. The long rainy season of the +German forests began. Hermann decided that the time had arrived for the +execution of his plans. He began his work with a deceitful skill that +quite blinded the too-trusting Varus, inducing him to send bodies of +troops into different parts of the country, some to gather provisions +for the winter supply of the camps, others to keep watch over some +tribes not yet subdued. The Roman force thus weakened, the artful German +succeeded in drawing Varus with the remainder of his men from their +intrenchments, by inducing one of the subjected tribes to revolt.</p> + +<p>The scheme of Hermann had, so far, been completely successful. Varus, +trusting to his representations, had weakened his force, and now +prepared to draw the main body of his army out of camp. Hermann remained +with him to the last, dining with him the day before the starting of the +expedition, and inspiring so much confidence in his faithfulness to Rome +that Varus refused to listen to Segestus, who earnestly entreated him to +take Hermann prisoner on the spot. He even took Hermann's advice, and +decided to march on the revolted tribe by a shorter than the usual +route, oblivious to the fact that it led through difficult mountain +passes, shrouded in forests and bordered by steep and rocky acclivities.</p> + +<p>The treacherous plans of the patriotic German had fully succeeded. While +the Romans were toiling onward through the straitened passes, Hermann<a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a> +had sought his waiting and ambushed countrymen, to whom he gave the +signal that the time for vengeance had come. Then, as if the dense +forests had borne a sudden crop of armed men, the furious barbarians +poured out in thousands upon the unsuspecting legionaries.</p> + +<p>A frightful storm was raging. The mountain torrents, swollen by the +downpour of rain, over—flowed their banks and invaded the passes, along +which the Romans, encumbered with baggage, were wearily dragging onward +in broken columns. Suddenly, to the roar of winds and waters, was added +the wild war-cry of the Germans, and a storm of arrows, javelins, and +stones hurtled through the disordered ranks, while the barbarians, +breaking from the woods, and rushing downward from the heights, fell +upon the legions with sword and battle-axe, dealing death with every +blow.</p> + +<p>Only the discipline of the Romans saved them from speedy destruction. +With the instinct of their training they hastened to gather into larger +bodies, and their resistance, at first feeble, soon became more +effective. The struggle continued until night-fall, by which time the +surviving Romans had fought their way to a more open place, where they +hastily intrenched. But it was impossible for them to remain there. +Their provisions were lost or exhausted, thousands of foes surrounded +them, and their only hope lay in immediate and rapid flight.</p> + +<p>Sunrise came. The soldiers had recovered somewhat from the fatigue of +the day before. Setting<a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a> fire to what baggage remained in their hands, +they began a retreat fighting as they went, for the implacable enemy +disputed every step. The first part of their route lay through an open +plain, where they marched in orderly ranks. But there were mountains +still to pass, and they quickly found themselves in a wooded and +pathless valley, in whose rugged depths defence was almost impossible. +Here they fell in thousands before the weapons of their foes. It was but +a small body of survivors that at length escaped from that deadly defile +and threw up intrenchments for the night in a more open spot.</p> + +<p>With the dawn of the next day they resumed their progress, and were at +no great distance from their stronghold of Aliso when they found their +progress arrested by fresh tribes, who assailed them with murderous +fury. On they struggled, fighting, dying, marking every step of the +route with their dead. Varus, now reduced to despair, and seeing only +slaughter or captivity before him, threw himself on his sword, and died +in the midst of those whom his blind confidence had led to destruction. +Of the whole army only a feeble remnant reached Aliso, which fort they +soon after abandoned and fought their way to the Rhine. While this was +going on, the detachments which Varus had sent out in various directions +were similarly assailed, and met the same fate as had overtaken the main +body of the troops.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-013.png" alt="RETURN OF HERMAN AFTER HIS VICTORY OVER THE ROMANS." title="RETURN OF HERMAN AFTER HIS VICTORY OVER THE ROMANS." /></div> +<h5>RETURN OF HERMAN AFTER HIS VICTORY OVER THE ROMANS.</h5> + +<p>No more frightful disaster had ever befallen the Roman arms. Many +prisoners had been taken, among them certain judges and lawyers, who +were<a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a> the chief objects of Hermann's +hate, and whom he devoted to a painful death. He then offered sacrifices +to the gods, to whom he consecrated the booty, the slain, and the +leading prisoners, numbers of them being slain on the altars of his +deities. These religious ceremonies completed, the prisoners who still +remained were distributed among the tribes as slaves. The effort of +Varus to force Roman customs and laws upon the Germans had led to a +fearful retribution.</p> + +<p>When the news of this dreadful event reached Rome, that city was filled +with grief and fear. The heart of Augustus, now an old man, was stricken +with dismay at the slaughter of the best soldiers of the empire. With +neglected dress and person he wandered about the rooms and halls of the +palace, his piteous appeal, "Varus, give me back my legions!" showing +how deeply the disaster had pierced his soul. Hasty efforts were at once +made to prevent the possible serious consequences of the overthrow of +the slain legions. The Romans on the Rhine intrenched themselves in all +haste. The Germans in the imperial service were sent to distant +provinces, and recruits were raised in all parts of the country, their +purpose being to protect Gaul from an invasion by the triumphant tribes. +Yet so great was the fear inspired by the former German onslaughts, and +by this destructive outbreak, that only threats of death induced the +Romans to serve. As it proved, this defensive activity was not needed. +The Germans, satisfied, as it seemed, with expelling <a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>the Romans from +their country, destroyed their forts and military roads, and settled +back into peace, with no sign of a desire to cross the Rhine.</p> + +<p>For six years peace continued. Augustus died, and Tiberius became +emperor of Rome. Then, in the year 14 A.D., an effort was made to +reconquer Germany, an army commanded by the son of Drusus, known to +history under the name of Germanicus, attacking the Marsi, when +intoxicated and unarmed after a religious feast. Great numbers of the +defenceless tribesmen were slain, but the other tribes sprung to arms +and drove the invader back across the Rhine.</p> + +<p>In the next year Hermann was again brought into the fray. Segestus had +robbed him of his wife, the beautiful patriot Thusnelda, who hitherto +had been his right hand in council in his plans against the Roman foe. +Hermann besieged Segestus to regain possession of his wife, and pressed +the traitor so closely that he sent his son Sigismund to Germanicus, who +was again on the German side of the Rhine, imploring aid. The Roman +leader took instant advantage of this promising opportunity. He advanced +and forced Hermann to raise the siege, and himself took possession of +Thusnelda, who was destined soon afterwards to be made the leading +feature in a Roman triumph. Segestus was rewarded for his treason, and +was given lands in Gaul, his life being not safe among the people he had +betrayed. As for the daughter whom he had yielded to Roman hands, her +fate troubled little his base soul.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>Thusnelda is still a popular character in German legend, there being +various stories extant concerning her. One of these relates that, when +she lay concealed in the old fort of Schellenpyrmont, she was warned by +the cries of a faithful bird of the coming of the Romans, who were +seeking stealthily to approach her hiding-place.</p> + +<p>The loss of his beloved wife roused Hermann's heroic spirit, and spread +indignation among the Germans, who highly esteemed the noble-hearted +consort of their chief. They rose hastily in arms, and Hermann was soon +at the head of a large army, prepared to defend his country against the +invading hosts of the Romans. But as the latter proved too strong to +face in the open field, the Germans retreated with their families and +property, the country left by them being laid waste by the advancing +legions.</p> + +<p>Germanicus soon reached the scene of the late slaughter, and caused the +bones of the soldiers of Varus to be buried. But in doing this he was +obliged to enter the mountain defiles in which the former army had met +its fate. Hermann and his men watched the Romans intently from forest +and hilltop. When they had fairly entered the narrow valleys, the adroit +chief appeared before them at the head of a small troop, which retreated +as if in fear, drawing them onward until the whole army had entered the +pass.</p> + +<p>Then the fatal signal was given, and the revengeful Germans fell upon +the legionaries of Germanicus <a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>as they had done upon those of Varus, +cutting them down in multitudes. But Germanicus was a much better +soldier than Varus. He succeeded in extricating the remnant of his men, +after they had lost heavily, and in making an orderly retreat to his +ships, which awaited him upon the northern coast whence he had entered +the country. There were two other armies, one of which had invaded +Germany from the coast of Friesland, and was carried away by a flood, +narrowly escaping complete destruction. The third had entered from the +Rhine. This was overtaken by Hermann while retreating over the long +bridges which the Romans had built across the marshes of Münsterland, +and which were now in a state of advanced decay. Here it found itself +surrounded by seemingly insuperable dangers, being, in part of its +route, shut up in a narrow dell, into which the enemy had turned the +waters of a rapid stream. While defending their camp, the waters poured +upon the soldiers, rising to their knees, and a furious tempest at the +same time burst over their heads. Yet discipline, again prevailed. They +lost heavily, but succeeded in cutting their way through their enemies +and reaching the Rhine.</p> + +<p>In the next year, 17 A.D., Germanicus again invaded Germany, sailing +with a thousand ships through the northern seas and up the Ems. Flavus, +the brother of Hermann, who had remained in the service of Rome, was +with him, and addressed his patriotic brother from the river-side, +seeking to induce him to desert the German cause, by painting <a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>in +glowing colors the advantage of being a Roman citizen. Hermann, furious +at his desertion of his country, replied to him with curses, as the only +language worthy to use to a traitor, and would have ridden across the +stream to kill him, but that he was held back by his men.</p> + +<p>A battle soon succeeded, the Germans falling into an ambuscade artfully +laid by the Roman leader, and being defeated with heavy loss. Germanicus +raised a stately monument on the spot, as a memorial of his victory. The +sight of this Roman monument in their country infuriated the Germans, +and they attacked the Romans again, this time with such fury, and such +slaughter on both sides, that neither party was able to resume the fight +when the next day dawned. Germanicus, who had been very severely +handled, retreated to his ships and set sail. On his voyage the heavens +appeared to conspire against him. A tempest arose in which most of the +vessels were wrecked and many of the legionaries lost. When he returned +to Rome, shortly afterwards, a fort on the Taunus was the only one which +Rome possessed in Germany. Hermann had cleared his country of the foe. +Yet Germanicus was given a triumph, in which Thusnelda walked, laden +with chains, to the capitol.</p> + +<p>The remaining events in the life of this champion of German liberty were +few. While the events described had been taking place in the north of +Germany, there were troubles in the south. Here a chieftain named +Marbodius, who, like Hermann, <a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>had passed his youth in the Roman armies, +was the leader of several powerful tribes. He lacked the patriotism of +Hermann, and sought to ally himself with the Romans, with the hope of +attaining to supreme power in Germany.</p> + +<p>Hermann sought to rouse patriotic sentiments in his mind, but in vain, +and the movements of Marbodius having revealed his purposes, a coalition +was formed against him, with Hermann at its head. He was completely +defeated, and southern Germany saved from Roman domination, as the +northern districts had already been.</p> + +<p>Peace followed, and for several years Hermann remained general-in-chief +of the German people, and the acknowledged bulwark of their liberties. +But envy arose; he was maligned, and accused of aiming at sovereignty, +as Marbodius had done; and at length his own relations, growing to hate +and fear him, conspired against and murdered him.</p> + +<p>Thus ignobly fell the noblest of the ancient Germans, the man whose +patriotism saved the realm of the Teutonic tribes from becoming a +province of the empire of Rome. Had not Hermann lived, the history of +Europe might have pursued a different course, and the final downfall of +the colossus of the south been long averted, Germany acting as its +bulwark of defence instead of becoming the nursery of its foes.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a></p> +<h3><a name="ALBOIN_AND_ROSAMOND" id="ALBOIN_AND_ROSAMOND"></a><i>ALBOIN AND ROSAMOND</i>.</h3> + + +<p>Of the Teutonic invaders of Italy none are invested with more interest +than the Lombards,—the Long Beards, to give them their original title. +Legend yields us the story of their origin, a story of interest enough +to repeat. A famine had been caused in Denmark by a great flood, and the +people, to avoid danger of starvation, had resolved to put all the old +men and women to death, in order to save the food for the young and +strong. This radical proposition was set aside through the advice of a +wise woman, named Gambara, who suggested that lots should be drawn for +the migration of a third of the population. Her counsel was taken and +the migration began, under the leadership of her two sons. These +migrants wore beards of prodigious length, whence their subsequent name.</p> + +<p>They first entered the land of the Vandals, who refused them permission +to settle. This was a question to be decided at sword's point, and war +was declared. Both sides appealed to the gods for aid, Gambara praying +to Freya, while the Vandals invoked Odin, who answered that he would +grant the victory to the party he should first behold at the dawn of the +coming day.</p> + +<p>The day came. The sun rose. In front of the Danish host were stationed +their women, who had loosened their long hair, and let it hang down over +<a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>their faces. "Who are these with long beards?" demanded Odin, on seeing +these Danish amazons. This settled the question of victory, and also +gave the invaders a new name, that of Longobardi,—due, in this legend, +to the long hair of the women instead of the long beards of the men. +There are other legends, but none worth repeating.</p> + +<p>The story of their king Alboin, with whom we have particularly to deal, +begins, however, with a story which may be in part legendary. They were +now in hostile relations with the Gepidæ, the first nation to throw off +the yoke of the Huns. Alboin, son of Audoin, king of the Longobardi, +killed Thurismund, son of Turisend, king of the Gepidæ, in battle, but +forgot to carry away his arms, and thus returned home without a trophy +of his victory. In consequence, his stern father refused him a seat at +his table, as one unworthy of the honor. Such was the ancient Lombard +custom, and it must be obeyed.</p> + +<p>The young prince acknowledged the justice of this reproof, and +determined to try and obtain the arms which were his by right of +victory. Selecting forty companions, he boldly visited the court of +Turisend, and openly demanded from him the arms of his son. It was a +daring movement, but proved successful. The old king received him +hospitably, as the custom of the time demanded, though filled with grief +at the loss of his son. He even protected him from the anger of his +subjects, whom some of the Lombards had provoked by their insolence of +<a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>speech. The daring youth returned to his father's court with the arms +of his slain foe, and won the seat of honor of which he had been +deprived.</p> + +<p>Turisend died, and Cunimund, his son, became king. Audoin died, and +Alboin became king. And now new adventures of interest occurred. In his +visit to the court of Turisend, Alboin had seen and fallen in love with +Rosamond, the beautiful daughter of Cunimund. He now demanded her hand +in marriage, and as it was scornfully refused him, he revenged himself +by winning her honor through force and stratagem. War broke out in +consequence, and the Gepidæ were conquered, Rosamond falling to Alboin +as part of the trophies of victory.</p> + +<p>We are told that in this war Alboin sought the aid of Bacan, chagan of +the Avars, promising him half the spoil and all the land of the Gepidæ +in case of victory. He added to this a promise of the realm of the +Longobardi, in case he should succeed in winning for them a new home in +Italy, which country he proposed to invade.</p> + +<p>About fifteen years before, some of his subjects had made a warlike +expedition to Italy. Their report of its beauty and fertility had +kindled a spirit of emulation in the new generation, and inspired the +young and warlike king with ambitious hopes. His eloquence added to +their desire. He not only described to them in glowing words the land of +promise which he hoped to win, but spoke to their senses as well, by +producing at the royal banquets the fairest fruits that grew in that +garden <a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>land of Europe. His efforts were successful. No sooner was his +standard erected, and word sent abroad that Italy was his goal, than the +Longobardi found their strength augmented by hosts of adventurous youths +from the surrounding peoples. Germans, Bulgarians, Scythians, and others +joined in ranks, and twenty thousand Saxon warriors, with their wives +and children, added to the great host which had flocked to the banners +of the already renowned warrior.</p> + +<p>It was in the year 568 that Alboin, followed by the great multitude of +adventurers he had gathered, and by the whole nation of the Longobardi, +ascended the Julian Alps, and looked down from their summits on the +smiling plains of northern Italy to which his success was thenceforward +to give the name of Lombardy, the land of the Longobardi.</p> + +<p>Four years were spent in war with the Romans, city after city, district +after district, falling into the hands of the invaders. The resistance +was but feeble, and at length the whole country watered by the Po, with +the strong city of Pavia, fell into the hands of Alboin, who divided the +conquered lands among his followers, and reduced their former holders to +servitude. Alboin made Pavia his capital, and erected strong +fortifications to keep out the Burgundians, Franks, and other nations +which were troubling his new-gained dominions. This done, he settled +down to the enjoyment of the conquest which he had so ably made and so +skilfully defended.</p> + +<p>History tells us that the Longobardi cultivated <a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>their new lands so +skilfully that all traces of devastation soon vanished, and the realm +grew rich in its productions. Their freemen distinguished themselves +from the other German conquerors by laboring to turn the waste and +desert tracts into arable soil, while their king, though unceasingly +watchful against his enemies, lived among his people with patriarchal +simplicity, procuring his supplies from the produce of his farms, and +making regular rounds of inspection from one to another. It is a picture +fitted for a more peaceful and primitive age than that turbulent period +in which it is set.</p> + +<p>But now we have to do with Alboin in another aspect,—his domestic +relations, his dealings with his wife Rosamond, and the tragic end of +all the actors in the drama of real life which we have set out to tell. +The Longobardi were barbarians, and Alboin was no better than his +people; a strong evidence of which is the fact that he had the skull of +Cunimund, his defeated enemy and the father of his wife, set in gold, +and used it as a drinking cup at his banquets.</p> + +<p>Doubtless this brutality stirred revengeful sentiments in the mind of +Rosamond. An added instance of barbarian insult converted her outraged +feelings into a passion for revenge. Alboin had erected a palace near +Verona, one of the cities of his new dominion, and here he celebrated +his victories with a grand feast to his companions in arms. Wine flowed +freely at the banquet, the king emulating, or exceeding, his guests in +the art of imbibing. Heated <a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>with his potations, in which he had drained +many cups of Rhætian or Falernian wine, he called for the choicest +ornament of his sideboard, the gold-mounted skull of Cunimund, and drank +its full measure of wine amid the loud plaudits of his drunken guests.</p> + +<p>"Fill it again with wine," he cried; "fill it to the brim; carry this +goblet to the queen, and tell her that it is my desire and command that +she shall rejoice with her father."</p> + +<p>Rosamond's heart throbbed with grief and rage on hearing this inhuman +request. She took the skull in trembling hands, and murmuring in low +accents, "Let the will of my lord be obeyed," she touched it to her +lips. But in doing so she breathed a silent prayer, and resolved that +the unpardonable insult should be washed out in Alboin's blood.</p> + +<p>If she had ever loved her lord, she felt now for him only the bitterness +of hate. She had a friend in the court on whom she could depend, +Helmichis, the armor-bearer of the king. She called on him for aid in +her revenge, and found him willing but fearful, for he knew too well the +great strength and daring spirit of the chief whom he had so often +attended in battle. He proposed, therefore, that they should gain the +aid of a Lombard of unequalled strength, Peredeus by name. This +champion, however, was not easily to be won. The project was broached to +him, but the most that could be gained from him was a promise of +silence.</p> + +<p>Failing in this, more shameful methods were em<a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>ployed. Such was +Rosamond's passion for revenge that the most extreme measures seemed to +her justifiable. Peredeus loved one of the attendants of the queen. +Rosamond replaced this frail woman, sacrificed her honor to her +vengeance, and then threatened to denounce Peredeus to the king unless +he would kill the man who had so bitterly wronged her.</p> + +<p>Peredeus now consented. He must kill the king or the king would kill +him, for he felt that Rosamond was quite capable of carrying out her +threat. Having thus obtained the promise of the instruments of her +vengeance, the queen waited for a favorable moment to carry out her dark +design. The opportunity soon came. The king, heavy with wine, had +retired from the table to his afternoon slumbers. Rosamond, affecting +solicitude for his health and repose, dismissed his attendants, closed +the palace gates, and then, seeking her spouse, lulled him to rest by +her tender caresses.</p> + +<p>Finding that he slumbered, she unbolted the chamber door, and urged her +confederates to the instant performance of the deed of blood. They +entered the room with stealthy tread, but the quick senses of the +warrior took the alarm, he opened his eyes, saw two armed men advancing +upon him, and sprang from his couch. His sword hung beside him, and he +attempted to draw it, but the cunning hand of Rosamond had fastened it +securely in the scabbard. The only weapon remaining was a small +foot-stool. This he used with vigor, but it could not long <a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>protect him +from the spears of his assailants, and he quickly fell dead beneath +their blows. His body was buried beneath the stairway of the palace, and +thus tragically ended the career of the founder of the kingdom of +Lombardy.</p> + +<p>But the story of Rosamond's life is not yet at an end. The death of +Alboin was followed by another tragic event, which brought her guilty +career to a violent termination. The wily queen had not failed to +prepare for the disturbances which might follow the death of the king. +The murder of Alboin was immediately followed by her marriage with +Helmichis, whose ambition looked to no less a prize than the throne of +Lombardy. The queen was surrounded by a band of faithful Gepidæ, with +whose aid she seized the palace and made herself mistress of Verona, the +Lombard chiefs flying in alarm. But the assassination of the king who +had so often led them to victory filled the Longobardi with indignation, +the chiefs mustered their bands and led them against the stronghold of +the guilty couple, and they in their turn, were forced to fly for their +lives. Helmichis and Rosamond, with her daughter, her faithful Gepidæ, +and the spoils of the palace, took ship down the Adige and the Po, and +were transported in a Greek vessel to the port of Ravenna, where they +hoped to find shelter and safety.</p> + +<p>Longinus, the Greek governor of Ravenna, gave willing refuge to the +fugitives, the more so as the great beauty of Rosamond filled him with +admiration. She had not been long there, indeed, before <a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>he offered her +his hand in marriage. Rosamond, moved by ambition or a return of his +love, accepted his offer. There was, it is true, an obstacle in the way. +She was already provided with a husband. But the barbarian queen had +learned the art of getting rid of inconvenient husbands. Having, +perhaps, grown to detest the tool of her revenge, now that the purpose +of her marriage with him had failed, she set herself to the task of +disposing of Helmichis, this time using the cup instead of the sword.</p> + +<p>As Helmichis left the bath he received a wine-cup from the hands of his +treacherous wife, and lifted it to his lips. But no sooner had he tasted +the liquor, and felt the shock that it gave his system, than he knew +that he was poisoned. Death, a speedy death, was in his veins, but he +had life enough left for revenge. Seizing his dagger, he pressed it to +the breast of Rosamond, and by threats of instant death compelled her to +drain the remainder of the cup. In a few minutes both the guilty +partners in the death of Alboin had breathed their last.</p> + +<p>When Longinus was, at a later moment, summoned into the room, it was to +find his late guests both dead upon the floor. The poison had faithfully +done its work. Thus ended a historic tragedy than which the stage +possesses few of more striking dramatic interest and opportunities for +histrionic effect.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_CAREER_OF_GRIMOALD" id="THE_CAREER_OF_GRIMOALD"></a><i>THE CAREER OF GRIMOALD</i>.</h3> + + +<p>The Avars, led by Cacan, their king, crossed, in the year 611, the +mountains of Illyria and Lombardy, killed Gisulph, the grand duke, with +all his adherents, in battle, and laid siege to the city of Friuli, +behind whose strong walls Romilda, the widow of Gisulph, had taken +refuge. These events formed the basis of the romantic, and perhaps +largely legendary, story we have to tell.</p> + +<p>One day, so we are told, Romilda, gazing from the ramparts of the city, +beheld Cacan, the young khan of the Avars, engaged in directing the +siege. So handsome to her eyes appeared the youthful soldier that she +fell deeply in love with him at sight, her passion growing until, in +disregard of honor and patriotism, she sent him a secret message, +offering to deliver up to him the city on condition of becoming his +wife. The khan, though doubtless despising her treachery to her people, +was quick to close with the offer, and in a short time Friuli was in his +hands.</p> + +<p>This accomplished, he returned to Hungary, taking with him Romilda and +her children, of whom there were four sons and four daughters. Cacan +kept his compact with the traitress, marrying her with the primitive +rites of the Hungarians. But her married life was of the shortest. He +had kept <a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>his word, and such honor as he possessed was satisfied. The +morning after his marriage, moved perhaps by detestation of her +treachery, he caused the hapless Romilda to be impaled alive. It was a +dark end to a dark deed, and the perfidy of the woman had been matched +by an equal perfidy on the part of the man.</p> + +<p>The children of Romilda were left in the hands of the Avars. Of her +daughters, one subsequently married a duke of Bavaria and another a duke +of Allemania. The four sons, one of whom was Grimoald, the hero of our +story, managed to escape from their savage captors, though they were +hotly pursued. In their flight, Grimoald, the youngest, was taken up +behind Tafo, the oldest; but in the rapid course he lost his hold and +fell from his brother's horse.</p> + +<p>Tafo, knowing what would be the fate of the boy should he be captured, +turned and galloped upon him lance in hand, determined that he should +not fall alive into the hands of his cruel foes. But Grimoald's +entreaties and Tafo's brotherly affection induced him to change his +resolution, and, snatching up the boy, he continued his flight, the +pursuing Avars being now close at hand.</p> + +<p>Not far had they ridden before the same accident occurred. Grimoald +again fell, and Tafo was now obliged to leave him to his fate, the +fierce pursuers being too near to permit him either to kill or save the +unlucky boy. On swept Tafo, up swept the Avars, and one of them, +halting, seized the young <a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>captive, threw him behind him on his horse, +and rode on after his fellows.</p> + +<p>Grimoald's peril was imminent, but he was a child with the soul of a +warrior. As his captor pushed on in the track of his companions, the +brave little fellow suddenly snatched a knife from his belt, and in an +instant had stabbed him to the heart with his own weapon Tossing the +dead body from the saddle, Grimoald seized the bridle and rode swiftly +on, avoiding the Avars, and in the end rejoining his flying brothers. It +was a deed worthy the childhood of one who was in time to become a +famous warrior.</p> + +<p>The fugitives reached Lombardy, where Tafo was hospitably received by +the king, and succeeded his father as Grand Duke of Friuli. Grimoald was +adopted by Arigil, Duke of Benevento, in whose court he grew to manhood, +and in whose service his courage and military ability were quickly +shown. There were wars between Benevento and the Greeks of southern +Italy, and in these the young soldier so greatly distinguished himself +that on the death of Arigil he succeeded him as Duke of Benevento.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, troubles arose in Lombardy. Tafo had been falsely accused, by +an enemy of the queen, of criminal relations with her, and was put to +death by the king. Her innocence was afterwards proved, and on the death +of Ariowald the Lombards treated her with the greatest respect, and +raised Rotharis, her second husband, to the throne. He, too, died, and +Aribert, uncle of the queen, was next made <a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>king. On his death, his two +sons, Bertarit and Godebert, disputed the succession. A struggle ensued +between the rival brothers, in the course of which Grimoald was brought +into the dispute.</p> + +<p>The events here briefly described had taken place while Grimoald was +engaged in the Greek wars of his patron, Duke Arigil. When he succeeded +the latter in the ducal chair, the struggle between Bertarit and +Godebert was going on, and the new Duke of Benevento declared in favor +of the latter, who was his personal friend.</p> + +<p>A scheme of treachery, of a singular character, put an end to their +friendship and to the life of Godebert. A man who was skilled in the +arts of dissimulation, and who was secretly in the pay of Bertarit, +persuaded Godebert that his seeming friend, Duke Grimoald, was really +his enemy, and was plotting his destruction. He told the same story to +Grimoald, making him believe that Godebert was his secret foe. In proof +of his words he told each of them that the other wore armor beneath his +clothes, through fear of assassination by his assumed friend.</p> + +<p>The suspicion thus artfully aroused produced the very state of things +which the agent of mischief had declared to exist. Each of the friends +put on armor, as a protection against treachery from the other, and when +they sought to test the truth of the spy's story it seemed fully +confirmed. Each discovered that the other wore secret armor, without +learning that it had just been assumed.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>The two close friends were thus converted by a plotting Iago into +distrustful enemies, each fearing and on guard against assassination by +the other. The affair ended tragically. Grimoald was no sooner fully +convinced of the truth of what had been told him than he slew his +supposed enemy, deeming it necessary to save his own life. The dark +scheme had succeeded. Treason and falsehood had sown death between two +friends.</p> + +<p>Bertarit, his rival removed, deemed the throne now securely his. But the +truth underlying the tragedy we have described became known, and the +Lombards, convinced of the innocence of Grimoald, and scorning the +treachery by which he had been led on to murder, dismissed Bertarit's +pretensions and placed Grimoald on the throne. His career had been a +strange but highly successful one. From his childhood captivity to the +Avars he had risen to the high station of King of Lombardy, a position +fairly earned by his courage and ability.</p> + +<p>We are not yet done with the story of this distinguished warrior. +Bertarit had taken the field against him, and civil war desolated +Lombardy, an unhappy state of affairs which was soon taken advantage of +by the foes of the distracted kingdom. The enemy who now appeared in the +field was Constans, the Greek emperor, who laid siege to Benevento, +hoping to capture it while Grimoald was engaged in hostilities with +Bertarit in the north.</p> + +<p>Grimoald had left his son, Romuald, in charge of the city. On learning +of the siege he despatched a <a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>trusty friend and officer, Sesuald by +name, with some troops, to the relief of the beleaguered stronghold, +proposing to follow quickly himself with the main body of his army.</p> + +<p>And now occurred an event nobly worthy of being recorded in the annals +of human probity and faithfulness, one little known, but deserving to be +classed with those that have become famous in history. When men erect +monuments to courage and virtue, the noble Sesuald should not be +forgotten.</p> + +<p>This brave man fell into the hands of the emperor, who sought to use him +in a stratagem to obtain possession of Benevento. He promised him an +abundance of wealth and honors if he would tell Romuald that his father +had died in battle, and persuade him to surrender the city. Sesuald +seems to have agreed, for he was led to the walls of the city that he +might hold the desired conference with Romuald. Instead, however, of +carrying out the emperor's design, he cried out to the young chief, "Be +firm, Grimoald approaches"; then, hastily telling him that he had +forfeited his life by those words, he begged him in return to protect +his wife and children, as the last service he could render him.</p> + +<p>Sesuald was right. Constans, furious at his words, had his head +instantly struck off; and then, with a barbarism worthy of the times, +had it flung from a catapult into the heart of the city. The ghastly +trophy was brought to Romuald, who pressed it to his lips, and deeply +deplored the death of his father's faithful friend.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>This was the last effort of the emperor. Fearing to await the arrival +of Grimoald, he raised the siege and retreated towards Naples, hotly +pursued by the Lombards. The army of Grimoald came up with the +retreating Greeks, and a battle was imminent, when a Lombard warrior of +giant size, Amalong by name, spurring upon a Greek, lifted him from the +saddle with his lance, and rode on holding him poised in the air. The +sight of this feat filled the remaining Greeks with such terror that +they broke and fled, and their hasty retreat did not cease till they had +found shelter in Sicily.</p> + +<p>After this event Bertarit, finding it useless to contend longer against +his powerful and able opponent, submitted to Grimoald. Yet this did not +end their hostile relations. The Lombard king, distrusting his late foe, +of whose treacherous disposition he already had abundant evidence, laid +a plan to get rid of him by murdering him in his bed. This plot was +discovered by a servant of the imperilled prince, who aided his master +to escape, and, the better to secure his retreat, placed himself in his +bed, being willing to risk death in his lord's service.</p> + +<p>Grimoald discovered the stratagem of the faithful fellow, but, instead +of punishing him for it, he sought to reward him, attempting to attach +him to his own service as one whose fidelity would make him valuable to +any master. The honest servant refused, however, to desert his old lord +for a new service, and entreated so earnestly for permission <a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>to join +his master, who had taken refuge in France, that Grimoald set him free, +doubtless feeling that such faithfulness was worthy of encouragement.</p> + +<p>In France Bertarit found an ally in Chlotar II., who took up arms +against the Lombards in his aid. Grimoald, however, defeated him by a +shrewd stratagem. He feigned to retreat in haste, leaving his camp, +which was well stored with provisions, to fall into the hands of the +enemy. Deeming themselves victorious, the Franks hastened to enjoy the +feast of good things which the Lombards had left behind. But in the +midst of their repast Grimoald suddenly returned, and, falling upon them +impetuously, put most of them to the sword.</p> + +<p>In the following year (666 A.D.) he defeated another army by another +stratagem. The Avars had invaded Lombardy, with an army which far +out-numbered the troops which Grimoald could muster against them. In +this state of affairs he artfully deceived his foes as to the strength +of his army by marching and countermarching his men within their view, +each time dressed in uniform of different colors, and with varied +standards and insignia of war. The invaders, deeming that an army +confronted them far stronger than their own, withdrew in haste, leaving +Grimoald master of the field.</p> + +<p>We are further told of the king of the Lombards whose striking history +we have concisely given, that he gave many new laws to his country, and +that in his old age he was remarkable for his bald head <a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>and long white +beard. He died in 671, sixty years after the time when his mother acted +the traitress, and suffered miserably for her crime. After his death, +the exiled Bertarit was recalled to the throne of Lombardy, and Romuald +succeeded his father as Duke of Benevento, the city which he had held so +bravely against the Greeks.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a></p> +<h3><a name="WITTEKIND_THE_SAXON_PATRIOT" id="WITTEKIND_THE_SAXON_PATRIOT"></a><i>WITTEKIND, THE SAXON PATRIOT</i>.</h3> + + +<p>As Germany, in its wars with the Romans, found its hero in the great +Arminius, or Hermann; and as England, in its contest with the Normans, +found a heroic defender in the valiant Hereward; so Saxony, in its +struggle with Charlemagne, gave origin to a great soul, the indomitable +patriot Wittekind, who kept the war afoot years after the Saxons would +have yielded to their mighty foe, and, like Hereward, only gave up the +struggle when hope itself was at an end.</p> + +<p>The career of the defender of Saxony bears some analogy to that of the +last patriot of Saxon England. As in the case of Hereward, his origin is +uncertain, and the story of his life overlaid with legend. He is said to +have been the son of Wernekind, a powerful Westphalian chief, +brother-in-law of Siegfried, a king of the Danes; yet this is by no +means certain, and his ancestry must remain in doubt. He came suddenly +into the war with the great Frank conqueror, and played in it a +strikingly prominent part, to sink again out of sight at its end.</p> + +<p>The attempt of Charlemagne to conquer Saxony began in 772. Religion was +its pretext, ambition its real cause. Missionaries had been sent to the +Saxons during their great national festival at Marclo. They <a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>came back +with no converts to report. As the Saxons had refused to be converted by +words, fire and sword were next tried as assumed instruments for +spreading the doctrines of Christ, but really as effective means for +extending the dominion of the monarch of the Franks.</p> + +<p>In his first campaign in Saxony, Charlemagne marched victoriously as far +as the Weser, where he destroyed the celebrated Irminsúl, a famous +object of Saxon devotion, perhaps an image of a god, perhaps a statue of +Hermann that had become invested with divinity. The next year, Charles +being absent in Italy, the Saxons broke into insurrection, under the +leadership of Wittekind, who now first appears in history. With him was +associated another patriot, Alboin, Duke of Eastphalia.</p> + +<p>Charles returned in the succeeding year, and again swept in conquering +force through the country. But a new insurrection called him once more +to Italy, and no sooner had he gone than the eloquent Wittekind was +among his countrymen, entreating them to rise in defence of their +liberties. A general levy took place, every able man crowded to the +ranks, and whole forests were felled to form abatis of defence against a +marching enemy.</p> + +<p>Again Charles came at the head of his army of veterans, and again the +poorly-trained Saxon levies were driven in defeat from his front. He now +established a camp in the heart of the country, and had a royal +residence built at Paderborn, where he held a diet of the great vassals +of the crown and <a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>received envoys from foreign lands. Hither came +delegates from the humbled Saxons, promising peace and submission, and +pledging themselves by oaths and hostages to be true subjects of Charles +the Great. But Wittekind came not. He had taken refuge at the court of +Siegfried, the pagan king of the Danes, where he waited an opportunity +to strike a new blow for liberty.</p> + +<p>Not content with their pledges and promises, the conqueror sought to win +over his new subjects by converting them to Christianity in the +wholesale way in which this work was then usually performed. The Saxons +were baptized in large numbers, the proselyting method pursued being, as +we are told, that all prisoners of war <i>must</i> be baptized, while of the +others all who were reasonable <i>would</i> be baptized, and the inveterately +unreasonable might be <i>bribed</i> to be baptized. Doubtless, as a historian +remarks, the Saxons found baptism a cool, cleanly, and agreeable +ceremony, while their immersion in the water had little effect in +washing out their old ideas and washing in new ones.</p> + +<p>The exigencies of war in his vast empire now called Charlemagne to +Spain, where the Arabs had become troublesome and needed chastisement. +Not far had he marched away when Wittekind was again in Saxony, passing +from tribe to tribe through the forests of the land, and with fiery +eloquence calling upon his countrymen to rise against the invaders and +regain the freedom of which they had been deprived. Heedless of their +conversion, disregard<a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>ing their oaths of allegiance, filled with the +free spirit which had so long inspired them, the chiefs and people +listened with approval to his burning words, seized their arms, and flew +again to war. The priests were expelled from the country, the churches +they had built demolished, the castles erected by the Frank monarch +taken and destroyed, and the country was laid waste up to the walls of +Cologne, its Christian inhabitants being exterminated.</p> + +<p>But unyielding as Wittekind was, his great antagonist was equally +resolute and persistent. When he had finished his work with the Arabs, +he returned to Saxony with his whole army, fought a battle in 779 in the +dry bed of the Eder, and in 780 defeated Wittekind and his followers in +two great battles, completely disorganizing and discouraging the Saxon +bands, and again bringing the whole country under his control. This +accomplished, he stationed himself in their country, built numerous +fortresses upon the Elbe, and spent the summer of 780 in missionary +work, gaining a multitude of converts among the seemingly subdued +barbarians. The better to make them content with his rule he treated +them with great kindness and affability, and sent among them +missionaries of their own race, being the hostages whom he had taken in +previous years, and who had been educated in monasteries. All went well, +the Saxons were to all appearance in a state of peaceful satisfaction, +and Charles felicitated himself that he had finally added Saxony to his +empire.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a>He deceived himself sadly. He did not know the spirit of the free-born +Saxons, or the unyielding perseverance of their patriotic leader. In the +silent depths of their forests, and in the name of their ancient gods, +they vowed destruction to the invading Franks, and branded as traitors +all those who professed Christianity except as a stratagem to deceive +their powerful enemy. Entertaining no suspicion of the true state of +affairs, Charlemagne at length left the country, which he fancied to be +fully pacified and its people content. With complete confidence in his +new subjects, he commissioned his generals, Geil and Adalgis, to march +upon the Slavonians beyond the Elbe, who were threatening France with a +new barbarian invasion.</p> + +<p>They soon learned that there was other work to do. In a brief time the +irrepressible Wittekind was in the field again, with a new levy of +Saxons at his back, and the tranquillity of the land, established at +such pains, was once more in peril. Theoderic, one of Charlemagne's +principal generals, hastily marched towards them with what men he could +raise, and on his way met the army sent to repel the Slavonians. They +approached the Saxon host where it lay encamped on the Weser, behind the +Sundel mountain, and laid plans to attack it on both sides at once. But +jealousy ruined these plans, as it has many other well-laid schemes. The +leaders of the Slavonian contingent, eager to rob Theoderic of glory, +marched in haste on the Saxons, attacked them in their camp, and were so +completely defeated <a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>and overthrown that but a moity of their army +escaped from the field. The appearance of these fugitives in the camp of +Theoderic was the first he knew of the treachery of his fellow generals +and their signal punishment.</p> + +<p>The story of this dreadful event was in all haste borne to Charlemagne. +His army had been destroyed almost as completely as that of Varus on a +former occasion, and in nearly the same country. The distressing tidings +filled his soul with rage and a bitter thirst for revenge. He had done +his utmost to win over the Saxons by lenity and kindness, but this +course now seemed to him useless, if not worse than useless. He +determined to adopt opposite measures and try the effect of cruelty and +severe retribution. Calling together his forces until he had a great +army under his command, he marched into Saxony torch and sword in hand, +and swept the country with fire and steel. All who would not embrace +Christianity were pitilessly exterminated. Thousands were driven into +the rivers to be baptized or drowned. Carnage, desolation, and +destruction marked the path of the conqueror. Never had a country been +more frightfully devastated by the hand of war.</p> + +<p>All who were concerned in the rebellion were seized, so far as Charles +could lay hands on them. When questioned, they lay all the blame on +Wittekind. He was the culprit, they but his instruments. But Wittekind +had vanished, the protesting chiefs and people were in the conqueror's +hands, and, bent <a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>on making an awful example, he had no less than four +thousand five hundred of them beheaded in one day. It was a frightful +act of vengeance, which has ever since remained an ineradicable blot on +the memory of the great king.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-043.png" alt="THE BAPTISM OF WITTEKIND." title="THE BAPTISM OF WITTEKIND." /></div> +<h5>THE BAPTISM OF WITTEKIND.</h5> + +<p>Its effect was what might have been anticipated. Instead of filling the +Saxons with terror, it inspired them with revengeful fury. They rose as +one man, Wittekind and Alboin at their head, and attacked the French +with a fury such as they had never before displayed. The remorseless +cruelty with which they had been treated was repaid in the blood of the +invaders, and in the many petty combats that took place the hardy and +infuriated barbarians proved invincible against their opponents. Even in +a pitched battle, fought at Detmold, in which Wittekind led the Saxons +against the superior forces of Charlemagne, they held their own against +all his strength and generalship, and the victory remained undecided. +But they were again brought to battle upon the Hase, and now the +superior skill and more numerous army of the great conqueror prevailed. +The Saxons were defeated with great slaughter, and the French advanced +as far as the Elbe. The war continued during the succeeding year, by the +end of which the Saxons had become so reduced in strength that further +efforts at resistance would have been madness.</p> + +<p>The cruelty which Charlemagne had displayed, and which had proved so +signally useless, was now replaced by a mildness much more in conformity +<a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>with his general character; and the Saxons, exhausted with their +struggles, and attracted by the gentleness with which he treated them, +showed a general disposition to submit. But Wittekind and his +fellow-chieftain Alboin were still at large, and the astute conqueror +well knew that there was no security in his new conquest unless they +could be brought over. He accordingly opened negotiations with them, +requesting a personal conference, and pledging his royal word that they +should be dealt with in all faith and honesty. The Saxon chiefs, +however, were not inclined to put themselves in the power of a king +against whom they had so long and desperately fought without stronger +pledge than his bare word. They demanded hostages. Charlemagne, who +fully appreciated the value of their friendship and submission, freely +acceded to their terms, sent hostages, and was gratified by having the +indomitable chiefs enter his palace at Paderborn.</p> + +<p>Wittekind was well aware that his mission as a Saxon leader was at an +end. The country was subdued, its warriors slain, terrorized, or won +over, and his single hand could not keep up the war with France. He, +therefore, swore fealty to Charlemagne, freely consented to become a +Christian, and was, with his companion, baptized at Attigny in France. +The emperor stood his sponsor in baptism, received him out of the font, +loaded him with royal gifts, and sent him back with the title of Duke of +Saxony, which he held as a vassal of<a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a> France. Henceforward he seems to +have observed good faith to Charlemagne, for his name now vanishes from +history, silence in this case being a pledge of honor and peacefulness.</p> + +<p>But if history here lays him down, legend takes him up, and yields us a +number of stories concerning him not one of which has any evidence to +sustain it, but which are curious enough to be worth repeating. It gives +us, for instance, a far more romantic account of his conversion than +that above told. This relates that, in the Easter season of 785,—the +year of his conversion,—Wittekind stole into the French camp in the +garb of a minstrel or a mendicant, and, while cautiously traversing it, +bent on spying out its weaknesses, was attracted to a large tent within +which Charlemagne was attending the service of the mass. Led by an +irresistible impulse, the pagan entered the tent, and stood gazing in +spellbound wonder at the ceremony, marvelling what the strange and +impressive performance meant. As the priest elevated the host, the +chief, with astounded eyes, beheld in it the image of a child, of +dazzling and unearthly beauty. He could not conceal his surprise from +those around him, some of whom recognized in the seeming beggar the +great Saxon leader, and took him to the emperor. Wittekind told +Charlemagne of his vision, begged to be made a Christian, and brought +over many of his countrymen to the fold of the true church by the +shining example of his conversion.</p> + +<p>Legend goes on to tell us that he became a Chris<a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>tian of such hot zeal +as to exact a bloody atonement from the Frisians for their murder of +Boniface and his fellow-priests a generation before. It further tells us +that he founded a church at Enger, in Westphalia, was murdered by +Gerold, Duke of Swabia, and was buried in the church he had founded, and +in which his tomb was long shown. In truth, the people came to honor him +as a saint, and though there is no record of his canonization, a saint's +day, January 7, is given him, and we are told of miracles performed at +his tomb.</p> + +<p>So much for the dealings of Christian legend with this somewhat +unsaintly personage. Secular legend, for it is probably little more, has +contented itself with tracing his posterity, several families of Germany +deriving their descent from him, while he is held to have been the +ancestor of the imperial house of the Othos. Some French genealogists go +so far as to trace the descent of Hugh Capet to this hero of the Saxon +woods. In truth, he has been made to some extent the Roland or the +Arthur of Saxony, though fancy has not gone so far in his case as in +that of the French paladin and the Welsh hero of knight-errantry, for, +though he and his predecessor Hermann became favorite characters in +German ballad and legend, the romance heroes of that land continued to +be the mythical Siegfried and his partly fabulous, partly historical +companions of the epical song of the Nibelung.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_RAIDS_OF_THE_SEA-ROVERS" id="THE_RAIDS_OF_THE_SEA-ROVERS"></a><i>THE RAIDS OF THE SEA-ROVERS</i>.</h3> + + +<p>While Central and Southern Europe was actively engaged in wars by land, +Scandinavia, that nest of pirates, was as actively engaged in wars by +sea, sending its armed galleys far to the south, to plunder and burn +wherever they could find footing on shore. Not content with plundering +the coasts, they made their way up the streams, and often suddenly +appeared far inland before an alarm could be given. Wherever they went, +heaps of the dead and the smoking ruins of habitations marked their +ruthless course. They did not hesitate to attack fortified cities, +several of which fell into their hands and were destroyed. They always +fought on foot, but such was their strength, boldness, and activity that +the heavy-armed cavalry of France and Germany seemed unable to endure +their assault, and was frequently put to flight. If defeated, or in +danger of defeat, they hastened back to their ships, from which they +rarely ventured far and rowed away with such speed that pursuit was in +vain. For a long period they kept the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts +of Europe in such terror that prayers were publicly read in the churches +for deliverance from them, and the sight of their dragon beaked ships +filled the land with terror.</p> + +<p>In 845 a party of them assailed and took Paris, <a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>from which they were +bought off by the cowardly and ineffective method of ransom, seven +thousand pounds of silver being paid them. In 853 another expedition, +led by a leader named Hasting, one of the most dreaded of the Norsemen, +again took Paris, marched into Burgundy, laying waste the country as he +advanced, and finally took Tours, to which city much treasure had been +carried for safe-keeping. Charles the Bald, who had bought off the +former expedition with silver, bought off this one with gold, offering +the bold adventurer a bribe of six hundred and eighty-five pounds of the +precious metal, to which he added a ton and a half of silver, to leave +the country.</p> + +<p>From France, Hasting set sail for Italy, where his ferocity was aided by +a cunning which gives us a deeper insight into his character. Rome, a +famous but mystical city to the northern pagans, whose imaginations +invested it with untold wealth and splendor, was the proposed goal of +the enterprising Norseman, who hoped to make himself fabulously wealthy +from its plunder. With a hundred ships, filled with hardy Norse pirates, +he swept through the Strait of Gibraltar and along the coasts of Spain +and France, plundering as he went till he reached the harbor of Lucca, +Italy.</p> + +<p>As to where and what Rome was, the unlettered heathen had but the +dimmest conception. Here before him lay what seemed a great and rich +city, strongly fortified and thickly peopled. This must be Rome, he told +himself; behind those lofty walls <a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>lay the wealth which he so earnestly +craved; but how could it be obtained? Assault on those strong +fortifications would waste time, and perhaps end in defeat. If the city +could be won by stratagem, so much the better for himself and his men.</p> + +<p>The shrewd Norseman quickly devised a promising plan within the depths +of his astute brain. It was the Christmas season, and the inhabitants +were engaged in the celebration of the Christmas festival, though, +doubtless, sorely troubled in mind by that swarm of strange-shaped +vessels in their harbor, with their stalwart crews of blue-eyed +plunderers.</p> + +<p>Word was sent to the authorities of the city that the fleet had come +thither from no hostile intent, and that all the mariners wished was to +obtain the favor of an honorable burial-place for their chieftain, who +had just died. If the citizens would grant them this, they would engage +to depart after the funeral without injury to their courteous and +benevolent friends. The message—probably not expressed in quite the +above phrase—was received in good faith by the unsuspecting Lombards, +who were glad enough to get rid of their dangerous visitors on such +cheap terms, and gratified to learn that these fierce pagans wished +Christian burial for their chief. Word was accordingly sent to the ships +that the authorities granted their request, and were pleased with the +opportunity to oblige the mourning crews.</p> + +<p>Not long afterwards a solemn procession left the fleet, a coffin, draped +in solemn black, at its head, borne by strong carriers. As mourners +there fol <a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>lowed a large deputation of stalwart Norsemen, seemingly +unarmed, and to all appearance lost in grief. With slow steps they +entered the gates and moved through the streets of the city, chanting +the death-song of the great Hasting, until the church was reached, and +they had advanced along its crowded aisle to the altar, where stood the +priests ready to officiate at the obsequies of the expired freebooter.</p> + +<p>The coffin was set upon the floor, and the priests were about to break +into the solemn chant for the dead, when suddenly, to the surprise and +horror of the worshippers, the supposed corpse sprang to life, leaped up +sword in hand, and with a fierce and deadly blow struck the officiating +bishop to the heart. Instantly the seeming mourners, who had been chosen +from the best warriors of the fleet, flung aside their cloaks and +grasped their arms, and a carnival of death began in that crowded +church.</p> + +<p>It was not slaughter, however, that Hasting wanted, but plunder. Rushing +from the church, the Norsemen assailed the city, looting with free hand, +and cutting down all who came in their way. No long time was needed by +the skilful freebooters for this task, and before the citizens could +recover from the mortal terror into which they had been thrown, the +pagan plunderers were off again for their ships, laden with spoil, and +taking with them as captives a throng of women and maidens, the most +beautiful they could find.</p> + +<p>This daring affair had a barbarous sequel. A <a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>storm arising which +threatened the loss of his ships, the brutal Hasting gave orders that +the vessels should be lightened by throwing overboard plunder and +captives alike. Saved by this radical method, the sea-rovers quickly +repaid themselves for their losses by sailing up the Rhone, and laying +the country waste through many miles of Southern France.</p> + +<p>The end of this phase of Hasting's career was a singular one. In the +year 860 he consented to be baptized as a Christian, and to swear +allegiance to Charles the Bald of France, on condition of receiving the +title of Count of Chartres, with a suitable domain. It was a wiser +method of disarming a redoubtable enemy than that of ransoming the land, +which Charles had practised with Hasting on a previous occasion. He had +converted a foe into a subject, upon whom he might count for defence +against those fierce heathen whom he had so often led to battle.</p> + +<p>While France, England, and the Mediterranean regions formed the favorite +visiting ground of the Norsemen, they did not fail to pay their respects +in some measure to Germany, and during the ninth century, their period +of most destructive activity, the latter country suffered considerably +from their piratical ravages. Two German warriors who undertook to guard +the coasts against their incursions are worthy of mention. One of these, +Baldwin of the Iron Arm, Count of Flanders, distinguished himself by +seducing Judith, daughter of Charles the<a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a> Bald of France, who, young as +she was, was already the widow of two English kings, Ethelwolf and his +son Ethelbold. Charles was at first greatly enraged, but afterwards +accepted Baldwin as his son-in-law, and made him lord of the district. +The second was Robert the Strong, Count of Maine, a valiant defender of +the country against the sea-kings. He was slain in a bloody battle with +them, near Anvers, in 866. This distinguished warrior was the ancestor +of Hugh Capet, afterwards king of France.</p> + +<p>For some time after his death the Norsemen avoided Germany, paying their +attentions to England, where Alfred the Great was on the throne. About +880 their incursions began again, and though they were several times +defeated with severe slaughter, new swarms followed the old ones, and +year by year fresh fleets invaded the land, leaving ruin in their paths.</p> + +<p>Up the rivers they sailed, as in France, taking cities, devastating the +country, doing more damage each year than could be repaired in a decade. +Aix-la-Chapelle, the imperial city of the mighty Charlemagne, fell into +their hands, and the palace of the great Charles, in little more than +half a century after his death, was converted by these marauders into a +stable. Well might the far-seeing emperor have predicted sorrow and +trouble for the land from these sea-rovers, as he is said to have done, +on seeing their many-oared ships from a distance. Yet even his foresight +could scarcely have imagined that, before he was seventy years in the +grave, the vikings <a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>of the north would be stabling their horses in the +most splendid of his palaces.</p> + +<p>The rovers attacked Metz, and Bishop Wala fell while bravely fighting +them before its gates. City after city on the Rhine was taken and burned +to the ground. The whole country between Liège, Cologne, and Mayence was +so ravaged as to be almost converted into a desert. The besom of +destruction, in the hands of the sea-kings, threatened to sweep Germany +from end to end, as it had swept the greater part of France.</p> + +<p>The impunity with which they raided the country was due in great part to +the indolent character of the monarch. Charles the Fat, as he was +entitled, who had the ambitious project of restoring the empire of +Charlemagne, and succeeded in combining France and Germany under his +sceptre, proved unable to protect his realm from the pirate rovers. Like +his predecessor, Charles the Bald of France, he tried the magic power of +gold and silver, as a more effective argument than sharpened steel, to +rid him of these marauders. Siegfried, their principal leader, was +bought off with two thousand pounds of gold and twelve thousand pounds +of silver, to raise which sum Charles seized all the treasures of the +churches. In consideration of this great bribe the sea-rover consented +to a truce for twelve years. His brother Gottfried was bought off in a +different method, being made Duke of Friesland and vassal of the +emperor.</p> + +<p>These concessions, however, did not put an end <a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>to the depredations of +the Norsemen. There were other leaders than the two formidable brothers, +and other pirates than those under their control, and the country was +soon again invaded, a strong party advancing as far as the Moselle, +where they took and destroyed the city of Treves. This marauding band, +however, dearly paid for its depredations. While advancing through the +forest of Ardennes, it was ambushed and assailed by a furious multitude +of peasants and charcoal-burners, before whose weapons ten thousand of +the Norsemen fell in death.</p> + +<p>This revengeful act of the peasantry was followed by a treacherous deed +of the emperor, which brought renewed trouble upon the land. Eager to +rid himself of his powerful and troublesome vassal in Friesland, Charles +invited Gottfried to a meeting, at which he had the Norsemen +treacherously murdered, while his brother-in-law Hugo was deprived of +his sight. It was an act sure to bring a bloody reprisal. No sooner had +news of it reached the Scandinavian north than a fire of revengeful rage +swept through the land, and from every port a throng of oared galleys +put to sea, bent upon bloody retribution. Soon in immense hordes they +fell upon the imperial realm, forcing their way in mighty hosts up the +Rhine, the Maese, and the Seine, and washing out the memory of +Gottfried's murder in torrents of blood, while the brand spread ruin far +and wide.</p> + +<p>The chief attack was made on Paris, which the Norsemen invested and +besieged for a year and a half. The march upon Paris was made by sea and +<a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>land, the marauders making Rouen their place of rendezvous. From this +centre of operations Rollo—the future conqueror and Duke of Normandy, +now a formidable sea-king—led an overland force towards the French +capital, and on his way was met by an envoy from the emperor, no less a +personage than the Count of Chartres, the once redoubtable Hasting, now +a noble of the empire.</p> + +<p>"Valiant sirs," he said to Rollo and his chiefs, "who are you that come +hither, and why have you come?"</p> + +<p>"We are Danes," answered Rollo, proudly; "all of us equals, no man the +lord of any other, but lords of all besides. We are come to punish these +people and take their lands. And you, by what name are you called?"</p> + +<p>"Have you not heard of a certain Hasting," was the reply, "a sea-king +who left your land with a multitude of ships, and turned into a desert a +great part of this fair land of France?"</p> + +<p>"We have heard of him," said Rollo, curtly. "He began well and ended +badly."</p> + +<p>"Will you submit to King Charles?" asked the envoy, deeming it wise, +perhaps, to change the subject.</p> + +<p>"We will submit to no one, king or chieftain. All that we gain by the +sword we are masters and lords of. This you may tell to the king who has +sent you. The lords of the sea know no masters on land."</p> + +<p>Hasting left with his message, and Rollo continued his advance to the +Seine. Not finding here <a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>the ships of the maritime division of the +expedition, which he had expected to meet, he seized on the boats of the +French fishermen and pursued his course. Soon afterwards a French force +was met and put to flight, its leader, Duke Ragnold, being killed. This +event, as we are told, gave rise to a new change in the career of the +famous Hasting. A certain Tetbold or Thibaud, of Northman birth, came to +him and told him that he was suspected of treason, the defeat of the +French having been ascribed to secret information furnished by him. +Whether this were true, or a mere stratagem on the part of his +informant, it had the desired effect of alarming Hasting, who quickly +determined to save himself from peril by joining his old countrymen and +becoming again a viking chief. He thereupon sold his countship to +Tetbold, and hastened to join the army of Norsemen then besieging Paris. +As for the cunning trickster, he settled down into his cheaply bought +countship, and became the founder of the subsequent house of the Counts +of Chartres.</p> + +<p>The siege of Paris ended in the usual manner of the Norseman invasions +of France,—that of ransom. Charles marched to its relief with a strong +army, but, instead of venturing to meet his foes in battle, he bought +them off as so often before, paying them a large sum of money, granting +them free navigation of the Seine and entrance to Paris, and confirming +them in the possession of Friesland. This occurred in 887. A year +afterwards he lost his crown, through the indignation of the nobles at +his cowardice, and France and Germany again fell asunder.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>The plundering incursions continued, and soon afterwards the new +emperor, Arnulf, nephew of Charles the Fat, a man of far superior energy +to his deposed uncle, attacked a powerful force of the piratical +invaders near Louvain, where they had encamped after a victory over the +Archbishop of Mayence. In the heat of the battle that followed, the +vigilant Arnulf perceived that the German cavalry fought at a +disadvantage with their stalwart foes, whose dexterity as foot-soldiers +was remarkable. Springing from his horse, he called upon his followers +to do the same. They obeyed, the nobles and their men-at-arms leaping to +the ground and rushing furiously on foot upon their opponents. The +assault was so fierce and sudden that the Norsemen gave way, and were +cut down in thousands, Siegfried and Gottfried—a new Gottfried +apparently—falling on the field, while the channel of the Dyle, across +which the defeated invaders sought to fly, was choked with their +corpses.</p> + +<p>This bloody defeat put an end to the incursions of the Norsemen by way +of the Rhine. Thenceforward they paid their attention to the coast of +France, which they continued to invade until one of their great leaders, +Rollo, settled in Normandy as a vassal of the French monarch, and served +as an efficient barrier against the inroads of his countrymen.</p> + +<p>As to Hasting, he appears to have returned to his old trade of +sea-rover, and we hear of him again as one of the Norse invaders of +England, during the latter part of the reign of Alfred the Great.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_CAREER_OF_BISHOP_HATTO" id="THE_CAREER_OF_BISHOP_HATTO"></a><i>THE CAREER OF BISHOP HATTO</i>.</h3> + + +<p>We have now to deal with a personage whose story is largely legendary, +particularly that of his death, a highly original termination to his +career having arisen among the people, who had grown to detest him. But +Bishop Hatto played his part in the history as well as in the legend of +Germany, and the curious stories concerning him may have been based on +the deeds of his actual life. It was in the beginning of the tenth +century that this notable churchman flourished as Archbishop of Mayence, +and the emperor-maker of his times. In connection with Otho, Duke of +Saxony, he placed Louis, surnamed the Child,—for he was but seven years +of age,—on the imperial throne, and governed Germany in his name. Louis +died in 911, while still a boy, and with him ended the race of +Charlemagne in Germany. Conrad, Duke of Franconia, was chosen king to +succeed him, but the astute churchman still remained the power behind +the throne.</p> + +<p>In truth, the influence and authority of the church at that time was +enormous, and many of its potentates troubled themselves more about the +affairs of the earth than those of heaven. Hatto, while a zealous +churchman, was a bold, energetic, and un<a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>scrupulous statesman, and +raised himself to an almost unlimited power in France and Southern +Germany by his arts and influence, Otho of Saxony aiding him in his +progress to power. Two of his opponents, Henry and Adelhart, of +Babenberg, took up arms against him, and came to their deaths in +consequence. Adalbert, the opponent of the Norsemen, was his next +antagonist, and Hatto, through his influence in the diet, had him put +under the ban of the empire.</p> + +<p>Adalbert, however, vigorously resisted this decree, taking up arms in +his own defence, and defeating his opponent in the field. But soon, +being closely pressed, he retired to his fortress of Bamberg, which was +quickly invested and besieged. Here he defended himself with such energy +that Hatto, finding that the outlawed noble was not to be easily subdued +by force, adopted against him those spiritual weapons, as he probably +considered them, in which he was so trained an adept.</p> + +<p>Historians tell us that the priest, with a pretence of friendly purpose, +offered to mediate between Adalbert and his enemies, promising him, if +he would leave his stronghold to appear before the assembled nobles of +the diet, that he should have a free and safe return. Adalbert accepted +the terms, deeming that he could safely trust the pledged word of a high +dignitary of the church. Leaving the gates of his castle, he was met at +a short distance beyond by the bishop, who accosted him in his +friendliest tone, and proposed that, as their journey <a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>would be somewhat +long, they should breakfast together within the castle before starting.</p> + +<p>Adalbert assented and returned to the fortress with his smooth-tongued +companion, took breakfast with him, and then set out with him for the +diet. Here he was sternly called to answer for his acts of opposition to +the decree of the ruling body of Germany, and finding that the tide of +feeling was running strongly against him, proposed to return to his +fortress in conformity with the plighted faith of Bishop Hatto. Hatto, +with an aspect of supreme honesty, declared that he had already +fulfilled his promise. He had agreed that Adalbert should have a free +and safe return to his castle. This had been granted him. He had +returned there to breakfast without opposition of any sort. The word of +the bishop had been fully kept, and now, as a member of the diet, he +felt free to act as he deemed proper, all his obligations to the accused +having been fulfilled. Just how far this story accords with the actual +facts we are unable to say, but Adalbert, despite his indignant protest, +was sentenced to death and beheaded.</p> + +<p>Hatto had reached his dignity in the church by secular instead of +ecclesiastic influence, and is credited with employing his power in this +and other instances with such lack of honor and probity that he became +an object of the deepest popular contempt and execration. His name was +derided in the popular ballads, and he came to be looked upon as the +scapegoat of the avarice and licentiousness <a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>of the church in that +irreligious mediæval age. Among the legends concerning him is one +relating to Henry, the son of his ally, Otho of Saxony, who died in 912. +Henry had long quarrelled with the bishop, and the fabulous story goes +that, to get rid of his high-spirited enemy, the cunning churchman sent +him a gold chain, so skilfully contrived that it would strangle its +wearer.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-061.png" alt="THE MOUSE-TOWER ON THE RHINE." title="THE MOUSE-TOWER ON THE RHINE." /></div> +<h5>THE MOUSE-TOWER ON THE RHINE.</h5> + +<p>The most famous legend about Hatto, however, is that which tells the +manner of his death. The story has been enshrined in poetry by +Longfellow, but we must be content to give it in plain prose. It tells +us that a famine occurred in the land, and that a number of peasants +came to the avaricious bishop to beg for bread. By his order they were +shut up in a great barn, which then was set on fire, and its miserable +occupants burned to death.</p> + +<p>And now the cup of Hatto's infamy was filled, and heaven sent him +retribution. From the ruins of the barn issued a myriad of mice, which +pursued the remorseless bishop, ceaselessly following him in his every +effort to escape their avenging teeth. At length the wretched sinner, +driven to despair, fled for safety to a strong tower standing in the +middle of the Rhine, near Bingen, with the belief that the water would +protect him from his swarming foes. But the mice swam the stream, +invaded the tower, and devoured the miserable fugitive. As evidence of +the truth of this story we are shown the tower, still standing, and +still known as the Mäusethurm, or Mouse Tower. It must be said, however, +that this <a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>tradition probably refers to another Bishop Hatto, of +somewhat later date. Its utterly fabulous character, of course, will be +recognisable by all.</p> + +<p>So much for Bishop Hatto and his fate. It may be said, in conclusion, +that his period was one of terror and excitement in Germany, sufficient +perhaps to excuse the overturning of ideas, and the replacement of +conceptions of truth and honor by their opposites. The wild Magyars had +invaded and taken Hungary, and were making savage inroads into Germany +from every quarter. The resistance was obstinate, the Magyars were +defeated in several severe battles, yet still their multitudes swarmed +over the borders, and carried terror and ruin wherever they came. These +invaders were as ferocious in disposition, as fierce in their onsets, as +invincible through contempt of death, and as formidable through their +skilful horsemanship, as the Huns had been before them. So rapid were +their movements, and so startling the suddenness with which they would +appear in and vanish from the heart of the country, that the terrified +people came to look upon them as possessed of supernatural powers. Their +inhuman love of slaughter and their destructive habits added to the +terror with which they were viewed. They are said to have been so +bloodthirsty, that in their savage feasts after victory they used as +tables the corpses of their enemies slain in battle. It is further said +that it was their custom to bind the captured women and maidens with +their own <a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>long hair as fetters, and drive them, thus bound, in flocks +to Hungary.</p> + +<p>We may conclude with a touching story told of these unquiet and +misery-haunted times. Ulrich, Count of Linzgau, was, so the story goes, +taken prisoner by the Magyars, and long held captive in their hands. +Wendelgarde, his beautiful wife, after waiting long in sorrow for his +return, believed him to be dead, and resolved to devote the remainder of +her life to charity and devotion. Crowds of beggars came to her castle +gates, to whom she daily distributed alms. One day, while she was thus +engaged, one of the beggars suddenly threw his arms around her neck and +kissed her. Her attendants angrily interposed, but the stranger waved +them aside with a smile, and said,—</p> + +<p>"Forbear, I have endured blows and misery enough during my imprisonment +without needing more from you; I am Ulrich, your lord."</p> + +<p>Truly, in this instance, charity brought its reward.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_MISFORTUNES_OF_DUKE_ERNST" id="THE_MISFORTUNES_OF_DUKE_ERNST"></a><i>THE MISFORTUNES OF DUKE ERNST</i>.</h3> + + +<p>In the reign of Conrad II., Emperor of Germany, took place the event +which we have now to tell, one of those interesting examples of romance +which give vitality to history. On the death of Henry II., the last of +the great house of the Othos, a vast assembly from all the states of the +empire was called together to decide who their next emperor should be. +From every side they came, dukes, margraves, counts and barons, attended +by hosts of their vassals; archbishops, bishops, abbots, and other +churchmen, with their proud retainers; Saxons, Swabians, Bavarians, +Bohemians, and numerous other nationalities, great and small; all +marching towards the great plain between Worms and Mayence, where they +gathered on both sides of the Rhine, until its borders seemed covered by +a countless multitude of armed men. The scene was a magnificent one, +with its far-spreading display of rich tents, floating banners, showy +armor, and everything that could give honor and splendor to the +occasion.</p> + +<p>We are not specially concerned with what took place. There were two +competitors for the throne, both of them Conrad by name. By birth they +were cousins, and descendants of the emperor Conrad I. The younger of +these, but the son of the elder <a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>brother, and the most distinguished for +ability, was elected, and took the throne as Conrad II. He was to prove +one of the noblest sovereigns that ever held the sceptre of the German +empire. The election decided, the great assembly dispersed, and back to +their homes marched the host of warriors who had collected for once with +peaceful purpose.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-065.png" alt="PEASANT WEDDING PROCESSION." title="PEASANT WEDDING PROCESSION." /></div> +<h5>PEASANT WEDDING PROCESSION.</h5> + +<p>Two years afterwards, in 1026, Conrad crossed the Alps with an army, and +marched through Italy, that land which had so perilous an attraction for +German emperors, and so sadly disturbed the peace and progress of the +Teutonic realm. Conrad was not permitted to remain there long. Troubles +in Germany recalled him to his native soil. Swabia had broken out in hot +troubles. Duke Ernst, step-son of Conrad, claimed Burgundy as his +inheritance, in opposition to the emperor himself, who had the better +claim. He not only claimed it, but attempted to seize it. With him were +united two Swabian counts of ancient descent, Rudolf Welf, or Guelph, +and Werner of Kyburg.</p> + +<p>Swabia was in a blaze when Conrad returned. He convoked a great diet at +Ulm, as the legal means of settling the dispute. Thither Ernst came, at +the head of his Swabian men-at-arms, and still full of rebellious +spirit, although his mother, Gisela, the empress, begged him to submit +and to return to his allegiance.</p> + +<p>The angry rebel, however, soon learned that his followers were not +willing to take up arms against the emperor. They declared that their +oath of <a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>allegiance to their duke did not release them from their higher +obligations to the emperor and the state, that if their lord was at feud +with the empire it was their duty to aid the latter, and that if their +chiefs wished to quarrel with the state, they must fight for themselves.</p> + +<p>This defection left the rebels powerless. Duke Ernst was arrested and +imprisoned on a charge of high treason. Eudolf was exiled. Werner, who +took refuge in his castle, was besieged there by the imperial troops, +against whom he valiantly defended himself for several months. At +length, however, finding that his stronghold was no longer tenable, he +contrived to make his escape, leaving the nest to the imperialists empty +of its bird.</p> + +<p>Three years Ernst remained in prison. Then Conrad restored him to +liberty, perhaps moved by the appeals of his mother Gisela, and promised +to restore him to his dukedom of Swabia if he would betray the secret of +the retreat of Werner, who was still at large despite all efforts to +take him.</p> + +<p>This request touched deeply the honor of the deposed duke. It was much +to regain his ducal station; it was more to remain true to the fugitive +who had trusted and aided him in his need.</p> + +<p>"How can I betray my only true friend?" asked the unfortunate duke, with +touching pathos.</p> + +<p>His faithfulness was not appreciated by the emperor and his nobles. They +placed Ernst under the ban of the empire, and thus deprived him of rank, +wealth, and property, reducing him by a word from <a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>high estate to abject +beggary. His life and liberty were left him, but nothing more, and, +driven by despair, he sought the retreat of his fugitive friend Werner, +who had taken refuge in the depths of the Black Forest.</p> + +<p>Here the two outlaws, deprived of all honest means of livelihood, became +robbers, and entered upon a life of plunder, exacting contributions from +all subjects of the empire who fell into their hands. They soon found a +friend in Adalbert of Falkenstein, who gave them the use of his castle +as a stronghold and centre of operations, and joined them with his +followers in their freebooting raids.</p> + +<p>For a considerable time the robber chiefs maintained themselves in their +new mode of life, sallying from the castle, laying the country far and +wide under contribution, and returning to the fortress for safety from +pursuit. Their exactions became in time so annoying, that the castle was +besieged by a strong force of Swabians, headed by Count Mangold of +Veringen, and the freebooters were closely confined within their walls. +Impatient of this, a sally in force was made by the garrison, headed by +the two robber chiefs, and an obstinate contest ensued. The struggle +ended in the death of Mangold on the one side and of Ernst and Werner on +the other, with the definite defeat and dispersal of the robber band.</p> + +<p>Thus ended an interesting episode of mediæval German history. But the +valor and misfortunes of Duke Ernst did not die unsung. He became a +<a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>popular hero, and the subject of many a ballad, in which numerous +adventures were invented for him during his career as an opponent of the +emperor and an outlaw in the Black Forest. For the step-son of an +emperor to be reduced to such a strait was indeed an event likely to +arouse public interest and sympathy, and for centuries the doings of the +robber duke were sung.</p> + +<p>In the century after his death the imagination of the people went to +extremes in their conception of the adventures of Duke Ernst, mixing up +ideas concerning him with fancies derived from the Crusades, the whole +taking form in a legend which is still preserved in the popular ballad +literature of Germany. This strange conception takes Ernst to the East, +where he finds himself opposed by terrific creatures in human and brute +form, they being allegorical representations of his misfortunes. Each +monster signifies an enemy. He reaches a black mountain, which +represents his prison. He is borne into the clouds by an old man; this +is typical of his ambition. His ship is wrecked on the Magnet mountain; +a personification of his contest with the emperor. The nails fly out of +the ship and it falls to pieces; an emblem of the falling off of his +vassals. There are other adventures, and the whole circle of legends is +a curious one, as showing the vagaries of imagination, and the strong +interest taken by the people in the fortunes and misfortunes of their +chieftains.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_REIGN_OF_OTHO_II" id="THE_REIGN_OF_OTHO_II"></a><i>THE REIGN OF OTHO II</i>.</h3> + + +<p>Otho II., Emperor of Germany,—Otho the Red, as he was called, from his +florid complexion,—succeeded to the Western Empire in 973, when in his +eighteenth year of age. His reign was to be a short and active one, and +attended by adventures and fluctuations of fortune which render it +worthy of description. Few monarchs have experienced so many of the ups +and downs of life within the brief period of five years, through which +his wars extended.</p> + +<p>As heir to the imperial title of Charlemagne, he was lord of the ancient +palace of the great emperor, at Aix-la-Chapelle, and here held court at +the feast of St. John in the year 978. All was peace and festivity +within the old imperial city, all war and threat without it. While Otho +and his courtiers, knights and ladies, lords and minions, were enjoying +life with ball and banquet, feast and frivolity, in true palatial +fashion, an army was marching secretly upon them, with treacherous +intent to seize the emperor and his city at one full swoop. Lothaire, +King of France, had in haste and secrecy collected an army, and, without +a declaration of hostilities, was hastening, by forced marches, upon +Aix-la-Chapelle.</p> + +<p>It was an act of treachery utterly undeserving of success. But it is not +always the deserving to whom <a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>success comes, and Otho heard of the rapid +approach of this army barely in time to take to flight, with his +fear-winged flock of courtiers at his heels, leaving the city an easy +prey to the enemy. Lothaire entered the city without a blow, plundered +it as if he had taken it by storm, and ordered that the imperial eagle, +which was erected in the grand square of Charles the Great, should have +its beak turned westward, in token that Lorraine now belonged to France.</p> + +<p>Doubtless the great eagle turned creakingly on its support, thus moved +by the hand of unkingly perfidy, and impatiently awaited for time and +the tide of affairs to turn its beak again to the east. It had not long +to wait. The fugitive emperor hastily called a diet of the princes and +nobles at Dortmund, told them in impassioned eloquence of the faithless +act of the French king, and called upon them for aid against the +treacherous Lothaire. Little appeal was needed. The honor of Germany was +concerned. Setting aside all the petty squabbles which rent the land, +the indignant princes gathered their forces and placed them under Otho's +command. By the 1st of October the late fugitive found himself at the +head of a considerable army, and prepared to take revenge on his +perfidious enemy.</p> + +<p>Into France he marched, and made his way with little opposition, by +Rheims and Soissons, until the French capital lay before his eyes. Here +the army encamped on the right bank of the Seine, around Montmartre, +while their cavalry avenged the plun<a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>dering of Aix-la-Chapelle by laying +waste the country for many miles around. The French were evidently as +little prepared for Otho's activity as he had been for Lothaire's +treachery, and did not venture beyond the walls of their city, leaving +the country a defenceless prey to the revengeful anger of the emperor.</p> + +<p>The Seine lay between the two armies, but not a Frenchman ventured to +cross its waters; the garrison of the city, under Hugh Capet,—Count of +Paris, and soon to become the founder of a new dynasty of French +kings,—keeping closely within its walls. These walls proved too strong +for the Germans, and as winter was approaching, and there was much +sickness among his troops, the emperor retreated, after having +devastated all that region of France. But first he kept a vow that he +had made, that he would cause the Parisians to hear a <i>Te Deum</i> such as +they had never heard before. In pursuance of this vow, he gathered upon +the hill of Montmartre all the clergymen whom he could seize, and forced +them to sing his anthem of victory with the full power of their lungs. +Then, having burned the suburbs of Paris, and left his lance quivering +in the city gate, he withdrew in triumph, having amply punished the +treacherous French king. Aix-la-Chapelle fell again into his hands; the +eyes of the imperial eagle were permitted once more to gaze upon +Germany, and in the treaty of peace that followed Lorraine was declared +to be forever a part of the German realm.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>Two years afterwards Otho, infected by that desire to conquer Italy +which for centuries afterwards troubled the dreams of German emperors, +and brought them no end of trouble, crossed the Alps and descended upon +the Italian plains, from which he was never to return. Northern Italy +was already in German hands, but the Greeks held possessions in the +south which Otho claimed, in view of the fact that he had married +Theophania, the daughter of the Greek emperor at Constantinople. To +enforce this claim he marched upon the Greek cities, which in their turn +made peace with the Arabs, with whom they had been at war, and gathered +garrisons of these bronzed pagans alike from Sicily and Africa.</p> + +<p>For two years the war continued, the advantage resting with Otho. In 980 +he reached Rome, and there had a secret interview with Hugh Capet, whom +he sustained in his intention to seize the throne of France, still held +by his old enemy Lothaire. In 981 he captured Naples, Taranto, and other +cities, and in a pitched battle near Cotrona defeated the Greeks and +their Arab allies. Abn al Casem, the terror of southern Italy, and +numbers of his Arab followers, were left dead upon the field.</p> + +<p>On the 13th of July, 982, the emperor again met the Greeks and their +Arab allies in battle, and now occurred that singular adventure and +reverse of fortune which has made this engagement memorable. The battle +took place at a point near the sea-shore, in the vicinity of Basantello, +not far from Taranto, <a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>and at first went to the advantage of the +imperial forces. They attacked the Greeks with great impetuosity, and, +after a stubborn defence, broke through their ranks, and forced them +into a retreat, which was orderly conducted.</p> + +<p>It was now mid-day. The victors, elated with their success and their +hopes of pillage, followed the retreating columns along the banks of the +river Corace, feeling so secure that they laid aside their arms and +marched leisurely and confidently forward. It was a fatal confidence. At +one point in their march the road led between the river and a ridge of +serried rocks, which lay silent beneath the mid-day sun. But silent as +they seemed, they were instinct with life. An ambuscade of Arabs +crouched behind them, impatiently waiting the coming of the unsuspecting +Germans.</p> + +<p>Suddenly the air pealed with sound, the "Allah il Allah!" of the +fanatical Arabs; suddenly the startled eyes of the imperialists saw the +rugged rocks bursting, as it seemed, into life; suddenly a horde of +dusky warriors poured down upon them with scimitar and javelin, +surrounding them quickly on all sides, cutting and slashing their way +deeply into the disordered ranks. The scattered troops, stricken with +dismay, fell in hundreds. In their surprise and confusion they became +easy victims to their agile foes, and in a short time nearly the whole +of that recently victorious army were slain or taken prisoners. Of the +entire force only a small number broke through the lines of their +environing foes.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>The emperor escaped almost by miracle. His trusty steed bore him +unharmed through the crowding Arabs. He was sharply pursued, but the +swift animal distanced the pursuers, and before long he reached the +sea-shore, over whose firm sands he guided his horse, though with little +hope of escaping his active foes. Fortunately, he soon perceived a Greek +vessel at no great distance from the shore, a vision which held out to +him a forlorn hope of escape. The land was perilous; the sea might be +more propitious; he forced his faithful animal into the water, and swam +towards the vessel, in the double hope of being rescued and remaining +unknown.</p> + +<p>He was successful in both particulars. The crew willingly took him on +board, ignorant of his high rank, but deeming him to be a knight of +distinction, from whom they could fairly hope for a handsome ransom. His +situation was still a dangerous one, should he become known, and he +could not long hope to remain incognito. In truth, there was a slave on +board who knew him, but who, for purposes of his own, kept the perilous +secret. He communicated by stealth with the emperor, told him of his +recognition, and arranged with him a plan of escape. In pursuance of +this he told the Greeks that their captive was a chamberlain of the +emperor, a statement which Otho confirmed, and added that he had +valuable treasures at Rossano, which, if they would sail thither, they +might take on board as his ransom.</p> + +<p>The Greek mariners, deceived by the specious tale, turned their vessel's +prow towards Rossano, <a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>and on coming near that city, shifted their +course towards the shore. Otho had been eagerly awaiting this +opportunity. When they had approached sufficiently near to the land, he +suddenly sprang from the deck into the sea, and swam ashore with a +strength and swiftness that soon brought him to the strand. In a short +time afterwards he entered Rossano, then held by his forces, and joined +his queen, who had been left in that city.</p> + +<p>This singular adventure is told with a number of variations by the +several writers who have related it, most of them significant of the +love of the marvellous of the old chroniclers. One writer tells us that +the escaping emperor was pursued and attacked by the Greek boatmen, and +that he killed forty of them with the aid of a soldier, named Probus, +whom he met on the shore. By another we are told that the Greeks +recognized him, that he enticed them to the shore by requesting them to +take on board his wife and treasures, which had been left at Rossano, +and that he sent young men on board disguised as female attendants of +his wife, by whose aid he seized the vessel. All the stories agree, +however, in saying that Theophania jeeringly asked the emperor whether +her countrymen had not put him in mortal fear,—a jest for which the +Germans never forgave her.</p> + +<p>To return to the domain of fact, we have but further to tell that the +emperor, full of grief and vexation at the loss of his army, and the +slaughter of many of the German and Italian princes and <a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>nobles who had +accompanied him, returned to upper Italy, with the purpose of collecting +another army.</p> + +<p>All his conquests in the south had fallen again into the hands of the +enemy, and his work remained to be done over again. He held a grand +assembly in Verona, in which he had his son Otho, three years old, +elected as his successor. From there he proceeded to Rome, in which city +he was attacked by a violent fever, brought on by the grief and +excitement into which his reverses had thrown his susceptible and +impatient mind. He died December 7, 983, and was buried in the church of +St. Peter, at Rome.</p> + +<p>The fancy of the chroniclers has surrounded his death with legends, +which are worth repeating as curious examples of what mediæval writers +offered and mediæval readers accepted as history. One of them tells the +story of a naval engagement between Otho and the Greeks, in which the +fight was so bitter that the whole sea around the vessels was stained +red with blood. The emperor won the victory, but received a mortal +wound.</p> + +<p>Another story, which does not trouble itself to sail very close to the +commonplace, relates that Otho met his end by being whipped to death on +Mount Garganus by the angels, among whom he had imprudently ventured +while they were holding a conclave there. These stories will serve as +examples of the degree of credibility of many of the ancient chronicles +and the credulity of their readers.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_FORTUNES_OF_HENRY_THE_FOURTH" id="THE_FORTUNES_OF_HENRY_THE_FOURTH"></a>THE FORTUNES OF HENRY THE FOURTH.</h3> + + +<p>At the festival of Easter, in the year 1062, a great banquet was given +in the royal palace at Kaiserswerth, on the Rhine. The Empress Agnes, +widow of Henry III., and regent of the empire, was present, with her +son, then a boy of eleven. A pious and learned woman was the empress, +but she lacked the energy necessary to control the unquiet spirits of +her times. Gentleness and persuasion were the means by which she hoped +to influence the rude dukes and haughty archbishops of the empire, but +qualities such as these were wasted on her fierce subjects, and served +but to gain her the contempt of some and the dislike of others. A plot +to depose the weakly-mild regent and govern the empire in the name of +the youthful monarch was made by three men, Otto of Norheim, the +greatest general of the state, Ekbert of Meissen, its most valiant +knight, and Hanno, Archbishop of Cologne, its leading churchman. These +three men were present at the banquet, which they had fixed upon as the +occasion for carrying out their plot.</p> + +<p>The feast over, the three men rose and walked with the boy monarch to a +window of the palace that overlooked the Rhine. On the waters before +them rode at anchor a handsome vessel, which the child looked upon with +eyes of delight.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-078.png" alt="SCENE OF MONASTIC LIFE." title="SCENE OF MONASTIC LIFE." /></div> +<h5>SCENE OF MONASTIC LIFE.</h5> + +<p><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a>"Would you like to see it closer?" asked Hanno. "I will take you on +board, if you wish."</p> + +<p>"Oh, will you?" pleaded the boy. "I shall be so glad."</p> + +<p>The three conspirators walked with him to the stream, and rowed out to +the vessel, the empress viewing them without suspicion of their design. +But her doubts were aroused when she saw that the anchor had been raised +and that the sails of the vessel were being set. Filled with sudden +alarm she left the palace and hastened to the shore, just as the +kidnapping craft began to move down the waters of the stream.</p> + +<p>At the same moment young Henry, who had until now been absorbed in +gazing delightedly about the vessel, saw what was being done, and heard +his mother's cries. With courage and resolution unusual for his years he +broke, with a cry of anger, from those surrounding him, and leaped into +the stream, with the purpose of swimming ashore. But hardly had he +touched the water when Count Ekbert sprang in after him, seized him +despite his struggles, and brought him back to the vessel.</p> + +<p>The empress entreated in pitiful accents for the return of her son, but +in vain; the captors of the boy were not of the kind to let pity +interfere with their plans; on down the broad stream glided the vessel, +the treacherous vassals listening in silence to the agonized appeals of +the distracted mother, and to the mingled prayers and demands of the +young emperor to be taken back. The country people, <a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a>furious on learning +that the emperor had been stolen, and was being carried away before +their eyes, pursued the vessel for some distance on both sides of the +river. But their cries and threats were of no more avail than had been +the mother's tears and prayers. The vessel moved on with increasing +speed, the three kidnappers erect on its deck, their only words being +those used to cajole and quiet their unhappy prisoner, whom they did +their utmost to solace by promises and presents.</p> + +<p>The vessel continued its course until it reached Cologne, where the +imperial captive was left under the charge of the archbishop, his two +confederates fully trusting him to keep close watch and ward over their +precious prize. The empress was of the same opinion. After vainly +endeavoring to regain her lost son from his powerful captors, she +resigned the regency and retired with a broken heart to an Italian +convent, in which the remainder of her sad life was to be passed.</p> + +<p>The unhappy boy soon learned that his new lot was not to be one of +pleasure. He had a life of severe discipline before him. Bishop Hanno +was a stern and rigid disciplinarian, destitute of any of the softness +to which the lad had been accustomed, and disposed to rule all under his +control with a rod of iron. He kept his youthful captive strictly +immured in the cloister, where he had to endure the severest discipline, +while being educated in Latin and the other learning of the age.</p> + +<p>The regency given up by Agnes was instantly <a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>assumed by the ambitious +churchman, and a decree to that effect was quickly passed by the lords +of the diet, on the grounds that Hanno was the bishop of the diocese in +which the emperor resided. The character of Hanno is variously +represented by historians. While some accuse him of acts of injustice +and cruelty, others speak of him as a man of energy, yet one whose holy +life, his paternal care for his see, and his zealous reformation of +monasteries and foundation of churches, gained him the character of a +saint.</p> + +<p>Young Henry remained but a year or two in the hands of this stern +taskmaster. An imperative necessity called Hanno to Italy, and he was +obliged to leave the young monarch under the charge of Adalbert, +Archbishop of Bremen, a personage of very different character from +himself. Adalbert, while a churchman of great ability, was a courtier +full of ambitious views. He was one of the most polished and learned men +of his time, at once handsome, witty, and licentious, his character +being in the strongest contrast to the stern harshness of Hanno and the +coarse manners of the nobles of that period.</p> + +<p>It would have been far better, however, for Henry could he have remained +under the control of Hanno, with all his severity. It is true that the +kindness and gentleness of Adalbert proved a delightful change to the +growing boy, and the unlimited liberty he now enjoyed was in pleasant +contrast to his recent restraint, while the gravity and severe study <a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>of +Hanno's cloister were agreeably replaced by the gay freedom of +Adalbert's court, in which the most serious matters were treated as +lightly as a jest. But the final result of the change was that the boy's +character became thoroughly corrupted. Adalbert surrounded his youthful +charge with constant alluring amusements, using the influence thus +gained to obtain new power in the state for himself, and places of honor +and profit for his partisans. He inspired him also with a contempt for +the rude-mannered dukes of the empire, and for what he called the stupid +German people, while he particularly filled the boy's mind with a +dislike for the Saxons, with whom the archbishop was at feud. All this +was to have an important influence on the future life of the growing +monarch.</p> + +<p>It was more Henry's misfortune than his fault that he grew up to manhood +as a compound of sensuality, levity, malice, treachery, and other mean +qualities, for his nature had in it much that was good, and in his +after-life he displayed noble qualities which had been long hidden under +the corrupting faults of his education. The crime of the ambitious +nobles who stole him from his pious and gentle mother went far to ruin +his character, and was the leading cause of the misfortunes of his life.</p> + +<p>As to the character of the youthful monarch, and its influence upon the +people, a few words may suffice. His licentious habits soon became a +scandal and shame to the whole empire, the more so that the mistresses +with whom he surrounded himself <a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>were seen in public adorned with gold +and precious stones which had been taken from the consecrated vessels of +the church. His dislike of the Saxons was manifested in the scorn with +which he treated this section of his people, and the taxes and enforced +labors with which they were oppressed.</p> + +<p>The result of all this was an outbreak of rebellion. Hanno, who had +beheld with grave disapproval the course taken by Adalbert, now exerted +his great influence in state affairs, convoked an assembly of the +princes of the empire, and cited Henry to appear before it. On his +refusal, his palace was surrounded and his person seized, while Adalbert +narrowly escaped being made prisoner. He was obliged to remain in +concealment during the three succeeding years, while the indignant +Saxons, taking advantage of the opportunity for revenge, laid waste his +lands.</p> + +<p>The licentious young ruler found his career of open vice brought to a +sudden end. The stern Hanno was again in power. Under his orders the +dissolute courtiers were dispersed, and Henry was compelled to lead a +more decorous life, a bride being found for him in the person of Bertha, +daughter of the Italian Margrave of Susa, to whom he had at an earlier +date been affianced. She was a woman of noble spirit, but, +unfortunately, was wanting in personal beauty, in consequence of which +she soon became an object of extreme dislike to her husband, a dislike +which her patience and fidelity seemed rather to increase than to +diminish.</p> + +<p>The feeling of the young monarch towards his <a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>dutiful wife was overcome +in a singular manner, which is well worth describing. Henry at first was +eager to free himself from the tie that bound him to the unloved Bertha, +a resolution in which he was supported by Siegfried, Archbishop of +Mayence, who offered to assist him in getting a divorce. At a diet held +at Worms, Henry demanded a separation from his wife, to whom he +professed an unconquerable aversion. His efforts, however, were +frustrated by the pope's legate, who arrived in Germany during these +proceedings, and the licentious monarch, finding himself foiled in these +legal steps, sought to gain his end by baser means. He caused beautiful +women and maidens to be seized in their homes and carried to his palace +as ministers to his pleasure, while he exposed the unhappy empress to +the base solicitations of his profligate companions, offering them large +sums if they could ensnare her, in her natural revulsion at his +shameless unfaithfulness.</p> + +<p>But the virtue of Bertha was proof against all such wiles, and the story +goes that she turned the tables on her vile-intentioned husband in an +amusing and decisive manner. On one occasion, as we are informed, the +empress appeared to listen to the solicitations of one of the would-be +seducers, and appointed a place and time for a secret meeting with this +profligate. The triumphant courtier duly reported his success to Henry, +who, overjoyed, decided to replace him in disguise. At the hour fixed he +appeared and entered the chamber named by Bertha, when he suddenly found +himself assailed <a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>by a score of stout servant-maids, armed with rods, +which they laid upon his back with all the vigor of their arms. The +surprised Lothario ran hither and thither to escape their blows, crying +out that he was the king. In vain his cries; they did not or would not +believe him; and not until he had been most soundly beaten, and their +arms were weary with the exercise, did they open the door of the +apartment and suffer the crest-fallen reprobate to escape.</p> + +<p>This would seem an odd means of gaining the affection of a truant +husband, but it is said to have had this effect upon Henry, his wronged +wife from that moment gaining a place in his heart, into which she had +fairly cudgelled herself. The man was really of susceptible disposition, +and her invincible fidelity had at length touched him, despite himself. +From that moment he ceased his efforts to get rid of her, treated her +with more consideration, and finally settled down to the fact that a +beautiful character was some atonement for a homely face, and that +Bertha was a woman well worthy his affection.</p> + +<p>We have now to describe the most noteworthy event in the life of Henry +IV., and the one which has made his name famous in history,—his contest +with the great ecclesiastic Hildebrand, who had become pope under the +title of Gregory VII. Though an aged man when raised to the papacy, +Gregory's vigorous character displayed itself in a remarkable activity +in the enhancement of the power <a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>of the church. His first important step +was directed against the scandals of the priesthood in the matter of +celibacy, the marriage of priests having become common. A second decree +of equal importance followed. Gregory forbade the election of bishops by +the laity, reserving this power to the clergy, under confirmation by the +pope. He further declared that the church was independent of the state, +and that the extensive lands held by the bishops were the property of +the church, and free from control by the monarch.</p> + +<p>These radical decrees naturally aroused a strong opposition, in the +course of which Henry came into violent controversy with the pope. +Gregory accused Henry openly of simony, haughtily bade him to come to +Rome, and excommunicated the bishops who had been guilty of the same +offence. The emperor, who did not know the man with whom he had to deal, +retorted by calling an assembly of the German bishops at Worms, in which +the pope was declared to be deposed from his office.</p> + +<p>The result was very different from that looked for by the volatile young +ruler. The vigorous and daring pontiff at once placed Henry himself +under interdict, releasing his subjects from their oath of allegiance, +and declaring him deprived of the imperial dignity. The scorn with which +the emperor heard of this decree was soon changed to terror when he +perceived its effect upon his people. The days were not yet come in +which the voice of the pope could be disregarded. With the exception of +<a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a>the people of the cities and the free peasantry, who were opposed to +the papal dominion, all the subjects of the empire deserted Henry, +avoiding him as though he were infected with the plague. The Saxons flew +to arms; the foreign garrisons were expelled; the imprisoned princes +were released; all the enemies whom Henry had made rose against him; and +in a diet, held at Oppenheim, the emperor was declared deposed while the +interdict continued, and the pope was invited to visit Augsburg; in +order to settle the affairs of Germany. The election of a successor to +Henry was even proposed, and, to prevent him from communicating with the +pope, his enemies passed a decree that he should remain in close +residence at Spires.</p> + +<p>The situation of the recently great monarch had suddenly become +desperate. Never had a decree of excommunication against a crowned ruler +been so completely effective. The frightened emperor saw but one hope +left, to escape to Italy before the princes could prevent him, and +obtain release from the interdict at any cost, and with whatever +humiliation it might involve. With this end in view he at once took to +flight, accompanied by Bertha, his infant son, and a single knight, and +made his way with all haste towards the Alps.</p> + +<p>The winter was one of the coldest that Germany had ever known, the Rhine +remaining frozen from St. Martin's day of 1076 to April, 1077. About +Christmas of this severe winter the fugitives reached the snow-covered +Alps, having so far escaped the <a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>agents of their enemies, and crossed +the mountains by the St. Bernard pass, the difficulty of the journey +being so great that the empress had to be slid down the precipitous +paths by ropes in the hands of guides, she being wrapped in an ox-hide +for protection.</p> + +<p>Italy was at length reached, after the greatest dangers and hardships +had been surmounted. Here Henry, much to his surprise, found prevailing +a very different spirit from that which he had left behind him. The +nobles, who cordially hated Gregory, and the bishops, many of whom were +under interdict, hailed his coming with joy, with the belief "that the +emperor was coming to humiliate the haughty pope by the power of the +sword." He might soon have had an army at his back, but that he was too +thoroughly downcast to think of anything but conciliation, and to the +disgust of the Italians insisted on humiliating himself before the +powerful pontiff.</p> + +<p>Gregory was little less alarmed than the emperor on learning of Henry's +sudden arrival in Italy. He was then on his way to Augsburg, and, in +doubt as to the intentions of his enemy, took hasty refuge in the castle +of Canossa, then held by the Countess Matilda, recently a widow, and the +most powerful and influential princess in Italy.</p> + +<p>But the alarmed pope was astonished and gratified when he learned that +the emperor, instead of intending an armed assault upon him, had applied +to the Countess Matilda, asking her to intercede in <a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>his behalf with the +pontiff. Gregory's acute mind quickly perceived the position in which +Henry stood, and, with great severity, he at first refused to speak of a +reconciliation, but referred all to the diet; then, on renewed +entreaties, he consented to receive Henry at Canossa, if he would come +alone, and as a penitent. The castle was surrounded with three walls, +within the second of which Henry was admitted, his attendants being left +without. He had laid aside every badge of royalty, being clothed in +penitential dress and barefoot, and fasting and praying from morning to +evening. For a second and even a third day was he thus kept, and not +until the fourth day, moved at length by the solicitations of Matilda +and those about him, did Gregory grant permission for Henry to enter his +presence. An interview now took place, in which the pope consented to +release the penitent emperor from the interdict. One of the conditions +of this release was he should leave to Gregory the settlement of affairs +in Germany, and to give up all exercise of his imperial power until he +should be granted permission to exercise it again.</p> + +<p>This agreement was followed by a solemn mass, after which Gregory spoke +to the following effect: As regarded the crimes of which Henry had +accused him, he could easily bring evidence in disproof of the charges +made, but he would invoke the judgment of God alone. "May the body of +Jesus Christ, which I am about to receive," he said, "be the witness of +my innocence. I beseech the<a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a> Almighty thus to dispel all suspicions, if +I am innocent; to strike me dead on the spot, if guilty."</p> + +<p>He then received one-half the Sacred Host, and turning to the king, +offered him the remaining half, bidding him to follow his example, if he +held himself to be guiltless. Henry refused the ordeal, doubtless +because he did not dare to risk the penalty, and was glad enough to +escape from the presence of the pope, a humble penitent.</p> + +<p>This ended Henry's career of humiliation. It was followed by a period of +triumph. On leaving the castle of Canossa he found the people of +Lombardy so indignant at his cowardice, that their scorn induced him to +break the oath he had just taken, gather an army, and assail the castle, +in which he shut up the pope so closely that he could neither proceed to +Augsburg nor return to Rome.</p> + +<p>This siege, however, was not of long continuance. Henry soon found +himself recalled to Germany, where his enemies had elected Rudolf, Duke +of Swabia, emperor in his stead. A war broke out, which continued for +several years, at the end of which Gregory, encouraged by a temporary +success of Rudolf's party, pronounced in his favor, invested him with +the empire as a fief of the papacy, and once more excommunicated Henry. +It proved a false move. Henry had now learned his own power, and ceased +to fear the pope. He had strong support in the cities and among the +clergy, whom Gregory's severity had offended, and immediately convoked a +council, by which the pope was again deposed, and <a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>the Archbishop of +Ravenna elected in his stead, under the title of Clement III.</p> + +<p>In this year, 1080, a battle took place in which Rudolf was mortally +wounded, and the party opposed to Henry left without a leader, though +the war continued. And now Henry, seeing that he could trust his cause +in Germany to the hands of his lieutenants, determined to march upon his +pontifical foe in Italy, and take revenge for his bitter humiliation at +Canossa.</p> + +<p>He crossed the Alps, defeated the army which Matilda had raised in the +pope's cause, and laid siege to Rome, a siege which continued without +success for the long period of three years. At length the city was +taken, Wilprecht von Groitsch, a Saxon knight, mounting the walls, and +making his way with his followers into the city, aided by treachery from +within. Gregory hastily shut himself up in the castle of St. Angelo, in +which he was besieged by the Romans themselves, and from which he bade +defiance to Henry with the same inflexible will as ever. Henry offered +to be reconciled with him if he would crown him, but the vigorous old +pontiff replied that, "He could only communicate with him when he had +given satisfaction to God and the church." The emperor, thereupon, +called the rival pope, Clement, to Rome, was crowned by him, and +returned to Germany, leaving Clement in the papal chair and Gregory +still shut up in St. Angelo.</p> + +<p>But a change quickly took place in the fortunes of the indomitable old +pope. Robert Guiscard, Duke <a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>of Normandy, who had won for himself a +principality in lower Italy, now marched to the relief of his friend +Gregory, stormed and took the city at the head of his Norman +freebooters, and at once began the work of pillage, in disregard of +Gregory's remonstrances. The result was an unusual one. The citizens of +Rome, made desperate by their losses, gathered in multitudes and drove +the plunderers from their city, and Gregory with them. The Normans, thus +expelled, took the pope to Salerno, where he died the following year, +1085, his last words being, "I have loved justice and hated iniquity, +therefore do I die in exile."</p> + +<p>As for his imperial enemy, the remainder of his life was one of +incessant war. Years of battle were needed to put down his enemies in +the state, and his triumph was quickly followed by the revolt of his own +son, Henry, who reduced his father so greatly that the old emperor was +thrown into prison and forced to sign an abdication of the throne. It is +said that he became subsequently so reduced that he was forced to sell +his boots to obtain means of subsistence, but this story may reasonably +be doubted. Henry died in 1106, again under excommunication, so that he +was not formally buried in consecrated ground until 1111, the interdict +being continued for five years after his death.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a></p> +<h3><a name="ANECDOTES_OF_MEDIAEVAL_GERMANY" id="ANECDOTES_OF_MEDIAEVAL_GERMANY"></a><i>ANECDOTES OF MEDIÆVAL GERMANY</i>.</h3> + +<h4>THE WIVES OF WEINSBERG.</h4> + + +<p>In the year of grace 1140 a German army, under Conrad III., emperor, +laid siege to the small town of Weinsberg, the garrison of which +resisted with a most truculent and disloyal obstinacy. Germany, which +for centuries before and after was broken into warring factions, to such +extent that its emperors could truly say, "uneasy lies the head that +wears a crown," was then divided between the two strong parties of the +Welfs and the Waiblingers,—or the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, as +pronounced by the Italians and better known to us. The Welfs were a +noble family whose ancestry could be traced back to the days of +Charlemagne. The Waiblingers derived their name from the town of +Waiblingen, which belonged to the Hohenstaufen family, of which the +Emperor Conrad was a representative.</p> + +<p>And now, as often before and after, the Guelphs, and Ghibellines were at +war, Duke Welf holding Weinsberg vigorously against his foes of the +imperial party, while his relative, Count Welf of Altorf, marched to his +relief. A battle ensued between emperor and count, which ended in the +triumph of the emperor and the flight of the count. And this battle is +worthy of mention, as distin<a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>guished from the hundreds of battles which +are unworthy of mention, from the fact that in it was first heard a +war-cry which continued famous for centuries afterwards. The German +war-cry preceding this period had been "Kyrie Eleison" ("Lord, have +mercy upon us!" a pious invocation hardly in place with men who had +little mercy upon their enemies). But now the cry of the warring +factions became "Hie Weif," "Hie Waiblinger," softened in Italy into +"The Guelph," "The Ghibelline," battle-shouts which were long afterwards +heard on the field of German war, and on that of Italy as well, for the +factions of Germany became also the factions of this southern realm.</p> + +<p>So much for the origin of Guelph and Ghibelline, of which we may further +say that a royal representative of the former party still exists, in +King Edward VII. of England, who traces his descent from the German +Welfs. And now to return to the siege of Weinsberg, to which Conrad +returned after having disposed of the army of relief. The garrison still +were far from being in a submissive mood, their defence being so +obstinate, and the siege so protracted, that the emperor, incensed by +their stubborn resistance, vowed that he would make their city a +frightful example to all his foes, by subjecting its buildings to the +brand and its inhabitants to the sword. Fire and steel, he said, should +sweep it from the face of the earth.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-094.png" alt="THUSNELDA IN THE GEMANICUS TRIUMPH." title="THUSNELDA IN THE GEMANICUS TRIUMPH." /></div> +<h5>THUSNELDA IN THE GEMANICUS TRIUMPH.</h5> + +<p>Weinsberg at length was compelled to yield, and Conrad, hot with anger, +determined that his cruel <a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>resolution should be carried out to the +letter, the men being put to the sword, the city given to the flames. +This harsh decision filled the citizens with terror and despair. A +deputation was sent to the angry emperor, humbly praying for pardon, but +he continued inflexible, the utmost concession he would make being that +the women might withdraw, as he did not war with them. As for the men, +they had offended him beyond forgiveness, and the sword should be their +lot. On further solicitation, he added to the concession a proviso that +the women might take away with them all that they could carry of their +most precious possessions, since he did not wish to throw them destitute +upon the world.</p> + +<p>The obdurate emperor was to experience an unexampled surprise. When the +time fixed for the departure of the women arrived, and the city gates +were thrown open for their exit, to the astonishment of Conrad, and the +admiration of the whole army, the first to appear was the duchess, who, +trembling under the weight, bore upon her shoulders Duke Welf, her +husband. After her came a long line of other women, each bending beneath +the heavy burden of her husband, or some dear relative among the +condemned citizens.</p> + +<p>Never had such a spectacle been seen. So affecting an instance of +heroism was it, and so earnest and pathetic were the faces appealingly +upturned to him, that the emperor's astonishment quickly changed to +admiration, and he declared that women like these had fairly earned +their reward, and that <a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>each should keep the treasure she had borne. +There were those around him with less respect for heroic deeds, who +sought to induce him to keep his original resolution, but Conrad, who +had it in him to be noble when not moved by passion, curtly silenced +them with the remark, "An emperor keeps his word." He was so moved by +the scene, indeed, that he not only spared the men, but the whole city, +and the doom of sword and brand, vowed against their homes, was +withdrawn through admiration of the noble act of the worthy wives of +Weinsberg.</p> + +<h4>A KING IN A QUANDARY.</h4> + +<p>From an old chronicle we extract the following story, which is at once +curious and interesting, as a picture of mediæval manners and customs, +though to all seeming largely legendary.</p> + +<p>Henry, the bishop of Utrecht, was at sword's point with two lords, those +of Aemstel and Woerden, who hated him from the fact that a kinsman of +theirs, Goswin by name, had been deposed from the same see, through the +action of a general chapter. In reprisal these lords, in alliance with +the Count of Gebria, raided and laid waste the lands of the bishopric. +Time and again they visited it with plundering bands, Henry manfully +opposing them with his followers, but suffering much from their +incursions. At length the affair ended in a peculiar compact, in which +both sides agreed to submit their differences to the wager of war, in a +pitched battle, <a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>which was to be held on a certain day in the green +meadows adjoining Utrecht.</p> + +<p>When the appointed day came both sides assembled with their vassals, the +lords full of hope, the bishop exhorting his followers to humble the +arrogance of these plundering nobles. The Archbishop of Cologne was in +the city of Utrecht at the time, having recently visited it. He, as +warlike in disposition as the bishop himself, gave Henry a precious +ring, saying to him,—</p> + +<p>"My son, be courageous and confident, for this day, through the +intercession of the holy confessor St. Martin, and through the virtue of +this ring, thou shalt surely subdue the pride of thy adversaries, and +obtain a renowned victory over them. In the meantime, while thou art +seeking justice, I will faithfully defend this city, with its priests +and canons, in thy behalf, and will offer up prayers to the Lord of +Hosts for thy success."</p> + +<p>Bishop Henry, his confidence increased by these words, led from the +gates a band of fine and well armed warriors to the sound of warlike +trumpets, and marched to the field, where he drew them up before the +bands of the hostile lords.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, tidings of this fray had been borne to William, king of the +Romans, who felt it his duty to put an end to it, as such private +warfare was forbidden by law. Hastily collecting all the knights and +men-at-arms he could get together without delay, he marched with all +speed to Utrecht, bent upon enforcing peace between the rival bands. As +<a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>it happened, the army of the king reached the northern gate of the city +just as the bishop's battalion had left the southern gate, the one party +marching in as the other marched out.</p> + +<p>The archbishop, who had undertaken the defence of the city, and as yet +knew nothing of this royal visit, after making an inspection of the city +under his charge, gave orders to the porters to lock and bar all the +gates, and keep close guard thereon.</p> + +<p>King William was not long in learning that he was somewhat late, the +bishop having left the city. He marched hastily to the southern gate to +pursue him, but only to find that he was himself in custody, the gates +being firmly locked and the keys missing. He waited awhile impatiently. +No keys were brought. Growing angry at this delay, he gave orders that +the bolts and bars should be wrenched from the gates, and efforts to do +this were begun.</p> + +<p>While this was going on, the archbishop was in deep affliction. He had +just learned that the king was in Utrecht with an army, and imagined +that he had come with hostile purpose, and had taken the city through +the carelessness of the porters. Followed by his clergy, he hastened to +where the king was trying to force a passage through the gates, and +addressed him appealingly, reminding him that justice and equity were +due from kings to subjects.</p> + +<p>"Your armed bands, I fear, have taken this city," he said, "and you have +ordered the locks to be broken that you may expel the inhabitants, and +replace them with persons favorable to your own <a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a>interests. If you +propose to act thus against justice and mercy, you injure me, your +chancellor, and lessen your own honor. I exhort you, therefore, to +restore me the city which you have unjustly taken, and relieve the +inhabitants from violence."</p> + +<p>The king listened in silence and surprise to this harangue, which was +much longer than we have given it. At its end, he said,—</p> + +<p>"Venerable pastor and bishop, you have much mistaken my errand in +Utrecht. I come here in the cause of justice, not of violence. You know +that it is the duty of kings to repress wars and punish the disturbers +of peace. It is this that brings us here, to put an end to the private +war which we learn is being waged. As it stands, we have not conquered +the city, but it has conquered us. To convince you that no harm is meant +to Bishop Henry and his good city of Utrecht, we will command our men to +repair to their hostels, lay down their arms, and pass their time in +festivity. But first the purpose for which we have come must be +accomplished, and this private feud be brought to an end."</p> + +<p>That the worthy archbishop was delighted to hear these words, need not +be said. His fears had not been without sound warrant, for those were +days in which kings were not to be trusted, and in which the cities +maintained a degree of political independence that often proved +inconvenient to the throne. As may be imagined, the keys were quickly +forthcoming and the gates thrown open, the king being relieved from his +involuntary detention, and <a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a>given an opportunity to bring the bishop's +battle to an end.</p> + +<p>He was too late; it had already reached its end. While King William was +striving to get out of the city, which he had got into with such ease, +the fight in the green meadows between the bishops and the lords had +been concluded, the warlike churchman coming off victor. Many of the +lords' vassals had been killed, more put to flight, and themselves taken +prisoners. At the vesper-bell Henry entered the city with his captives, +bound with ropes, and was met at the gates by the king and the +archbishop. At the request of King William he pardoned and released his +prisoners, on their promise to cease molesting his lands, and all ended +in peace and good will.</p> + + +<h4>COURTING BY PROXY.</h4> + +<p>Frederick von Stauffen, known as the One-eyed, being desirous of +providing his son Frederick (afterwards the famous emperor Frederick +Barbarossa) with a wife, sent as envoy for that purpose a handsome young +man named Johann von Würtemberg, whose attractions of face and manner +had made him a general favorite. It was the beautiful daughter of Rudolf +von Zähringen who had been selected as a suitable bride for the future +emperor, but when the handsome ambassador stated the purpose of his +visit to the father, he was met by Rudolf with the <a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>joking remark, "Why +don't you court the damsel for yourself?"</p> + +<p>The suggestion was much to the taste of the envoy. He took it seriously, +made love for himself to the attractive Princess Anna, and won her love +and the consent of her father, who had been greatly pleased with his +handsome and lively visitor, and was quite ready to confirm in earnest +what he had begun in jest.</p> + +<p>Frederick, the One-eyed, still remained to deal with, but that worthy +personage seems to have taken the affair as a good joke, and looked up +another bride for his son, leaving to Johann the maiden he had won. This +story has been treated as fabulous, but it is said to be well founded. +It has been repeated in connection with other persons, notably in the +case of Captain Miles Standish and John Alden, in which ease the fair +maiden herself is given the credit of admonishing the envoy to court for +himself. It is very sure, however, that this latter story is a fable. It +was probably founded on the one we have given.</p> + + +<h4>THE BISHOP'S WINE-CASKS.</h4> + +<p>Adalbert of Treves was a bandit chief of note who, in the true fashion +of the robber barons of mediæval Germany, dwelt in a strong-walled +castle, which was garrisoned by a numerous band of men-at-arms, as fond +of pillage as their leader, and equally ready to follow him on his +plundering expe<a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a>ditions and to defend his castle against his enemies. +Our noble brigand paid particular heed to the domain of Peppo, Bishop of +Treves, whose lands he honored with frequent unwelcome visits, +despoiling lord and vassal alike, and hastening back from his raids to +the shelter of his castle walls.</p> + +<p>This was not the most agreeable state of affairs for the worthy bishop, +though how it was to be avoided did not clearly appear. It probably did +not occur to him to apply to the emperor, Henry II., the mediæval German +emperors having too much else on hand to leave them time to attend to +matters of minor importance. Peppo therefore naturally turned to his own +kinsmen, friends, and vassals, as those most likely to afford him aid.</p> + +<p>Bishop Peppo could wield sword and battle-axe with the best bishop, +which is almost equivalent to saying with the best warrior, of his day, +and did not fail to use, when occasion called, these carnal weapons. But +something more than the battle-axes of himself and vassals was needed to +break through the formidable walls of Adalbert's stronghold, which +frowned defiance to the utmost force the bishop could muster. Force +alone would not answer, that was evident. Stratagem was needed to give +effect to brute strength. If some way could only be devised to get +through the strong gates of the robber's stronghold, and reach him +behind his bolts and bars, all might be well; otherwise, all was ill.</p> + +<p>In this dilemma, a knightly vassal of the bishop, Tycho by name, +undertook to find a passage into the <a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>castle of Adalbert, and to punish +him for his pillaging. One day Tycho presented himself at the gate of +the castle, knocked loudly thereon, and on the appearance of the guard, +asked him for a sup of something to drink, being, as he said, overcome +with thirst.</p> + +<p>He did not ask in vain. It is a pleasant illustration of the hospitality +of that period to learn that the traveller's demand was unhesitatingly +complied with at the gate of the bandit stronghold, a brimming cup of +wine being brought for the refreshment of the thirsty wayfarer.</p> + +<p>"Thank your master for me," said Tycho, on returning the cup, "and tell +him that I shall certainly repay him with some service for his good +will."</p> + +<p>With this Tycho journeyed on, sought the bishopric, and told Peppo what +he had done and what he proposed to do. After a full deliberation a +definite plan was agreed upon, which the cunning fellow proceeded to put +into action. The plan was one which strongly reminds us of that adopted +by the bandit chief in the Arabian story of the "Forty Thieves," the +chief difference being that here it was true men, not thieves, who were +to be benefited.</p> + +<p>Thirty wine casks of capacious size were prepared, and in each was +placed instead of its quota of wine a stalwart warrior, fully armed with +sword, shield, helmet, and cuirass. Each cask was then covered with a +linen cloth, and ropes were fastened to its sides for the convenience of +the carriers.<a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a> This done, sixty other men were chosen as carriers, and +dressed as peasants, though really they were trained soldiers, and each +had a sword concealed in the cask he helped to carry.</p> + +<p>The preparations completed, Tycho, accompanied by a few knights and by +the sixty carriers and their casks, went his way to Adalbert's castle, +and, as before, knocked loudly at its gates. The guard again appeared, +and, on seeing the strange procession, asked who they were and for what +they came.</p> + +<p>"I have come to repay your chief for the cup of wine he gave me," said +Tycho. "I promised that he should be well rewarded for his good will, +and am here for that purpose."</p> + +<p>The warder looked longingly at the array of stout casks, and hastened +with the message to Adalbert, who, doubtless deeming that the gods were +raining wine, for his one cup to be so amply returned, gave orders that +the strangers should be admitted. Accordingly the gates were opened, and +the wine-bearers and knights filed in.</p> + +<p>Reaching the castle hall, the casks were placed on the floor before +Adalbert and his chief followers, Tycho begging him to accept them as a +present in return for his former kindness. As to receive something for +nothing was Adalbert's usual mode of life, he did not hesitate to accept +the lordly present, and Tycho ordered the carriers to remove the +coverings. In a very few seconds this was done, when out sprang the +armed men, the porters seized their swords from the casks, and in a +minute's time <a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a>the surprised bandits found themselves sharply attacked. +The stratagem proved a complete success. Adalbert and his men fell +victims to their credulity, and the fortress was razed to the ground.</p> + +<p>The truth of this story we cannot vouch for. It bears too suspicious a +resemblance to the Arabian tale to be lightly accepted as fact. But its +antiquity is unquestionable, and it may be offered as a faithful picture +of the conditions of those centuries of anarchy when every man's hand +was for himself and might was right.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a></p> +<h3><a name="FREDERICK_BARBAROSSA_AND_MILAN" id="FREDERICK_BARBAROSSA_AND_MILAN"></a><i>FREDERICK BARBAROSSA AND MILAN</i>.</h3> + + +<p>A proud old city was Milan, heavy with its weight of years, rich and +powerful, arrogant and independent, the capital of Lombardy and the lord +of many of the Lombard cities. For some twenty centuries it had existed, +and now had so grown in population, wealth, and importance, that it +could almost lay claim to be the Rome of northern Italy. But its day of +pride preceded not long that of its downfall, for a new emperor had come +to the German throne, Frederick the Red-bearded, one of the ablest, +noblest, and greatest of all that have filled the imperial chair.</p> + +<p>Not long had he been on the throne before, in the long-established +fashion of German emperors, he began to interfere with affairs in Italy, +and demanded from the Lombard cities recognition of his supremacy as +Emperor of the West. He found some of them submissive, others not so. +Milan received his commands with contempt, and its proud magistrates +went so far as to tear the seal from the imperial edict and trample it +underfoot.</p> + +<p>In 1154 Frederick crossed the Alps and encamped on the Lombardian plain. +Soon deputations from some of the cities came to him with complaints +about the oppression of Milan, which had taken Lodi,<a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a> Como, and other +towns, and lorded it over them exasperatingly. Frederick bade the proud +Milanese to answer these complaints, but in their arrogance they refused +even to meet his envoys, and he resolved to punish them severely for +their insolence.</p> + +<p>But the time was not yet. He had other matters to attend to. Four years +passed before he was able to devote some of his leisure to the Milanese. +They had in the meantime managed to offend him still more seriously, +having taken the town of Lodi and burnt it to the ground, for no other +crime than that it had yielded him allegiance. After him marched a +powerful army, nearly one hundred and twenty thousand strong, at the +very sight of whose myriad of banners most of the Lombard cities +submitted without a blow. Milan was besieged. Its resistance was by no +means obstinate. The emperor's principal wish was to win it over to his +side, and probably the authorities of the city were aware of his lenient +disposition, for they held out no long time before his besieging +multitude.</p> + +<p>All that the conqueror now demanded was that the proud municipality +should humble itself before him, swear allegiance, and promise not to +interfere with the freedom of the smaller cities. On the 6th of +September a procession of nobles and churchmen defiled before him, +barefooted and clad in tattered garments, the consuls and patricians +with swords hanging from their necks, the others with ropes round their +throats, and thus, with evidence <a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a>of the deepest humility, they bore to +the emperor the keys of the proud city.</p> + +<p>"You must now acknowledge that it is easier to conquer by obedience than +with arms," he said. Then, exacting their oaths of allegiance, placing +the imperial eagle upon the spire of the cathedral, and taking with him +three hundred hostages, he marched away, with the confident belief that +the defiant resistance of Milan was at length overcome.</p> + +<p>He did not know the Milanese. When, in the following year, he attempted +to lay a tax upon them, they rose in insurrection and attacked his +representatives with such fury that they could scarcely save their +lives. On an explanation being demanded, they refused to give any, and +were so arrogantly defiant that the emperor pronounced their city +outlawed, and wrathfully vowed that he would never place the crown upon +his head again until he had utterly destroyed this arrant nest of +rebels.</p> + +<p>It was not to prove so easy a task. Frederick began by besieging +Cremona, which was in alliance with Milan, and which resisted him so +obstinately that it took him seven months to reduce it to submission. In +his anger he razed the city to the ground and scattered its inhabitants +far and wide.</p> + +<p>Then came the siege of Milan, which was so vigorously defended that +three years passed before starvation threw it into the emperor's hands. +So virulent were the citizens that they several times tried to rid +themselves of their imperial enemy by <a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>assassination. On one occasion, +when Frederick was performing his morning devotions in a solitary spot +upon the river Ada, a gigantic fellow attacked him and tried to throw +him into the stream. The emperor's cries for help brought his attendants +to the spot, and the assailant, in his turn, was thrown into the river. +On another occasion an old, misshapen man glided into the camp, bearing +poisoned wares which he sought to dispose of to the emperor. Frederick, +fortunately, had been forewarned, and he had the would-be assassin +seized and executed.</p> + +<p>It was in the spring of 1162 that the city yielded, hunger at length +forcing it to capitulate. Now came the work of revenge. Frederick +proceeded to put into execution the harsh vow he had made, after +subjecting its inhabitants to the greatest humiliations which he could +devise.</p> + +<p>For three days the consuls and chief men of the city, followed by the +people, were obliged to parade before the imperial camp, barefooted and +dressed in sackcloth, with tapers in their hands and crosses, swords, +and ropes about their necks. On the third day more than a hundred of the +banners of the city were brought out and laid at the emperor's feet. +Then, in sign of the most utter humiliation, the great banner of their +pride, the Carocium—a stately iron tree with iron leaves, drawn on a +cart by eight oxen—was brought out and bowed before the emperor. +Frederick seized and tore down its fringe, while the whole people cast +themselves on the ground, wailing and imploring mercy.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>The emperor was incensed beyond mercy, other than to grant them their +lives. He ordered that a part of the wall should be thrown down, and +rode through the breach into the city. Then, after deliberation, he +granted the inhabitants their lives, but ordered their removal to four +villages, several miles away, where they were placed under the care of +imperial functionaries. As for Milan, he decided that it should be +levelled with the ground, and gave the right to do this, at their +request, to the people of Lodi, Cremona, Pavia, and other cities which +had formerly been oppressed by proud Milan.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-109.png" alt="THE AMPHITHEATRE AT MILAN." title="THE AMPHITHEATRE AT MILAN." /></div> +<h5>THE AMPHITHEATRE AT MILAN.</h5> + +<p>The city was first pillaged, and then given over to the hands of the +Lombards, who—such was the diligence of hatred—are said to have done +more in six days than hired workmen would have done in as many months. +The walls and forts were torn down, the ditches filled up, and the once +splendid city reduced to a frightful scene of ruin and desolation. Then, +at a splendid banquet at Pavia, in the Easter festival, the triumphant +emperor replaced the crown upon his head.</p> + +<p>His triumph was not to continue, nor the humiliation of Milan to remain +permanent. Time brings its revenges, as the proud Frederick was to +learn. For five years Milan lay in ruins, a home for owls and bats, a +scene of desolation to make all observers weep; and then arrived its +season of retribution. Frederick's downfall came from the hand of God, +not of man. A frightful plague broke out in the ranks of the German +army, then in Rome, carrying <a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>off nobles and men alike in such numbers +that it looked as if the whole host might be laid in the grave. +Thousands died, and the emperor was obliged to retire to Pavia with but +a feeble remnant of his numerous army, nearly the whole of it having +been swept away. In the following spring he was forced to leave Italy +like a fugitive, secretly and in disguise, and came so nearly falling +into the hands of his foes, that he only escaped by one of his +companions placing himself in his bed, to be seized in his stead, while +he fled under cover of the night.</p> + +<p>Immediately the humbled cities raised their heads. An alliance was +formed between them, and they even ventured to conduct the Milanese back +to their ruined homes. At once the work of rebuilding was begun. The +ditches, walls, and towers were speedily restored, and then each man +went to work on his own habitation. So great was the city that the work +of destruction had been but partial. Most of the houses, all the +churches, and portions of the walls remained, and by aid of the other +cities Milan soon regained its old condition.</p> + +<p>In 1174 Frederick reappeared in Italy, with a new army, and with hostile +intentions against the revolted cities. The Lombards had built a new +city, in a locality surrounded by rivers and marshes, and had enclosed +it with walls which they sought to make impregnable. This they named +Alexandria, in honor of the pope and in defiance of the emperor, and +against this Frederick's first assault was made. For seven months he +besieged it, and then broke <a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>into the very heart of the place, through a +subterranean passage which the Germans had excavated. To all appearance +the city was lost, yet chance and courage saved it. The brave defenders +attacked the Germans, who had appeared in the market-place; the tunnel, +through great good fortune, fell in; and in the end the emperor was +forced to raise the siege in such haste that he set fire to his own +encampment in his precipitate retreat.</p> + +<p>On May 29, 1176, a decisive battle was fought at Lignano, in which Milan +revenged itself on its too-rigorous enemy. The Carocium was placed in +the middle of the Lombard army, surrounded by three hundred youths, who +had sworn to defend it unto death, and by a body of nine hundred picked +cavalry, who had taken a similar oath.</p> + +<p>Early in the battle one wing of the Lombard army wavered under the sharp +attack of the Germans, and threw into confusion the Milanese ranks. +Taking advantage of this, the emperor pressed towards their centre, +seeking to gain the Carocium, with the expectation that its capture +would convert the disorder of the Lombards into a rout. On pushed the +Germans until the sacred standard was reached, and its decorations torn +down before the eyes of its sworn defenders.</p> + +<p>This indignity to the treasured emblem of their liberties gave renewed +courage to the disordered band. Their ranks re-established, they charged +upon the Germans with such furious valor as to drive them back in +disorder, cut through their lines <a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>to the emperor's station, kill his +standard-bearer by his side, and capture the imperial standard. +Frederick, clad in a splendid suit of armor, rushed against them at the +head of a band of chosen knights. But suddenly he was seen to fall from +his horse and vanish under the hot press of struggling warriors that +surged back and forth around the standard.</p> + +<p>This dire event spread instant terror through the German ranks. They +broke and fled in disorder, followed by the death-phalanx of the +Carocium, who cut them down in multitudes, and drove them back in +complete disorder and defeat. For two days the emperor was mourned as +slain, his unhappy wife even assuming the robes of widowhood, when +suddenly he reappeared, and all was joy again. He had not been seriously +hurt in his fall, and had with a few friends escaped in the tumult of +the defeat, and, under the protection of night, made his way with +difficulty back to Pavia.</p> + +<p>This defeat ended the efforts of Frederick against Milan, which had, +through its triumph over the great emperor, regained all its old proud +position and supremacy among the Lombard cities. The war ended with the +battle of Lignano, a truce of six years being concluded between the +hostile parties. For the ensuing eight years Frederick was fully +occupied in Germany, in wars with Henry the Lion, of the Guelph faction. +At the end of that time he returned to Italy, where Milan, which he had +sought so strenuously to humiliate and ruin, now became <a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a>the seat of the +greatest honor he could bestow. The occasion was that of the marriage of +his son Henry to Constanza, the last heiress of Naples and Sicily of the +royal Norman race. This ceremony took place in Milan, in which city the +emperor caused the iron crown of the Lombards to be placed upon the head +of his son and heir, and gave him away in marriage with the utmost pomp +and festivity. Milan had won in its great contest for life and death.</p> + +<p>We may fitly conclude with the story of the death of the great +Frederick, who, in accordance with the character of his life, died in +harness. In his old age, having put an end to the wars in Germany and +Italy, he headed a crusade to the Holy Land, from which he was never to +return. It was the most interesting in many of its features of all the +crusades, the leaders of the host being, in addition to Frederick +Barbarossa, Richard Cœur de Lion of England, the hero of romance, the +wise Philip Augustus of France, and various others of the leading +potentates of Europe.</p> + +<p>It is with Frederick alone that we are concerned. In 1188 he set out, at +the head of one hundred and fifty thousand trained soldiers, on what was +destined to prove a disastrous expedition. Entering Hungary, he met with +a friendly reception from Bela, its king. Reaching Belgrade, he held +there a magnificent tournament, hanged all the robber Servians he could +capture for their depredations upon his ranks, and advanced into Greek +territory, where he <a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>punished the bad faith of the emperor, Isaac, by +plundering his country. Several cities were destroyed in revenge for the +assassination of pilgrims and of sick and wounded German soldiers by +their inhabitants. This done, Frederick advanced on Constantinople, +whose emperor, to save his city from capture, hastened to place his +whole fleet at the disposal of the Germans, glad to get rid of these +truculent visitors at any price.</p> + +<p>Reaching Asia Minor, the troubles of the crusaders began. They were +assailed by the Turks, and had to cut their way forward at every step. +Barbarossa had never shown himself a greater general. On one occasion, +when hard pressed by the enemy, he concealed a chosen band of warriors +in a large tent, the gift of the Queen of Hungary, while the rest of the +army pretended to fly. The Turks entered the camp and began pillaging, +when the ambushed knights broke upon them from the tent, the flying +soldiers turned, and the confident enemy was disastrously defeated.</p> + +<p>But as the army advanced its difficulties increased. A Turkish prisoner +who was made to act as a guide, being driven in chains before the army, +led the Christians into the gorges of almost impassable mountains, +sacrificing his life for his cause. Here, foot-sore and weary, and +tormented by thirst and hunger, they were suddenly attacked by ambushed +foes, stones being rolled upon them in the narrow gorges, and arrows and +javelins poured upon their disordered ranks. Peace was here offered +<a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>them by the Turks, if they would pay a large sum of money for their +release. In reply the indomitable emperor sent them a small silver coin, +with the message that they might divide this among themselves. Then, +pressing forward, he beat off the enemy, and extricated his army from +its dangerous situation.</p> + +<p>As they pushed on, the sufferings of the army increased. Water was not +to be had, and many were forced to quench their thirst by drinking the +blood of their horses. The army was now divided. Frederick, the son of +the emperor, led half of it forward at a rapid march, defeated the Turks +who sought to stop him, and fought his way into the city of Iconium. +Here all the inhabitants were put to the sword, and the crusaders gained +an immense booty.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the emperor, his soldiers almost worn out with hunger and +fatigue, was surrounded with the army of the sultan. He believed that +his son was lost, and tears of anguish flowed from his eyes, while all +around him wept in sympathy. Suddenly rising, he exclaimed, "Christ +still lives, Christ conquers!" and putting himself at the head of his +knights, he led them in a furious assault upon the Turks. The result was +a complete victory, ten thousand of the enemy falling dead upon the +field. Then the Christian army marched to Iconium, where they found +relief from their hunger and weariness.</p> + +<p>After recruiting they marched forward, and on<a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a> June 10, 1190, reached +the little river Cydnus, in Cilicia. Here the road and the bridge over +the stream were so blocked up with beasts of burden that the progress of +the army was greatly reduced. The bold old warrior, impatient to rejoin +his son Frederick, who led the van, would not wait for the bridge to be +cleared, but spurred his war-horse forward and plunged into the stream. +Unfortunately, he had miscalculated the strength of the current. Despite +the efforts of the noble animal, it was borne away by the swift stream, +and when at length assistance reached the aged emperor he was found to +be already dead.</p> + +<p>Never was a man more mourned than was the valiant Barbarossa by his +army, and by the Germans on hearing of his death. His body was borne by +the sorrowing soldiers to Antioch, where it was buried in the church of +St. Peter. His fate was, perhaps, a fortunate one, for it prevented him +from beholding the loss of the army, which was almost entirely destroyed +by sickness at the city in which his body was entombed. His son +Frederick died at the siege of Acre, or Ptolemais.</p> + +<p>As regards the Germans at home, they were not willing to believe that +their great emperor could be dead. Their superstitious faith gave rise +to legendary tales, to the effect that the valiant Barbarossa was still +alive, and would, some day, return to yield Germany again a dynasty of +mighty sovereigns. The story went that the noble emperor lay asleep in a +deep cleft of Kylfhaüser Berg, on the golden <a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>meadow of Thuringia. Here, +his head resting on his arm, he sits by a granite block, through which, +in the lapse of time, his red beard has grown. Here he will sleep until +the ravens no longer fly around the mountain, when he will awake to +restore the golden age to the world.</p> + +<p>Another legend tells us that the great Barbarossa sits, wrapped in deep +slumber, in the Untersberg, near Salzberg. His sleep will end when the +dead pear-tree on the Walserfeld, which has been cut down three times +but ever grows anew, blossoms. Then will he come forth, hang his shield +on the tree, and begin a tremendous battle, in which the whole world +will join, and in whose end the good will overcome the wicked, and the +reign of virtue return to the earth.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_CRUSADE_OF_FREDERICK_II" id="THE_CRUSADE_OF_FREDERICK_II"></a><i>THE CRUSADE OF FREDERICK II</i>.</h3> + + +<p>A remarkable career was that of Frederick II. of Germany, grandson of +the great Barbarossa, crowned in 1215 under the immediate auspices of +the papacy, yet during all the remainder of his life in constant and +bitter conflict with the popes. He was, we are told, of striking +personal beauty, his form being of the greatest symmetry, his face +unusually handsome, and marked by intelligence, benevolence, and +nobility. Born in a rude age, his learning would have done honor to our +own. Son of an era in which poetry was scarcely known, he cultivated the +gay science, and was one of the earliest producers of the afterwards +favorite form known as the sonnet. An emperor of Germany, nearly his +whole life was spent in Sicily. Though ruler of a Christian realm, he +lived surrounded by Saracens, studying diligently the Arabian learning, +dwelling in what was almost a harem of Arabian beauties, and hesitating +not to give expression to the most infidel sentiments. The leader of a +crusade, he converted what was ordinarily a tragedy into a comedy, +obtained possession of Jerusalem without striking a blow or shedding a +drop of blood, and found himself excommunicated in the holy city which +he had thus easily restored to Christendom.<a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a> Altogether we may repeat +that the career of Frederick II. was an extraordinary one, and amply +worthy our attention.</p> + +<p>The young monarch had grown up in Sicily, of which charming island he +became guardian after the death of his mother, Constanza. He was crowned +at Aix-la-Chapelle, having defeated his rival, Otho IV.; but spent the +greater part of his life in the south, holding his pleasure-loving court +at Naples and Palermo, where he surrounded himself with all the +refinements of life then possessed by the Saracens, but of which the +Christians of Europe were lamentably deficient.</p> + +<p>It was in 1220 that Frederick returned from Germany to Italy, leaving +his northern kingdom in the hands of the Archbishop of Cologne, as +regent. At Rome he received the imperial crown from the hands of the +pope, and, his first wife dying, married Yolinda de Lusignan, daughter +of John, ex-king of Jerusalem, in right of whom he claimed the kingdom +of the East.</p> + +<p>Shortly afterwards a new pope came to the papal chair, the gloomy +Gregory IX., whose first act was to order a crusade, which he desired +the emperor to lead. Despite the fact that he had married the heiress of +Jerusalem, Frederick was very reluctant to seek an enforcement of his +claim upon the holy city. He had pledged himself when crowned at +Aix-la-Chapelle, and afterwards on his coronation at Rome, to undertake +a crusade, but Honorius III., the pope at that time, readily granted him +delay.<a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a> Such was not the case with Gregory, who sternly insisted on an +immediate compliance with his pledge, and whose rigid sense of decorum +was scandalized by the frivolities of the emperor, no less than was his +religious austerity by Frederick's open intercourse with the Sicilian +Saracens.</p> + +<p>The old contest between emperor and pope threatened to be opened again +with all its former virulence. It was deferred for a time by Frederick, +who, after exhausting all excuses for delay, at length yielded to the +exhortations of the pope and set sail for the Holy Land. The crusade +thus entered upon proved, however, to be simply a farce. In three days +the fleet returned, Frederick pleading illness as his excuse, and the +whole expedition came to an end.</p> + +<p>Gregory was no longer to be trifled with. He declared that the illness +was but a pretext, that Frederick had openly broken his word to the +church, and at once proceeded to launch upon the emperor the thunders of +the papacy, in a bull of excommunication.</p> + +<p>Frederick treated this fulmination with contempt, and appealed from the +pope to Christendom, accusing Rome of avarice, and declaring that her +envoys were marching in all directions, not to preach the word of God, +but to extort money from the people.</p> + +<p>"The primitive church," he said, "founded on poverty and simplicity, +brought forth numberless saints. The Romans are now rolling in wealth.<a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a> +What wonder that the walls of the church are undermined to the base, and +threaten utter ruin."</p> + +<p>For this saying the pope launched against him a more tremendous +excommunication. In return the partisans of Frederick in Rome, raising +an insurrection, expelled the pope from that city. And now the +free-thinking emperor, to convince the world that he was not trifling +with his word, set sail of his own accord for the East, with as numerous +an army as he was able to raise.</p> + +<p>A remarkable state of affairs followed, justifying us in speaking of +this crusade as a comedy, in contrast with the tragic character of those +which had preceded it. Frederick had shrewdly prepared for success, by +negotiations, through his Saracen friends, with the Sultan of Egypt. On +reaching the Holy Land he was received with joy by the German knights +and pilgrims there assembled, but the clergy and the Knight Templars and +Hospitallers carefully kept aloof from him, for Gregory had despatched a +swift-sailing ship to Palestine, giving orders that no intercourse +should be held with the imperial enemy of the church.</p> + +<p>It was certainly a strange spectacle, for a man under the ban of the +church to be the leader in an expedition to recover the holy city. Its +progress was as strange as its inception. Had Frederick been the leader +of a Mohammedan army to recover Jerusalem from the Christians, his camp +could have been little more crowded with infidel delegates. He wore a +Saracen dress. He discussed questions of <a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>philosophy with Saracen +visitors. He received presents of elephants and of dancing-girls from +his friend the sultan, to whom he appealed: "Out of your goodness, and +your friendship for me, surrender to me Jerusalem as it is, that I may +be able to lift up my head among the kings of Christendom."</p> + +<p>Camel, the sultan, consented, agreeing to deliver up Jerusalem and its +adjacent territory to the emperor, on the sole condition that Mohammedan +pilgrims might have the privilege of visiting a mosque within the city. +These terms Frederick gladly accepted, and soon after marched into the +holy city at the head of his armed followers (not unarmed, as in the +case of Cœur de Lion), took possession of it with formal ceremony, +allowed the Mohammedan population to withdraw in peace, and repeopled +the city with Christians, A.D. 1229.</p> + +<p>He found himself in the presence of an extraordinary condition of +affairs. The excommunication against him was not only maintained, but +the pope actually went so far as to place Jerusalem and the Holy +Sepulchre under interdict. So far did the virulence of priestly +antipathy go that the Templars even plotted against Frederick's life. +Emissaries sent by them gave secret information to the sultan of where +he might easily capture the emperor. The sultan, with a noble +friendliness, sent the letter to Frederick, cautioning him to beware of +his foes.</p> + +<p>The break between emperor and pope had now reached its highest pitch of +hostility. Frederick <a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>proclaimed his signal success to Europe. Gregory +retorted with bitter accusations. The emperor, he said, had presented to +the sultan of Babylon the sword given him for the defence of the faith; +he had permitted the Koran to be preached in the Holy Temple itself; he +had even bound himself to join the Saracens, in case a Christian army +should attempt to cleanse the city and temple from Mohammedan +defilements.</p> + +<p>In addition to these charges, accusations of murder and other crimes +were circulated against him, and a false report of his death was +industriously circulated. Frederick found it necessary to return home +without delay. He crowned himself at Jerusalem, as no ecclesiastic could +be found who would perform the ceremony, and then set sail for Italy, +leaving Richard, his master of the horse, in charge of affairs in +Palestine.</p> + +<p>Reaching Italy, he soon brought his affairs into order. He had under his +command an army of thirty thousand Saracen soldiers, with whom it was +impossible for his enemies to tamper. A bitter recrimination took place +with the pope, in which the emperor managed to bring the general +sentiment of Europe to his side, offering to convict Gregory of himself +entering into negotiations with the infidels. Gregory, finding that he +was getting the worst of the controversy with his powerful and alert +enemy, now prudently gave way, having a horror of the shedding of blood. +Peace was made in 1230, the excommunication removed from the emperor, +and <a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a>for nine years the conflict between him and the papacy was at an +end.</p> + +<p>We have told the story of Frederick's crusade, but the remainder of his +life is of sufficient interest to be given in epitome. In his government +of Sicily he showed himself strikingly in advance of the political +opinions of his period. He enacted a system of wise laws, instituted +representative parliaments, asserted the principle of equal rights and +equal duties, and the supremacy of the law over high and low alike. All +religions were tolerated, Jews and Mohammedans having equal freedom of +worship with Christians. All the serfs of his domain were emancipated, +private war was forbidden, commerce was regulated, cheap justice for the +poor was instituted, markets and fairs were established, large libraries +collected, and other progressive institutions organized. He established +menageries for the study of natural history, founded in Naples a great +university, patronized medical study, provided cheap schools, aided the +development of the arts, and in every respect displayed a remarkable +public spirit and political foresight.</p> + +<p>Yet splendid as was his career of development in secular affairs, his +private life, as well as his public conduct, was stained with flagrant +faults, and there was much in his doings that was frowned upon by the +pope. New quarrels arose; new wars broke out; the emperor was again +excommunicated; the unfortunate closing years of Frederick's career +began. Again there were appeals to Christendom; <a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>again Frederick's +Saracens marched through Italy; such was their success that the pope +only escaped by death from falling into the hands of his foe. But with a +new pope the old quarrel was resumed, Innocent IV. flying to France to +get out of reach of the emperor's hands, and desperately combating him +from this haven of refuge.</p> + +<p>The incessant conflict at length bowed down the spirit of the emperor, +now growing old. His good fortune began to desert him. In 1249 his son +Enzio, whom he had made king of Sicily, and who was the most chivalrous +and handsome of his children, was taken prisoner by the Bolognese, who +refused to accept ransom for him, although his father offered in return +for his freedom a silver ring equal in circumference to their city. In +the following year his long-tried friend and councillor, Peter de +Vincis, who had been the most trusted man in the empire, was accused of +having joined the papal party and of attempting to poison the emperor. +He offered Frederick a beverage, which he, growing suspicious, did not +drink, but had it administered to a criminal, who instantly expired.</p> + +<p>Whether Peter was guilty or not, his seeming defection was a sore blow +to his imperial patron. "Alas!" moaned Frederick, "I am abandoned by my +most faithful friends; Peter, the friend of my heart, on whom I leaned +for support, has deserted me and sought my destruction. Whom can I +trust? My days are henceforth doomed to pass in sorrow and suspicion."</p> + +<p><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a>His days were near their end. Not long after the events narrated, while +again in the field at the head of a fresh army of Saracens, he was +suddenly seized with a mortal illness at Firenzuola, and died there on +the 13th of December, 1250, becoming reconciled with the church on his +deathbed. He was buried at Palermo.</p> + +<p>Thus died one of the most intellectual, progressive, free-thinking, and +pleasure-loving emperors of Germany, after a long reign over a realm in +which he seldom appeared, and an almost incessant period of warfare +against the head of a church of which he was supposed to be the imperial +protector. Seven crowns were his,—those of the kingdom of Germany and +of the Roman empire, the iron diadem of Lombardy, and those of Burgundy, +Sicily, Sardinia, and Jerusalem. But of all the realms under his rule +the smiling lands of Sicily and southern Italy were most to his liking, +and the scene of his most constant abode. Charming palaces were built by +him at Naples, Palermo, Messina, and several other places, and in these +he surrounded himself with the noblest bards and most beautiful women of +the empire, and by all that was attractive in the art, science, and +poetry of his times. Moorish dancing-girls and the arts and learning of +the East abounded in his court. The Sultan Camel presented him with a +rare tent, in which, by means of artfully contrived mechanism, the +movements of the heavenly bodies were represented. Michael Scott, his +astrologer, translated Aristotle's "History <a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>of Animals." Frederick +studied ornithology, on which he wrote a treatise, and possessed a +menagerie of rare animals, including a giraffe, and other strange +creatures. The popular dialect of Italy owed much to him, being elevated +into a written language by his use of it in his love-sonnets. Of the +poems written by himself, his son Enzio, and his friends, several have +been preserved, while his chancellor, Peter de Vincis, is said to have +originated the sonnet.</p> + +<p>We have already spoken of his reforms in his southern kingdom. It was +his purpose to introduce similar reforms into the government of Germany, +abolishing the feudal system, and creating a centralized and organized +state, with a well-regulated system of finance. But ideas such as these +were much too far in advance of the age. State and church alike opposed +them, and Frederick's intelligent views did not long survive him. +History must have its evolution, political systems their growth, and the +development of institutions has never been much hastened or checked by +any man's whip or curb.</p> + +<p>In 1781, when the tomb of Frederick was opened, centuries after his +death, the institutions he had advocated were but in process of being +adopted in Europe. The body of the great emperor was found within the +mausoleum, wrapped in embroidered robes, the feet booted and spurred, +the imperial crown on its head, in its hand the ball and sceptre, on its +finger a costly emerald. For five centuries <a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>and more Frederick had +slept in state, awaiting the verdict of time on the ideas in defence of +which his life had been passed in battle. The verdict had been given, +the ideas had grown into institutions, time had vouchsafed the +far-seeing emperor his revenge.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_FALL_OF_THE_GHIBELLINES" id="THE_FALL_OF_THE_GHIBELLINES"></a><i>THE FALL OF THE GHIBELLINES</i>.</h3> + + +<p>The death of Frederick II., in 1250, was followed by a series of +misfortunes to his descendants, so tragical as to form a story full of +pathetic interest. His son Enzio, a man of remarkable beauty and valor, +celebrated as a Minnesinger, and of unusual intellectual qualities, had +been taken prisoner, as we have already told, by the Bolognese, and +condemned by them to perpetual imprisonment, despite the prayers of his +father and the rich ransom offered. For twenty-two years he continued a +tenant of a dungeon, and in this gloomy scene of death in life survived +all the sons and grandsons of his father, every one of whom perished by +poison, the sword, or the axe of the executioner. It is this dread story +of the fate of the Hohenstauffen imperial house which we have now to +tell.</p> + +<p>No sooner had Frederick expired than the enemies of his house arose on +every side. Conrad IV., his eldest son and successor, found Germany so +filled with his foes that he was forced to take refuge in Italy, where +his half-brother, Manfred, Prince of Taranto, ceded to him the +sovereignty of the Italian realm, and lent him his aid to secure it. The +royal brothers captured Capua and Naples, where Conrad signalized his +success by placing a bridle in the <a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>mouth of an antique colossal horse's +head, the emblem of the city. This insult made the inhabitants his +implacable foes. His success was but temporary. He died suddenly, as +also did his younger brother Henry, poisoned by his half-brother +Manfred, who succeeded to the kingship of the South. But with the +Guelphs in power in Germany, and the pope his bitter foe in Italy, he +was utterly unable to establish his claim, and was forced to cede all +lower Italy, except Taranto, to the pontiff. But a new and less +implacable pope being elected, the fortunes of Manfred suddenly changed, +and he was unanimously proclaimed king at Palermo in 1258.</p> + +<p>But the misfortunes of his house were to pursue him to the end. In +northern Italy, the Guelphs were everywhere triumphant. Ezzelino, one of +Frederick's ablest generals, was defeated, wounded, and taken prisoner. +He soon after died. His brother Alberich was cruelly murdered, being +dragged to death at a horse's tail. The other Ghibelline chiefs were +similarly butchered, the horrible scenes of bloodshed so working on the +feelings of the susceptible Italians that many of them did penance at +the grave of Alberich, arrayed in sackcloth. From this circumstance +arose the sect of the Flagellants, who ran through the streets, +lamenting, praying, and wounding themselves with thongs, as an atonement +for the sins of the world.</p> + +<p>In southern Italy, Manfred for a while was successful. In 1259 he +married Helena, the daughter <a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a>of Michael of Cyprus and Ætolia, a maiden +of seventeen years, and famed far and wide for her loveliness. So +beautiful were the bridal pair, and such were the attractions of their +court, which, as in Frederick's time, was the favorite resort of +distinguished poets and lovely women, that a bard of the times declared, +"Paradise has once more appeared upon earth."</p> + +<p>Manfred, like his father and his brother Enzio, was a poet, being +classed among the Minnesingers. His marriage gave him the alliance of +Greece, and the marriage of Constance, his daughter by a former wife, to +Peter of Aragon, gained him the friendship of Spain. Strengthened by +these alliances, he was able to send aid to the Ghibellines in Lombardy, +who again became victorious.</p> + +<p>The Guelphs, alarmed at Manfred's growing power, now raised a Frenchman +to the papal throne, who induced Charles of Anjou, the brother of the +French monarch, to strike for the crown of southern Italy. Charles, a +gloomy, cold-blooded and cruel prince, gladly accepted the pope's +suggestions, and followed by a powerful body of French knights and +soldiers of fortune, set sail for Naples in 1266. Manfred had unluckily +lost the whole of his fleet in a storm, and was not able to oppose this +threatening invasion, which landed in Italy in his despite.</p> + +<p>Nor was he more fortunate with his land army. The clergy, in the +interest of the Guelph faction, tampered with his soldiers and sowed +treason in his camp. No sooner had Charles landed, than a moun<a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>tain pass +intrusted to the defence of Riccardo di Caseta was treacherously +abandoned, and the French army allowed to advance unmolested as far as +Benevento, where the two armies met.</p> + +<p>In the battle that followed, Manfred defended himself gallantly, but, +despite all his efforts, was worsted, and threw himself desperately into +the thick of the fight, where he fell, covered with wounds. The bigoted +victor refused him honorable burial, on the score of heresy, but the +French soldiers, nobler-hearted than their leader, and touched by the +beauty and valor of their unfortunate opponent, cast each of them a +stone upon his body, which was thus buried under a mound which the +natives still know as the "rock of roses."</p> + +<p>The wife and children of Manfred met with a pitiable fate. On learning +of the sad death of her husband Helena sought safety in flight, with her +daughter Beatrice and her three infant sons, Henry, Frederick, and +Anselino; but she was betrayed to Charles, who threw her into a dungeon, +in which she soon languished and died. Of her children, her daughter +Beatrice was afterwards rescued by Peter of Aragon, who exchanged for +her a son of Charles of Anjou, whom he held prisoner; but the three boys +were given over to the cruellest fate. Immured in a narrow dungeon, and +loaded with chains, they remained thus half-naked, ill-fed, and untaught +for the period of thirty-one years. Not until 1297 were they released +from their chains and allowed to be visited by a priest and a physician. +Charles of<a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a> Anjou, meanwhile, filled with the spirit of cruelty and +ambition, sought to destroy every vestige of the Hohenstauffen rule in +southern Italy, the scene of Frederick's long and lustrous reign.</p> + +<p>The death of Manfred had not extinguished all the princes of Frederick's +house. There remained another, Conradin, son of Conrad IV., Duke of +Swabia, a youthful prince to whom had descended some of the intellectual +powers of his noted grand-sire. He had an inseparable friend, Frederick, +son of the Margrave of Baden, of his own age, and like him enthusiastic +and imaginative, their ardent fancies finding vent in song. One of +Conradin's ballads is still extant.</p> + +<p>As the young prince grew older, the seclusion to which he was subjected +by his guardian, Meinhard, Count von Görtz, became so irksome to him +that he gladly accepted a proposal from the Italian Ghibellines to put +himself at their head. In 1267 he set out, in company with Frederick, +and with a following of some ten thousand men, and crossed the Alps to +Lombardy, where he met with a warm welcome at Verona by the Ghibelline +chiefs.</p> + +<p>Treachery accompanied him, however, in the presence of his guardian +Meinhard and Louis of Bavaria, who persuaded him to part with his German +possessions for a low price, and then deserted him, followed by the +greater part of the Germans. Conradin was left with but three thousand +men.</p> + +<p>The Italians proved more faithful. Verona raised him an army; Pisa +supplied him a large fleet; the<a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a> Moors of Luceria took up arms in his +cause; even Rome rose in his favor, and drove out the pope, who +retreated to Viterbo. For the time being the Ghibelline cause was in the +ascendant. Conradin marched unopposed to Rome, at whose gates he was met +by a procession of beautiful girls, bearing flowers and instruments of +music, who conducted him to the capitol. His success on land was matched +by a success at sea, his fleet gaining a signal victory over that of the +French, and burning a great number of their ships.</p> + +<p>So far all had gone well with the youthful heir of the Hohenstauffens. +Henceforth all was to go ill. Conradin marched from Rome to lower Italy, +where he encountered the French army, under Charles, at Scurcola, drove +them back, and broke into their camp. Assured of victory, the Germans +grew careless, dispersing through the camp in search of booty, while +some of them even refreshed themselves by bathing.</p> + +<p>While thus engaged, the French reserve, who had watched their movements, +suddenly fell upon them and completely put them to rout. Conradin and +Frederick, after fighting bravely, owed their escape to the fleetness of +their steeds. They reached the sea at Astura, boarded a vessel, and were +about setting sail for Pisa, when they were betrayed into the hands of +their pursuers, taken prisoners, and carried back to Charles of Anjou.</p> + +<p>They had fallen into fatal hands; Charles was not the man to consider +justice or honor in dealing <a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a>with a Hohenstauffen. He treated Conradin +as a rebel against himself, under the claim that he was the only +legitimate king, and sentenced both the princes, then but sixteen years +of age, to be publicly beheaded in the market-place at Naples.</p> + +<p>Conradin was playing at chess in prison when the news of this unjust +sentence was brought to him. He calmly listened to it, with the courage +native to his race. On October 22, 1268, he, with Frederick and his +other companions, was conducted to the scaffold erected in the +market-place, passing through a throng of which even the French +contingent looked on the spectacle with indignation. So greatly were +they wrought up, indeed, by the outrage, that Robert, Earl of Flanders, +Charles's son-in-law, drew his sword, and cut down the officer +commissioned to read in public the sentence of death.</p> + +<p>"Wretch!" he cried, as he dealt the blow, "how darest thou condemn such +a great and excellent knight?"</p> + +<p>Conradin met his fate with unyielding courage, saying, in his address to +the people,—</p> + +<p>"I cite my judge before the highest tribunal. My blood, shed on this +spot, shall cry to heaven for vengeance. Nor do I esteem my Swabians and +Bavarians, my Germans, so low as not to trust that this stain on the +honor of the German nation will be washed out by them in French blood."</p> + +<p>Then, throwing his glove to the ground, he charged him who should raise +it to bear it to Peter,<a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a> King of Aragon, to whom, as his nearest +relative, he bequeathed all his claims. The glove was raised by Henry, +Truchsess von Waldberg, who found in it the seal ring of the unfortunate +wearer. Thence-forth he bore in his arms the three black lions of the +Stauffen.</p> + +<p>In a minute more the fatal axe of the executioner descended, and the +head of the last heir of the Hohenstauffens rolled upon the scaffold. +His friend, Frederick, followed him to death, nor was the bloodthirsty +Charles satisfied until almost every Ghibelline in his hands had fallen +by the hand of the executioner.</p> + +<p>Enzio, the unfortunate son of Frederick who was held prisoner by the +Bolognese, was involved in the fate of his unhappy nephew. On learning +of the arrival of Conradin in Italy he made an effort to escape from +prison, which would have been successful but for an unlucky accident. He +had arranged to conceal himself in a cask, which was to be borne out of +the prison by his friends, but by an unfortunate chance one of his long, +golden locks fell out of the air-hole which had been made in the side of +the cask, and revealed the stratagem to his keepers.</p> + +<p>During his earlier imprisonment Enzio had been allowed some alleviation, +his friends being permitted to visit him and solace him in his +seclusion; but after this effort to escape he was closely confined, some +say, in an iron cage, until his death in 1272.</p> + +<p>Thus ended the royal race of the Hohenstauffen, <a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>a race marked by +unusual personal beauty, rich poetical genius, and brilliant warlike +achievements, and during whose period of power the mediæval age and its +institutions attained their highest development.</p> + +<p>As for the ruthless Charles of Anjou, he retained Apulia, but lost his +possessions in Sicily through an event which has become famous as the +"Sicilian Vespers." The insolence and outrages of the French had so +exasperated the Sicilians that, on the night of March 30, 1282, a +general insurrection broke out in this island, the French being +everywhere assassinated. Constance, the grand-daughter of their old +ruler, and Peter of Aragon, her husband, were proclaimed their +sovereigns by the Sicilians, and Charles, the son of Charles of Anjou, +fell into their hands.</p> + +<p>Constance was generous to the captive prince, and on hearing him remark +that he was happy to die on a Friday, the day on which Christ suffered, +she replied,—</p> + +<p>"For love of him who suffered on this day I will grant thee thy life."</p> + +<p>He was afterwards exchanged for Beatrice, the daughter of the unhappy +Helena, whose sons, the last princes of the Hohenstauffen race, died in +the prison in which they had lived since infancy.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_TRIBUNAL_OF_THE_HOLY_VEHM" id="THE_TRIBUNAL_OF_THE_HOLY_VEHM"></a><i>THE TRIBUNAL OF THE HOLY VEHM</i>.</h3> + + +<p>The ideas of law and order in mediæval Germany were by no means what we +now understand by those terms. The injustice of the strong and the +suffering of the weak were the rule; and men of noble lineage did not +hesitate to turn their castles into dens of thieves. The title "robber +baron," which many of them bore, sufficiently indicates their mode of +life, and turbulence and outrage prevailed throughout the land.</p> + +<p>But wrong did not flourish with complete impunity; right had not +entirely vanished; justice still held its sword, and at times struck +swift and deadly blows that filled with terror the wrong-doer, and gave +some assurance of protection to those too weak for self-defence. It was +no unusual circumstance to behold, perhaps in the vicinity of some +baronial castle, perhaps near some town or manorial residence, a group +of peasants gazing upwards with awed but triumphant eyes; the spectacle +that attracted their attention being the body of a man hanging from the +limb of a tree above their heads.</p> + +<p>Such might have been supposed to be some act of private vengeance or +bold outrage, but the exulting lookers-on knew better. For they +recognized the body, perhaps as that of the robber baron of the +<a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>neighboring castle, perhaps that of some other bold defier of law and +justice, while in the ground below the corpse appeared an object that +told a tale of deep meaning to their experienced eyes. This was a knife, +thrust to the hilt in the earth. As they gazed upon it they muttered the +mysterious words, "<i>Vehm gericht</i>," and quickly dispersed, none daring +to touch the corpse or disturb the significant signal of the vengeance +of the executioners.</p> + +<p>But as they walked away they would converse in low tones of a dread +secret tribunal, which held its mysterious meetings in remote places, +caverns of the earth or the depths of forests, at the dread hour of +midnight, its members being sworn by frightful oaths to utter secrecy. +Before these dark tribunals were judged, present or absent, the +wrong-doers of the land, and the sentence of the secret Vehm once given, +there was no longer safety for the condemned. The agents of vengeance +would be put upon his track, while the secret of his death sentence was +carefully kept from his ears. The end was sure to be a sudden seizure, a +rope to the nearest tree, a writhing body, the signal knife of the +executioners of the Vehm, silence and mystery.</p> + +<p>Such was the visible outcome of the workings of this dreaded court, of +whose sessions and secrets the common people of the land had exaggerated +conceptions, but whose sudden and silent deeds in the interest of +justice went far to repress crime in that lawless age. We have seen the +completion of <a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>the sentence, let us attend a session of this mysterious +court.</p> + +<p>Seeking the Vehmic tribunal, we do not find ourselves in a midnight +forest, nor in a dimly-lighted cavern or mysterious vault, as peasant +traditions would tell us, but in the hall of some ancient castle, or on +a hill-top, under the shade of lime-trees, and with an open view of the +country for miles around. Here, on the seat of justice, presides the +graf or count of the district, before him the sword, the symbol of +supreme justice, its handle in the form of the cross, while beside it +lies the <i>Wyd</i>, or cord, the sign of his power of life or death. Around +him are seated the <i>Schöffen</i>, or ministers of justice, bareheaded and +without weapons, in complete silence, none being permitted to speak +except when called upon in the due course of proceedings.</p> + +<p>The court being solemnly opened, the person cited to appear before it +steps forward, unarmed and accompanied by two sureties, if he has any. +The complaint against him is stated by the judge, and he is called upon +to clear himself by oath taken on the cross of the sword. If he takes +it, he is free. "He shall then," says an ancient work, "take a farthing +piece, throw it at the feet of the court, turn round and go his way. +Whoever attacks or touches him, has then, which all freemen know, broken +the king's peace."</p> + +<p>This was the ancient custom, but in later times witnesses were examined, +and the proceedings were more in conformity with those of modern +courts.<a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a> If sentence of death was passed, the criminal was hanged at +once on the nearest tree. The minor punishments were exile and fine. If +the defendant refused to appear, after being three times cited, the +sentence of the Vehm was pronounced against him, a dreadful sentence, +ending in,—</p> + +<p>"And I hereby curse his flesh and his blood; and may his body never +receive burial, but may it be borne away by the wind, and may the ravens +and crows, and wild birds of prey, consume and destroy him. And I +adjudge his neck to the rope, and his body to be devoured by the birds +and beasts of the air, sea, and land; but his soul I commend to our dear +Lord, if He will receive it."</p> + +<p>These words spoken, the judge cast forth the rope beyond the limits of +the court, and wrote the name of the condemned in the book of blood, +calling on the princes and nobles of the land, and all the inhabitants +of the empire, to aid in fulfilling this sentence upon the criminal, +without regard to relationship or any ties of kindred or affection +whatever.</p> + +<p>The condemned man was now left to the work of the ministers of justice, +the Schöffen of the court. Whoever should shelter or even warn him was +himself to be brought before the tribunal. The members of the court were +bound by a terrible oath, to be enforced by death, not to reveal the +sentence of the Holy Vehm, except to one of the initiated, and not to +warn the culprit, even if he was a father or a brother. Wherever the +condemned was found, whether in a house, a street, the high-road, or the +<a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a>forest, he was seized and hanged to the nearest tree or post, if the +servants of the court could lay hands on him. As a sign that he was +executed by the Holy Vehm, and not slain by robbers, nothing was taken +from his body, and the knife was thrust into the ground beneath him. We +may further say that any criminal taken in the act by the Vehmic +officers of justice did not need to be brought before the court, but +might be hanged on the spot, with the ordinary indications that he was a +victim to the secret tribunal.</p> + +<p>A citation to appear before the Vehm was executed by two Schöffen, who +bore the letter of the presiding count to the accused. If they could not +reach him because he was living in a city or a fortress which they could +not safely enter, they were authorized to execute their mission +otherwise. They might approach the castle in the night, stick the +letter, enclosing a farthing piece, in the panel of the castle gate, cut +off three chips from the gate as evidence to the count that they had +fulfilled their mission, and call out to the sentinel on leaving that +they had deposited there a letter for his lord. If the accused had no +regular dwelling-place, and could not be met, he was summoned at four +different cross-roads, where was left at the east, west, north, and +south points a summons, each containing the significant farthing coin.</p> + +<p>It must not be supposed that the administration of justice in Germany +was confined to this Vehmic court. There were open courts of justice +through<a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a>out the land. But what were known as <i>Freistuhls,</i> or free +courts, were confined to the duchy of Westphalia. Some of the sessions +of these courts were open, some closed, the Vehm constituting their +secret tribunal.</p> + +<p>Though complaints might be brought and persons cited to appear from +every part of Germany, a free court could only be held on Westphalian +ground, on the red earth, as it was entitled. Even the emperor could not +establish a free court outside of Westphalia. When the Emperor Wenceslas +tried to establish one in Bohemia, the counts of the empire decreed that +any one who should take part in it would incur the penalty of death. The +members of these courts consisted of Schöffen, nominated by the graf, or +presiding judge, and composed of ordinary members and the Wissenden or +Witan, the higher membership. The initiation of these members was a +singular and impressive ceremony. It could only take place upon the red +earth, or within the boundaries of Westphalia. Bareheaded and ungirt, +the candidate was conducted before the tribunal, and strictly questioned +as to his qualifications to membership. He must be free-born, of +Teutonic ancestry, and clear of any accusation of crime.</p> + +<p>This settled, a deep and solemn oath of fidelity was administered, the +candidate swearing by the Holy Law to guard the secrets of the Holy Vehm +from wife and child, father and mother, sister and brother, fire and +water, every creature on whom rain <a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>falls or sun shines, everything +between earth and heaven; to tell to the tribunal all offences known to +him, and not to be deterred therefrom by love or hate, gold, silver, or +precious stones. He was now intrusted with the very ancient password and +secret grip or other sign of the order, by which the members could +readily recognize each other wherever meeting, and was warned of the +frightful penalty incurred by those who should reveal the secrets of the +Vehm. This penalty was that the criminal should have his eyes bound and +be cast upon the earth, his tongue torn out through the back of his +neck, and his body hanged seven times higher than ordinary criminals. In +the history of the court there is no instance known of the oath of +initiation being broken. For further security of the secrets of the +Vehm, no mercy was given to strangers found within the limits of the +court. All such intruders were immediately hung.</p> + +<p>The number of the Schöffen, or members of the free courts, was very +great. In the fourteenth century it exceeded one hundred thousand. +Persons of all ranks joined them, princes desiring their ministers, +cities their magistrates, to apply for membership. The emperor was the +supreme presiding officer, and under him his deputy, the stadtholder of +the duchy of Westphalia, while the local courts, of which there were one +or more in each district of the duchy, were under the jurisdiction of +the grafs or counts of their districts.</p> + +<p>The Vehm could consider criminal actions of the <a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>greatest diversity, +cases of mere slander or defamation of character being sometimes brought +before it. Any violation of the ten commandments was within its +jurisdiction. It particularly devoted itself to secret crimes, such as +magic, witchcraft, or poisoning. Its agents of justice were bound to +make constant circuits, night and day, with the privilege, as we have +said, if they caught a thief or murderer in the act, or obtained his +confession, to hang him at once on the nearest tree, with the knife as +signal of their commission.</p> + +<p>Of the origin of this strange court we have no certain knowledge. +Tradition ascribes it to Charlemagne, but that needs confirmation. It +seems rather to have been an outgrowth of an old Saxon system, which +also left its marks in the systems of justice of Saxon England, where +existed customs not unlike those of the Holy Vehm.</p> + +<p>Mighty was the power of these secret courts, and striking the traditions +to which they have given rise, based upon their alleged nocturnal +assemblies, their secret signs and solemn oaths, their mysterious +customs, and the implacable persistency with which their sentences +sought the criminal, pursuing him for years, and in whatever corner of +the empire he might take refuge, while there were none to call its +ministers of justice to account for their acts if the terrible knife had +been left as evidence of their authority.</p> + +<p>Such an association, composed of thousands of men of all classes, from +the highest to the lowest,—<a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a>for common freemen, mechanics, and citizens +shared the honor of membership with knights and even princes,—bound +together by a band of inviolable secrecy, and its edicts carried out so +mysteriously and ruthlessly, could not but attain to a terrible power, +and produce a remarkable effect upon the imagination of the people. "The +prince or knight who easily escaped the judgment of the imperial court, +and from behind his fortified walls defied even the emperor himself, +trembled when in the silence of the night he heard the voices of the +<i>Freischöffen</i> at the gate of his castle, and when the free count +summoned him to appear at the ancient <i>malplatz</i>, or plain, under the +lime-tree, or on the bank of a rivulet upon that dreaded soil, the +Westphalian or red ground. And that the power of those free courts was +not exaggerated by the mere imagination, excited by terror, nor in +reality by any means insignificant, is proved by a hundred undeniable +examples, supported by records and testimonies, that numerous princes, +counts, knights, and wealthy citizens were seized by these Schöffen of +the secret tribunal, and, in execution of its sentence, perished by +their hands."</p> + +<p>An institution so mysterious and wide-spread as this could not exist +without some degree of abuse of power. Unworthy persons would attain +membership, who would use their authority for the purpose of private +vengeance. This occasional injustice of the Vehmic tribunal became more +frequent as time went on, and by the end of the fifteenth cen<a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a>tury many +complaints arose against the free courts, particularly among the clergy. +Civilization was increasing, and political institutions becoming more +developed, in Germany; the lords of the land grew restive under the +subjection of their people to the acts of a secret and strange tribunal, +no longer supported by imperial power. Alliances of princes, nobles, and +citizens were made against the Westphalian courts, and their power +finally ceased, without any formal decree of abrogation.</p> + +<p>In the sixteenth century the Vehm still possessed much strength; in the +seventeenth it had grown much weaker; in the eighteenth only a few +traces of it remained; at Gehmen, in Münster, the secret tribunal was +only finally extinguished by a decree of the French legislature in 1811. +Even to the present day there are peasants who have taken the oath of +the Schöffen, whose secrecy they persistently maintain, and who meet +annually at the site of some of the old free courts. The principal signs +of the order are indicated by the letters S.S.G.G., signifying <i>stock, +stein, gras, grein</i> (stick, stone, grass, tears), though no one has been +able to trace the mysterious meaning these words convey as symbols of +the mystic power of the ancient <i>Vehm gericht</i>.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a></p> +<h3><a name="WILLIAM_TELL_AND_THE_SWISS_PATRIOTS" id="WILLIAM_TELL_AND_THE_SWISS_PATRIOTS"></a><i>WILLIAM TELL AND THE SWISS PATRIOTS</i>.</h3> + + +<p>"In the year of our Lord 1307," writes an ancient chronicler, "there +dwelt a pious countryman in Unterwald beyond the Kernwald, whose name +was Henry of Melchthal, a wise, prudent, honest man, well to do and in +good esteem among his country-folk, moreover, a firm supporter of the +liberties of his country and of its adhesion to the Holy Roman Empire, +on which account Beringer von Landenberg, the governor over the whole of +Unterwald, was his enemy. This Melchthaler had some very fine oxen, and +on account of some trifling misdemeanor committed by his son, Arnold of +Melchthal, the governor sent his servant to seize the finest pair of +oxen by way of punishment, and in case old Henry of Melchthal said +anything against it, he was to say that it was the governor's opinion +that the peasants should draw the plough themselves. The servant +fulfilled his lord's commands. But as he unharnessed the oxen, Arnold, +the son of the countryman, fell into a rage, and striking him with a +stick on the hand, broke one of his fingers. Upon this Arnold fled, for +fear of his life, up the country towards Uri, where he kept himself long +secret in the country where Conrad of Baumgarten from Altzelen lay hid +for having killed the governor of Wolfenschiess, <a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a>who had insulted his +wife, with a blow of his axe. The servant, meanwhile, complained to his +lord, by whose order old Melchthal's eyes were torn out. This tyrannical +action rendered the governor highly unpopular, and Arnold, on learning +how his good father had been treated, laid his wrongs secretly before +trusty people in Uri, and awaited a fit opportunity for avenging his +father's misfortune."</p> + +<p>Such was the prologue to the tragic events which we have now to tell, +events whose outcome was the freedom of Switzerland and the formation of +that vigorous Swiss confederacy which has maintained itself until the +present day in the midst of the powerful and warlike nations which have +surrounded it. The prologue given, we must proceed with the main scenes +of the drama, which quickly followed.</p> + +<p>As the story goes, Arnold allied himself with two other patriots, Werner +Stauffacher and Walter Fürst, bold and earnest men, the three meeting +regularly at night to talk over the wrongs of their country and consider +how best to right them. Of the first named of these men we are told that +he was stirred to rebellion by the tyranny of Gessler, governor of Uri, +a man who forms one of the leading characters of our drama. The rule of +Gessler extended over the country of Schwyz, where in the town of +Steinen, in a handsome house, lived Werner Stauffacher. As the governor +passed one day through this town he was pleasantly greeted by Werner, +who was standing before his door.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a>"To whom does this house belong?" asked Gessler.</p> + +<p>Werner, fearing that some evil purpose lay behind this question, +cautiously replied,—</p> + +<p>"My lord, the house belongs to my sovereign lord the king, and is your +and my fief."</p> + +<p>"I will not allow peasants to build houses without my consent," returned +Gessler, angered at this shrewd reply, "or to live in freedom as if they +were their own masters. I will teach you better than to resist my +authority."</p> + +<p>So saying, he rode on, leaving Werner greatly disturbed by his +threatening words. He returned into his house with heavy brow and such +evidence of discomposure that his wife eagerly questioned him. Learning +what the governor had said, the good lady shared his disturbance, and +said,—</p> + +<p>"My dear Werner, you know that many of the country-folk complain of the +governor's tyranny. In my opinion, it would be well for some of you, who +can trust one another, to meet in secret, and take counsel how to throw +off his wanton power."</p> + +<p>This advice seemed so judicious to Werner that he sought his friend +Walter Fürst, and arranged with him and Arnold that they should meet and +consider what steps to take, their place of meeting being at Rütli, a +small meadow in a lonely situation, closed in on the land side by high +rocks, and opening on the Lake of Lucerne. Others joined them in their +patriotic purpose, and on the night of the Wednesday before Martinmas, +in the year 1307, <a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>each of the three led to the place of meeting ten +others, all as resolute and liberty-loving as themselves. These +thirty-three good and true men, thus assembled at the midnight hour in +the meadow of Rütli, united in a solemn oath that they would devote +their lives and strength to the freeing of their country from its +oppressors. They fixed the first day of the coming year for the +beginning of their work, and then returned to their homes, where they +kept the strictest secrecy, occupying themselves in housing their cattle +for the winter and in other rural labors, with no indication that they +cherished deeper designs.</p> + +<p>During this interval of secrecy another event, of a nature highly +exasperating to the Swiss, is said to have happened. It is true that +modern critics declare the story of this event to be solely a legend and +that nothing of the kind ever took place. However that be, it has ever +since remained one of the most attractive of popular tales, and the +verdict of the critics shall not deter us from telling again this +oft-repeated and always welcome story.</p> + +<p>We have named two of the many tyrannical governors of Switzerland, the +deputies there of Albert of Austria, then Emperor of Germany, whose +purpose was to abolish the privileges of the Swiss and subject the free +communes to his arbitrary rule. The second named of these, Gessler, +governor of Uri and Schwyz, whose threats had driven Werner to +conspiracy, occupied a fortress in Uri, which he had built as a place of +safety in case of revolt, and <a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>a centre of tyranny. "Uri's prison" he +called this fortress, an insult to the people of Uri which roused their +indignation. Perceiving their sullenness, Gessler resolved to give them +a salutary lesson of his power and their helplessness.</p> + +<p>On St. Jacob's day he had a pole erected in the market-place at Altdorf, +under the lime-trees there growing, and directed that his hat should be +placed on its top. This done, the command was issued that all who passed +through the market-place should bow and kneel to this hat as to the king +himself, blows and confiscation of property to be the lot of all who +refused. A guard was placed around the pole, whose duty was to take note +of every man who should fail to do homage to the governor's hat.</p> + +<p>On the Sunday following, a peasant of Uri, William Tell by name, who, as +we are told, was one of the thirty-three sworn confederates, passed +several times through the market-place at Altdorf without bowing or +bending the knee to Gessler's hat. This was reported to the governor, +who summoned Tell to his presence, and haughtily asked him why he had +dared to disobey his command.</p> + +<p>"My dear lord," answered Tell, submissively, "I beg you to pardon me, +for it was done through ignorance and not out of contempt. If I were +clever, I should not be called Tell. I pray your mercy; it shall not +happen again."</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-153.png" alt="STATUE OF WILLIAM TELL." title="STATUE OF WILLIAM TELL." /></div> +<h5>STATUE OF WILLIAM TELL.</h5> + +<p>The name Tell signifies dull or stupid, a meaning in consonance with his +speech, though not with his <a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a>character. Yet stupid or bright, he had the +reputation of being the best archer in the country, and Gessler, knowing +this, determined on a singular punishment for his fault. Tell had +beautiful children, whom he dearly loved. The governor sent for these, +and asked him,—</p> + +<p>"Which of your children do you love the best?"</p> + +<p>"My lord, they are all alike dear to me," answered Tell.</p> + +<p>"If that be so," said Gessler, "then, as I hear that you are a famous +marksman, you shall prove your skill in my presence by shooting an apple +off the head of one of your children. But take good care to hit the +apple, for if your first shot miss you shall lose your life."</p> + +<p>"For God's sake, do not ask me to do this!" cried Tell in horror. "It +would be unnatural to shoot at my own dear child. I would rather die +than do it."</p> + +<p>"Unless you do it, you or your child shall die," answered the governor +harshly.</p> + +<p>Tell, seeing that Gessler was resolute in his cruel project, and that +the trial must be made or worse might come, reluctantly agreed to it. He +took his cross-bow and two arrows, one of which he placed in the bow, +the other he stuck behind in his collar. The governor, meanwhile, had +selected the child for the trial, a boy of not more than six years of +age, whom he ordered to be placed at the proper distance, and himself +selected an apple and placed it on the child's head.</p> + +<p>Tell viewed these preparations with startled eyes, <a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a>while praying +inwardly to God to shield his dear child from harm. Then, bidding the +boy to stand firm and not be frightened, as his father would do his best +not to harm him, he raised the perilous bow.</p> + +<p>The legend deals too briefly with this story. It fails to picture the +scene in the market-place. But there, we may be sure, in addition to +Gessler and his guards, were most of the people of Uri, their hearts +burning with sympathy for their countryman and hatred of the tyrant, +their feelings almost wrought up to the point of attacking Gessler and +his guards, and daring death in defence of their liberties. There also +we may behold in fancy the brave child, scarcely old enough to +appreciate the magnitude of his peril, but looking with simple faith +into the kind eyes of his father, who stands firm of frame but trembling +in heart before him, the death-dealing bow in his hand.</p> + +<p>In a minute more the bow is bent, Tell's unerring eye glances along the +shaft, the string twangs sharply, the arrow speeds through the air, and +the apple, pierced through its centre, is borne from the head of the +boy, who leaps forward with a glad cry of triumph, while the unnerved +father, with tears of joy in his eyes, flings the bow to the ground and +clasps his child to his heart.</p> + +<p>"By my faith, Tell, that is a wonderful shot!" cried the astonished +governor. "Men have not belied you. But why have you stuck another arrow +in your collar?"</p> + +<p><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a>"That is the custom among marksmen," Tell hesitatingly answered.</p> + +<p>"Come, man, speak the truth openly and without fear," said Gessler, who +noted Tell's hesitancy. "Your life is safe; but I am not satisfied with +your answer."</p> + +<p>"Then," said Tell, regaining his courage, "if you would have the truth, +it is this. If I had struck my child with the first arrow, the other was +intended for you; and with that I should not have missed my mark."</p> + +<p>The governor started at these bold words, and his brow clouded with +anger.</p> + +<p>"I promised you your life," he exclaimed, "and will keep my word; but, +as you cherish evil intentions against me, I shall make sure that you +cannot carry them out. You are not safe to leave at large, and shall be +taken to a place where you can never again behold the sun or the moon."</p> + +<p>Turning to his guards, he bade them seize the bold marksman, bind his +hands, and take him in a boat across the lake to his castle at Küssnach, +where he should do penance for his evil intentions by spending the +remainder of his life in a dark dungeon. The people dared not interfere +with this harsh sentence; the guards were too many and too well armed. +Tell was seized, bound, and hurried to the lake-side, Gessler +accompanying.</p> + +<p>The water reached, he was placed in a boat, his cross-bow being also +brought and laid beside the steersman. As if with purpose to make sure +of the <a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>disposal of his threatening enemy, Gessler also entered the +boat, which was pushed off and rowed across the lake towards Brunnen, +from which place the prisoner was to be taken overland to the governor's +fortress.</p> + +<p>Before they were half-way across the lake, however, a sudden and violent +storm arose, tossing the boat so frightfully that Gessler and all with +him were filled with mortal fear.</p> + +<p>"My lord," cried one of the trembling rowers to the governor, "we will +all go to the bottom unless something is done, for there is not a man +among us fit to manage a boat in this storm. But Tell here is a skilful +boatman, and it would be wise to use him in our sore need."</p> + +<p>"Can you bring us out of this peril?" asked Gessler, who was no less +alarmed than his crew. "If you can, I will release you from your bonds."</p> + +<p>"I trust, with God's help, that I can safely bring you ashore," answered +Tell.</p> + +<p>By Gessler's order his bonds were then removed, and he stepped aft and +took the helm, guiding the boat through the storm with the skill of a +trained mariner. He had, however, another object in view, and had no +intention to let the tyrannical governor bind his free limbs again. He +bade the men to row carefully until they reached a certain rock, which +appeared on the lake-side at no great distance, telling them that he +hoped to land them behind its shelter. As they drew near the spot +indicated, he turned the helm so that the boat struck violently <a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a>against +the rock, and then, seizing the cross-bow which lay beside him, he +sprang nimbly ashore, and thrust the boat with his foot back into the +tossing waves. The rock on which he landed is, says the chronicler, +still known as Tell's Rock, and a small chapel has been built upon it.</p> + +<p>The story goes on to tell us that the governor and his rowers, after +great danger, finally succeeded in reaching the shore at Brunnen, at +which point they took horse and rode through the district of Schwyz, +their route leading through a narrow passage between the rocks, the only +way by which they could reach Küssnach from that quarter. On they went, +the angry governor swearing vengeance against Tell, and laying plans +with his followers how the runaway should be seized. The deepest dungeon +at Küssnach, he vowed, should be his lot.</p> + +<p>He little dreamed what ears heard his fulminations and what deadly peril +threatened him. On leaving the boat, Tell had run quickly forward to the +passage, or hollow way, through which he knew that Gessler must pass on +his way to the castle. Here, hidden behind the high bank that bordered +the road, he waited, cross-bow in hand, and the arrow which he had +designed for the governor's life in the string, for the coming of his +mortal foe.</p> + +<p>Gessler came, still talking of his plans to seize Tell, and without a +dream of danger, for the pass was silent and seemed deserted. But +suddenly to his ears came the twang of the bow he had heard before that +day; through the air once more winged <a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>its way a steel-barbed shaft, the +heart of a tyrant, not an apple on a child's head, now its mark. In an +instant more Gessler fell from his horse, pierced by Tell's fatal shaft, +and breathed his last before the eyes of his terrified servants. On that +spot, the chronicler concludes, was built a holy chapel, which is +standing to this day.</p> + +<p>Such is the far-famed story of William Tell. How much truth and how much +mere tradition there is in it, it is not easy to say. The feat of +shooting an apple from a person's head is told of others before Tell's +time, and that it ever happened is far from sure. But at the same time +it is possible that the story of Tell, in its main features, may be +founded on fact. Tradition is rarely all fable.</p> + +<p>We are now done with William Tell, and must return to the doings of the +three confederates to whom fame ascribes the origin of the liberty of +Switzerland. In the early morning of January 1, 1308, the date they had +fixed for their work to begin, as Landenberg was leaving his castle to +attend mass at Sarnen, he was met by twenty of the mountaineers of +Unterwald, who, as was their custom, brought him a new-year's gift of +calves, goats, sheep, fowls, and hares. Much pleased with the present, +he asked the men to take the animals into the castle court, and went on +his way towards Sarnen.</p> + +<p>But no sooner had the twenty men passed through the gates than a horn +was loudly blown, and instantly each of them drew from beneath his +doublet <a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>a steel blade, which he fixed upon the end of his staff. At the +sound of the horn thirty other men rushed from a neighboring wood, and +made for the open gates. In a very few minutes they joined their +comrades in the castle, which was quickly theirs, the garrison being +overpowered.</p> + +<p>Landenberg fled in haste on hearing the tumult, but was pursued and +taken. But as the confederates had agreed with each other to shed no +blood, they suffered this arch villain to depart, after making him swear +to leave Switzerland and never return to it. The news of the revolt +spread rapidly through the mountains, and so well had the confederates +laid their plans, that several other castles were taken by stratagem +before the alarm could be given. Their governors were sent beyond the +borders. Day by day news was brought to the head-quarters of the +patriots, on Lake Lucerne, of success in various parts of the country, +and on Sunday, the 7th of January, a week from the first outbreak, the +leading men of that part of Switzerland met and pledged themselves to +their ancient oath of confederacy. In a week's time they had driven out +the Austrians and set their country free.</p> + +<p>It must be admitted that there is no contemporary proof of this story, +though the Swiss accept it as authentic history, and it has not been +disproved. The chief peril to the new confederacy lay with Albert of +Austria, the dispossessed lord of the land, but the patriotic Swiss +found themselves unexpectedly relieved from the execution of his +<a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a>threats of vengeance. His harshness and despotic severity had made him +enemies alike among people and nobles, and when, in the spring of 1308, +he sought the borders of Switzerland, with the purpose of reducing and +punishing the insurgents, his career was brought to a sudden and violent +end.</p> + +<p>A conspiracy had been formed against him by his nephew, the Duke of +Swabia, and others who accompanied him in this journey. On the 1st of +May they reached the Reuss River at Windisch, and, as the emperor +entered the boat to be ferried across, the conspirators pushed into it +after him, leaving no room for his attendants. Reaching the opposite +shore, they remounted their steeds and rode on while the boat returned +for the others. Their route lay through the vast cornfields at the base +of the hills whose highest summit was crowned by the great castle of +Hapsburg.</p> + +<p>They had gone some distance, when John of Swabia suddenly rushed upon +the emperor, and buried his lance in his neck, exclaiming, "Such is the +reward of injustice!" Immediately two others rode upon him, Rudolph of +Balm stabbing him with his dagger, while Walter of Eschenbach clove his +head in twain with his sword. This bloody work done, the conspirators +spurred rapidly away, leaving the dying emperor to breathe his last with +his head supported in the lap of a poor woman, who had witnessed the +murder and hurried to the spot.</p> + +<p>This deed of blood saved Switzerland from the vengeance which the +emperor had designed. The <a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a>mountaineers were given time to cement the +government they had so hastily formed, and which was to last for +centuries thereafter, despite the efforts of ambitious potentates to +reduce the Swiss once more to subjection and rob them of the liberty +they so dearly loved.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_BLACK_DEATH_AND_THE_FLAGELLANTS" id="THE_BLACK_DEATH_AND_THE_FLAGELLANTS"></a><i>THE BLACK DEATH AND THE FLAGELLANTS</i>.</h3> + + +<p>The middle of the fourteenth century was a period of extraordinary +terror and disaster to Europe. Numerous portents, which sadly frightened +the people, were followed by a pestilence which threatened to turn the +continent into an unpeopled wilderness. For year after year there were +signs in the sky, on the earth, in the air, all indicative, as men +thought, of some terrible coming event. In 1337 a great comet appeared +in the heavens, its far-extending tail sowing deep dread in the minds of +the ignorant masses. During the three succeeding years the land was +visited by enormous flying armies of locusts, which descended in myriads +upon the fields, and left the shadow of famine in their track. In 1348 +came an earthquake of such frightful violence that many men deemed the +end of the world to be presaged. Its devastations were widely spread. +Cyprus, Greece, and Italy were terribly visited, and it extended through +the Alpine valleys as far as Bâsle. Mountains sank into the earth. In +Carinthia thirty villages and the tower of Villach were ruined. The air +grew thick and stifling. There were dense and frightful fogs. Wine +fermented in the casks. Fiery meteors appeared in the skies. A gigantic +pillar of flame was seen by hun<a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>dreds descending upon the roof of the +pope's palace at Avignon. In 1356 came another earthquake, which +destroyed almost the whole of Bâsle. What with famine, flood, fog, +locust swarms, earthquakes, and the like, it is not surprising that many +men deemed the cup of the world's sins to be full, and the end of the +kingdom of man to be at hand.</p> + +<p>An event followed that seemed to confirm this belief. A pestilence broke +out of such frightful virulence that it appeared indeed as if man was to +be swept from the earth. Men died in hundreds, in thousands, in myriads, +until in places there were scarcely enough living to bury the dead, and +these so maddened with fright that dwellings, villages, towns, were +deserted by all who were able to fly, the dying and dead being left +their sole inhabitants. It was the pestilence called the "Black Death," +the most terrible visitation that Europe has ever known.</p> + +<p>This deadly disease came from Asia. It is said to have originated in +China, spreading over the great continent westwardly, and descending in +all its destructive virulence upon Europe, which continent it swept as +with the besom of destruction. The disease appears to have been a very +malignant type of what is known as the plague, a form of pestilence +which has several times returned, though never with such virulence as on +that occasion. It began with great lassitude of the body, and rapid +swellings of the glands of the groin and armpits, which soon became +large boils. Then followed, as a fatal symp<a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a>tom, large black or +deep-blue spots over the body, from which came the name of "Black +Death." Some of the victims became sleepy and stupid; others were +incessantly restless. The tongue and throat grew black; the lungs +exhaled a noisome odor; an insatiable thirst was produced. Death came in +two or three days, sometimes on the very day of seizure. Medical aid was +of no avail. Doctors and relatives fled in terror from what they deemed +a fatally contagious disease, and the stricken were left to die alone. +Villages and towns were in many places utterly deserted, no living +things being left, for the disease was as fatal to dogs, cats, and swine +as to men. There is reason to believe that this, and other less +destructive visitations of plague, were due to the action of some of +those bacterial organisms which are now known to have so much to do with +infectious diseases. This particular pestilence-breeder seems to have +flourished in filth, and the streets of the cities of Europe of that day +formed a richly fertile soil for its growth. Men prayed to God for +relief, instead of cleaning their highways and by-ways, and relief came +not.</p> + +<p>Such was its character, what were its ravages? Never before or since has +a pestilence brought such desolation. Men died by millions. At Bâsle it +found fourteen thousand victims; at Strasburg and Erfurt, sixteen +thousand; in the other cities of Germany it flourished in like +proportion. In Osnabrück only seven married couples remained unseparated +by death. Of the Franciscan Minorites of<a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a> Germany, one hundred and +twenty-five thousand died.</p> + +<p>Outside of Germany the fury of the pestilence was still worse; from east +to west, from north to south, Europe was desolated. The mortality in +Asia was fearful. In China there are said to have been thirteen million +victims to the scourge; in the rest of Asia twenty-four millions. The +extreme west was no less frightfully visited. London lost one hundred +thousand of its population; in all England a number estimated at from +one-third to one-half the entire population (then probably numbering +from three to five millions) were swept into the grave. If we take +Europe as a whole, it is believed that fully a fourth of its inhabitants +were carried away by this terrible scourge. For two years the pestilence +raged, 1348 and 1349. It broke out again in 1361-62, and once more in +1369.</p> + +<p>The mortality caused by the plague was only one of its disturbing +consequences. The bonds of society were loosened; natural affection +seemed to vanish; friend deserted friend, mothers even fled from their +children; demoralization showed itself in many instances in reckless +debauchery. An interesting example remains to us in Boccaccio's +"Decameron," whose stories were told by a group of pleasure-lovers who +had fled from plague-stricken Florence.</p> + +<p>In many localities the hatred of the Jews by the people led to frightful +excesses of persecution against them, they being accused by their +enemies of poisoning the wells. From Berne, where the city councils +<a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a>gave orders for the massacre, it spread over the whole of Switzerland +and Germany, many thousands being murdered. At Mayence it is said that +twelve thousand Jews were massacred. At Strasburg two thousand were +burned in one pile. Even the orders of the emperor failed to put an end +to the slaughter. All the Jews who could took refuge in Poland, where +they found a protector in Casimir, who, like a second Ahasuerus, +extended his aid to them from love for Esther, a beautiful Jewess. From +that day to this Poland has swarmed with Jews.</p> + +<p>This persecution was discountenanced by Pope Clement VI. in two bulls, +in the first of which he ordered that the Jews should not be made the +victims of groundless charges or injured in person or property without +the sentence of a lawful judge. The second affirmed the innocence of the +Jews in the persecution then going on and ordered the bishops to +excommunicate all those who should continue it.</p> + +<p>Of the beneficial results of the religious excitement may be named the +earnest labors of the order of Beguines, an association of women for the +purpose of attending the sick and dying, which had long been in +existence, but was particularly active and useful during this period. We +may name also the Beghards and Lollards, whose extravagances were to +some extent outgrowths of earnest piety, and their lives strongly +contrasted with the levity and luxury of the higher ecclesiastics. These +soci<a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a>eties of poor and mendicant penitents were greatly increased by the +religious excitement of the time, which also gave special vitality to +another sect, the Flagellants, which, as mentioned in a former article, +first arose in 1260, during the excesses of bloodshed of the Guelphs of +northern Italy, and thence spread over Europe. After a period of +decadence they broke out afresh in 1349, as a consequence of the deadly +pestilence.</p> + +<p>The members of this sect, seeing no hope of relief from human action, +turned to God as their only refuge, and deemed it necessary to +propitiate the Deity by extraordinary sacrifices and self-tortures. The +flame of fanaticism, once started, spread rapidly and widely. Hundreds +of men, and even boys, marched in companies through the roads and +streets, carrying heavy torches, scourging their naked shoulders with +knotted whips, which were often loaded with lead or iron, singing +penitential hymns, parading in bands which bore banners and were +distinguished by white hats with red crosses.</p> + +<p>Women as well as men took part in these fanatical exercises, marching +about half-naked, whipping each other frightfully, flinging themselves +on the earth in the most public places of the towns and scourging their +bare backs and shoulders till the blood flowed. Entering the churches, +they would prostrate themselves on the pavement, with their arms +extended in the form of a cross, chanting their rude hymns. Of these +hymns we may quote the following example:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"><p><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a></p> +<span class="i4">"Now is the holy pilgrimage.<br /></span> +<span class="i4">Christ rode into Jerusalem,<br /></span> +<span class="i4">And in his hand he bore a cross;<br /></span> +<span class="i4">May Christ to us be gracious.<br /></span> +<span class="i4">Our pilgrimage is good and right."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The Flagellants did not content themselves with these public +manifestations of self-sacrifice. They formed a regular religious order, +with officers and laws, and property in common. At night, before +sleeping, each indicated to his brothers by gestures the sins which +weighed most heavily on his conscience, not a word being spoken until +absolution was granted by one of them in the following form:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">"For their dear sakes who torture bore,<br /></span> +<span class="i4">Rise, brother, go and sin no more."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Had this been all they might have been left to their own devices, but +they went farther. The day of judgment, they declared, was at hand. A +letter had been addressed from Jerusalem by the Creator to his sinning +creatures, and it was their mission to spread this through Europe. They +preached, confessed, and forgave sins, declared that the blood shed in +their flagellations had a share with the blood of Christ in atoning for +sin, that their penances were a substitute for the sacraments of the +church, and that the absolution granted by the clergy was of no avail. +They taught that all men were brothers and equal in the sight of God, +and upbraided the priests for their pride and luxury.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>These doctrines and the extravagances of the Flagellants alarmed the +pope, Clement VI., who launched against the enthusiasts a bull of +excommunication, and ordered their persecution as heretics. This course, +at first, roused their enthusiasm to frenzy. Some of them even pretended +to be the Messiah, one of these being burnt as a heretic at Erfurt. +Gradually, however, as the plague died away, and the occasion for this +fanatical outburst vanished, the enthusiasm of the Flagellants went with +it, and they sunk from sight. In 1414 a troop of them reappeared in +Thuringia and Lower Saxony, and even surpassed their predecessors in +wildness of extravagance. With the dying out of this manifestation this +strange mania of the middle ages vanished, probably checked by the +growing intelligence of mankind.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_SWISS_AT_MORGARTEN" id="THE_SWISS_AT_MORGARTEN"></a><i>THE SWISS AT MORGARTEN.</i></h3> + + +<p>On a sunny autumn morning, in the far-off year 1315, a gallant band of +horsemen wound slowly up the Swiss mountains, their forest of spears and +lances glittering in the ruddy beams of the new-risen sun, and extending +down the hill-side as far as the eye could reach. In the vanguard rode +the flower of the army, a noble cavalcade of knights, clad in complete +armor, and including nearly the whole of the ancient nobility of +Austria. At the head of this group rode Duke Leopold, the brother of +Frederick of Austria, and one of the bravest knights and ablest generals +of the realm. Following the van came a second division, composed of the +inferior leaders and the rank and file of the army.</p> + +<p>Switzerland was to be severely punished, and to be reduced again to the +condition from which seven years before it had broken away; such was the +dictum of the Austrian magnates. With the army came Landenberg, the +oppressive governor who had been set free on his oath never to return to +Switzerland. He was returning in defiance of his vow. With it are also +said to have been several of the family of Gessler, the tyrant who fell +beneath Tell's avenging arrow. The birds of prey were flying back, eager +to fatten on the body of slain liberty in Switzerland.</p> + +<p>Up the mountains wound the serried band, proud <a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a>in their panoply, +confident of easy victory, their voices ringing out in laughter and +disdain as they spoke of the swift vengeance that was about to fall on +the heads of the horde of rebel mountaineers. The duke was as gay and +confidant as any of his followers, as he proudly bestrode his noble +war-horse, and led the way up the mountain slopes towards the district +of Schwyz, the head-quarters of the base-born insurgents. He would +trample the insolent boors under his feet, he said, and had provided +himself with an abundant supply of ropes with which to hang the leaders +of the rebels, whom he counted on soon having in his power.</p> + +<p>All was silent about them as they rode forward; the sun shone +brilliantly; it seemed like a pleasure excursion on which they were +bound.</p> + +<p>"The locusts have crawled to their holes," said the duke, laughingly; +"we will have to stir them out with the points of our lances."</p> + +<p>"The poor fools fancied that liberty was to be won by driving out one +governor and shooting another," answered a noble knight. "They will find +that the eagle of Hapsburg does not loose its hold so easily."</p> + +<p>Their conversation ceased as they found themselves at the entrance to a +pass, through which the road up the mountains wound, a narrow avenue, +wedged in between hills and lakeside. The silence continued unbroken +around the rugged scene as the cavalry pushed in close ranks through the +pass, filling it, as they advanced, from side to side. They <a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>pushed +forward; beyond this pass of Morgarten they would find open land again +and the villages of the rebellious peasantry; here all was solitude and +a stillness that was almost depressing.</p> + +<p>Suddenly the stillness was broken. From the rugged cliffs which bordered +the pass came a loud shout of defiance. But more alarming still was the +sound of descending rocks, which came plunging down the mountain side, +and in an instant fell with a sickening thud on the mail-clad and +crowded ranks below. Under their weight the iron helmets of the knights +cracked like so many nut-shells; heads were crushed into shapeless +masses, and dozens of men, a moment before full of life, hope, and +ambition, were hurled in death to the ground.</p> + +<p>Down still plunged the rocks, loosened by busy hands above, sent on +their errand of death down the steep declivities, hurling destruction +upon the dense masses below. Escape was impossible. The pass was filled +with horsemen. It would take time to open an avenue of flight, and still +those death-dealing rocks came down, smashing the strongest armor like +pasteboard, strewing the pass with dead and bleeding bodies.</p> + +<p>And now the horses, terrified, wounded, mad with pain and alarm, began +to plunge and rear, trebling the confusion and terror, crushing fallen +riders under their hoofs, adding their quota to the sum of death and +dismay. Many of them rushed wildly into the lake which bordered one side +of the pass, carrying their riders to a watery death. In a few <a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a>minutes' +time that trim and soldierly array, filled with hope of easy victory and +disdain of its foes, was converted into a mob of maddened horses and +frightened men, while the rocky pass beneath their feet was strewn +thickly with the dying and the dead.</p> + +<p>Yet all this had been done by fifty men, fifty banished patriots, who +had hastened back on learning that their country was in danger, and +stationing themselves among the cliffs above the pass, had loosened and +sent rolling downwards the stones and huge fragments of rock which lay +plentifully there.</p> + +<p>While the fifty returned exiles were thus at work on the height of +Morgarten, the army of the Swiss, thirteen hundred in number, was posted +on the summit of the Sattel Mountain opposite, waiting its opportunity. +The time for action had come. The Austrian cavalry of the vanguard was +in a state of frightful confusion and dismay. And now the mountaineers +descended the steep hill slopes like an avalanche, and precipitated +themselves on the flank of the invading force, dealing death with their +halberds and iron-pointed clubs until the pass ran blood.</p> + +<p>On every side the Austrian chivalry fell. Escape was next to impossible, +resistance next to useless. Confined in that narrow passage, confused, +terrified, their ranks broken by the rearing and plunging horses, +knights and men-at-arms falling with every blow from their vigorous +assailants, it seemed as if the whole army would be annihilated, and not +a man escape to tell the tale.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>Numbers of gallant knights, the flower of the Austrian, nobility, fell +under those vengeful clubs. Numbers were drowned in the lake. A +halberd-thrust revenged Switzerland on Landenberg, who had come back to +his doom. Two of the Gesslers were slain. Death held high carnival in +that proud array which had vowed to reduce the free-spirited +mountaineers to servitude.</p> + +<p>Such as could fled in all haste. The van of the army, which had passed +beyond those death-dealing rocks, the rear, which had not yet come up, +broke and fled in a panic of fear. Duke Leopold narrowly escaped from +the vengeance of the mountaineers, whom he had held in such contempt. +Instead of using the ropes he had brought with him to hang their chiefs, +he fled at full speed from the victors, who were now pursuing the +scattered fragments of the army, and slaying the fugitives in scores. +With difficulty the proud duke escaped, owing his safety to a peasant, +who guided him through narrow ravines and passes as far as Winterthur, +which he at length reached in a state of the utmost dejection and +fatigue. The gallantly-arrayed army which he had that morning led, with +blare of trumpets and glitter of spears, with high hope and proud +assurance of victory, up the mountain slopes, was now in great part a +gory heap in the rocky passes, the remainder a scattered host of wearied +and wounded fugitives. Switzerland had won its freedom.</p> + +<p>The day before the Swiss confederates, apprised of the approach of the +Austrians, had come together, <a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>four hundred men from Uri, three hundred +from Unterwald, the remainder from Schwyz. They owed their success to +Rudolphus Redin, a venerable patriot, so old and infirm that he could +scarcely walk, yet with such reputation for skill and prudence in war +that the warriors halted at his door in their march, and eagerly asked +his advice.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-175.png" alt="THE CASTLE OF PRAGUE." title="THE CASTLE OF PRAGUE." /></div> +<h5>THE CASTLE OF PRAGUE.</h5> + +<p>"Our grand aim, my sons," said he, "as we are so inferior in numbers, +must be to prevent Duke Leopold from gaining any advantage by his +superior force."</p> + +<p>He then advised them to occupy the Morgarten and Sattel heights, and +fall on the Austrians when entangled in the pass, cutting their force in +two, and assailing it right and left. They obeyed him implicitly, with +what success we have seen. The fifty men who had so efficiently begun +the fray had been banished from Schwyz through some dispute, but on +learning their country's danger had hastily returned to sacrifice their +lives, if need be, for their native land.</p> + +<p>Thus a strong and well-appointed army, fully disciplined and led by +warriors famed for courage and warlike deeds, was annihilated by a small +band of peasants, few of whom had ever struck a blow in war, but who +were animated by the highest spirit of patriotism and love of liberty, +and welcomed death rather than a return to their old state of slavery +and oppression. The short space of an hour and a half did the work. +Austria was defeated and Switzerland was free.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a></p> +<h3><a name="A_MAD_EMPEROR" id="A_MAD_EMPEROR"></a>A MAD EMPEROR.</h3> + + +<p>If genius to madness is allied, the same may be said of eccentricity, +and certainly Wenceslas, Emperor of Germany and King of Bohemia, had an +eccentricity that approached the vagaries of the insane. The oldest son +of Charles IV., he was brought up in pomp and luxury, and was so +addicted to sensual gratification that he left the empire largely to +take care of itself, while he gave his time to the pleasures of the +bottle and the chase. Born to the throne, he was crowned King of Bohemia +when but three years of age, was elected King of the Romans at fifteen, +and two years afterwards, in 1378, became Emperor of Germany, when still +but a boy, with regard for nothing but riot and rude frolic.</p> + +<p>So far as affairs of state were concerned, the volatile youth either +totally neglected them or treated them with a ridicule that was worse +than neglect. Drunk two-thirds of his time, he now dismissed the most +serious matters with a rude jest, now met his councillors with brutal +fits of rage. The Germans deemed him a fool, and were not far amiss in +their opinion; but as he did not meddle with them, except in holding an +occasional useless diet at Nuremberg, they did not meddle with him. The +Bohemians, among whom he lived, his residence being at Prague, found his +rule much more of a burden. They were <a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>exposed to his savage caprices, +and regarded him as a brutal and senseless tyrant.</p> + +<p>That there was method in his madness the following anecdote will +sufficiently show. Former kings had invested the Bohemian nobles with +possessions which he, moved by cupidity, determined to have back. This +is the method he took to obtain them. All the nobles of the land were +invited to meet him at Willamow, where he received them in a black tent, +which opened on one side into a white, and on the other into a red one. +Into this tent of ominous hue the waiting nobles were admitted, one at a +time, and were here received by the emperor, who peremptorily bade them +declare what lands they held as gifts from the crown.</p> + +<p>Those who gave the information asked, and agreed to cede these lands +back to the crown, were led into the white tent, where an ample feast +awaited them. Those who refused were dismissed with frowns into the red +tent, where they found awaiting them the headsman's fatal block and axe. +The hapless guests were instantly seized and beheaded.</p> + +<p>This ghastly jest, if such it may be considered, proceeded for some time +before the nobles still waiting learned what was going on. When at +length a whisper of the frightful mystery of the red tent was borne to +their ears, there were no longer any candidates for its favors. The +emperor found them eagerly willing to give up the ceded lands, and all +that remained found their way to the white tent and the feast.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a>The emperor's next act of arbitrary tyranny was directed against the +Jews. One of that people had ridiculed the sacrament, in consequence of +which three thousand Jews of Prague were massacred by the populace of +that city. Wenceslas, instead of punishing the murderers, as justice +would seem to have demanded, solaced his easy conscience by punishing +the victims, declaring all debts owed by Christians to Jews to be null +and void.</p> + +<p>His next act of injustice and cruelty was perpetrated in 1393, and arose +from a dispute between the crown and the church. One of the royal +chamberlains had caused two priests to be executed on the accusation of +committing a flagrant crime. This action was resented by the Archbishop +of Prague, who declared that it was an encroachment upon the prerogative +of the church, which alone had the right to punish an ecclesiastic. He, +therefore, excommunicated the chamberlain.</p> + +<p>This action of the daring churchman threw the emperor into such a +paroxysm of rage that the archbishop, knowing well the man he had to +deal with, took to flight, saving his neck at the expense of his +dignity. The furious Wenceslas, finding that the chief offender had +escaped, vented his wrath on the subordinates, several of whom were +seized. One of them, the dean, moved by indignation, dealt the emperor +so heavy a blow on the head with his sword-knot as to bring the blood. +It does not appear that he was made to suffer for his boldness, but two +of the lower ecclesiastics, John of Nepomuk <a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>and Puchnik, were put to +the rack to make them confess facts learned by them in the confessional. +They persistently refused to answer. Wenceslas, infuriated by their +obstinacy, himself seized a torch and applied it to their limbs to make +them speak. They were still silent. The affair ended in his ordering +John of Nepomuk to be flung headlong, during the night, from the great +bridge over the Moldau into the stream. A statue now marks the spot +where this act of tyranny was performed.</p> + +<p>The final result of the emperor's cruelty was one which he could not +have foreseen. He had made a saint of Nepomuk. The church, appreciating +the courageous devotion of the murdered ecclesiastic to his duty in +keeping inviolate the secrets of the confessional, canonized him as a +martyr, and made him the patron saint of Bohemia.</p> + +<p>Puchnik escaped with his life, and eventually with more than his life. +The tyrant's wrath was followed by remorse,—a feeling, apparently, +which rarely troubled his soul,—and he sought to atone for his cruelty +to one churchman by loading the other with benefits. But his mad fury +changed to as mad a benevolence, and he managed to make a jest of his +gratuity. Puchnik was led into the royal treasury, and the emperor +himself, thrusting his royal hands into his hoards of gold, filled the +pockets, and even the boots, of the late sufferer with the precious +coin. This done, Puchnik attempted to depart, but in vain. He found +himself nailed to the floor, so weighed down with gold that he was +<a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a>unable to stir. Before he could move he had to disgorge much of his +new-gained wealth, a proceeding to which churchmen in that age do not +seem to have been greatly given. Doubtless the remorseful Wenceslas +beheld this process with a grim smile of royal humor on his lips.</p> + +<p>The emperor had a brother, Sigismund by name, a man not of any high +degree of wisdom, but devoid of his wild and immoderate temper. +Brandenburg was his inheritance, though he had married the daughter of +the King of Hungary and Poland, and hoped to succeed to those countries. +There was a third brother, John, surnamed "Von Glörlitz." Sigismund was +by no means blind to his brother's folly, or to the ruin in which it +threatened to involve his family and his own future prospects. This last +exploit stirred him to action. Concerting with some other princes of the +empire, he suddenly seized Wenceslas, carried him to Austria, and +imprisoned him in the castle of Wiltberg, in that country.</p> + +<p>A fair disposal, this, of a man who was scarcely fit to run at large, +most reasonable persons would say; but all did not think so. John von +Görlitz, the younger brother of the emperor, fearing public scandal from +such a transaction, induced the princes who held him to set him free. It +proved a fatal display of kindness and family affection for himself. The +imperial captive was no sooner free than, concealing the wrath which he +felt at his incarceration, he invited to a banquet certain Bohemian +nobles who had aided in it. They came, trusting to the fact <a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a>that the +tiger's claws seemed sheathed. They had no sooner arrived than the claws +were displayed. They were all seized, by the emperor's order, and +beheaded. Then the dissimulating madman turned on his benevolent brother +John, who had taken control of affairs in Bohemia during his +imprisonment, and poisoned him. It was a new proof of the old adage, it +is never safe to warm a frozen adder.</p> + +<p>The restoration of Wenceslas was followed by other acts of folly. In the +following year, 1395, he sold to John Galcazzo Visconti, of Milan, the +dignity of a duke in Lombardy, a transaction which exposed him to +general contempt. At a later date he visited Paris, and here, in a +drunken frolic, he played into the hands of the King of France by ceding +Genoa to that country, and by recognizing the antipope at Avignon, +instead of Boniface IX. at Rome. These acts filled the cup of his folly. +The princes of the empire resolved to depose him. A council was called, +before which he was cited to appear. He refused to come, and was +formally deposed, Rupert, of the Palatinate, being elected in his stead. +Ten years afterwards, in 1410, Rupert died, and Sigismund became Emperor +of Germany.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Wenceslas remained King of Bohemia, in spite of his brother +Sigismund, who sought to oust him from this throne also. He took him +prisoner, indeed, but trusted him to the Austrians, who at once set him +free, and the Bohemians replaced him on the throne. Some years +afterwards, war continuing, Wenceslas sought to get rid of his <a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>brother +Sigismund in the same manner as he had disposed of his brother John, by +poison. He was successful in having it administered to Sigismund and his +ally, Albert of Austria, in their camp before Zuaym. Albert died, but +Sigismund was saved by a rude treatment which seems to have been in +vogue in that day. He was suspended by the feet for twenty-four hours, +so that the poison ran out of his mouth.</p> + +<p>The later events in the life of Wenceslas have to do with the most +famous era in the history of Bohemia, the reformation in that country, +and the stories of John Huss and Ziska. The fate of Huss is well known. +Summoned before the council at Constance, and promised a safe-conduct by +the Emperor Sigismund, he went, only to find the emperor faithless to +his word and himself condemned and burnt as a heretic. This base act of +treachery was destined to bring a bloody retribution. It infuriated the +reformers in Bohemia, who, after brooding for several years over their +wrongs, broke out into an insurrection of revenge.</p> + +<p>The leader of this outbreak was an officer of experience, named John +Ziska, a man who had lost one eye in childhood, and who bitterly hated +the priesthood for a wrong done to one of his sisters. The martyrdom of +Huss threw him into such deep and silent dejection, that one day the +king, in whose court he was, asked him why he was so sad.</p> + +<p>"Huss is burnt, and we have not yet avenged him," replied Ziska.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a>"I can do nothing in that direction," said Wenceslas; adding, +carelessly, "you might attempt it yourself."</p> + +<p>This was spoken as a jest, but Ziska took it in deadly earnest. He, +aided by his friends, roused the people, greatly to the alarm of the +king, who ordered the citizens to bring their arms to the royal castle +of Wisherad, which commanded the city of Prague.</p> + +<p>Ziska heard the command, and obeyed it in his own way. The arms were +brought, but they came in the hands of the citizens, who marched in long +files to the fortress, and drew themselves up before the king, Ziska at +their head.</p> + +<p>"My gracious and mighty sovereign, here we are," said the bold leader; +"we await your commands; against what enemy are we to fight?"</p> + +<p>Wenceslas looked at those dense groups of armed and resolute men, and +concluded that his purpose of disarming them would not work. Assuming a +cheerful countenance, he bade them return home and keep the peace. They +obeyed, so far as returning home was concerned. In other matters they +had learned their power, and were bent on exerting it.</p> + +<p>Nicolas of Hussinez, Huss's former lord, and Ziska's seconder in this +outbreak, was banished from the city by the king. He went, but took +forty thousand men with him, who assembled on a mountain which was +afterwards known by the biblical name of Mount Tabor. Here several +hundred tables were spread for the celebration of the Lord's Supper, +July 22, 1419.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>Wenceslas, in attempting to put a summary end to the disturbance in the +city, quickly made bad worse. He deposed the Hussite city council in the +Neustadt, the locality of greatest disturbance, and replaced it by a new +one in his own interests. This action filled Prague with indignation, +which was redoubled when the new council sent two clamorous Hussites to +prison. On the 30th of July Ziska led a strong body of his partisans +through the streets to the council-house, and sternly demanded that the +prisoners should be set free.</p> + +<p>The councillors hesitated,—a fatal hesitation. A stone was flung from +one of the windows. Instantly the mob stormed the building, rushed into +the council-room, and seized the councillors, thirteen of whom, Germans +by birth, were flung out of the windows. They were received on the pikes +of the furious mob below, and the whole of them murdered.</p> + +<p>This act of violence was quickly followed by others. The dwelling of a +priest, supposed to have been that of the seducer of Ziska's sister, was +destroyed and its owner hanged; the Carthusian monks were dragged +through the streets, crowned with thorns, and other outrages perpetrated +against the opponents of the party of reform.</p> + +<p>A few days afterwards the career of Wenceslas, once Emperor of Germany, +now King of Bohemia, came to an abrupt end. On August 16 he suddenly +died,—by apoplexy, say some historians, while others say that he was +suffocated in his palace by his own attendants. The latter would seem a +fitting <a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a>end for a man whose life had been marked by so many acts of +tyrannous violence, some of them little short of insanity.</p> + +<p>Whatever its cause, his death removed the last restraint from the mob. +On the following day every church and monastery in Prague was assailed +and plundered, their pictures were destroyed, and the robes of the +priests were converted into flags and dresses. Many of these buildings +are said to have been splendidly decorated, and the royal palace, which +was also destroyed, had been adorned by Wenceslas and his father with +the richest treasures of art. We are told that on the walls of a garden +belonging to the palace the whole of the Bible was written. While the +work of destruction went on, a priest formed an altar in the street of +three tubs, covered by a broad table-top, from which all day long he +dispensed the sacrament in both forms.</p> + +<p>The excesses of this outbreak soon frightened the wealthier citizens, +who dreaded an assault upon their wealth, and, in company with Sophia, +the widow of Wenceslas, they sent a deputation to the emperor, asking +him to make peace. He replied by swearing to take a fearful revenge on +the insurgents. The insurrection continued, despite this action of the +nobles and the threats of the emperor. Ziska, finding the citizens too +moderate, invited into the city the peasants, who were armed with +flails, and committed many excesses.</p> + +<p>Forced by the moderate party to leave the city, Ziska led his new +adherents to Mount Tabor, which <a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a>he fortified and prepared to defend. +They called themselves the "people of God," and styled their Catholic +opponents "Moabites," "Amalekites," etc., declaring that it was their +duty to extirpate them. Their leader entitled himself "John Ziska, of +the cup, captain, in the hope of God, of the Taborites."</p> + +<p>But having brought the story of the Emperor Wenceslas to an end, we must +stop at this point. The after-life of John Ziska was of such stir and +interest, and so filled with striking events, that we shall deal with it +by itself, in a sequel to the present story.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a></p> +<h3><a name="SEMPACH_AND_ARNOLD_WINKELRIED" id="SEMPACH_AND_ARNOLD_WINKELRIED"></a><i>SEMPACH AND ARNOLD WINKELRIED</i>.</h3> + + +<p>Seventy years had passed since the battle of Morgarten, through which +freedom came to the lands of the Swiss. Throughout that long period +Austria had let the liberty-loving mountaineers alone, deterred by the +frightful lesson taught them in the bloody pass. In the interval the +confederacy had grown more extensive. The towns of Berne, Zurich, +Soleure, and Zug had joined it; and now several other towns and +villages, incensed by the oppression and avarice of their Austrian +masters, threw off the foreign yoke and allied themselves to the Swiss +confederacy. It was time for the Austrians to be moving, if they would +retain any possessions in the Alpine realm of rocks.</p> + +<p>Duke Leopold of Austria, a successor to the Leopold who had learned so +well at Morgarten how the Swiss could strike for liberty, and as bold +and arrogant as he, grew incensed at the mountaineers for taking into +their alliance several towns which were subject to him, and vowed not +only to chastise these rebels, but to subdue the whole country, and put +an end to their insolent confederacy. His feeling was shared by the +Austrian nobles, one hundred and sixty-seven of whom joined in his +warlike scheme, and agreed to aid him in putting down the defiant +mountaineers.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a>War resolved upon, the Austrians laid a shrewd plan to fill the Swiss +confederates with terror in advance of their approach. Letters declaring +war were sent to the confederate assembly by twenty distinct expresses, +with the hope that this rapid succession of threats would overwhelm them +with fear. The separate nobles followed with their declarations. On St. +John's day a messenger arrived from Würtemberg bearing fifteen +declarations of war. Hardly had these letters been read when nine more +arrived, sent by John Ulric of Pfirt and eight other nobles. Others +quickly followed; it fairly rained declarations of war; the members of +the assembly had barely time to read one batch of threatening +fulminations before another arrived. Letters from the lords of Thurn +came after those named, followed by a batch from the nobles of +Schaffhausen. This seemed surely enough, but on the following day the +rain continued, eight successive messengers arriving, who bore no less +than forty-three declarations of war.</p> + +<p>It seemed as if the whole north was about to descend in a cyclone of +banners and spears upon the mountain land. The assembly sat breathless +under this torrent of threats. Had their hearts been open to the +invasion of terror they must surely have been overwhelmed, and have +waited in the supineness of fear for the coming of their foes.</p> + +<p>But the hearts of the Swiss were not of that kind. They were too full of +courage and patriotism to leave room for dismay. Instead of awaiting +their <a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a>enemies with dread, a burning impatience animated their souls. If +liberty or death were the alternatives, the sooner the conflict began +the more to their liking it would be. The cry of war resounded through +the country, and everywhere, in valley and on mountain, by lake-side and +by glacier's rim, the din of hostile preparation might have been heard, +as the patriots arranged their affairs and forged and sharpened their +weapons for the coming fray.</p> + +<p>Far too impatient were they to wait for the coming of Leopold and his +army. There were Austrian nobles and Austrian castles within their land. +No sooner was the term of the armistice at an end than the armed +peasantry swarmed about these strongholds, and many a fortress, long the +seat of oppression, was taken and levelled with the ground. The war-cry +of Leopold and the nobles had inspired a different feeling from that +counted upon.</p> + +<p>It was not long before Duke Leopold appeared. At the head of a large and +well-appointed force, and attended by many distinguished knights and +nobles, he marched into the mountain region and advanced upon Sempach, +one of the revolted towns, resolved, he said, to punish its citizens +with a rod of iron for their daring rebellion.</p> + +<p>On the 9th of July, 1386, the Austrian cavalry, several thousands in +number, reached the vicinity of Sempach, having distanced the +foot-soldiers in the impatient haste of their advance. Here they found +the weak array of the Swiss gathered on the surrounding heights, and as +eager as themselves for <a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a>the fray. It was a small force, no stronger +than that of Morgarten, comprising only about fourteen hundred +poorly-armed men. Some carried halberds, some shorter weapons, while +some among them, instead of a shield, had only a small board fastened to +the left arm. It seemed like madness for such a band to dare contend +with the thousands of well-equipped invaders. But courage and patriotism +go far to replace numbers, as that day was to show.</p> + +<p>Leopold looked upon his handful of foes, and decided that it would be +folly to wait for the footmen to arrive. Surely his host of nobles and +knights, with their followers, would soon sweep these peasants, like so +many locusts, from their path. Yet he remembered the confusion into +which the cavalry had been thrown at Morgarten, and deeming that +horsemen were ill-suited to an engagement on those wooded hill-sides, he +ordered the entire force to dismount and attack on foot.</p> + +<p>The plan adopted was that the dismounted knights and soldiers should +join their ranks as closely as possible, until their front presented an +unbroken wall of iron, and thus arrayed should charge the enemy spear in +hand. Leaving their attendants in charge of their horses, the serried +column of footmen prepared to advance, confident of sweeping their foes +to death before their closely-knit line of spears.</p> + +<p>Yet this plan of battle was not without its critics. The Baron of +Hasenburg, a veteran soldier, looked on it with disfavor, as contrasted +with the position <a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a>of vantage occupied by the Swiss, and cautioned the +duke and his nobles against undue assurance.</p> + +<p>"Pride never served any good purpose in peace or war," he said. "We had +much better wait until the infantry come up."</p> + +<p>This prudent advice was received with shouts of derision by the nobles, +some of whom cried out insultingly,—</p> + +<p>"Der Hasenburg hat ein Hasenherz" ("Hasenburg has a hare's heart," a +play upon the baron's name).</p> + +<p>Certain nobles, however, who had not quite lost their prudence, tried to +persuade the duke to keep in the rear, as the true position for a +leader. He smiled proudly in reply, and exclaimed with impatience,—</p> + +<p>"What! shall Leopold be a mere looker-on, and calmly behold his knights +die around him in his own cause? Never! here on my native soil with you +I will conquer or perish with my people." So saying, he placed himself +at the head of the troops.</p> + +<p>And now the decisive moment was at hand. The Swiss had kept to the +heights while their enemy continued mounted, not venturing to face such +a body of cavalry on level ground. But when they saw them forming as +foot-soldiers, they left the hills and marched to the plain below. Soon +the unequal forces confronted each other; the Swiss, as was their +custom, falling upon their knees and praying for God's aid to their +cause; the Austrians fastening their helmets and preparing for the fray. +The <a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>duke even took the occasion to give the honor of knighthood to +several young warriors.</p> + +<p>The day was a hot and close one, the season being that of harvest, and +the sun pouring down its unclouded and burning rays upon the combatants. +This sultriness was a marked advantage to the lightly-dressed +mountaineers as compared with the armor-clad knights, to whom the heat +was very oppressive.</p> + +<p>The battle was begun by the Swiss, who, on rising from their knees, +flung themselves with impetuous valor on the dense line of spears that +confronted them. Their courage and fury were in vain. Not a man in the +Austrian line wavered. They stood like a rock against which the waves of +the Swiss dashed only to be hurled back in death. The men of Lucerne, in +particular, fought with an almost blind rage, seeking to force a path +through that steel-pointed forest of spears, and falling rapidly before +the triumphant foe.</p> + +<p>Numbers of the mountaineers lay dead or wounded. The line of spears +seemed impenetrable. The Swiss began to waver. The enemy, seeing this, +advanced the flanks of his line so as to form a half-moon shape, with +the purpose of enclosing the small body of Swiss within a circle of +spears. It looked for the moment as if the struggle were at an end, the +mountaineers foiled and defeated, the fetters again ready to be locked +upon the limbs of free Switzerland.</p> + +<p>But such was not to be. There was a man in <a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a>that small band of patriots +who had the courage to accept certain death for his country, one of +those rare souls who appear from time to time in the centuries and win +undying fame by an act of self-martyrdom. Arnold of Winkelried was his +name, a name which history is not likely soon to forget, for by an +impulse of the noblest devotion this brave patriot saved the liberties +of his native land.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-193.png" alt="STATUE OF ARNOLD WINKLERIED." title="STATUE OF ARNOLD WINKLERIED." /></div> +<h5>STATUE OF ARNOLD WINKLERIED.</h5> + +<p>Seeing that there was but one hope for the Swiss, and that death must be +the lot of him who gave them that hope, he exclaimed to his comrades, in +a voice of thunder,—</p> + +<p>"Faithful and beloved confederates, I will open a passage to freedom and +victory! Protect my wife and children!"</p> + +<p>With these words, he rushed from his ranks, flung himself upon the +enemy's steel-pointed line, and seized with his extended arms as many of +the hostile spears as he was able to grasp, burying them in his body, +and sinking dead to the ground.</p> + +<p>His comrades lost not a second in availing themselves of this act of +heroic devotion. Darting forward, they rushed over the body of the +martyr to liberty into the breach he had made, forced others of the +spears aside, and for the first time since the fray began reached the +Austrians with their weapons.</p> + +<p>A hasty and ineffective effort was made to close the breach. It only +added to the confusion which the sudden assault had caused. The line of +hurrying knights became crowded and disordered. The <a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a>furious Swiss broke +through in increasing numbers. Overcome with the heat, many of the +knights fell from exhaustion, and died without a wound, suffocated in +their armor. Others fell below the blows of the Swiss. The line of +spears, so recently intact, was now broken and pierced at a dozen +points, and the revengeful mountaineers were dealing death upon their +terrified and feebly-resisting foes.</p> + +<p>The chief banner of the host had twice sunk and been raised again, and +was drooping a third time, when Ulric, a knight of Aarburg, seized and +lifted it, defending it desperately till a mortal blow laid him low.</p> + +<p>"Save Austria! rescue!" he faltered with his dying breath.</p> + +<p>Duke Leopold, who was pushing through the confused throng, heard him and +caught the banner from his dying hand. Again it waved aloft, but now +crimsoned with the blood of its defender.</p> + +<p>The Swiss, determined to capture it, pressed upon its princely bearer, +surrounded him, cut down on every side the warriors who sought to defend +him and the standard.</p> + +<p>"Since so many nobles and knights have ended their days in my cause, let +me honorably follow them," cried the despairing duke, and in a moment he +rushed into the midst of the hostile ranks, vanishing from the eyes of +his attendants. Blows rained on his iron mail. In the pressure of the +crowd he fell to the earth. While seeking to raise himself again in his +heavy armor, he cried, in his <a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a>helpless plight, to a Swiss soldier, who +had approached him with raised weapon,—</p> + +<p>"I am the Prince of Austria."</p> + +<p>The man either heard not his words, or took no heed of princes. The +weapon descended with a mortal blow. Duke Leopold of Austria was dead.</p> + +<p>The body of the slain duke was found by a knight, Martin Malterer, who +bore the banner of Freiburg. On recognizing him, he stood like one +petrified, let the banner fall from his hand, and then threw himself on +the body of the prince, that it might not be trampled under foot by the +contending forces. In this position he soon received his own +death-wound.</p> + +<p>By this time the state of the Austrians was pitiable. The signal for +retreat was given, and in utter terror and dismay they fled for their +horses. Alas, too late! The attendants, seeing the condition of their +masters, and filled with equal terror, had mounted the horses, and were +already in full flight.</p> + +<p>Nothing remained for the knights, oppressed with their heavy armor, +exhausted with thirst and fatigue, half suffocated with the scorching +heat, assailed on every side by the light-armed and nimble Swiss, but to +sell their lives as dearly as possible. In a short time more all was at +an end. The last of the Austrians fell. On that fatal field there had +met their death, at the hands of the small body of Swiss, no less than +six hundred and fifty-six knights, barons, and counts, together with +thousands of their men-at-arms.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>Thus ended the battle of Sempach, with its signal victory to the Swiss, +one of the most striking which history records, if we consider the great +disproportion in numbers and in warlike experience and military +equipment of the combatants. It secured to Switzerland the liberty for +which they had so valiantly struck at Morgarten seventy years before.</p> + +<p>But all Switzerland was not yet free, and more blows were needed to win +its full liberty. The battle of Næfels, in 1388, added to the width of +the free zone. In this the peasants of Glarus rolled stones on the +Austrian squadrons, and set fire to the bridges over which they fled, +two thousand five hundred of the enemy, including a great number of +nobles, being slain. In the same year the peasants of Valais defeated +the Earl of Savoy at Visp, putting four thousand of his men to the +sword. The citizens of St. Gall, infuriated by the tyranny of the +governor of the province of Schwendi, broke into insurrection, attacked +the castle of Schwendi, and burnt it to the ground. The governor +escaped. All the castles in the vicinity were similarly dealt with, and +the whole district set free.</p> + +<p>Shortly after 1400 the citizens of St. Gall joined with the peasants +against their abbot, who ruled them with a hand of iron. The Swabian +cities were asked to decide the dispute, and decided that cities could +only confederate with cities, not with peasants, thus leaving the +Appenzellers to their fate. At this decision the herdsmen rose in arms, +defeated abbot and citizens both, and set their country free, all <a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a>the +neighboring peasantry joining their band of liberty. A few years later +the people of this region joined the confederation, which now included +nearly the whole of the Alpine country, and was strong enough to +maintain its liberty for centuries thereafter. It was not again subdued +until the legions of Napoleon trod over its mountain paths.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a></p> +<h3><a name="ZISKA_THE_BLIND_WARRIOR" id="ZISKA_THE_BLIND_WARRIOR"></a><i>ZISKA, THE BLIND WARRIOR</i>.</h3> + + +<p>Sigismund, Emperor of Germany, had sworn to put an end to the Hussite +rebellion in Bohemia, and to punish the rebels in a way that would make +all future rebels tremble. But Sigismund was pursuing the old policy of +cooking the hare before it was caught. He forgot that the indomitable +John Ziska and the iron-flailed peasantry stood between him and his vow. +He had first to conquer the reformers before he could punish them, and +this was to prove no easy task.</p> + +<p>The dreadful work of religious war began with the burning of Hussite +preachers who had ventured from Bohemia into Germany. This was an +argument which Ziska thoroughly understood, and he retorted by +destroying the Bohemian monasteries, and burning the priests alive in +barrels of pitch. "They are singing my sister's wedding song," exclaimed +the grim barbarian, on hearing their cries of torture. Queen Sophia, +widow of Wenceslas, the late king, who had garrisoned all the royal +castles, now sent a strong body of troops against the reformers. The +army came up with the multitude, which was largely made up of women and +children, on the open plain near Pilsen. The cavalry charged upon the +seemingly helpless mob. But Ziska was equal to the occasion. He ordered +the women to <a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a>strew the ground with their gowns and veils, and the +horses' feet becoming entangled in these, numbers of the riders were +thrown, and the trim lines of the troops broken.</p> + +<p>Seeing the confusion into which they had been thrown, Ziska gave the +order to charge, and in a short time the army that was to defeat him was +flying in a panic across the plain, a broken and beaten mob. Another +army marched against him, and was similarly defeated; and the citizens +of Prague, finding that no satisfactory terms could be made with the +emperor, recalled Ziska, and entered into alliance with him. The +one-eyed patriot was now lord of the land, all Bohemia being at his beck +and call.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Sigismund, the emperor, was slowly gathering his forces to +invade the rebellious land. The reign of cruelty continued, each side +treating its prisoners barbarously. The Imperialists branded theirs with +a cup, the Hussites theirs with a cross, on their foreheads. The +citizens of Breslau joined those of Prague, and emulated them by +flinging their councillors out of the town-house windows. In return the +German miners of Kuttenberg threw sixteen hundred Hussites down the +mines. Such is religious war, the very climax of cruelty.</p> + +<p>In June, 1420, the threatened invasion came. Sigismund led an army, one +hundred thousand strong, into the revolted land, fulminating vengeance +as he marched. He reached Prague and entered the castle of Wisherad, +which commanded it.<a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a> Ziska fortified the mountain of Witlow (now called +Ziskaberg), which also commanded the city. Sigismund, finding that he +had been outgeneralled, and that his opponent held the controlling +position, waited and temporized, amusing himself meanwhile by assuming +the crown of Bohemia, and sowing dissension in his army by paying the +Slavonian and Hungarian troops with the jewels taken from the royal +palaces and the churches, while leaving the Germans unpaid. The Germans, +furious, marched away. The emperor was obliged to follow. The +ostentatious invasion was at an end, and scarcely a blow had been +struck.</p> + +<p>But Sigismund had no sooner gone than trouble arose in Prague. The +citizens, the nobility, and Ziska's followers were all at odds. The +Taborites—those strict republicans and religious reformers who had made +Mount Tabor their head-quarters—were in power, and ruled the city with +a rod of iron, destroying all the remaining splendor of the churches and +sternly prohibiting every display of ostentation by the people. Death +was named as the punishment for such venial faults as dancing, gambling, +or the wearing of rich attire. The wine-cellars were rigidly closed. +Church property was declared public property, and it looked as if +private wealth would soon be similarly viewed. The peasants declared +that it was their mission to exterminate sin from the earth.</p> + +<p>This tyranny so incensed the nobles and citizens that they rose in +self-defence, and Ziska, finding <a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a>that Prague had grown too hot to hold +him, deemed it prudent to lead his men away. Sigismund took immediate +advantage of the opportunity by marching on Prague. But, quick as he +was, there were others quicker. The more moderate section of the +reformers, the so-called Horebites,—from Mount Horeb, another place of +assemblage,—entered the city, led by Hussinez, Huss's former lord, and +laid siege to the royal fortress, the Wisherad. Sigismund attempted to +surprise him, but met with so severe a repulse that he fled into +Hungary, and the Wisherad was forced to capitulate, this ancient palace +and its church, both splendid works of art, being destroyed. Step by +step the art and splendor of Bohemia were vanishing in this despotic +struggle between heresy and the papacy.</p> + +<p>As the war went on, Ziska, its controlling spirit, grew steadily more +abhorrent of privilege and distinction, more bitterly fanatical. The +ancient church, royalty, nobility, all excited his wrath. He was +republican, socialist, almost anarchist in his views. His idea of +perfection lay in a fraternity composed of the children of God, while he +trusted to the strokes of the iron flail to bear down all opposition to +his theory of society. The city of Prachaticz treated him with mockery, +and was burnt to the ground, with all its inhabitants. The Bishop of +Nicopolis fell into his hands, and was flung into the river. As time +went on, his war of extermination against sinners—that is, all who +refused to join his banner—grew more cruel and unrelenting.<a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a> Each city +that resisted was stormed and ruined, its inhabitants slaughtered, its +priests burned. Hussite virtue had degenerated into tyranny of the worst +type. Yet, while thus fanatical himself, Ziska would not permit his +followers to indulge in insane excesses of religious zeal. A party arose +which claimed that the millennium was at hand, and that it was their +duty to anticipate the coming of the innocence of Paradise, by going +naked, like Adam and Eve. These Adamites committed the maddest excesses, +but found a stern enemy in Ziska, who put them down with an unsparing +hand.</p> + +<p>In 1421 Sigismund again roused himself to activity, incensed by the +Hussite defiance of his authority. He incited the Silesians to invade +Bohemia, and an army of twenty thousand poured into the land, killing +all before them,—men, women, and children. Yet such was the terror that +the very name of Ziska now excited, that the mere rumor of his approach +sent these invaders flying across the borders.</p> + +<p>But, in the midst of his career of triumph, an accident came to the +Bohemian leader which would have incapacitated any less resolute man +from military activity. During the siege of the castle of Raby a +splinter struck his one useful eye and completely deprived him of sight. +It did not deprive him of power and energy. Most men, under such +circumstances, would have retired from army leadership, but John Ziska +was not of that calibre. He knew Bohemia so thoroughly that the whole +land lay <a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a>accurately mapped out in his mind. He continued to lead his +army, to marshal his men in battle array, to command them in the field +and the siege, despite his blindness, always riding in a carriage, close +to the great standard, and keeping in immediate touch with all the +movements of the war.</p> + +<p>Blind as he was, he increased rather than diminished the severity of his +discipline, and insisted on rigid obedience to his commands. As an +instance of this we are told that, on one occasion, having compelled his +troops to march day and night, as was his custom, they murmured and +said,—</p> + +<p>"Day and night are the same to you, as you cannot see; but they are not +the same to us."</p> + +<p>"How!" he cried. "You cannot see! Well, set fire to a couple of +villages."</p> + +<p>The blind warrior was soon to have others to deal with than his Bohemian +foes. Sigismund had sent forward another army, which, in September, +1421, invaded the country. It was driven out by the mere rumor of +Ziska's approach, the soldiers flying in haste on the vague report of +his coming. But in November the emperor himself came, leading a horde of +eighty thousand Hungarians, Servians, and others, savage fellows, whose +approach filled the moderate party of the Bohemians with terror. Ziska's +men had such confidence in their blind chief as to be beyond terror. +They were surrounded by the enemy, and enclosed in what seemed a trap. +But under Ziska's orders they made a night attack <a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a>on the foe, broke +through their lines, and, to the emperor's discomfiture, were once more +free.</p> + +<p>On New Year's day, 1422, the two armies came face to face near Zollin. +Ziska drew up his men in battle array and confidently awaited the attack +of the enemy. But the inflexible attitude of his men, the terror of his +name, or one of those inexplicable influences which sometimes affect +armies, filled the Hungarians with a sudden panic, and they vanished +from the front of the Bohemians without a blow. Once more the emperor +and the army which he had led into the country with such high confidence +of success were in shameful flight, and the terrible example which he +had vowed to make of Bohemia was still unaccomplished.</p> + +<p>The blind chief vigorously and relentlessly pursued, overtaking the +fugitives on January 8 near Deutschbrod. Terrified at his approach, they +sought to escape by crossing the stream at that place on the ice. The +ice gave way, and numbers of them were drowned. Deutschbrod was burned +and its inhabitants slaughtered in Ziska's cruel fashion.</p> + +<p>This repulse put an end to invasions of Bohemia while Ziska lived. There +were intestine disturbances which needed to be quelled, and then the +army of the reformers was led beyond the boundaries of the country and +assailed the imperial dominions, but the emperor held aloof. He had had +enough of the blind terror of Bohemia, the indomitable Ziska and his +iron-flailed peasants. New outbreaks disturbed Bohemia. Ambitious nobles +aspired to the <a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>kingship, but their efforts were vain. The army of the +iron flail quickly put an end to all such hopes.</p> + +<p>In 1423 Ziska invaded Moravia and Austria, to keep his troops employed, +and lost severely in doing so. In 1424 his enemies at home again made +head against him, led an army into the field, and pursued him to +Kuttenberg. Here he ordered his men to feign a retreat, then, while the +foe were triumphantly advancing, he suddenly turned, had his +battle-chariot driven furiously down the mountain-side upon their lines, +and during the confusion thus caused ordered an attack in force. The +enemy were repulsed, their artillery was captured, and Kuttenberg set in +flames, as Ziska's signal of triumph.</p> + +<p>Shortly afterwards, his enemies at home being thoroughly beaten, the +indomitable blind chief marched upon Prague, the head-quarters of his +foes, and threatened to burn this city to the ground. He might have done +so, too, but for his own men, who broke into sedition at the threat.</p> + +<p>Procop, Ziska's bravest captain, advised peace, to put an end to the +disasters of civil war. His advice was everywhere re-echoed, the demand +for peace seemed unanimous, Ziska alone opposing it. Mounting a cask, +and facing his discontented followers, he exclaimed,—</p> + +<p>"Fear internal more than external foes. It is easier for a few, when +united, to conquer, than for many, when disunited. Snares are laid for +you; you will be entrapped, but it will not be my fault."</p> + +<p>Despite his harangue, however, peace was con<a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a>cluded between the +contending factions, and a large monument raised in commemoration +thereof, both parties heaping up stones. Ziska entered the city in +solemn procession, and was met with respect and admiration by the +citizens. Prince Coribut, the leader of the opposite party and the +aspirant to the crown, came to meet him, embraced him, and called him +father. The triumph of the blind chief over his internal foes was +complete.</p> + +<p>It seemed equally complete over his external foes. Sigismund, unable to +conquer him by force of arms, now sought to mollify him by offers of +peace, and entered into negotiations with the stern old warrior. But +Ziska was not to be placated. He could not trust the man who had broken +his plighted word and burned John Huss, and he remained immovable in his +hostility to Germany. Planning a fresh attack on Moravia, he began his +march thither. But now he met a conquering enemy against whose arms +there was no defence. Death encountered him on the route, and carried +him off October 12, 1424.</p> + +<p>Thus ends the story of an extraordinary man, and the history of a series +of remarkable events. Of all the peasant outbreaks, of which there were +so many during the mediæval period, the Bohemian was the only one—if we +except the Swiss struggle for liberty—that attained measurable success. +This was due in part to the fact that it was a religious instead of an +industrial revolt, and thus did not divide the country into sharp ranks +of rich and poor; and in greater part to the fact that it had an able +leader, <a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a>one of those men of genius who seem born for great occasions. +John Ziska, the blind warrior, leading his army to victory after +victory, stands alone in the gallery of history. There were none like +him, before or after.</p> + +<p>He is pictured as a short, broad-shouldered man, with a large, round, +and bald head. His forehead was deeply furrowed, and he wore a long +moustache of a fiery red hue. This, with his blind eye and his final +complete blindness, yields a well-defined image of the man, that +fanatical, remorseless, indomitable, and unconquerable avenger of the +martyred Huss, the first successful opponent of the doctrines of the +church of Rome whom history records.</p> + +<p>The conclusion of the story of the Hussites may be briefly given. For +years they held their own, under two leaders, known as Procop Holy and +Procop the Little, defying the emperor, and at times invading the +empire. The pope preached a crusade against them, but the army of +invasion was defeated, and Silesia and Austria were invaded in reprisal +by Procop Holy.</p> + +<p>Seven years after the death of Ziska an army of invasion again entered +Bohemia, so strong in numbers that it seemed as if that war-drenched +land must fall before it. In its ranks were one hundred and thirty +thousand men, led by Frederick of Brandenburg. Their purposes were seen +in their actions. Every village reached was burned, till two hundred had +been given to the flames. Horrible excesses were committed. On August +14, 1431, the two armies, the Hussite and the Imperialist, came face <a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a>to +face near Tauss. The disproportion in numbers was enormous, and it +looked as if the small force of Bohemians would be swallowed up in the +multitude of their foes. But barely was the Hussite banner seen in the +distance when the old story was told over again, the Germans broke into +sudden panic, and fled <i>en masse</i> from the field. The Bavarians were the +first to fly, and all the rest speedily followed. Frederick of +Brandenburg and his troops took refuge in a wood. The Cardinal Julian, +who had preached a crusade against Bohemia, succeeded for a time in +rallying the fugitives, but at the first onset of the Hussites they +again took to flight, suffering themselves to be slaughtered without +resistance. The munitions of war were abandoned to the foe, including +one hundred and fifty cannon.</p> + +<p>It was an extraordinary affair, but in truth the flight was less due to +terror than to disinclination of the German soldiers to fight the +Hussites, whose cause they deemed to be just and glorious, and the +influence of whose opinions had spread far beyond the Bohemian border. +Rome was losing its hold over the mind of northern Europe outside the +limits of the land of Huss and Ziska.</p> + +<p>Negotiations for peace followed. The Bohemians were invited to Bâsle, +being granted a safe-conduct, and promised free exercise of their +religion coming and going, while no words of ridicule or reproach were +to be permitted. On January 9, 1433, three hundred Bohemians, mounted on +horseback, entered Bâsle, accompanied by an immense multitude. It <a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a>was a +very different entrance from that of Huss to Constance, nearly twenty +years before, and was to have a very different termination. Procop Holy +headed the procession, accompanied by others of the Bohemian leaders. A +signal triumph had come to the party of religious reform, after twenty +years of struggle.</p> + +<p>For fifty days the negotiations continued. Neither side would yield. In +the end, the Bohemians, weary of the protracted and fruitless debate, +took to their horses again, and set out homewards. This brought their +enemies to terms. An embassy was hastily sent after them, and all their +demands were conceded, though with certain reservations that might prove +perilous in the future. They went home triumphant, having won freedom of +religious worship according to their ideas of right and truth.</p> + +<p>They had not long reached home when dissensions again broke out. The +emperor took advantage of them, accepted the crown of Bohemia, entered +Prague, and at once reinstated the Catholic religion. The fanatics flew +to arms, but after a desperate struggle were annihilated. The Bohemian +struggle was at an end. In the following year the emperor Sigismund +died, having lived just long enough to win success in his long conflict. +The martyrdom of Huss, the valor and zeal of Ziska, appeared to have +been in vain. Yet they were not so, for the seeds they had sown bore +fruit in the following century in a great sectarian revolt which +affected all Christendom and permanently divided the Church.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_SIEGE_OF_BELGRADE" id="THE_SIEGE_OF_BELGRADE"></a><i>THE SIEGE OF BELGRADE.</i></h3> + + +<p>The empire of Rome finally reached its end, not in the fifth century, as +ordinarily considered, but in the fifteenth; not at Rome, but at +Constantinople, where the Eastern empire survived the Western for a +thousand years. At length, in 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople, +set a broad foot upon the degenerate empire of the East, and crushed out +the last feeble remnants of life left in the pygmy successor of the +colossus of the past.</p> + +<p>And now Europe, which had looked on with clasped hands while the Turks +swept over the Bosphorus and captured Constantinople, suddenly awoke to +the peril of its situation. A blow in time might have saved the Greek +empire. The blow had not been struck, and now Europe had itself to save. +Terror seized upon the nations which had let their petty intrigues stand +in the way of that broad policy in which safety lay, for they could not +forget past instances of Asiatic invasion. The frightful ravages wrought +by the Huns and the Avars were far in the past, but no long time had +elapsed since the coming of the Magyars and the Mongols, and now here +was another of those hordes of murderous barbarians, hanging like a +cloud of war on the eastern skirt of Europe, and threatening to rain +death and ruin upon the land. The dread of the nations was not amiss. +They had neglected to <a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a>strengthen the eastern barrier to the Turkish +avalanche. Now it threatened their very doors, and they must meet it at +home.</p> + +<p>The Turks were not long in making their purpose evident. Within two +years after the fall of Constantinople they were on the march again, and +had laid siege to Belgrade, the first obstacle in their pathway to +universal conquest. The Turkish cannons were thundering at the doors of +Europe. Belgrade fallen, Vienna would come next, and the march of the +barbarians might only end at the sea.</p> + +<p>And yet, despite their danger, the people of Germany remained supine. +Hungary had valiantly defended itself against the Turks ten years +before, without aid from the German empire. It looked now as if Belgrade +might be left to its fate. The brave John Hunyades and his faithful +Hungarians were the only bulwarks of Europe against the foe, for the +people seemed incapable of seeing a danger a thousand miles away. The +pope and his legate John Capistrano, general of the Capuchins, were the +only aids to the valiant Hunyades in his vigorous defence. They preached +a crusade, but with little success. Capistrano traversed Germany, +eloquently calling the people to arms against the barbarians. The result +was similar to that on previous occasions, the real offenders were +neglected, the innocent suffered. The people, instead of arming against +the Turks, turned against the Jews, and murdered them by thousands. +Whatever happened in Europe,—a plague, an invasion, a famine, a +<a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a>financial strait,—that unhappy people were in some way held +responsible, and mediæval Europe seemed to think it could, at any time, +check the frightful career of a comet or ward off pestilence by +slaughtering a few thousands of Jews. It cannot be said that it worked +well on this occasion; the Jews died, but the Turks surrounded Belgrade +still.</p> + +<p>Capistrano found no military ardor in Germany, in princes or people. The +princes contented themselves with ordering prayers and ringing the +Turkish bells, as they were called. The people were as supine as their +princes. He did, however, succeed, by the aid of his earnest eloquence, +in gathering a force of a few thousands of peasants, priests, scholars, +and the like; a motley host who were chiefly armed with iron flails and +pitchforks, but who followed him with an enthusiasm equal to his own. +With this shadow of an army he joined Hunyades, and the combined force +made its way in boats down the Danube into the heart of Hungary, and +approached the frontier fortress which Mahomet II. was besieging with a +host of one hundred and sixty thousand men, and which its defender, the +brother-in-law of John Hunyades, had nearly given up for lost.</p> + +<p>On came the flotilla,—the peasants with their flails and forks and +Hunyades with his trained soldiers,—and attacked the Turkish fleet with +such furious energy that it was defeated and dispersed, and the allied +forces made their way into the beleaguered city. Capistrano and his +followers were <a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a>full of enthusiasm. He was a second Peter the Hermit, +his peasant horde were crusaders, fierce against the infidels, +disdaining death in God's cause; neither leader nor followers had a +grain of military knowledge or experience, but they had, what is +sometimes better, courage and enthusiasm.</p> + +<p>John Hunyades <i>had</i> military experience, and looked with cold disfavor +on the burning and blind zeal of his new recruits. He was willing that +they should aid him in repelling the furious attacks of the Turks, but +to his trained eyes an attack on the well-intrenched camp of the enemy +would have been simple madness, and he sternly forbade any such suicidal +course, even threatening death to whoever should attempt it.</p> + +<p>In truth, his caution seemed reasonable. An immense host surrounded the +city on the land side, and had done so on the water side, also, until +the Christian flotilla had sunk, captured, and dispersed its boats. Far +as the eye could see, the gorgeously-embellished tents of the Turkish +army, with their gilded crescents glittering in the sun, filled the +field of view. Cannon-mounted earthworks threatened the walls from every +quarter. Squadrons of steel-clad horsemen swept the field. The crowding +thousands of besiegers pressed the city day and night. Even defence +seemed useless. Assault on such a host appeared madness to experienced +eyes. Hunyades seemed wise in his stern disapproval of such an idea.</p> + +<p>Yet military knowledge has its limitations, when <a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a>it fails to take into +account the power of enthusiasm. Blind zeal is a force whose +possibilities a general does not always estimate. It is capable of +performing miracles, as Hunyades was to learn. His orders, his threats +of death, had no restraining effect on the minds of the crusaders. They +had come to save Europe from the Turks, and they were not to be stayed +by orders or threats. What though the enemy greatly outnumbered them, +and had cannons and scimitars against their pikes and flails, had they +not God on their side, and should God's army pause to consider numbers +and cannon-balls? They were not to be restrained; attack they would, and +attack they did.</p> + +<p>The siege had made great progress. The reinforcement had come barely in +time. The walls were crumbling under the incessant bombardment. +Convinced that he had made a practicable breach, Mahomet, the sultan, +ordered an assault in force. The Turks advanced, full of barbarian +courage, climbed the crumbled walls, and broke, as they supposed, into +the town, only to find new walls frowning before them. The vigorous +garrison had built new defences behind the old ones, and the +disheartened assailants learned that they had done their work in vain.</p> + +<p>This repulse greatly discouraged the sultan. He was still more +discouraged when the crusaders, irrepressible in their hot enthusiasm, +broke from the city and made a fierce attack upon his works. Capistrano, +seeing that they were not to be re<a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a>strained, put himself at their head, +and with a stick in one hand and a crucifix in the other, led them to +the assault. It proved an irresistible one. The Turks could not sustain +themselves against these flail-swinging peasants. One intrenchment after +another fell into their hands, until three had been stormed and taken. +Their success inspired Hunyades. Filled with a new respect for his +peasant allies, and seeing that now or never was the time to strike, he +came to their aid with his cavalry, and fell so suddenly and violently +upon the Turkish rear that the invaders were put to rout.</p> + +<p>Onward pushed the crusaders and their allies; backward went the Turks. +The remaining intrenchments were stubbornly defended, but that storm of +iron flails, those pikes and pitchforks, wielded by the zeal of +enthusiasts, were not to be resisted, and in the end all that remained +of the Turkish army broke into panic flight, the sultan himself being +wounded, and more than twenty thousand of his men left dead upon the +field.</p> + +<p>It was a signal victory. Miraculous almost, when one considers the great +disproportion of numbers. The works of the invaders, mounted with three +hundred cannon, and their camp, which contained an immense booty, fell +into the hands of the Christians, and the power of Mahomet II. was so +crippled that years passed before he was in condition to attempt a +second invasion of Europe.</p> + +<p>The victors were not long to survive their signal triumph. The valiant +Hunyades died shortly after <a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"></a>the battle, from wounds received in the +action or from fatal disease. Capistrano died in the same year (1456). +Hunyades left two sons, and the King of Hungary repaid his services by +oppressing both, and beheading one of these sons. But the king himself +died during the next year, and Matthias Corvinus, the remaining son of +Hunyades, was placed by the Hungarians on their throne. They had given +their brave defender the only reward in their power.</p> + +<p>If the victory of Hunyades and Capistrano—the nobleman and the +monk—had been followed up by the princes of Europe, the Turks might +have been driven from Constantinople, Europe saved from future peril at +their hands, and the tide of subsequent history gained a cleaner and +purer flow. But nothing was done; the princes were too deeply interested +in their petty squabbles to entertain large views, and the Turks were +suffered to hold the empire of the East, and quietly to recruit their +forces for later assaults.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a></p> +<h3><a name="LUTHER_AND_THE_INDULGENCES" id="LUTHER_AND_THE_INDULGENCES"></a><i>LUTHER AND THE INDULGENCES</i>.</h3> + + +<p>Late in the month of April, in the year 1521, an open wagon containing +two persons was driven along one of the roads of Germany, the horse +being kept at his best pace, while now and then one of the occupants +looked back as if in apprehension. This was the man who held the reins. +The other, a short but presentable person, with pale, drawn face, lit by +keen eyes, seemed too deeply buried in thought to be heedful of +surrounding affairs. When he did lift his eyes they were directed ahead, +where the road was seen to enter the great Thuringian forest. Dressed in +clerical garb, the peasants who passed probably regarded him as a monk +on some errand of mercy. The truth was that he was a fugitive, fleeing +for his life, for he was a man condemned, who might at any moment be +waylaid and seized.</p> + +<p>On entering the forest the wagon was driven on until a shaded and lonely +dell was reached, seemingly a fitting place for deeds of violence. +Suddenly from the forest glades rode forth four armed and masked men, +who stopped the wagon, sternly bade the traveller to descend and mount a +spare horse they had with them, and rode off with him, a seeming +captive, through the thick woodland.</p> + +<p>As if in fear of pursuit, the captors kept at a <a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a>brisk pace, not drawing +rein until the walls of a large and strong castle loomed up near the +forest border. The gates flew open and the drawbridge fell at their +demand, and the small cavalcade rode into the powerful stronghold, the +entrance to which was immediately closed behind them. It was the castle +of Wartburg, near Eisenach, Saxony, within whose strong walls the man +thus mysteriously carried off was to remain hidden from the world for +the greater part of the year that followed.</p> + +<p>The monk-like captive was just then the most talked of man in Germany. +His seemingly violent capture had been made by his friends, not by his +foes, its purpose being to protect him from his enemies, who were many +and threatening. Of this he was well aware, and welcomed the castle as a +place of refuge. He was, in fact, the celebrated Martin Luther, who had +just set in train a religious revolution of broad aspect in Germany, and +though for the time under the protection of a safe-conduct from the +emperor Charles V., had been deemed in imminent danger of falling into +an ambush of his foes instead of one of his friends.</p> + +<p>That he might not be recognised by those who should see him at Wartburg, +his ecclesiastic robe was exchanged for the dress of a knight, he wore +helmet and sword instead of cassock and cross and let his beard grow +freely. Thus changed in appearance, he was known as Junker George +(Chevalier George) to those in the castle, and amused himself at times +by hunting with his knightly companions <a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a>in the neighborhood. The +greater part of his time, however, was occupied in a difficult literary +task, that of translating the Bible into German. The work thus done by +him was destined to prove as important in a linguistic as in a +theological sense, since it fixed the status of the German language for +the later period to the same extent as the English translation of the +Bible in the time of James I. aided to fix that of English speech.</p> + +<p>Leaving Luther, for the present, in his retreat at Wartburg Castle, we +must go back in his history and tell the occasion of the events just +narrated. No man, before or after his time, ever created so great a +disturbance in German thought, and the career of this fugitive monk is +one of great historical import.</p> + +<p>A peasant by birth, the son of a slate-cutter named Hans Luther, he so +distinguished himself as a scholar that his father proposed to make him +a lawyer, but a dangerous illness, the death of a near friend, and the +exhortations of an eloquent preacher, so wrought upon his mind that he +resolved instead to become a monk, and after going through the necessary +course of study and mental discipline was ordained priest in May, 1507. +The next year he was appointed a professor in the university of +Wittenberg. There he remained for the next ten years of his life, when +an event occurred which was to turn the whole current of his career and +give him a prominence in theological history which few other men have +ever attained.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a>In 1517 Pope Leo X. authorized an unusually large issue of indulgences, +a term which signifies a remission of the temporal punishment due to +sin, either in this life or the life to come; the condition being that +the recipient shall have made a full confession of his sins and by his +penitence and purpose of amendment fitted himself to receive the pardon +of God, through the agency of the priest. He was also required to +perform some service in the aid of charity or religion, such as the +giving of alms.</p> + +<p>At the time of the Crusades the popes had granted to all who took part +in them remission from church penalties. At a later date the same +indulgence was granted to penitents who aided the holy wars with money +instead of in person. At a still later date remission from the penalties +of sin might be obtained by pious work, such as building churches, etc. +When the Turks threatened Europe, those who fought against them obtained +indulgence. In the instance of the issue of indulgences by Leo X. the +pious work required was the giving of alms in aid of the completion of +the great cathedral of St. Peter's at Rome.</p> + +<p>This purpose did not differ in character from others for which +indulgences had previously been granted, and there is nothing to show +that any disregard of the requisite conditions was authorized by the +pope; but there is reason to believe that some of the agents for the +disposal of these indulgences went much beyond the intention of the +decree. This was especially the case in the instance of a<a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"></a> Dominican +monk named Tetzel, who is charged with openly asserting what few or no +other Catholics appear to have ever claimed, that the indulgences not +only released the purchasers from the necessity of penance, but absolved +them from all the consequences of sin in this world or the next.</p> + +<p>We shall not go into the details of the venalities charged against +Tetzel, whose field of labor was in Saxony, but they seem to have been +sufficient to cause a strong feeling of dissatisfaction, which at length +found a voice in Martin Luther, who preached vigorously against Tetzel +and his methods and wrote to the princes and bishops begging them to +refuse this irreligious dealer in indulgences a passage through their +dominions.</p> + +<p>The near approach of Tetzel to Wittenberg roused Luther to more decided +action. He now wrote out ninety-five propositions in which he set forth +in the strongest language his reasons for opposing and his view of the +pernicious effects of Tetzel's doctrine of indulgences. These he nailed +to the door of the Castle church of Wittenberg. The effect produced by +them was extraordinary. The news of the protest spread with the greatest +rapidity and within a fortnight copies of it had been distributed +throughout Germany. Within five or six weeks it was being read over a +great part of Europe. On all sides it aroused a deep public interest and +excitement and became the great sensation of the day.</p> + +<p>We cannot go into the details of what followed.<a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a> Luther's propositions +were like a thunderbolt flung into the mind of Germany. Everywhere deep +thought was aroused and a host of those who had been displeased with +Tetzel's methods sustained him in his act. Other papers from his pen +followed in which his revolt from the Church of Rome grew wider and +deeper. His energetic assault aroused a number of opponents and an +active controversy ensued; ending in Luther's being cited to appear +before Cajetan, the pope's legate, at Augsburg. From this meeting no +definite result came. After a heated argument Cajetan ended the +controversy with the following words:</p> + +<p>"I can dispute no longer with this beast; it has two wicked eyes and +marvellous thoughts in its head."</p> + +<p>Luther's view of the matter was much less complimentary. He said of the +legate,—</p> + +<p>"He knows no more about the Word than a donkey knows of harp-playing."</p> + +<p>In the next year, 1519, a discussion took place at Leipzig, between +Luther on the one hand, aided by his friends Melanchthon and Carlstadt, +and a zealous and talented ecclesiastic, Dr. Eck, on the other. Eck was +a vigorous debater,—in person, in voice, and in opinion,—but as Luther +was not to be silenced by his argument, he ended by calling him "a +gentile and publican," and wending his way to Borne, where he expressed +his opinion of the new movement, demanded that the heretic should be +made to feel the heavy hand of church discipline.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a>Back he came soon to Germany, bearing a bull from the pope, in which +were extracts from Luther's writings stated to be heretical, and which +must be publicly retracted within sixty days under threat of +excommunication. This the ardent agent tried to distribute through +Germany, but to his surprise he found that Germany was in no humor to +receive it. Most of the magistrates forbade it to be made public. Where +it was posted upon the walls of any town, the people immediately tore it +down. In truth, Luther's heresy had with extraordinary rapidity become +the heresy of Germany, and he found himself with a nation at his back, a +nation that admired his courage and supported his opinions.</p> + +<p>His most decisive step was taken on the 10th of December, 1520. On that +day the faculty and students of the University of Wittenberg, convoked +by him, met at the Elster gate of the town. Here a funeral pile was +built up by the students, one of the magistrates set fire to it, and +Luther, amid approving shouts from the multitude, flung into the flames +the pope's bull, and with it the canonical law and the writings of Dr. +Eck. In this act he decisively broke loose from and defied the Church of +Rome, sustained in his radical step of revolt apparently by all +Wittenberg, and by a large body of converts to his views throughout +Germany.</p> + +<p>The bold reformer found friends not only among the lowly, but among the +powerful. The Elector of Saxony was on his side, and openly accused the +pope of acting the unjust judge, by listening to one side <a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a>and not the +other, and of needlessly agitating the people by his bull. Ulrich von +Hutten, a favorite popular leader, was one of the zealous proselytes of +the new doctrines. Franz von Sickingen, a knight of celebrity, was +another who offered Luther shelter, if necessary, in his castles.</p> + +<p>And now came a turning-point in Luther's career, the most dangerous +crisis he was to reach, and the one that needed the utmost courage and +most inflexible resolution to pass it in safety. It was that which has +become famous as the "Diet of Worms." Germany had gained a new emperor, +Charles V., under whose sceptre the empire of Charlemagne was in great +part restored, for his dominions included Germany, Spain, and the +Netherlands. This young monarch left Spain for Germany in 1521, and was +no sooner there than he called a great diet, to meet at Worms, that the +affairs of the empire might be regulated, and that in particular this +religious controversy, which was troubling the public mind, should be +settled.</p> + +<p>Thither came the princes and potentates of the realm, thither great +dignitaries of the church, among them the pope's legate, Cardinal +Alexander, who was commissioned to demand that the emperor and the +princes should call Luther to a strict account, and employ against him +the temporal power. But to the cardinal's astonishment he found that the +people of Germany had largely seceded from the papal authority. +Everywhere he met with writings, songs, and pictures in which the holy +father was <a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a>treated with contempt and mockery. Even himself, as the +pope's representative, was greeted with derision, and his life at times +was endangered, despite the fact that he came in the suite of the +emperor.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-225.png" alt="STATUE OF LUTHER AT WORMS." title="STATUE OF LUTHER AT WORMS." /></div> +<h5>STATUE OF LUTHER AT WORMS.</h5> + +<p>The diet assembled, the cardinal, as instructed, demanded that severe +measures should be taken against the arch-heretic: the Elector of +Saxony, on the contrary, insisted that Luther should be heard in his own +defence; the emperor and the princes agreed with him, silencing the +cardinal's declaration that the diet had no right or power to question +the decision of the pope, and inviting Luther to appear before the +imperial assembly at Worms, the emperor granting him a safe-conduct.</p> + +<p>Possibly Charles thought that the insignificant monk would fear to come +before that august body, and the matter thus die out. Luther's friends +strongly advised him not to go. They had the experience of John Huss to +offer as argument. But Luther was not the man to be stopped by dread of +dignitaries or fear of penalties. He immediately set out from Wittenberg +for Worms, saying to his protesting friends, "Though there were as many +devils in the city as there are tiles on the roofs, still I would go."</p> + +<p>His journey was an ovation. The people flocked by thousands to greet and +applaud him. On his arrival at Worms two thousand people gathered and +accompanied him to his lodgings. When, on the next day, April 18, 1521, +the grand-marshal of the <a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a>empire conducted him to the diet, he was +obliged to lead him across gardens and through by-ways to avoid the +throng that filled the streets of the town.</p> + +<p>When entering the hall, he was clapped on the shoulder by a famous +knight and general of the empire, Georg von Frundsberg, who said, "Monk, +monk, thou art in a strait the like of which myself and many leaders, in +the most desperate battles, have never known. But if thy thoughts are +just, and thou art sure of thy cause, go on, in God's name; and be of +good cheer; He will not forsake thee."</p> + +<p>Luther was not an imposing figure as he stood before the proud assembly +in the imperial hall. He had just recovered from a severe fever, and was +pale and emaciated. And standing there, unsupported by a single friend, +before that great assembly, his feelings were strongly excited. The +emperor remarked to his neighbor, "This man would never succeed in +making a heretic of <i>me</i>."</p> + +<p>But though Luther's body was weak, his mind was strong. His air quickly +became calm and dignified. He was commanded to retract the charges he +had made against the church. In reply he acknowledged that the writings +produced were his own, and declared that he was not ready to retract +them, but said that "If they can convince me from the Holy Scriptures +that I am in error, I am ready with my own hands to cast the whole of my +writings into the flames."</p> + +<p>The chancellor replied that what he demanded <a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a>was retraction, not +dispute. This Luther refused to give. The emperor insisted on a simple +recantation, which Luther declared he could not make. For several days +the hearing continued, ending at length in the threatening declaration +of the emperor, that "he would no longer listen to Luther, but dismiss +him at once from his presence, and treat him as he would a heretic."</p> + +<p>There was danger in this, the greatest danger. The emperor's word had +been given, it is true; but an emperor had broken his word with John +Huss, and his successor might with Martin Luther. Charles was, indeed, +importuned to do so, but replied that his imperial word was sacred, even +if given to a heretic, and that Luther should have an extension of the +safe-conduct for twenty-one days, during his return home.</p> + +<p>Luther started home. It was a journey by no means free from danger. He +had powerful and unscrupulous enemies. He might be seized and carried +off by an ambush of his foes. How he was saved from peril of this sort +we have described. It was his friend and protector, Frederick, the +Elector of Saxony, who had placed the ambush of knights, his purpose +being to put Luther in a place of safety where he could lie concealed +until the feeling against him had subsided. Meanwhile, at Worms, when +the period of the safe-conduct had expired, Luther was declared out of +the ban of the empire, an outlaw whom no man was permitted to shelter, +his works were condemned to be burned <a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"></a>wherever found, and he was +adjudged to be seized and held in durance subject to the will of the +emperor.</p> + +<p>What had become of the fugitive no one knew. The story spread that he +had been murdered by his enemies. For ten months he remained in +concealment and when he again appeared it was to combat a horde of +fanatical enthusiasts who had carried his doctrines to excess and were +stirring up all Germany by their wild opinions. The outbreak drew Luther +back to Wittenberg, where for eight days he preached with great +eloquence against the fanatics and finally succeeded in quelling the +disturbance.</p> + +<p>From that time forward Luther continued the guiding spirit of the +Protestant revolt and was looked upon with high consideration by most of +the princes of Germany, his doctrines spreading until, during his +lifetime, they extended to Moravia, Bohemia, Denmark and Sweden. Then, +in 1546, he died at Eisleben, near the castle in which he had dwelt +during the most critical period of his life.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229"></a></p> +<h3><a name="SOLYMAN_THE_MAGNIFICENT_AT_GUNTZ" id="SOLYMAN_THE_MAGNIFICENT_AT_GUNTZ"></a><i>SOLYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT AT GUNTZ</i>.</h3> + + +<p>Solyman the Magnificent, Sultan of Turkey, had collected an army of +dimensions as magnificent as his name, and was on his march to overwhelm +Austria and perhaps subject all western Europe to his arms. A few years +before he had swept Hungary with his hordes, taken and plundered its +cities of Buda and Pesth, and made the whole region his own. Belgrade, +which had been so valiantly defended against his predecessor, had fallen +into his infidel hands. The gateways of western Europe were his; he had +but to open them and march through; doubtless there had come to him +glorious dreams of extending the empire of the crescent to the western +seas. And yet the proud and powerful sultan was to be checked in his +course by an obstacle seemingly as insignificant as if the sting of a +hornet should stop the career of an elephant. The story is a remarkable +one, and deserves to be better known.</p> + +<p>Vast was the army which Solyman raised. He had been years in gathering +men and equipments. Great work lay before him, and he needed great means +for its accomplishment. It is said that three hundred thousand men +marched under his banners. So large was the force, so great the quantity +of its <a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"></a>baggage and artillery, that its progress was necessarily a slow +one, and sixty days elapsed during its march from Constantinople to +Belgrade.</p> + +<p>Here was time for Ferdinand of Austria to bring together forces for the +defence of his dominions against the leviathan which was slowly moving +upon them. He made efforts, but they were not of the energetic sort +which the crisis demanded, and had the Turkish army been less unwieldly +and more rapid, Vienna might have fallen almost undefended into +Solyman's hands. Fortunately, large bodies move slowly, and the sultan +met with an obstacle that gave the requisite time for preparation.</p> + +<p>On to Belgrade swept the grand army, with its multitude of standards and +all the pomp and glory of its vast array. The slowness with which it +came was due solely to its size, not in any sense to lack of energy in +the warlike sultan. An anecdote is extant which shows his manner of +dealing with difficulties. He had sent forward an engineer with orders +to build a bridge over the river Drave, to be constructed at a certain +point, and be ready at a certain time. The engineer went, surveyed the +rapid stream, and sent back answer to the sultan that it was impossible +to construct a bridge at that point.</p> + +<p>But Solyman's was one of those magnificent souls that do not recognize +the impossible. He sent the messenger back to the engineer, in his hand +a linen cord, on his lips this message:</p> + +<p>"Your master, the sultan, commands you, with<a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a>out consideration of the +difficulties, to complete the bridge over the Drave. If it be not ready +for him on his arrival, he will have you strangled with this cord."</p> + +<p>The bridge was built. Solyman had learned the art of overcoming the +impossible. He was soon to have a lesson in the art of overcoming the +difficult.</p> + +<p>Belgrade was in due time reached. Here the sultan embarked his artillery +and heavy baggage on the Danube, three thousand vessels being employed +for that purpose. They were sent down the stream, under sufficient +escort, towards the Austrian capital, while the main army, lightened of +much of its load, prepared to march more expeditiously than heretofore +through Hungary towards its goal.</p> + +<p>Ferdinand of Austria, alarmed at the threatening approach of the Turks, +had sent rich presents and proposals of peace to Solyman at Belgrade; +but those had the sole effect of increasing his pride and making him +more confidant of victory. He sent an insulting order to the ambassadors +to follow his encampment and await his pleasure, and paid no further +heed to their pacific mission.</p> + +<p>The Save, an affluent of the Danube, was crossed, and the army lost +sight of the great stream, and laid its course by a direct route through +Sclavonia towards the borders of Styria, the outlying Austrian province +in that direction. It was the shortest line of march available, the +distance to be covered being about two hundred miles. On reaching the +Styrian frontier, the Illyrian mountain chain <a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a>needed to be crossed, and +within it lay the obstacle with which Solyman had to contend.</p> + +<p>The route of the army led through a mountain pass. In this pass was a +petty and obscure town, Guntz by name, badly fortified, and garrisoned +by a mere handful of men, eight hundred in all. Its principal means of +defence lay in the presence of an indomitable commander, Nicholas +Jurissitz, a man of iron nerve and fine military skill.</p> + +<p>Ibrahim Pasha, who led the vanguard of the Turkish force, ordered the +occupation of this mountain fortress, and learned with anger and +mortification that Guntz had closed its gates and frowned defiance on +his men. Word was sent back to Solyman, who probably laughed in his +beard at the news. It was as if a fly had tried to stop an ox.</p> + +<p>"Brush it away and push onward," was probably the tenor of his orders.</p> + +<p>But Guntz was not to be brushed away. It stood there like an awkward +fact, its guns commanding the pass through which the army must march, a +ridiculous obstacle which had to be dealt with however time might press.</p> + +<p>The sultan sent orders to his advance-guard to take the town and march +on. Ibrahim Pasha pushed forward, assailed it, and found that he had not +men enough for the work. The little town with its little garrison had +the temper of a shrew, and held its own against him valiantly. A few +more battalions were sent, but still the town held out. The sultan, +enraged at this opposition, now despatched what he <a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a>considered an +overwhelming force, with orders to take the town without delay, and to +punish the garrison as they deserved for their foolish obstinacy. But +what was his surprise and fury to receive word that the pigmy still held +out stubbornly against the leviathan, that all their efforts to take it +were in vain, and that its guns commanded and swept the pass so that it +was impossible to advance under its storm of death-dealing balls.</p> + +<p>Thundering vengeance, Solyman now ordered his whole army to advance, +sweep that insolent and annoying obstacle from the face of the earth, +and then march on towards the real goal of their enterprise, the still +distant city of Vienna, the capital and stronghold of the Christian +dogs.</p> + +<p>Upon Guntz burst the whole storm of the war, against Guntz it thundered, +around Guntz it lightened; yet still Guntz stood, proud, insolent, +defiant, like a rock in the midst of the sea, battered by the waves of +war's tempest, yet rising still in unyielding strength, and dashing back +the bloody spray which lashed its walls in vain.</p> + +<p>Solyman's pride was roused. That town he must and would have. He might +have marched past it and left it in the rear, though not without great +loss and danger, for the pass was narrow and commanded by the guns of +Guntz, and he would have had to run the gantlet of a hailstorm of iron +balls. But he had no thought of passing it; his honor was involved. +Guntz must be his and its insolent garrison punished, or how could +Solyman the Magnifi<a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a>cent ever hold up his head among monarchs and +conquerors again?</p> + +<p>On every side the town was assailed; cannon surrounded it and poured +their balls upon its walls; they were planted on the hills in its rear; +they were planted on lofty mounds of earth which overtopped its walls +and roofs; from every direction they thundered threat; to every +direction Guntz thundered back defiance.</p> + +<p>An attempt was made to undermine the walls, but in vain; the commandant, +Jurissitz, was far too vigilant to be reached by burrowing. Breach after +breach was made in the walls, and as quickly repaired, or new walls +built. Assault after assault was made and hurled back. Every effort was +baffled by the skill, vigor, and alertness of the governor and the +unyielding courage of his men, and still the days went by and still +Guntz stood.</p> + +<p>Solyman, indignant and alarmed, tried the effect of promises, bribes, +and threats. Jurissitz and his garrison should be enriched if they +yielded; they should die under torture if they persisted. These efforts +proved as useless as cannon-balls. The indomitable Jurissitz resisted +promises and threats as energetically as he had resisted shot and balls.</p> + +<p>The days went on. For twenty-eight days that insignificant fortress and +its handful of men defied the great Turkish army and held it back in +that mountain-pass. In the end the sultan, with all his pride and all +his force, was obliged to accept a feigned submission and leave +Jurissitz and his men <a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a>still in possession of the fortress they had held +so long and so well.</p> + +<p>They had held it long enough to save Austria, as it proved. While the +sultan's cannon were vainly bombarding its walls, Europe was gathering +around Vienna in defence. From every side troops hurried to the +salvation of Austria from the Turks. Italy, the Netherlands, Bohemia. +Poland, Germany, sent their quotas, till an army of one hundred and +thirty thousand men were gathered around Vienna, thirty thousand of them +being cavalry.</p> + +<p>Solyman was appalled at the tidings brought him. It had become a +question of arithmetic to his barbarian intellect. If Guntz, with less +than a thousand men, could defy him for a month, what might not Vienna +do with more than a hundred thousand? Winter was not far away. It was +already September. He was separated from his flotilla of artillery. Was +it safe to advance? He answered the question by suddenly striking camp +and retreating with such haste that his marauding horsemen, who were out +in large numbers, were left in ignorance of the movement, and were +nearly all taken or cut to pieces.</p> + +<p>Thus ingloriously ended one of the most pretentious invasions of Europe. +For three years Solyman had industriously prepared, gathering the +resources of his wide dominion to the task and fulminating infinite +disaster to the infidels. Yet eight hundred men in a petty mountain town +had brought this <a name="Page_236" id="Page_236"></a>great enterprise to naught and sent back the mighty +army of the grand Turk in inglorious retreat.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-236.png" alt="THE MOSQUE OF SOLYMAN, CONSTANTINOPLE." title="THE MOSQUE OF SOLYMAN, CONSTANTINOPLE." /></div> +<h5>THE MOSQUE OF SOLYMAN, CONSTANTINOPLE.</h5> + +<p>The story of Guntz has few parallels in history; the courage and ability +of its commander were of the highest type of military worthiness; yet +its story is almost unknown and the name of Jurissitz is not classed +among those of the world's heroes. Such is fame.</p> + +<p>There is another interesting story of the doings of Solyman and the +gallant defence of a Christian town, which is worthy of telling as an +appendix to that just given. The assault at Guntz took place in the year +1532. In 1566, when Solyman was much older, though perhaps not much +wiser, we find him at his old work, engaged in besieging the small +Hungarian town of Szigeth, west of Mohacs and north of the river Drave, +a stronghold surrounded by the small stream Almas almost as by the +waters of a lake. It was defended by a Croatian named Zrinyr and a +garrison of twenty-five hundred men.</p> + +<p>Around this town the Turkish army raged and thundered in its usual +fashion. Within it the garrison defended themselves with all the spirit +and energy they could muster. Step by step the Turks advanced. The +outskirts of the town were destroyed by fire and the assailants were +within its walls. The town being no longer tenable, Zrinyr took refuge, +with what remained of the garrison, in the fortress, and still bade +defiance to his foes.</p> + +<p>Solyman, impatient at the delay caused by the obstinacy of the defender, +tried with him the same <a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a>tactics he had employed with Jurissitz many +years before,—those of threats and promises. Tempting offers of wealth +proving of no avail, the sultan threatened the bold commander with the +murder of his son George, a prisoner in his hands. This proved equally +unavailing, and the siege went on.</p> + +<p>It went on, indeed, until Solyman was himself vanquished, and by an +enemy he had not taken into account in his thirst for glory—the grim +warrior Death. Temper killed him. In a fit of passion he suddenly died. +But the siege went on. The vizier concealed his death and kept the +batteries at work, perhaps deeming it best for his own fortunes to be +able to preface the announcement of the sultan's death with a victory.</p> + +<p>The castle walls had been already crumbling under the storm of balls. +Soon they were in ruins. The place was no longer tenable. Yet Zrinyr was +as far as ever from thoughts of surrender. He dressed himself in his +most magnificent garments, filled his pockets with gold, "that they +might find something on his corpse," and dashed on the Turks at the head +of what soldiers were left. He died, but not unrevenged. Only after his +death was the Turkish army told that their great sultan was no more and +that they owed their victory to the shadow of the genius of Solyman the +Magnificent.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_PEASANTS_AND_THE_ANABAPTISTS" id="THE_PEASANTS_AND_THE_ANABAPTISTS"></a>THE PEASANTS AND THE ANABAPTISTS.</h3> + + +<p>Germany, in great part, under the leadership of Martin Luther, had +broken loose from the Church of Rome, the ball which he had set rolling +being kept in motion by other hands. The ideas of many of those who +followed him were full of the spirit of fanaticism. The pendulum of +religious thought, set in free swing, vibrated from the one extreme of +authority to the opposite extreme of license, going as far beyond Luther +as he had gone beyond Rome. There arose a sect to which was given the +name of Anabaptists, from its rejection of infant baptism, a sect with a +strange history, which it now falls to us to relate.</p> + +<p>The new movement, indeed, was not confined to matters of religion. The +idea of freedom from authority once set afloat, quickly went further +than its advocates intended. If men were to have liberty of thought, why +should they not have liberty of action? So argued the peasantry, and not +without the best of reasons, for they were pitifully oppressed by the +nobility, weighed down with feudal exactions to support the luxury of +the higher classes, their crops destroyed by the horses and dogs of +hunting-parties, their families ill-treated and insulted by the +men-at-arms who were maintained at their <a name="Page_239" id="Page_239"></a>expense, their flight from +tyranny to the freedom of the cities prohibited by nobles and citizens +alike, everywhere enslaved, everywhere despised, it is no wonder they +joined with gladness in the revolutionary sentiment and made a vigorous +demand for political liberty.</p> + +<p>As a result of all this an insurrection broke out,—a double +insurrection in fact,—here of the peasantry for their rights, there of +the religious fanatics for their license. Suddenly all Germany was +upturned by the greatest and most dangerous outbreak of the laboring +classes it had ever known, a revolt which, had it been ably led, might +have revolutionized society and founded a completely new order of +things.</p> + +<p>In 1522 the standard of revolt was first raised, its signal a golden +shoe, with the motto, "Whoever will be free let him follow this ray of +light." In 1524 a fresh insurrection broke out, and in the spring of the +following year the whole country was aflame, the peasants of southern +Germany being everywhere in arms and marching on the strongholds of +their oppressors.</p> + +<p>Their demands were by no means extreme. They asked for a board of +arbitration, to consist of the Archduke Ferdinand, the Elector of +Saxony, Luther, Melanchthon, and several preachers, to consider their +proposed articles of reform in industrial and political concerns. These +articles covered the following points. They asked the right to choose +their own pastors, who were to preach the word of<a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a> God from the Bible; +the abolition of dues, except tithes to the clergy; the abolition of +vassalage; the rights of hunting and fishing, and of cutting wood in the +forests; reforms in rent, in the administration of justice, and in the +methods of application of the laws; the restoration of communal property +illegally seized; and several other matters of the same general +character.</p> + +<p>They asked in vain. The princes ridiculed the idea of a court in which +Luther should sit side by side with the archduke. Luther refused to +interfere. He admitted the oppression of the peasantry, severely +attacked the princes and nobility for their conduct, but deprecated the +excesses which the insurgents had already committed, and saw no safety +from worse evils except in putting down the peasantry with a strong +hand.</p> + +<p>The rejection of the demands of the rebellious peasants was followed by +a frightful reign of license, political in the south, religious in the +north. Everywhere the people were in arms, destroying castles, burning +monasteries, and forcing numbers of the nobles to join them, under pain +of having their castles plundered and burned. The counts of Hohenlohe +were made to enter their ranks, and were told, "Brother Albert and +brother George, you are no longer lords but peasants, and we are the +lords of Hohenlohe." Other nobles were similarly treated. Various +Swabian nobles fled for safety, with their families and treasures, to +the city and castle of Weinsberg. The castle was stormed and <a name="Page_241" id="Page_241"></a>taken, and +the nobles, seventy in number, were forced to run the gantlet between +two lines of men armed with spears, who stabbed them as they passed. It +was this deed that brought out a pamphlet from Luther, in which he +called on all the citizens of the empire to put down "the furious +peasantry, to strangle, to stab them, secretly and openly, as they can, +as one would kill a mad dog."</p> + +<p>There was need for something to be done if Germany was to be saved from +a revolution. The numbers of the insurgents steadily increased. Many of +the cities were in league with them, several of the princes entered in +negotiation concerning their demands; in Thuringia the Anabaptists, +under the lead of a fanatical preacher named Thomas Münzer, were in full +revolt; in Saxony, Hesse, and lower Germany the peasantry were in arms; +there was much reason to fear that the insurgents and fanatics would +join their forces and pour like a rushing torrent through the whole +empire, destroying all before them. Of the many peasant revolts which +the history of mediævalism records this was the most threatening and +dangerous, and called for the most strenuous exertions to save the +institutions of Germany from a complete overthrow.</p> + +<p>At the head of the main body of insurgents was a knight of notorious +character, the famed Goetz von Berlichingen,—Goetz with the Iron Hand, +as he is named,—a robber baron whose history had been one of feud and +contest, and of the plunder alike of armed foes and unarmed travellers. +Goethe <a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a>has honored him by making him the hero of a drama, and the +peasantry sought to honor him by making him the leader of their march of +destruction. This worthy had lost his hand during youth, and replaced it +with a hand of iron. He was bold, daring, and unscrupulous, but scarcely +fitted for generalship, his knowledge of war being confined to the +tactics of highway robbery. Nor can it be said that his leadership of +the peasants was voluntary. He was as much their prisoner as their +general, his service being an enforced one.</p> + +<p>With the redoubtable Goetz at their head the insurgents poured onward, +spreading terror before them, leaving ruin behind them. Castles and +monasteries were destroyed, until throughout Thuringia, Franconia, +Swabia, and along the Rhine as far as Lorraine the homes of lords and +clergy were destroyed, and a universal scene of smoking ruins replaced +the formerly stately architectural piles.</p> + +<p>We cannot go further into the details of this notable outbreak. The +revolt of the southern peasantry was at length brought to an end by an +army collected by the Swabian league, and headed by George Truchsess of +Waldburg. Had they marched against him in force he could not have +withstood their onset. But they occupied themselves in sieges, +disregarding the advice of their leaders, and permitted themselves to be +attacked and beaten in detail. Seeing that all was at an end, Goetz von +Berlichingen secretly fled from their ranks and took refuge in his +castle. Many of the bodies of <a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a>peasantry dispersed. Others made head +against the troops and were beaten with great slaughter. All was at an +end.</p> + +<p>Truchsess held a terrible court of justice in the city of Würzburg, in +which his jester Hans acted as executioner, and struck off the heads of +numbers of the prisoners, the bloody work being attended with laughter +and jests, which added doubly to its horror. All who acknowledged that +they had read the Bible, or even that they knew how to read and write, +were instantly beheaded. The priest of Schipf, a gouty old man who had +vigorously opposed the peasants, had himself carried by four of his men +to Truchsess to receive thanks for his services. Hans, fancying that he +was one of the rebels, slipped up behind him, and in an instant his head +was rolling on the floor.</p> + +<p>"I seriously reproved my good Hans for his untoward jest," was the easy +comment of Truchsess upon this circumstance.</p> + +<p>Throughout Germany similar slaughter of the peasantry and wholesale +executions took place. In many places the reprisal took the dimensions +of a massacre, and it is said that by the end of the frightful struggle +more than a hundred thousand of the peasants had been slain. As for its +political results, the survivors were reduced to a deeper state of +servitude than before. Thus ended a great struggle which had only needed +an able leader to make it a success and to free the people from feudal +bonds. It ended like all the peasant outbreaks, in <a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a>defeat and renewed +oppression. As for the robber chief Goetz, while he is said by several +historians to have received a sentence of life imprisonment, Menzel +states that he was retained in prison for two years only.</p> + +<p>In Thuringia, as we have said, the revolt was a religious one, it being +controlled by Thomas Münzer, a fanatical Anabaptist. He pretended that +he had the gift of receiving divine revelations, and claimed to be +better able to reveal Christian truth than Luther. God had created the +earth, he said, for believers, all government should be regulated by the +Bible and revelation, and there was no need of princes, priests, or +nobles. The distinction between rich and poor was unchristian, since in +God's kingdom all should be alike. Nicholas Storch, one of Münzer's +preachers, surrounded himself with twelve apostles and seventy-two +disciples, and claimed that an angel brought him divine messages.</p> + +<p>Driven from Saxony by the influence of Luther, Münzer went to Thuringia, +and gained such control by his preaching and his doctrines over the +people of the town of Mülhausen that all the wealthy people were driven +away, their property confiscated, and the sole control of the place fell +into his hands.</p> + +<p>So great was the disturbance caused by his fanatical teachings and the +exertions of his disciples that Luther again bestirred himself, and +called on the princes for the suppression of Münzer and his fanatical +horde. A division of the army was sent into Thuringia, and came up with +a large body of <a name="Page_245" id="Page_245"></a>the Anabaptists near Frankenhausen, on May 15, 1525. +Münzer was in command of the peasants. The army officers, hoping to +bring them to terms by lenient measures, offered to pardon them if they +would give up their leaders and peacefully retire to their homes. This +offer might have been effective but for Münzer, who, foreseeing danger +to himself, did his utmost to awaken the fanaticism of his followers.</p> + +<p>It happened that a rainbow appeared in the heavens during the +discussion. This, he declared, was a messenger sent to him from God. His +ignorant audience believed him, and for the moment were stirred up to a +mad enthusiasm which banished all thoughts of surrender. Rushing in +their fury on the ambassadors of peace and pardon, they stabbed them to +death, and then took shelter behind their intrenchments, where they +prepared for a vigorous defence.</p> + +<p>Their courage, however, did not long endure the vigorous assault made by +the troops of the elector. In vain they looked for the host of angels +which Münzer had promised would come to their aid. Not the glimpse of an +angel's wing appeared in the sky. Münzer himself took to flight, and his +infatuated followers, their blind courage vanished, fell an easy prey to +the swords of the soldiers.</p> + +<p>The greater part of the peasant horde were slain, while Münzer, who had +concealed himself from pursuit in the loft of a house in Frankenhausen, +was quickly discovered, dragged forth, put to the rack, <a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"></a>and beheaded, +his death putting an end to that first phase of the Anabaptist outbreak.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-246.png" alt="OLD HOUSES AT MÜNSTER." title="OLD HOUSES AT MÜNSTER." /></div> +<h5>OLD HOUSES AT MÜNSTER.</h5> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-225.png" alt="STATUE OF LUTHER AT WORMS." title="STATUE OF LUTHER AT WORMS." /></div> +<h5>STATUE OF LUTHER AT WORMS.</h5> +<p>After this event, several years passed during which the Anabaptists kept +quiet, though their sect increased. Then came one of the most remarkable +religious revolts which history records. Persecution in Germany had +caused many of the new sectarians to emigrate to the Netherlands, where +their preachings were effective, and many new members were gained. But +the persecution instigated by Charles V. against heretics in the +Netherlands fell heavily upon them and gave rise to a new emigration, +great numbers of the Anabaptists now seeking the town of Münster, the +capital of Westphalia. The citizens of this town had expelled their +bishop, and had in consequence been treated with great severity by +Luther, in his effort to keep the cause of religious reform separate +from politics. The new-comers were received with enthusiasm, and the +people of Münster quickly fell under the influence of two of their +fanatical preachers, John Matthiesen, a baker, of Harlem, and John +Bockhold, or Bockelson, a tailor, of Leyden.</p> + +<p>Münster soon became the seat of an extraordinary outburst of profligacy, +fanaticism, and folly. The Anabaptists took possession of the town, +drove out all its wealthy citizens, elected two of themselves—a +clothier named Knipperdolling and one Krechting—as burgomasters, and +started off in a remarkable career of self-government under Anabaptist +auspices.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"></a>A community of property was the first measure inaugurated. Every person +was required to deposit all his possessions, in gold, silver, and other +articles of value, in a public treasury, which fell under the control of +Bockelson, who soon made himself lord of the city. All the images, +pictures, ornaments, and books of the churches, except their Bibles, +were publicly burned. All persons were obliged to eat together at public +tables, all made to work according to their strength and without regard +to their former station, and a general condition of communism was +established. Bockelson gave himself out as a prophet, and quickly gained +such influence over the people that they were ready to support him in +the utmost excesses of folly and profligacy.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest steps taken was to authorize each man to possess +several wives, the number of women who had sought Münster being six +times greater than the men. John Boekelson set the example by marrying +three at once. His licentious example was quickly followed by others, +and for a full year the town continued a scene of unbridled profligacy +and mad license. One of John's partisans, claiming to have received a +divine communication, saluted him as monarch of the whole globe, the +"King of Righteousness," his title of royalty being "John of Leyden," +and declared that heaven had chosen him to restore the throne of David. +Twenty-eight apostles were selected and sent out, charged to preach the +new gospel to the whole earth and to bring its inhabitants to +acknowledge the divinely-<a name="Page_248" id="Page_248"></a>commissioned king. Their success was not +great, however. Wherever they came they were seized and immediately +executed, the earth showing itself very unwilling to accept John of +Leyden as its king.</p> + +<p>In August, 1534, an army, led by Francis of Waldeck, the expelled +bishop, who was supported by the landgrave of Hesse and several other +princes, advanced and laid siege to the city, which the Anabaptists +defended with furious zeal. In the first assault, which was made on +August 30, the assailants were repulsed with severe loss. They then +settled down to the slower but safer process of siege, considering it +easier to starve out than to fight out their enthusiastic opponents.</p> + +<p>One of the two leaders of the citizens, John Matthiesen, made a sortie +against the troops with only thirty followers, filled with the idea that +he was a second Gideon, and that God would come to his aid to defeat the +oppressors of His chosen people. The aid expected did not come, and +Matthiesen and his followers were all cut down. His death left John of +Leyden supreme. He claimed absolute authority in the new "Zion," +received daily fresh visions from heaven, which his followers implicitly +believed and obeyed, and indulged in wild excesses which only the insane +enthusiasm of his followers kept them from viewing with disgust. Among +his mad freaks was that of running around the streets naked, shouting, +"The King of Zion is come." His lieutenant Knipperdolling, not to be +outdone in fanaticism, followed his example, shouting, "Every high place +<a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a>shall be brought low." Immediately the mob assailed the churches and +pulled down all the steeples. Those who ventured to resist the monarch's +decrees were summarily dealt with, the block and axe, with +Knipperdolling as headsman, quickly disposing of all doubters and +rebels.</p> + +<p>Such was the doom of Elizabeth, one of the prophet's wives, who declared +that she could not believe that God had condemned so many people to die +of hunger while their king was living in abundance. John beheaded her +with his own hands in the market-place, and then, in insane frenzy, +danced around her body in company with his other wives. Her loss was +speedily repaired. The angels were kept busy in picking out new wives +for the inspired tailor, till in the end he had seventeen in all, one of +whom, Divara by name, gained great influence by her spirit and beauty.</p> + +<p>While all this was going on within the city, the army of besiegers lay +encamped about it, waiting patiently till famine should subdue the +stubborn courage of the citizens. Numbers of nobles flocked thither by +way of pastime, in the absence of any other wars to engage their +attention. Nor were the citizens without aid from a distance. Parties of +their brethren from Holland and Friesland sought to relieve them, but in +vain. All their attempts were repelled, and the siege grew straiter than +ever.</p> + +<p>The defence from within was stubborn, women and boys being enlisted in +the service. The boys stood between the men and fired arrows effectively +<a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"></a>at the besiegers. The women poured lime and melted pitch upon their +heads. So obstinate was the resistance that the city might have held out +for years but for the pinch of famine. The effect of this was +temporarily obviated by driving all the old men and the women who could +be spared beyond the walls; but despite this the grim figure of +starvation came daily nearer and nearer, and the day of surrender or +death steadily approached.</p> + +<p>A year at length went by, the famine growing in virulence with the +passing of the days. Hundreds perished of starvation, yet still the +people held out with a fanatical courage that defied assault, still +their king kept up their courage by divine revelations, and still he +contrived to keep himself sufficiently supplied with food amid his +starving dupes.</p> + +<p>At length the end came. Some of the despairing citizens betrayed the +town by night to the enemy. On the night of June 25, 1535, two of them +opened the gates to the bishop's army, and a sanguinary scene ensued. +The betrayed citizens defended themselves desperately, and were not +vanquished until great numbers of them had fallen and the work of famine +had been largely completed by the sword. John of Leyden was made +prisoner, together with his two chief men,—Knipperdolling, his +executioner, and Krechting, his chancellor,—they being reserved for a +slower and more painful fate.</p> + +<p>For six months they were carried through Germany, enclosed in iron +cages, and exhibited as monsters to the people. Then they were taken +back to<a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"></a> Münster, where they were cruelly tortured, and at length put to +death by piercing their hearts with red-hot daggers.</p> + +<p>Their bodies were placed in iron cages, and suspended on the front of +the church of St. Lambert, in the market-place of Münster, while the +Catholic worship was re-established in that city. The cages, and the +instruments of torture, are still preserved, probably as salutary +examples to fanatics, or as interesting mementos of Münster's past +history.</p> + +<p>The Münster madness was the end of trouble with the Anabaptists. They +continued to exist, in a quieter fashion, some of them that fled from +persecution in Germany and Holland finding themselves exposed to almost +as severe a persecution in England. As a sect they have long since +vanished, while the only trace of their influence is to be seen in those +recent sects that hold the doctrine of adult baptism.</p> + +<p>The history of mankind presents no parallel tale to that we have told. +It was an instance of insanity placed in power, of lunacy ruling over +ignorance and fanaticism; and the doings of John of Leyden in Münster +may be presented as an example alike of the mad extremes to which +unquestioned power is apt to lead, and the vast capabilities of faith +and trust which exist in uneducated man.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_FORTUNES_OF_WALLENSTEIN" id="THE_FORTUNES_OF_WALLENSTEIN"></a><i>THE FORTUNES OF WALLENSTEIN</i>.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-252.png" alt="WALLENSTEIN." title="WALLENSTEIN." /></div> +<h5>WALLENSTEIN.</h5> + +<p>Wallenstein was in power, Wallenstein the mysterious, the ambitious, the +victorious; soldier of fortune and arbiter of empires; reader of the +stars and ally of the powers of darkness; poor by birth and rich by +marriage and imperial favor; an extraordinary man, surrounded by mystery +and silence, victorious through ability and audacity, rising from +obscurity to be master of the emperor, and falling at length by the hand +of assassination. In person he was tall and thin, in countenance sallow +and lowering, his eyes small and piercing, his forehead high and +commanding, his hair short and bristling, his expression dark and +sinister. Fortune was his deity, ambition ruled him with the sway of a +tyrant; he was born with the conquering instinct, and in the end handed +over all Germany, bound and captive, to his imperial master, and retired +to brood new conquests.</p> + +<p>Albert von Wallenstein was Bohemian by birth, Prague being his native +city. His parents were Lutherans, but they died, and he was educated as +a Catholic. He travelled with an astrologer, and was taught cabalistic +lore and the secrets of the stars, which he ever after believed to +control his destiny. His fortune began in his marriage to an aged but +<a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a>very wealthy widow, who almost put an end to his career by +administering to him a love-potion. He had already served in the army, +fought against the Turks in Hungary, and with his wife's money raised a +regiment for the wars in Bohemia. A second marriage with a rich countess +added to his wealth; he purchased, at a fifth of their value, about +sixty estates of the exiled Bohemian nobility, and paid for them in +debased coin; the emperor, in recognition of his services, made him Duke +of Friedland, in which alone there were nine towns and fifty-seven +castles and villages; his wealth, through these marriages, purchases, +and gifts, steadily increased till he became enormously rich, and the +wealthiest man in Germany, next to the emperor.</p> + +<p>This extraordinary man was born in an extraordinary time, a period +admirably calculated for the exercise of his talents, and sadly suited +to the suffering of mankind in consequence. It was the period of the +frightful conflict known as the Thirty Years' War. A century had passed +since the Diet of Worms, in which Protestantism first boldly lifted its +head against Catholicism. During that period the new religious doctrines +had gained a firm footing in Germany. Charles V. had done his utmost to +put them down, and, discouraged by his failure, had abdicated the +throne. In his retreat he is said to have amused his leisure in seeking +to make two watches go precisely alike. The effort proved as vain as +that to make two people think alike, and he exclaimed, "Not even two +watches, with similar <a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a>works, can I make to agree, and yet, fool that I +was, I thought I should be able to control like the works of a watch +different nations, living under diverse skies, in different climes, and +speaking varied languages." Those who followed him were to meet with a +similar result.</p> + +<p>The second effort to put down Protestantism by arms began in 1618, and +led to that frightful outbreak of human virulence, the Thirty Years' +War, which made Germany a desert, but left religion as it found it. The +emperor, Ferdinand II., a rigid Catholic, bitterly opposed to the spread +of Protestantism, had ordered the demolition of two new churches built +by the Bohemian Protestants. His order led to instant hostilities. Count +Thurn, a fierce Bohemian nobleman, had the emperor's representatives, +Slawata and Martinitz by name, flung out of the window of the +council-chamber in Prague, a height of seventy or more feet, and their +secretary Fabricius flung after them. It was a terrible fall, but they +escaped, for a pile of litter and old papers lay below. Fabricius fell +on Martinitz, and, polite to the last, begged his pardon for coming down +upon him so rudely. This act of violence, which occurred on May 23, +1618, is looked upon as the true beginning of the dreadful war.</p> + +<p>Matters moved rapidly. Bohemia was conquered by the imperial armies, its +nobles exiled or executed, its religion suppressed. This victory gained, +an effort was made to suppress Lutheranism in Upper Austria. It led to a +revolt, and soon the whole <a name="Page_255" id="Page_255"></a>country was in a flame of war. Tilly and +Pappenheim, the imperial commanders, swept all before them, until they +suddenly found themselves opposed by a man their equal in ability, Count +Mansfeld, who had played an active part in the Bohemian wars.</p> + +<p>A diminutive, deformed, sickly-looking man was Mansfeld, but he had the +soul of a soldier in his small frame. No sooner was his standard raised +than the Protestants flocked to it, and he quickly found himself at the +head of twenty thousand men. But as the powerful princes failed to +support him he was compelled to subsist his troops by pillage, an +example which was followed by all the leaders during that dreadful +contest.</p> + +<p>And now began a frightful struggle, a game of war on the chess-board of +a nation, in which the people were the helpless pawns and suffered alike +from friends and foes. Neither side gained any decisive victory, but +both sides plundered and ravaged, the savage soldiery, unrestrained and +unrestrainable, committing cruel excesses wherever they came.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of affairs which preceded the appearance of +Wallenstein on the field of action. The soldiers led by Tilly were those +of the Catholic League; Ferdinand, the emperor, had no troops of his own +in the field; Wallenstein, discontented that the war should be going on +without him, offered to raise an imperial army, paying the most of its +expenses himself, but stipulating, in return, that he <a name="Page_256" id="Page_256"></a>should have +unlimited control. The emperor granted all his demands, and made him +Duke of Friedland as a preliminary reward, Wallenstein agreeing to raise +ten thousand men.</p> + +<p>No sooner was his standard raised than crowds flocked to it, and an army +of forty thousand soldiers of fortune were soon ready to follow him to +plunder and victory. His fame as a soldier, and the free pillage which +he promised, had proved irresistible inducements to war-loving +adventurers of all nations and creeds. In a few months the army was +raised and fully equipped, and in the autumn of 1625 took the field, +growing as it marched.</p> + +<p>Christian IV., the Lutheran king of Denmark, had joined in the war, and +Tilly, jealous of Wallenstein, vigorously sought to overcome his new +adversaries before his rival could reach the field of conflict. He +succeeded, too, in great measure, reducing many of the Protestant towns +and routing the army of the Danish king.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Wallenstein came on, his army growing until sixty thousand +men—a wild and undisciplined horde—followed his banners. Mansfeld, who +had received reinforcements from England and Holland, opposed him, but +was too weak to face him successfully in the field. He was defeated on +the bridge of Dessau, and marched rapidly into Silesia, whither +Wallenstein, much to his chagrin, was compelled to follow him.</p> + +<p>From Silesia, Mansfeld marched into Hungary, still pursued by +Wallenstein. Here he was badly <a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"></a>received, because he had not brought the +money expected by the king. His retreat cut off, and without the means +of procuring supplies in that remote country, the valiant warrior found +himself at the end of his resources. Return was impossible, for +Wallenstein occupied the roads. In the end he was forced to sell his +artillery and ammunition, disband his army, and proceed southward +towards Venice, whence he hoped to reach England and procure a new +supply of funds. But on arriving at the village of Urakowitz, in Bosnia, +his strength, worn out by incessant struggles and fatigues, gave way, +and the noble warrior, the last hope of Protestantism in Germany, as it +seemed, breathed his last, a disheartened fugitive.</p> + +<p>On feeling the approach of death, he had himself clothed in his military +coat, and his sword buckled to his side. Thus equipped, and standing +between two friends, who supported him upright, the brave Mansfeld +breathed his last. His death left his cause almost without a supporter, +for the same year his friend, Duke Christian of Brunswick, expired, and +with them the Protestants lost their only able leaders; King Christian +of Denmark, their principal successor, being greatly wanting in the +requisites of military genius.</p> + +<p>Ferdinand seemed triumphant and the cause of his opponents lost. All +opposition, for the time, was at an end. Tilly, whose purposes were the +complete restoration of Catholicism in Germany, held the provinces +conquered by him with an iron <a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a>hand. Wallenstein, who seemingly had in +view the weakening of the power of the League and the raising of the +emperor to absolutism, broke down all opposition before his irresistible +march.</p> + +<p>His army had gradually increased till it numbered one hundred thousand +men,—a host which it cost him nothing to support, for it subsisted on +the devastated country. He advanced through Silesia, driving all his +enemies before him; marched into Holstein, in order to force the King of +Denmark to leave Germany; invaded and devastated Jutland and Silesia; +and added to his immense estate the duchy of Sagan and the whole of +Mecklenburg, which latter was given him by the emperor in payment of his +share of the expenses of the war. This raised him to the rank of prince. +As for Denmark, he proposed to get rid of its king and have Ferdinand +elected in his stead.</p> + +<p>The career of this incomprehensible man had been strangely successful. +Not a shadow of reverse had met him. What he really intended no one +knew. As his enemies decreased he increased his forces. Was it the +absolutism of the emperor or of himself that he sought? Several of the +princes appealed to Ferdinand to relieve their dominions from the +oppressive burden of war, but the emperor was weaker than his general, +and dared not act against him. The whole of north Germany lay prostrate +beneath the powerful warrior, and obeyed his slightest nod. He lived in +a style of pomp and ostentation far beyond that of the emperor himself. +His <a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"></a>officers imitated him in extravagance. Even his soldiers lived in +luxury. To support this lavish display many thousands of human beings +languished in misery, starvation threatened whole provinces, and +destitution everywhere prevailed.</p> + +<p>From Mecklenburg, Wallenstein fixed his ambitious eyes on Pomerania, +which territory he grew desirous of adding to his dominions. Here was an +important commercial city, Stralsund, a member of the Hanseatic League, +and one which enjoyed the privilege of self-government. It had +contributed freely to the expenses of the imperial army, but +Wallenstein, in furtherance of his designs upon Pomerania, now +determined to place in it a garrison of his own troops.</p> + +<p>This was an interference with their vested rights which roused the wrath +of the citizens of Stralsund. They refused to receive the troops sent +them: Wallenstein, incensed, determined to teach the insolent burghers a +lesson, and bade General Arnim to march against and lay siege to the +place, doubting not that it would be quickly at his mercy.</p> + +<p>He was destined to a disappointment. Stralsund was to put the first +check upon his uniformly successful career. The citizens defended their +walls with obstinate courage. Troops, ammunition, and provisions were +sent them from Denmark and Sweden, and they continued to oppose a +successful resistance to every effort to reduce them.</p> + +<p>This unlooked for perversity of the Stralsunders filled the soul of +Wallenstein with rage. It seemed <a name="Page_260" id="Page_260"></a>to him unexampled insolence that these +merchants should dare defy his conquering troops. "Even if this +Stralsund be linked by chains to the very heavens above," he declared, +"still I swear it shall fall!"</p> + +<p>He advanced in person against the city and assailed it with his whole +army, bringing all the resources at his command to bear against its +walls. But with heroic courage the citizens held their own. Weeks +passed, while he continued to thunder upon it with shot and shell. The +Stralsunders thundered back. His most furious assaults were met by them +with a desperate valor which in time left his ranks twelve thousand men +short. In the end, to his unutterable chagrin, he was forced to raise +the siege and march away, leaving the valiant burghers lords of their +homes.</p> + +<p>The war now seemingly came to its conclusion. The King of Denmark asked +for peace, which the emperor granted, and terms were signed at Lübeck on +May 12, 1629. The contest was, for the time being, at an end, for there +was no longer any one to oppose the emperor. For twelve years it had +continued, its ravages turning rich provinces into deserts, and making +beggars and fugitives of wealthy citizens. The opposition of the +Protestants was at an end, and there were but two disturbing elements of +the seemingly pacific situation.</p> + +<p>One of these was the purpose which the Catholic party soon showed to +suppress Protestantism and bring what they considered the heretical +provinces <a name="Page_261" id="Page_261"></a>again under the dominion of the pope. The other was the army +of Wallenstein, whose intolerable tyranny over friends and foes alike +had now passed the bounds of endurance. From all sides complaints +reached the emperor's ears, charges of pillage, burnings, outrages, and +shameful oppressions of every sort inflicted by the imperial troops upon +the inhabitants of the land. So many were the complaints that it was +impossible to disregard them. The whole body of princes—every one of +whom cordially hated Wallenstein—joined in the outcry, and in the end +Ferdinand, with some hesitation, yielded to their wishes, and bade the +general to disband his forces.</p> + +<p>Would he obey? That was next to be seen. The mighty chief was in a +position to defy princes and emperor if he chose. The plundering bands +who followed him were his own, not the emperor's soldiers; they knew but +one master and were ready to obey his slightest word; had he given the +order to advance upon Vienna and drive the emperor himself from his +throne, there is no question but that they would have obeyed. As may be +imagined, then, the response of Wallenstein was awaited in fear and +anxiety. Should ambition counsel him to revolution, the very foundations +of the empire might be shaken. What, then, was the delight of princes +and people when word came that he had accepted the emperor's command +without a word, and at once ordered the disbanding of his troops.</p> + +<p>The stars were perhaps responsible for this.<a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"></a> Astrology was his passion, +and the planetary conjunctions seemed then to be in favor of submission. +The man was superstitious, with all his clear-sighted ability, and +permitted himself to be governed by influences which have long since +lost their force upon men's minds.</p> + +<p>"I do not complain against or reproach the emperor," he said to the +imperial deputies; "the stars have already indicated to me that the +spirit of the Elector of Bavaria holds sway in the imperial councils. +But his majesty, in dismissing his troops, is rejecting the most +precious jewel of his crown."</p> + +<p>The event which we have described took place in September, 1630. +Wallenstein, having paid off and dispersed his great army to the four +winds, retired to his duchy of Friedland, and took up his residence at +Gitschen, which had been much enlarged and beautified by his orders. +Here he quietly waited and observed the progress of events.</p> + +<p>He had much of interest to observe. The effort of Ferdinand and his +advisers to drive Protestantism out of Germany had produced an effect +which none of them anticipated. The war, which had seemed at an end, was +quickly afoot again, with a new leader of the Protestant cause, new +armies, and new fortunes. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, had come to +the rescue of his threatened fellow-believers, and before the army of +Wallenstein had been dissolved the work of the peace-makers was set +aside, and the horrors of war returned.</p> + +<p>The dismissed general had now left Gitschen for<a name="Page_263" id="Page_263"></a> Bohemia, where he dwelt +upon his estates in a style of regal luxury, and in apparent disregard +of the doings of emperors and kings. His palace in Prague was royal in +its adornments, and while his enemies were congratulating themselves on +having forced him into retirement, he had Italian artists at work +painting on the walls of this palace his figure in the character of a +conqueror, his triumphal car drawn by four milk-white steeds, while a +star shone above his laurel-crowned head. Sixty pages, of noble birth, +richly attired in blue and gold velvet, waited upon him, while some of +his officers and chamberlains had served the emperor in the same rank. +In his magnificent stables were three hundred horses of choice breeds, +while the daily gathering of distinguished men in his halls was not +surpassed by the assemblies of the emperor himself.</p> + +<p>Yet in his demeanor there was nothing to show that he entertained a +shadow of his former ambition. He affected the utmost ease and +tranquillity of manner, and seemed as if fully content with his present +state, and as if he cared no longer who fought the wars of the world.</p> + +<p>But inwardly his ambition had in no sense declined. He beheld the +progress of the Swedish conqueror with secret joy, and when he saw Tilly +overthrown at Leipsic, and the fruits of twelve years of war wrested +from the emperor at a single blow, his heart throbbed high with hope. +His hour of revenge upon the emperor had come. Ferdinand must humiliate +himself and come for aid to his dis<a name="Page_264" id="Page_264"></a>missed general, for there was not +another man in the kingdom capable of saving it from the triumphant foe.</p> + +<p>He was right. The emperor's deputies came. He was requested, begged, to +head again the imperial armies. He received the envoys coldly. Urgent +persuasions were needed to induce him to raise an army of thirty +thousand men. Even then he would not agree to take command of it. He +would raise it and put it at the emperor's disposal.</p> + +<p>He planted his standard; the men came; many of them his old followers. +Plenty and plunder were promised, and thousands flocked to his tents. By +March of 1632 the thirty thousand men were collected. Who should command +them? There was but one, and this the emperor and Wallenstein alike +knew. They would follow only the man to whose banner they had flocked.</p> + +<p>The emperor begged him to take command. He consented, but only on +conditions to which an emperor has rarely agreed. Wallenstein was to +have exclusive control of the army, without interference of any kind, +was to be given irresponsible control over all the provinces he might +conquer, was to hold as security a portion of the Austrian patrimonial +estates, and after the war might choose any of the hereditary estates of +the empire for his seat of retirement. The emperor acceded, and +Wallenstein, clothed with almost imperial power, marched to war. His +subsequent fortunes the next narrative must declare.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_END_OF_TWO_GREAT_SOLDIERS" id="THE_END_OF_TWO_GREAT_SOLDIERS"></a><i>THE END OF TWO GREAT SOLDIERS</i>.</h3> + + +<p>Two armies faced each other in central Bavaria, two armies on which the +fate of Germany depended, those of Gustavus Adolphus, the right hand of +Protestantism, and of Wallenstein, the hope of Catholic imperialism. +Gustavus was strongly intrenched in the vicinity of Nuremberg, with an +army of but sixteen thousand men. Wallenstein faced him with an army of +sixty thousand, yet dared not attack him in his strong position. He +occupied himself in efforts to make his camp as impregnable as that of +his foeman, and the two great opponents lay waiting face to face, while +famine slowly decimated their ranks.</p> + +<p>It was an extraordinary position. Both sides depended for food on +foraging, and between them they had swept the country clean. The +peasantry fled in every direction from Wallenstein's pillaging troops, +who destroyed all that they could not carry away. It had become a +question with the two armies which could starve the longest, and for +three months they lay encamped, each waiting until famine should drive +the other out. Surely such a situation had never before been known.</p> + +<p>What had preceded this event? A few words will tell. Ferdinand the +emperor had, with the aid <a name="Page_266" id="Page_266"></a>of Tilly and Wallenstein, laid all Germany +prostrate at his feet. Ferdinand the zealot had, by this effort to +impose Catholicism on the Protestant states, speedily undone the work of +his generals, and set the war on foot again. Gustavus Adolphus, the hero +of Sweden, had come to the aid of the oppressed Protestants of Germany, +borne down all before him, and quickly won back northern Germany from +the oppressor's hands.</p> + +<p>And now the cruelty of that savage war reached its culminating point. +When Germany submitted to the emperor, one city did not submit. +Magdeburg still held out. All efforts to subdue it proved fruitless, and +it continued free and defiant when all the remainder of Germany lay +under the emperor's control.</p> + +<p>It was to pay dearly for the courage of its citizens. When the war broke +out again, Magdeburg was besieged by Tilly with his whole force. After a +most valiant defence it was taken by storm, and a scene of massacre and +ruin followed without a parallel in modern wars. When it ended, +Magdeburg was no more. Of its buildings all were gone, except the +cathedral and one hundred and thirty-seven houses. Of its inhabitants +all had perished, except some four thousand who had taken refuge in the +cathedral. Man, woman, and child, the sword had slain them all, Tilly +being in considerable measure responsible for the massacre, for he was +dilatory in ordering its cessation. When at length he did act there was +little to save. All Europe thrilled with <a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a>horror at the dreadful news, +and from that day forward fortune fled from the banners of Count Tilly.</p> + +<p>On September 7, 1631, the armies of Gustavus and Tilly met at Leipsic, +and a terrible battle ensued, in which the imperialists were completely +defeated and all the fruits of their former victories torn from their +hands. In the following year Tilly had his thigh shattered by a +cannon-ball at the battle of the Lech, and died in excruciating agonies.</p> + +<p>Such were the preludes to the scene we have described. The Lutheran +princes everywhere joined the victorious Gustavus; Austria itself was +threatened by his irresistible arms; and the emperor, in despair, called +Wallenstein again to the command, yielding to the most extreme demands +of this imperious chief.</p> + +<p>The next scene was that we have described, in which the armies of +Gustavus and Wallenstein lay face to face at Nuremberg, each waiting +until starvation should force the other to fight or to retreat.</p> + +<p>Gustavus had sent for reinforcements, and his army steadily grew. That +of Wallenstein dwindled away under the assaults of famine and +pestilence. A large convoy of provisions intended for Wallenstein was +seized by the Swedes. Soon afterwards Gustavus was so strongly +reinforced that his army grew to seventy thousand men. At his back lay +Nuremberg, his faithful ally, ready to aid him with thirty thousand +fighting men besides. As his force grew that of Wallenstein shrank, +until by the end <a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a>of the siege pestilence and want had reduced his army +to twenty-four thousand men.</p> + +<p>The Swedes were the first to yield in this game of starvation. As their +numbers grew their wants increased, and at length, furious with famine, +they made a desperate assault upon the imperial camp. They were driven +back, with heavy loss. Two weeks more Gustavus waited, and then, +despairing of drawing his opponent from his works, he broke camp and +marched with sounding trumpets past his adversary's camp, who quietly +let him go. The Swedes had lost twenty thousand men, and Nuremberg ten +thousand of her inhabitants, during this period of hunger and slaughter.</p> + +<p>This was in September, 1632. In November of the same year the two armies +met again, on the plain of Lützen, in Saxony, not far from the scene of +Tilly's defeat, a year before. Wallenstein, on the retreat of Gustavus, +had set fire to his own encampment and marched away, burning the +villages around Nuremberg and wasting the country as he advanced, with +Saxony as his goal. Gustavus, who had at first marched southward into +the Catholic states, hastened to the relief of his allies. On the 15th +of November the two great opponents came once more face to face, +prepared to stake the cause of religious freedom in Germany on the issue +of battle.</p> + +<p>Early in the morning of the 16th Gustavus marshalled his forces, +determined that that day should settle the question of victory or +defeat. Wallenstein had weakened his ranks by sending Count<a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"></a> Pappenheim +south on siege duty, and the Swedish king, without waiting for +reinforcements, decided on an instant attack.</p> + +<p>Unluckily for him the morning dawned in fog. The entire plain lay +shrouded. It was not until after eleven o'clock that the mist rose and +the sun shone on the plain. During this interval Count Pappenheim, for +whom Wallenstein had sent in haste the day before, was speeding north by +forced marches, and through the chance of the fog was enabled to reach +the field while the battle was at its height.</p> + +<p>The troops were drawn up in battle array, the Swedes singing to the +accompaniment of drums and trumpets Luther's stirring hymn, and an ode +composed by the king himself: "Fear not, thou little flock." They were +strongly contrasted with the army of their foe, being distinguished by +the absence of armor, light colored (chiefly blue) uniforms, quickness +of motion, exactness of discipline, and the lightness of their +artillery. The imperialists, on the contrary, wore old-fashioned, +close-fitting uniforms, mostly yellow in color, cuirasses, thigh-pieces, +and helmets, and were marked by slow movements, absence of discipline, +and the heaviness and unmanageable character of their artillery. The +battle was to be, to some extent, a test of excellence between the new +and the old ideas in war.</p> + +<p>At length the fog rose and the sun broke out, and both sides made ready +for the struggle. Wallenstein, though suffering from a severe attack of +his <a name="Page_270" id="Page_270"></a>persistent enemy, the gout, mounted his horse and prepared his +troops for the assault. His infantry were drawn up in squares, with the +cavalry on their flanks, in front a ditch defended by artillery. His +purpose was defensive, that of Gustavus offensive. The Swedish king +mounted in his turn, placed himself at the head of his right wing, and, +brandishing his sword, exclaimed, "Now, onward! May our God direct us! +Lord! Lord! help me this day to fight for the glory of Thy name!" Then, +throwing aside his cuirass, which annoyed him on account of a slight +wound he had recently received, he cried, "God is my shield!" and led +his men in a furious charge upon the cannon-guarded ditch.</p> + +<p>The guns belched forth their deadly thunders, many fell, but the +remainder broke irresistibly over the defences and seized the battery, +driving the imperialists back in disorder. The cavalry, which had +charged the black cuirassiers of Wallenstein, was less successful. They +were repulsed, and the cuirassiers fiercely charged the Swedish infantry +in flank, driving it back beyond the trenches.</p> + +<p>This repulse brought on the great disaster of the day. Gustavus, seeing +his infantry driven back, hastened to their aid with a troop of horse, +and through the disorder of the field became separated from his men, +only a few of whom accompanied him, among them Francis, Duke of +Saxe-Lauenburg. His short-sightedness, or the foggy condition of the +atmosphere, unluckily brought him too near <a name="Page_271" id="Page_271"></a>a party of the black +cuirassiers, and in an instant a shot struck him, breaking his left arm.</p> + +<p>"I am wounded; take me off the field," he said to the Duke of Lauenburg, +and turned his horse to retire from the perilous vicinity.</p> + +<p>As he did so a second ball struck him in the back. "My God! My God!" he +exclaimed, falling from the saddle, while his horse, which had been +wounded in the neck, dashed away, dragging the king, whose foot was +entangled in the stirrup, for some distance.</p> + +<p>The duke fled, but Luchau, the master of the royal horse, shot the +officer who had wounded the king. The cuirassiers advanced, while +Leubelfing, the king's page, a boy of eighteen, who had alone remained +with him, was endeavoring to raise him up.</p> + +<p>"Who is he?" they asked.</p> + +<p>The boy refused to tell, and was shot and mortally wounded.</p> + +<p>"I am the King of Sweden!" Gustavus is said to have exclaimed to his +foes, who had surrounded and were stripping him.</p> + +<p>On hearing this they sought to carry him off, but a charge of the +Swedish cavalry at that moment drove them from their prey. As they +retired they discharged their weapons at the helpless king, one of the +cuirassiers shooting him through the head as he rushed past his +prostrate form.</p> + +<p>The sight of the king's charger, covered with blood, and galloping with +empty saddle past their ranks, told the Swedes the story of the +disastrous <a name="Page_272" id="Page_272"></a>event. The news spread rapidly from rank to rank, carrying +alarm wherever it came. Some of the generals wished to retreat, but Duke +Bernhard of Weimar put himself at the head of a regiment, ran its +colonel through for refusing to obey him, and called on them to follow +him to revenge their king.</p> + +<p>His ardent appeal stirred the troops to new enthusiasm. Regardless of a +shot that carried away his hat, Bernhard charged at their head, broke +over the trenches and into the battery, retook the guns, and drove the +imperial troops back in confusion, regaining all the successes of the +first assault.</p> + +<p>The day seemed won. It would have been but for the fresh forces of +Pappenheim, who had some time before reached the field, only to fall +before the bullets of the foe. His men took an active part in the fray, +and swept backward the tide of war. The Swedes were again driven from +the battery and across the ditch, with heavy loss, and the imperialists +regained the pivotal point of the obstinate struggle.</p> + +<p>But now the reserve corps of the Swedes, led by Kniphausen, came into +action, and once more the state of the battle was reversed. They charged +across the ditch with such irresistible force that the position was for +the third time taken, and the imperialists again driven back. This ended +the desperate contest. Wallenstein ordered the retreat to be sounded. +The dead Gustavus had won the victory.</p> + +<p>A thick fog came on as night fell and prevented <a name="Page_273" id="Page_273"></a>pursuit, even if the +weariness of the Swedes would have allowed it. They held the field, +while Wallenstein hastened away, his direction of retreat being towards +Bohemia. The Swedes had won and lost, for the death of Gustavus was +equivalent to a defeat, and the emperor, with unseemly rejoicing, +ordered a Te Deum to be sung in all his cities.</p> + +<p>On the following day the Swedes sought for the body of their king. They +found it by a great stone, which is still known as the Swedish stone. It +had been so trampled by the hoofs of charging horses, and was so covered +with blood from its many wounds, that it was difficult to recognize. The +collar, saturated with blood, which had fallen into the hands of the +cuirassiers, was taken to Vienna and presented to the emperor, who is +said to have shed tears on seeing it. The corpse was laid in state +before the Swedish army, and was finally removed to Stockholm, where it +was interred.</p> + +<p>Thus perished one of the great souls of Europe, a man stirred deeply by +ambition, full of hopes greater than he himself acknowledged, a military +hero of the first rank, and one disposed to prosecute war with a +humanity far in advance of his age. He severely repressed all excesses +of his soldiery, was solicitous for the security of citizens and +peasantry, and strictly forbade any revengeful reprisals on Catholic +cities for the frightful work done by his opponents upon the +Protestants. Seldom has a conqueror shown such magnanimity and nobility +of sentiment, and his untimely death had much to do with <a name="Page_274" id="Page_274"></a>exposing +Germany to the later desolation of that most frightful of religious +wars.</p> + +<p>His defeated foe, Wallenstein, was not long to survive him. After his +defeat he acted in a manner that gave rise to suspicions that he +intended to play false to the emperor. He executed many of his officers +and soldiers in revenge for their cowardice, as he termed it, recruited +his ranks up to their former standard, but remained inactive, while +Bernhard of Weimar was leading the Swedes to new successes.</p> + +<p>His actions were so problematical, indeed, that suspicion of his motives +grew more decided, and at length a secret conspiracy was raised against +him with the connivance of the emperor. Wallenstein, as if fearful of an +attempt to rob him of his power, had his superior officers assembled at +a banquet given at Pilsen, in January, 1634. A fierce attack of gout +prevented him from presiding, but his firm adherents, Field-Marshals +Illo and Terzka, took his place, and all the officers signed a compact +to adhere faithfully to the duke in life and death as long as he should +remain in the emperor's service. Some signed it who afterwards proved +false to him, among them Field-Marshal Piccolomini, who afterwards +betrayed him.</p> + +<p>Just what designs that dark and much revolving man contemplated it is +not easy to tell. It may have been treachery to the emperor, but he was +not the man to freely reveal his secrets. The one person he trusted was +Piccolomini, whose star seemed in <a name="Page_275" id="Page_275"></a>favorable conjunction with his own. +To him he made known some of his projected movements, only to find in +the end that his trusted confidant had revealed them all to the emperor.</p> + +<p>The plot against Wallenstein was now put into effect, the emperor +ordering his deposition from his command, and appointing General Gablas +to replace him, while a general amnesty for all his officers was +announced. Wallenstein was quickly taught how little he could trust his +troops and officers. Many of his generals fell from him at once. A few +regiments only remained faithful, and even in their ranks traitors +lurked. With but a thousand men to follow him he proceeded to Eger, and +from there asked aid of Bernhard of Weimar, as if he purposed to join +with those against whom he had so long fought. Bernhard received the +message with deep astonishment, and exclaimed, moved by his belief that +Wallenstein was in league with the devil,—</p> + +<p>"He who does not trust in God can never be trusted by man!"</p> + +<p>The great soldier of fortune was near his end. The stars were powerless +to save him. It was not enough to deprive him of his command, his +enemies did not deem it safe to let him live. One army gone, his wealth +and his fame might soon bring him another, made up of those mercenary +soldiers of all nations, and of all or no creeds, who would follow Satan +if he promised them plunder. His death had been resolved upon, and the +agent chosen for <a name="Page_276" id="Page_276"></a>its execution was Colonel Butler, one of the officers +who had accompanied him to Eger.</p> + +<p>It was late in February, 1634. On the night fixed for the murder, +Wallenstein's faithful friends, Illo, Terzka, Kinsky, and Captain +Neumann were at a banquet in the castle of Eger. The agents of death +were Colonel Butler, an Irish officer named Lesley, and a Scotchman +named Gordon, while the soldiers employed were a number of dragoons, +chiefly Irish.</p> + +<p>In the midst of the dinner the doors of the banqueting hall were burst +open, and the assassins rushed upon their victims, killing them as they +sat, with the exception of Terzka, who killed two of his assailants +before he was despatched.</p> + +<p>From this scene of murder the assassins rushed to the quarters of +Wallenstein. It was midnight and he had gone to bed. He sprang up as his +door was burst open, and Captain Devereux, one of the party, rushed with +drawn sword into the room.</p> + +<p>"Are you the villain who would sell the army to the enemy and tear the +crown from the emperor's head?" he shouted.</p> + +<p>Wallenstein's only answer was to open his arms and receive the blow +aimed at his breast. He died without a word. Thus, with a brief interval +between, had fallen military genius and burning ambition in two +forms,—that of the heroic Swede and that of the ruthless Bohemian.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_SIEGE_OF_VIENNA" id="THE_SIEGE_OF_VIENNA"></a><i>THE SIEGE OF VIENNA</i>.</h3> + + +<p>Once more the Grand Turk was afoot. Straight on Vienna he had marched, +with an army of more than two hundred thousand men. At length he had +reached the goal for which he had so often aimed, the Austrian capital, +while all western Europe was threatened by his arms. The grand vizier, +Kara Mustapha, headed the army, which had marched straight through +Hungary without wasting time in petty sieges, and hastened towards the +imperial city with scarce a barrier in its path.</p> + +<p>Consternation filled the Viennese as the vast army of the Turks rolled +steadily nearer and nearer, pillaging the country as it came, and moving +onward as irresistibly and almost as destructively as a lava flow. The +emperor and his court fled in terror. Many of the wealthy inhabitants +followed, bearing with them such treasures as they could convey. The +land lay helpless under the shadow of terror which the coming host threw +far before its columns.</p> + +<p>But pillage takes time. The Turks, through the greatness of their +numbers, moved slowly. Some time was left for action. The inhabitants of +the city, taking courage, armed for defence. The Duke of Lorraine, whose +small army had not ventured to face the foe, left twelve thousand men in +the city, and drew back with the remainder to wait for reinforcements. +Count Rüdiger of Stahrenberg was left <a name="Page_278" id="Page_278"></a>in command, and made all haste to +put the imperilled city in a condition of defence.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-278.png" alt="THE PARLIAMENT HOUSE IN VIENNA." title="THE PARLIAMENT HOUSE IN VIENNA." /></div> +<h5>THE PARLIAMENT HOUSE IN VIENNA.</h5> + +<p>On came the Turks, the smoke of burning villages the signal of their +approach. On the 14th of June, 1683, their mighty army appeared before +the walls, and a city of tents was built that covered a space of six +leagues in extent.</p> + +<p>Their camp was arranged in the form of a crescent, enclosing within its +boundaries a promiscuous mass of soldiers and camp-followers, camels, +and baggage-wagons, which seemed to extend as far as the eye could +reach. In the centre was the gorgeous tent of the vizier, made of green +silk, and splendid with its embroidery of gold, silver, and precious +stones, while inside it was kept the holy standard of the prophet. +Marvellous stories are told of the fountains, baths, gardens, and other +appliances of Oriental luxury with which the vizier surrounded himself +in this magnificent tent.</p> + +<p>Two days after the arrival of the Turkish host the trenches were opened, +the cannon placed, and the siege of Vienna began. For more than two +centuries the conquerors of Constantinople had kept their eyes fixed on +this city as a glorious prize. Now they had reached it, and the thunder +of their cannon around its walls was full of threat for the West. Vienna +once theirs, it was not easy to say where their career of conquest would +be stayed.</p> + +<p>Fortunately, Count Rüdiger was an able and vigilant soldier, and +defended the city with a skill and obstinacy that baffled every effort +of his foes. The<a name="Page_279" id="Page_279"></a> Turks, determined on victory, thundered upon the walls +till they were in many parts reduced to heaps of ruins. With incessant +labor they undermined them, blew up the strongest bastions, and laid +their plans to rush into the devoted city, from which they hoped to gain +a glorious booty. But active as they were the besieged were no less so. +The damage done by day was repaired by night, and still Vienna turned a +heroic face to its thronging enemies.</p> + +<p>Furious assaults were made, multitudes of the Turks rushing with savage +cries to the breaches, only to be hurled back by the obstinate valor of +the besieged. Every foot of ground was fiercely contested, the struggle +at each point being desperate and determined. It was particularly so +around the Löbel bastion, where scarcely an inch of ground was left +unstained by the blood of the struggling foes.</p> + +<p>Count Rüdiger, although severely wounded, did not let his hurt reduce +his vigilance. Daily he had himself carried round the circle of the +works, directing and cheering his men. Bishop Kolonitsch attended the +wounded, and with such active and useful zeal that the grand vizier sent +him a threat that he would have his head for his meddling. Despite this +fulmination of fury, the worthy bishop continued to use his threatened +head in the service of mercy and sympathy.</p> + +<p>But the numbers of the garrison grew rapidly less, and their incessant +duty wore them out with fatigue. The commandant was forced to threaten +death to any sentinel found asleep upon his post.<a name="Page_280" id="Page_280"></a> A fire broke out +which was only suppressed with the greatest exertion. Famine also began +to invade the city, and the condition of the besieged grew daily more +desperate. Their only hope lay in relief from without, and this did not +come.</p> + +<p>Two months passed slowly by. The Turks had made a desert of the +surrounding country, and held many thousands of its inhabitants as +prisoners in their camp. Step by step they gained upon the defenders. By +the end of August they possessed the moat around the city walls. On the +4th of September a mine was sprung under the Burg bastion, with such +force that it shook half the city like an earthquake. The bastion was +rent and shattered for a width of more than thirty feet, portions of its +walls being hurled far and wide.</p> + +<p>Into the great breach made the assailants poured in an eager multitude. +But the defenders were equally alert, and drove them back with loss. On +the following day they charged again, and were again repulsed by the +brave Viennese, the ruined bastion becoming a very gulf of death.</p> + +<p>The Turks, finding their efforts useless, resumed the work of mining, +directing their efforts against the same bastion. On the 10th of +September the new mine was sprung, and this time with such effect that a +breach was made through which a whole Turkish battalion was able to +force its way.</p> + +<p>This city now was in the last extremity of danger; unless immediate +relief came all would soon be lost. The garrison had been much reduced +by sickness <a name="Page_281" id="Page_281"></a>and wounds, while those remaining were so completely +exhausted as to be almost incapable of defence. Rüdiger had sent courier +after courier to the Duke of Lorraine in vain. In vain the lookouts +swept the surrounding country with their eyes in search of some trace of +coming aid. All seemed at an end. During the night a circle of rockets +was fired from the tower of St. Stephen's as a signal of distress. This +done the wretched Viennese waited for the coming day, almost hopeless of +repelling the hosts which threatened to engulf them. At the utmost a few +days must end the siege. A single day might do it.</p> + +<p>That dreadful night of suspense passed away. With the dawn the wearied +garrison was alert, prepared to strike a last blow for safety and +defence, and to guard the yawning breach unto death. They waited with +the courage of despair for an assault which did not come. Hurried and +excited movements were visible in the enemy's camp. Could succor be at +hand? Yes, from the summit of the Kahlen Hill came the distant report of +three cannon, a signal that filled the souls of the garrison with joy. +Quickly afterwards the lookouts discerned the glitter of weapons and the +waving of Christian banners on the hill. The rescuers were at hand, and +barely in time to save the city from its almost triumphant foes.</p> + +<p>During the siege the Christian people outside had not been idle. +Bavaria, Saxony, and the lesser provinces of the empire mustered their +forces in all haste, and sent them to the reinforcement of Charles <a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a>of +Lorraine. To their aid came Sobieski, the chivalrous King of Poland, +with eighteen thousand picked men at his back. He himself was looked +upon as a more valuable reinforcement than his whole army. He had +already distinguished himself against the Turks, who feared and hated +him, while all Europe looked to him as its savior from the infidel foe.</p> + +<p>There were in all about seventy-seven thousand men in the army whose +vanguard ascended the Kahlen Hill on that critical 11th of September, +and announced its coming to the beleaguered citizens by its three signal +shots. The Turks, too confident in their strength, had thoughtlessly +failed to occupy the heights, and by this carelessness gave their foes a +position of vantage. In truth, the vizier, proud in his numbers, viewed +the coming foe with disdain, and continued to pour a shower of bombs and +balls upon the city while despatching what he deemed would be a +sufficient force to repel the enemy.</p> + +<p>On the morning of September 12, Sobieski led his troops down the hill to +encounter the dense masses of the Moslems in the plain below. This +celebrated chief headed his men with his head partly shaved, in the +Polish fashion, and plainly dressed, though he was attended by a +brilliant retinue. In front went an attendant bearing the king's arms +emblazoned. Beside him was another who carried a plume on the point of +his lance. On his left rode his son James, on his right Charles of +Lorraine. Before the battle he knighted his son and made a <a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a>stirring +address to his troops, in which he told them that they fought not for +Vienna alone, but for all Christendom; not for an earthly sovereign, but +for the King of kings.</p> + +<p>Early in the day the left wing of the army had attacked and carried the +village of Nussdorf, on the Danube, driving out its Turkish defenders +after an obstinate resistance. It was about mid-day when the King of +Poland led the right wing into the plain against the dense battalions of +Turkish horsemen which there awaited his assault.</p> + +<p>The ringing shouts of his men told the enemy that it was the dreaded +Sobieski whom they had to meet, their triumphant foe on many a +well-fought field. At the head of his cavalry he dashed upon their +crowded ranks with such impetuosity as to penetrate to their very +centre, carrying before him confusion and dismay. So daring was his +assault that he soon found himself in imminent danger, having ridden +considerably in advance of his men. Only a few companions were with him, +while around him crowded the dense columns of the foe. In a few minutes +more he would have been overpowered and destroyed, had not the German +cavalry perceived his peril and come at full gallop to his rescue, +scattering with the vigor of their charge the turbaned assailants, and +snatching him from the very hands of death.</p> + +<p>So sudden and fierce was the assault, so poorly led the Turkish +horsemen, and so alarming to them the war-cry of Sobieski's men, that in +a short time they <a name="Page_284" id="Page_284"></a>were completely overthrown, and were soon in flight +in all directions. This, however, was but a partial success. The main +body of the Turkish army had taken no part. Their immense camp, with its +thousands of tents, maintained its position, and the batteries continued +to bombard the city as if in disdain of the paltry efforts of their +foes.</p> + +<p>Yet it seems to have been rather rage and alarm than disdain that +animated the vizier. He is said to have, in a paroxysm of fury, turned +the scimitars of his followers upon the prisoners in his camp, +slaughtering thirty thousand of these unfortunates, while bidding his +cannoneers to keep up their assault upon the city.</p> + +<p>These evidences of indecision and alarm in their leader filled the Turks +with dread. They saw their cavalry battalions flying in confusion, heard +the triumphant trumpets of their foes, learned that the dreaded Polish +king was at the head of the irresistible charging columns, and yet +beheld their commander pressing the siege as if no foe were in the +field. It was evident that the vizier had lost his head through fright. +A sudden terror filled their souls. They broke and fled. While Sobieski +and the other leaders were in council to decide whether the battle +should be continued that evening or left till the next morning, word was +brought them that the enemy was in full flight, running away in every +direction.</p> + +<p>They hastened out. The tidings proved true. A panic had seized the +Turks, and, abandoning tents, <a name="Page_285" id="Page_285"></a>cannon, baggage, everything, they were +flying in wild haste from the beleaguered walls. The alarm quickly +spread through their ranks. Those who had been firing on the city left +their guns and joined in the flight. From rank to rank, from division to +division, it extended, until the whole army had decamped and was +hastening in panic terror over the plain, hotly pursued by the +death-dealing columns of the Christian cavalry, and thinking only of +Constantinople and safety.</p> + +<p>The booty found in the camp was immense. The tent of the grand vizier +alone was valued at nearly half a million dollars, and the whole spoil +was estimated as worth fifteen million dollars. The king wrote to his +wife as follows:</p> + +<p>"The whole of the enemy's camp, together with their artillery and an +incalculable amount of property, has fallen into our hands. The camels +and mules, together with the captive Turks, are driven away in herds, +while I myself am become the heir of the grand vizier. The banner which +was usually borne before him, together with the standard of Mohammed, +with which the sultan had honored him in this campaign, and the tents, +wagons, and baggage, are all fallen to my share; even some of the +quivers captured among the rest are alone worth several thousand +dollars. It would take too long to describe all the other objects of +luxury found in his tents, as, for instance, his baths, fountains, +gardens, and a variety of rare animals. This morning I was in the city, +and found that it could hardly have <a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"></a>held out more than five days. Never +before did the eye of man see a work of equal magnitude despatched with +a vigor like that with which they blew up, and shattered to pieces, huge +masses of stone and rocks."</p> + +<p>Sobieski, on entering Vienna, was greeted with the warmest gratitude and +enthusiasm by crowds of people, who looked upon him as their deliverer. +The governor, Count Rüdiger, grasped his hand with affection, the +populace followed him in his every movement, while cries of "Long live +the king!" everywhere resounded. Never had been a more signal delivery, +and the citizens were beside themselves with joy.</p> + +<p>In this siege the Turks had lost forty-eight thousand men. Twenty +thousand more fell on the day of battle, and an equal number during the +retreat. It is said that in the tent of the grand vizier were found +letters from Louis XIV. containing the full plan of the siege, and to +the many crimes of ambition of this monarch seems to be added that of +bringing this frightful peril upon Europe for his own selfish ends. As +for the unlucky vizier, he was put to death by strangling, by order of +the angry sultan, on his reaching Belgrade. It is said that his head, +found on the taking of Belgrade by Eugene, years afterwards, was sent to +Bishop Kolonitsch, whose own head the vizier had threatened to take in +revenge for his labors among the wounded of Vienna.</p> + +<p>The war with the Turks continued, with some <a name="Page_287" id="Page_287"></a>few intermissions, for +fifteen years afterwards. It ended to the great advantage of the +Christian armies. One after another the fortresses of Hungary were +wrested from their hands, and in the year 1687 they were totally +defeated at Mohacz by the Duke of Lorraine and Prince Eugene, and the +whole of Hungary torn from their grasp.</p> + +<p>In 1697 another great victory over them was won by Eugene, at Zenta, by +which the power of the Turks was completely broken. Belgrade, which they +had long held, fell into his hands, and a peace was signed which +confirmed Austria in the possession of all Hungary. From that time +forward the terror which the Turkish name had so long inspired vanished, +and the siege of Vienna may be looked upon as the concluding act in the +long array of invasions of Europe by the Mongolian hordes of Asia. It +was to be followed by the gradual recovery, now almost consummated, of +their European dominions from their hands.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_YOUTH_OF_FREDERICK_THE_GREAT" id="THE_YOUTH_OF_FREDERICK_THE_GREAT"></a><i>THE YOUTH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT</i>.</h3> + + +<p>An extraordinarily rude, coarse, and fierce old despot was Frederick +William, first King of Prussia, son of the great Elector and father of +Frederick the Great. He hated France and the French language and +culture, then so much in vogue in Europe; he despised learning and +science; ostentation was to him a thing unknown; and he had but two +passions, one being to possess the tallest soldiers in Europe, the other +to have his own fierce will in all things on which he set his mind. +About all that we can say in his favor is that he paid much attention to +the promotion of education in his realm, many schools being opened and +compulsory attendance enforced.</p> + +<p>Of the fear with which he inspired many of his subjects, and the methods +he took to overcome it, there is no better example than that told in +relation to a Jew, whom the king saw as he was riding one day through +Berlin. The poor Israelite was slinking away in dread, when the king +rode up, seized him, and asked in harsh tones what ailed him.</p> + +<p>"Sire, I was afraid of you," said the trembling captive.</p> + +<p>"Fear me! fear me, do you?" exclaimed the king in a rage, lashing his +riding-whip across the man's <a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a>shoulders with every word. "You dog! I'll +teach you to love me!"</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-289.png" alt="STATUE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT, UNTER DEN LINDEN, BERLIN." title="STATUE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT, UNTER DEN LINDEN, BERLIN." /></div> +<h5>STATUE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT, UNTER DEN LINDEN, BERLIN.</h5> + +<p>It was in some such fashion that he sought to make his son love him, and +with much the same result. In fact, he seemed to entertain a bitter +dislike for the beautiful and delicate boy whom fortune had sent him as +an heir, and treated him with such brutal severity that the unhappy +child grew timid and fearful of his presence. This the harsh old despot +ascribed to cowardice, and became more violent accordingly.</p> + +<p>On one occasion when young Frederick entered his room, something having +happened to excite his rage against him, he seized him by the hair, +flung him violently to the floor, and caned him until he had exhausted +the strength of his arm on the poor boy's body. His fury growing with +the exercise of it, he now dragged the unresisting victim to the +windows, seized the curtain cord, and twisted it tightly around his +neck. Frederick had barely strength enough to grasp his father's hand +and scream for help. The old brute would probably have strangled him had +not a chamberlain rushed in and saved him from the madman's hands.</p> + +<p>The boy, as he grew towards man's estate, developed tastes which added +to his father's severity. The French language and literature which he +hated were the youth's delight, and he took every opportunity to read +the works of French authors, and particularly those of Voltaire, who was +his favorite among writers. This predilection was not likely to +<a name="Page_290" id="Page_290"></a>overcome the fierce temper of the king, who discovered his pursuits and +flogged him unmercifully, thinking to cane all love for such enervating +literature, as he deemed it, out of the boy's mind. In this he failed. +Germany in that day had little that deserved the name of literature, and +the expanding intellect of the active-minded youth turned irresistibly +towards the tabooed works of the French.</p> + +<p>In truth, he needed some solace for his expanding tastes, for his +father's house and habits were far from satisfactory to one with any +refinement of nature. The palace of Frederick William was little more +attractive than the houses of the humbler citizens of Berlin. The floors +were carpetless, the rooms were furnished with common bare tables and +wooden chairs, art was conspicuously absent, luxury wanting, comfort +barely considered, even the table was very parsimoniously served.</p> + +<p>The old king's favorite apartment in all his places of residence was his +smoking-room, which was furnished with a deal table covered with green +baize and surrounded by hard chairs. This was his audience-chamber, his +hall of state, the room in which the affairs of the kingdom were decided +in a cloud of smoke and amid the fumes of beer. Here sat generals in +uniform, ministers of state wearing their orders, ambassadors and noble +guests from foreign realms, all smoking short Dutch pipes and breathing +the vapors of tobacco. Before each was placed a great mug of beer, and +the beer-casks were kept freely on tap, for the old despot insisted that +all <a name="Page_291" id="Page_291"></a>should drink or smoke whether or not they liked beer and tobacco, +and he was never more delighted than when he could make a guest drunk or +sicken him with smoke. For food, when they were in need of it, bread and +cheese and similar viands might be had.</p> + +<p>A strange picture of palatial grandeur this. Fortune had missed +Frederick William's true vocation in not making him an inn-keeper in a +German village instead of a king. Around this smoke-shrouded table the +most important affairs of state were discussed. Around it the rudest +practical jokes were perpetrated. Gundling, a beer-bibbing author, whom +the king made at once his historian and his butt, was the principal +sufferer from these frolics, which displayed abundantly that absence of +wit and presence of brutality which is the characteristic of the +practical joke. As if in scorn of rank and official dignity, Frederick +gave this sot and fool the title of baron and created him chancellor and +chamberlain of the palace, forcing him always to wear an absurdly +gorgeous gala dress, while to show his disdain of learned pursuits he +made him president of his Academy of Sciences, an institution which, in +its condition at that time, was suited to the presidency of a Gundling.</p> + +<p>For these dignities he made the poor butt suffer. On one occasion the +kingly joker had a brace of bear cubs laid in Gundling's bed, and the +drunken historian tossed in between them, with little heed of the danger +to which he exposed the poor victim <a name="Page_292" id="Page_292"></a>of his sport. On another occasion, +when Gundling grew sullen and refused to leave his room, the king and +his boon companions besieged him with rockets and crackers, which they +flung in at the open window. A third and more elaborate trick was the +following. The king had the door of Gundling's room walled up, so that +the drunken dupe wandered the palace halls the whole night long, vainly +seeking his vanished door, getting into wrong rooms, disturbing sleepers +to ask whither his room had flown, and making the palace almost as +uncomfortable for its other inmates as for himself. He ended his journey +in the bear's den, where he got a severe hug for his pains.</p> + +<p>Such were the ideas of royal dignity, of art, science, and learning, and +of wit and humor, entertained by the first King of Prussia, the +coarse-mannered and brutal-minded progenitor of one of the greatest of +modern monarchs. His ideas of military power were no wiser or more +elevated. His whole soul was set on having a play army, a brigade of +tall recruits, whose only merit lay in their inches above the ordinary +height of humanity. Much of the revenues of the kingdom were spent upon +these giants, whom he had brought from all parts of Europe, by strategy +and force where cash and persuasion did not avail. His agents were +everywhere on the lookout for men beyond the usual stature, and on more +than one occasion blood was shed in the effort to kidnap recruits, while +some of his crimps were arrested and executed. More than <a name="Page_293" id="Page_293"></a>once Prussia +was threatened with war for the practices of its king, yet so eager was +he to add to the number of his giants that he let no such difficulties +stand in his way.</p> + +<p>His tall recruits were handsomely paid and loaded with favors. To one +Irishman of extraordinary stature he paid one thousand pounds, while the +expense of watching and guarding him while bringing him from Ireland was +two hundred pounds more. It is said that in all twelve million dollars +left the country in payment for these showy and costly giants.</p> + +<p>By his various processes of force, fraud, and stratagem he collected +three battalions of tall show soldiers, comprising at one time several +thousand men. Not content with the unaided work of nature in providing +giants, he attempted to raise a gigantic race in his own dominions, +marrying his grenadiers to the tallest women he could find. There is +nothing to show that the result of his efforts was successful.</p> + +<p>The king's giants found life by no means a burden. They enjoyed the +highest consideration in Berlin, were loaded with favors, and presented +with houses, lands, and other evidences of royal grace, while their only +duties were show drills and ostentatious parades. They were too costly +and precious to expose to the dangers of actual war. When Frederick +William's son came to the throne the military career of the giants +suddenly ended. They were disbanded, pensioned off, or sent to invalid +insti<a name="Page_294" id="Page_294"></a>tutions, with secret instructions to the officers that if any of +them tried to run away no hinderance should be placed in their path to +freedom.</p> + +<p>It is, however, with Frederick William's treatment of his son that we +are principally concerned. As the boy grew older his predilection for +the culture and literature of France increased, and under the influence +of his favorite associates, two young men named Katte and Keith, a +degree of licentiousness was developed in his habits. To please his +father he accepted a position in the army, but took every opportunity to +throw aside the hated uniform, dress in luxurious garments, solace +himself with the flute, bury himself among his books, and enjoy the +society of the women he admired and the friends he loved. He was +frequently forced to attend the king's smoking-parties, where he seems +to have avoided smoking and drinking as much as possible, escaping from +the scene before it degenerated into an orgy of excess, in which it was +apt to terminate.</p> + +<p>These tastes and tendencies were not calculated to increase the love of +the brutal old monarch for his son, and the life of the boy became +harder to bear as he grew older. His sister Wilhelmina was equally +detested by the harsh old king, who treated them both with shameful +brutality, knocking them down and using his cane upon them on the +slightest provocation, confining them and sending them food unfit to +eat, omitting to serve them at table, and <a name="Page_295" id="Page_295"></a>using disgusting means to +render their food unpalatable.</p> + +<p>"The king almost starved my brother and me," says the princess. "He +performed the office of carver, and helped everybody excepting us two, +and when there happened to be something left in a dish, he would spit +upon it to prevent us from eating it. On the other hand, I was treated +with abundance of abuse and invectives, being called all day long by all +sorts of names, no matter who was present. The king's anger was +sometimes so violent that he drove my brother and me away, and forbade +us to appear in his presence except at meal-times."</p> + +<p>This represented the state of affairs when they were almost grown up, +and is a remarkable picture of court habits and manners in Germany in +the early part of the eighteenth century. The scene we have already +described, in which the king attempted to strangle his son with the +curtain cord, occurred when Frederick was in his nineteenth year, and +was one of the acts which gave rise to his resolution to run away, the +source of so many sorrows.</p> + +<p>Poor Frederick's lot had become too hard to bear. He was bent on flight. +His mother was the daughter of George I. of England, and he hoped to +find at the English court the happiness that failed him at home. He +informed his sister of his purpose, saying that he intended to put it +into effect during a journey which his father was about to make, and in +which opportunities for flight would arise. Katte, he said, was in his +interest; Keith would join him; <a name="Page_296" id="Page_296"></a>he had made with them all the +arrangements for his flight. His sister endeavored to dissuade him, but +in vain. His father's continued brutality, and particularly his use of +the cane, had made the poor boy desperate. He wrote to Lieutenant +Katte,—</p> + +<p>"I am off, my dear Katte. I have taken such precautions that I have +nothing to fear. I shall pass through Leipsic, where I shall assume the +name of Marquis d'Ambreville. I have already sent word to Keith, who +will proceed direct to England. Lose no time, for I calculate on finding +you at Leipsic. Adieu, be of good cheer."</p> + +<p>The king's journey took place. Frederick accompanied him, his mind full +of his projected flight. The king added to his resolution by +ill-treatment during the journey, and taunted him as he had often done +before, saying,—</p> + +<p>"If my father had treated me so, I would soon have run away; but you +have no heart; you are a coward."</p> + +<p>This added to the prince's resolution. He wrote to Katte at Berlin, +repeating to him his plans. But now the chapter of accidents, which have +spoiled so many well-laid plots, began. In sending this letter he +directed it "<i>via</i> Nürnberg," but in his haste or agitation forgot to +insert Berlin. By ill luck there was a cousin of Katte's, of the same +name, at Erlangen, some twelve miles off. The letter was delivered to +and read by him. He saw the importance of its contents, and, moved by an +impulse of loyalty, sent it by express to the king at Frankfort.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297"></a>Another accident came from Frederick's friend Keith being appointed +lieutenant, his place as page to the prince being taken by his brother, +who was as stupid as the elder Keith was acute. The royal party had +halted for the night at a village named Steinfurth. This the prince +determined to make the scene of his escape, and bade his page to call +him at four in the morning, and to have horses ready, as he proposed to +make an early morning call upon some pretty girls at a neighboring +hamlet. He deemed the boy too stupid to trust with the truth.</p> + +<p>Young Keith managed to spoil all. Instead of waking the prince, he +called his valet, who was really a spy of the king's, and who, +suspecting something to be amiss, pretended to fall asleep again, while +heedfully watching. Frederick soon after awoke, put on a coat of French +cut instead of his uniform, and went out. The valet immediately roused +several officers of the king's suite, and told them his suspicions. Much +disturbed, they hurried after the prince.</p> + +<p>After searching through the village, they found him at the horse-market +leaning against a cart. His dress added to their suspicions, and they +asked him respectfully what he was doing there. He answered sharply, +angry at being discovered.</p> + +<p>"For God's sake, change your coat!" exclaimed Colonel Rochow. "The king +is awake, and will start in half an hour. What would be the consequence +if he were to see you in this dress?"</p> + +<p>"I promise you that I will be ready before the <a name="Page_298" id="Page_298"></a>king," said Frederick. +"I only mean to take a little turn."</p> + +<p>While they were arguing, the page arrived with the horses. The prince +seized the bridle of one of them, and would have leaped upon it but for +the interference of those around him, who forced him to return to the +barn in which the royal party had found its only accommodation for that +night. Here he was obliged to put on his uniform, and to restrain his +anger.</p> + +<p>During the day the valet and others informed the king of what had +occurred. He said nothing, as there were no proofs of the prince's +purpose. That night they reached Frankfort. Here the king received, the +next morning, the letter sent him by Katte's cousin. He showed it to two +of his officers, and bade them on peril of their heads to keep a close +watch on the prince, and to take him immediately to the yacht on which +the party proposed to travel the next day by water to Wesel.</p> + +<p>The king embarked the next morning, and as soon as he saw the prince his +smothered rage burst into fury. He grasped him violently by the collar, +tore his hair out by the roots, and struck him in the face with the knob +of his stick till the blood ran. Only by the interference of the two +officers was the unhappy youth saved from more extreme violence.</p> + +<p>His sword was taken from him, his effects were seized by the king, and +his papers burned by his valet before his face,—in which he did all +concerned "an important service."</p> + +<p><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299"></a>At the request of his keepers the prince was taken to another yacht. On +reaching the bridge of boats at the entrance to Wesel, he begged +permission to land there, so that he might not be known. His keepers +acceded, but he was no sooner on land than he ran off at full speed. He +was stopped by a guard, whom the king had sent to meet him, and was +conducted to the town-house. Not a word was said to the king about this +attempt at flight.</p> + +<p>The next day Frederick was brought before his father, who was in a +raging passion.</p> + +<p>"Why did you try to run away?" he furiously asked.</p> + +<p>"Because," said Frederick, firmly, "you have not treated me like your +son, but like a base slave."</p> + +<p>"You are an infamous deserter, and have no honor."</p> + +<p>"I have as much as you," retorted the prince. "I have done no more than +I have heard you say a hundred times that you would do if you were in my +place."</p> + +<p>This answer so incensed the old tyrant that he drew his sword in fury +from its scabbard, and would have run the boy through had not General +Mosel hastily stepped between, and seized the king's arm.</p> + +<p>"If you must have blood, stab me," he said; "my old carcass is not good +for much; but spare your son."</p> + +<p>These words checked the king's brutal fury. He ordered them to take the +boy away, and listened with more composure to the general, who entreated +<a name="Page_300" id="Page_300"></a>him not to condemn the prince without a hearing, and not to commit the +unpardonable crime of becoming his son's executioner.</p> + +<p>Events followed rapidly upon this discovery. Frederick contrived to +despatch a line in pencil to Keith. "Save yourself," he wrote; "all is +discovered." Keith at once fled, reached the Hague, where he was +concealed in the house of Lord Chesterfield, the English ambassador, and +when searched for there, succeeded in escaping to England in a +fishing-boat. He was hung in effigy in Prussia, but became a major of +cavalry in the service of Portugal.</p> + +<p>Katte was less fortunate. He was warned in time to escape, and the +marshal who was sent to arrest him purposely delayed, but he lost +precious time in preparation, and was seized while mounting his horse.</p> + +<p>His arrest filled the queen with terror. Numerous letters were in his +possession which had been written by herself and her daughter to the +prince royal. In these they had often spoken with great freedom of the +king. It might be ruinous should these letters fall into his hands.</p> + +<p>Some friend sent the portfolio supposed to contain them to the queen. It +was locked, corded, and sealed. The trouble about the seal was overcome +by an old valet, who had found in the palace garden one just like it. +The portfolio was opened, and the queen's fears found to be correct. It +contained the letters, not less than fifteen hundred in <a name="Page_301" id="Page_301"></a>all. They were +all hastily thrown into the fire,—too hastily, for many of them were +innocent of offence.</p> + +<p>But it would not do to return an empty portfolio. The queen and her +daughter immediately began to write letters to replace the burned ones, +taking paper of each year's manufacture to prevent discovery. For three +days they diligently composed and wrote, and in that period fabricated +no less than six or seven hundred letters. These far from filled the +portfolio, but the queen packed other things into it, and then locked +and sealed it, so that no change in its appearance could be perceived. +This done, it was restored to its place.</p> + +<p>We must hasten over what followed. On the king's return his first +greeting to his wife was, "Your good-for-nothing son is dead." He +immediately demanded the portfolio, tore it open, and carried away the +letters which had been so recently concocted. In a few minutes he +returned, and on seeing his daughter broke out into a fury of rage, his +eyes glaring, his mouth foaming.</p> + +<p>"Infamous wretch!" he shouted; "dare you appear in my presence? Go keep +your scoundrel of a brother company."</p> + +<p>He seized her as he spoke and struck her several times violently in the +face, one blow on the temple hurling her to the floor. Mad with rage, he +would have trampled on her had not the ladies present got her away. The +scene was a frightful one. The queen, believing her son dead, and +completely un<a name="Page_302" id="Page_302"></a>nerved, ran wildly around the room, shrieking with agony. +The king's face was so distorted with rage as to be frightful to look +at. His younger children were around his knees, begging him with tears +to spare their sister. Wilhelmina, her face bruised and swollen, was +supported by one of the ladies of the court. Rarely had insane rage +created a more distressing spectacle.</p> + +<p>In the end the king acknowledged that Frederick was still alive, but +vowed that he would have his head off as a deserter, and that +Wilhelmina, his confederate, should be imprisoned for life. He left the +room at length to question Katte, who was being brought before him, +harshly exclaiming as he did so, "Now I shall have evidence to convict +the scoundrel Fritz and that blackguard Wilhelmina. I shall find plenty +of reasons to have their heads off."</p> + +<p>But we must hasten to the conclusion. Both the captives were tried by +court-martial, on the dangerous charge of desertion from the army. The +court which tried Frederick proved to be subservient to the king's will. +They pronounced sentence of death on the prince royal. Katte was +sentenced to imprisonment for life, on the plea that his crime had been +only meditated, not committed. The latter sentence did not please the +despot. He changed it himself from life imprisonment to death, and with +a refinement of cruelty ordered the execution to take place under the +prince's window, and within his sight.</p> + +<p>On the 5th of November, 1730, Frederick, wear<a name="Page_303" id="Page_303"></a>ing a coarse prison dress, +was conducted from his cell in the fortress of Cüstrin to a room on the +lower floor, where the window-curtains, let down as he entered, were +suddenly drawn up. He saw before him a scaffold hung with black, which +he believed to be intended for himself, and gazed upon it with +shuddering apprehension. When informed that it was intended for his +friend, his grief and pain became even more acute. He passed the night +in that room, and the next morning was conducted again to the window, +beneath which he saw his condemned friend, accompanied by soldiers, an +officer, and a minister of religion.</p> + +<p>"Oh," cried the prince, "how miserable it makes me to think that I am +the cause of your death! Would to God I were in your place!"</p> + +<p>"No," replied Katte; "if I had a thousand lives, gladly would I lay them +down for you."</p> + +<p>Frederick swooned as his friend moved on. In a few minutes afterwards +Katte was dead. It was long before the sorrowing prince recovered from +the shock of that cruel spectacle.</p> + +<p>Whether the king actually intended the execution of his son is +questioned. As it was, earnest remonstrances were addressed to him from +the Kings of Sweden and Poland, the Emperor of Germany, and other +monarchs. He gradually recovered from the insanity of his rage, and, on +humble appeals from his son, remitted his sentence, requiring him to +take a solemn oath that he was converted from his infidel beliefs, that +he begged a thousand pardons from his <a name="Page_304" id="Page_304"></a>father for his crimes, and that +he repented not having been always obedient to his father's will.</p> + +<p>This done, Frederick was released from prison, but was kept under +surveillance at Cüstrin till February, 1732, when he was permitted to +return to Berlin. He had been there before on the occasion of his +sister's marriage, in November, 1731, the poor girl gladly accepting +marriage to a prince she had never seen as a means of escape from a king +of whom she had seen too much. With this our story ends. Father and son +were reconciled, and lived to all appearance as good friends until 1740, +when the old despot died, and Frederick succeeded him as king.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305"></a></p> +<h3><a name="VOLTAIRE_AND_FREDERICK_THE_GREAT" id="VOLTAIRE_AND_FREDERICK_THE_GREAT"></a><i>VOLTAIRE AND FREDERICK THE GREAT</i>.</h3> + + +<p>Voltaire, who was an adept in the art of making France too hot to hold +him, had gone to Prussia, as a place of rest for his perturbed spirit, +and, in response to the repeated invitations of his ardent admirer, +Frederick the Great. It was a blunder on both sides. If they had wished +to continue friends, they should have kept apart. Frederick was +autocratic in his ways and thoughts; Voltaire embodied the spirit of +independence in thought and speech. The two men could no more meet +without striking fire than flint and steel. Moreover, Voltaire was +normally satirical, restless, inclined to vanity and jealousy, and that +terrible pen of his could never be brought to respect persons and +places. With a martinet like Frederick, the visit was sure to end in a +quarrel, despite the admiration of the prince for the poet.</p> + +<p>Frederick, though a German king, was French in his love for the Gallic +literature, philosophy, and language. He cared little for German +literature—there was little of it in his day worth caring for—and +always wrote and spoke in French, while French wits and thinkers who +could not live in safety in straitlaced Paris, gained the amplest scope +for their views in his court. Voltaire found three <a name="Page_306" id="Page_306"></a>such emigrants +there, Maupertuis, La Mettrie, and D'Arnaud. He was received by them +with enthusiasm, as the sovereign of their little court of free thought. +Frederick had given him a pension and the post of chamberlain,—an +office with very light duties,—and the expatriated poet set himself out +to enjoy his new life with zest and animation.</p> + +<p>"A hundred and fifty thousand victorious soldiers," he wrote to Paris, +"no attorneys, opera, plays, philosophy, poetry, a hero who is a +philosopher and a poet, grandeur and graces, grenadiers and muses, +trumpets and violins, Plato's symposium, society and freedom! Who would +believe it? It is all true, however."</p> + +<p>"It is Cæsar, it is Marcus Aurelius, it is Julian, it is sometimes Abbé +Chaulieu, with whom I sup," he further wrote; "there is the charm of +retirement, there is the freedom of the country, with all those little +delights which the lord of a castle who is a king can procure for his +very obedient humble servants and guests. My own duties are to do +nothing. I enjoy my leisure. I give an hour a day to the King of Prussia +to touch up a bit his works in prose and verse; I am his grammarian, not +his chamberlain ... Never in any place in the world was there more +freedom of speech touching the superstitions of men, and never were they +treated with more banter and contempt. God is respected, but all they +who have cajoled men in His name are treated unsparingly."</p> + +<p>It was, in short, an Eden for a free-thinker; but <a name="Page_307" id="Page_307"></a>an Eden with its +serpent, and this serpent was the envy, jealousy, and unrestrainable +satiric spirit of Voltaire. There was soon trouble between him and his +fellow-exiles. He managed to get Arnaud exiled from the country, and +gradually a coolness arose between him and Maupertuis, whom Frederick +had made president of the Berlin Academy. There were other quarrels and +complications, and Voltaire grew disgusted with the occupation of what +he slyly called "buck-washing" the king's French verses,—poor affairs +they were. Step by step he was making Berlin as hot as he had made +Paris. The new Adam was growing restless in his new Paradise. He wrote +to his niece,—</p> + +<p>"So it is known by this time in Paris, my dear child, that we have +played the 'Mort de Cæsar' at Potsdam, that Prince Henry is a good +actor, has no accent, and is very amiable, and that this is the place +for pleasure? All this is true, but—The king's supper parties are +delightful; at them people talk reason, wit, science; freedom prevails +thereat; he is the soul of it all; no ill-temper, no clouds, at any rate +no storms; my life is free and well occupied,—but—Opera, plays, +carousals, suppers at Sans Souci, military manœuvres, concerts, studies, +readings,—but—The city of Berlin, grand, better laid out than Paris; +palaces, play-houses, affable queens, charming princesses, maids of +honor beautiful and well-made, the mansion of Madame de Tyrconnel always +full and sometimes too much so,—<a name="Page_308" id="Page_308"></a>but—but—My dear child, the weather +is beginning to settle down into a fine frost."</p> + +<p>Voltaire brought the frost. He got into a disreputable quarrel with a +Jew, and meddled in other affairs, until something very like a quarrel +arose between him and Frederick. The king wrote him a severe letter of +reprimand. The poet apologized. But immediately afterwards his +irrepressible spirit of mischief broke out in a new place. It was his +ill-humor with Maupertuis which now led him astray. He wrote a pamphlet, +full of wit and as full of bitterness, called "La diatribe du docteur +Akakia," so evidently satirizing Maupertuis that the king grew furious. +It was printed anonymously, and circulated surreptitiously in Berlin, +but a copy soon fell into Frederick's hand, who knew at once that but +one man in the kingdom was capable of such a production. He wrote so +severely to Voltaire that the malicious satirist was frightened and gave +up the whole edition of the pamphlet, which was burnt before his eyes in +the king's own closet, though Frederick could not help laughing at its +wit.</p> + +<p>But Voltaire's daring was equal to a greater defiance than Frederick +imagined. Despite the work of the flames, a copy of the diatribe found +its way to Paris, was printed there, and copies of it made their way +back to Prussia by mail. Everybody was reading it, everybody laughing, +people fought for copies of the satire, which spread over Europe. The +king, enraged by this treacherous disobedience, as <a name="Page_309" id="Page_309"></a>he deemed it, +retorted on Voltaire by having the pamphlet burned in the Place d'Armes.</p> + +<p>This brought matters to a crisis. The next day Voltaire sent his +commissions and orders back to Frederick; the next, Frederick returned +them to him. He was bent on leaving Prussia at once, but wished to do it +without a quarrel with the king.</p> + +<p>"I sent the Solomon of the North," he wrote to Madame Denis, "for his +present, the cap and bells he gave me, with which you reproached me so +much. I wrote him a very respectful letter, for I asked him for leave to +go. What do you think he did? He sent me his great factotum, Federshoff, +who brought me back my toys; he wrote me a letter saying that he would +rather have me to live with than Maupertuis. What is quite certain is +that I would rather not live with either the one or the other."</p> + +<p>In truth, Frederick could not bear to lose Voltaire. Vexed as he was +with him, he was averse to giving up that charming conversation from +which he had derived so much enjoyment. Voltaire wanted to get away; +Frederick pressed him to stay. There was protestation, warmth, coolness, +a gradual breaking of links, letters from France urging the poet to +return, communications from Frederick wishing him to remain, and a +growing attraction from Paris drawing its flown son back to that centre +of the universe for a true Frenchman.</p> + +<p>At length Frederick yielded; Voltaire might go. The poet approached him +while reviewing his troops.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310"></a>"Ah! Monsieur Voltaire," said the king, "so you really intend to go +away?"</p> + +<p>"Sir, urgent private affairs, and especially my health, leave me no +alternative."</p> + +<p>"Monsieur, I wish you a pleasant journey."</p> + +<p>This was enough for Voltaire; in an hour he was in his carriage and on +the road to Leipsic. He thought he was done for the rest of his life +with the "exactions" and "tyrannies" of the King of Prussia. He was to +experience some more of them before he left the land. Frederick bided +his time.</p> + +<p>It was on March 26, 1753, that Voltaire left Potsdam. It was two months +afterwards before he reached Frankfort. He had tarried at Leipsic and at +Gotha, engaged in the latter place on a dry chronicle asked for by the +duchess, entitled "The Annals of the Empire." During this time also, in +direct disregard of a promise he had made Frederick, there appeared a +supplement to "Doctor Akakia," more offensive than the main text. It was +followed by a virulent correspondence with Maupertuis. Voltaire was +filling up the vials of wrath of the king.</p> + +<p>On May 31 he reached Frankfort. Here the blow fell. There occurred an +incident which has become famous in literary history, and which, while +it had some warrant on Frederick's side, tells very poorly for that +patron of literature. No unlettered autocrat could have acted with less +regard to the rights and proprieties of citizenship.</p> + +<p>"Here is how this fine adventure came about,"<a name="Page_311" id="Page_311"></a> writes Voltaire. "There +was at Frankfort one Freytag, who had been banished from Dresden and had +become an agent for the King of Prussia....He notified me, on behalf of +his Majesty, that I was not to leave Frankfort till I had restored the +valuable effects I was carrying away from his Majesty.</p> + +<p>"'Alack, sir, I am carrying away nothing from that country, if you +please, not even the smallest regret. What, pray, are those jewels of +the Brandenburg crown that you require?'</p> + +<p>"'It be, sir,' replied Freytag, 'the work of <i>poeshy</i> of the king, my +gracious master.'</p> + +<p>"'Oh, I will give him back his prose and verse with all my heart,' +replied I, 'though, after all, I have more than one right to the work. +He made me a present of a beautiful copy printed at his expense. +Unfortunately, the copy is at Leipsic with my other luggage.'</p> + +<p>"Then Freytag proposed to me to remain at Frankfort until the treasure +which was at Leipsic should have arrived; and he signed an order for +it."</p> + +<p>The volume which Frederick wanted he had doubtless good reason to +demand, when it is considered that it was in the hands of a man who +could be as malicious as Voltaire. It contained a burlesque and +licentious poem, called the "Palladium," in which the king scoffed at +everybody and everything in a manner he preferred not to make public. +Voltaire in Berlin might be trusted to remain discreet. In Paris his +discretion could not be counted <a name="Page_312" id="Page_312"></a>on. Frederick wanted the poem in his +own hands.</p> + +<p>There was delay in the matter; references to Frederick and returns; the +affair dragged on slowly. The package arrived. Voltaire, agitated at his +detention, ill and anxious, wanted to get away, in company with Madame +Denis, who had just joined him. Freytag refused to let him go. Very +unwisely, the poet determined to slip away, imagining that in a "free +city" like Frankfort he could not be disturbed. He was mistaken. The +freedom of Frankfort was subject to the will of Frederick. The poet +tells for himself what followed.</p> + +<p>"The moment I was off, I was arrested, I, my secretary and my people; my +niece is arrested; four soldiers drag her through the mud to a +cheesemonger's named Smith, who had some title or other of privy +councillor to the King of Prussia; my niece had a passport from the King +of France, and, what is more, she had never corrected the King of +Prussia's verses. They huddled us all into a sort of hostelry, at the +door of which were posted a dozen soldiers; we were for twelve days +prisoners of war, and we had to pay a hundred and forty crowns a day."</p> + +<p>Voltaire was furious; Madame Denis was ill, or feigned to be; she wrote +letter after letter to Voltaire's friends in Prussia, and to the king +himself. The affair was growing daily more serious. Finally the city +authorities themselves, who doubtless felt that they were not playing a +very creditable part, <a name="Page_313" id="Page_313"></a>put an end to it by ordering Freytag to release +his prisoner. Voltaire, set free, travelled leisurely towards France, +which, however, he found himself refused permission to enter. He +thereupon repaired to Geneva, and thereafter, freed from the patronage +of princes and the injustice of the powerful, spent his life in a land +where full freedom of thought and action was possible.</p> + +<p>As for the worthy Freytag, he felicitated himself highly on the way he +had handled that dabbler in <i>poeshy</i>. "We would have risked our lives +rather than let him get away," he wrote; "and if I, holding a council of +war with myself, had not found him at the barrier but in the open +country, and he had refused to jog back, I don't know that I shouldn't +have lodged a bullet in his head. To such a degree had I at heart the +letters and writing of the king."</p> + +<p>The too trusty agent did not feel so self-satisfied on receiving the +opinion of the king.</p> + +<p>"I gave you no such orders as that," wrote Frederick. "You should never +make more noise than a thing deserves. I wanted Voltaire to give you up +the key, the cross, and the volume of poems I had intrusted to him; as +soon as all that was given up to you I can't see what earthly reason +could have induced you to make this uproar."</p> + +<p>It is very probable, however, that Frederick wished to humiliate +Voltaire, and the latter did not fail to revenge himself with that +weapon which he knew so well how to wield. In his poem of "La<a name="Page_314" id="Page_314"></a> Loi +naturelle" he drew a bitter but truthful portrait of Frederick which +must have made that arbitrary gentleman wince. He was, says the poet,—</p> + + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">"Of incongruities a monstrous pile,<br /><br /></span> +<span class="i4">Calling men brothers, crushing them the while;<br /><br /></span> +<span class="i4">With air humane, a misanthropic brute;<br /><br /></span> +<span class="i4">Ofttimes impulsive, sometimes over-'cute;<br /><br /></span> +<span class="i4">Weak 'midst his choler, modest in his pride;<br /><br /></span> +<span class="i4">Yearning for virtue, lust personified;<br /><br /></span> +<span class="i4">Statesman and author, of the slippery crew;<br /><br /></span> +<span class="i4">My patron, pupil, persecutor too."<br /><br /></span> +</div></div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315"></a></p> +<h3><a name="SCENES_FROM_THE_SEVEN_YEARS_WAR" id="SCENES_FROM_THE_SEVEN_YEARS_WAR"></a><i>SCENES FROM THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR</i>.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-315.png" alt="SANS SOUCI, PALACE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT." title="SANS SOUCI, PALACE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT." /></div> +<h5>SANS SOUCI, PALACE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.</h5> + +<p>The story of Frederick the Great is a story of incessant wars, wars +against frightful odds, for all Europe was combined against him, and for +seven years the Austrians, the French, the Russians, and the Swedes +surrounded his realm, with the bitter determination to crush him, if not +to annihilate the Prussian kingdom. England alone was on his side. +Russia had joined the coalition through anger of the Empress Elizabeth +at Frederick's satire upon her licentious life; France had joined it +through hostility to England; Austria had organized it from indignation +at Frederick's lawless seizure of Silesia; the army raised to operate +against Prussia numbered several hundred thousand men.</p> + +<p>For years Frederick fought them all single-handed, with a persistence, +an energy, and a resolute rising under the weight of defeat that +compelled the admiration even of his enemies, and in the end gave him +victory over them all. To the rigid discipline of his troops, his own +military genius, and his indomitable perseverance, he owed his final +success and his well-earned epithet of "The Great."</p> + +<p>The story of battle, stirring as it is, is apt to grow monotonous, and +we have perhaps inflicted too many battle scenes already upon our +readers, though we <a name="Page_316" id="Page_316"></a>have selected only such as had some particular +feature of interest to enliven them. Out of Frederick's numerous battles +we may be able to present some examples sufficiently diverse from the +ordinary to render them worthy of classification, under the title of the +romance of history.</p> + +<p>Let us go back to the 5th of November, 1757. On that date the army of +Frederick lay in the vicinity of Rossbach, on the Saale, then occupied +by a powerful French army. The Prussian commander, after vainly +endeavoring to bring the Austrians to battle, had turned and marched +against the French, with the hope of driving them out of Saxony.</p> + +<p>His hope was not a very promising one. The French army was sixty +thousand strong. He had but little over twenty thousand men. While he +felt hope the French felt assurance. They had their active foe now in +their clutches, they deemed. With his handful of men he could not +possibly stand before their onset. He had escaped them more than once +before; this time they had him, as they believed.</p> + +<p>His camp was on a height, near the Saale. Towards it the French +advanced, with flying colors and sounding trumpets, as if with purpose +to strike terror into the ranks of their foes. That Frederick would +venture to stand before them they scarcely credited. If he should, his +danger would be imminent, for they had laid their plans to surround his +small force and, by taking the king and his army prisoners, end at a +blow the vexatious war. They <a name="Page_317" id="Page_317"></a>calculated shrewdly but not well, for they +left Frederick out of the account in their plans.</p> + +<p>As they came up, line after line, column after column, they must have +been surprised by the seeming indifference of the Prussians. There were +in their ranks no signs of retreat and none of hostility. They remained +perfectly quiet in their camp, not a gun being fired, not a movement +visible, as inert and heedless to all seeming of the coming of the +French as though there were no enemy within a hundred miles.</p> + +<p>There was a marked difference between the make-up of the two armies, +which greatly reduced their numerical odds. Frederick's army was +composed of thoroughly disciplined and trained soldiers, every man of +whom knew his place and his duty, and could be trusted in an emergency. +The French, on the contrary, had brought all they could of Paris with +them; their army was encumbered with women, wig-makers, barbers, and the +like impedimenta, and confusion and gayety in their ranks replaced the +stern discipline of Frederick's camp. After the battle, the booty is +said to have consisted largely of objects of gallantry better suited for +a boudoir than a camp.</p> + +<p>The light columns of smoke that arose from the Prussian camp as the +French advanced indicated their occupation,—and that by no means +suggested alarm. They were cooking their dinners, with as much unconcern +as though they had not yet seen the coming enemy nor heard the clangor +of trum<a name="Page_318" id="Page_318"></a>pets that announced their approach. Had the French commanders +been within the Prussian lines they would have been more astonished +still, for they would have seen Frederick with his staff and general +officers dining at leisure and with the utmost coolness and +indifference. There was no appearance of haste in their movements, and +no more in those of their men, whose whole concern just then seemed to +be the getting of a good meal.</p> + +<p>The hour passed on, the French came nearer, their trumpet clangor was +close at hand, every moment seemed to render the peril of the Prussians +more imminent, yet their inertness continued; it looked almost as though +they had given up the idea of defence. The confidence of the French must +have grown rapidly as their plan of surrounding the Prussians with their +superior numbers seemed more and more assured.</p> + +<p>But Frederick had his eye upon them. He was biding his time. Suddenly +there came a change. It was about half-past two in the afternoon. The +French had reached the position for which he had been waiting. Quickly +the staff officers dashed right and left with their orders. The trumpets +sounded. As if by magic the tents were struck, the men sprang to their +ranks and were drawn up in battle array, the artillery opened its fire, +the seeming inertness which had prevailed was with extraordinary +rapidity exchanged for warlike activity; the complete discipline of the +Prussian army had never been more notably displayed.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319"></a>The French, who had been marching forward with careless ease, beheld +this change of the situation with astounded eyes. They looked for +heaviness and slowness of movement among the Germans, and could scarcely +believe in the possibility of such rapidity of evolution. But they had +little time to think. The Prussian batteries were pouring a rain of +balls through their columns. And quickly the Prussian cavalry, headed by +the dashing Seidlitz, was in their midst, cutting and slashing with +annihilating vigor.</p> + +<p>The surprise was complete. The French found it impossible to form into +line. Everywhere their columns were being swept by musketry and +artillery, and decimated by the sabres of the charging cavalry. In +almost less time than it takes to tell it they were thrown into +confusion, overwhelmed, routed; in the course of less than half an hour +the fate of the battle was decided, and the French army completely +defeated.</p> + +<p>Their confidence of a short time before was succeeded by panic, and the +lately trim ranks fled in utter disorganization, so utterly broken that +many of the fugitives never stopped till they reached the other side of +the Rhine.</p> + +<p>Ten thousand prisoners fell into Frederick's hands, including nine +generals and numerous other officers, together with all the French +artillery, and twenty-two standards; while the victory was achieved with +the loss of only one hundred and sixty-five killed and three hundred and +fifty wounded on the<a name="Page_320" id="Page_320"></a> Prussian side. The triumph was one of discipline +against over-confidence. No army under less complete control than that +of Frederick could have sprung so suddenly into warlike array. To this, +and to the sudden and overwhelming dash of Seidlitz and his cavalry, the +remarkable victory was due.</p> + +<p>Just one month from that date, on the 5th of December, another great +battle took place, and another important victory for Frederick the +Great. With thirty-four thousand Prussians he defeated eighty thousand +Austrians, while the prisoners taken nearly equalled in number his +entire force.</p> + +<p>The Austrians had taken the opportunity of Frederick's campaign against +the French to overrun Silesia. Breslau, its capital, with several other +strongholds, fell into their hands, and the probability was that if left +there during the winter they would so strongly fortify it as to defy any +attempt of the Prussian king to recapture it.</p> + +<p>Despite the weakness of his army Frederick decided to make an effort to +regain the lost province, and marched at once against the Austrians. +They lay in a strong position behind the river Lohe, and here their +leader, Field-Marshal Daun, wished to have them remain, having had +abundant experience of his opponent in the open field. This cautious +advice was not taken by Prince Charles, who controlled the movements of +the army, and whom several of the generals persuaded that it would be +degrading for a victorious army to intrench itself <a name="Page_321" id="Page_321"></a>against one so much +inferior in numbers, and advised him to march out and meet the +Prussians. "The parade guard of Berlin," as they contemptuously +designated Frederick's army, "would never be able to make a stand +against them."</p> + +<p>The prince, who was impetuous in disposition, agreed with them, marched +out from his intrenchments, and met Frederick's army in the vast plain +near Leuthen. On December 5 the two armies came face to face, the lines +of the imperial force extending over a space of five miles, while those +of Frederick occupied a much narrower space.</p> + +<p>In his lack of numbers the Prussian king was obliged to substitute +celerity of movement, hoping to double the effectiveness of his troops +by their quickness of action. The story of the battle may be given in a +few words. A false attack was made on the Austrian right, and then the +bulk of the Prussian army was hurled upon their left wing, with such +impetuosity as to break and shatter it. The disorder caused by this +attack spread until it included the whole army. In three hours' time +Frederick had completely defeated his foes, one-third of whom were +killed, wounded, or captured, and the remainder put to flight. The field +was covered with the slain, and whole battalions surrendered, the +Prussians capturing in all twenty-one thousand prisoners. They took +besides one hundred and thirty cannon and three thousand baggage and +ammunition wagons. The victory was a remarkable example of the supremacy +of genius over mere <a name="Page_322" id="Page_322"></a>numbers. Napoleon says of it, "That battle was a +master-piece. Of itself it is sufficient to entitle Frederick to a place +in the first rank of generals." It restored Silesia to the Prussian +dominions.</p> + +<p>There is one more of Frederick's victories of sufficiently striking +character to fit in with those already given. It took place in 1760, +several years after those described, years in which Frederick had +struggled persistently against overwhelming odds, and, though often +worsted, yet coming up fresh after every defeat, and unconquerably +keeping the field.</p> + +<p>He was again in Silesia, which was once more seriously threatened by the +Austrian forces. His position was anything but a safe one. The Austrians +almost surrounded him. On one side was the army of Field-Marshal Daun, +on the other that of General Lasci; in front was General Laudon. +Fighting day and night he advanced, and finally took up his position at +Liegnitz, where he found his forward route blocked, Daun having formed a +junction with Laudon. His magazines were at Breslau and Schweidnitz in +front, which it was impossible to reach; while his brother, Prince +Henry, who might have marched to his relief, was detained by the +Russians on the Oder.</p> + +<p>The position of Frederick was a critical one. He had only a few days' +supply of provisions; it was impossible to advance, and dangerous to +retreat; the Austrians, in superior numbers, were dangerously near him; +only fortune and valor could save him <a name="Page_323" id="Page_323"></a>from serious disaster. In this +crisis of his career happy chance came to his aid, and relieved him from +the awkward and perilous situation into which he had fallen.</p> + +<p>The Austrians were keenly on the alert, biding their time and watchful +for an opportunity to take the Prussians at advantage. The time had now +arrived, as they thought, and they laid their plans accordingly. On the +night before the 15th of August Laudon set out on a secret march, his +purpose being to gain the heights of Puffendorf, from which the +Prussians might be assailed in the rear. At the same time the other +corps were to close in on every side, completely surrounding Frederick, +and annihilating him if possible.</p> + +<p>It was a well-laid and promising plan, but accident befriended the +Prussian king. Accident and alertness, we may say; since, to prevent a +surprise from the Austrians, he was in the habit of changing the +location of his camp almost every night. Such a change took place on the +night in question. On the 14th the Austrians had made a close +reconnoisance of his position. Fearing some hostile purpose in this, +Frederick, as soon as the night had fallen, ordered his tents to be +struck and the camp to be moved with the utmost silence, so as to avoid +giving the foe a hint of his purpose. As it chanced, the new camp was +made on those very heights of Puffendorf towards which Laudon was +advancing with equal care and secrecy.</p> + +<p>That there might be no suspicion of the Prussian <a name="Page_324" id="Page_324"></a>movement, the +watch-fires were kept up in the old camp, peasants attending to them, +while patrols of hussars cried out the challenge every quarter of an +hour. The gleaming lights, the watch-cries of the sentinels, all +indicated that the Prussian army was sleeping on its old ground, without +suspicion of the overwhelming blow intended for it on the morrow.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the king and his army had reached their new quarters, where +the utmost caution and noiselessness was observed. The king, wrapped in +his military cloak, had fallen asleep beside his watch-fire; Ziethen, +his valiant cavalry leader, and a few others of his principal officers, +being with him. Throughout the camp the greatest stillness prevailed, +all noise having been forbidden. The soldiers slept with their arms +close at hand, and ready to be seized at a moment's notice. Frederick +fully appreciated the peril of his situation, and was not to be taken by +surprise by his active foes. And thus the night moved on until midnight +passed, and the new day began its course in the small hours.</p> + +<p>About two o'clock a sudden change came in the situation. A horseman +galloped at full speed through the camp, and drew up hastily at the +king's tent, calling Frederick from his light slumbers. He was the +officer in command of the patrol of hussars, and brought startling news. +The enemy was at hand, he said; his advance columns were within a few +hundred yards of the camp. It was Laudon's army, seeking to steal into +possession of those heights which Frederick had so opportunely occupied.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325"></a>The stirring tidings passed rapidly through the camp. The soldiers were +awakened, the officers seized their arms and sprang to horse, the troops +grasped their weapons and hastened into line, the cannoneers flew to +their guns, soon the roar of artillery warned the coming Austrians that +they had a foe in their front.</p> + +<p>Laudon pushed on, thinking this to be some advance column which he could +easily sweep from his front. Not until day dawned did he discover the +true situation, and perceive, with astounded eyes, that the whole +Prussian army stood in line of battle on those very heights which he had +hoped so easily to occupy.</p> + +<p>The advantage on which the Austrian had so fully counted lay with the +Prussian king. Yet, undaunted, Laudon pushed on and made a vigorous +attack, feeling sure that the thunder of the artillery would be borne to +Daun's ears, and bring that commander in all haste, with his army, to +take part in the fray.</p> + +<p>But the good fortune which had so far favored Frederick did not now +desert him. The wind blew freshly in the opposite direction, and carried +the sound of the cannon away from Daun's hearing. Not the roar of a +piece of artillery came to him, and his army lay moveless during the +battle, he deeming that Laudon must now be in full possession of the +heights, and felicitating himself on the neat trap into which the King +of Prussia had fallen. While he thus rested on his arms, glorying in his +soul on <a name="Page_326" id="Page_326"></a>the annihilation to which the pestilent Prussians were doomed, +his ally was making a desperate struggle for life, on those very heights +which he counted on taking without a shot. Truly, the Austrians had +reckoned without their foe in laying their cunning plot.</p> + +<p>Three hours of daylight finished the affray. Taken by surprise as they +were, the Austrians proved unable to sustain the vigorous Prussian +assault, and were utterly routed, leaving ten thousand dead and wounded +on the field, and eighty-two pieces of artillery in the enemy's hands. +Shortly afterwards Daun, advancing to carry out his share of the scheme +of annihilation, fell upon the right wing of the Prussians, commanded by +General Ziethen, and was met with so fierce an artillery fire that he +halted in dismay. And now news of Laudon's disaster was brought to him. +Seeing that the game was lost and himself in danger, he emulated his +associate in his hasty retreat.</p> + +<p>Fortune and alertness had saved the Prussian king from a serious danger, +and turned peril into victory. He lost no time in profiting by his +advantage, and was in full march towards Breslau within three hours +after the battle, the prisoners in the centre, the wounded—friend and +foe alike,—in wagons in the rear, and the captured cannon added to his +own artillery train. Silesia was once more delivered into his hands.</p> + +<p>Never in history had there been so persistent and indomitable a +resistance against overwhelming numb<a name="Page_327" id="Page_327"></a>ers as that which Frederick +sustained for so many years against his numerous foes. At length, when +hope seemed almost at an end, and it appeared as if nothing could save +the Prussian kingdom from overthrow, death came to the aid of the +courageous monarch. The Empress Elizabeth of Russia died, and +Frederick's bitterest foe was removed. The new monarch, Peter III., was +an ardent admirer of Frederick, and at once discharged all the Prussian +prisoners in his hands, and signed a treaty of alliance with Prussia. +Sweden quickly did the same, leaving Frederick with no opponents but the +Austrians. Four months more sufficed to bring his remaining foes to +terms, and by the end of the year 1762 the distracting Seven Years' War +was at an end, the indomitable Frederick remaining in full possession of +Silesia, the great bone of contention in the war. His resolution and +perseverance had raised Prussia to a high position among the kingdoms of +Europe, and laid the foundations of the present empire of Germany.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_PATRIOTS_OF_THE_TYROL" id="THE_PATRIOTS_OF_THE_TYROL"></a><i>THE PATRIOTS OF THE TYROL</i>.</h3> + + +<p>On the 9th of April, 1809, down the river Inn, in the Tyrol, came +floating a series of planks, from whose surface waved little red flags. +What they meant the Bavarian soldiers, who held that mountain land with +a hand of iron, could not conjecture. But what they meant the peasantry +well knew. On the day before peace had ruled throughout the Alps, and no +Bavarian dreamed of war. Those flags were the signal for insurrection, +and on their appearance the brave mountaineers sprang at once to arms +and flew to the defence of the bridges of their country, which the +Bavarians were marching to destroy, as an act of defence against the +Austrians.</p> + +<p>On the 10th the storm of war burst. Some Bavarian sappers had been sent +to blow up the bridge of St. Lorenzo. But hardly had they begun their +work, when a shower of bullets from unseen marksmen swept the bridge. +Several were killed; the rest took to flight; the Tyrol was in revolt.</p> + +<p>News of this outbreak was borne to Colonel Wrede, in command of the +Bavarians, who hastened with a force of infantry, cavalry, and artillery +to the spot. He found the peasants out in numbers. The Tyrolean +riflemen, who were accustomed to bring down chamois from the mountain +peaks, de<a name="Page_329" id="Page_329"></a>fended the bridge, and made terrible havoc in the Bavarian +ranks. They seized Wrede's artillery and flung guns and gunners together +into the stream, and finally put the Bavarians to rout, with severe +loss.</p> + +<p>The Bavarians held the Tyrol as allies of the French, and the movement +against the bridges had been directed by Napoleon, to prevent the +Austrians from reoccupying the country, which had been wrested from +their hands. Wrede in his retreat was joined by a body of three thousand +French, but decided, instead of venturing again to face the daring foe, +to withdraw to Innsbruck. But withdrawal was not easy. The signal of +revolt had everywhere called the Tyrolese to arms. The passes were +occupied. The fine old Roman bridge over the Brenner, at Laditsch, was +blown up. In the pass of the Brixen, leading to this bridge, the French +and Bavarians found themselves assailed in the old Swiss manner, by +rocks and logs rolled down upon their heads, while the unerring rifles +of the hidden peasants swept the pass. Numbers were slain, but the +remainder succeeded in escaping by means of a temporary bridge, which +they threw over the stream on the site of the bridge of Laditsch.</p> + +<p>Of the Tyrolese patriots to whom this outbreak was due two are worthy of +special mention, Joseph Speckbacher, a wealthy peasant of Rinn, and the +more famous Andrew Hofer, the host of the Sand Inn at Passeyr, a man +everywhere known through <a name="Page_330" id="Page_330"></a>the mountains, as he traded in wine, corn, and +horses as far as the Italian frontier.</p> + +<p>Hofer was a man of herculean frame and of a full, open, handsome +countenance, which gained dignity from its long, dark-brown beard, which +fell in rich curls upon his chest. His picturesque dress—that of the +Tyrol—comprised a red waistcoat, crossed by green braces, which were +fastened to black knee breeches of chamois leather, below which he wore +red stockings. A broad black leather girdle clasped his muscular form, +while over all was worn a short green coat. On his head he wore a +low-crowned, broad-brimmed Tyrolean hat, black in color, and ornamented +with green ribbons and with the feathers of the capercailzie.</p> + +<p>This striking-looking patriot, at the head of a strong party of +peasantry, made an assault, early on the 11th, upon a Bavarian infantry +battalion under the command of Colonel Bäraklau, who retreated to a +table-land named Sterzinger Moos, where, drawn up in a square, he +resisted every effort of the Tyrolese to dislodge him. Finally Hofer +broke his lines by a stratagem. A wagon loaded with hay, and driven by a +girl, was pushed towards the square, the brave girl shouting, as the +balls flew around her, "On with ye! Who cares for Bavarian dumplings!" +Under its shelter the Tyrolese advanced, broke the square, and killed or +made prisoners the whole of the battalion.</p> + +<p>Speckbacher, the other patriot named, was no less active. No sooner had +the signal of revolt appeared <a name="Page_331" id="Page_331"></a>in the Inn than he set the alarm-bells +ringing in every church-tower through the lower valley of that stream, +and quickly was at the head of a band of stalwart Tyrolese. On the night +of the 11th he advanced on the city of Hall, and lighted about a hundred +watch-fires on one side of the city, as if about to attack it from that +quarter. While the attention of the garrison was directed towards these +fires, he crept through the darkness to the gate on the opposite side, +and demanded entrance as a common traveller. The gate was opened; his +hidden companions rushed forward and seized it; in a brief time the +city, with its Bavarian garrison, was his.</p> + +<p>On the 12th he appeared before Innsbruck, and made a fierce assault upon +the city in which he was aided by a murderous fire poured upon the +Bavarians by the citizens from windows and towers. The people of the +upper valley of the Inn flocked to the aid of their fellows, and the +place, with its garrison, was soon taken, despite their obstinate +defence. Dittfurt, the Bavarian leader, who scornfully refused to yield +to the peasant dogs, as he considered them, fought with tiger-like +ferocity, and fell at length, pierced by four bullets.</p> + +<p>One further act completed the freeing of the Tyrol from Bavarian +domination. The troops under Colonel Wrede had, as we have related, +crossed the Brenner on a temporary bridge, and escaped the perils of the +pass. Greater perils awaited them. Their road lay past Sterzing, the +scene of Hofer's victory. Every trace of the conflict had been +oblit<a name="Page_332" id="Page_332"></a>erated, and Wrede vainly sought to discover what had become of +Bäraklau and his battalion. He entered the narrow pass through which the +road ran at that place, and speedily found his ranks decimated by the +rifles of Hofer's concealed men.</p> + +<p>After considerable loss the column broke through, and continued its +march to Innsbruck, where it was immediately surrounded by a triumphant +host of Tyrolese. The struggle was short, sharp, and decisive. In a few +minutes several hundred men had fallen. In order to escape complete +destruction the rest laid down their arms. The captors entered Innsbruck +in triumph, preceded by the military band of the enemy, which they +compelled to play, and guarding their prisoners, who included two +generals, more than a hundred other officers, and about two thousand +men.</p> + +<p>In two days the Tyrol had been freed from its Bavarian oppressors and +their French allies and restored to its Austrian lords. The arms of +Bavaria were everywhere cast to the ground, and the officials removed. +But the prisoners were treated with great humanity, except in the single +instance of a tax-gatherer, who had boasted that he would grind down the +Tyrolese until they should gladly eat hay. In revenge, they forced him +to swallow a bushel of hay for his dinner.</p> + +<p>The freedom thus gained by the Tyrolese was not likely to be permanent +with Napoleon for their foe. The Austrians hastened to the defence of +the country which had been so bravely won for their emperor.<a name="Page_333" id="Page_333"></a> On the +other side came the French and Bavarians as enemies and oppressors. +Lefebvre, the leader of the invaders, was a rough and brutal soldier, +who encouraged his men to commit every outrage upon the mountaineers.</p> + +<p>For some two or three months the conflict went on, with varying +fortunes, depending upon the conditions of the war between France and +Austria. At first the French were triumphant, and the Austrians withdrew +from the Tyrol. Then came Napoleon's defeat at Aspern, and the Tyrolese +rose and again drove the invaders from their country. In July occurred +Napoleon's great victory at Wagram, and the hopes of the Tyrol once more +sank. All the Austrians were withdrawn, and Lefebvre again advanced at +the head of thirty or forty thousand French, Bavarians, and Saxons.</p> + +<p>The courage of the peasantry vanished before this threatening invasion. +Hofer alone remained resolute, saying to the Austrian governor, on his +departure, "Well, then, I will undertake the government, and, as long as +God wills, name myself Andrew Hofer, host of the Sand at Passeyr, and +Count of the Tyrol."</p> + +<p>He needed resolution, for his fellow-chiefs deserted the cause of their +country on all sides. On his way to his home he met Speckbacher, +hurrying from the country in a carriage with some Austrian officers.</p> + +<p>"Wilt thou also desert thy country!" said Hofer to him in tones of sad +reproach.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334"></a>Another leader, Joachim Haspinger, a Capuchin monk, nicknamed Redbeard, +a man of much military talent, withdrew to his monastery at Seeben. +Hofer was left alone of the Tyrolese leaders. While the French advanced +without opposition, he took refuge in a cavern amid the steep rocks that +overhung his native vale, where he implored Heaven for aid.</p> + +<p>The aid came. Lefebvre, in his brutal fashion, plundered and burnt as he +advanced, and published a proscription list instead of the amnesty +promised. The natural result followed. Hofer persuaded the bold Capuchin +to leave his monastery, and he, with two others, called the western +Tyrol to arms. Hofer raised the eastern Tyrol. They soon gained a +powerful associate in Speckbacher, who, conscience-stricken by Hofer's +reproach, had left the Austrians and hastened back to his country. The +invader's cruelty had produced its natural result. The Tyrol was once +more in full revolt.</p> + +<p>With a bunch of rosemary, the gift of their chosen maidens, in their +green hats, the young men grasped their trusty rifles and hurried to the +places of rendezvous. The older men wore peacock plumes, the Hapsburg +symbol. With haste they prepared for the war. Cannon which did good +service were made from bored logs of larch wood, bound with iron rings. +Here the patriots built abatis; there they gathered heaps of stone on +the edges of precipices which rose above the narrow vales and passes. +The timber slides in the mountains were changed in <a name="Page_335" id="Page_335"></a>their course so that +trees from the heights might be shot down upon the important passes and +bridges. All that could be done to give the invaders a warm welcome was +prepared, and the bold peasants waited eagerly for the coming conflict.</p> + +<p>From four quarters the invasion came, Lefebvre's army being divided so +as to attack the Tyrolese from every side, and meet in the heart of the +country. They were destined to a disastrous repulse. The Saxons, led by +Rouyer, marched through the narrow valley of Eisach, the heights above +which were occupied by Haspinger the Capuchin and his men. Down upon +them came rocks and trees from the heights. Rouyer was hurt, and many of +his men were slain around him. He withdrew in haste, leaving one +regiment to retain its position in the Oberau. This the Tyrolese did not +propose to permit. They attacked the regiment on the next day, in the +narrow valley, with overpowering numbers. Though faint with hunger and +the intense heat, and exhausted by the fierceness of the assault, a part +of the troops cut their way through with great loss and escaped. The +rest were made prisoners.</p> + +<p>The story is told that during their retreat, and when ready to drop with +fatigue, the soldiers found a cask of wine. Its head was knocked in by a +drummer, who, as he stooped to drink, was pierced by a bullet, and his +blood mingled with the wine. Despite this, the famishing soldiery +greedily swallowed the contents of the cask.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336"></a>A second <i>corps d'armée</i> advanced up the valley of the Inn as far as +the bridges of Pruz. Here it was repulsed by the Tyrolese, and retreated +under cover of the darkness during the night of August 8. The infantry +crept noiselessly over the bridge of Pontlaz. The cavalry followed with +equal caution but with less success. The sound of a horse's hoof aroused +the watchful Tyrolese. Instantly rocks and trees were hurled upon the +bridge, men and horses being crushed beneath them and the passage +blocked. All the troops which had not crossed were taken prisoners. The +remainder were sharply pursued, and only a handful of them escaped.</p> + +<p>The other divisions of the invading army met with a similar fate. +Lefebvre himself, who reproached the Saxons for their defeat, was not +able to advance as far as they, and was quickly driven from the +mountains with greatly thinned ranks. He was forced to disguise himself +as a common soldier and hide among the cavalry to escape the balls of +the sharp-shooters, who owed him no love. The rear-guard was attacked +with clubs by the Capuchin and his men, and driven out with heavy loss. +During the night that followed all the mountains around the beautiful +valley of Innsbruck were lit up with watch-fires. In the valley below +those of the invaders were kept brightly burning while the troops +silently withdrew. On the next day the Tyrol held no foes; the invasion +had failed.</p> + +<p>Hofer placed himself at the head of the government at Innsbruck, where +he lived in his old simple <a name="Page_337" id="Page_337"></a>mode of life, proclaimed some excellent +laws, and convoked a national assembly. The Emperor of Austria sent him +a golden chain and three thousand ducats. He received them with no show +of pride, and returned the following naïve answer: "Sirs, I thank you. I +have no news for you to-day. I have, it is true, three couriers on the +road, the Watscher-Hiesele, the Sixten-Seppele, and the Memmele-Franz, +and the Schwanz ought long to have been here. I expect the rascal every +hour."</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Speckbacher and the Capuchin kept up hostilities successfully +on the eastern frontier. Haspinger wished to invade the country of their +foes, but was restrained by his more prudent associate. Speckbacher is +described as an open-hearted, fine-spirited fellow, with the strength of +a giant, and the best marksman in the country. So keen was his vision +that he could distinguish the bells on the necks of the cattle at the +distance of half a mile.</p> + +<p>His son Anderle, but ten years of age, was of a spirit equal to his own. +In one of the earlier battles of the war he had occupied himself during +the fight in collecting the enemy's balls in his hat, and so obstinately +refused to quit the field that his father had him carried by force to a +distant alp. During the present conflict, Anderle unexpectedly appeared +and fought by his father's side. He had escaped from his mountain +retreat. It proved an unlucky escape. Shortly afterwards, the father was +surprised by treachery and found himself sur<a name="Page_338" id="Page_338"></a>rounded with foes, who tore +from him his arms, flung him to the ground, and seriously injured him +with blows from a club. But in an instant more he sprang furiously to +his feet, hurled his assailants to the earth, and escaped across a wall +of rock impassable except to an expert mountaineer. A hundred of his men +followed him, but his young son was taken captive by his foes. The king, +Maximilian Joseph, attracted by the story of his courage and beauty, +sent for him and had him well educated.</p> + +<p>The freedom of the Tyrol was not to last long. The treaty of Vienna, +between the Emperors of Austria and France, was signed. It did not even +mention the Tyrol. It was a tacit understanding that the mountain +country was to be restored to Bavaria, and to reduce it to obedience +three fresh armies crossed its frontiers. They were repulsed in the +south, but in the north Hofer, under unwise advice, abandoned the +anterior passes, and the invaders made their way as far as Innsbruck, +whence they summoned him to capitulate.</p> + +<p>During the night of October 30 an envoy from Austria appeared in the +Tyrolese camp, bearing a letter from the Archduke John, in which he +announced the conclusion of peace and commanded the mountaineers to +disperse, and not to offer their lives as a useless sacrifice. The +Tyrolese regarded him as their lord, and obeyed, though with bitter +regret. A dispersion took place, except of the band of Speckbacher, +which held its ground against the enemy until the 3d of November, when +he received <a name="Page_339" id="Page_339"></a>a letter from Hofer saying, "I announce to you that Austria +has made peace with France, and has forgotten the Tyrol." On receiving +this news he disbanded his followers, and all opposition ceased.</p> + +<p>The war was soon afoot again, however, in the native vale of Hofer, the +people of which, made desperate by the depredations of the Italian bands +which had penetrated their country, sprang to arms and resolved to +defend themselves to the bitter end. They compelled Hofer to place +himself at their head.</p> + +<p>For a time they were successful. But a traitor guided the enemy to their +rear, and defeat followed. Hofer escaped and took refuge among the +mountain peaks. Others of the leaders were taken and executed. The most +gallant among the peasantry were shot or hanged. There was some further +opposition, but the invaders pressed into every valley and disarmed the +people, the bulk of whom obeyed the orders given them and offered no +resistance. The revolt was quelled.</p> + +<p>Hofer took refuge at first, with his wife and child, in a narrow hollow +in the Kellerlager. This he soon left for a hut on the highest alps. He +was implored to leave the country, but he vowed that he would live or +die on his native soil. Discovery soon came. A peasant named Raffel +learned the location of his hiding-place by seeing the smoke ascend from +his distant hut. He foolishly boasted of his knowledge; his story came +to the ears of the French; he was arrested, and compelled to guide them +to the spot. Two thousand French were spread around the moun<a name="Page_340" id="Page_340"></a>tain; a +thousand six hundred ascended it; Hofer was taken.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-340.png" alt="LAST DAY OF ANDREAS HOFER." title="LAST DAY OF ANDREAS HOFER." /></div> +<h5>LAST DAY OF ANDREAS HOFER.</h5> + +<p>His captors treated him with brutal violence. They tore out his beard, +and dragged him pinioned, barefoot, and in his night-dress, over ice and +snow to the valley. Here he was placed in a carriage and carried to the +fortress of Mantua, in Italy. Napoleon, on news of the capture being +brought to him at Paris, sent orders to shoot him within twenty-four +hours.</p> + +<p>He died as bravely as he had lived. When placed before the firing-party +of twelve riflemen, he refused either to kneel or to allow himself to be +blindfolded. "I stand before my Creator," he exclaimed, in firm tones, +"and standing will I restore to him the spirit he gave."</p> + +<p>He gave the signal to fire, but the men, moved by the scene, missed +their aim. The first fire brought him to his knees, the second stretched +him on the ground, where a corporal terminated the cruel scene by +shooting him through the head. He died February 20, 1810. At a later +date his remains were borne back to his native alps, a handsome monument +of white marble was erected to his memory in the church at Innsbruck, +and his family was ennobled.</p> + +<p>Of the two other principal leaders of the Tyrolese, Haspinger, the +Capuchin, escaped to Vienna, which Speckbacher also succeeded in +reaching, after a series of perils and escapes which are well worth +relating.</p> + +<p>After the dispersal of his troops he, like Hofer, <a name="Page_341" id="Page_341"></a>sought concealment in +the mountains where the Bavarians sought for him in troops, vowing to +"cut his skin into boot-straps if they caught him." He attempted to +follow the mountain paths to Austria, but at Dux found the roads so +blocked with snow that further progress was impossible. Here the +Bavarians came upon his track and attacked the house in which he had +taken refuge. He escaped by leaping from its roof, but was wounded in +doing so.</p> + +<p>For the twenty-seven days that followed he roamed through the snowy +mountain forests, in danger of death both from cold and starvation. Once +for four days together he did not taste food. At the end of this time he +found shelter in a hut at Bolderberg, where by chance he found his wife +and children, who had sought the same asylum.</p> + +<p>His bitterly persistent foes left him not long in safety here. They +learned his place of retreat, and pursued him, his presence of mind +alone saving him from capture. Seeing them approach, he took a sledge +upon his shoulders, and walked towards and past them as though he were a +servant of the house.</p> + +<p>His next place of refuge was in a cave on the Gemshaken, in which he +remained until the opening of spring, when he had the ill-fortune to be +carried by a snow-slide a mile and a half into the valley. It was +impossible to return. He crept from the snow, but found that one of his +legs was dislocated. The utmost he could do, and that with agonizing +pain, was to drag himself to a neighboring hut.<a name="Page_342" id="Page_342"></a> Here were two men, who +carried him to his own house at Rinn.</p> + +<p>Bavarians were quartered in the house, and the only place of refuge open +to him was the cow-shed, where his faithful servant Zoppel dug for him a +hole beneath the bed of one of the cows, and daily supplied him with +food. His wife had returned to the house, but the danger of discovery +was so great that even she was not told of his propinquity.</p> + +<p>For seven weeks he remained thus half buried in the cow-shed, gradually +recovering his strength. At the end of that time he rose, bade adieu to +his wife, who now first learned of his presence, and again betook +himself to the high paths of the mountains, from which the sun of May +had freed the snow. He reached Vienna without further trouble.</p> + +<p>Here the brave patriot received no thanks for his services. Even a small +estate he had purchased with the remains of his property he was forced +to relinquish, not being able to complete the purchase. He would have +been reduced to beggary but for Hofer's son, who had received a fine +estate from the emperor, and who engaged him as his steward. Thus ended +the active career of the ablest leader in the Tyrolean war.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343"></a></p> +<h3><a name="THE_OLD_EMPIRE_AND_THE_NEW" id="THE_OLD_EMPIRE_AND_THE_NEW"></a><i>THE OLD EMPIRE AND THE NEW</i>.</h3> + + +<p>During the Christmas festival of the year 800 the crown of the imperial +dignity was placed at Rome on the head of Charles the Great, and the +Roman Empire of the West again came into being, so far as a dead thing +could be restored to life. For one thousand and six years afterwards +this title of emperor was retained in Germany, though the power +represented by it became at times a very shadowy affair. The authority +and influence of the emperors reached their culmination during the reign +of the Hohenstauffens (1138 to 1254). For a few centuries afterwards the +title represented an empire which was but a quarter fact, three-quarters +tradition, the emperor being duly elected by the diet of German princes, +but by no means submissively obeyed. The fraction of fact which remained +of the old empire perished in the Thirty Years' War. After that date the +title continued in existence, being held by the Hapsburgs of Austria as +an hereditary dignity, but the empire had vanished except as a tradition +or superstition. Finally, on the 6th of August, 1806, Francis II., at +the absolute dictum of Napoleon, laid down the title of "Emperor of the +Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation," and the long defunct empire was +finally buried.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344"></a>The shadow which remained of the empire of Charlemagne had vanished +before the rise of a greater and more vital thing, the empire of France, +brought into existence by the genius of Napoleon Bonaparte, the +successor of Charles the Great as a mighty conqueror. For a few years it +seemed as if the original empire might be restored. The power of +Napoleon, indeed, extended farther than that of his great predecessor, +all Europe west of Russia becoming virtually his. Some of the kings were +replaced by monarchs of his creation. Others were left upon their +thrones, but with their power shorn, their dignity being largely one of +vassalage to France. Not content with an empire that stretched beyond +the limits of that of Charlemagne or of the Roman Empire of the West, +Napoleon ambitiously sought to subdue all Europe to his imperial will, +and marched into Russia with nearly all the remaining nations of Europe +as his forced allies.</p> + +<p>His career as a conqueror ended in the snows of Muscovy and amid the +flames of Moscow. The shattered fragment of the grand army of conquest +that came back from that terrible expedition found crushed and dismayed +Germany rising into hostile vitality in its rear. Russia pursued its +vanquished invader, Prussia rose against him, Austria joined his foes, +and at length, in October, 1813, united Germany was marshalled in arms +against its mighty enemy before the city of Leipsic, the scene of the +great battles of the Thirty Years' War, nearly two centuries before.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345"></a>Here was fought one of the fiercest and most decisive struggles of that +quarter century of conflict. It was a fight for life, a battle to decide +the question of who should be lord of Europe. Napoleon had been brought +to bay. Despising to the last his foes, he had weakened his army by +leaving strong garrisons in the German cities, which he hoped to +reoccupy after he had beaten the German armies. On the 16th of October +the great contest began. It was fought fiercely throughout the day, with +successive waves of victory and defeat, the advantage at the end resting +with the allies through sheer force of numbers. The 17th was a day of +rest and negotiation, Napoleon vainly seeking to induce the Emperor of +Austria to withdraw from the alliance. While this was going on large +bodies of Swedes, Russians, and Austrians were marching to join the +German ranks, and the battle of the 18th was fought between a hundred +and fifty thousand French and a hostile army of double that strength, +which represented all northern and eastern Europe.</p> + +<p>The battle was one of frightful slaughter. Its turning-point came when +the Saxon infantry, which had hitherto fought on the French side, +deserted Napoleon's cause in the thick of the fight, and went over in a +body to the enemy. It was an act of treachery whose fatal effect no +effort could overcome. The day ended with victory in the hands of the +allies. The French were driven back close upon the walls of Leipsic, +with the serried columns of<a name="Page_346" id="Page_346"></a> Germany and Russia closing them in, and +bent on giving no relaxation to their desperate foe.</p> + +<p>The struggle was at an end. Longer resistance would have been madness. +Napoleon ordered a retreat. But the Elster had to be crossed, and only a +single bridge remained for the passage of the army and its stores. All +night long the French poured across the bridge with what they could take +of their wagons and guns. Morning dawned with the rush and hurry of the +retreat still in active progress. A strong rear-guard held the town, and +Napoleon himself made his way across the bridge with difficulty through +the crowding masses.</p> + +<p>Hardly had he crossed when a frightful misfortune occurred. The bridge +had been mined, to blow it up on the approach of the foe. This duty had +been carelessly trusted to a subaltern, who, frightened by seeing some +of the enemy on the river-side, set fire hastily to the train. The +bridge blew up with a tremendous explosion, leaving a rear-guard of +twenty-five thousand men in Leipsic cut off from all hope of escape. +Some officers plunged on horseback into the stream and swam across. +Prince Poniatowsky, the gallant Pole, essayed the same, but perished in +the attempt. The soldiers of the rear-guard were forced to surrender as +prisoners of war. In this great conflict, which had continued for four +days, and in which the most of the nations of Europe took part, eighty +thousand men are said to have been slain. The French lost very heavily +in prisoners and guns. Only a hasty retreat to the<a name="Page_347" id="Page_347"></a> Rhine saved the +remainder of their army from being cut off and captured. On the 20th +Napoleon succeeded in crossing that frontier river of his kingdom with +seventy thousand men, the remnant of the grand army with which he had +sought to hold Prussia after the disastrous end of the invasion of +Russia.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/image-347.png" alt="A GERMAN MILK WAGON." title="A GERMAN MILK WAGON." /></div> +<h5>A GERMAN MILK WAGON.</h5> + +<p>Germany was at length freed from its mighty foe. The garrisons which had +been left in its cities were forced to surrender as prisoners of war. +France in its turn was invaded, Paris taken, and Napoleon forced to +resign the imperial crown, and to retire from his empire to the little +island of Elba, near the Italian coast. In 1815 he returned, again set +Europe in flame with war, and fell once more at Waterloo, to end his +career in the far-off island of St. Helena.</p> + +<p>Thus ended the empire founded by the great conqueror. The next to claim +the imperial title was Louis Napoleon, who in 1851 had himself crowned +as Napoleon III. But his so-called empire was confined to France, and +fell in 1870 on the field of Sedan, himself and his army being taken +prisoners. A republic was declared in France, and the second French +empire was at an end.</p> + +<p>And now the empire of Germany was restored, after having ceased to exist +for sixty-five years. The remarkable success of William of Prussia gave +rise to a wide-spread feeling in the German states that he should assume +the imperial crown, and the old empire be brought again into existence +under <a name="Page_348" id="Page_348"></a>new conditions; no longer hampered by the tradition of a Roman +empire, but as the title of united Germany.</p> + +<p>On December 18, 1870, an address from the North German Parliament was +read to King William at Versailles, asking him to accept the imperial +crown. He assented, and on January 18, 1871, an imposing ceremony was +held in the splendid Mirror Hall (<i>Galerie des Glaces</i>) of Louis XIV., +at the royal palace of Versailles. The day was a wet one, and the king +rode from his quarters in the prefecture to the great gates of the +château, where he alighted and passed through a lane of soldiers, the +roar of cannon heralding his approach, and rich strains of music +signalling his entrance to the hall.</p> + +<p>William wore a general's uniform, with the ribbon of the Black Eagle on +his breast. Helmet in hand he advanced slowly to the dais, bowed to the +assembled clergymen, and turned to survey the scene. There had been +erected an altar covered with scarlet cloth, which bore the device of +the Iron Cross. Right and left of it were soldiers bearing the standards +of their regiments. Attending on the king were the crown-prince, and a +brilliant array of the princes, dukes, and other rulers of the German +states arranged in semicircular form. Just above his head was a great +allegorical painting of the Grand Monarch, with the proud subscription, +"<i>Le Roi gouverne par lui même</i>," the motto of the autocrat.</p> + +<p>The ceremony began with the singing of psalms, <a name="Page_349" id="Page_349"></a>a short sermon, and a +grand German chorale, in which all present joined. Then William, in a +loud but broken voice, read a paper, in which he declared the German +empire re-established, and the imperial dignity revived, to be invested +in him and his descendants for all future time, in accordance with the +will of the German people.</p> + +<p>Count Bismarck followed with a proclamation addressed by the emperor to +the German nation. As he ended, the Grand-Duke of Baden, William's +son-in-law, stepped out from the line, raised his helmet in the air, and +shouted in stentorian tones, "Long live the German Emperor William! +Hurrah!"</p> + +<p>Loud cheers and waving of swords and helmets responded to his stirring +appeal, the crown-prince fell on his knee to kiss the emperor's hand, +and a military band outside the hall struck up the German National +Anthem, while, as a warlike background to the scene, came the roar of +French cannon from Mount Valérien, still besieged by the Germans, their +warlike peal the last note of defiance from vanquished France. Ten days +afterwards Paris surrendered, and the war was at an end. On the 16th of +June the army made a triumphant entrance into Berlin, William riding at +its head, to be triumphantly hailed as emperor by his own people on his +own soil. All Germany, with the exception of Austria, was for the first +time fully united into an empire, the minor princes having ceased to +exist as ruling potentates.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Historical Tales, Vol 5 (of 15), by Charles Morris + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES, VOL 5 (OF 15) *** + +***** This file should be named 16587-h.htm or 16587-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/5/8/16587/ + +Produced by Janet Blenkinship and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/16587-h/images/front.png b/16587-h/images/front.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4910666 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/front.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-013.png b/16587-h/images/image-013.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c2e16de --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-013.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-043.png b/16587-h/images/image-043.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7512394 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-043.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-061.png b/16587-h/images/image-061.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d9d612f --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-061.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-065.png b/16587-h/images/image-065.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f47906 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-065.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-078.png b/16587-h/images/image-078.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e5b2eb4 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-078.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-094.png b/16587-h/images/image-094.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..00b43a0 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-094.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-109.png b/16587-h/images/image-109.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a7f1072 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-109.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-153.png b/16587-h/images/image-153.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f19437b --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-153.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-175.png b/16587-h/images/image-175.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..48bfc65 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-175.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-193.png b/16587-h/images/image-193.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e0f5d58 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-193.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-225.png b/16587-h/images/image-225.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9954f9b --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-225.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-236.png b/16587-h/images/image-236.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..04fe019 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-236.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-246.png b/16587-h/images/image-246.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..367b039 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-246.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-252.png b/16587-h/images/image-252.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fdcfc90 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-252.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-278.png b/16587-h/images/image-278.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4b68c96 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-278.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-289.png b/16587-h/images/image-289.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ca45a83 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-289.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-315.png b/16587-h/images/image-315.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fdd8a76 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-315.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-340.png b/16587-h/images/image-340.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0b49d66 --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-340.png diff --git a/16587-h/images/image-347.png b/16587-h/images/image-347.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..419111e --- /dev/null +++ b/16587-h/images/image-347.png diff --git a/16587.txt b/16587.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8122c6e --- /dev/null +++ b/16587.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9049 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Historical Tales, Vol 5 (of 15), by Charles Morris + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Historical Tales, Vol 5 (of 15) + The Romance of Reality, German + +Author: Charles Morris + +Release Date: August 24, 2005 [EBook #16587] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES, VOL 5 (OF 15) *** + + + + +Produced by Janet Blenkinship and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Edition d'Elite + +Historical Tales + +The Romance of Reality + +By + +CHARLES MORRIS + +_Author of "Half-Hours with the Best American Authors," "Tales from the +Dramatists," etc._ + +IN FIFTEEN VOLUMES + +Volume V + +German + +J.B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY + +PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON + +Copyright, 1893, by J.B. Lippincott Company. + +Copyright, 1904, by J.B. Lippincott Company. + +Copyright, 1908, by J.B. Lippincott Company. + +_CONTENTS_ + + + PAGE + +HERMANN, THE HERO OF GERMANY 7 + +ALBION AND ROSAMOND 19 + +THE CAREER OF GRIMOALD 28 + +WITTEKIND, THE SAXON PATRIOT 37 + +THE RAIDS OF THE SEA-ROVERS 47 + +THE CAREER OF BISHOP HATTO 58 + +THE MISFORTUNES OF DUKE ERNST 64 + +THE REIGN OF OTHO II 69 + +THE FORTUNES OF HENRY THE FOURTH 77 + +THE ANECDOTES OF MEDIAEVAL GERMANY 92 + +FREDERICK BARBAROSSA AND MILAN 105 + +THE CRUSADE OF FREDERICK II 118 + +THE FALL OF THE GHIBELLINES 129 + +THE TRIBUNAL OF THE HOLY VEHM 138 + +WILLIAM TELL AND THE SWISS PATRIOTS 148 + +THE BLACK DEATH AND THE FLAGELLANTS 162 + +THE SWISS AT MORGARTEN 170 + +A MAD EMPEROR 176 + +SEMPACH AND ARNOLD WINKELRIED 187 + +ZISKA, THE BLIND WARRIOR 198 + +THE SIEGE OF BELGRADE 210 + +LUTHER AND THE INDULGENCES 217 + +SOLYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT AT GUNTZ 229 + +THE PEASANTS AND THE ANABAPTISTS 238 + +THE FORTUNES OF WALLENSTEIN 252 + +THE END OF TWO GREAT SOLDIERS 265 + +THE SIEGE OF VIENNA 277 + +THE YOUTH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 288 + +VOLTAIRE AND FREDERICK THE GREAT 305 + +SCENES FROM THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR 315 + +THE PATRIOTS OF THE TYROL 328 + +THE OLD EMPIRE AND THE NEW 343 + + + + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +GERMAN. + + PAGE + +MAXIMILIAN RECEIVING VENETIAN DELEGATION 7 + +RETURN OF HERMANN AFTER HIS VICTORY OVER THE ROMANS 13 + +THE BAPTISM OF WITTEKIND 43 + +THE MOUSE-TOWER ON THE RHINE 61 + +PEASANT WEDDING PROCESSION 65 + +SCENE OF MONASTIC LIFE 78 + +THUSNELDA IN THE GERMANICUS TRIUMPH 94 + +THE AMPHITHEATRE AT MILAN 109 + +STATUE OF WILLIAM TELL 153 + +THE CASTLE OF PRAGUE 175 + +STATUE OF ARNOLD WINKELRIED 193 + +STATUE OF LUTHER AT WORMS 225 + +THE MOSQUE OF SOLYMAN, CONSTANTINOPLE 236 + +OLD HOUSES AT MUeNSTER 246 + +WALLENSTEIN 252 + +THE PARLIAMENT HOUSE IN VIENNA 278 + +STATUE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT, UNTER DEN LINDEN, BERLIN 289 + +SANS SOUCI, PALACE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT 315 + +THE LAST DAY OF ANDREAS HOFER 340 + +A GERMAN MILK WAGON 347 + + +[Illustration: MAXIMILIAN RECEIVING VENETIAN DELEGATION.] + + + + +_HERMANN, THE HERO OF GERMANY._ + + +In the days of Augustus, the emperor of Rome in its golden age of +prosperity, an earnest effort was made to subdue and civilize barbarian +Germany. Drusus, the step-son of the emperor, led the first army of +invasion into this forest-clad land of the north, penetrating deeply +into the country and building numerous forts to guard his conquests. His +last invasion took him as far as the Elbe. Here, as we are told, he +found himself confronted by a supernatural figure, in the form of a +woman, who waved him back with lofty and threatening air, saying, "How +much farther wilt thou advance, insatiable Drusus? It is not thy lot to +behold all these countries. Depart hence! the term of thy deeds and of +thy life is at hand." Drusus retreated, and died on his return. + +Tiberius, his brother, succeeded him, and went far to complete the +conquest he had begun. Germany seemed destined to become a Roman +province. The work of conquest was followed by efforts to civilize the +free-spirited barbarians, which, had they been conducted wisely, might +have led to success. One of the Roman governors, Sentius, prefect of the +Rhine, treated the people so humanely that many of them adopted the arts +and customs of Rome, and the work of overcoming their barbarism was +well begun. He was succeeded in this office by Varus, a friend and +confidant of the emperor, but a man of very different character, and one +who not only lacked military experience and mental ability, but utterly +misunderstood the character of the people he was dealing with. They +might be led, they could not be driven into civilization, as the new +prefect was to learn. + +All went well as long as Varus remained peacefully in his head-quarters, +erecting markets, making the natives familiar with the attractive wares +of Rome, instructing them in civilized arts, and taking their sons into +the imperial army. All went ill when he sought to hasten his work by +acts of oppression, leading his forces across the Weser into the land of +the Cherusci, enforcing there the rigid Roman laws, and chastising and +executing free-born Germans for deeds which in their creed were not +crimes. Varus, who had at first made himself loved by his kindness, now +made himself hated by his severity. The Germans brooded over their +wrongs, awed by the Roman army, which consisted of thirty thousand +picked men, strongly intrenched, their camps being impregnable to their +undisciplined foes. Yet the high-spirited barbarians felt that this army +was but an entering wedge, and that, if not driven out, their whole +country would gradually be subdued. + +A patriot at length arose among the Cherusci, determined to free his +country from the intolerable Roman yoke. He was a handsome and athletic +youth, Arminius, or Hermann as the Germans prefer to name him, of noble +descent, and skilled alike in the arts of war and of oratory, his +eloquence being equal to his courage. He was one of the sons of the +Germans who had served in the Roman armies, and had won there such +distinction as to gain the honors of knighthood and citizenship. Now, +perceiving clearly the subjection that threatened his countrymen, and +filled with an ardent love of liberty, he appeared among them, and +quickly filled their dispirited souls with much of his own courage and +enthusiasm. At midnight meetings in the depths of the forests a +conspiracy against Varus and his legions was planned, Hermann being the +chosen leader of the perilous enterprise. + +It was not long before this conspiracy was revealed. The German control +over the Cherusci had been aided by Segestus, a treacherous chief, whose +beautiful and patriotic daughter, Thusnelda, had given her hand in +marriage to Hermann, against her father's will. Filled with revengeful +anger at this action, and hoping to increase his power, Segestus told +the story of the secret meetings, which he had discovered, to Varus, and +bade him beware, as a revolt against him might at any moment break out. +He spoke to the wrong man. Pride in the Roman power and scorn of that of +the Germans had deeply infected the mind of Varus, and he heard with +incredulous contempt this story that the barbarians contemplated rising +against the best trained legions of Rome. + +Autumn came, the autumn of the year 9 A.D. The long rainy season of the +German forests began. Hermann decided that the time had arrived for the +execution of his plans. He began his work with a deceitful skill that +quite blinded the too-trusting Varus, inducing him to send bodies of +troops into different parts of the country, some to gather provisions +for the winter supply of the camps, others to keep watch over some +tribes not yet subdued. The Roman force thus weakened, the artful German +succeeded in drawing Varus with the remainder of his men from their +intrenchments, by inducing one of the subjected tribes to revolt. + +The scheme of Hermann had, so far, been completely successful. Varus, +trusting to his representations, had weakened his force, and now +prepared to draw the main body of his army out of camp. Hermann remained +with him to the last, dining with him the day before the starting of the +expedition, and inspiring so much confidence in his faithfulness to Rome +that Varus refused to listen to Segestus, who earnestly entreated him to +take Hermann prisoner on the spot. He even took Hermann's advice, and +decided to march on the revolted tribe by a shorter than the usual +route, oblivious to the fact that it led through difficult mountain +passes, shrouded in forests and bordered by steep and rocky acclivities. + +The treacherous plans of the patriotic German had fully succeeded. While +the Romans were toiling onward through the straitened passes, Hermann +had sought his waiting and ambushed countrymen, to whom he gave the +signal that the time for vengeance had come. Then, as if the dense +forests had borne a sudden crop of armed men, the furious barbarians +poured out in thousands upon the unsuspecting legionaries. + +A frightful storm was raging. The mountain torrents, swollen by the +downpour of rain, over--flowed their banks and invaded the passes, along +which the Romans, encumbered with baggage, were wearily dragging onward +in broken columns. Suddenly, to the roar of winds and waters, was added +the wild war-cry of the Germans, and a storm of arrows, javelins, and +stones hurtled through the disordered ranks, while the barbarians, +breaking from the woods, and rushing downward from the heights, fell +upon the legions with sword and battle-axe, dealing death with every +blow. + +Only the discipline of the Romans saved them from speedy destruction. +With the instinct of their training they hastened to gather into larger +bodies, and their resistance, at first feeble, soon became more +effective. The struggle continued until night-fall, by which time the +surviving Romans had fought their way to a more open place, where they +hastily intrenched. But it was impossible for them to remain there. +Their provisions were lost or exhausted, thousands of foes surrounded +them, and their only hope lay in immediate and rapid flight. + +Sunrise came. The soldiers had recovered somewhat from the fatigue of +the day before. Setting fire to what baggage remained in their hands, +they began a retreat fighting as they went, for the implacable enemy +disputed every step. The first part of their route lay through an open +plain, where they marched in orderly ranks. But there were mountains +still to pass, and they quickly found themselves in a wooded and +pathless valley, in whose rugged depths defence was almost impossible. +Here they fell in thousands before the weapons of their foes. It was but +a small body of survivors that at length escaped from that deadly defile +and threw up intrenchments for the night in a more open spot. + +With the dawn of the next day they resumed their progress, and were at +no great distance from their stronghold of Aliso when they found their +progress arrested by fresh tribes, who assailed them with murderous +fury. On they struggled, fighting, dying, marking every step of the +route with their dead. Varus, now reduced to despair, and seeing only +slaughter or captivity before him, threw himself on his sword, and died +in the midst of those whom his blind confidence had led to destruction. +Of the whole army only a feeble remnant reached Aliso, which fort they +soon after abandoned and fought their way to the Rhine. While this was +going on, the detachments which Varus had sent out in various directions +were similarly assailed, and met the same fate as had overtaken the main +body of the troops. + +[Illustration: RETURN OF HERMANN AFTER HIS VICTORY OVER THE ROMANS.] + +No more frightful disaster had ever befallen the Roman arms. Many +prisoners had been taken, among them certain judges and lawyers, who +were the chief objects of Hermann's hate, and whom he devoted to a +painful death. He then offered sacrifices to the gods, to whom he +consecrated the booty, the slain, and the leading prisoners, numbers of +them being slain on the altars of his deities. These religious +ceremonies completed, the prisoners who still remained were distributed +among the tribes as slaves. The effort of Varus to force Roman customs +and laws upon the Germans had led to a fearful retribution. + +When the news of this dreadful event reached Rome, that city was filled +with grief and fear. The heart of Augustus, now an old man, was stricken +with dismay at the slaughter of the best soldiers of the empire. With +neglected dress and person he wandered about the rooms and halls of the +palace, his piteous appeal, "Varus, give me back my legions!" showing +how deeply the disaster had pierced his soul. Hasty efforts were at once +made to prevent the possible serious consequences of the overthrow of +the slain legions. The Romans on the Rhine intrenched themselves in all +haste. The Germans in the imperial service were sent to distant +provinces, and recruits were raised in all parts of the country, their +purpose being to protect Gaul from an invasion by the triumphant tribes. +Yet so great was the fear inspired by the former German onslaughts, and +by this destructive outbreak, that only threats of death induced the +Romans to serve. As it proved, this defensive activity was not needed. +The Germans, satisfied, as it seemed, with expelling the Romans from +their country, destroyed their forts and military roads, and settled +back into peace, with no sign of a desire to cross the Rhine. + +For six years peace continued. Augustus died, and Tiberius became +emperor of Rome. Then, in the year 14 A.D., an effort was made to +reconquer Germany, an army commanded by the son of Drusus, known to +history under the name of Germanicus, attacking the Marsi, when +intoxicated and unarmed after a religious feast. Great numbers of the +defenceless tribesmen were slain, but the other tribes sprung to arms +and drove the invader back across the Rhine. + +In the next year Hermann was again brought into the fray. Segestus had +robbed him of his wife, the beautiful patriot Thusnelda, who hitherto +had been his right hand in council in his plans against the Roman foe. +Hermann besieged Segestus to regain possession of his wife, and pressed +the traitor so closely that he sent his son Sigismund to Germanicus, who +was again on the German side of the Rhine, imploring aid. The Roman +leader took instant advantage of this promising opportunity. He advanced +and forced Hermann to raise the siege, and himself took possession of +Thusnelda, who was destined soon afterwards to be made the leading +feature in a Roman triumph. Segestus was rewarded for his treason, and +was given lands in Gaul, his life being not safe among the people he had +betrayed. As for the daughter whom he had yielded to Roman hands, her +fate troubled little his base soul. + +Thusnelda is still a popular character in German legend, there being +various stories extant concerning her. One of these relates that, when +she lay concealed in the old fort of Schellenpyrmont, she was warned by +the cries of a faithful bird of the coming of the Romans, who were +seeking stealthily to approach her hiding-place. + +The loss of his beloved wife roused Hermann's heroic spirit, and spread +indignation among the Germans, who highly esteemed the noble-hearted +consort of their chief. They rose hastily in arms, and Hermann was soon +at the head of a large army, prepared to defend his country against the +invading hosts of the Romans. But as the latter proved too strong to +face in the open field, the Germans retreated with their families and +property, the country left by them being laid waste by the advancing +legions. + +Germanicus soon reached the scene of the late slaughter, and caused the +bones of the soldiers of Varus to be buried. But in doing this he was +obliged to enter the mountain defiles in which the former army had met +its fate. Hermann and his men watched the Romans intently from forest +and hilltop. When they had fairly entered the narrow valleys, the adroit +chief appeared before them at the head of a small troop, which retreated +as if in fear, drawing them onward until the whole army had entered the +pass. + +Then the fatal signal was given, and the revengeful Germans fell upon +the legionaries of Germanicus as they had done upon those of Varus, +cutting them down in multitudes. But Germanicus was a much better +soldier than Varus. He succeeded in extricating the remnant of his men, +after they had lost heavily, and in making an orderly retreat to his +ships, which awaited him upon the northern coast whence he had entered +the country. There were two other armies, one of which had invaded +Germany from the coast of Friesland, and was carried away by a flood, +narrowly escaping complete destruction. The third had entered from the +Rhine. This was overtaken by Hermann while retreating over the long +bridges which the Romans had built across the marshes of Muensterland, +and which were now in a state of advanced decay. Here it found itself +surrounded by seemingly insuperable dangers, being, in part of its +route, shut up in a narrow dell, into which the enemy had turned the +waters of a rapid stream. While defending their camp, the waters poured +upon the soldiers, rising to their knees, and a furious tempest at the +same time burst over their heads. Yet discipline, again prevailed. They +lost heavily, but succeeded in cutting their way through their enemies +and reaching the Rhine. + +In the next year, 17 A.D., Germanicus again invaded Germany, sailing +with a thousand ships through the northern seas and up the Ems. Flavus, +the brother of Hermann, who had remained in the service of Rome, was +with him, and addressed his patriotic brother from the river-side, +seeking to induce him to desert the German cause, by painting in +glowing colors the advantage of being a Roman citizen. Hermann, furious +at his desertion of his country, replied to him with curses, as the only +language worthy to use to a traitor, and would have ridden across the +stream to kill him, but that he was held back by his men. + +A battle soon succeeded, the Germans falling into an ambuscade artfully +laid by the Roman leader, and being defeated with heavy loss. Germanicus +raised a stately monument on the spot, as a memorial of his victory. The +sight of this Roman monument in their country infuriated the Germans, +and they attacked the Romans again, this time with such fury, and such +slaughter on both sides, that neither party was able to resume the fight +when the next day dawned. Germanicus, who had been very severely +handled, retreated to his ships and set sail. On his voyage the heavens +appeared to conspire against him. A tempest arose in which most of the +vessels were wrecked and many of the legionaries lost. When he returned +to Rome, shortly afterwards, a fort on the Taunus was the only one which +Rome possessed in Germany. Hermann had cleared his country of the foe. +Yet Germanicus was given a triumph, in which Thusnelda walked, laden +with chains, to the capitol. + +The remaining events in the life of this champion of German liberty were +few. While the events described had been taking place in the north of +Germany, there were troubles in the south. Here a chieftain named +Marbodius, who, like Hermann, had passed his youth in the Roman armies, +was the leader of several powerful tribes. He lacked the patriotism of +Hermann, and sought to ally himself with the Romans, with the hope of +attaining to supreme power in Germany. + +Hermann sought to rouse patriotic sentiments in his mind, but in vain, +and the movements of Marbodius having revealed his purposes, a coalition +was formed against him, with Hermann at its head. He was completely +defeated, and southern Germany saved from Roman domination, as the +northern districts had already been. + +Peace followed, and for several years Hermann remained general-in-chief +of the German people, and the acknowledged bulwark of their liberties. +But envy arose; he was maligned, and accused of aiming at sovereignty, +as Marbodius had done; and at length his own relations, growing to hate +and fear him, conspired against and murdered him. + +Thus ignobly fell the noblest of the ancient Germans, the man whose +patriotism saved the realm of the Teutonic tribes from becoming a +province of the empire of Rome. Had not Hermann lived, the history of +Europe might have pursued a different course, and the final downfall of +the colossus of the south been long averted, Germany acting as its +bulwark of defence instead of becoming the nursery of its foes. + + + + +_ALBOIN AND ROSAMOND._ + + +Of the Teutonic invaders of Italy none are invested with more interest +than the Lombards,--the Long Beards, to give them their original title. +Legend yields us the story of their origin, a story of interest enough +to repeat. A famine had been caused in Denmark by a great flood, and the +people, to avoid danger of starvation, had resolved to put all the old +men and women to death, in order to save the food for the young and +strong. This radical proposition was set aside through the advice of a +wise woman, named Gambara, who suggested that lots should be drawn for +the migration of a third of the population. Her counsel was taken and +the migration began, under the leadership of her two sons. These +migrants wore beards of prodigious length, whence their subsequent name. + +They first entered the land of the Vandals, who refused them permission +to settle. This was a question to be decided at sword's point, and war +was declared. Both sides appealed to the gods for aid, Gambara praying +to Freya, while the Vandals invoked Odin, who answered that he would +grant the victory to the party he should first behold at the dawn of the +coming day. + +The day came. The sun rose. In front of the Danish host were stationed +their women, who had loosened their long hair, and let it hang down over +their faces. "Who are these with long beards?" demanded Odin, on seeing +these Danish amazons. This settled the question of victory, and also +gave the invaders a new name, that of Longobardi,--due, in this legend, +to the long hair of the women instead of the long beards of the men. +There are other legends, but none worth repeating. + +The story of their king Alboin, with whom we have particularly to deal, +begins, however, with a story which may be in part legendary. They were +now in hostile relations with the Gepidae, the first nation to throw off +the yoke of the Huns. Alboin, son of Audoin, king of the Longobardi, +killed Thurismund, son of Turisend, king of the Gepidae, in battle, but +forgot to carry away his arms, and thus returned home without a trophy +of his victory. In consequence, his stern father refused him a seat at +his table, as one unworthy of the honor. Such was the ancient Lombard +custom, and it must be obeyed. + +The young prince acknowledged the justice of this reproof, and +determined to try and obtain the arms which were his by right of +victory. Selecting forty companions, he boldly visited the court of +Turisend, and openly demanded from him the arms of his son. It was a +daring movement, but proved successful. The old king received him +hospitably, as the custom of the time demanded, though filled with grief +at the loss of his son. He even protected him from the anger of his +subjects, whom some of the Lombards had provoked by their insolence of +speech. The daring youth returned to his father's court with the arms +of his slain foe, and won the seat of honor of which he had been +deprived. + +Turisend died, and Cunimund, his son, became king. Audoin died, and +Alboin became king. And now new adventures of interest occurred. In his +visit to the court of Turisend, Alboin had seen and fallen in love with +Rosamond, the beautiful daughter of Cunimund. He now demanded her hand +in marriage, and as it was scornfully refused him, he revenged himself +by winning her honor through force and stratagem. War broke out in +consequence, and the Gepidae were conquered, Rosamond falling to Alboin +as part of the trophies of victory. + +We are told that in this war Alboin sought the aid of Bacan, chagan of +the Avars, promising him half the spoil and all the land of the Gepidae +in case of victory. He added to this a promise of the realm of the +Longobardi, in case he should succeed in winning for them a new home in +Italy, which country he proposed to invade. + +About fifteen years before, some of his subjects had made a warlike +expedition to Italy. Their report of its beauty and fertility had +kindled a spirit of emulation in the new generation, and inspired the +young and warlike king with ambitious hopes. His eloquence added to +their desire. He not only described to them in glowing words the land of +promise which he hoped to win, but spoke to their senses as well, by +producing at the royal banquets the fairest fruits that grew in that +garden land of Europe. His efforts were successful. No sooner was his +standard erected, and word sent abroad that Italy was his goal, than the +Longobardi found their strength augmented by hosts of adventurous youths +from the surrounding peoples. Germans, Bulgarians, Scythians, and others +joined in ranks, and twenty thousand Saxon warriors, with their wives +and children, added to the great host which had flocked to the banners +of the already renowned warrior. + +It was in the year 568 that Alboin, followed by the great multitude of +adventurers he had gathered, and by the whole nation of the Longobardi, +ascended the Julian Alps, and looked down from their summits on the +smiling plains of northern Italy to which his success was thenceforward +to give the name of Lombardy, the land of the Longobardi. + +Four years were spent in war with the Romans, city after city, district +after district, falling into the hands of the invaders. The resistance +was but feeble, and at length the whole country watered by the Po, with +the strong city of Pavia, fell into the hands of Alboin, who divided the +conquered lands among his followers, and reduced their former holders to +servitude. Alboin made Pavia his capital, and erected strong +fortifications to keep out the Burgundians, Franks, and other nations +which were troubling his new-gained dominions. This done, he settled +down to the enjoyment of the conquest which he had so ably made and so +skilfully defended. + +History tells us that the Longobardi cultivated their new lands so +skilfully that all traces of devastation soon vanished, and the realm +grew rich in its productions. Their freemen distinguished themselves +from the other German conquerors by laboring to turn the waste and +desert tracts into arable soil, while their king, though unceasingly +watchful against his enemies, lived among his people with patriarchal +simplicity, procuring his supplies from the produce of his farms, and +making regular rounds of inspection from one to another. It is a picture +fitted for a more peaceful and primitive age than that turbulent period +in which it is set. + +But now we have to do with Alboin in another aspect,--his domestic +relations, his dealings with his wife Rosamond, and the tragic end of +all the actors in the drama of real life which we have set out to tell. +The Longobardi were barbarians, and Alboin was no better than his +people; a strong evidence of which is the fact that he had the skull of +Cunimund, his defeated enemy and the father of his wife, set in gold, +and used it as a drinking cup at his banquets. + +Doubtless this brutality stirred revengeful sentiments in the mind of +Rosamond. An added instance of barbarian insult converted her outraged +feelings into a passion for revenge. Alboin had erected a palace near +Verona, one of the cities of his new dominion, and here he celebrated +his victories with a grand feast to his companions in arms. Wine flowed +freely at the banquet, the king emulating, or exceeding, his guests in +the art of imbibing. Heated with his potations, in which he had drained +many cups of Rhaetian or Falernian wine, he called for the choicest +ornament of his sideboard, the gold-mounted skull of Cunimund, and drank +its full measure of wine amid the loud plaudits of his drunken guests. + +"Fill it again with wine," he cried; "fill it to the brim; carry this +goblet to the queen, and tell her that it is my desire and command that +she shall rejoice with her father." + +Rosamond's heart throbbed with grief and rage on hearing this inhuman +request. She took the skull in trembling hands, and murmuring in low +accents, "Let the will of my lord be obeyed," she touched it to her +lips. But in doing so she breathed a silent prayer, and resolved that +the unpardonable insult should be washed out in Alboin's blood. + +If she had ever loved her lord, she felt now for him only the bitterness +of hate. She had a friend in the court on whom she could depend, +Helmichis, the armor-bearer of the king. She called on him for aid in +her revenge, and found him willing but fearful, for he knew too well the +great strength and daring spirit of the chief whom he had so often +attended in battle. He proposed, therefore, that they should gain the +aid of a Lombard of unequalled strength, Peredeus by name. This +champion, however, was not easily to be won. The project was broached to +him, but the most that could be gained from him was a promise of +silence. + +Failing in this, more shameful methods were employed. Such was +Rosamond's passion for revenge that the most extreme measures seemed to +her justifiable. Peredeus loved one of the attendants of the queen. +Rosamond replaced this frail woman, sacrificed her honor to her +vengeance, and then threatened to denounce Peredeus to the king unless +he would kill the man who had so bitterly wronged her. + +Peredeus now consented. He must kill the king or the king would kill +him, for he felt that Rosamond was quite capable of carrying out her +threat. Having thus obtained the promise of the instruments of her +vengeance, the queen waited for a favorable moment to carry out her dark +design. The opportunity soon came. The king, heavy with wine, had +retired from the table to his afternoon slumbers. Rosamond, affecting +solicitude for his health and repose, dismissed his attendants, closed +the palace gates, and then, seeking her spouse, lulled him to rest by +her tender caresses. + +Finding that he slumbered, she unbolted the chamber door, and urged her +confederates to the instant performance of the deed of blood. They +entered the room with stealthy tread, but the quick senses of the +warrior took the alarm, he opened his eyes, saw two armed men advancing +upon him, and sprang from his couch. His sword hung beside him, and he +attempted to draw it, but the cunning hand of Rosamond had fastened it +securely in the scabbard. The only weapon remaining was a small +foot-stool. This he used with vigor, but it could not long protect him +from the spears of his assailants, and he quickly fell dead beneath +their blows. His body was buried beneath the stairway of the palace, and +thus tragically ended the career of the founder of the kingdom of +Lombardy. + +But the story of Rosamond's life is not yet at an end. The death of +Alboin was followed by another tragic event, which brought her guilty +career to a violent termination. The wily queen had not failed to +prepare for the disturbances which might follow the death of the king. +The murder of Alboin was immediately followed by her marriage with +Helmichis, whose ambition looked to no less a prize than the throne of +Lombardy. The queen was surrounded by a band of faithful Gepidae, with +whose aid she seized the palace and made herself mistress of Verona, the +Lombard chiefs flying in alarm. But the assassination of the king who +had so often led them to victory filled the Longobardi with indignation, +the chiefs mustered their bands and led them against the stronghold of +the guilty couple, and they in their turn, were forced to fly for their +lives. Helmichis and Rosamond, with her daughter, her faithful Gepidae, +and the spoils of the palace, took ship down the Adige and the Po, and +were transported in a Greek vessel to the port of Ravenna, where they +hoped to find shelter and safety. + +Longinus, the Greek governor of Ravenna, gave willing refuge to the +fugitives, the more so as the great beauty of Rosamond filled him with +admiration. She had not been long there, indeed, before he offered her +his hand in marriage. Rosamond, moved by ambition or a return of his +love, accepted his offer. There was, it is true, an obstacle in the way. +She was already provided with a husband. But the barbarian queen had +learned the art of getting rid of inconvenient husbands. Having, +perhaps, grown to detest the tool of her revenge, now that the purpose +of her marriage with him had failed, she set herself to the task of +disposing of Helmichis, this time using the cup instead of the sword. + +As Helmichis left the bath he received a wine-cup from the hands of his +treacherous wife, and lifted it to his lips. But no sooner had he tasted +the liquor, and felt the shock that it gave his system, than he knew +that he was poisoned. Death, a speedy death, was in his veins, but he +had life enough left for revenge. Seizing his dagger, he pressed it to +the breast of Rosamond, and by threats of instant death compelled her to +drain the remainder of the cup. In a few minutes both the guilty +partners in the death of Alboin had breathed their last. + +When Longinus was, at a later moment, summoned into the room, it was to +find his late guests both dead upon the floor. The poison had faithfully +done its work. Thus ended a historic tragedy than which the stage +possesses few of more striking dramatic interest and opportunities for +histrionic effect. + + + + +_THE CAREER OF GRIMOALD._ + + +The Avars, led by Cacan, their king, crossed, in the year 611, the +mountains of Illyria and Lombardy, killed Gisulph, the grand duke, with +all his adherents, in battle, and laid siege to the city of Friuli, +behind whose strong walls Romilda, the widow of Gisulph, had taken +refuge. These events formed the basis of the romantic, and perhaps +largely legendary, story we have to tell. + +One day, so we are told, Romilda, gazing from the ramparts of the city, +beheld Cacan, the young khan of the Avars, engaged in directing the +siege. So handsome to her eyes appeared the youthful soldier that she +fell deeply in love with him at sight, her passion growing until, in +disregard of honor and patriotism, she sent him a secret message, +offering to deliver up to him the city on condition of becoming his +wife. The khan, though doubtless despising her treachery to her people, +was quick to close with the offer, and in a short time Friuli was in his +hands. + +This accomplished, he returned to Hungary, taking with him Romilda and +her children, of whom there were four sons and four daughters. Cacan +kept his compact with the traitress, marrying her with the primitive +rites of the Hungarians. But her married life was of the shortest. He +had kept his word, and such honor as he possessed was satisfied. The +morning after his marriage, moved perhaps by detestation of her +treachery, he caused the hapless Romilda to be impaled alive. It was a +dark end to a dark deed, and the perfidy of the woman had been matched +by an equal perfidy on the part of the man. + +The children of Romilda were left in the hands of the Avars. Of her +daughters, one subsequently married a duke of Bavaria and another a duke +of Allemania. The four sons, one of whom was Grimoald, the hero of our +story, managed to escape from their savage captors, though they were +hotly pursued. In their flight, Grimoald, the youngest, was taken up +behind Tafo, the oldest; but in the rapid course he lost his hold and +fell from his brother's horse. + +Tafo, knowing what would be the fate of the boy should he be captured, +turned and galloped upon him lance in hand, determined that he should +not fall alive into the hands of his cruel foes. But Grimoald's +entreaties and Tafo's brotherly affection induced him to change his +resolution, and, snatching up the boy, he continued his flight, the +pursuing Avars being now close at hand. + +Not far had they ridden before the same accident occurred. Grimoald +again fell, and Tafo was now obliged to leave him to his fate, the +fierce pursuers being too near to permit him either to kill or save the +unlucky boy. On swept Tafo, up swept the Avars, and one of them, +halting, seized the young captive, threw him behind him on his horse, +and rode on after his fellows. + +Grimoald's peril was imminent, but he was a child with the soul of a +warrior. As his captor pushed on in the track of his companions, the +brave little fellow suddenly snatched a knife from his belt, and in an +instant had stabbed him to the heart with his own weapon Tossing the +dead body from the saddle, Grimoald seized the bridle and rode swiftly +on, avoiding the Avars, and in the end rejoining his flying brothers. It +was a deed worthy the childhood of one who was in time to become a +famous warrior. + +The fugitives reached Lombardy, where Tafo was hospitably received by +the king, and succeeded his father as Grand Duke of Friuli. Grimoald was +adopted by Arigil, Duke of Benevento, in whose court he grew to manhood, +and in whose service his courage and military ability were quickly +shown. There were wars between Benevento and the Greeks of southern +Italy, and in these the young soldier so greatly distinguished himself +that on the death of Arigil he succeeded him as Duke of Benevento. + +Meanwhile, troubles arose in Lombardy. Tafo had been falsely accused, by +an enemy of the queen, of criminal relations with her, and was put to +death by the king. Her innocence was afterwards proved, and on the death +of Ariowald the Lombards treated her with the greatest respect, and +raised Rotharis, her second husband, to the throne. He, too, died, and +Aribert, uncle of the queen, was next made king. On his death, his two +sons, Bertarit and Godebert, disputed the succession. A struggle ensued +between the rival brothers, in the course of which Grimoald was brought +into the dispute. + +The events here briefly described had taken place while Grimoald was +engaged in the Greek wars of his patron, Duke Arigil. When he succeeded +the latter in the ducal chair, the struggle between Bertarit and +Godebert was going on, and the new Duke of Benevento declared in favor +of the latter, who was his personal friend. + +A scheme of treachery, of a singular character, put an end to their +friendship and to the life of Godebert. A man who was skilled in the +arts of dissimulation, and who was secretly in the pay of Bertarit, +persuaded Godebert that his seeming friend, Duke Grimoald, was really +his enemy, and was plotting his destruction. He told the same story to +Grimoald, making him believe that Godebert was his secret foe. In proof +of his words he told each of them that the other wore armor beneath his +clothes, through fear of assassination by his assumed friend. + +The suspicion thus artfully aroused produced the very state of things +which the agent of mischief had declared to exist. Each of the friends +put on armor, as a protection against treachery from the other, and when +they sought to test the truth of the spy's story it seemed fully +confirmed. Each discovered that the other wore secret armor, without +learning that it had just been assumed. + +The two close friends were thus converted by a plotting Iago into +distrustful enemies, each fearing and on guard against assassination by +the other. The affair ended tragically. Grimoald was no sooner fully +convinced of the truth of what had been told him than he slew his +supposed enemy, deeming it necessary to save his own life. The dark +scheme had succeeded. Treason and falsehood had sown death between two +friends. + +Bertarit, his rival removed, deemed the throne now securely his. But the +truth underlying the tragedy we have described became known, and the +Lombards, convinced of the innocence of Grimoald, and scorning the +treachery by which he had been led on to murder, dismissed Bertarit's +pretensions and placed Grimoald on the throne. His career had been a +strange but highly successful one. From his childhood captivity to the +Avars he had risen to the high station of King of Lombardy, a position +fairly earned by his courage and ability. + +We are not yet done with the story of this distinguished warrior. +Bertarit had taken the field against him, and civil war desolated +Lombardy, an unhappy state of affairs which was soon taken advantage of +by the foes of the distracted kingdom. The enemy who now appeared in the +field was Constans, the Greek emperor, who laid siege to Benevento, +hoping to capture it while Grimoald was engaged in hostilities with +Bertarit in the north. + +Grimoald had left his son, Romuald, in charge of the city. On learning +of the siege he despatched a trusty friend and officer, Sesuald by +name, with some troops, to the relief of the beleaguered stronghold, +proposing to follow quickly himself with the main body of his army. + +And now occurred an event nobly worthy of being recorded in the annals +of human probity and faithfulness, one little known, but deserving to be +classed with those that have become famous in history. When men erect +monuments to courage and virtue, the noble Sesuald should not be +forgotten. + +This brave man fell into the hands of the emperor, who sought to use him +in a stratagem to obtain possession of Benevento. He promised him an +abundance of wealth and honors if he would tell Romuald that his father +had died in battle, and persuade him to surrender the city. Sesuald +seems to have agreed, for he was led to the walls of the city that he +might hold the desired conference with Romuald. Instead, however, of +carrying out the emperor's design, he cried out to the young chief, "Be +firm, Grimoald approaches"; then, hastily telling him that he had +forfeited his life by those words, he begged him in return to protect +his wife and children, as the last service he could render him. + +Sesuald was right. Constans, furious at his words, had his head +instantly struck off; and then, with a barbarism worthy of the times, +had it flung from a catapult into the heart of the city. The ghastly +trophy was brought to Romuald, who pressed it to his lips, and deeply +deplored the death of his father's faithful friend. + +This was the last effort of the emperor. Fearing to await the arrival +of Grimoald, he raised the siege and retreated towards Naples, hotly +pursued by the Lombards. The army of Grimoald came up with the +retreating Greeks, and a battle was imminent, when a Lombard warrior of +giant size, Amalong by name, spurring upon a Greek, lifted him from the +saddle with his lance, and rode on holding him poised in the air. The +sight of this feat filled the remaining Greeks with such terror that +they broke and fled, and their hasty retreat did not cease till they had +found shelter in Sicily. + +After this event Bertarit, finding it useless to contend longer against +his powerful and able opponent, submitted to Grimoald. Yet this did not +end their hostile relations. The Lombard king, distrusting his late foe, +of whose treacherous disposition he already had abundant evidence, laid +a plan to get rid of him by murdering him in his bed. This plot was +discovered by a servant of the imperilled prince, who aided his master +to escape, and, the better to secure his retreat, placed himself in his +bed, being willing to risk death in his lord's service. + +Grimoald discovered the stratagem of the faithful fellow, but, instead +of punishing him for it, he sought to reward him, attempting to attach +him to his own service as one whose fidelity would make him valuable to +any master. The honest servant refused, however, to desert his old lord +for a new service, and entreated so earnestly for permission to join +his master, who had taken refuge in France, that Grimoald set him free, +doubtless feeling that such faithfulness was worthy of encouragement. + +In France Bertarit found an ally in Chlotar II., who took up arms +against the Lombards in his aid. Grimoald, however, defeated him by a +shrewd stratagem. He feigned to retreat in haste, leaving his camp, +which was well stored with provisions, to fall into the hands of the +enemy. Deeming themselves victorious, the Franks hastened to enjoy the +feast of good things which the Lombards had left behind. But in the +midst of their repast Grimoald suddenly returned, and, falling upon them +impetuously, put most of them to the sword. + +In the following year (666 A.D.) he defeated another army by another +stratagem. The Avars had invaded Lombardy, with an army which far +out-numbered the troops which Grimoald could muster against them. In +this state of affairs he artfully deceived his foes as to the strength +of his army by marching and countermarching his men within their view, +each time dressed in uniform of different colors, and with varied +standards and insignia of war. The invaders, deeming that an army +confronted them far stronger than their own, withdrew in haste, leaving +Grimoald master of the field. + +We are further told of the king of the Lombards whose striking history +we have concisely given, that he gave many new laws to his country, and +that in his old age he was remarkable for his bald head and long white +beard. He died in 671, sixty years after the time when his mother acted +the traitress, and suffered miserably for her crime. After his death, +the exiled Bertarit was recalled to the throne of Lombardy, and Romuald +succeeded his father as Duke of Benevento, the city which he had held so +bravely against the Greeks. + + + + +_WITTEKIND, THE SAXON PATRIOT._ + + +As Germany, in its wars with the Romans, found its hero in the great +Arminius, or Hermann; and as England, in its contest with the Normans, +found a heroic defender in the valiant Hereward; so Saxony, in its +struggle with Charlemagne, gave origin to a great soul, the indomitable +patriot Wittekind, who kept the war afoot years after the Saxons would +have yielded to their mighty foe, and, like Hereward, only gave up the +struggle when hope itself was at an end. + +The career of the defender of Saxony bears some analogy to that of the +last patriot of Saxon England. As in the case of Hereward, his origin is +uncertain, and the story of his life overlaid with legend. He is said to +have been the son of Wernekind, a powerful Westphalian chief, +brother-in-law of Siegfried, a king of the Danes; yet this is by no +means certain, and his ancestry must remain in doubt. He came suddenly +into the war with the great Frank conqueror, and played in it a +strikingly prominent part, to sink again out of sight at its end. + +The attempt of Charlemagne to conquer Saxony began in 772. Religion was +its pretext, ambition its real cause. Missionaries had been sent to the +Saxons during their great national festival at Marclo. They came back +with no converts to report. As the Saxons had refused to be converted by +words, fire and sword were next tried as assumed instruments for +spreading the doctrines of Christ, but really as effective means for +extending the dominion of the monarch of the Franks. + +In his first campaign in Saxony, Charlemagne marched victoriously as far +as the Weser, where he destroyed the celebrated Irminsul, a famous +object of Saxon devotion, perhaps an image of a god, perhaps a statue of +Hermann that had become invested with divinity. The next year, Charles +being absent in Italy, the Saxons broke into insurrection, under the +leadership of Wittekind, who now first appears in history. With him was +associated another patriot, Alboin, Duke of Eastphalia. + +Charles returned in the succeeding year, and again swept in conquering +force through the country. But a new insurrection called him once more +to Italy, and no sooner had he gone than the eloquent Wittekind was +among his countrymen, entreating them to rise in defence of their +liberties. A general levy took place, every able man crowded to the +ranks, and whole forests were felled to form abatis of defence against a +marching enemy. + +Again Charles came at the head of his army of veterans, and again the +poorly-trained Saxon levies were driven in defeat from his front. He now +established a camp in the heart of the country, and had a royal +residence built at Paderborn, where he held a diet of the great vassals +of the crown and received envoys from foreign lands. Hither came +delegates from the humbled Saxons, promising peace and submission, and +pledging themselves by oaths and hostages to be true subjects of Charles +the Great. But Wittekind came not. He had taken refuge at the court of +Siegfried, the pagan king of the Danes, where he waited an opportunity +to strike a new blow for liberty. + +Not content with their pledges and promises, the conqueror sought to win +over his new subjects by converting them to Christianity in the +wholesale way in which this work was then usually performed. The Saxons +were baptized in large numbers, the proselyting method pursued being, as +we are told, that all prisoners of war _must_ be baptized, while of the +others all who were reasonable _would_ be baptized, and the inveterately +unreasonable might be _bribed_ to be baptized. Doubtless, as a historian +remarks, the Saxons found baptism a cool, cleanly, and agreeable +ceremony, while their immersion in the water had little effect in +washing out their old ideas and washing in new ones. + +The exigencies of war in his vast empire now called Charlemagne to +Spain, where the Arabs had become troublesome and needed chastisement. +Not far had he marched away when Wittekind was again in Saxony, passing +from tribe to tribe through the forests of the land, and with fiery +eloquence calling upon his countrymen to rise against the invaders and +regain the freedom of which they had been deprived. Heedless of their +conversion, disregarding their oaths of allegiance, filled with the +free spirit which had so long inspired them, the chiefs and people +listened with approval to his burning words, seized their arms, and flew +again to war. The priests were expelled from the country, the churches +they had built demolished, the castles erected by the Frank monarch +taken and destroyed, and the country was laid waste up to the walls of +Cologne, its Christian inhabitants being exterminated. + +But unyielding as Wittekind was, his great antagonist was equally +resolute and persistent. When he had finished his work with the Arabs, +he returned to Saxony with his whole army, fought a battle in 779 in the +dry bed of the Eder, and in 780 defeated Wittekind and his followers in +two great battles, completely disorganizing and discouraging the Saxon +bands, and again bringing the whole country under his control. This +accomplished, he stationed himself in their country, built numerous +fortresses upon the Elbe, and spent the summer of 780 in missionary +work, gaining a multitude of converts among the seemingly subdued +barbarians. The better to make them content with his rule he treated +them with great kindness and affability, and sent among them +missionaries of their own race, being the hostages whom he had taken in +previous years, and who had been educated in monasteries. All went well, +the Saxons were to all appearance in a state of peaceful satisfaction, +and Charles felicitated himself that he had finally added Saxony to his +empire. + +He deceived himself sadly. He did not know the spirit of the free-born +Saxons, or the unyielding perseverance of their patriotic leader. In the +silent depths of their forests, and in the name of their ancient gods, +they vowed destruction to the invading Franks, and branded as traitors +all those who professed Christianity except as a stratagem to deceive +their powerful enemy. Entertaining no suspicion of the true state of +affairs, Charlemagne at length left the country, which he fancied to be +fully pacified and its people content. With complete confidence in his +new subjects, he commissioned his generals, Geil and Adalgis, to march +upon the Slavonians beyond the Elbe, who were threatening France with a +new barbarian invasion. + +They soon learned that there was other work to do. In a brief time the +irrepressible Wittekind was in the field again, with a new levy of +Saxons at his back, and the tranquillity of the land, established at +such pains, was once more in peril. Theoderic, one of Charlemagne's +principal generals, hastily marched towards them with what men he could +raise, and on his way met the army sent to repel the Slavonians. They +approached the Saxon host where it lay encamped on the Weser, behind the +Sundel mountain, and laid plans to attack it on both sides at once. But +jealousy ruined these plans, as it has many other well-laid schemes. The +leaders of the Slavonian contingent, eager to rob Theoderic of glory, +marched in haste on the Saxons, attacked them in their camp, and were so +completely defeated and overthrown that but a moity of their army +escaped from the field. The appearance of these fugitives in the camp of +Theoderic was the first he knew of the treachery of his fellow generals +and their signal punishment. + +The story of this dreadful event was in all haste borne to Charlemagne. +His army had been destroyed almost as completely as that of Varus on a +former occasion, and in nearly the same country. The distressing tidings +filled his soul with rage and a bitter thirst for revenge. He had done +his utmost to win over the Saxons by lenity and kindness, but this +course now seemed to him useless, if not worse than useless. He +determined to adopt opposite measures and try the effect of cruelty and +severe retribution. Calling together his forces until he had a great +army under his command, he marched into Saxony torch and sword in hand, +and swept the country with fire and steel. All who would not embrace +Christianity were pitilessly exterminated. Thousands were driven into +the rivers to be baptized or drowned. Carnage, desolation, and +destruction marked the path of the conqueror. Never had a country been +more frightfully devastated by the hand of war. + +All who were concerned in the rebellion were seized, so far as Charles +could lay hands on them. When questioned, they lay all the blame on +Wittekind. He was the culprit, they but his instruments. But Wittekind +had vanished, the protesting chiefs and people were in the conqueror's +hands, and, bent on making an awful example, he had no less than four +thousand five hundred of them beheaded in one day. It was a frightful +act of vengeance, which has ever since remained an ineradicable blot on +the memory of the great king. + +[Illustration: THE BAPTISM OF WITTEKIND.] + +Its effect was what might have been anticipated. Instead of filling the +Saxons with terror, it inspired them with revengeful fury. They rose as +one man, Wittekind and Alboin at their head, and attacked the French +with a fury such as they had never before displayed. The remorseless +cruelty with which they had been treated was repaid in the blood of the +invaders, and in the many petty combats that took place the hardy and +infuriated barbarians proved invincible against their opponents. Even in +a pitched battle, fought at Detmold, in which Wittekind led the Saxons +against the superior forces of Charlemagne, they held their own against +all his strength and generalship, and the victory remained undecided. +But they were again brought to battle upon the Hase, and now the +superior skill and more numerous army of the great conqueror prevailed. +The Saxons were defeated with great slaughter, and the French advanced +as far as the Elbe. The war continued during the succeeding year, by the +end of which the Saxons had become so reduced in strength that further +efforts at resistance would have been madness. + +The cruelty which Charlemagne had displayed, and which had proved so +signally useless, was now replaced by a mildness much more in conformity +with his general character; and the Saxons, exhausted with their +struggles, and attracted by the gentleness with which he treated them, +showed a general disposition to submit. But Wittekind and his +fellow-chieftain Alboin were still at large, and the astute conqueror +well knew that there was no security in his new conquest unless they +could be brought over. He accordingly opened negotiations with them, +requesting a personal conference, and pledging his royal word that they +should be dealt with in all faith and honesty. The Saxon chiefs, +however, were not inclined to put themselves in the power of a king +against whom they had so long and desperately fought without stronger +pledge than his bare word. They demanded hostages. Charlemagne, who +fully appreciated the value of their friendship and submission, freely +acceded to their terms, sent hostages, and was gratified by having the +indomitable chiefs enter his palace at Paderborn. + +Wittekind was well aware that his mission as a Saxon leader was at an +end. The country was subdued, its warriors slain, terrorized, or won +over, and his single hand could not keep up the war with France. He, +therefore, swore fealty to Charlemagne, freely consented to become a +Christian, and was, with his companion, baptized at Attigny in France. +The emperor stood his sponsor in baptism, received him out of the font, +loaded him with royal gifts, and sent him back with the title of Duke of +Saxony, which he held as a vassal of France. Henceforward he seems to +have observed good faith to Charlemagne, for his name now vanishes from +history, silence in this case being a pledge of honor and peacefulness. + +But if history here lays him down, legend takes him up, and yields us a +number of stories concerning him not one of which has any evidence to +sustain it, but which are curious enough to be worth repeating. It gives +us, for instance, a far more romantic account of his conversion than +that above told. This relates that, in the Easter season of 785,--the +year of his conversion,--Wittekind stole into the French camp in the +garb of a minstrel or a mendicant, and, while cautiously traversing it, +bent on spying out its weaknesses, was attracted to a large tent within +which Charlemagne was attending the service of the mass. Led by an +irresistible impulse, the pagan entered the tent, and stood gazing in +spellbound wonder at the ceremony, marvelling what the strange and +impressive performance meant. As the priest elevated the host, the +chief, with astounded eyes, beheld in it the image of a child, of +dazzling and unearthly beauty. He could not conceal his surprise from +those around him, some of whom recognized in the seeming beggar the +great Saxon leader, and took him to the emperor. Wittekind told +Charlemagne of his vision, begged to be made a Christian, and brought +over many of his countrymen to the fold of the true church by the +shining example of his conversion. + +Legend goes on to tell us that he became a Christian of such hot zeal +as to exact a bloody atonement from the Frisians for their murder of +Boniface and his fellow-priests a generation before. It further tells us +that he founded a church at Enger, in Westphalia, was murdered by +Gerold, Duke of Swabia, and was buried in the church he had founded, and +in which his tomb was long shown. In truth, the people came to honor him +as a saint, and though there is no record of his canonization, a saint's +day, January 7, is given him, and we are told of miracles performed at +his tomb. + +So much for the dealings of Christian legend with this somewhat +unsaintly personage. Secular legend, for it is probably little more, has +contented itself with tracing his posterity, several families of Germany +deriving their descent from him, while he is held to have been the +ancestor of the imperial house of the Othos. Some French genealogists go +so far as to trace the descent of Hugh Capet to this hero of the Saxon +woods. In truth, he has been made to some extent the Roland or the +Arthur of Saxony, though fancy has not gone so far in his case as in +that of the French paladin and the Welsh hero of knight-errantry, for, +though he and his predecessor Hermann became favorite characters in +German ballad and legend, the romance heroes of that land continued to +be the mythical Siegfried and his partly fabulous, partly historical +companions of the epical song of the Nibelung. + + + + +_THE RAIDS OF THE SEA-ROVERS._ + + +While Central and Southern Europe was actively engaged in wars by land, +Scandinavia, that nest of pirates, was as actively engaged in wars by +sea, sending its armed galleys far to the south, to plunder and burn +wherever they could find footing on shore. Not content with plundering +the coasts, they made their way up the streams, and often suddenly +appeared far inland before an alarm could be given. Wherever they went, +heaps of the dead and the smoking ruins of habitations marked their +ruthless course. They did not hesitate to attack fortified cities, +several of which fell into their hands and were destroyed. They always +fought on foot, but such was their strength, boldness, and activity that +the heavy-armed cavalry of France and Germany seemed unable to endure +their assault, and was frequently put to flight. If defeated, or in +danger of defeat, they hastened back to their ships, from which they +rarely ventured far and rowed away with such speed that pursuit was in +vain. For a long period they kept the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts +of Europe in such terror that prayers were publicly read in the churches +for deliverance from them, and the sight of their dragon beaked ships +filled the land with terror. + +In 845 a party of them assailed and took Paris, from which they were +bought off by the cowardly and ineffective method of ransom, seven +thousand pounds of silver being paid them. In 853 another expedition, +led by a leader named Hasting, one of the most dreaded of the Norsemen, +again took Paris, marched into Burgundy, laying waste the country as he +advanced, and finally took Tours, to which city much treasure had been +carried for safe-keeping. Charles the Bald, who had bought off the +former expedition with silver, bought off this one with gold, offering +the bold adventurer a bribe of six hundred and eighty-five pounds of the +precious metal, to which he added a ton and a half of silver, to leave +the country. + +From France, Hasting set sail for Italy, where his ferocity was aided by +a cunning which gives us a deeper insight into his character. Rome, a +famous but mystical city to the northern pagans, whose imaginations +invested it with untold wealth and splendor, was the proposed goal of +the enterprising Norseman, who hoped to make himself fabulously wealthy +from its plunder. With a hundred ships, filled with hardy Norse pirates, +he swept through the Strait of Gibraltar and along the coasts of Spain +and France, plundering as he went till he reached the harbor of Lucca, +Italy. + +As to where and what Rome was, the unlettered heathen had but the +dimmest conception. Here before him lay what seemed a great and rich +city, strongly fortified and thickly peopled. This must be Rome, he told +himself; behind those lofty walls lay the wealth which he so earnestly +craved; but how could it be obtained? Assault on those strong +fortifications would waste time, and perhaps end in defeat. If the city +could be won by stratagem, so much the better for himself and his men. + +The shrewd Norseman quickly devised a promising plan within the depths +of his astute brain. It was the Christmas season, and the inhabitants +were engaged in the celebration of the Christmas festival, though, +doubtless, sorely troubled in mind by that swarm of strange-shaped +vessels in their harbor, with their stalwart crews of blue-eyed +plunderers. + +Word was sent to the authorities of the city that the fleet had come +thither from no hostile intent, and that all the mariners wished was to +obtain the favor of an honorable burial-place for their chieftain, who +had just died. If the citizens would grant them this, they would engage +to depart after the funeral without injury to their courteous and +benevolent friends. The message--probably not expressed in quite the +above phrase--was received in good faith by the unsuspecting Lombards, +who were glad enough to get rid of their dangerous visitors on such +cheap terms, and gratified to learn that these fierce pagans wished +Christian burial for their chief. Word was accordingly sent to the ships +that the authorities granted their request, and were pleased with the +opportunity to oblige the mourning crews. + +Not long afterwards a solemn procession left the fleet, a coffin, draped +in solemn black, at its head, borne by strong carriers. As mourners +there followed a large deputation of stalwart Norsemen, seemingly +unarmed, and to all appearance lost in grief. With slow steps they +entered the gates and moved through the streets of the city, chanting +the death-song of the great Hasting, until the church was reached, and +they had advanced along its crowded aisle to the altar, where stood the +priests ready to officiate at the obsequies of the expired freebooter. + +The coffin was set upon the floor, and the priests were about to break +into the solemn chant for the dead, when suddenly, to the surprise and +horror of the worshippers, the supposed corpse sprang to life, leaped up +sword in hand, and with a fierce and deadly blow struck the officiating +bishop to the heart. Instantly the seeming mourners, who had been chosen +from the best warriors of the fleet, flung aside their cloaks and +grasped their arms, and a carnival of death began in that crowded +church. + +It was not slaughter, however, that Hasting wanted, but plunder. Rushing +from the church, the Norsemen assailed the city, looting with free hand, +and cutting down all who came in their way. No long time was needed by +the skilful freebooters for this task, and before the citizens could +recover from the mortal terror into which they had been thrown, the +pagan plunderers were off again for their ships, laden with spoil, and +taking with them as captives a throng of women and maidens, the most +beautiful they could find. + +This daring affair had a barbarous sequel. A storm arising which +threatened the loss of his ships, the brutal Hasting gave orders that +the vessels should be lightened by throwing overboard plunder and +captives alike. Saved by this radical method, the sea-rovers quickly +repaid themselves for their losses by sailing up the Rhone, and laying +the country waste through many miles of Southern France. + +The end of this phase of Hasting's career was a singular one. In the +year 860 he consented to be baptized as a Christian, and to swear +allegiance to Charles the Bald of France, on condition of receiving the +title of Count of Chartres, with a suitable domain. It was a wiser +method of disarming a redoubtable enemy than that of ransoming the land, +which Charles had practised with Hasting on a previous occasion. He had +converted a foe into a subject, upon whom he might count for defence +against those fierce heathen whom he had so often led to battle. + +While France, England, and the Mediterranean regions formed the favorite +visiting ground of the Norsemen, they did not fail to pay their respects +in some measure to Germany, and during the ninth century, their period +of most destructive activity, the latter country suffered considerably +from their piratical ravages. Two German warriors who undertook to guard +the coasts against their incursions are worthy of mention. One of these, +Baldwin of the Iron Arm, Count of Flanders, distinguished himself by +seducing Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald of France, who, young as +she was, was already the widow of two English kings, Ethelwolf and his +son Ethelbold. Charles was at first greatly enraged, but afterwards +accepted Baldwin as his son-in-law, and made him lord of the district. +The second was Robert the Strong, Count of Maine, a valiant defender of +the country against the sea-kings. He was slain in a bloody battle with +them, near Anvers, in 866. This distinguished warrior was the ancestor +of Hugh Capet, afterwards king of France. + +For some time after his death the Norsemen avoided Germany, paying their +attentions to England, where Alfred the Great was on the throne. About +880 their incursions began again, and though they were several times +defeated with severe slaughter, new swarms followed the old ones, and +year by year fresh fleets invaded the land, leaving ruin in their paths. + +Up the rivers they sailed, as in France, taking cities, devastating the +country, doing more damage each year than could be repaired in a decade. +Aix-la-Chapelle, the imperial city of the mighty Charlemagne, fell into +their hands, and the palace of the great Charles, in little more than +half a century after his death, was converted by these marauders into a +stable. Well might the far-seeing emperor have predicted sorrow and +trouble for the land from these sea-rovers, as he is said to have done, +on seeing their many-oared ships from a distance. Yet even his foresight +could scarcely have imagined that, before he was seventy years in the +grave, the vikings of the north would be stabling their horses in the +most splendid of his palaces. + +The rovers attacked Metz, and Bishop Wala fell while bravely fighting +them before its gates. City after city on the Rhine was taken and burned +to the ground. The whole country between Liege, Cologne, and Mayence was +so ravaged as to be almost converted into a desert. The besom of +destruction, in the hands of the sea-kings, threatened to sweep Germany +from end to end, as it had swept the greater part of France. + +The impunity with which they raided the country was due in great part to +the indolent character of the monarch. Charles the Fat, as he was +entitled, who had the ambitious project of restoring the empire of +Charlemagne, and succeeded in combining France and Germany under his +sceptre, proved unable to protect his realm from the pirate rovers. Like +his predecessor, Charles the Bald of France, he tried the magic power of +gold and silver, as a more effective argument than sharpened steel, to +rid him of these marauders. Siegfried, their principal leader, was +bought off with two thousand pounds of gold and twelve thousand pounds +of silver, to raise which sum Charles seized all the treasures of the +churches. In consideration of this great bribe the sea-rover consented +to a truce for twelve years. His brother Gottfried was bought off in a +different method, being made Duke of Friesland and vassal of the +emperor. + +These concessions, however, did not put an end to the depredations of +the Norsemen. There were other leaders than the two formidable brothers, +and other pirates than those under their control, and the country was +soon again invaded, a strong party advancing as far as the Moselle, +where they took and destroyed the city of Treves. This marauding band, +however, dearly paid for its depredations. While advancing through the +forest of Ardennes, it was ambushed and assailed by a furious multitude +of peasants and charcoal-burners, before whose weapons ten thousand of +the Norsemen fell in death. + +This revengeful act of the peasantry was followed by a treacherous deed +of the emperor, which brought renewed trouble upon the land. Eager to +rid himself of his powerful and troublesome vassal in Friesland, Charles +invited Gottfried to a meeting, at which he had the Norsemen +treacherously murdered, while his brother-in-law Hugo was deprived of +his sight. It was an act sure to bring a bloody reprisal. No sooner had +news of it reached the Scandinavian north than a fire of revengeful rage +swept through the land, and from every port a throng of oared galleys +put to sea, bent upon bloody retribution. Soon in immense hordes they +fell upon the imperial realm, forcing their way in mighty hosts up the +Rhine, the Maese, and the Seine, and washing out the memory of +Gottfried's murder in torrents of blood, while the brand spread ruin far +and wide. + +The chief attack was made on Paris, which the Norsemen invested and +besieged for a year and a half. The march upon Paris was made by sea and +land, the marauders making Rouen their place of rendezvous. From this +centre of operations Rollo--the future conqueror and Duke of Normandy, +now a formidable sea-king--led an overland force towards the French +capital, and on his way was met by an envoy from the emperor, no less a +personage than the Count of Chartres, the once redoubtable Hasting, now +a noble of the empire. + +"Valiant sirs," he said to Rollo and his chiefs, "who are you that come +hither, and why have you come?" + +"We are Danes," answered Rollo, proudly; "all of us equals, no man the +lord of any other, but lords of all besides. We are come to punish these +people and take their lands. And you, by what name are you called?" + +"Have you not heard of a certain Hasting," was the reply, "a sea-king +who left your land with a multitude of ships, and turned into a desert a +great part of this fair land of France?" + +"We have heard of him," said Rollo, curtly. "He began well and ended +badly." + +"Will you submit to King Charles?" asked the envoy, deeming it wise, +perhaps, to change the subject. + +"We will submit to no one, king or chieftain. All that we gain by the +sword we are masters and lords of. This you may tell to the king who has +sent you. The lords of the sea know no masters on land." + +Hasting left with his message, and Rollo continued his advance to the +Seine. Not finding here the ships of the maritime division of the +expedition, which he had expected to meet, he seized on the boats of the +French fishermen and pursued his course. Soon afterwards a French force +was met and put to flight, its leader, Duke Ragnold, being killed. This +event, as we are told, gave rise to a new change in the career of the +famous Hasting. A certain Tetbold or Thibaud, of Northman birth, came to +him and told him that he was suspected of treason, the defeat of the +French having been ascribed to secret information furnished by him. +Whether this were true, or a mere stratagem on the part of his +informant, it had the desired effect of alarming Hasting, who quickly +determined to save himself from peril by joining his old countrymen and +becoming again a viking chief. He thereupon sold his countship to +Tetbold, and hastened to join the army of Norsemen then besieging Paris. +As for the cunning trickster, he settled down into his cheaply bought +countship, and became the founder of the subsequent house of the Counts +of Chartres. + +The siege of Paris ended in the usual manner of the Norseman invasions +of France,--that of ransom. Charles marched to its relief with a strong +army, but, instead of venturing to meet his foes in battle, he bought +them off as so often before, paying them a large sum of money, granting +them free navigation of the Seine and entrance to Paris, and confirming +them in the possession of Friesland. This occurred in 887. A year +afterwards he lost his crown, through the indignation of the nobles at +his cowardice, and France and Germany again fell asunder. + +The plundering incursions continued, and soon afterwards the new +emperor, Arnulf, nephew of Charles the Fat, a man of far superior energy +to his deposed uncle, attacked a powerful force of the piratical +invaders near Louvain, where they had encamped after a victory over the +Archbishop of Mayence. In the heat of the battle that followed, the +vigilant Arnulf perceived that the German cavalry fought at a +disadvantage with their stalwart foes, whose dexterity as foot-soldiers +was remarkable. Springing from his horse, he called upon his followers +to do the same. They obeyed, the nobles and their men-at-arms leaping to +the ground and rushing furiously on foot upon their opponents. The +assault was so fierce and sudden that the Norsemen gave way, and were +cut down in thousands, Siegfried and Gottfried--a new Gottfried +apparently--falling on the field, while the channel of the Dyle, across +which the defeated invaders sought to fly, was choked with their +corpses. + +This bloody defeat put an end to the incursions of the Norsemen by way +of the Rhine. Thenceforward they paid their attention to the coast of +France, which they continued to invade until one of their great leaders, +Rollo, settled in Normandy as a vassal of the French monarch, and served +as an efficient barrier against the inroads of his countrymen. + +As to Hasting, he appears to have returned to his old trade of +sea-rover, and we hear of him again as one of the Norse invaders of +England, during the latter part of the reign of Alfred the Great. + + + + +_THE CAREER OF BISHOP HATTO._ + + +We have now to deal with a personage whose story is largely legendary, +particularly that of his death, a highly original termination to his +career having arisen among the people, who had grown to detest him. But +Bishop Hatto played his part in the history as well as in the legend of +Germany, and the curious stories concerning him may have been based on +the deeds of his actual life. It was in the beginning of the tenth +century that this notable churchman flourished as Archbishop of Mayence, +and the emperor-maker of his times. In connection with Otho, Duke of +Saxony, he placed Louis, surnamed the Child,--for he was but seven years +of age,--on the imperial throne, and governed Germany in his name. Louis +died in 911, while still a boy, and with him ended the race of +Charlemagne in Germany. Conrad, Duke of Franconia, was chosen king to +succeed him, but the astute churchman still remained the power behind +the throne. + +In truth, the influence and authority of the church at that time was +enormous, and many of its potentates troubled themselves more about the +affairs of the earth than those of heaven. Hatto, while a zealous +churchman, was a bold, energetic, and unscrupulous statesman, and +raised himself to an almost unlimited power in France and Southern +Germany by his arts and influence, Otho of Saxony aiding him in his +progress to power. Two of his opponents, Henry and Adelhart, of +Babenberg, took up arms against him, and came to their deaths in +consequence. Adalbert, the opponent of the Norsemen, was his next +antagonist, and Hatto, through his influence in the diet, had him put +under the ban of the empire. + +Adalbert, however, vigorously resisted this decree, taking up arms in +his own defence, and defeating his opponent in the field. But soon, +being closely pressed, he retired to his fortress of Bamberg, which was +quickly invested and besieged. Here he defended himself with such energy +that Hatto, finding that the outlawed noble was not to be easily subdued +by force, adopted against him those spiritual weapons, as he probably +considered them, in which he was so trained an adept. + +Historians tell us that the priest, with a pretence of friendly purpose, +offered to mediate between Adalbert and his enemies, promising him, if +he would leave his stronghold to appear before the assembled nobles of +the diet, that he should have a free and safe return. Adalbert accepted +the terms, deeming that he could safely trust the pledged word of a high +dignitary of the church. Leaving the gates of his castle, he was met at +a short distance beyond by the bishop, who accosted him in his +friendliest tone, and proposed that, as their journey would be somewhat +long, they should breakfast together within the castle before starting. + +Adalbert assented and returned to the fortress with his smooth-tongued +companion, took breakfast with him, and then set out with him for the +diet. Here he was sternly called to answer for his acts of opposition to +the decree of the ruling body of Germany, and finding that the tide of +feeling was running strongly against him, proposed to return to his +fortress in conformity with the plighted faith of Bishop Hatto. Hatto, +with an aspect of supreme honesty, declared that he had already +fulfilled his promise. He had agreed that Adalbert should have a free +and safe return to his castle. This had been granted him. He had +returned there to breakfast without opposition of any sort. The word of +the bishop had been fully kept, and now, as a member of the diet, he +felt free to act as he deemed proper, all his obligations to the accused +having been fulfilled. Just how far this story accords with the actual +facts we are unable to say, but Adalbert, despite his indignant protest, +was sentenced to death and beheaded. + +Hatto had reached his dignity in the church by secular instead of +ecclesiastic influence, and is credited with employing his power in this +and other instances with such lack of honor and probity that he became +an object of the deepest popular contempt and execration. His name was +derided in the popular ballads, and he came to be looked upon as the +scapegoat of the avarice and licentiousness of the church in that +irreligious mediaeval age. Among the legends concerning him is one +relating to Henry, the son of his ally, Otho of Saxony, who died in 912. +Henry had long quarrelled with the bishop, and the fabulous story goes +that, to get rid of his high-spirited enemy, the cunning churchman sent +him a gold chain, so skilfully contrived that it would strangle its +wearer. + +[Illustration: THE MOUSE-TOWER ON THE RHINE.] + +The most famous legend about Hatto, however, is that which tells the +manner of his death. The story has been enshrined in poetry by +Longfellow, but we must be content to give it in plain prose. It tells +us that a famine occurred in the land, and that a number of peasants +came to the avaricious bishop to beg for bread. By his order they were +shut up in a great barn, which then was set on fire, and its miserable +occupants burned to death. + +And now the cup of Hatto's infamy was filled, and heaven sent him +retribution. From the ruins of the barn issued a myriad of mice, which +pursued the remorseless bishop, ceaselessly following him in his every +effort to escape their avenging teeth. At length the wretched sinner, +driven to despair, fled for safety to a strong tower standing in the +middle of the Rhine, near Bingen, with the belief that the water would +protect him from his swarming foes. But the mice swam the stream, +invaded the tower, and devoured the miserable fugitive. As evidence of +the truth of this story we are shown the tower, still standing, and +still known as the Maeusethurm, or Mouse Tower. It must be said, however, +that this tradition probably refers to another Bishop Hatto, of +somewhat later date. Its utterly fabulous character, of course, will be +recognisable by all. + +So much for Bishop Hatto and his fate. It may be said, in conclusion, +that his period was one of terror and excitement in Germany, sufficient +perhaps to excuse the overturning of ideas, and the replacement of +conceptions of truth and honor by their opposites. The wild Magyars had +invaded and taken Hungary, and were making savage inroads into Germany +from every quarter. The resistance was obstinate, the Magyars were +defeated in several severe battles, yet still their multitudes swarmed +over the borders, and carried terror and ruin wherever they came. These +invaders were as ferocious in disposition, as fierce in their onsets, as +invincible through contempt of death, and as formidable through their +skilful horsemanship, as the Huns had been before them. So rapid were +their movements, and so startling the suddenness with which they would +appear in and vanish from the heart of the country, that the terrified +people came to look upon them as possessed of supernatural powers. Their +inhuman love of slaughter and their destructive habits added to the +terror with which they were viewed. They are said to have been so +bloodthirsty, that in their savage feasts after victory they used as +tables the corpses of their enemies slain in battle. It is further said +that it was their custom to bind the captured women and maidens with +their own long hair as fetters, and drive them, thus bound, in flocks +to Hungary. + +We may conclude with a touching story told of these unquiet and +misery-haunted times. Ulrich, Count of Linzgau, was, so the story goes, +taken prisoner by the Magyars, and long held captive in their hands. +Wendelgarde, his beautiful wife, after waiting long in sorrow for his +return, believed him to be dead, and resolved to devote the remainder of +her life to charity and devotion. Crowds of beggars came to her castle +gates, to whom she daily distributed alms. One day, while she was thus +engaged, one of the beggars suddenly threw his arms around her neck and +kissed her. Her attendants angrily interposed, but the stranger waved +them aside with a smile, and said,-- + +"Forbear, I have endured blows and misery enough during my imprisonment +without needing more from you; I am Ulrich, your lord." + +Truly, in this instance, charity brought its reward. + + + + +_THE MISFORTUNES OF DUKE ERNST._ + + +In the reign of Conrad II., Emperor of Germany, took place the event +which we have now to tell, one of those interesting examples of romance +which give vitality to history. On the death of Henry II., the last of +the great house of the Othos, a vast assembly from all the states of the +empire was called together to decide who their next emperor should be. +From every side they came, dukes, margraves, counts and barons, attended +by hosts of their vassals; archbishops, bishops, abbots, and other +churchmen, with their proud retainers; Saxons, Swabians, Bavarians, +Bohemians, and numerous other nationalities, great and small; all +marching towards the great plain between Worms and Mayence, where they +gathered on both sides of the Rhine, until its borders seemed covered by +a countless multitude of armed men. The scene was a magnificent one, +with its far-spreading display of rich tents, floating banners, showy +armor, and everything that could give honor and splendor to the +occasion. + +We are not specially concerned with what took place. There were two +competitors for the throne, both of them Conrad by name. By birth they +were cousins, and descendants of the emperor Conrad I. The younger of +these, but the son of the elder brother, and the most distinguished for +ability, was elected, and took the throne as Conrad II. He was to prove +one of the noblest sovereigns that ever held the sceptre of the German +empire. The election decided, the great assembly dispersed, and back to +their homes marched the host of warriors who had collected for once with +peaceful purpose. + +[Illustration: PEASANT WEDDING PROCESSION.] + +Two years afterwards, in 1026, Conrad crossed the Alps with an army, and +marched through Italy, that land which had so perilous an attraction for +German emperors, and so sadly disturbed the peace and progress of the +Teutonic realm. Conrad was not permitted to remain there long. Troubles +in Germany recalled him to his native soil. Swabia had broken out in hot +troubles. Duke Ernst, step-son of Conrad, claimed Burgundy as his +inheritance, in opposition to the emperor himself, who had the better +claim. He not only claimed it, but attempted to seize it. With him were +united two Swabian counts of ancient descent, Rudolf Welf, or Guelph, +and Werner of Kyburg. + +Swabia was in a blaze when Conrad returned. He convoked a great diet at +Ulm, as the legal means of settling the dispute. Thither Ernst came, at +the head of his Swabian men-at-arms, and still full of rebellious +spirit, although his mother, Gisela, the empress, begged him to submit +and to return to his allegiance. + +The angry rebel, however, soon learned that his followers were not +willing to take up arms against the emperor. They declared that their +oath of allegiance to their duke did not release them from their higher +obligations to the emperor and the state, that if their lord was at feud +with the empire it was their duty to aid the latter, and that if their +chiefs wished to quarrel with the state, they must fight for themselves. + +This defection left the rebels powerless. Duke Ernst was arrested and +imprisoned on a charge of high treason. Eudolf was exiled. Werner, who +took refuge in his castle, was besieged there by the imperial troops, +against whom he valiantly defended himself for several months. At +length, however, finding that his stronghold was no longer tenable, he +contrived to make his escape, leaving the nest to the imperialists empty +of its bird. + +Three years Ernst remained in prison. Then Conrad restored him to +liberty, perhaps moved by the appeals of his mother Gisela, and promised +to restore him to his dukedom of Swabia if he would betray the secret of +the retreat of Werner, who was still at large despite all efforts to +take him. + +This request touched deeply the honor of the deposed duke. It was much +to regain his ducal station; it was more to remain true to the fugitive +who had trusted and aided him in his need. + +"How can I betray my only true friend?" asked the unfortunate duke, with +touching pathos. + +His faithfulness was not appreciated by the emperor and his nobles. They +placed Ernst under the ban of the empire, and thus deprived him of rank, +wealth, and property, reducing him by a word from high estate to abject +beggary. His life and liberty were left him, but nothing more, and, +driven by despair, he sought the retreat of his fugitive friend Werner, +who had taken refuge in the depths of the Black Forest. + +Here the two outlaws, deprived of all honest means of livelihood, became +robbers, and entered upon a life of plunder, exacting contributions from +all subjects of the empire who fell into their hands. They soon found a +friend in Adalbert of Falkenstein, who gave them the use of his castle +as a stronghold and centre of operations, and joined them with his +followers in their freebooting raids. + +For a considerable time the robber chiefs maintained themselves in their +new mode of life, sallying from the castle, laying the country far and +wide under contribution, and returning to the fortress for safety from +pursuit. Their exactions became in time so annoying, that the castle was +besieged by a strong force of Swabians, headed by Count Mangold of +Veringen, and the freebooters were closely confined within their walls. +Impatient of this, a sally in force was made by the garrison, headed by +the two robber chiefs, and an obstinate contest ensued. The struggle +ended in the death of Mangold on the one side and of Ernst and Werner on +the other, with the definite defeat and dispersal of the robber band. + +Thus ended an interesting episode of mediaeval German history. But the +valor and misfortunes of Duke Ernst did not die unsung. He became a +popular hero, and the subject of many a ballad, in which numerous +adventures were invented for him during his career as an opponent of the +emperor and an outlaw in the Black Forest. For the step-son of an +emperor to be reduced to such a strait was indeed an event likely to +arouse public interest and sympathy, and for centuries the doings of the +robber duke were sung. + +In the century after his death the imagination of the people went to +extremes in their conception of the adventures of Duke Ernst, mixing up +ideas concerning him with fancies derived from the Crusades, the whole +taking form in a legend which is still preserved in the popular ballad +literature of Germany. This strange conception takes Ernst to the East, +where he finds himself opposed by terrific creatures in human and brute +form, they being allegorical representations of his misfortunes. Each +monster signifies an enemy. He reaches a black mountain, which +represents his prison. He is borne into the clouds by an old man; this +is typical of his ambition. His ship is wrecked on the Magnet mountain; +a personification of his contest with the emperor. The nails fly out of +the ship and it falls to pieces; an emblem of the falling off of his +vassals. There are other adventures, and the whole circle of legends is +a curious one, as showing the vagaries of imagination, and the strong +interest taken by the people in the fortunes and misfortunes of their +chieftains. + + + + +_THE REIGN OF OTHO II._ + + +Otho II., Emperor of Germany,--Otho the Red, as he was called, from his +florid complexion,--succeeded to the Western Empire in 973, when in his +eighteenth year of age. His reign was to be a short and active one, and +attended by adventures and fluctuations of fortune which render it +worthy of description. Few monarchs have experienced so many of the ups +and downs of life within the brief period of five years, through which +his wars extended. + +As heir to the imperial title of Charlemagne, he was lord of the ancient +palace of the great emperor, at Aix-la-Chapelle, and here held court at +the feast of St. John in the year 978. All was peace and festivity +within the old imperial city, all war and threat without it. While Otho +and his courtiers, knights and ladies, lords and minions, were enjoying +life with ball and banquet, feast and frivolity, in true palatial +fashion, an army was marching secretly upon them, with treacherous +intent to seize the emperor and his city at one full swoop. Lothaire, +King of France, had in haste and secrecy collected an army, and, without +a declaration of hostilities, was hastening, by forced marches, upon +Aix-la-Chapelle. + +It was an act of treachery utterly undeserving of success. But it is not +always the deserving to whom success comes, and Otho heard of the rapid +approach of this army barely in time to take to flight, with his +fear-winged flock of courtiers at his heels, leaving the city an easy +prey to the enemy. Lothaire entered the city without a blow, plundered +it as if he had taken it by storm, and ordered that the imperial eagle, +which was erected in the grand square of Charles the Great, should have +its beak turned westward, in token that Lorraine now belonged to France. + +Doubtless the great eagle turned creakingly on its support, thus moved +by the hand of unkingly perfidy, and impatiently awaited for time and +the tide of affairs to turn its beak again to the east. It had not long +to wait. The fugitive emperor hastily called a diet of the princes and +nobles at Dortmund, told them in impassioned eloquence of the faithless +act of the French king, and called upon them for aid against the +treacherous Lothaire. Little appeal was needed. The honor of Germany was +concerned. Setting aside all the petty squabbles which rent the land, +the indignant princes gathered their forces and placed them under Otho's +command. By the 1st of October the late fugitive found himself at the +head of a considerable army, and prepared to take revenge on his +perfidious enemy. + +Into France he marched, and made his way with little opposition, by +Rheims and Soissons, until the French capital lay before his eyes. Here +the army encamped on the right bank of the Seine, around Montmartre, +while their cavalry avenged the plundering of Aix-la-Chapelle by laying +waste the country for many miles around. The French were evidently as +little prepared for Otho's activity as he had been for Lothaire's +treachery, and did not venture beyond the walls of their city, leaving +the country a defenceless prey to the revengeful anger of the emperor. + +The Seine lay between the two armies, but not a Frenchman ventured to +cross its waters; the garrison of the city, under Hugh Capet,--Count of +Paris, and soon to become the founder of a new dynasty of French +kings,--keeping closely within its walls. These walls proved too strong +for the Germans, and as winter was approaching, and there was much +sickness among his troops, the emperor retreated, after having +devastated all that region of France. But first he kept a vow that he +had made, that he would cause the Parisians to hear a _Te Deum_ such as +they had never heard before. In pursuance of this vow, he gathered upon +the hill of Montmartre all the clergymen whom he could seize, and forced +them to sing his anthem of victory with the full power of their lungs. +Then, having burned the suburbs of Paris, and left his lance quivering +in the city gate, he withdrew in triumph, having amply punished the +treacherous French king. Aix-la-Chapelle fell again into his hands; the +eyes of the imperial eagle were permitted once more to gaze upon +Germany, and in the treaty of peace that followed Lorraine was declared +to be forever a part of the German realm. + +Two years afterwards Otho, infected by that desire to conquer Italy +which for centuries afterwards troubled the dreams of German emperors, +and brought them no end of trouble, crossed the Alps and descended upon +the Italian plains, from which he was never to return. Northern Italy +was already in German hands, but the Greeks held possessions in the +south which Otho claimed, in view of the fact that he had married +Theophania, the daughter of the Greek emperor at Constantinople. To +enforce this claim he marched upon the Greek cities, which in their turn +made peace with the Arabs, with whom they had been at war, and gathered +garrisons of these bronzed pagans alike from Sicily and Africa. + +For two years the war continued, the advantage resting with Otho. In 980 +he reached Rome, and there had a secret interview with Hugh Capet, whom +he sustained in his intention to seize the throne of France, still held +by his old enemy Lothaire. In 981 he captured Naples, Taranto, and other +cities, and in a pitched battle near Cotrona defeated the Greeks and +their Arab allies. Abn al Casem, the terror of southern Italy, and +numbers of his Arab followers, were left dead upon the field. + +On the 13th of July, 982, the emperor again met the Greeks and their +Arab allies in battle, and now occurred that singular adventure and +reverse of fortune which has made this engagement memorable. The battle +took place at a point near the sea-shore, in the vicinity of Basantello, +not far from Taranto, and at first went to the advantage of the +imperial forces. They attacked the Greeks with great impetuosity, and, +after a stubborn defence, broke through their ranks, and forced them +into a retreat, which was orderly conducted. + +It was now mid-day. The victors, elated with their success and their +hopes of pillage, followed the retreating columns along the banks of the +river Corace, feeling so secure that they laid aside their arms and +marched leisurely and confidently forward. It was a fatal confidence. At +one point in their march the road led between the river and a ridge of +serried rocks, which lay silent beneath the mid-day sun. But silent as +they seemed, they were instinct with life. An ambuscade of Arabs +crouched behind them, impatiently waiting the coming of the unsuspecting +Germans. + +Suddenly the air pealed with sound, the "Allah il Allah!" of the +fanatical Arabs; suddenly the startled eyes of the imperialists saw the +rugged rocks bursting, as it seemed, into life; suddenly a horde of +dusky warriors poured down upon them with scimitar and javelin, +surrounding them quickly on all sides, cutting and slashing their way +deeply into the disordered ranks. The scattered troops, stricken with +dismay, fell in hundreds. In their surprise and confusion they became +easy victims to their agile foes, and in a short time nearly the whole +of that recently victorious army were slain or taken prisoners. Of the +entire force only a small number broke through the lines of their +environing foes. + +The emperor escaped almost by miracle. His trusty steed bore him +unharmed through the crowding Arabs. He was sharply pursued, but the +swift animal distanced the pursuers, and before long he reached the +sea-shore, over whose firm sands he guided his horse, though with little +hope of escaping his active foes. Fortunately, he soon perceived a Greek +vessel at no great distance from the shore, a vision which held out to +him a forlorn hope of escape. The land was perilous; the sea might be +more propitious; he forced his faithful animal into the water, and swam +towards the vessel, in the double hope of being rescued and remaining +unknown. + +He was successful in both particulars. The crew willingly took him on +board, ignorant of his high rank, but deeming him to be a knight of +distinction, from whom they could fairly hope for a handsome ransom. His +situation was still a dangerous one, should he become known, and he +could not long hope to remain incognito. In truth, there was a slave on +board who knew him, but who, for purposes of his own, kept the perilous +secret. He communicated by stealth with the emperor, told him of his +recognition, and arranged with him a plan of escape. In pursuance of +this he told the Greeks that their captive was a chamberlain of the +emperor, a statement which Otho confirmed, and added that he had +valuable treasures at Rossano, which, if they would sail thither, they +might take on board as his ransom. + +The Greek mariners, deceived by the specious tale, turned their vessel's +prow towards Rossano, and on coming near that city, shifted their +course towards the shore. Otho had been eagerly awaiting this +opportunity. When they had approached sufficiently near to the land, he +suddenly sprang from the deck into the sea, and swam ashore with a +strength and swiftness that soon brought him to the strand. In a short +time afterwards he entered Rossano, then held by his forces, and joined +his queen, who had been left in that city. + +This singular adventure is told with a number of variations by the +several writers who have related it, most of them significant of the +love of the marvellous of the old chroniclers. One writer tells us that +the escaping emperor was pursued and attacked by the Greek boatmen, and +that he killed forty of them with the aid of a soldier, named Probus, +whom he met on the shore. By another we are told that the Greeks +recognized him, that he enticed them to the shore by requesting them to +take on board his wife and treasures, which had been left at Rossano, +and that he sent young men on board disguised as female attendants of +his wife, by whose aid he seized the vessel. All the stories agree, +however, in saying that Theophania jeeringly asked the emperor whether +her countrymen had not put him in mortal fear,--a jest for which the +Germans never forgave her. + +To return to the domain of fact, we have but further to tell that the +emperor, full of grief and vexation at the loss of his army, and the +slaughter of many of the German and Italian princes and nobles who had +accompanied him, returned to upper Italy, with the purpose of collecting +another army. + +All his conquests in the south had fallen again into the hands of the +enemy, and his work remained to be done over again. He held a grand +assembly in Verona, in which he had his son Otho, three years old, +elected as his successor. From there he proceeded to Rome, in which city +he was attacked by a violent fever, brought on by the grief and +excitement into which his reverses had thrown his susceptible and +impatient mind. He died December 7, 983, and was buried in the church of +St. Peter, at Rome. + +The fancy of the chroniclers has surrounded his death with legends, +which are worth repeating as curious examples of what mediaeval writers +offered and mediaeval readers accepted as history. One of them tells the +story of a naval engagement between Otho and the Greeks, in which the +fight was so bitter that the whole sea around the vessels was stained +red with blood. The emperor won the victory, but received a mortal +wound. + +Another story, which does not trouble itself to sail very close to the +commonplace, relates that Otho met his end by being whipped to death on +Mount Garganus by the angels, among whom he had imprudently ventured +while they were holding a conclave there. These stories will serve as +examples of the degree of credibility of many of the ancient chronicles +and the credulity of their readers. + + + + +_THE FORTUNES OF HENRY THE FOURTH._ + + +At the festival of Easter, in the year 1062, a great banquet was given +in the royal palace at Kaiserswerth, on the Rhine. The Empress Agnes, +widow of Henry III., and regent of the empire, was present, with her +son, then a boy of eleven. A pious and learned woman was the empress, +but she lacked the energy necessary to control the unquiet spirits of +her times. Gentleness and persuasion were the means by which she hoped +to influence the rude dukes and haughty archbishops of the empire, but +qualities such as these were wasted on her fierce subjects, and served +but to gain her the contempt of some and the dislike of others. A plot +to depose the weakly-mild regent and govern the empire in the name of +the youthful monarch was made by three men, Otto of Norheim, the +greatest general of the state, Ekbert of Meissen, its most valiant +knight, and Hanno, Archbishop of Cologne, its leading churchman. These +three men were present at the banquet, which they had fixed upon as the +occasion for carrying out their plot. + +The feast over, the three men rose and walked with the boy monarch to a +window of the palace that overlooked the Rhine. On the waters before +them rode at anchor a handsome vessel, which the child looked upon with +eyes of delight. + +[Illustration: SCENE OF MONASTIC LIFE.] + +"Would you like to see it closer?" asked Hanno. "I will take you on +board, if you wish." + +"Oh, will you?" pleaded the boy. "I shall be so glad." + +The three conspirators walked with him to the stream, and rowed out to +the vessel, the empress viewing them without suspicion of their design. +But her doubts were aroused when she saw that the anchor had been raised +and that the sails of the vessel were being set. Filled with sudden +alarm she left the palace and hastened to the shore, just as the +kidnapping craft began to move down the waters of the stream. + +At the same moment young Henry, who had until now been absorbed in +gazing delightedly about the vessel, saw what was being done, and heard +his mother's cries. With courage and resolution unusual for his years he +broke, with a cry of anger, from those surrounding him, and leaped into +the stream, with the purpose of swimming ashore. But hardly had he +touched the water when Count Ekbert sprang in after him, seized him +despite his struggles, and brought him back to the vessel. + +The empress entreated in pitiful accents for the return of her son, but +in vain; the captors of the boy were not of the kind to let pity +interfere with their plans; on down the broad stream glided the vessel, +the treacherous vassals listening in silence to the agonized appeals of +the distracted mother, and to the mingled prayers and demands of the +young emperor to be taken back. The country people, furious on learning +that the emperor had been stolen, and was being carried away before +their eyes, pursued the vessel for some distance on both sides of the +river. But their cries and threats were of no more avail than had been +the mother's tears and prayers. The vessel moved on with increasing +speed, the three kidnappers erect on its deck, their only words being +those used to cajole and quiet their unhappy prisoner, whom they did +their utmost to solace by promises and presents. + +The vessel continued its course until it reached Cologne, where the +imperial captive was left under the charge of the archbishop, his two +confederates fully trusting him to keep close watch and ward over their +precious prize. The empress was of the same opinion. After vainly +endeavoring to regain her lost son from his powerful captors, she +resigned the regency and retired with a broken heart to an Italian +convent, in which the remainder of her sad life was to be passed. + +The unhappy boy soon learned that his new lot was not to be one of +pleasure. He had a life of severe discipline before him. Bishop Hanno +was a stern and rigid disciplinarian, destitute of any of the softness +to which the lad had been accustomed, and disposed to rule all under his +control with a rod of iron. He kept his youthful captive strictly +immured in the cloister, where he had to endure the severest discipline, +while being educated in Latin and the other learning of the age. + +The regency given up by Agnes was instantly assumed by the ambitious +churchman, and a decree to that effect was quickly passed by the lords +of the diet, on the grounds that Hanno was the bishop of the diocese in +which the emperor resided. The character of Hanno is variously +represented by historians. While some accuse him of acts of injustice +and cruelty, others speak of him as a man of energy, yet one whose holy +life, his paternal care for his see, and his zealous reformation of +monasteries and foundation of churches, gained him the character of a +saint. + +Young Henry remained but a year or two in the hands of this stern +taskmaster. An imperative necessity called Hanno to Italy, and he was +obliged to leave the young monarch under the charge of Adalbert, +Archbishop of Bremen, a personage of very different character from +himself. Adalbert, while a churchman of great ability, was a courtier +full of ambitious views. He was one of the most polished and learned men +of his time, at once handsome, witty, and licentious, his character +being in the strongest contrast to the stern harshness of Hanno and the +coarse manners of the nobles of that period. + +It would have been far better, however, for Henry could he have remained +under the control of Hanno, with all his severity. It is true that the +kindness and gentleness of Adalbert proved a delightful change to the +growing boy, and the unlimited liberty he now enjoyed was in pleasant +contrast to his recent restraint, while the gravity and severe study of +Hanno's cloister were agreeably replaced by the gay freedom of +Adalbert's court, in which the most serious matters were treated as +lightly as a jest. But the final result of the change was that the boy's +character became thoroughly corrupted. Adalbert surrounded his youthful +charge with constant alluring amusements, using the influence thus +gained to obtain new power in the state for himself, and places of honor +and profit for his partisans. He inspired him also with a contempt for +the rude-mannered dukes of the empire, and for what he called the stupid +German people, while he particularly filled the boy's mind with a +dislike for the Saxons, with whom the archbishop was at feud. All this +was to have an important influence on the future life of the growing +monarch. + +It was more Henry's misfortune than his fault that he grew up to manhood +as a compound of sensuality, levity, malice, treachery, and other mean +qualities, for his nature had in it much that was good, and in his +after-life he displayed noble qualities which had been long hidden under +the corrupting faults of his education. The crime of the ambitious +nobles who stole him from his pious and gentle mother went far to ruin +his character, and was the leading cause of the misfortunes of his life. + +As to the character of the youthful monarch, and its influence upon the +people, a few words may suffice. His licentious habits soon became a +scandal and shame to the whole empire, the more so that the mistresses +with whom he surrounded himself were seen in public adorned with gold +and precious stones which had been taken from the consecrated vessels of +the church. His dislike of the Saxons was manifested in the scorn with +which he treated this section of his people, and the taxes and enforced +labors with which they were oppressed. + +The result of all this was an outbreak of rebellion. Hanno, who had +beheld with grave disapproval the course taken by Adalbert, now exerted +his great influence in state affairs, convoked an assembly of the +princes of the empire, and cited Henry to appear before it. On his +refusal, his palace was surrounded and his person seized, while Adalbert +narrowly escaped being made prisoner. He was obliged to remain in +concealment during the three succeeding years, while the indignant +Saxons, taking advantage of the opportunity for revenge, laid waste his +lands. + +The licentious young ruler found his career of open vice brought to a +sudden end. The stern Hanno was again in power. Under his orders the +dissolute courtiers were dispersed, and Henry was compelled to lead a +more decorous life, a bride being found for him in the person of Bertha, +daughter of the Italian Margrave of Susa, to whom he had at an earlier +date been affianced. She was a woman of noble spirit, but, +unfortunately, was wanting in personal beauty, in consequence of which +she soon became an object of extreme dislike to her husband, a dislike +which her patience and fidelity seemed rather to increase than to +diminish. + +The feeling of the young monarch towards his dutiful wife was overcome +in a singular manner, which is well worth describing. Henry at first was +eager to free himself from the tie that bound him to the unloved Bertha, +a resolution in which he was supported by Siegfried, Archbishop of +Mayence, who offered to assist him in getting a divorce. At a diet held +at Worms, Henry demanded a separation from his wife, to whom he +professed an unconquerable aversion. His efforts, however, were +frustrated by the pope's legate, who arrived in Germany during these +proceedings, and the licentious monarch, finding himself foiled in these +legal steps, sought to gain his end by baser means. He caused beautiful +women and maidens to be seized in their homes and carried to his palace +as ministers to his pleasure, while he exposed the unhappy empress to +the base solicitations of his profligate companions, offering them large +sums if they could ensnare her, in her natural revulsion at his +shameless unfaithfulness. + +But the virtue of Bertha was proof against all such wiles, and the story +goes that she turned the tables on her vile-intentioned husband in an +amusing and decisive manner. On one occasion, as we are informed, the +empress appeared to listen to the solicitations of one of the would-be +seducers, and appointed a place and time for a secret meeting with this +profligate. The triumphant courtier duly reported his success to Henry, +who, overjoyed, decided to replace him in disguise. At the hour fixed he +appeared and entered the chamber named by Bertha, when he suddenly found +himself assailed by a score of stout servant-maids, armed with rods, +which they laid upon his back with all the vigor of their arms. The +surprised Lothario ran hither and thither to escape their blows, crying +out that he was the king. In vain his cries; they did not or would not +believe him; and not until he had been most soundly beaten, and their +arms were weary with the exercise, did they open the door of the +apartment and suffer the crest-fallen reprobate to escape. + +This would seem an odd means of gaining the affection of a truant +husband, but it is said to have had this effect upon Henry, his wronged +wife from that moment gaining a place in his heart, into which she had +fairly cudgelled herself. The man was really of susceptible disposition, +and her invincible fidelity had at length touched him, despite himself. +From that moment he ceased his efforts to get rid of her, treated her +with more consideration, and finally settled down to the fact that a +beautiful character was some atonement for a homely face, and that +Bertha was a woman well worthy his affection. + +We have now to describe the most noteworthy event in the life of Henry +IV., and the one which has made his name famous in history,--his contest +with the great ecclesiastic Hildebrand, who had become pope under the +title of Gregory VII. Though an aged man when raised to the papacy, +Gregory's vigorous character displayed itself in a remarkable activity +in the enhancement of the power of the church. His first important step +was directed against the scandals of the priesthood in the matter of +celibacy, the marriage of priests having become common. A second decree +of equal importance followed. Gregory forbade the election of bishops by +the laity, reserving this power to the clergy, under confirmation by the +pope. He further declared that the church was independent of the state, +and that the extensive lands held by the bishops were the property of +the church, and free from control by the monarch. + +These radical decrees naturally aroused a strong opposition, in the +course of which Henry came into violent controversy with the pope. +Gregory accused Henry openly of simony, haughtily bade him to come to +Rome, and excommunicated the bishops who had been guilty of the same +offence. The emperor, who did not know the man with whom he had to deal, +retorted by calling an assembly of the German bishops at Worms, in which +the pope was declared to be deposed from his office. + +The result was very different from that looked for by the volatile young +ruler. The vigorous and daring pontiff at once placed Henry himself +under interdict, releasing his subjects from their oath of allegiance, +and declaring him deprived of the imperial dignity. The scorn with which +the emperor heard of this decree was soon changed to terror when he +perceived its effect upon his people. The days were not yet come in +which the voice of the pope could be disregarded. With the exception of +the people of the cities and the free peasantry, who were opposed to +the papal dominion, all the subjects of the empire deserted Henry, +avoiding him as though he were infected with the plague. The Saxons flew +to arms; the foreign garrisons were expelled; the imprisoned princes +were released; all the enemies whom Henry had made rose against him; and +in a diet, held at Oppenheim, the emperor was declared deposed while the +interdict continued, and the pope was invited to visit Augsburg; in +order to settle the affairs of Germany. The election of a successor to +Henry was even proposed, and, to prevent him from communicating with the +pope, his enemies passed a decree that he should remain in close +residence at Spires. + +The situation of the recently great monarch had suddenly become +desperate. Never had a decree of excommunication against a crowned ruler +been so completely effective. The frightened emperor saw but one hope +left, to escape to Italy before the princes could prevent him, and +obtain release from the interdict at any cost, and with whatever +humiliation it might involve. With this end in view he at once took to +flight, accompanied by Bertha, his infant son, and a single knight, and +made his way with all haste towards the Alps. + +The winter was one of the coldest that Germany had ever known, the Rhine +remaining frozen from St. Martin's day of 1076 to April, 1077. About +Christmas of this severe winter the fugitives reached the snow-covered +Alps, having so far escaped the agents of their enemies, and crossed +the mountains by the St. Bernard pass, the difficulty of the journey +being so great that the empress had to be slid down the precipitous +paths by ropes in the hands of guides, she being wrapped in an ox-hide +for protection. + +Italy was at length reached, after the greatest dangers and hardships +had been surmounted. Here Henry, much to his surprise, found prevailing +a very different spirit from that which he had left behind him. The +nobles, who cordially hated Gregory, and the bishops, many of whom were +under interdict, hailed his coming with joy, with the belief "that the +emperor was coming to humiliate the haughty pope by the power of the +sword." He might soon have had an army at his back, but that he was too +thoroughly downcast to think of anything but conciliation, and to the +disgust of the Italians insisted on humiliating himself before the +powerful pontiff. + +Gregory was little less alarmed than the emperor on learning of Henry's +sudden arrival in Italy. He was then on his way to Augsburg, and, in +doubt as to the intentions of his enemy, took hasty refuge in the castle +of Canossa, then held by the Countess Matilda, recently a widow, and the +most powerful and influential princess in Italy. + +But the alarmed pope was astonished and gratified when he learned that +the emperor, instead of intending an armed assault upon him, had applied +to the Countess Matilda, asking her to intercede in his behalf with the +pontiff. Gregory's acute mind quickly perceived the position in which +Henry stood, and, with great severity, he at first refused to speak of a +reconciliation, but referred all to the diet; then, on renewed +entreaties, he consented to receive Henry at Canossa, if he would come +alone, and as a penitent. The castle was surrounded with three walls, +within the second of which Henry was admitted, his attendants being left +without. He had laid aside every badge of royalty, being clothed in +penitential dress and barefoot, and fasting and praying from morning to +evening. For a second and even a third day was he thus kept, and not +until the fourth day, moved at length by the solicitations of Matilda +and those about him, did Gregory grant permission for Henry to enter his +presence. An interview now took place, in which the pope consented to +release the penitent emperor from the interdict. One of the conditions +of this release was he should leave to Gregory the settlement of affairs +in Germany, and to give up all exercise of his imperial power until he +should be granted permission to exercise it again. + +This agreement was followed by a solemn mass, after which Gregory spoke +to the following effect: As regarded the crimes of which Henry had +accused him, he could easily bring evidence in disproof of the charges +made, but he would invoke the judgment of God alone. "May the body of +Jesus Christ, which I am about to receive," he said, "be the witness of +my innocence. I beseech the Almighty thus to dispel all suspicions, if +I am innocent; to strike me dead on the spot, if guilty." + +He then received one-half the Sacred Host, and turning to the king, +offered him the remaining half, bidding him to follow his example, if he +held himself to be guiltless. Henry refused the ordeal, doubtless +because he did not dare to risk the penalty, and was glad enough to +escape from the presence of the pope, a humble penitent. + +This ended Henry's career of humiliation. It was followed by a period of +triumph. On leaving the castle of Canossa he found the people of +Lombardy so indignant at his cowardice, that their scorn induced him to +break the oath he had just taken, gather an army, and assail the castle, +in which he shut up the pope so closely that he could neither proceed to +Augsburg nor return to Rome. + +This siege, however, was not of long continuance. Henry soon found +himself recalled to Germany, where his enemies had elected Rudolf, Duke +of Swabia, emperor in his stead. A war broke out, which continued for +several years, at the end of which Gregory, encouraged by a temporary +success of Rudolf's party, pronounced in his favor, invested him with +the empire as a fief of the papacy, and once more excommunicated Henry. +It proved a false move. Henry had now learned his own power, and ceased +to fear the pope. He had strong support in the cities and among the +clergy, whom Gregory's severity had offended, and immediately convoked a +council, by which the pope was again deposed, and the Archbishop of +Ravenna elected in his stead, under the title of Clement III. + +In this year, 1080, a battle took place in which Rudolf was mortally +wounded, and the party opposed to Henry left without a leader, though +the war continued. And now Henry, seeing that he could trust his cause +in Germany to the hands of his lieutenants, determined to march upon his +pontifical foe in Italy, and take revenge for his bitter humiliation at +Canossa. + +He crossed the Alps, defeated the army which Matilda had raised in the +pope's cause, and laid siege to Rome, a siege which continued without +success for the long period of three years. At length the city was +taken, Wilprecht von Groitsch, a Saxon knight, mounting the walls, and +making his way with his followers into the city, aided by treachery from +within. Gregory hastily shut himself up in the castle of St. Angelo, in +which he was besieged by the Romans themselves, and from which he bade +defiance to Henry with the same inflexible will as ever. Henry offered +to be reconciled with him if he would crown him, but the vigorous old +pontiff replied that, "He could only communicate with him when he had +given satisfaction to God and the church." The emperor, thereupon, +called the rival pope, Clement, to Rome, was crowned by him, and +returned to Germany, leaving Clement in the papal chair and Gregory +still shut up in St. Angelo. + +But a change quickly took place in the fortunes of the indomitable old +pope. Robert Guiscard, Duke of Normandy, who had won for himself a +principality in lower Italy, now marched to the relief of his friend +Gregory, stormed and took the city at the head of his Norman +freebooters, and at once began the work of pillage, in disregard of +Gregory's remonstrances. The result was an unusual one. The citizens of +Rome, made desperate by their losses, gathered in multitudes and drove +the plunderers from their city, and Gregory with them. The Normans, thus +expelled, took the pope to Salerno, where he died the following year, +1085, his last words being, "I have loved justice and hated iniquity, +therefore do I die in exile." + +As for his imperial enemy, the remainder of his life was one of +incessant war. Years of battle were needed to put down his enemies in +the state, and his triumph was quickly followed by the revolt of his own +son, Henry, who reduced his father so greatly that the old emperor was +thrown into prison and forced to sign an abdication of the throne. It is +said that he became subsequently so reduced that he was forced to sell +his boots to obtain means of subsistence, but this story may reasonably +be doubted. Henry died in 1106, again under excommunication, so that he +was not formally buried in consecrated ground until 1111, the interdict +being continued for five years after his death. + + + + +_ANECDOTES OF MEDIAEVAL GERMANY._ + + +THE WIVES OF WEINSBERG. + +In the year of grace 1140 a German army, under Conrad III., emperor, +laid siege to the small town of Weinsberg, the garrison of which +resisted with a most truculent and disloyal obstinacy. Germany, which +for centuries before and after was broken into warring factions, to such +extent that its emperors could truly say, "uneasy lies the head that +wears a crown," was then divided between the two strong parties of the +Welfs and the Waiblingers,--or the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, as +pronounced by the Italians and better known to us. The Welfs were a +noble family whose ancestry could be traced back to the days of +Charlemagne. The Waiblingers derived their name from the town of +Waiblingen, which belonged to the Hohenstaufen family, of which the +Emperor Conrad was a representative. + +And now, as often before and after, the Guelphs, and Ghibellines were at +war, Duke Welf holding Weinsberg vigorously against his foes of the +imperial party, while his relative, Count Welf of Altorf, marched to his +relief. A battle ensued between emperor and count, which ended in the +triumph of the emperor and the flight of the count. And this battle is +worthy of mention, as distinguished from the hundreds of battles which +are unworthy of mention, from the fact that in it was first heard a +war-cry which continued famous for centuries afterwards. The German +war-cry preceding this period had been "Kyrie Eleison" ("Lord, have +mercy upon us!" a pious invocation hardly in place with men who had +little mercy upon their enemies). But now the cry of the warring +factions became "Hie Weif," "Hie Waiblinger," softened in Italy into +"The Guelph," "The Ghibelline," battle-shouts which were long afterwards +heard on the field of German war, and on that of Italy as well, for the +factions of Germany became also the factions of this southern realm. + +So much for the origin of Guelph and Ghibelline, of which we may further +say that a royal representative of the former party still exists, in +King Edward VII. of England, who traces his descent from the German +Welfs. And now to return to the siege of Weinsberg, to which Conrad +returned after having disposed of the army of relief. The garrison still +were far from being in a submissive mood, their defence being so +obstinate, and the siege so protracted, that the emperor, incensed by +their stubborn resistance, vowed that he would make their city a +frightful example to all his foes, by subjecting its buildings to the +brand and its inhabitants to the sword. Fire and steel, he said, should +sweep it from the face of the earth. + +[Illustration: THUSNELDA IN THE GERMANICUS TRIUMPH.] + +Weinsberg at length was compelled to yield, and Conrad, hot with anger, +determined that his cruel resolution should be carried out to the +letter, the men being put to the sword, the city given to the flames. +This harsh decision filled the citizens with terror and despair. A +deputation was sent to the angry emperor, humbly praying for pardon, but +he continued inflexible, the utmost concession he would make being that +the women might withdraw, as he did not war with them. As for the men, +they had offended him beyond forgiveness, and the sword should be their +lot. On further solicitation, he added to the concession a proviso that +the women might take away with them all that they could carry of their +most precious possessions, since he did not wish to throw them destitute +upon the world. + +The obdurate emperor was to experience an unexampled surprise. When the +time fixed for the departure of the women arrived, and the city gates +were thrown open for their exit, to the astonishment of Conrad, and the +admiration of the whole army, the first to appear was the duchess, who, +trembling under the weight, bore upon her shoulders Duke Welf, her +husband. After her came a long line of other women, each bending beneath +the heavy burden of her husband, or some dear relative among the +condemned citizens. + +Never had such a spectacle been seen. So affecting an instance of +heroism was it, and so earnest and pathetic were the faces appealingly +upturned to him, that the emperor's astonishment quickly changed to +admiration, and he declared that women like these had fairly earned +their reward, and that each should keep the treasure she had borne. +There were those around him with less respect for heroic deeds, who +sought to induce him to keep his original resolution, but Conrad, who +had it in him to be noble when not moved by passion, curtly silenced +them with the remark, "An emperor keeps his word." He was so moved by +the scene, indeed, that he not only spared the men, but the whole city, +and the doom of sword and brand, vowed against their homes, was +withdrawn through admiration of the noble act of the worthy wives of +Weinsberg. + + +A KING IN A QUANDARY. + +From an old chronicle we extract the following story, which is at once +curious and interesting, as a picture of mediaeval manners and customs, +though to all seeming largely legendary. + +Henry, the bishop of Utrecht, was at sword's point with two lords, those +of Aemstel and Woerden, who hated him from the fact that a kinsman of +theirs, Goswin by name, had been deposed from the same see, through the +action of a general chapter. In reprisal these lords, in alliance with +the Count of Gebria, raided and laid waste the lands of the bishopric. +Time and again they visited it with plundering bands, Henry manfully +opposing them with his followers, but suffering much from their +incursions. At length the affair ended in a peculiar compact, in which +both sides agreed to submit their differences to the wager of war, in a +pitched battle, which was to be held on a certain day in the green +meadows adjoining Utrecht. + +When the appointed day came both sides assembled with their vassals, the +lords full of hope, the bishop exhorting his followers to humble the +arrogance of these plundering nobles. The Archbishop of Cologne was in +the city of Utrecht at the time, having recently visited it. He, as +warlike in disposition as the bishop himself, gave Henry a precious +ring, saying to him,-- + +"My son, be courageous and confident, for this day, through the +intercession of the holy confessor St. Martin, and through the virtue of +this ring, thou shalt surely subdue the pride of thy adversaries, and +obtain a renowned victory over them. In the meantime, while thou art +seeking justice, I will faithfully defend this city, with its priests +and canons, in thy behalf, and will offer up prayers to the Lord of +Hosts for thy success." + +Bishop Henry, his confidence increased by these words, led from the +gates a band of fine and well armed warriors to the sound of warlike +trumpets, and marched to the field, where he drew them up before the +bands of the hostile lords. + +Meanwhile, tidings of this fray had been borne to William, king of the +Romans, who felt it his duty to put an end to it, as such private +warfare was forbidden by law. Hastily collecting all the knights and +men-at-arms he could get together without delay, he marched with all +speed to Utrecht, bent upon enforcing peace between the rival bands. As +it happened, the army of the king reached the northern gate of the city +just as the bishop's battalion had left the southern gate, the one party +marching in as the other marched out. + +The archbishop, who had undertaken the defence of the city, and as yet +knew nothing of this royal visit, after making an inspection of the city +under his charge, gave orders to the porters to lock and bar all the +gates, and keep close guard thereon. + +King William was not long in learning that he was somewhat late, the +bishop having left the city. He marched hastily to the southern gate to +pursue him, but only to find that he was himself in custody, the gates +being firmly locked and the keys missing. He waited awhile impatiently. +No keys were brought. Growing angry at this delay, he gave orders that +the bolts and bars should be wrenched from the gates, and efforts to do +this were begun. + +While this was going on, the archbishop was in deep affliction. He had +just learned that the king was in Utrecht with an army, and imagined +that he had come with hostile purpose, and had taken the city through +the carelessness of the porters. Followed by his clergy, he hastened to +where the king was trying to force a passage through the gates, and +addressed him appealingly, reminding him that justice and equity were +due from kings to subjects. + +"Your armed bands, I fear, have taken this city," he said, "and you have +ordered the locks to be broken that you may expel the inhabitants, and +replace them with persons favorable to your own interests. If you +propose to act thus against justice and mercy, you injure me, your +chancellor, and lessen your own honor. I exhort you, therefore, to +restore me the city which you have unjustly taken, and relieve the +inhabitants from violence." + +The king listened in silence and surprise to this harangue, which was +much longer than we have given it. At its end, he said,-- + +"Venerable pastor and bishop, you have much mistaken my errand in +Utrecht. I come here in the cause of justice, not of violence. You know +that it is the duty of kings to repress wars and punish the disturbers +of peace. It is this that brings us here, to put an end to the private +war which we learn is being waged. As it stands, we have not conquered +the city, but it has conquered us. To convince you that no harm is meant +to Bishop Henry and his good city of Utrecht, we will command our men to +repair to their hostels, lay down their arms, and pass their time in +festivity. But first the purpose for which we have come must be +accomplished, and this private feud be brought to an end." + +That the worthy archbishop was delighted to hear these words, need not +be said. His fears had not been without sound warrant, for those were +days in which kings were not to be trusted, and in which the cities +maintained a degree of political independence that often proved +inconvenient to the throne. As may be imagined, the keys were quickly +forthcoming and the gates thrown open, the king being relieved from his +involuntary detention, and given an opportunity to bring the bishop's +battle to an end. + +He was too late; it had already reached its end. While King William was +striving to get out of the city, which he had got into with such ease, +the fight in the green meadows between the bishops and the lords had +been concluded, the warlike churchman coming off victor. Many of the +lords' vassals had been killed, more put to flight, and themselves taken +prisoners. At the vesper-bell Henry entered the city with his captives, +bound with ropes, and was met at the gates by the king and the +archbishop. At the request of King William he pardoned and released his +prisoners, on their promise to cease molesting his lands, and all ended +in peace and good will. + + +COURTING BY PROXY. + +Frederick von Stauffen, known as the One-eyed, being desirous of +providing his son Frederick (afterwards the famous emperor Frederick +Barbarossa) with a wife, sent as envoy for that purpose a handsome young +man named Johann von Wuertemberg, whose attractions of face and manner +had made him a general favorite. It was the beautiful daughter of Rudolf +von Zaehringen who had been selected as a suitable bride for the future +emperor, but when the handsome ambassador stated the purpose of his +visit to the father, he was met by Rudolf with the joking remark, "Why +don't you court the damsel for yourself?" + +The suggestion was much to the taste of the envoy. He took it seriously, +made love for himself to the attractive Princess Anna, and won her love +and the consent of her father, who had been greatly pleased with his +handsome and lively visitor, and was quite ready to confirm in earnest +what he had begun in jest. + +Frederick, the One-eyed, still remained to deal with, but that worthy +personage seems to have taken the affair as a good joke, and looked up +another bride for his son, leaving to Johann the maiden he had won. This +story has been treated as fabulous, but it is said to be well founded. +It has been repeated in connection with other persons, notably in the +case of Captain Miles Standish and John Alden, in which case the fair +maiden herself is given the credit of admonishing the envoy to court for +himself. It is very sure, however, that this latter story is a fable. It +was probably founded on the one we have given. + + +THE BISHOP'S WINE-CASKS. + +Adalbert of Treves was a bandit chief of note who, in the true fashion +of the robber barons of mediaeval Germany, dwelt in a strong-walled +castle, which was garrisoned by a numerous band of men-at-arms, as fond +of pillage as their leader, and equally ready to follow him on his +plundering expeditions and to defend his castle against his enemies. +Our noble brigand paid particular heed to the domain of Peppo, Bishop of +Treves, whose lands he honored with frequent unwelcome visits, +despoiling lord and vassal alike, and hastening back from his raids to +the shelter of his castle walls. + +This was not the most agreeable state of affairs for the worthy bishop, +though how it was to be avoided did not clearly appear. It probably did +not occur to him to apply to the emperor, Henry II., the mediaeval German +emperors having too much else on hand to leave them time to attend to +matters of minor importance. Peppo therefore naturally turned to his own +kinsmen, friends, and vassals, as those most likely to afford him aid. + +Bishop Peppo could wield sword and battle-axe with the best bishop, +which is almost equivalent to saying with the best warrior, of his day, +and did not fail to use, when occasion called, these carnal weapons. But +something more than the battle-axes of himself and vassals was needed to +break through the formidable walls of Adalbert's stronghold, which +frowned defiance to the utmost force the bishop could muster. Force +alone would not answer, that was evident. Stratagem was needed to give +effect to brute strength. If some way could only be devised to get +through the strong gates of the robber's stronghold, and reach him +behind his bolts and bars, all might be well; otherwise, all was ill. + +In this dilemma, a knightly vassal of the bishop, Tycho by name, +undertook to find a passage into the castle of Adalbert, and to punish +him for his pillaging. One day Tycho presented himself at the gate of +the castle, knocked loudly thereon, and on the appearance of the guard, +asked him for a sup of something to drink, being, as he said, overcome +with thirst. + +He did not ask in vain. It is a pleasant illustration of the hospitality +of that period to learn that the traveller's demand was unhesitatingly +complied with at the gate of the bandit stronghold, a brimming cup of +wine being brought for the refreshment of the thirsty wayfarer. + +"Thank your master for me," said Tycho, on returning the cup, "and tell +him that I shall certainly repay him with some service for his good +will." + +With this Tycho journeyed on, sought the bishopric, and told Peppo what +he had done and what he proposed to do. After a full deliberation a +definite plan was agreed upon, which the cunning fellow proceeded to put +into action. The plan was one which strongly reminds us of that adopted +by the bandit chief in the Arabian story of the "Forty Thieves," the +chief difference being that here it was true men, not thieves, who were +to be benefited. + +Thirty wine casks of capacious size were prepared, and in each was +placed instead of its quota of wine a stalwart warrior, fully armed with +sword, shield, helmet, and cuirass. Each cask was then covered with a +linen cloth, and ropes were fastened to its sides for the convenience of +the carriers. This done, sixty other men were chosen as carriers, and +dressed as peasants, though really they were trained soldiers, and each +had a sword concealed in the cask he helped to carry. + +The preparations completed, Tycho, accompanied by a few knights and by +the sixty carriers and their casks, went his way to Adalbert's castle, +and, as before, knocked loudly at its gates. The guard again appeared, +and, on seeing the strange procession, asked who they were and for what +they came. + +"I have come to repay your chief for the cup of wine he gave me," said +Tycho. "I promised that he should be well rewarded for his good will, +and am here for that purpose." + +The warder looked longingly at the array of stout casks, and hastened +with the message to Adalbert, who, doubtless deeming that the gods were +raining wine, for his one cup to be so amply returned, gave orders that +the strangers should be admitted. Accordingly the gates were opened, and +the wine-bearers and knights filed in. + +Reaching the castle hall, the casks were placed on the floor before +Adalbert and his chief followers, Tycho begging him to accept them as a +present in return for his former kindness. As to receive something for +nothing was Adalbert's usual mode of life, he did not hesitate to accept +the lordly present, and Tycho ordered the carriers to remove the +coverings. In a very few seconds this was done, when out sprang the +armed men, the porters seized their swords from the casks, and in a +minute's time the surprised bandits found themselves sharply attacked. +The stratagem proved a complete success. Adalbert and his men fell +victims to their credulity, and the fortress was razed to the ground. + +The truth of this story we cannot vouch for. It bears too suspicious a +resemblance to the Arabian tale to be lightly accepted as fact. But its +antiquity is unquestionable, and it may be offered as a faithful picture +of the conditions of those centuries of anarchy when every man's hand +was for himself and might was right. + + + + +_FREDERICK BARBAROSSA AND MILAN._ + + +A proud old city was Milan, heavy with its weight of years, rich and +powerful, arrogant and independent, the capital of Lombardy and the lord +of many of the Lombard cities. For some twenty centuries it had existed, +and now had so grown in population, wealth, and importance, that it +could almost lay claim to be the Rome of northern Italy. But its day of +pride preceded not long that of its downfall, for a new emperor had come +to the German throne, Frederick the Red-bearded, one of the ablest, +noblest, and greatest of all that have filled the imperial chair. + +Not long had he been on the throne before, in the long-established +fashion of German emperors, he began to interfere with affairs in Italy, +and demanded from the Lombard cities recognition of his supremacy as +Emperor of the West. He found some of them submissive, others not so. +Milan received his commands with contempt, and its proud magistrates +went so far as to tear the seal from the imperial edict and trample it +underfoot. + +In 1154 Frederick crossed the Alps and encamped on the Lombardian plain. +Soon deputations from some of the cities came to him with complaints +about the oppression of Milan, which had taken Lodi, Como, and other +towns, and lorded it over them exasperatingly. Frederick bade the proud +Milanese to answer these complaints, but in their arrogance they refused +even to meet his envoys, and he resolved to punish them severely for +their insolence. + +But the time was not yet. He had other matters to attend to. Four years +passed before he was able to devote some of his leisure to the Milanese. +They had in the meantime managed to offend him still more seriously, +having taken the town of Lodi and burnt it to the ground, for no other +crime than that it had yielded him allegiance. After him marched a +powerful army, nearly one hundred and twenty thousand strong, at the +very sight of whose myriad of banners most of the Lombard cities +submitted without a blow. Milan was besieged. Its resistance was by no +means obstinate. The emperor's principal wish was to win it over to his +side, and probably the authorities of the city were aware of his lenient +disposition, for they held out no long time before his besieging +multitude. + +All that the conqueror now demanded was that the proud municipality +should humble itself before him, swear allegiance, and promise not to +interfere with the freedom of the smaller cities. On the 6th of +September a procession of nobles and churchmen defiled before him, +barefooted and clad in tattered garments, the consuls and patricians +with swords hanging from their necks, the others with ropes round their +throats, and thus, with evidence of the deepest humility, they bore to +the emperor the keys of the proud city. + +"You must now acknowledge that it is easier to conquer by obedience than +with arms," he said. Then, exacting their oaths of allegiance, placing +the imperial eagle upon the spire of the cathedral, and taking with him +three hundred hostages, he marched away, with the confident belief that +the defiant resistance of Milan was at length overcome. + +He did not know the Milanese. When, in the following year, he attempted +to lay a tax upon them, they rose in insurrection and attacked his +representatives with such fury that they could scarcely save their +lives. On an explanation being demanded, they refused to give any, and +were so arrogantly defiant that the emperor pronounced their city +outlawed, and wrathfully vowed that he would never place the crown upon +his head again until he had utterly destroyed this arrant nest of +rebels. + +It was not to prove so easy a task. Frederick began by besieging +Cremona, which was in alliance with Milan, and which resisted him so +obstinately that it took him seven months to reduce it to submission. In +his anger he razed the city to the ground and scattered its inhabitants +far and wide. + +Then came the siege of Milan, which was so vigorously defended that +three years passed before starvation threw it into the emperor's hands. +So virulent were the citizens that they several times tried to rid +themselves of their imperial enemy by assassination. On one occasion, +when Frederick was performing his morning devotions in a solitary spot +upon the river Ada, a gigantic fellow attacked him and tried to throw +him into the stream. The emperor's cries for help brought his attendants +to the spot, and the assailant, in his turn, was thrown into the river. +On another occasion an old, misshapen man glided into the camp, bearing +poisoned wares which he sought to dispose of to the emperor. Frederick, +fortunately, had been forewarned, and he had the would-be assassin +seized and executed. + +It was in the spring of 1162 that the city yielded, hunger at length +forcing it to capitulate. Now came the work of revenge. Frederick +proceeded to put into execution the harsh vow he had made, after +subjecting its inhabitants to the greatest humiliations which he could +devise. + +For three days the consuls and chief men of the city, followed by the +people, were obliged to parade before the imperial camp, barefooted and +dressed in sackcloth, with tapers in their hands and crosses, swords, +and ropes about their necks. On the third day more than a hundred of the +banners of the city were brought out and laid at the emperor's feet. +Then, in sign of the most utter humiliation, the great banner of their +pride, the Carocium--a stately iron tree with iron leaves, drawn on a +cart by eight oxen--was brought out and bowed before the emperor. +Frederick seized and tore down its fringe, while the whole people cast +themselves on the ground, wailing and imploring mercy. + +The emperor was incensed beyond mercy, other than to grant them their +lives. He ordered that a part of the wall should be thrown down, and +rode through the breach into the city. Then, after deliberation, he +granted the inhabitants their lives, but ordered their removal to four +villages, several miles away, where they were placed under the care of +imperial functionaries. As for Milan, he decided that it should be +levelled with the ground, and gave the right to do this, at their +request, to the people of Lodi, Cremona, Pavia, and other cities which +had formerly been oppressed by proud Milan. + +[Illustration: THE AMPHITHEATRE AT MILAN.] + +The city was first pillaged, and then given over to the hands of the +Lombards, who--such was the diligence of hatred--are said to have done +more in six days than hired workmen would have done in as many months. +The walls and forts were torn down, the ditches filled up, and the once +splendid city reduced to a frightful scene of ruin and desolation. Then, +at a splendid banquet at Pavia, in the Easter festival, the triumphant +emperor replaced the crown upon his head. + +His triumph was not to continue, nor the humiliation of Milan to remain +permanent. Time brings its revenges, as the proud Frederick was to +learn. For five years Milan lay in ruins, a home for owls and bats, a +scene of desolation to make all observers weep; and then arrived its +season of retribution. Frederick's downfall came from the hand of God, +not of man. A frightful plague broke out in the ranks of the German +army, then in Rome, carrying off nobles and men alike in such numbers +that it looked as if the whole host might be laid in the grave. +Thousands died, and the emperor was obliged to retire to Pavia with but +a feeble remnant of his numerous army, nearly the whole of it having +been swept away. In the following spring he was forced to leave Italy +like a fugitive, secretly and in disguise, and came so nearly falling +into the hands of his foes, that he only escaped by one of his +companions placing himself in his bed, to be seized in his stead, while +he fled under cover of the night. + +Immediately the humbled cities raised their heads. An alliance was +formed between them, and they even ventured to conduct the Milanese back +to their ruined homes. At once the work of rebuilding was begun. The +ditches, walls, and towers were speedily restored, and then each man +went to work on his own habitation. So great was the city that the work +of destruction had been but partial. Most of the houses, all the +churches, and portions of the walls remained, and by aid of the other +cities Milan soon regained its old condition. + +In 1174 Frederick reappeared in Italy, with a new army, and with hostile +intentions against the revolted cities. The Lombards had built a new +city, in a locality surrounded by rivers and marshes, and had enclosed +it with walls which they sought to make impregnable. This they named +Alexandria, in honor of the pope and in defiance of the emperor, and +against this Frederick's first assault was made. For seven months he +besieged it, and then broke into the very heart of the place, through a +subterranean passage which the Germans had excavated. To all appearance +the city was lost, yet chance and courage saved it. The brave defenders +attacked the Germans, who had appeared in the market-place; the tunnel, +through great good fortune, fell in; and in the end the emperor was +forced to raise the siege in such haste that he set fire to his own +encampment in his precipitate retreat. + +On May 29, 1176, a decisive battle was fought at Lignano, in which Milan +revenged itself on its too-rigorous enemy. The Carocium was placed in +the middle of the Lombard army, surrounded by three hundred youths, who +had sworn to defend it unto death, and by a body of nine hundred picked +cavalry, who had taken a similar oath. + +Early in the battle one wing of the Lombard army wavered under the sharp +attack of the Germans, and threw into confusion the Milanese ranks. +Taking advantage of this, the emperor pressed towards their centre, +seeking to gain the Carocium, with the expectation that its capture +would convert the disorder of the Lombards into a rout. On pushed the +Germans until the sacred standard was reached, and its decorations torn +down before the eyes of its sworn defenders. + +This indignity to the treasured emblem of their liberties gave renewed +courage to the disordered band. Their ranks re-established, they charged +upon the Germans with such furious valor as to drive them back in +disorder, cut through their lines to the emperor's station, kill his +standard-bearer by his side, and capture the imperial standard. +Frederick, clad in a splendid suit of armor, rushed against them at the +head of a band of chosen knights. But suddenly he was seen to fall from +his horse and vanish under the hot press of struggling warriors that +surged back and forth around the standard. + +This dire event spread instant terror through the German ranks. They +broke and fled in disorder, followed by the death-phalanx of the +Carocium, who cut them down in multitudes, and drove them back in +complete disorder and defeat. For two days the emperor was mourned as +slain, his unhappy wife even assuming the robes of widowhood, when +suddenly he reappeared, and all was joy again. He had not been seriously +hurt in his fall, and had with a few friends escaped in the tumult of +the defeat, and, under the protection of night, made his way with +difficulty back to Pavia. + +This defeat ended the efforts of Frederick against Milan, which had, +through its triumph over the great emperor, regained all its old proud +position and supremacy among the Lombard cities. The war ended with the +battle of Lignano, a truce of six years being concluded between the +hostile parties. For the ensuing eight years Frederick was fully +occupied in Germany, in wars with Henry the Lion, of the Guelph faction. +At the end of that time he returned to Italy, where Milan, which he had +sought so strenuously to humiliate and ruin, now became the seat of the +greatest honor he could bestow. The occasion was that of the marriage of +his son Henry to Constanza, the last heiress of Naples and Sicily of the +royal Norman race. This ceremony took place in Milan, in which city the +emperor caused the iron crown of the Lombards to be placed upon the head +of his son and heir, and gave him away in marriage with the utmost pomp +and festivity. Milan had won in its great contest for life and death. + +We may fitly conclude with the story of the death of the great +Frederick, who, in accordance with the character of his life, died in +harness. In his old age, having put an end to the wars in Germany and +Italy, he headed a crusade to the Holy Land, from which he was never to +return. It was the most interesting in many of its features of all the +crusades, the leaders of the host being, in addition to Frederick +Barbarossa, Richard Coeur de Lion of England, the hero of romance, the +wise Philip Augustus of France, and various others of the leading +potentates of Europe. + +It is with Frederick alone that we are concerned. In 1188 he set out, at +the head of one hundred and fifty thousand trained soldiers, on what was +destined to prove a disastrous expedition. Entering Hungary, he met with +a friendly reception from Bela, its king. Reaching Belgrade, he held +there a magnificent tournament, hanged all the robber Servians he could +capture for their depredations upon his ranks, and advanced into Greek +territory, where he punished the bad faith of the emperor, Isaac, by +plundering his country. Several cities were destroyed in revenge for the +assassination of pilgrims and of sick and wounded German soldiers by +their inhabitants. This done, Frederick advanced on Constantinople, +whose emperor, to save his city from capture, hastened to place his +whole fleet at the disposal of the Germans, glad to get rid of these +truculent visitors at any price. + +Reaching Asia Minor, the troubles of the crusaders began. They were +assailed by the Turks, and had to cut their way forward at every step. +Barbarossa had never shown himself a greater general. On one occasion, +when hard pressed by the enemy, he concealed a chosen band of warriors +in a large tent, the gift of the Queen of Hungary, while the rest of the +army pretended to fly. The Turks entered the camp and began pillaging, +when the ambushed knights broke upon them from the tent, the flying +soldiers turned, and the confident enemy was disastrously defeated. + +But as the army advanced its difficulties increased. A Turkish prisoner +who was made to act as a guide, being driven in chains before the army, +led the Christians into the gorges of almost impassable mountains, +sacrificing his life for his cause. Here, foot-sore and weary, and +tormented by thirst and hunger, they were suddenly attacked by ambushed +foes, stones being rolled upon them in the narrow gorges, and arrows and +javelins poured upon their disordered ranks. Peace was here offered +them by the Turks, if they would pay a large sum of money for their +release. In reply the indomitable emperor sent them a small silver coin, +with the message that they might divide this among themselves. Then, +pressing forward, he beat off the enemy, and extricated his army from +its dangerous situation. + +As they pushed on, the sufferings of the army increased. Water was not +to be had, and many were forced to quench their thirst by drinking the +blood of their horses. The army was now divided. Frederick, the son of +the emperor, led half of it forward at a rapid march, defeated the Turks +who sought to stop him, and fought his way into the city of Iconium. +Here all the inhabitants were put to the sword, and the crusaders gained +an immense booty. + +Meanwhile the emperor, his soldiers almost worn out with hunger and +fatigue, was surrounded with the army of the sultan. He believed that +his son was lost, and tears of anguish flowed from his eyes, while all +around him wept in sympathy. Suddenly rising, he exclaimed, "Christ +still lives, Christ conquers!" and putting himself at the head of his +knights, he led them in a furious assault upon the Turks. The result was +a complete victory, ten thousand of the enemy falling dead upon the +field. Then the Christian army marched to Iconium, where they found +relief from their hunger and weariness. + +After recruiting they marched forward, and on June 10, 1190, reached +the little river Cydnus, in Cilicia. Here the road and the bridge over +the stream were so blocked up with beasts of burden that the progress of +the army was greatly reduced. The bold old warrior, impatient to rejoin +his son Frederick, who led the van, would not wait for the bridge to be +cleared, but spurred his war-horse forward and plunged into the stream. +Unfortunately, he had miscalculated the strength of the current. Despite +the efforts of the noble animal, it was borne away by the swift stream, +and when at length assistance reached the aged emperor he was found to +be already dead. + +Never was a man more mourned than was the valiant Barbarossa by his +army, and by the Germans on hearing of his death. His body was borne by +the sorrowing soldiers to Antioch, where it was buried in the church of +St. Peter. His fate was, perhaps, a fortunate one, for it prevented him +from beholding the loss of the army, which was almost entirely destroyed +by sickness at the city in which his body was entombed. His son +Frederick died at the siege of Acre, or Ptolemais. + +As regards the Germans at home, they were not willing to believe that +their great emperor could be dead. Their superstitious faith gave rise +to legendary tales, to the effect that the valiant Barbarossa was still +alive, and would, some day, return to yield Germany again a dynasty of +mighty sovereigns. The story went that the noble emperor lay asleep in a +deep cleft of Kylfhaueser Berg, on the golden meadow of Thuringia. Here, +his head resting on his arm, he sits by a granite block, through which, +in the lapse of time, his red beard has grown. Here he will sleep until +the ravens no longer fly around the mountain, when he will awake to +restore the golden age to the world. + +Another legend tells us that the great Barbarossa sits, wrapped in deep +slumber, in the Untersberg, near Salzberg. His sleep will end when the +dead pear-tree on the Walserfeld, which has been cut down three times +but ever grows anew, blossoms. Then will he come forth, hang his shield +on the tree, and begin a tremendous battle, in which the whole world +will join, and in whose end the good will overcome the wicked, and the +reign of virtue return to the earth. + + + + +_THE CRUSADE OF FREDERICK II._ + + +A remarkable career was that of Frederick II. of Germany, grandson of +the great Barbarossa, crowned in 1215 under the immediate auspices of +the papacy, yet during all the remainder of his life in constant and +bitter conflict with the popes. He was, we are told, of striking +personal beauty, his form being of the greatest symmetry, his face +unusually handsome, and marked by intelligence, benevolence, and +nobility. Born in a rude age, his learning would have done honor to our +own. Son of an era in which poetry was scarcely known, he cultivated the +gay science, and was one of the earliest producers of the afterwards +favorite form known as the sonnet. An emperor of Germany, nearly his +whole life was spent in Sicily. Though ruler of a Christian realm, he +lived surrounded by Saracens, studying diligently the Arabian learning, +dwelling in what was almost a harem of Arabian beauties, and hesitating +not to give expression to the most infidel sentiments. The leader of a +crusade, he converted what was ordinarily a tragedy into a comedy, +obtained possession of Jerusalem without striking a blow or shedding a +drop of blood, and found himself excommunicated in the holy city which +he had thus easily restored to Christendom. Altogether we may repeat +that the career of Frederick II. was an extraordinary one, and amply +worthy our attention. + +The young monarch had grown up in Sicily, of which charming island he +became guardian after the death of his mother, Constanza. He was crowned +at Aix-la-Chapelle, having defeated his rival, Otho IV.; but spent the +greater part of his life in the south, holding his pleasure-loving court +at Naples and Palermo, where he surrounded himself with all the +refinements of life then possessed by the Saracens, but of which the +Christians of Europe were lamentably deficient. + +It was in 1220 that Frederick returned from Germany to Italy, leaving +his northern kingdom in the hands of the Archbishop of Cologne, as +regent. At Rome he received the imperial crown from the hands of the +pope, and, his first wife dying, married Yolinda de Lusignan, daughter +of John, ex-king of Jerusalem, in right of whom he claimed the kingdom +of the East. + +Shortly afterwards a new pope came to the papal chair, the gloomy +Gregory IX., whose first act was to order a crusade, which he desired +the emperor to lead. Despite the fact that he had married the heiress of +Jerusalem, Frederick was very reluctant to seek an enforcement of his +claim upon the holy city. He had pledged himself when crowned at +Aix-la-Chapelle, and afterwards on his coronation at Rome, to undertake +a crusade, but Honorius III., the pope at that time, readily granted him +delay. Such was not the case with Gregory, who sternly insisted on an +immediate compliance with his pledge, and whose rigid sense of decorum +was scandalized by the frivolities of the emperor, no less than was his +religious austerity by Frederick's open intercourse with the Sicilian +Saracens. + +The old contest between emperor and pope threatened to be opened again +with all its former virulence. It was deferred for a time by Frederick, +who, after exhausting all excuses for delay, at length yielded to the +exhortations of the pope and set sail for the Holy Land. The crusade +thus entered upon proved, however, to be simply a farce. In three days +the fleet returned, Frederick pleading illness as his excuse, and the +whole expedition came to an end. + +Gregory was no longer to be trifled with. He declared that the illness +was but a pretext, that Frederick had openly broken his word to the +church, and at once proceeded to launch upon the emperor the thunders of +the papacy, in a bull of excommunication. + +Frederick treated this fulmination with contempt, and appealed from the +pope to Christendom, accusing Rome of avarice, and declaring that her +envoys were marching in all directions, not to preach the word of God, +but to extort money from the people. + +"The primitive church," he said, "founded on poverty and simplicity, +brought forth numberless saints. The Romans are now rolling in wealth. +What wonder that the walls of the church are undermined to the base, and +threaten utter ruin." + +For this saying the pope launched against him a more tremendous +excommunication. In return the partisans of Frederick in Rome, raising +an insurrection, expelled the pope from that city. And now the +free-thinking emperor, to convince the world that he was not trifling +with his word, set sail of his own accord for the East, with as numerous +an army as he was able to raise. + +A remarkable state of affairs followed, justifying us in speaking of +this crusade as a comedy, in contrast with the tragic character of those +which had preceded it. Frederick had shrewdly prepared for success, by +negotiations, through his Saracen friends, with the Sultan of Egypt. On +reaching the Holy Land he was received with joy by the German knights +and pilgrims there assembled, but the clergy and the Knight Templars and +Hospitallers carefully kept aloof from him, for Gregory had despatched a +swift-sailing ship to Palestine, giving orders that no intercourse +should be held with the imperial enemy of the church. + +It was certainly a strange spectacle, for a man under the ban of the +church to be the leader in an expedition to recover the holy city. Its +progress was as strange as its inception. Had Frederick been the leader +of a Mohammedan army to recover Jerusalem from the Christians, his camp +could have been little more crowded with infidel delegates. He wore a +Saracen dress. He discussed questions of philosophy with Saracen +visitors. He received presents of elephants and of dancing-girls from +his friend the sultan, to whom he appealed: "Out of your goodness, and +your friendship for me, surrender to me Jerusalem as it is, that I may +be able to lift up my head among the kings of Christendom." + +Camel, the sultan, consented, agreeing to deliver up Jerusalem and its +adjacent territory to the emperor, on the sole condition that Mohammedan +pilgrims might have the privilege of visiting a mosque within the city. +These terms Frederick gladly accepted, and soon after marched into the +holy city at the head of his armed followers (not unarmed, as in the +case of Coeur de Lion), took possession of it with formal ceremony, +allowed the Mohammedan population to withdraw in peace, and repeopled +the city with Christians, A.D. 1229. + +He found himself in the presence of an extraordinary condition of +affairs. The excommunication against him was not only maintained, but +the pope actually went so far as to place Jerusalem and the Holy +Sepulchre under interdict. So far did the virulence of priestly +antipathy go that the Templars even plotted against Frederick's life. +Emissaries sent by them gave secret information to the sultan of where +he might easily capture the emperor. The sultan, with a noble +friendliness, sent the letter to Frederick, cautioning him to beware of +his foes. + +The break between emperor and pope had now reached its highest pitch of +hostility. Frederick proclaimed his signal success to Europe. Gregory +retorted with bitter accusations. The emperor, he said, had presented to +the sultan of Babylon the sword given him for the defence of the faith; +he had permitted the Koran to be preached in the Holy Temple itself; he +had even bound himself to join the Saracens, in case a Christian army +should attempt to cleanse the city and temple from Mohammedan +defilements. + +In addition to these charges, accusations of murder and other crimes +were circulated against him, and a false report of his death was +industriously circulated. Frederick found it necessary to return home +without delay. He crowned himself at Jerusalem, as no ecclesiastic could +be found who would perform the ceremony, and then set sail for Italy, +leaving Richard, his master of the horse, in charge of affairs in +Palestine. + +Reaching Italy, he soon brought his affairs into order. He had under his +command an army of thirty thousand Saracen soldiers, with whom it was +impossible for his enemies to tamper. A bitter recrimination took place +with the pope, in which the emperor managed to bring the general +sentiment of Europe to his side, offering to convict Gregory of himself +entering into negotiations with the infidels. Gregory, finding that he +was getting the worst of the controversy with his powerful and alert +enemy, now prudently gave way, having a horror of the shedding of blood. +Peace was made in 1230, the excommunication removed from the emperor, +and for nine years the conflict between him and the papacy was at an +end. + +We have told the story of Frederick's crusade, but the remainder of his +life is of sufficient interest to be given in epitome. In his government +of Sicily he showed himself strikingly in advance of the political +opinions of his period. He enacted a system of wise laws, instituted +representative parliaments, asserted the principle of equal rights and +equal duties, and the supremacy of the law over high and low alike. All +religions were tolerated, Jews and Mohammedans having equal freedom of +worship with Christians. All the serfs of his domain were emancipated, +private war was forbidden, commerce was regulated, cheap justice for the +poor was instituted, markets and fairs were established, large libraries +collected, and other progressive institutions organized. He established +menageries for the study of natural history, founded in Naples a great +university, patronized medical study, provided cheap schools, aided the +development of the arts, and in every respect displayed a remarkable +public spirit and political foresight. + +Yet splendid as was his career of development in secular affairs, his +private life, as well as his public conduct, was stained with flagrant +faults, and there was much in his doings that was frowned upon by the +pope. New quarrels arose; new wars broke out; the emperor was again +excommunicated; the unfortunate closing years of Frederick's career +began. Again there were appeals to Christendom; again Frederick's +Saracens marched through Italy; such was their success that the pope +only escaped by death from falling into the hands of his foe. But with a +new pope the old quarrel was resumed, Innocent IV. flying to France to +get out of reach of the emperor's hands, and desperately combating him +from this haven of refuge. + +The incessant conflict at length bowed down the spirit of the emperor, +now growing old. His good fortune began to desert him. In 1249 his son +Enzio, whom he had made king of Sicily, and who was the most chivalrous +and handsome of his children, was taken prisoner by the Bolognese, who +refused to accept ransom for him, although his father offered in return +for his freedom a silver ring equal in circumference to their city. In +the following year his long-tried friend and councillor, Peter de +Vincis, who had been the most trusted man in the empire, was accused of +having joined the papal party and of attempting to poison the emperor. +He offered Frederick a beverage, which he, growing suspicious, did not +drink, but had it administered to a criminal, who instantly expired. + +Whether Peter was guilty or not, his seeming defection was a sore blow +to his imperial patron. "Alas!" moaned Frederick, "I am abandoned by my +most faithful friends; Peter, the friend of my heart, on whom I leaned +for support, has deserted me and sought my destruction. Whom can I +trust? My days are henceforth doomed to pass in sorrow and suspicion." + +His days were near their end. Not long after the events narrated, while +again in the field at the head of a fresh army of Saracens, he was +suddenly seized with a mortal illness at Firenzuola, and died there on +the 13th of December, 1250, becoming reconciled with the church on his +deathbed. He was buried at Palermo. + +Thus died one of the most intellectual, progressive, free-thinking, and +pleasure-loving emperors of Germany, after a long reign over a realm in +which he seldom appeared, and an almost incessant period of warfare +against the head of a church of which he was supposed to be the imperial +protector. Seven crowns were his,--those of the kingdom of Germany and +of the Roman empire, the iron diadem of Lombardy, and those of Burgundy, +Sicily, Sardinia, and Jerusalem. But of all the realms under his rule +the smiling lands of Sicily and southern Italy were most to his liking, +and the scene of his most constant abode. Charming palaces were built by +him at Naples, Palermo, Messina, and several other places, and in these +he surrounded himself with the noblest bards and most beautiful women of +the empire, and by all that was attractive in the art, science, and +poetry of his times. Moorish dancing-girls and the arts and learning of +the East abounded in his court. The Sultan Camel presented him with a +rare tent, in which, by means of artfully contrived mechanism, the +movements of the heavenly bodies were represented. Michael Scott, his +astrologer, translated Aristotle's "History of Animals." Frederick +studied ornithology, on which he wrote a treatise, and possessed a +menagerie of rare animals, including a giraffe, and other strange +creatures. The popular dialect of Italy owed much to him, being elevated +into a written language by his use of it in his love-sonnets. Of the +poems written by himself, his son Enzio, and his friends, several have +been preserved, while his chancellor, Peter de Vincis, is said to have +originated the sonnet. + +We have already spoken of his reforms in his southern kingdom. It was +his purpose to introduce similar reforms into the government of Germany, +abolishing the feudal system, and creating a centralized and organized +state, with a well-regulated system of finance. But ideas such as these +were much too far in advance of the age. State and church alike opposed +them, and Frederick's intelligent views did not long survive him. +History must have its evolution, political systems their growth, and the +development of institutions has never been much hastened or checked by +any man's whip or curb. + +In 1781, when the tomb of Frederick was opened, centuries after his +death, the institutions he had advocated were but in process of being +adopted in Europe. The body of the great emperor was found within the +mausoleum, wrapped in embroidered robes, the feet booted and spurred, +the imperial crown on its head, in its hand the ball and sceptre, on its +finger a costly emerald. For five centuries and more Frederick had +slept in state, awaiting the verdict of time on the ideas in defence of +which his life had been passed in battle. The verdict had been given, +the ideas had grown into institutions, time had vouchsafed the +far-seeing emperor his revenge. + + + + +_THE FALL OF THE GHIBELLINES._ + + +The death of Frederick II., in 1250, was followed by a series of +misfortunes to his descendants, so tragical as to form a story full of +pathetic interest. His son Enzio, a man of remarkable beauty and valor, +celebrated as a Minnesinger, and of unusual intellectual qualities, had +been taken prisoner, as we have already told, by the Bolognese, and +condemned by them to perpetual imprisonment, despite the prayers of his +father and the rich ransom offered. For twenty-two years he continued a +tenant of a dungeon, and in this gloomy scene of death in life survived +all the sons and grandsons of his father, every one of whom perished by +poison, the sword, or the axe of the executioner. It is this dread story +of the fate of the Hohenstauffen imperial house which we have now to +tell. + +No sooner had Frederick expired than the enemies of his house arose on +every side. Conrad IV., his eldest son and successor, found Germany so +filled with his foes that he was forced to take refuge in Italy, where +his half-brother, Manfred, Prince of Taranto, ceded to him the +sovereignty of the Italian realm, and lent him his aid to secure it. The +royal brothers captured Capua and Naples, where Conrad signalized his +success by placing a bridle in the mouth of an antique colossal horse's +head, the emblem of the city. This insult made the inhabitants his +implacable foes. His success was but temporary. He died suddenly, as +also did his younger brother Henry, poisoned by his half-brother +Manfred, who succeeded to the kingship of the South. But with the +Guelphs in power in Germany, and the pope his bitter foe in Italy, he +was utterly unable to establish his claim, and was forced to cede all +lower Italy, except Taranto, to the pontiff. But a new and less +implacable pope being elected, the fortunes of Manfred suddenly changed, +and he was unanimously proclaimed king at Palermo in 1258. + +But the misfortunes of his house were to pursue him to the end. In +northern Italy, the Guelphs were everywhere triumphant. Ezzelino, one of +Frederick's ablest generals, was defeated, wounded, and taken prisoner. +He soon after died. His brother Alberich was cruelly murdered, being +dragged to death at a horse's tail. The other Ghibelline chiefs were +similarly butchered, the horrible scenes of bloodshed so working on the +feelings of the susceptible Italians that many of them did penance at +the grave of Alberich, arrayed in sackcloth. From this circumstance +arose the sect of the Flagellants, who ran through the streets, +lamenting, praying, and wounding themselves with thongs, as an atonement +for the sins of the world. + +In southern Italy, Manfred for a while was successful. In 1259 he +married Helena, the daughter of Michael of Cyprus and AEtolia, a maiden +of seventeen years, and famed far and wide for her loveliness. So +beautiful were the bridal pair, and such were the attractions of their +court, which, as in Frederick's time, was the favorite resort of +distinguished poets and lovely women, that a bard of the times declared, +"Paradise has once more appeared upon earth." + +Manfred, like his father and his brother Enzio, was a poet, being +classed among the Minnesingers. His marriage gave him the alliance of +Greece, and the marriage of Constance, his daughter by a former wife, to +Peter of Aragon, gained him the friendship of Spain. Strengthened by +these alliances, he was able to send aid to the Ghibellines in Lombardy, +who again became victorious. + +The Guelphs, alarmed at Manfred's growing power, now raised a Frenchman +to the papal throne, who induced Charles of Anjou, the brother of the +French monarch, to strike for the crown of southern Italy. Charles, a +gloomy, cold-blooded and cruel prince, gladly accepted the pope's +suggestions, and followed by a powerful body of French knights and +soldiers of fortune, set sail for Naples in 1266. Manfred had unluckily +lost the whole of his fleet in a storm, and was not able to oppose this +threatening invasion, which landed in Italy in his despite. + +Nor was he more fortunate with his land army. The clergy, in the +interest of the Guelph faction, tampered with his soldiers and sowed +treason in his camp. No sooner had Charles landed, than a mountain pass +intrusted to the defence of Riccardo di Caseta was treacherously +abandoned, and the French army allowed to advance unmolested as far as +Benevento, where the two armies met. + +In the battle that followed, Manfred defended himself gallantly, but, +despite all his efforts, was worsted, and threw himself desperately into +the thick of the fight, where he fell, covered with wounds. The bigoted +victor refused him honorable burial, on the score of heresy, but the +French soldiers, nobler-hearted than their leader, and touched by the +beauty and valor of their unfortunate opponent, cast each of them a +stone upon his body, which was thus buried under a mound which the +natives still know as the "rock of roses." + +The wife and children of Manfred met with a pitiable fate. On learning +of the sad death of her husband Helena sought safety in flight, with her +daughter Beatrice and her three infant sons, Henry, Frederick, and +Anselino; but she was betrayed to Charles, who threw her into a dungeon, +in which she soon languished and died. Of her children, her daughter +Beatrice was afterwards rescued by Peter of Aragon, who exchanged for +her a son of Charles of Anjou, whom he held prisoner; but the three boys +were given over to the cruellest fate. Immured in a narrow dungeon, and +loaded with chains, they remained thus half-naked, ill-fed, and untaught +for the period of thirty-one years. Not until 1297 were they released +from their chains and allowed to be visited by a priest and a physician. +Charles of Anjou, meanwhile, filled with the spirit of cruelty and +ambition, sought to destroy every vestige of the Hohenstauffen rule in +southern Italy, the scene of Frederick's long and lustrous reign. + +The death of Manfred had not extinguished all the princes of Frederick's +house. There remained another, Conradin, son of Conrad IV., Duke of +Swabia, a youthful prince to whom had descended some of the intellectual +powers of his noted grand-sire. He had an inseparable friend, Frederick, +son of the Margrave of Baden, of his own age, and like him enthusiastic +and imaginative, their ardent fancies finding vent in song. One of +Conradin's ballads is still extant. + +As the young prince grew older, the seclusion to which he was subjected +by his guardian, Meinhard, Count von Goertz, became so irksome to him +that he gladly accepted a proposal from the Italian Ghibellines to put +himself at their head. In 1267 he set out, in company with Frederick, +and with a following of some ten thousand men, and crossed the Alps to +Lombardy, where he met with a warm welcome at Verona by the Ghibelline +chiefs. + +Treachery accompanied him, however, in the presence of his guardian +Meinhard and Louis of Bavaria, who persuaded him to part with his German +possessions for a low price, and then deserted him, followed by the +greater part of the Germans. Conradin was left with but three thousand +men. + +The Italians proved more faithful. Verona raised him an army; Pisa +supplied him a large fleet; the Moors of Luceria took up arms in his +cause; even Rome rose in his favor, and drove out the pope, who +retreated to Viterbo. For the time being the Ghibelline cause was in the +ascendant. Conradin marched unopposed to Rome, at whose gates he was met +by a procession of beautiful girls, bearing flowers and instruments of +music, who conducted him to the capitol. His success on land was matched +by a success at sea, his fleet gaining a signal victory over that of the +French, and burning a great number of their ships. + +So far all had gone well with the youthful heir of the Hohenstauffens. +Henceforth all was to go ill. Conradin marched from Rome to lower Italy, +where he encountered the French army, under Charles, at Scurcola, drove +them back, and broke into their camp. Assured of victory, the Germans +grew careless, dispersing through the camp in search of booty, while +some of them even refreshed themselves by bathing. + +While thus engaged, the French reserve, who had watched their movements, +suddenly fell upon them and completely put them to rout. Conradin and +Frederick, after fighting bravely, owed their escape to the fleetness of +their steeds. They reached the sea at Astura, boarded a vessel, and were +about setting sail for Pisa, when they were betrayed into the hands of +their pursuers, taken prisoners, and carried back to Charles of Anjou. + +They had fallen into fatal hands; Charles was not the man to consider +justice or honor in dealing with a Hohenstauffen. He treated Conradin +as a rebel against himself, under the claim that he was the only +legitimate king, and sentenced both the princes, then but sixteen years +of age, to be publicly beheaded in the market-place at Naples. + +Conradin was playing at chess in prison when the news of this unjust +sentence was brought to him. He calmly listened to it, with the courage +native to his race. On October 22, 1268, he, with Frederick and his +other companions, was conducted to the scaffold erected in the +market-place, passing through a throng of which even the French +contingent looked on the spectacle with indignation. So greatly were +they wrought up, indeed, by the outrage, that Robert, Earl of Flanders, +Charles's son-in-law, drew his sword, and cut down the officer +commissioned to read in public the sentence of death. + +"Wretch!" he cried, as he dealt the blow, "how darest thou condemn such +a great and excellent knight?" + +Conradin met his fate with unyielding courage, saying, in his address to +the people,-- + +"I cite my judge before the highest tribunal. My blood, shed on this +spot, shall cry to heaven for vengeance. Nor do I esteem my Swabians and +Bavarians, my Germans, so low as not to trust that this stain on the +honor of the German nation will be washed out by them in French blood." + +Then, throwing his glove to the ground, he charged him who should raise +it to bear it to Peter, King of Aragon, to whom, as his nearest +relative, he bequeathed all his claims. The glove was raised by Henry, +Truchsess von Waldberg, who found in it the seal ring of the unfortunate +wearer. Thence-forth he bore in his arms the three black lions of the +Stauffen. + +In a minute more the fatal axe of the executioner descended, and the +head of the last heir of the Hohenstauffens rolled upon the scaffold. +His friend, Frederick, followed him to death, nor was the bloodthirsty +Charles satisfied until almost every Ghibelline in his hands had fallen +by the hand of the executioner. + +Enzio, the unfortunate son of Frederick who was held prisoner by the +Bolognese, was involved in the fate of his unhappy nephew. On learning +of the arrival of Conradin in Italy he made an effort to escape from +prison, which would have been successful but for an unlucky accident. He +had arranged to conceal himself in a cask, which was to be borne out of +the prison by his friends, but by an unfortunate chance one of his long, +golden locks fell out of the air-hole which had been made in the side of +the cask, and revealed the stratagem to his keepers. + +During his earlier imprisonment Enzio had been allowed some alleviation, +his friends being permitted to visit him and solace him in his +seclusion; but after this effort to escape he was closely confined, some +say, in an iron cage, until his death in 1272. + +Thus ended the royal race of the Hohenstauffen, a race marked by +unusual personal beauty, rich poetical genius, and brilliant warlike +achievements, and during whose period of power the mediaeval age and its +institutions attained their highest development. + +As for the ruthless Charles of Anjou, he retained Apulia, but lost his +possessions in Sicily through an event which has become famous as the +"Sicilian Vespers." The insolence and outrages of the French had so +exasperated the Sicilians that, on the night of March 30, 1282, a +general insurrection broke out in this island, the French being +everywhere assassinated. Constance, the grand-daughter of their old +ruler, and Peter of Aragon, her husband, were proclaimed their +sovereigns by the Sicilians, and Charles, the son of Charles of Anjou, +fell into their hands. + +Constance was generous to the captive prince, and on hearing him remark +that he was happy to die on a Friday, the day on which Christ suffered, +she replied,-- + +"For love of him who suffered on this day I will grant thee thy life." + +He was afterwards exchanged for Beatrice, the daughter of the unhappy +Helena, whose sons, the last princes of the Hohenstauffen race, died in +the prison in which they had lived since infancy. + + + + +_THE TRIBUNAL OF THE HOLY VEHM._ + + +The ideas of law and order in mediaeval Germany were by no means what we +now understand by those terms. The injustice of the strong and the +suffering of the weak were the rule; and men of noble lineage did not +hesitate to turn their castles into dens of thieves. The title "robber +baron," which many of them bore, sufficiently indicates their mode of +life, and turbulence and outrage prevailed throughout the land. + +But wrong did not flourish with complete impunity; right had not +entirely vanished; justice still held its sword, and at times struck +swift and deadly blows that filled with terror the wrong-doer, and gave +some assurance of protection to those too weak for self-defence. It was +no unusual circumstance to behold, perhaps in the vicinity of some +baronial castle, perhaps near some town or manorial residence, a group +of peasants gazing upwards with awed but triumphant eyes; the spectacle +that attracted their attention being the body of a man hanging from the +limb of a tree above their heads. + +Such might have been supposed to be some act of private vengeance or +bold outrage, but the exulting lookers-on knew better. For they +recognized the body, perhaps as that of the robber baron of the +neighboring castle, perhaps that of some other bold defier of law and +justice, while in the ground below the corpse appeared an object that +told a tale of deep meaning to their experienced eyes. This was a knife, +thrust to the hilt in the earth. As they gazed upon it they muttered the +mysterious words, "_Vehm gericht_," and quickly dispersed, none daring +to touch the corpse or disturb the significant signal of the vengeance +of the executioners. + +But as they walked away they would converse in low tones of a dread +secret tribunal, which held its mysterious meetings in remote places, +caverns of the earth or the depths of forests, at the dread hour of +midnight, its members being sworn by frightful oaths to utter secrecy. +Before these dark tribunals were judged, present or absent, the +wrong-doers of the land, and the sentence of the secret Vehm once given, +there was no longer safety for the condemned. The agents of vengeance +would be put upon his track, while the secret of his death sentence was +carefully kept from his ears. The end was sure to be a sudden seizure, a +rope to the nearest tree, a writhing body, the signal knife of the +executioners of the Vehm, silence and mystery. + +Such was the visible outcome of the workings of this dreaded court, of +whose sessions and secrets the common people of the land had exaggerated +conceptions, but whose sudden and silent deeds in the interest of +justice went far to repress crime in that lawless age. We have seen the +completion of the sentence, let us attend a session of this mysterious +court. + +Seeking the Vehmic tribunal, we do not find ourselves in a midnight +forest, nor in a dimly-lighted cavern or mysterious vault, as peasant +traditions would tell us, but in the hall of some ancient castle, or on +a hill-top, under the shade of lime-trees, and with an open view of the +country for miles around. Here, on the seat of justice, presides the +graf or count of the district, before him the sword, the symbol of +supreme justice, its handle in the form of the cross, while beside it +lies the _Wyd_, or cord, the sign of his power of life or death. Around +him are seated the _Schoeffen_, or ministers of justice, bareheaded and +without weapons, in complete silence, none being permitted to speak +except when called upon in the due course of proceedings. + +The court being solemnly opened, the person cited to appear before it +steps forward, unarmed and accompanied by two sureties, if he has any. +The complaint against him is stated by the judge, and he is called upon +to clear himself by oath taken on the cross of the sword. If he takes +it, he is free. "He shall then," says an ancient work, "take a farthing +piece, throw it at the feet of the court, turn round and go his way. +Whoever attacks or touches him, has then, which all freemen know, broken +the king's peace." + +This was the ancient custom, but in later times witnesses were examined, +and the proceedings were more in conformity with those of modern +courts. If sentence of death was passed, the criminal was hanged at +once on the nearest tree. The minor punishments were exile and fine. If +the defendant refused to appear, after being three times cited, the +sentence of the Vehm was pronounced against him, a dreadful sentence, +ending in,-- + +"And I hereby curse his flesh and his blood; and may his body never +receive burial, but may it be borne away by the wind, and may the ravens +and crows, and wild birds of prey, consume and destroy him. And I +adjudge his neck to the rope, and his body to be devoured by the birds +and beasts of the air, sea, and land; but his soul I commend to our dear +Lord, if He will receive it." + +These words spoken, the judge cast forth the rope beyond the limits of +the court, and wrote the name of the condemned in the book of blood, +calling on the princes and nobles of the land, and all the inhabitants +of the empire, to aid in fulfilling this sentence upon the criminal, +without regard to relationship or any ties of kindred or affection +whatever. + +The condemned man was now left to the work of the ministers of justice, +the Schoeffen of the court. Whoever should shelter or even warn him was +himself to be brought before the tribunal. The members of the court were +bound by a terrible oath, to be enforced by death, not to reveal the +sentence of the Holy Vehm, except to one of the initiated, and not to +warn the culprit, even if he was a father or a brother. Wherever the +condemned was found, whether in a house, a street, the high-road, or the +forest, he was seized and hanged to the nearest tree or post, if the +servants of the court could lay hands on him. As a sign that he was +executed by the Holy Vehm, and not slain by robbers, nothing was taken +from his body, and the knife was thrust into the ground beneath him. We +may further say that any criminal taken in the act by the Vehmic +officers of justice did not need to be brought before the court, but +might be hanged on the spot, with the ordinary indications that he was a +victim to the secret tribunal. + +A citation to appear before the Vehm was executed by two Schoeffen, who +bore the letter of the presiding count to the accused. If they could not +reach him because he was living in a city or a fortress which they could +not safely enter, they were authorized to execute their mission +otherwise. They might approach the castle in the night, stick the +letter, enclosing a farthing piece, in the panel of the castle gate, cut +off three chips from the gate as evidence to the count that they had +fulfilled their mission, and call out to the sentinel on leaving that +they had deposited there a letter for his lord. If the accused had no +regular dwelling-place, and could not be met, he was summoned at four +different cross-roads, where was left at the east, west, north, and +south points a summons, each containing the significant farthing coin. + +It must not be supposed that the administration of justice in Germany +was confined to this Vehmic court. There were open courts of justice +throughout the land. But what were known as _Freistuhls,_ or free +courts, were confined to the duchy of Westphalia. Some of the sessions +of these courts were open, some closed, the Vehm constituting their +secret tribunal. + +Though complaints might be brought and persons cited to appear from +every part of Germany, a free court could only be held on Westphalian +ground, on the red earth, as it was entitled. Even the emperor could not +establish a free court outside of Westphalia. When the Emperor Wenceslas +tried to establish one in Bohemia, the counts of the empire decreed that +any one who should take part in it would incur the penalty of death. The +members of these courts consisted of Schoeffen, nominated by the graf, or +presiding judge, and composed of ordinary members and the Wissenden or +Witan, the higher membership. The initiation of these members was a +singular and impressive ceremony. It could only take place upon the red +earth, or within the boundaries of Westphalia. Bareheaded and ungirt, +the candidate was conducted before the tribunal, and strictly questioned +as to his qualifications to membership. He must be free-born, of +Teutonic ancestry, and clear of any accusation of crime. + +This settled, a deep and solemn oath of fidelity was administered, the +candidate swearing by the Holy Law to guard the secrets of the Holy Vehm +from wife and child, father and mother, sister and brother, fire and +water, every creature on whom rain falls or sun shines, everything +between earth and heaven; to tell to the tribunal all offences known to +him, and not to be deterred therefrom by love or hate, gold, silver, or +precious stones. He was now intrusted with the very ancient password and +secret grip or other sign of the order, by which the members could +readily recognize each other wherever meeting, and was warned of the +frightful penalty incurred by those who should reveal the secrets of the +Vehm. This penalty was that the criminal should have his eyes bound and +be cast upon the earth, his tongue torn out through the back of his +neck, and his body hanged seven times higher than ordinary criminals. In +the history of the court there is no instance known of the oath of +initiation being broken. For further security of the secrets of the +Vehm, no mercy was given to strangers found within the limits of the +court. All such intruders were immediately hung. + +The number of the Schoeffen, or members of the free courts, was very +great. In the fourteenth century it exceeded one hundred thousand. +Persons of all ranks joined them, princes desiring their ministers, +cities their magistrates, to apply for membership. The emperor was the +supreme presiding officer, and under him his deputy, the stadtholder of +the duchy of Westphalia, while the local courts, of which there were one +or more in each district of the duchy, were under the jurisdiction of +the grafs or counts of their districts. + +The Vehm could consider criminal actions of the greatest diversity, +cases of mere slander or defamation of character being sometimes brought +before it. Any violation of the ten commandments was within its +jurisdiction. It particularly devoted itself to secret crimes, such as +magic, witchcraft, or poisoning. Its agents of justice were bound to +make constant circuits, night and day, with the privilege, as we have +said, if they caught a thief or murderer in the act, or obtained his +confession, to hang him at once on the nearest tree, with the knife as +signal of their commission. + +Of the origin of this strange court we have no certain knowledge. +Tradition ascribes it to Charlemagne, but that needs confirmation. It +seems rather to have been an outgrowth of an old Saxon system, which +also left its marks in the systems of justice of Saxon England, where +existed customs not unlike those of the Holy Vehm. + +Mighty was the power of these secret courts, and striking the traditions +to which they have given rise, based upon their alleged nocturnal +assemblies, their secret signs and solemn oaths, their mysterious +customs, and the implacable persistency with which their sentences +sought the criminal, pursuing him for years, and in whatever corner of +the empire he might take refuge, while there were none to call its +ministers of justice to account for their acts if the terrible knife had +been left as evidence of their authority. + +Such an association, composed of thousands of men of all classes, from +the highest to the lowest,--for common freemen, mechanics, and citizens +shared the honor of membership with knights and even princes,--bound +together by a band of inviolable secrecy, and its edicts carried out so +mysteriously and ruthlessly, could not but attain to a terrible power, +and produce a remarkable effect upon the imagination of the people. "The +prince or knight who easily escaped the judgment of the imperial court, +and from behind his fortified walls defied even the emperor himself, +trembled when in the silence of the night he heard the voices of the +_Freischoeffen_ at the gate of his castle, and when the free count +summoned him to appear at the ancient _malplatz_, or plain, under the +lime-tree, or on the bank of a rivulet upon that dreaded soil, the +Westphalian or red ground. And that the power of those free courts was +not exaggerated by the mere imagination, excited by terror, nor in +reality by any means insignificant, is proved by a hundred undeniable +examples, supported by records and testimonies, that numerous princes, +counts, knights, and wealthy citizens were seized by these Schoeffen of +the secret tribunal, and, in execution of its sentence, perished by +their hands." + +An institution so mysterious and wide-spread as this could not exist +without some degree of abuse of power. Unworthy persons would attain +membership, who would use their authority for the purpose of private +vengeance. This occasional injustice of the Vehmic tribunal became more +frequent as time went on, and by the end of the fifteenth century many +complaints arose against the free courts, particularly among the clergy. +Civilization was increasing, and political institutions becoming more +developed, in Germany; the lords of the land grew restive under the +subjection of their people to the acts of a secret and strange tribunal, +no longer supported by imperial power. Alliances of princes, nobles, and +citizens were made against the Westphalian courts, and their power +finally ceased, without any formal decree of abrogation. + +In the sixteenth century the Vehm still possessed much strength; in the +seventeenth it had grown much weaker; in the eighteenth only a few +traces of it remained; at Gehmen, in Muenster, the secret tribunal was +only finally extinguished by a decree of the French legislature in 1811. +Even to the present day there are peasants who have taken the oath of +the Schoeffen, whose secrecy they persistently maintain, and who meet +annually at the site of some of the old free courts. The principal signs +of the order are indicated by the letters S.S.G.G., signifying _stock, +stein, gras, grein_ (stick, stone, grass, tears), though no one has been +able to trace the mysterious meaning these words convey as symbols of +the mystic power of the ancient _Vehm gericht_. + + + + +_WILLIAM TELL AND THE SWISS PATRIOTS._ + + +"In the year of our Lord 1307," writes an ancient chronicler, "there +dwelt a pious countryman in Unterwald beyond the Kernwald, whose name +was Henry of Melchthal, a wise, prudent, honest man, well to do and in +good esteem among his country-folk, moreover, a firm supporter of the +liberties of his country and of its adhesion to the Holy Roman Empire, +on which account Beringer von Landenberg, the governor over the whole of +Unterwald, was his enemy. This Melchthaler had some very fine oxen, and +on account of some trifling misdemeanor committed by his son, Arnold of +Melchthal, the governor sent his servant to seize the finest pair of +oxen by way of punishment, and in case old Henry of Melchthal said +anything against it, he was to say that it was the governor's opinion +that the peasants should draw the plough themselves. The servant +fulfilled his lord's commands. But as he unharnessed the oxen, Arnold, +the son of the countryman, fell into a rage, and striking him with a +stick on the hand, broke one of his fingers. Upon this Arnold fled, for +fear of his life, up the country towards Uri, where he kept himself long +secret in the country where Conrad of Baumgarten from Altzelen lay hid +for having killed the governor of Wolfenschiess, who had insulted his +wife, with a blow of his axe. The servant, meanwhile, complained to his +lord, by whose order old Melchthal's eyes were torn out. This tyrannical +action rendered the governor highly unpopular, and Arnold, on learning +how his good father had been treated, laid his wrongs secretly before +trusty people in Uri, and awaited a fit opportunity for avenging his +father's misfortune." + +Such was the prologue to the tragic events which we have now to tell, +events whose outcome was the freedom of Switzerland and the formation of +that vigorous Swiss confederacy which has maintained itself until the +present day in the midst of the powerful and warlike nations which have +surrounded it. The prologue given, we must proceed with the main scenes +of the drama, which quickly followed. + +As the story goes, Arnold allied himself with two other patriots, Werner +Stauffacher and Walter Fuerst, bold and earnest men, the three meeting +regularly at night to talk over the wrongs of their country and consider +how best to right them. Of the first named of these men we are told that +he was stirred to rebellion by the tyranny of Gessler, governor of Uri, +a man who forms one of the leading characters of our drama. The rule of +Gessler extended over the country of Schwyz, where in the town of +Steinen, in a handsome house, lived Werner Stauffacher. As the governor +passed one day through this town he was pleasantly greeted by Werner, +who was standing before his door. + +"To whom does this house belong?" asked Gessler. + +Werner, fearing that some evil purpose lay behind this question, +cautiously replied,-- + +"My lord, the house belongs to my sovereign lord the king, and is your +and my fief." + +"I will not allow peasants to build houses without my consent," returned +Gessler, angered at this shrewd reply, "or to live in freedom as if they +were their own masters. I will teach you better than to resist my +authority." + +So saying, he rode on, leaving Werner greatly disturbed by his +threatening words. He returned into his house with heavy brow and such +evidence of discomposure that his wife eagerly questioned him. Learning +what the governor had said, the good lady shared his disturbance, and +said,-- + +"My dear Werner, you know that many of the country-folk complain of the +governor's tyranny. In my opinion, it would be well for some of you, who +can trust one another, to meet in secret, and take counsel how to throw +off his wanton power." + +This advice seemed so judicious to Werner that he sought his friend +Walter Fuerst, and arranged with him and Arnold that they should meet and +consider what steps to take, their place of meeting being at Ruetli, a +small meadow in a lonely situation, closed in on the land side by high +rocks, and opening on the Lake of Lucerne. Others joined them in their +patriotic purpose, and on the night of the Wednesday before Martinmas, +in the year 1307, each of the three led to the place of meeting ten +others, all as resolute and liberty-loving as themselves. These +thirty-three good and true men, thus assembled at the midnight hour in +the meadow of Ruetli, united in a solemn oath that they would devote +their lives and strength to the freeing of their country from its +oppressors. They fixed the first day of the coming year for the +beginning of their work, and then returned to their homes, where they +kept the strictest secrecy, occupying themselves in housing their cattle +for the winter and in other rural labors, with no indication that they +cherished deeper designs. + +During this interval of secrecy another event, of a nature highly +exasperating to the Swiss, is said to have happened. It is true that +modern critics declare the story of this event to be solely a legend and +that nothing of the kind ever took place. However that be, it has ever +since remained one of the most attractive of popular tales, and the +verdict of the critics shall not deter us from telling again this +oft-repeated and always welcome story. + +We have named two of the many tyrannical governors of Switzerland, the +deputies there of Albert of Austria, then Emperor of Germany, whose +purpose was to abolish the privileges of the Swiss and subject the free +communes to his arbitrary rule. The second named of these, Gessler, +governor of Uri and Schwyz, whose threats had driven Werner to +conspiracy, occupied a fortress in Uri, which he had built as a place of +safety in case of revolt, and a centre of tyranny. "Uri's prison" he +called this fortress, an insult to the people of Uri which roused their +indignation. Perceiving their sullenness, Gessler resolved to give them +a salutary lesson of his power and their helplessness. + +On St. Jacob's day he had a pole erected in the market-place at Altdorf, +under the lime-trees there growing, and directed that his hat should be +placed on its top. This done, the command was issued that all who passed +through the market-place should bow and kneel to this hat as to the king +himself, blows and confiscation of property to be the lot of all who +refused. A guard was placed around the pole, whose duty was to take note +of every man who should fail to do homage to the governor's hat. + +On the Sunday following, a peasant of Uri, William Tell by name, who, as +we are told, was one of the thirty-three sworn confederates, passed +several times through the market-place at Altdorf without bowing or +bending the knee to Gessler's hat. This was reported to the governor, +who summoned Tell to his presence, and haughtily asked him why he had +dared to disobey his command. + +"My dear lord," answered Tell, submissively, "I beg you to pardon me, +for it was done through ignorance and not out of contempt. If I were +clever, I should not be called Tell. I pray your mercy; it shall not +happen again." + +[Illustration: STATUE OF WILLIAM TELL.] + +The name Tell signifies dull or stupid, a meaning in consonance with his +speech, though not with his character. Yet stupid or bright, he had the +reputation of being the best archer in the country, and Gessler, knowing +this, determined on a singular punishment for his fault. Tell had +beautiful children, whom he dearly loved. The governor sent for these, +and asked him,-- + +"Which of your children do you love the best?" + +"My lord, they are all alike dear to me," answered Tell. + +"If that be so," said Gessler, "then, as I hear that you are a famous +marksman, you shall prove your skill in my presence by shooting an apple +off the head of one of your children. But take good care to hit the +apple, for if your first shot miss you shall lose your life." + +"For God's sake, do not ask me to do this!" cried Tell in horror. "It +would be unnatural to shoot at my own dear child. I would rather die +than do it." + +"Unless you do it, you or your child shall die," answered the governor +harshly. + +Tell, seeing that Gessler was resolute in his cruel project, and that +the trial must be made or worse might come, reluctantly agreed to it. He +took his cross-bow and two arrows, one of which he placed in the bow, +the other he stuck behind in his collar. The governor, meanwhile, had +selected the child for the trial, a boy of not more than six years of +age, whom he ordered to be placed at the proper distance, and himself +selected an apple and placed it on the child's head. + +Tell viewed these preparations with startled eyes, while praying +inwardly to God to shield his dear child from harm. Then, bidding the +boy to stand firm and not be frightened, as his father would do his best +not to harm him, he raised the perilous bow. + +The legend deals too briefly with this story. It fails to picture the +scene in the market-place. But there, we may be sure, in addition to +Gessler and his guards, were most of the people of Uri, their hearts +burning with sympathy for their countryman and hatred of the tyrant, +their feelings almost wrought up to the point of attacking Gessler and +his guards, and daring death in defence of their liberties. There also +we may behold in fancy the brave child, scarcely old enough to +appreciate the magnitude of his peril, but looking with simple faith +into the kind eyes of his father, who stands firm of frame but trembling +in heart before him, the death-dealing bow in his hand. + +In a minute more the bow is bent, Tell's unerring eye glances along the +shaft, the string twangs sharply, the arrow speeds through the air, and +the apple, pierced through its centre, is borne from the head of the +boy, who leaps forward with a glad cry of triumph, while the unnerved +father, with tears of joy in his eyes, flings the bow to the ground and +clasps his child to his heart. + +"By my faith, Tell, that is a wonderful shot!" cried the astonished +governor. "Men have not belied you. But why have you stuck another arrow +in your collar?" + +"That is the custom among marksmen," Tell hesitatingly answered. + +"Come, man, speak the truth openly and without fear," said Gessler, who +noted Tell's hesitancy. "Your life is safe; but I am not satisfied with +your answer." + +"Then," said Tell, regaining his courage, "if you would have the truth, +it is this. If I had struck my child with the first arrow, the other was +intended for you; and with that I should not have missed my mark." + +The governor started at these bold words, and his brow clouded with +anger. + +"I promised you your life," he exclaimed, "and will keep my word; but, +as you cherish evil intentions against me, I shall make sure that you +cannot carry them out. You are not safe to leave at large, and shall be +taken to a place where you can never again behold the sun or the moon." + +Turning to his guards, he bade them seize the bold marksman, bind his +hands, and take him in a boat across the lake to his castle at Kuessnach, +where he should do penance for his evil intentions by spending the +remainder of his life in a dark dungeon. The people dared not interfere +with this harsh sentence; the guards were too many and too well armed. +Tell was seized, bound, and hurried to the lake-side, Gessler +accompanying. + +The water reached, he was placed in a boat, his cross-bow being also +brought and laid beside the steersman. As if with purpose to make sure +of the disposal of his threatening enemy, Gessler also entered the +boat, which was pushed off and rowed across the lake towards Brunnen, +from which place the prisoner was to be taken overland to the governor's +fortress. + +Before they were half-way across the lake, however, a sudden and violent +storm arose, tossing the boat so frightfully that Gessler and all with +him were filled with mortal fear. + +"My lord," cried one of the trembling rowers to the governor, "we will +all go to the bottom unless something is done, for there is not a man +among us fit to manage a boat in this storm. But Tell here is a skilful +boatman, and it would be wise to use him in our sore need." + +"Can you bring us out of this peril?" asked Gessler, who was no less +alarmed than his crew. "If you can, I will release you from your bonds." + +"I trust, with God's help, that I can safely bring you ashore," answered +Tell. + +By Gessler's order his bonds were then removed, and he stepped aft and +took the helm, guiding the boat through the storm with the skill of a +trained mariner. He had, however, another object in view, and had no +intention to let the tyrannical governor bind his free limbs again. He +bade the men to row carefully until they reached a certain rock, which +appeared on the lake-side at no great distance, telling them that he +hoped to land them behind its shelter. As they drew near the spot +indicated, he turned the helm so that the boat struck violently against +the rock, and then, seizing the cross-bow which lay beside him, he +sprang nimbly ashore, and thrust the boat with his foot back into the +tossing waves. The rock on which he landed is, says the chronicler, +still known as Tell's Rock, and a small chapel has been built upon it. + +The story goes on to tell us that the governor and his rowers, after +great danger, finally succeeded in reaching the shore at Brunnen, at +which point they took horse and rode through the district of Schwyz, +their route leading through a narrow passage between the rocks, the only +way by which they could reach Kuessnach from that quarter. On they went, +the angry governor swearing vengeance against Tell, and laying plans +with his followers how the runaway should be seized. The deepest dungeon +at Kuessnach, he vowed, should be his lot. + +He little dreamed what ears heard his fulminations and what deadly peril +threatened him. On leaving the boat, Tell had run quickly forward to the +passage, or hollow way, through which he knew that Gessler must pass on +his way to the castle. Here, hidden behind the high bank that bordered +the road, he waited, cross-bow in hand, and the arrow which he had +designed for the governor's life in the string, for the coming of his +mortal foe. + +Gessler came, still talking of his plans to seize Tell, and without a +dream of danger, for the pass was silent and seemed deserted. But +suddenly to his ears came the twang of the bow he had heard before that +day; through the air once more winged its way a steel-barbed shaft, the +heart of a tyrant, not an apple on a child's head, now its mark. In an +instant more Gessler fell from his horse, pierced by Tell's fatal shaft, +and breathed his last before the eyes of his terrified servants. On that +spot, the chronicler concludes, was built a holy chapel, which is +standing to this day. + +Such is the far-famed story of William Tell. How much truth and how much +mere tradition there is in it, it is not easy to say. The feat of +shooting an apple from a person's head is told of others before Tell's +time, and that it ever happened is far from sure. But at the same time +it is possible that the story of Tell, in its main features, may be +founded on fact. Tradition is rarely all fable. + +We are now done with William Tell, and must return to the doings of the +three confederates to whom fame ascribes the origin of the liberty of +Switzerland. In the early morning of January 1, 1308, the date they had +fixed for their work to begin, as Landenberg was leaving his castle to +attend mass at Sarnen, he was met by twenty of the mountaineers of +Unterwald, who, as was their custom, brought him a new-year's gift of +calves, goats, sheep, fowls, and hares. Much pleased with the present, +he asked the men to take the animals into the castle court, and went on +his way towards Sarnen. + +But no sooner had the twenty men passed through the gates than a horn +was loudly blown, and instantly each of them drew from beneath his +doublet a steel blade, which he fixed upon the end of his staff. At the +sound of the horn thirty other men rushed from a neighboring wood, and +made for the open gates. In a very few minutes they joined their +comrades in the castle, which was quickly theirs, the garrison being +overpowered. + +Landenberg fled in haste on hearing the tumult, but was pursued and +taken. But as the confederates had agreed with each other to shed no +blood, they suffered this arch villain to depart, after making him swear +to leave Switzerland and never return to it. The news of the revolt +spread rapidly through the mountains, and so well had the confederates +laid their plans, that several other castles were taken by stratagem +before the alarm could be given. Their governors were sent beyond the +borders. Day by day news was brought to the head-quarters of the +patriots, on Lake Lucerne, of success in various parts of the country, +and on Sunday, the 7th of January, a week from the first outbreak, the +leading men of that part of Switzerland met and pledged themselves to +their ancient oath of confederacy. In a week's time they had driven out +the Austrians and set their country free. + +It must be admitted that there is no contemporary proof of this story, +though the Swiss accept it as authentic history, and it has not been +disproved. The chief peril to the new confederacy lay with Albert of +Austria, the dispossessed lord of the land, but the patriotic Swiss +found themselves unexpectedly relieved from the execution of his +threats of vengeance. His harshness and despotic severity had made him +enemies alike among people and nobles, and when, in the spring of 1308, +he sought the borders of Switzerland, with the purpose of reducing and +punishing the insurgents, his career was brought to a sudden and violent +end. + +A conspiracy had been formed against him by his nephew, the Duke of +Swabia, and others who accompanied him in this journey. On the 1st of +May they reached the Reuss River at Windisch, and, as the emperor +entered the boat to be ferried across, the conspirators pushed into it +after him, leaving no room for his attendants. Reaching the opposite +shore, they remounted their steeds and rode on while the boat returned +for the others. Their route lay through the vast cornfields at the base +of the hills whose highest summit was crowned by the great castle of +Hapsburg. + +They had gone some distance, when John of Swabia suddenly rushed upon +the emperor, and buried his lance in his neck, exclaiming, "Such is the +reward of injustice!" Immediately two others rode upon him, Rudolph of +Balm stabbing him with his dagger, while Walter of Eschenbach clove his +head in twain with his sword. This bloody work done, the conspirators +spurred rapidly away, leaving the dying emperor to breathe his last with +his head supported in the lap of a poor woman, who had witnessed the +murder and hurried to the spot. + +This deed of blood saved Switzerland from the vengeance which the +emperor had designed. The mountaineers were given time to cement the +government they had so hastily formed, and which was to last for +centuries thereafter, despite the efforts of ambitious potentates to +reduce the Swiss once more to subjection and rob them of the liberty +they so dearly loved. + + + + +_THE BLACK DEATH AND THE FLAGELLANTS._ + + +The middle of the fourteenth century was a period of extraordinary +terror and disaster to Europe. Numerous portents, which sadly frightened +the people, were followed by a pestilence which threatened to turn the +continent into an unpeopled wilderness. For year after year there were +signs in the sky, on the earth, in the air, all indicative, as men +thought, of some terrible coming event. In 1337 a great comet appeared +in the heavens, its far-extending tail sowing deep dread in the minds of +the ignorant masses. During the three succeeding years the land was +visited by enormous flying armies of locusts, which descended in myriads +upon the fields, and left the shadow of famine in their track. In 1348 +came an earthquake of such frightful violence that many men deemed the +end of the world to be presaged. Its devastations were widely spread. +Cyprus, Greece, and Italy were terribly visited, and it extended through +the Alpine valleys as far as Basle. Mountains sank into the earth. In +Carinthia thirty villages and the tower of Villach were ruined. The air +grew thick and stifling. There were dense and frightful fogs. Wine +fermented in the casks. Fiery meteors appeared in the skies. A gigantic +pillar of flame was seen by hundreds descending upon the roof of the +pope's palace at Avignon. In 1356 came another earthquake, which +destroyed almost the whole of Basle. What with famine, flood, fog, +locust swarms, earthquakes, and the like, it is not surprising that many +men deemed the cup of the world's sins to be full, and the end of the +kingdom of man to be at hand. + +An event followed that seemed to confirm this belief. A pestilence broke +out of such frightful virulence that it appeared indeed as if man was to +be swept from the earth. Men died in hundreds, in thousands, in myriads, +until in places there were scarcely enough living to bury the dead, and +these so maddened with fright that dwellings, villages, towns, were +deserted by all who were able to fly, the dying and dead being left +their sole inhabitants. It was the pestilence called the "Black Death," +the most terrible visitation that Europe has ever known. + +This deadly disease came from Asia. It is said to have originated in +China, spreading over the great continent westwardly, and descending in +all its destructive virulence upon Europe, which continent it swept as +with the besom of destruction. The disease appears to have been a very +malignant type of what is known as the plague, a form of pestilence +which has several times returned, though never with such virulence as on +that occasion. It began with great lassitude of the body, and rapid +swellings of the glands of the groin and armpits, which soon became +large boils. Then followed, as a fatal symptom, large black or +deep-blue spots over the body, from which came the name of "Black +Death." Some of the victims became sleepy and stupid; others were +incessantly restless. The tongue and throat grew black; the lungs +exhaled a noisome odor; an insatiable thirst was produced. Death came in +two or three days, sometimes on the very day of seizure. Medical aid was +of no avail. Doctors and relatives fled in terror from what they deemed +a fatally contagious disease, and the stricken were left to die alone. +Villages and towns were in many places utterly deserted, no living +things being left, for the disease was as fatal to dogs, cats, and swine +as to men. There is reason to believe that this, and other less +destructive visitations of plague, were due to the action of some of +those bacterial organisms which are now known to have so much to do with +infectious diseases. This particular pestilence-breeder seems to have +flourished in filth, and the streets of the cities of Europe of that day +formed a richly fertile soil for its growth. Men prayed to God for +relief, instead of cleaning their highways and by-ways, and relief came +not. + +Such was its character, what were its ravages? Never before or since has +a pestilence brought such desolation. Men died by millions. At Basle it +found fourteen thousand victims; at Strasburg and Erfurt, sixteen +thousand; in the other cities of Germany it flourished in like +proportion. In Osnabrueck only seven married couples remained unseparated +by death. Of the Franciscan Minorites of Germany, one hundred and +twenty-five thousand died. + +Outside of Germany the fury of the pestilence was still worse; from east +to west, from north to south, Europe was desolated. The mortality in +Asia was fearful. In China there are said to have been thirteen million +victims to the scourge; in the rest of Asia twenty-four millions. The +extreme west was no less frightfully visited. London lost one hundred +thousand of its population; in all England a number estimated at from +one-third to one-half the entire population (then probably numbering +from three to five millions) were swept into the grave. If we take +Europe as a whole, it is believed that fully a fourth of its inhabitants +were carried away by this terrible scourge. For two years the pestilence +raged, 1348 and 1349. It broke out again in 1361-62, and once more in +1369. + +The mortality caused by the plague was only one of its disturbing +consequences. The bonds of society were loosened; natural affection +seemed to vanish; friend deserted friend, mothers even fled from their +children; demoralization showed itself in many instances in reckless +debauchery. An interesting example remains to us in Boccaccio's +"Decameron," whose stories were told by a group of pleasure-lovers who +had fled from plague-stricken Florence. + +In many localities the hatred of the Jews by the people led to frightful +excesses of persecution against them, they being accused by their +enemies of poisoning the wells. From Berne, where the city councils +gave orders for the massacre, it spread over the whole of Switzerland +and Germany, many thousands being murdered. At Mayence it is said that +twelve thousand Jews were massacred. At Strasburg two thousand were +burned in one pile. Even the orders of the emperor failed to put an end +to the slaughter. All the Jews who could took refuge in Poland, where +they found a protector in Casimir, who, like a second Ahasuerus, +extended his aid to them from love for Esther, a beautiful Jewess. From +that day to this Poland has swarmed with Jews. + +This persecution was discountenanced by Pope Clement VI. in two bulls, +in the first of which he ordered that the Jews should not be made the +victims of groundless charges or injured in person or property without +the sentence of a lawful judge. The second affirmed the innocence of the +Jews in the persecution then going on and ordered the bishops to +excommunicate all those who should continue it. + +Of the beneficial results of the religious excitement may be named the +earnest labors of the order of Beguines, an association of women for the +purpose of attending the sick and dying, which had long been in +existence, but was particularly active and useful during this period. We +may name also the Beghards and Lollards, whose extravagances were to +some extent outgrowths of earnest piety, and their lives strongly +contrasted with the levity and luxury of the higher ecclesiastics. These +societies of poor and mendicant penitents were greatly increased by the +religious excitement of the time, which also gave special vitality to +another sect, the Flagellants, which, as mentioned in a former article, +first arose in 1260, during the excesses of bloodshed of the Guelphs of +northern Italy, and thence spread over Europe. After a period of +decadence they broke out afresh in 1349, as a consequence of the deadly +pestilence. + +The members of this sect, seeing no hope of relief from human action, +turned to God as their only refuge, and deemed it necessary to +propitiate the Deity by extraordinary sacrifices and self-tortures. The +flame of fanaticism, once started, spread rapidly and widely. Hundreds +of men, and even boys, marched in companies through the roads and +streets, carrying heavy torches, scourging their naked shoulders with +knotted whips, which were often loaded with lead or iron, singing +penitential hymns, parading in bands which bore banners and were +distinguished by white hats with red crosses. + +Women as well as men took part in these fanatical exercises, marching +about half-naked, whipping each other frightfully, flinging themselves +on the earth in the most public places of the towns and scourging their +bare backs and shoulders till the blood flowed. Entering the churches, +they would prostrate themselves on the pavement, with their arms +extended in the form of a cross, chanting their rude hymns. Of these +hymns we may quote the following example: + + "Now is the holy pilgrimage. + Christ rode into Jerusalem, + And in his hand he bore a cross; + May Christ to us be gracious. + Our pilgrimage is good and right." + +The Flagellants did not content themselves with these public +manifestations of self-sacrifice. They formed a regular religious order, +with officers and laws, and property in common. At night, before +sleeping, each indicated to his brothers by gestures the sins which +weighed most heavily on his conscience, not a word being spoken until +absolution was granted by one of them in the following form: + + "For their dear sakes who torture bore, + Rise, brother, go and sin no more." + +Had this been all they might have been left to their own devices, but +they went farther. The day of judgment, they declared, was at hand. A +letter had been addressed from Jerusalem by the Creator to his sinning +creatures, and it was their mission to spread this through Europe. They +preached, confessed, and forgave sins, declared that the blood shed in +their flagellations had a share with the blood of Christ in atoning for +sin, that their penances were a substitute for the sacraments of the +church, and that the absolution granted by the clergy was of no avail. +They taught that all men were brothers and equal in the sight of God, +and upbraided the priests for their pride and luxury. + +These doctrines and the extravagances of the Flagellants alarmed the +pope, Clement VI., who launched against the enthusiasts a bull of +excommunication, and ordered their persecution as heretics. This course, +at first, roused their enthusiasm to frenzy. Some of them even pretended +to be the Messiah, one of these being burnt as a heretic at Erfurt. +Gradually, however, as the plague died away, and the occasion for this +fanatical outburst vanished, the enthusiasm of the Flagellants went with +it, and they sunk from sight. In 1414 a troop of them reappeared in +Thuringia and Lower Saxony, and even surpassed their predecessors in +wildness of extravagance. With the dying out of this manifestation this +strange mania of the middle ages vanished, probably checked by the +growing intelligence of mankind. + + + + +_THE SWISS AT MORGARTEN_ + + +On a sunny autumn morning, in the far-off year 1315, a gallant band of +horsemen wound slowly up the Swiss mountains, their forest of spears and +lances glittering in the ruddy beams of the new-risen sun, and extending +down the hill-side as far as the eye could reach. In the vanguard rode +the flower of the army, a noble cavalcade of knights, clad in complete +armor, and including nearly the whole of the ancient nobility of +Austria. At the head of this group rode Duke Leopold, the brother of +Frederick of Austria, and one of the bravest knights and ablest generals +of the realm. Following the van came a second division, composed of the +inferior leaders and the rank and file of the army. + +Switzerland was to be severely punished, and to be reduced again to the +condition from which seven years before it had broken away; such was the +dictum of the Austrian magnates. With the army came Landenberg, the +oppressive governor who had been set free on his oath never to return to +Switzerland. He was returning in defiance of his vow. With it are also +said to have been several of the family of Gessler, the tyrant who fell +beneath Tell's avenging arrow. The birds of prey were flying back, eager +to fatten on the body of slain liberty in Switzerland. + +Up the mountains wound the serried band, proud in their panoply, +confident of easy victory, their voices ringing out in laughter and +disdain as they spoke of the swift vengeance that was about to fall on +the heads of the horde of rebel mountaineers. The duke was as gay and +confidant as any of his followers, as he proudly bestrode his noble +war-horse, and led the way up the mountain slopes towards the district +of Schwyz, the head-quarters of the base-born insurgents. He would +trample the insolent boors under his feet, he said, and had provided +himself with an abundant supply of ropes with which to hang the leaders +of the rebels, whom he counted on soon having in his power. + +All was silent about them as they rode forward; the sun shone +brilliantly; it seemed like a pleasure excursion on which they were +bound. + +"The locusts have crawled to their holes," said the duke, laughingly; +"we will have to stir them out with the points of our lances." + +"The poor fools fancied that liberty was to be won by driving out one +governor and shooting another," answered a noble knight. "They will find +that the eagle of Hapsburg does not loose its hold so easily." + +Their conversation ceased as they found themselves at the entrance to a +pass, through which the road up the mountains wound, a narrow avenue, +wedged in between hills and lakeside. The silence continued unbroken +around the rugged scene as the cavalry pushed in close ranks through the +pass, filling it, as they advanced, from side to side. They pushed +forward; beyond this pass of Morgarten they would find open land again +and the villages of the rebellious peasantry; here all was solitude and +a stillness that was almost depressing. + +Suddenly the stillness was broken. From the rugged cliffs which bordered +the pass came a loud shout of defiance. But more alarming still was the +sound of descending rocks, which came plunging down the mountain side, +and in an instant fell with a sickening thud on the mail-clad and +crowded ranks below. Under their weight the iron helmets of the knights +cracked like so many nut-shells; heads were crushed into shapeless +masses, and dozens of men, a moment before full of life, hope, and +ambition, were hurled in death to the ground. + +Down still plunged the rocks, loosened by busy hands above, sent on +their errand of death down the steep declivities, hurling destruction +upon the dense masses below. Escape was impossible. The pass was filled +with horsemen. It would take time to open an avenue of flight, and still +those death-dealing rocks came down, smashing the strongest armor like +pasteboard, strewing the pass with dead and bleeding bodies. + +And now the horses, terrified, wounded, mad with pain and alarm, began +to plunge and rear, trebling the confusion and terror, crushing fallen +riders under their hoofs, adding their quota to the sum of death and +dismay. Many of them rushed wildly into the lake which bordered one side +of the pass, carrying their riders to a watery death. In a few minutes' +time that trim and soldierly array, filled with hope of easy victory and +disdain of its foes, was converted into a mob of maddened horses and +frightened men, while the rocky pass beneath their feet was strewn +thickly with the dying and the dead. + +Yet all this had been done by fifty men, fifty banished patriots, who +had hastened back on learning that their country was in danger, and +stationing themselves among the cliffs above the pass, had loosened and +sent rolling downwards the stones and huge fragments of rock which lay +plentifully there. + +While the fifty returned exiles were thus at work on the height of +Morgarten, the army of the Swiss, thirteen hundred in number, was posted +on the summit of the Sattel Mountain opposite, waiting its opportunity. +The time for action had come. The Austrian cavalry of the vanguard was +in a state of frightful confusion and dismay. And now the mountaineers +descended the steep hill slopes like an avalanche, and precipitated +themselves on the flank of the invading force, dealing death with their +halberds and iron-pointed clubs until the pass ran blood. + +On every side the Austrian chivalry fell. Escape was next to impossible, +resistance next to useless. Confined in that narrow passage, confused, +terrified, their ranks broken by the rearing and plunging horses, +knights and men-at-arms falling with every blow from their vigorous +assailants, it seemed as if the whole army would be annihilated, and not +a man escape to tell the tale. + +Numbers of gallant knights, the flower of the Austrian, nobility, fell +under those vengeful clubs. Numbers were drowned in the lake. A +halberd-thrust revenged Switzerland on Landenberg, who had come back to +his doom. Two of the Gesslers were slain. Death held high carnival in +that proud array which had vowed to reduce the free-spirited +mountaineers to servitude. + +Such as could fled in all haste. The van of the army, which had passed +beyond those death-dealing rocks, the rear, which had not yet come up, +broke and fled in a panic of fear. Duke Leopold narrowly escaped from +the vengeance of the mountaineers, whom he had held in such contempt. +Instead of using the ropes he had brought with him to hang their chiefs, +he fled at full speed from the victors, who were now pursuing the +scattered fragments of the army, and slaying the fugitives in scores. +With difficulty the proud duke escaped, owing his safety to a peasant, +who guided him through narrow ravines and passes as far as Winterthur, +which he at length reached in a state of the utmost dejection and +fatigue. The gallantly-arrayed army which he had that morning led, with +blare of trumpets and glitter of spears, with high hope and proud +assurance of victory, up the mountain slopes, was now in great part a +gory heap in the rocky passes, the remainder a scattered host of wearied +and wounded fugitives. Switzerland had won its freedom. + +The day before the Swiss confederates, apprised of the approach of the +Austrians, had come together, four hundred men from Uri, three hundred +from Unterwald, the remainder from Schwyz. They owed their success to +Rudolphus Redin, a venerable patriot, so old and infirm that he could +scarcely walk, yet with such reputation for skill and prudence in war +that the warriors halted at his door in their march, and eagerly asked +his advice. + +[Illustration: THE CASTLE OF PRAGUE.] + +"Our grand aim, my sons," said he, "as we are so inferior in numbers, +must be to prevent Duke Leopold from gaining any advantage by his +superior force." + +He then advised them to occupy the Morgarten and Sattel heights, and +fall on the Austrians when entangled in the pass, cutting their force in +two, and assailing it right and left. They obeyed him implicitly, with +what success we have seen. The fifty men who had so efficiently begun +the fray had been banished from Schwyz through some dispute, but on +learning their country's danger had hastily returned to sacrifice their +lives, if need be, for their native land. + +Thus a strong and well-appointed army, fully disciplined and led by +warriors famed for courage and warlike deeds, was annihilated by a small +band of peasants, few of whom had ever struck a blow in war, but who +were animated by the highest spirit of patriotism and love of liberty, +and welcomed death rather than a return to their old state of slavery +and oppression. The short space of an hour and a half did the work. +Austria was defeated and Switzerland was free. + + + + +_A MAD EMPEROR._ + + +If genius to madness is allied, the same may be said of eccentricity, +and certainly Wenceslas, Emperor of Germany and King of Bohemia, had an +eccentricity that approached the vagaries of the insane. The oldest son +of Charles IV., he was brought up in pomp and luxury, and was so +addicted to sensual gratification that he left the empire largely to +take care of itself, while he gave his time to the pleasures of the +bottle and the chase. Born to the throne, he was crowned King of Bohemia +when but three years of age, was elected King of the Romans at fifteen, +and two years afterwards, in 1378, became Emperor of Germany, when still +but a boy, with regard for nothing but riot and rude frolic. + +So far as affairs of state were concerned, the volatile youth either +totally neglected them or treated them with a ridicule that was worse +than neglect. Drunk two-thirds of his time, he now dismissed the most +serious matters with a rude jest, now met his councillors with brutal +fits of rage. The Germans deemed him a fool, and were not far amiss in +their opinion; but as he did not meddle with them, except in holding an +occasional useless diet at Nuremberg, they did not meddle with him. The +Bohemians, among whom he lived, his residence being at Prague, found his +rule much more of a burden. They were exposed to his savage caprices, +and regarded him as a brutal and senseless tyrant. + +That there was method in his madness the following anecdote will +sufficiently show. Former kings had invested the Bohemian nobles with +possessions which he, moved by cupidity, determined to have back. This +is the method he took to obtain them. All the nobles of the land were +invited to meet him at Willamow, where he received them in a black tent, +which opened on one side into a white, and on the other into a red one. +Into this tent of ominous hue the waiting nobles were admitted, one at a +time, and were here received by the emperor, who peremptorily bade them +declare what lands they held as gifts from the crown. + +Those who gave the information asked, and agreed to cede these lands +back to the crown, were led into the white tent, where an ample feast +awaited them. Those who refused were dismissed with frowns into the red +tent, where they found awaiting them the headsman's fatal block and axe. +The hapless guests were instantly seized and beheaded. + +This ghastly jest, if such it may be considered, proceeded for some time +before the nobles still waiting learned what was going on. When at +length a whisper of the frightful mystery of the red tent was borne to +their ears, there were no longer any candidates for its favors. The +emperor found them eagerly willing to give up the ceded lands, and all +that remained found their way to the white tent and the feast. + +The emperor's next act of arbitrary tyranny was directed against the +Jews. One of that people had ridiculed the sacrament, in consequence of +which three thousand Jews of Prague were massacred by the populace of +that city. Wenceslas, instead of punishing the murderers, as justice +would seem to have demanded, solaced his easy conscience by punishing +the victims, declaring all debts owed by Christians to Jews to be null +and void. + +His next act of injustice and cruelty was perpetrated in 1393, and arose +from a dispute between the crown and the church. One of the royal +chamberlains had caused two priests to be executed on the accusation of +committing a flagrant crime. This action was resented by the Archbishop +of Prague, who declared that it was an encroachment upon the prerogative +of the church, which alone had the right to punish an ecclesiastic. He, +therefore, excommunicated the chamberlain. + +This action of the daring churchman threw the emperor into such a +paroxysm of rage that the archbishop, knowing well the man he had to +deal with, took to flight, saving his neck at the expense of his +dignity. The furious Wenceslas, finding that the chief offender had +escaped, vented his wrath on the subordinates, several of whom were +seized. One of them, the dean, moved by indignation, dealt the emperor +so heavy a blow on the head with his sword-knot as to bring the blood. +It does not appear that he was made to suffer for his boldness, but two +of the lower ecclesiastics, John of Nepomuk and Puchnik, were put to +the rack to make them confess facts learned by them in the confessional. +They persistently refused to answer. Wenceslas, infuriated by their +obstinacy, himself seized a torch and applied it to their limbs to make +them speak. They were still silent. The affair ended in his ordering +John of Nepomuk to be flung headlong, during the night, from the great +bridge over the Moldau into the stream. A statue now marks the spot +where this act of tyranny was performed. + +The final result of the emperor's cruelty was one which he could not +have foreseen. He had made a saint of Nepomuk. The church, appreciating +the courageous devotion of the murdered ecclesiastic to his duty in +keeping inviolate the secrets of the confessional, canonized him as a +martyr, and made him the patron saint of Bohemia. + +Puchnik escaped with his life, and eventually with more than his life. +The tyrant's wrath was followed by remorse,--a feeling, apparently, +which rarely troubled his soul,--and he sought to atone for his cruelty +to one churchman by loading the other with benefits. But his mad fury +changed to as mad a benevolence, and he managed to make a jest of his +gratuity. Puchnik was led into the royal treasury, and the emperor +himself, thrusting his royal hands into his hoards of gold, filled the +pockets, and even the boots, of the late sufferer with the precious +coin. This done, Puchnik attempted to depart, but in vain. He found +himself nailed to the floor, so weighed down with gold that he was +unable to stir. Before he could move he had to disgorge much of his +new-gained wealth, a proceeding to which churchmen in that age do not +seem to have been greatly given. Doubtless the remorseful Wenceslas +beheld this process with a grim smile of royal humor on his lips. + +The emperor had a brother, Sigismund by name, a man not of any high +degree of wisdom, but devoid of his wild and immoderate temper. +Brandenburg was his inheritance, though he had married the daughter of +the King of Hungary and Poland, and hoped to succeed to those countries. +There was a third brother, John, surnamed "Von Goerlitz." Sigismund was +by no means blind to his brother's folly, or to the ruin in which it +threatened to involve his family and his own future prospects. This last +exploit stirred him to action. Concerting with some other princes of the +empire, he suddenly seized Wenceslas, carried him to Austria, and +imprisoned him in the castle of Wiltberg, in that country. + +A fair disposal, this, of a man who was scarcely fit to run at large, +most reasonable persons would say; but all did not think so. John von +Goerlitz, the younger brother of the emperor, fearing public scandal from +such a transaction, induced the princes who held him to set him free. It +proved a fatal display of kindness and family affection for himself. The +imperial captive was no sooner free than, concealing the wrath which he +felt at his incarceration, he invited to a banquet certain Bohemian +nobles who had aided in it. They came, trusting to the fact that the +tiger's claws seemed sheathed. They had no sooner arrived than the claws +were displayed. They were all seized, by the emperor's order, and +beheaded. Then the dissimulating madman turned on his benevolent brother +John, who had taken control of affairs in Bohemia during his +imprisonment, and poisoned him. It was a new proof of the old adage, it +is never safe to warm a frozen adder. + +The restoration of Wenceslas was followed by other acts of folly. In the +following year, 1395, he sold to John Galcazzo Visconti, of Milan, the +dignity of a duke in Lombardy, a transaction which exposed him to +general contempt. At a later date he visited Paris, and here, in a +drunken frolic, he played into the hands of the King of France by ceding +Genoa to that country, and by recognizing the antipope at Avignon, +instead of Boniface IX. at Rome. These acts filled the cup of his folly. +The princes of the empire resolved to depose him. A council was called, +before which he was cited to appear. He refused to come, and was +formally deposed, Rupert, of the Palatinate, being elected in his stead. +Ten years afterwards, in 1410, Rupert died, and Sigismund became Emperor +of Germany. + +Meanwhile, Wenceslas remained King of Bohemia, in spite of his brother +Sigismund, who sought to oust him from this throne also. He took him +prisoner, indeed, but trusted him to the Austrians, who at once set him +free, and the Bohemians replaced him on the throne. Some years +afterwards, war continuing, Wenceslas sought to get rid of his brother +Sigismund in the same manner as he had disposed of his brother John, by +poison. He was successful in having it administered to Sigismund and his +ally, Albert of Austria, in their camp before Zuaym. Albert died, but +Sigismund was saved by a rude treatment which seems to have been in +vogue in that day. He was suspended by the feet for twenty-four hours, +so that the poison ran out of his mouth. + +The later events in the life of Wenceslas have to do with the most +famous era in the history of Bohemia, the reformation in that country, +and the stories of John Huss and Ziska. The fate of Huss is well known. +Summoned before the council at Constance, and promised a safe-conduct by +the Emperor Sigismund, he went, only to find the emperor faithless to +his word and himself condemned and burnt as a heretic. This base act of +treachery was destined to bring a bloody retribution. It infuriated the +reformers in Bohemia, who, after brooding for several years over their +wrongs, broke out into an insurrection of revenge. + +The leader of this outbreak was an officer of experience, named John +Ziska, a man who had lost one eye in childhood, and who bitterly hated +the priesthood for a wrong done to one of his sisters. The martyrdom of +Huss threw him into such deep and silent dejection, that one day the +king, in whose court he was, asked him why he was so sad. + +"Huss is burnt, and we have not yet avenged him," replied Ziska. + +"I can do nothing in that direction," said Wenceslas; adding, +carelessly, "you might attempt it yourself." + +This was spoken as a jest, but Ziska took it in deadly earnest. He, +aided by his friends, roused the people, greatly to the alarm of the +king, who ordered the citizens to bring their arms to the royal castle +of Wisherad, which commanded the city of Prague. + +Ziska heard the command, and obeyed it in his own way. The arms were +brought, but they came in the hands of the citizens, who marched in long +files to the fortress, and drew themselves up before the king, Ziska at +their head. + +"My gracious and mighty sovereign, here we are," said the bold leader; +"we await your commands; against what enemy are we to fight?" + +Wenceslas looked at those dense groups of armed and resolute men, and +concluded that his purpose of disarming them would not work. Assuming a +cheerful countenance, he bade them return home and keep the peace. They +obeyed, so far as returning home was concerned. In other matters they +had learned their power, and were bent on exerting it. + +Nicolas of Hussinez, Huss's former lord, and Ziska's seconder in this +outbreak, was banished from the city by the king. He went, but took +forty thousand men with him, who assembled on a mountain which was +afterwards known by the biblical name of Mount Tabor. Here several +hundred tables were spread for the celebration of the Lord's Supper, +July 22, 1419. + +Wenceslas, in attempting to put a summary end to the disturbance in the +city, quickly made bad worse. He deposed the Hussite city council in the +Neustadt, the locality of greatest disturbance, and replaced it by a new +one in his own interests. This action filled Prague with indignation, +which was redoubled when the new council sent two clamorous Hussites to +prison. On the 30th of July Ziska led a strong body of his partisans +through the streets to the council-house, and sternly demanded that the +prisoners should be set free. + +The councillors hesitated,--a fatal hesitation. A stone was flung from +one of the windows. Instantly the mob stormed the building, rushed into +the council-room, and seized the councillors, thirteen of whom, Germans +by birth, were flung out of the windows. They were received on the pikes +of the furious mob below, and the whole of them murdered. + +This act of violence was quickly followed by others. The dwelling of a +priest, supposed to have been that of the seducer of Ziska's sister, was +destroyed and its owner hanged; the Carthusian monks were dragged +through the streets, crowned with thorns, and other outrages perpetrated +against the opponents of the party of reform. + +A few days afterwards the career of Wenceslas, once Emperor of Germany, +now King of Bohemia, came to an abrupt end. On August 16 he suddenly +died,--by apoplexy, say some historians, while others say that he was +suffocated in his palace by his own attendants. The latter would seem a +fitting end for a man whose life had been marked by so many acts of +tyrannous violence, some of them little short of insanity. + +Whatever its cause, his death removed the last restraint from the mob. +On the following day every church and monastery in Prague was assailed +and plundered, their pictures were destroyed, and the robes of the +priests were converted into flags and dresses. Many of these buildings +are said to have been splendidly decorated, and the royal palace, which +was also destroyed, had been adorned by Wenceslas and his father with +the richest treasures of art. We are told that on the walls of a garden +belonging to the palace the whole of the Bible was written. While the +work of destruction went on, a priest formed an altar in the street of +three tubs, covered by a broad table-top, from which all day long he +dispensed the sacrament in both forms. + +The excesses of this outbreak soon frightened the wealthier citizens, +who dreaded an assault upon their wealth, and, in company with Sophia, +the widow of Wenceslas, they sent a deputation to the emperor, asking +him to make peace. He replied by swearing to take a fearful revenge on +the insurgents. The insurrection continued, despite this action of the +nobles and the threats of the emperor. Ziska, finding the citizens too +moderate, invited into the city the peasants, who were armed with +flails, and committed many excesses. + +Forced by the moderate party to leave the city, Ziska led his new +adherents to Mount Tabor, which he fortified and prepared to defend. +They called themselves the "people of God," and styled their Catholic +opponents "Moabites," "Amalekites," etc., declaring that it was their +duty to extirpate them. Their leader entitled himself "John Ziska, of +the cup, captain, in the hope of God, of the Taborites." + +But having brought the story of the Emperor Wenceslas to an end, we must +stop at this point. The after-life of John Ziska was of such stir and +interest, and so filled with striking events, that we shall deal with it +by itself, in a sequel to the present story. + + + + +_SEMPACH AND ARNOLD WINKELRIED._ + + +Seventy years had passed since the battle of Morgarten, through which +freedom came to the lands of the Swiss. Throughout that long period +Austria had let the liberty-loving mountaineers alone, deterred by the +frightful lesson taught them in the bloody pass. In the interval the +confederacy had grown more extensive. The towns of Berne, Zurich, +Soleure, and Zug had joined it; and now several other towns and +villages, incensed by the oppression and avarice of their Austrian +masters, threw off the foreign yoke and allied themselves to the Swiss +confederacy. It was time for the Austrians to be moving, if they would +retain any possessions in the Alpine realm of rocks. + +Duke Leopold of Austria, a successor to the Leopold who had learned so +well at Morgarten how the Swiss could strike for liberty, and as bold +and arrogant as he, grew incensed at the mountaineers for taking into +their alliance several towns which were subject to him, and vowed not +only to chastise these rebels, but to subdue the whole country, and put +an end to their insolent confederacy. His feeling was shared by the +Austrian nobles, one hundred and sixty-seven of whom joined in his +warlike scheme, and agreed to aid him in putting down the defiant +mountaineers. + +War resolved upon, the Austrians laid a shrewd plan to fill the Swiss +confederates with terror in advance of their approach. Letters declaring +war were sent to the confederate assembly by twenty distinct expresses, +with the hope that this rapid succession of threats would overwhelm them +with fear. The separate nobles followed with their declarations. On St. +John's day a messenger arrived from Wuertemberg bearing fifteen +declarations of war. Hardly had these letters been read when nine more +arrived, sent by John Ulric of Pfirt and eight other nobles. Others +quickly followed; it fairly rained declarations of war; the members of +the assembly had barely time to read one batch of threatening +fulminations before another arrived. Letters from the lords of Thurn +came after those named, followed by a batch from the nobles of +Schaffhausen. This seemed surely enough, but on the following day the +rain continued, eight successive messengers arriving, who bore no less +than forty-three declarations of war. + +It seemed as if the whole north was about to descend in a cyclone of +banners and spears upon the mountain land. The assembly sat breathless +under this torrent of threats. Had their hearts been open to the +invasion of terror they must surely have been overwhelmed, and have +waited in the supineness of fear for the coming of their foes. + +But the hearts of the Swiss were not of that kind. They were too full of +courage and patriotism to leave room for dismay. Instead of awaiting +their enemies with dread, a burning impatience animated their souls. If +liberty or death were the alternatives, the sooner the conflict began +the more to their liking it would be. The cry of war resounded through +the country, and everywhere, in valley and on mountain, by lake-side and +by glacier's rim, the din of hostile preparation might have been heard, +as the patriots arranged their affairs and forged and sharpened their +weapons for the coming fray. + +Far too impatient were they to wait for the coming of Leopold and his +army. There were Austrian nobles and Austrian castles within their land. +No sooner was the term of the armistice at an end than the armed +peasantry swarmed about these strongholds, and many a fortress, long the +seat of oppression, was taken and levelled with the ground. The war-cry +of Leopold and the nobles had inspired a different feeling from that +counted upon. + +It was not long before Duke Leopold appeared. At the head of a large and +well-appointed force, and attended by many distinguished knights and +nobles, he marched into the mountain region and advanced upon Sempach, +one of the revolted towns, resolved, he said, to punish its citizens +with a rod of iron for their daring rebellion. + +On the 9th of July, 1386, the Austrian cavalry, several thousands in +number, reached the vicinity of Sempach, having distanced the +foot-soldiers in the impatient haste of their advance. Here they found +the weak array of the Swiss gathered on the surrounding heights, and as +eager as themselves for the fray. It was a small force, no stronger +than that of Morgarten, comprising only about fourteen hundred +poorly-armed men. Some carried halberds, some shorter weapons, while +some among them, instead of a shield, had only a small board fastened to +the left arm. It seemed like madness for such a band to dare contend +with the thousands of well-equipped invaders. But courage and patriotism +go far to replace numbers, as that day was to show. + +Leopold looked upon his handful of foes, and decided that it would be +folly to wait for the footmen to arrive. Surely his host of nobles and +knights, with their followers, would soon sweep these peasants, like so +many locusts, from their path. Yet he remembered the confusion into +which the cavalry had been thrown at Morgarten, and deeming that +horsemen were ill-suited to an engagement on those wooded hill-sides, he +ordered the entire force to dismount and attack on foot. + +The plan adopted was that the dismounted knights and soldiers should +join their ranks as closely as possible, until their front presented an +unbroken wall of iron, and thus arrayed should charge the enemy spear in +hand. Leaving their attendants in charge of their horses, the serried +column of footmen prepared to advance, confident of sweeping their foes +to death before their closely-knit line of spears. + +Yet this plan of battle was not without its critics. The Baron of +Hasenburg, a veteran soldier, looked on it with disfavor, as contrasted +with the position of vantage occupied by the Swiss, and cautioned the +duke and his nobles against undue assurance. + +"Pride never served any good purpose in peace or war," he said. "We had +much better wait until the infantry come up." + +This prudent advice was received with shouts of derision by the nobles, +some of whom cried out insultingly,-- + +"Der Hasenburg hat ein Hasenherz" ("Hasenburg has a hare's heart," a +play upon the baron's name). + +Certain nobles, however, who had not quite lost their prudence, tried to +persuade the duke to keep in the rear, as the true position for a +leader. He smiled proudly in reply, and exclaimed with impatience,-- + +"What! shall Leopold be a mere looker-on, and calmly behold his knights +die around him in his own cause? Never! here on my native soil with you +I will conquer or perish with my people." So saying, he placed himself +at the head of the troops. + +And now the decisive moment was at hand. The Swiss had kept to the +heights while their enemy continued mounted, not venturing to face such +a body of cavalry on level ground. But when they saw them forming as +foot-soldiers, they left the hills and marched to the plain below. Soon +the unequal forces confronted each other; the Swiss, as was their +custom, falling upon their knees and praying for God's aid to their +cause; the Austrians fastening their helmets and preparing for the fray. +The duke even took the occasion to give the honor of knighthood to +several young warriors. + +The day was a hot and close one, the season being that of harvest, and +the sun pouring down its unclouded and burning rays upon the combatants. +This sultriness was a marked advantage to the lightly-dressed +mountaineers as compared with the armor-clad knights, to whom the heat +was very oppressive. + +The battle was begun by the Swiss, who, on rising from their knees, +flung themselves with impetuous valor on the dense line of spears that +confronted them. Their courage and fury were in vain. Not a man in the +Austrian line wavered. They stood like a rock against which the waves of +the Swiss dashed only to be hurled back in death. The men of Lucerne, in +particular, fought with an almost blind rage, seeking to force a path +through that steel-pointed forest of spears, and falling rapidly before +the triumphant foe. + +Numbers of the mountaineers lay dead or wounded. The line of spears +seemed impenetrable. The Swiss began to waver. The enemy, seeing this, +advanced the flanks of his line so as to form a half-moon shape, with +the purpose of enclosing the small body of Swiss within a circle of +spears. It looked for the moment as if the struggle were at an end, the +mountaineers foiled and defeated, the fetters again ready to be locked +upon the limbs of free Switzerland. + +But such was not to be. There was a man in that small band of patriots +who had the courage to accept certain death for his country, one of +those rare souls who appear from time to time in the centuries and win +undying fame by an act of self-martyrdom. Arnold of Winkelried was his +name, a name which history is not likely soon to forget, for by an +impulse of the noblest devotion this brave patriot saved the liberties +of his native land. + +[Illustration: STATUE OF ARNOLD WINKELRIED.] + +Seeing that there was but one hope for the Swiss, and that death must be +the lot of him who gave them that hope, he exclaimed to his comrades, in +a voice of thunder,-- + +"Faithful and beloved confederates, I will open a passage to freedom and +victory! Protect my wife and children!" + +With these words, he rushed from his ranks, flung himself upon the +enemy's steel-pointed line, and seized with his extended arms as many of +the hostile spears as he was able to grasp, burying them in his body, +and sinking dead to the ground. + +His comrades lost not a second in availing themselves of this act of +heroic devotion. Darting forward, they rushed over the body of the +martyr to liberty into the breach he had made, forced others of the +spears aside, and for the first time since the fray began reached the +Austrians with their weapons. + +A hasty and ineffective effort was made to close the breach. It only +added to the confusion which the sudden assault had caused. The line of +hurrying knights became crowded and disordered. The furious Swiss broke +through in increasing numbers. Overcome with the heat, many of the +knights fell from exhaustion, and died without a wound, suffocated in +their armor. Others fell below the blows of the Swiss. The line of +spears, so recently intact, was now broken and pierced at a dozen +points, and the revengeful mountaineers were dealing death upon their +terrified and feebly-resisting foes. + +The chief banner of the host had twice sunk and been raised again, and +was drooping a third time, when Ulric, a knight of Aarburg, seized and +lifted it, defending it desperately till a mortal blow laid him low. + +"Save Austria! rescue!" he faltered with his dying breath. + +Duke Leopold, who was pushing through the confused throng, heard him and +caught the banner from his dying hand. Again it waved aloft, but now +crimsoned with the blood of its defender. + +The Swiss, determined to capture it, pressed upon its princely bearer, +surrounded him, cut down on every side the warriors who sought to defend +him and the standard. + +"Since so many nobles and knights have ended their days in my cause, let +me honorably follow them," cried the despairing duke, and in a moment he +rushed into the midst of the hostile ranks, vanishing from the eyes of +his attendants. Blows rained on his iron mail. In the pressure of the +crowd he fell to the earth. While seeking to raise himself again in his +heavy armor, he cried, in his helpless plight, to a Swiss soldier, who +had approached him with raised weapon,-- + +"I am the Prince of Austria." + +The man either heard not his words, or took no heed of princes. The +weapon descended with a mortal blow. Duke Leopold of Austria was dead. + +The body of the slain duke was found by a knight, Martin Malterer, who +bore the banner of Freiburg. On recognizing him, he stood like one +petrified, let the banner fall from his hand, and then threw himself on +the body of the prince, that it might not be trampled under foot by the +contending forces. In this position he soon received his own +death-wound. + +By this time the state of the Austrians was pitiable. The signal for +retreat was given, and in utter terror and dismay they fled for their +horses. Alas, too late! The attendants, seeing the condition of their +masters, and filled with equal terror, had mounted the horses, and were +already in full flight. + +Nothing remained for the knights, oppressed with their heavy armor, +exhausted with thirst and fatigue, half suffocated with the scorching +heat, assailed on every side by the light-armed and nimble Swiss, but to +sell their lives as dearly as possible. In a short time more all was at +an end. The last of the Austrians fell. On that fatal field there had +met their death, at the hands of the small body of Swiss, no less than +six hundred and fifty-six knights, barons, and counts, together with +thousands of their men-at-arms. + +Thus ended the battle of Sempach, with its signal victory to the Swiss, +one of the most striking which history records, if we consider the great +disproportion in numbers and in warlike experience and military +equipment of the combatants. It secured to Switzerland the liberty for +which they had so valiantly struck at Morgarten seventy years before. + +But all Switzerland was not yet free, and more blows were needed to win +its full liberty. The battle of Naefels, in 1388, added to the width of +the free zone. In this the peasants of Glarus rolled stones on the +Austrian squadrons, and set fire to the bridges over which they fled, +two thousand five hundred of the enemy, including a great number of +nobles, being slain. In the same year the peasants of Valais defeated +the Earl of Savoy at Visp, putting four thousand of his men to the +sword. The citizens of St. Gall, infuriated by the tyranny of the +governor of the province of Schwendi, broke into insurrection, attacked +the castle of Schwendi, and burnt it to the ground. The governor +escaped. All the castles in the vicinity were similarly dealt with, and +the whole district set free. + +Shortly after 1400 the citizens of St. Gall joined with the peasants +against their abbot, who ruled them with a hand of iron. The Swabian +cities were asked to decide the dispute, and decided that cities could +only confederate with cities, not with peasants, thus leaving the +Appenzellers to their fate. At this decision the herdsmen rose in arms, +defeated abbot and citizens both, and set their country free, all the +neighboring peasantry joining their band of liberty. A few years later +the people of this region joined the confederation, which now included +nearly the whole of the Alpine country, and was strong enough to +maintain its liberty for centuries thereafter. It was not again subdued +until the legions of Napoleon trod over its mountain paths. + + + + +_ZISKA, THE BLIND WARRIOR._ + + +Sigismund, Emperor of Germany, had sworn to put an end to the Hussite +rebellion in Bohemia, and to punish the rebels in a way that would make +all future rebels tremble. But Sigismund was pursuing the old policy of +cooking the hare before it was caught. He forgot that the indomitable +John Ziska and the iron-flailed peasantry stood between him and his vow. +He had first to conquer the reformers before he could punish them, and +this was to prove no easy task. + +The dreadful work of religious war began with the burning of Hussite +preachers who had ventured from Bohemia into Germany. This was an +argument which Ziska thoroughly understood, and he retorted by +destroying the Bohemian monasteries, and burning the priests alive in +barrels of pitch. "They are singing my sister's wedding song," exclaimed +the grim barbarian, on hearing their cries of torture. Queen Sophia, +widow of Wenceslas, the late king, who had garrisoned all the royal +castles, now sent a strong body of troops against the reformers. The +army came up with the multitude, which was largely made up of women and +children, on the open plain near Pilsen. The cavalry charged upon the +seemingly helpless mob. But Ziska was equal to the occasion. He ordered +the women to strew the ground with their gowns and veils, and the +horses' feet becoming entangled in these, numbers of the riders were +thrown, and the trim lines of the troops broken. + +Seeing the confusion into which they had been thrown, Ziska gave the +order to charge, and in a short time the army that was to defeat him was +flying in a panic across the plain, a broken and beaten mob. Another +army marched against him, and was similarly defeated; and the citizens +of Prague, finding that no satisfactory terms could be made with the +emperor, recalled Ziska, and entered into alliance with him. The +one-eyed patriot was now lord of the land, all Bohemia being at his beck +and call. + +Meanwhile Sigismund, the emperor, was slowly gathering his forces to +invade the rebellious land. The reign of cruelty continued, each side +treating its prisoners barbarously. The Imperialists branded theirs with +a cup, the Hussites theirs with a cross, on their foreheads. The +citizens of Breslau joined those of Prague, and emulated them by +flinging their councillors out of the town-house windows. In return the +German miners of Kuttenberg threw sixteen hundred Hussites down the +mines. Such is religious war, the very climax of cruelty. + +In June, 1420, the threatened invasion came. Sigismund led an army, one +hundred thousand strong, into the revolted land, fulminating vengeance +as he marched. He reached Prague and entered the castle of Wisherad, +which commanded it. Ziska fortified the mountain of Witlow (now called +Ziskaberg), which also commanded the city. Sigismund, finding that he +had been outgeneralled, and that his opponent held the controlling +position, waited and temporized, amusing himself meanwhile by assuming +the crown of Bohemia, and sowing dissension in his army by paying the +Slavonian and Hungarian troops with the jewels taken from the royal +palaces and the churches, while leaving the Germans unpaid. The Germans, +furious, marched away. The emperor was obliged to follow. The +ostentatious invasion was at an end, and scarcely a blow had been +struck. + +But Sigismund had no sooner gone than trouble arose in Prague. The +citizens, the nobility, and Ziska's followers were all at odds. The +Taborites--those strict republicans and religious reformers who had made +Mount Tabor their head-quarters--were in power, and ruled the city with +a rod of iron, destroying all the remaining splendor of the churches and +sternly prohibiting every display of ostentation by the people. Death +was named as the punishment for such venial faults as dancing, gambling, +or the wearing of rich attire. The wine-cellars were rigidly closed. +Church property was declared public property, and it looked as if +private wealth would soon be similarly viewed. The peasants declared +that it was their mission to exterminate sin from the earth. + +This tyranny so incensed the nobles and citizens that they rose in +self-defence, and Ziska, finding that Prague had grown too hot to hold +him, deemed it prudent to lead his men away. Sigismund took immediate +advantage of the opportunity by marching on Prague. But, quick as he +was, there were others quicker. The more moderate section of the +reformers, the so-called Horebites,--from Mount Horeb, another place of +assemblage,--entered the city, led by Hussinez, Huss's former lord, and +laid siege to the royal fortress, the Wisherad. Sigismund attempted to +surprise him, but met with so severe a repulse that he fled into +Hungary, and the Wisherad was forced to capitulate, this ancient palace +and its church, both splendid works of art, being destroyed. Step by +step the art and splendor of Bohemia were vanishing in this despotic +struggle between heresy and the papacy. + +As the war went on, Ziska, its controlling spirit, grew steadily more +abhorrent of privilege and distinction, more bitterly fanatical. The +ancient church, royalty, nobility, all excited his wrath. He was +republican, socialist, almost anarchist in his views. His idea of +perfection lay in a fraternity composed of the children of God, while he +trusted to the strokes of the iron flail to bear down all opposition to +his theory of society. The city of Prachaticz treated him with mockery, +and was burnt to the ground, with all its inhabitants. The Bishop of +Nicopolis fell into his hands, and was flung into the river. As time +went on, his war of extermination against sinners--that is, all who +refused to join his banner--grew more cruel and unrelenting. Each city +that resisted was stormed and ruined, its inhabitants slaughtered, its +priests burned. Hussite virtue had degenerated into tyranny of the worst +type. Yet, while thus fanatical himself, Ziska would not permit his +followers to indulge in insane excesses of religious zeal. A party arose +which claimed that the millennium was at hand, and that it was their +duty to anticipate the coming of the innocence of Paradise, by going +naked, like Adam and Eve. These Adamites committed the maddest excesses, +but found a stern enemy in Ziska, who put them down with an unsparing +hand. + +In 1421 Sigismund again roused himself to activity, incensed by the +Hussite defiance of his authority. He incited the Silesians to invade +Bohemia, and an army of twenty thousand poured into the land, killing +all before them,--men, women, and children. Yet such was the terror that +the very name of Ziska now excited, that the mere rumor of his approach +sent these invaders flying across the borders. + +But, in the midst of his career of triumph, an accident came to the +Bohemian leader which would have incapacitated any less resolute man +from military activity. During the siege of the castle of Raby a +splinter struck his one useful eye and completely deprived him of sight. +It did not deprive him of power and energy. Most men, under such +circumstances, would have retired from army leadership, but John Ziska +was not of that calibre. He knew Bohemia so thoroughly that the whole +land lay accurately mapped out in his mind. He continued to lead his +army, to marshal his men in battle array, to command them in the field +and the siege, despite his blindness, always riding in a carriage, close +to the great standard, and keeping in immediate touch with all the +movements of the war. + +Blind as he was, he increased rather than diminished the severity of his +discipline, and insisted on rigid obedience to his commands. As an +instance of this we are told that, on one occasion, having compelled his +troops to march day and night, as was his custom, they murmured and +said,-- + +"Day and night are the same to you, as you cannot see; but they are not +the same to us." + +"How!" he cried. "You cannot see! Well, set fire to a couple of +villages." + +The blind warrior was soon to have others to deal with than his Bohemian +foes. Sigismund had sent forward another army, which, in September, +1421, invaded the country. It was driven out by the mere rumor of +Ziska's approach, the soldiers flying in haste on the vague report of +his coming. But in November the emperor himself came, leading a horde of +eighty thousand Hungarians, Servians, and others, savage fellows, whose +approach filled the moderate party of the Bohemians with terror. Ziska's +men had such confidence in their blind chief as to be beyond terror. +They were surrounded by the enemy, and enclosed in what seemed a trap. +But under Ziska's orders they made a night attack on the foe, broke +through their lines, and, to the emperor's discomfiture, were once more +free. + +On New Year's day, 1422, the two armies came face to face near Zollin. +Ziska drew up his men in battle array and confidently awaited the attack +of the enemy. But the inflexible attitude of his men, the terror of his +name, or one of those inexplicable influences which sometimes affect +armies, filled the Hungarians with a sudden panic, and they vanished +from the front of the Bohemians without a blow. Once more the emperor +and the army which he had led into the country with such high confidence +of success were in shameful flight, and the terrible example which he +had vowed to make of Bohemia was still unaccomplished. + +The blind chief vigorously and relentlessly pursued, overtaking the +fugitives on January 8 near Deutschbrod. Terrified at his approach, they +sought to escape by crossing the stream at that place on the ice. The +ice gave way, and numbers of them were drowned. Deutschbrod was burned +and its inhabitants slaughtered in Ziska's cruel fashion. + +This repulse put an end to invasions of Bohemia while Ziska lived. There +were intestine disturbances which needed to be quelled, and then the +army of the reformers was led beyond the boundaries of the country and +assailed the imperial dominions, but the emperor held aloof. He had had +enough of the blind terror of Bohemia, the indomitable Ziska and his +iron-flailed peasants. New outbreaks disturbed Bohemia. Ambitious nobles +aspired to the kingship, but their efforts were vain. The army of the +iron flail quickly put an end to all such hopes. + +In 1423 Ziska invaded Moravia and Austria, to keep his troops employed, +and lost severely in doing so. In 1424 his enemies at home again made +head against him, led an army into the field, and pursued him to +Kuttenberg. Here he ordered his men to feign a retreat, then, while the +foe were triumphantly advancing, he suddenly turned, had his +battle-chariot driven furiously down the mountain-side upon their lines, +and during the confusion thus caused ordered an attack in force. The +enemy were repulsed, their artillery was captured, and Kuttenberg set in +flames, as Ziska's signal of triumph. + +Shortly afterwards, his enemies at home being thoroughly beaten, the +indomitable blind chief marched upon Prague, the head-quarters of his +foes, and threatened to burn this city to the ground. He might have done +so, too, but for his own men, who broke into sedition at the threat. + +Procop, Ziska's bravest captain, advised peace, to put an end to the +disasters of civil war. His advice was everywhere re-echoed, the demand +for peace seemed unanimous, Ziska alone opposing it. Mounting a cask, +and facing his discontented followers, he exclaimed,-- + +"Fear internal more than external foes. It is easier for a few, when +united, to conquer, than for many, when disunited. Snares are laid for +you; you will be entrapped, but it will not be my fault." + +Despite his harangue, however, peace was concluded between the +contending factions, and a large monument raised in commemoration +thereof, both parties heaping up stones. Ziska entered the city in +solemn procession, and was met with respect and admiration by the +citizens. Prince Coribut, the leader of the opposite party and the +aspirant to the crown, came to meet him, embraced him, and called him +father. The triumph of the blind chief over his internal foes was +complete. + +It seemed equally complete over his external foes. Sigismund, unable to +conquer him by force of arms, now sought to mollify him by offers of +peace, and entered into negotiations with the stern old warrior. But +Ziska was not to be placated. He could not trust the man who had broken +his plighted word and burned John Huss, and he remained immovable in his +hostility to Germany. Planning a fresh attack on Moravia, he began his +march thither. But now he met a conquering enemy against whose arms +there was no defence. Death encountered him on the route, and carried +him off October 12, 1424. + +Thus ends the story of an extraordinary man, and the history of a series +of remarkable events. Of all the peasant outbreaks, of which there were +so many during the mediaeval period, the Bohemian was the only one--if we +except the Swiss struggle for liberty--that attained measurable success. +This was due in part to the fact that it was a religious instead of an +industrial revolt, and thus did not divide the country into sharp ranks +of rich and poor; and in greater part to the fact that it had an able +leader, one of those men of genius who seem born for great occasions. +John Ziska, the blind warrior, leading his army to victory after +victory, stands alone in the gallery of history. There were none like +him, before or after. + +He is pictured as a short, broad-shouldered man, with a large, round, +and bald head. His forehead was deeply furrowed, and he wore a long +moustache of a fiery red hue. This, with his blind eye and his final +complete blindness, yields a well-defined image of the man, that +fanatical, remorseless, indomitable, and unconquerable avenger of the +martyred Huss, the first successful opponent of the doctrines of the +church of Rome whom history records. + +The conclusion of the story of the Hussites may be briefly given. For +years they held their own, under two leaders, known as Procop Holy and +Procop the Little, defying the emperor, and at times invading the +empire. The pope preached a crusade against them, but the army of +invasion was defeated, and Silesia and Austria were invaded in reprisal +by Procop Holy. + +Seven years after the death of Ziska an army of invasion again entered +Bohemia, so strong in numbers that it seemed as if that war-drenched +land must fall before it. In its ranks were one hundred and thirty +thousand men, led by Frederick of Brandenburg. Their purposes were seen +in their actions. Every village reached was burned, till two hundred had +been given to the flames. Horrible excesses were committed. On August +14, 1431, the two armies, the Hussite and the Imperialist, came face to +face near Tauss. The disproportion in numbers was enormous, and it +looked as if the small force of Bohemians would be swallowed up in the +multitude of their foes. But barely was the Hussite banner seen in the +distance when the old story was told over again, the Germans broke into +sudden panic, and fled _en masse_ from the field. The Bavarians were the +first to fly, and all the rest speedily followed. Frederick of +Brandenburg and his troops took refuge in a wood. The Cardinal Julian, +who had preached a crusade against Bohemia, succeeded for a time in +rallying the fugitives, but at the first onset of the Hussites they +again took to flight, suffering themselves to be slaughtered without +resistance. The munitions of war were abandoned to the foe, including +one hundred and fifty cannon. + +It was an extraordinary affair, but in truth the flight was less due to +terror than to disinclination of the German soldiers to fight the +Hussites, whose cause they deemed to be just and glorious, and the +influence of whose opinions had spread far beyond the Bohemian border. +Rome was losing its hold over the mind of northern Europe outside the +limits of the land of Huss and Ziska. + +Negotiations for peace followed. The Bohemians were invited to Basle, +being granted a safe-conduct, and promised free exercise of their +religion coming and going, while no words of ridicule or reproach were +to be permitted. On January 9, 1433, three hundred Bohemians, mounted on +horseback, entered Basle, accompanied by an immense multitude. It was a +very different entrance from that of Huss to Constance, nearly twenty +years before, and was to have a very different termination. Procop Holy +headed the procession, accompanied by others of the Bohemian leaders. A +signal triumph had come to the party of religious reform, after twenty +years of struggle. + +For fifty days the negotiations continued. Neither side would yield. In +the end, the Bohemians, weary of the protracted and fruitless debate, +took to their horses again, and set out homewards. This brought their +enemies to terms. An embassy was hastily sent after them, and all their +demands were conceded, though with certain reservations that might prove +perilous in the future. They went home triumphant, having won freedom of +religious worship according to their ideas of right and truth. + +They had not long reached home when dissensions again broke out. The +emperor took advantage of them, accepted the crown of Bohemia, entered +Prague, and at once reinstated the Catholic religion. The fanatics flew +to arms, but after a desperate struggle were annihilated. The Bohemian +struggle was at an end. In the following year the emperor Sigismund +died, having lived just long enough to win success in his long conflict. +The martyrdom of Huss, the valor and zeal of Ziska, appeared to have +been in vain. Yet they were not so, for the seeds they had sown bore +fruit in the following century in a great sectarian revolt which +affected all Christendom and permanently divided the Church. + + + + +_THE SIEGE OF BELGRADE_ + + +The empire of Rome finally reached its end, not in the fifth century, as +ordinarily considered, but in the fifteenth; not at Rome, but at +Constantinople, where the Eastern empire survived the Western for a +thousand years. At length, in 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople, +set a broad foot upon the degenerate empire of the East, and crushed out +the last feeble remnants of life left in the pygmy successor of the +colossus of the past. + +And now Europe, which had looked on with clasped hands while the Turks +swept over the Bosphorus and captured Constantinople, suddenly awoke to +the peril of its situation. A blow in time might have saved the Greek +empire. The blow had not been struck, and now Europe had itself to save. +Terror seized upon the nations which had let their petty intrigues stand +in the way of that broad policy in which safety lay, for they could not +forget past instances of Asiatic invasion. The frightful ravages wrought +by the Huns and the Avars were far in the past, but no long time had +elapsed since the coming of the Magyars and the Mongols, and now here +was another of those hordes of murderous barbarians, hanging like a +cloud of war on the eastern skirt of Europe, and threatening to rain +death and ruin upon the land. The dread of the nations was not amiss. +They had neglected to strengthen the eastern barrier to the Turkish +avalanche. Now it threatened their very doors, and they must meet it at +home. + +The Turks were not long in making their purpose evident. Within two +years after the fall of Constantinople they were on the march again, and +had laid siege to Belgrade, the first obstacle in their pathway to +universal conquest. The Turkish cannons were thundering at the doors of +Europe. Belgrade fallen, Vienna would come next, and the march of the +barbarians might only end at the sea. + +And yet, despite their danger, the people of Germany remained supine. +Hungary had valiantly defended itself against the Turks ten years +before, without aid from the German empire. It looked now as if Belgrade +might be left to its fate. The brave John Hunyades and his faithful +Hungarians were the only bulwarks of Europe against the foe, for the +people seemed incapable of seeing a danger a thousand miles away. The +pope and his legate John Capistrano, general of the Capuchins, were the +only aids to the valiant Hunyades in his vigorous defence. They preached +a crusade, but with little success. Capistrano traversed Germany, +eloquently calling the people to arms against the barbarians. The result +was similar to that on previous occasions, the real offenders were +neglected, the innocent suffered. The people, instead of arming against +the Turks, turned against the Jews, and murdered them by thousands. +Whatever happened in Europe,--a plague, an invasion, a famine, a +financial strait,--that unhappy people were in some way held +responsible, and mediaeval Europe seemed to think it could, at any time, +check the frightful career of a comet or ward off pestilence by +slaughtering a few thousands of Jews. It cannot be said that it worked +well on this occasion; the Jews died, but the Turks surrounded Belgrade +still. + +Capistrano found no military ardor in Germany, in princes or people. The +princes contented themselves with ordering prayers and ringing the +Turkish bells, as they were called. The people were as supine as their +princes. He did, however, succeed, by the aid of his earnest eloquence, +in gathering a force of a few thousands of peasants, priests, scholars, +and the like; a motley host who were chiefly armed with iron flails and +pitchforks, but who followed him with an enthusiasm equal to his own. +With this shadow of an army he joined Hunyades, and the combined force +made its way in boats down the Danube into the heart of Hungary, and +approached the frontier fortress which Mahomet II. was besieging with a +host of one hundred and sixty thousand men, and which its defender, the +brother-in-law of John Hunyades, had nearly given up for lost. + +On came the flotilla,--the peasants with their flails and forks and +Hunyades with his trained soldiers,--and attacked the Turkish fleet with +such furious energy that it was defeated and dispersed, and the allied +forces made their way into the beleaguered city. Capistrano and his +followers were full of enthusiasm. He was a second Peter the Hermit, +his peasant horde were crusaders, fierce against the infidels, +disdaining death in God's cause; neither leader nor followers had a +grain of military knowledge or experience, but they had, what is +sometimes better, courage and enthusiasm. + +John Hunyades _had_ military experience, and looked with cold disfavor +on the burning and blind zeal of his new recruits. He was willing that +they should aid him in repelling the furious attacks of the Turks, but +to his trained eyes an attack on the well-intrenched camp of the enemy +would have been simple madness, and he sternly forbade any such suicidal +course, even threatening death to whoever should attempt it. + +In truth, his caution seemed reasonable. An immense host surrounded the +city on the land side, and had done so on the water side, also, until +the Christian flotilla had sunk, captured, and dispersed its boats. Far +as the eye could see, the gorgeously-embellished tents of the Turkish +army, with their gilded crescents glittering in the sun, filled the +field of view. Cannon-mounted earthworks threatened the walls from every +quarter. Squadrons of steel-clad horsemen swept the field. The crowding +thousands of besiegers pressed the city day and night. Even defence +seemed useless. Assault on such a host appeared madness to experienced +eyes. Hunyades seemed wise in his stern disapproval of such an idea. + +Yet military knowledge has its limitations, when it fails to take into +account the power of enthusiasm. Blind zeal is a force whose +possibilities a general does not always estimate. It is capable of +performing miracles, as Hunyades was to learn. His orders, his threats +of death, had no restraining effect on the minds of the crusaders. They +had come to save Europe from the Turks, and they were not to be stayed +by orders or threats. What though the enemy greatly outnumbered them, +and had cannons and scimitars against their pikes and flails, had they +not God on their side, and should God's army pause to consider numbers +and cannon-balls? They were not to be restrained; attack they would, and +attack they did. + +The siege had made great progress. The reinforcement had come barely in +time. The walls were crumbling under the incessant bombardment. +Convinced that he had made a practicable breach, Mahomet, the sultan, +ordered an assault in force. The Turks advanced, full of barbarian +courage, climbed the crumbled walls, and broke, as they supposed, into +the town, only to find new walls frowning before them. The vigorous +garrison had built new defences behind the old ones, and the +disheartened assailants learned that they had done their work in vain. + +This repulse greatly discouraged the sultan. He was still more +discouraged when the crusaders, irrepressible in their hot enthusiasm, +broke from the city and made a fierce attack upon his works. Capistrano, +seeing that they were not to be restrained, put himself at their head, +and with a stick in one hand and a crucifix in the other, led them to +the assault. It proved an irresistible one. The Turks could not sustain +themselves against these flail-swinging peasants. One intrenchment after +another fell into their hands, until three had been stormed and taken. +Their success inspired Hunyades. Filled with a new respect for his +peasant allies, and seeing that now or never was the time to strike, he +came to their aid with his cavalry, and fell so suddenly and violently +upon the Turkish rear that the invaders were put to rout. + +Onward pushed the crusaders and their allies; backward went the Turks. +The remaining intrenchments were stubbornly defended, but that storm of +iron flails, those pikes and pitchforks, wielded by the zeal of +enthusiasts, were not to be resisted, and in the end all that remained +of the Turkish army broke into panic flight, the sultan himself being +wounded, and more than twenty thousand of his men left dead upon the +field. + +It was a signal victory. Miraculous almost, when one considers the great +disproportion of numbers. The works of the invaders, mounted with three +hundred cannon, and their camp, which contained an immense booty, fell +into the hands of the Christians, and the power of Mahomet II. was so +crippled that years passed before he was in condition to attempt a +second invasion of Europe. + +The victors were not long to survive their signal triumph. The valiant +Hunyades died shortly after the battle, from wounds received in the +action or from fatal disease. Capistrano died in the same year (1456). +Hunyades left two sons, and the King of Hungary repaid his services by +oppressing both, and beheading one of these sons. But the king himself +died during the next year, and Matthias Corvinus, the remaining son of +Hunyades, was placed by the Hungarians on their throne. They had given +their brave defender the only reward in their power. + +If the victory of Hunyades and Capistrano--the nobleman and the +monk--had been followed up by the princes of Europe, the Turks might +have been driven from Constantinople, Europe saved from future peril at +their hands, and the tide of subsequent history gained a cleaner and +purer flow. But nothing was done; the princes were too deeply interested +in their petty squabbles to entertain large views, and the Turks were +suffered to hold the empire of the East, and quietly to recruit their +forces for later assaults. + + + + +_LUTHER AND THE INDULGENCES._ + + +Late in the month of April, in the year 1521, an open wagon containing +two persons was driven along one of the roads of Germany, the horse +being kept at his best pace, while now and then one of the occupants +looked back as if in apprehension. This was the man who held the reins. +The other, a short but presentable person, with pale, drawn face, lit by +keen eyes, seemed too deeply buried in thought to be heedful of +surrounding affairs. When he did lift his eyes they were directed ahead, +where the road was seen to enter the great Thuringian forest. Dressed in +clerical garb, the peasants who passed probably regarded him as a monk +on some errand of mercy. The truth was that he was a fugitive, fleeing +for his life, for he was a man condemned, who might at any moment be +waylaid and seized. + +On entering the forest the wagon was driven on until a shaded and lonely +dell was reached, seemingly a fitting place for deeds of violence. +Suddenly from the forest glades rode forth four armed and masked men, +who stopped the wagon, sternly bade the traveller to descend and mount a +spare horse they had with them, and rode off with him, a seeming +captive, through the thick woodland. + +As if in fear of pursuit, the captors kept at a brisk pace, not drawing +rein until the walls of a large and strong castle loomed up near the +forest border. The gates flew open and the drawbridge fell at their +demand, and the small cavalcade rode into the powerful stronghold, the +entrance to which was immediately closed behind them. It was the castle +of Wartburg, near Eisenach, Saxony, within whose strong walls the man +thus mysteriously carried off was to remain hidden from the world for +the greater part of the year that followed. + +The monk-like captive was just then the most talked of man in Germany. +His seemingly violent capture had been made by his friends, not by his +foes, its purpose being to protect him from his enemies, who were many +and threatening. Of this he was well aware, and welcomed the castle as a +place of refuge. He was, in fact, the celebrated Martin Luther, who had +just set in train a religious revolution of broad aspect in Germany, and +though for the time under the protection of a safe-conduct from the +emperor Charles V., had been deemed in imminent danger of falling into +an ambush of his foes instead of one of his friends. + +That he might not be recognised by those who should see him at Wartburg, +his ecclesiastic robe was exchanged for the dress of a knight, he wore +helmet and sword instead of cassock and cross and let his beard grow +freely. Thus changed in appearance, he was known as Junker George +(Chevalier George) to those in the castle, and amused himself at times +by hunting with his knightly companions in the neighborhood. The +greater part of his time, however, was occupied in a difficult literary +task, that of translating the Bible into German. The work thus done by +him was destined to prove as important in a linguistic as in a +theological sense, since it fixed the status of the German language for +the later period to the same extent as the English translation of the +Bible in the time of James I. aided to fix that of English speech. + +Leaving Luther, for the present, in his retreat at Wartburg Castle, we +must go back in his history and tell the occasion of the events just +narrated. No man, before or after his time, ever created so great a +disturbance in German thought, and the career of this fugitive monk is +one of great historical import. + +A peasant by birth, the son of a slate-cutter named Hans Luther, he so +distinguished himself as a scholar that his father proposed to make him +a lawyer, but a dangerous illness, the death of a near friend, and the +exhortations of an eloquent preacher, so wrought upon his mind that he +resolved instead to become a monk, and after going through the necessary +course of study and mental discipline was ordained priest in May, 1507. +The next year he was appointed a professor in the university of +Wittenberg. There he remained for the next ten years of his life, when +an event occurred which was to turn the whole current of his career and +give him a prominence in theological history which few other men have +ever attained. + +In 1517 Pope Leo X. authorized an unusually large issue of indulgences, +a term which signifies a remission of the temporal punishment due to +sin, either in this life or the life to come; the condition being that +the recipient shall have made a full confession of his sins and by his +penitence and purpose of amendment fitted himself to receive the pardon +of God, through the agency of the priest. He was also required to +perform some service in the aid of charity or religion, such as the +giving of alms. + +At the time of the Crusades the popes had granted to all who took part +in them remission from church penalties. At a later date the same +indulgence was granted to penitents who aided the holy wars with money +instead of in person. At a still later date remission from the penalties +of sin might be obtained by pious work, such as building churches, etc. +When the Turks threatened Europe, those who fought against them obtained +indulgence. In the instance of the issue of indulgences by Leo X. the +pious work required was the giving of alms in aid of the completion of +the great cathedral of St. Peter's at Rome. + +This purpose did not differ in character from others for which +indulgences had previously been granted, and there is nothing to show +that any disregard of the requisite conditions was authorized by the +pope; but there is reason to believe that some of the agents for the +disposal of these indulgences went much beyond the intention of the +decree. This was especially the case in the instance of a Dominican +monk named Tetzel, who is charged with openly asserting what few or no +other Catholics appear to have ever claimed, that the indulgences not +only released the purchasers from the necessity of penance, but absolved +them from all the consequences of sin in this world or the next. + +We shall not go into the details of the venalities charged against +Tetzel, whose field of labor was in Saxony, but they seem to have been +sufficient to cause a strong feeling of dissatisfaction, which at length +found a voice in Martin Luther, who preached vigorously against Tetzel +and his methods and wrote to the princes and bishops begging them to +refuse this irreligious dealer in indulgences a passage through their +dominions. + +The near approach of Tetzel to Wittenberg roused Luther to more decided +action. He now wrote out ninety-five propositions in which he set forth +in the strongest language his reasons for opposing and his view of the +pernicious effects of Tetzel's doctrine of indulgences. These he nailed +to the door of the Castle church of Wittenberg. The effect produced by +them was extraordinary. The news of the protest spread with the greatest +rapidity and within a fortnight copies of it had been distributed +throughout Germany. Within five or six weeks it was being read over a +great part of Europe. On all sides it aroused a deep public interest and +excitement and became the great sensation of the day. + +We cannot go into the details of what followed. Luther's propositions +were like a thunderbolt flung into the mind of Germany. Everywhere deep +thought was aroused and a host of those who had been displeased with +Tetzel's methods sustained him in his act. Other papers from his pen +followed in which his revolt from the Church of Rome grew wider and +deeper. His energetic assault aroused a number of opponents and an +active controversy ensued; ending in Luther's being cited to appear +before Cajetan, the pope's legate, at Augsburg. From this meeting no +definite result came. After a heated argument Cajetan ended the +controversy with the following words: + +"I can dispute no longer with this beast; it has two wicked eyes and +marvellous thoughts in its head." + +Luther's view of the matter was much less complimentary. He said of the +legate,-- + +"He knows no more about the Word than a donkey knows of harp-playing." + +In the next year, 1519, a discussion took place at Leipzig, between +Luther on the one hand, aided by his friends Melanchthon and Carlstadt, +and a zealous and talented ecclesiastic, Dr. Eck, on the other. Eck was +a vigorous debater,--in person, in voice, and in opinion,--but as Luther +was not to be silenced by his argument, he ended by calling him "a +gentile and publican," and wending his way to Borne, where he expressed +his opinion of the new movement, demanded that the heretic should be +made to feel the heavy hand of church discipline. + +Back he came soon to Germany, bearing a bull from the pope, in which +were extracts from Luther's writings stated to be heretical, and which +must be publicly retracted within sixty days under threat of +excommunication. This the ardent agent tried to distribute through +Germany, but to his surprise he found that Germany was in no humor to +receive it. Most of the magistrates forbade it to be made public. Where +it was posted upon the walls of any town, the people immediately tore it +down. In truth, Luther's heresy had with extraordinary rapidity become +the heresy of Germany, and he found himself with a nation at his back, a +nation that admired his courage and supported his opinions. + +His most decisive step was taken on the 10th of December, 1520. On that +day the faculty and students of the University of Wittenberg, convoked +by him, met at the Elster gate of the town. Here a funeral pile was +built up by the students, one of the magistrates set fire to it, and +Luther, amid approving shouts from the multitude, flung into the flames +the pope's bull, and with it the canonical law and the writings of Dr. +Eck. In this act he decisively broke loose from and defied the Church of +Rome, sustained in his radical step of revolt apparently by all +Wittenberg, and by a large body of converts to his views throughout +Germany. + +The bold reformer found friends not only among the lowly, but among the +powerful. The Elector of Saxony was on his side, and openly accused the +pope of acting the unjust judge, by listening to one side and not the +other, and of needlessly agitating the people by his bull. Ulrich von +Hutten, a favorite popular leader, was one of the zealous proselytes of +the new doctrines. Franz von Sickingen, a knight of celebrity, was +another who offered Luther shelter, if necessary, in his castles. + +And now came a turning-point in Luther's career, the most dangerous +crisis he was to reach, and the one that needed the utmost courage and +most inflexible resolution to pass it in safety. It was that which has +become famous as the "Diet of Worms." Germany had gained a new emperor, +Charles V., under whose sceptre the empire of Charlemagne was in great +part restored, for his dominions included Germany, Spain, and the +Netherlands. This young monarch left Spain for Germany in 1521, and was +no sooner there than he called a great diet, to meet at Worms, that the +affairs of the empire might be regulated, and that in particular this +religious controversy, which was troubling the public mind, should be +settled. + +Thither came the princes and potentates of the realm, thither great +dignitaries of the church, among them the pope's legate, Cardinal +Alexander, who was commissioned to demand that the emperor and the +princes should call Luther to a strict account, and employ against him +the temporal power. But to the cardinal's astonishment he found that the +people of Germany had largely seceded from the papal authority. +Everywhere he met with writings, songs, and pictures in which the holy +father was treated with contempt and mockery. Even himself, as the +pope's representative, was greeted with derision, and his life at times +was endangered, despite the fact that he came in the suite of the +emperor. + +[Illustration: STATUE OF LUTHER AT WORMS.] + +The diet assembled, the cardinal, as instructed, demanded that severe +measures should be taken against the arch-heretic: the Elector of +Saxony, on the contrary, insisted that Luther should be heard in his own +defence; the emperor and the princes agreed with him, silencing the +cardinal's declaration that the diet had no right or power to question +the decision of the pope, and inviting Luther to appear before the +imperial assembly at Worms, the emperor granting him a safe-conduct. + +Possibly Charles thought that the insignificant monk would fear to come +before that august body, and the matter thus die out. Luther's friends +strongly advised him not to go. They had the experience of John Huss to +offer as argument. But Luther was not the man to be stopped by dread of +dignitaries or fear of penalties. He immediately set out from Wittenberg +for Worms, saying to his protesting friends, "Though there were as many +devils in the city as there are tiles on the roofs, still I would go." + +His journey was an ovation. The people flocked by thousands to greet and +applaud him. On his arrival at Worms two thousand people gathered and +accompanied him to his lodgings. When, on the next day, April 18, 1521, +the grand-marshal of the empire conducted him to the diet, he was +obliged to lead him across gardens and through by-ways to avoid the +throng that filled the streets of the town. + +When entering the hall, he was clapped on the shoulder by a famous +knight and general of the empire, Georg von Frundsberg, who said, "Monk, +monk, thou art in a strait the like of which myself and many leaders, in +the most desperate battles, have never known. But if thy thoughts are +just, and thou art sure of thy cause, go on, in God's name; and be of +good cheer; He will not forsake thee." + +Luther was not an imposing figure as he stood before the proud assembly +in the imperial hall. He had just recovered from a severe fever, and was +pale and emaciated. And standing there, unsupported by a single friend, +before that great assembly, his feelings were strongly excited. The +emperor remarked to his neighbor, "This man would never succeed in +making a heretic of _me_." + +But though Luther's body was weak, his mind was strong. His air quickly +became calm and dignified. He was commanded to retract the charges he +had made against the church. In reply he acknowledged that the writings +produced were his own, and declared that he was not ready to retract +them, but said that "If they can convince me from the Holy Scriptures +that I am in error, I am ready with my own hands to cast the whole of my +writings into the flames." + +The chancellor replied that what he demanded was retraction, not +dispute. This Luther refused to give. The emperor insisted on a simple +recantation, which Luther declared he could not make. For several days +the hearing continued, ending at length in the threatening declaration +of the emperor, that "he would no longer listen to Luther, but dismiss +him at once from his presence, and treat him as he would a heretic." + +There was danger in this, the greatest danger. The emperor's word had +been given, it is true; but an emperor had broken his word with John +Huss, and his successor might with Martin Luther. Charles was, indeed, +importuned to do so, but replied that his imperial word was sacred, even +if given to a heretic, and that Luther should have an extension of the +safe-conduct for twenty-one days, during his return home. + +Luther started home. It was a journey by no means free from danger. He +had powerful and unscrupulous enemies. He might be seized and carried +off by an ambush of his foes. How he was saved from peril of this sort +we have described. It was his friend and protector, Frederick, the +Elector of Saxony, who had placed the ambush of knights, his purpose +being to put Luther in a place of safety where he could lie concealed +until the feeling against him had subsided. Meanwhile, at Worms, when +the period of the safe-conduct had expired, Luther was declared out of +the ban of the empire, an outlaw whom no man was permitted to shelter, +his works were condemned to be burned wherever found, and he was +adjudged to be seized and held in durance subject to the will of the +emperor. + +What had become of the fugitive no one knew. The story spread that he +had been murdered by his enemies. For ten months he remained in +concealment and when he again appeared it was to combat a horde of +fanatical enthusiasts who had carried his doctrines to excess and were +stirring up all Germany by their wild opinions. The outbreak drew Luther +back to Wittenberg, where for eight days he preached with great +eloquence against the fanatics and finally succeeded in quelling the +disturbance. + +From that time forward Luther continued the guiding spirit of the +Protestant revolt and was looked upon with high consideration by most of +the princes of Germany, his doctrines spreading until, during his +lifetime, they extended to Moravia, Bohemia, Denmark and Sweden. Then, +in 1546, he died at Eisleben, near the castle in which he had dwelt +during the most critical period of his life. + + + + +_SOLYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT AT GUNTZ._ + + +Solyman the Magnificent, Sultan of Turkey, had collected an army of +dimensions as magnificent as his name, and was on his march to overwhelm +Austria and perhaps subject all western Europe to his arms. A few years +before he had swept Hungary with his hordes, taken and plundered its +cities of Buda and Pesth, and made the whole region his own. Belgrade, +which had been so valiantly defended against his predecessor, had fallen +into his infidel hands. The gateways of western Europe were his; he had +but to open them and march through; doubtless there had come to him +glorious dreams of extending the empire of the crescent to the western +seas. And yet the proud and powerful sultan was to be checked in his +course by an obstacle seemingly as insignificant as if the sting of a +hornet should stop the career of an elephant. The story is a remarkable +one, and deserves to be better known. + +Vast was the army which Solyman raised. He had been years in gathering +men and equipments. Great work lay before him, and he needed great means +for its accomplishment. It is said that three hundred thousand men +marched under his banners. So large was the force, so great the quantity +of its baggage and artillery, that its progress was necessarily a slow +one, and sixty days elapsed during its march from Constantinople to +Belgrade. + +Here was time for Ferdinand of Austria to bring together forces for the +defence of his dominions against the leviathan which was slowly moving +upon them. He made efforts, but they were not of the energetic sort +which the crisis demanded, and had the Turkish army been less unwieldly +and more rapid, Vienna might have fallen almost undefended into +Solyman's hands. Fortunately, large bodies move slowly, and the sultan +met with an obstacle that gave the requisite time for preparation. + +On to Belgrade swept the grand army, with its multitude of standards and +all the pomp and glory of its vast array. The slowness with which it +came was due solely to its size, not in any sense to lack of energy in +the warlike sultan. An anecdote is extant which shows his manner of +dealing with difficulties. He had sent forward an engineer with orders +to build a bridge over the river Drave, to be constructed at a certain +point, and be ready at a certain time. The engineer went, surveyed the +rapid stream, and sent back answer to the sultan that it was impossible +to construct a bridge at that point. + +But Solyman's was one of those magnificent souls that do not recognize +the impossible. He sent the messenger back to the engineer, in his hand +a linen cord, on his lips this message: + +"Your master, the sultan, commands you, without consideration of the +difficulties, to complete the bridge over the Drave. If it be not ready +for him on his arrival, he will have you strangled with this cord." + +The bridge was built. Solyman had learned the art of overcoming the +impossible. He was soon to have a lesson in the art of overcoming the +difficult. + +Belgrade was in due time reached. Here the sultan embarked his artillery +and heavy baggage on the Danube, three thousand vessels being employed +for that purpose. They were sent down the stream, under sufficient +escort, towards the Austrian capital, while the main army, lightened of +much of its load, prepared to march more expeditiously than heretofore +through Hungary towards its goal. + +Ferdinand of Austria, alarmed at the threatening approach of the Turks, +had sent rich presents and proposals of peace to Solyman at Belgrade; +but those had the sole effect of increasing his pride and making him +more confidant of victory. He sent an insulting order to the ambassadors +to follow his encampment and await his pleasure, and paid no further +heed to their pacific mission. + +The Save, an affluent of the Danube, was crossed, and the army lost +sight of the great stream, and laid its course by a direct route through +Sclavonia towards the borders of Styria, the outlying Austrian province +in that direction. It was the shortest line of march available, the +distance to be covered being about two hundred miles. On reaching the +Styrian frontier, the Illyrian mountain chain needed to be crossed, and +within it lay the obstacle with which Solyman had to contend. + +The route of the army led through a mountain pass. In this pass was a +petty and obscure town, Guntz by name, badly fortified, and garrisoned +by a mere handful of men, eight hundred in all. Its principal means of +defence lay in the presence of an indomitable commander, Nicholas +Jurissitz, a man of iron nerve and fine military skill. + +Ibrahim Pasha, who led the vanguard of the Turkish force, ordered the +occupation of this mountain fortress, and learned with anger and +mortification that Guntz had closed its gates and frowned defiance on +his men. Word was sent back to Solyman, who probably laughed in his +beard at the news. It was as if a fly had tried to stop an ox. + +"Brush it away and push onward," was probably the tenor of his orders. + +But Guntz was not to be brushed away. It stood there like an awkward +fact, its guns commanding the pass through which the army must march, a +ridiculous obstacle which had to be dealt with however time might press. + +The sultan sent orders to his advance-guard to take the town and march +on. Ibrahim Pasha pushed forward, assailed it, and found that he had not +men enough for the work. The little town with its little garrison had +the temper of a shrew, and held its own against him valiantly. A few +more battalions were sent, but still the town held out. The sultan, +enraged at this opposition, now despatched what he considered an +overwhelming force, with orders to take the town without delay, and to +punish the garrison as they deserved for their foolish obstinacy. But +what was his surprise and fury to receive word that the pigmy still held +out stubbornly against the leviathan, that all their efforts to take it +were in vain, and that its guns commanded and swept the pass so that it +was impossible to advance under its storm of death-dealing balls. + +Thundering vengeance, Solyman now ordered his whole army to advance, +sweep that insolent and annoying obstacle from the face of the earth, +and then march on towards the real goal of their enterprise, the still +distant city of Vienna, the capital and stronghold of the Christian +dogs. + +Upon Guntz burst the whole storm of the war, against Guntz it thundered, +around Guntz it lightened; yet still Guntz stood, proud, insolent, +defiant, like a rock in the midst of the sea, battered by the waves of +war's tempest, yet rising still in unyielding strength, and dashing back +the bloody spray which lashed its walls in vain. + +Solyman's pride was roused. That town he must and would have. He might +have marched past it and left it in the rear, though not without great +loss and danger, for the pass was narrow and commanded by the guns of +Guntz, and he would have had to run the gantlet of a hailstorm of iron +balls. But he had no thought of passing it; his honor was involved. +Guntz must be his and its insolent garrison punished, or how could +Solyman the Magnificent ever hold up his head among monarchs and +conquerors again? + +On every side the town was assailed; cannon surrounded it and poured +their balls upon its walls; they were planted on the hills in its rear; +they were planted on lofty mounds of earth which overtopped its walls +and roofs; from every direction they thundered threat; to every +direction Guntz thundered back defiance. + +An attempt was made to undermine the walls, but in vain; the commandant, +Jurissitz, was far too vigilant to be reached by burrowing. Breach after +breach was made in the walls, and as quickly repaired, or new walls +built. Assault after assault was made and hurled back. Every effort was +baffled by the skill, vigor, and alertness of the governor and the +unyielding courage of his men, and still the days went by and still +Guntz stood. + +Solyman, indignant and alarmed, tried the effect of promises, bribes, +and threats. Jurissitz and his garrison should be enriched if they +yielded; they should die under torture if they persisted. These efforts +proved as useless as cannon-balls. The indomitable Jurissitz resisted +promises and threats as energetically as he had resisted shot and balls. + +The days went on. For twenty-eight days that insignificant fortress and +its handful of men defied the great Turkish army and held it back in +that mountain-pass. In the end the sultan, with all his pride and all +his force, was obliged to accept a feigned submission and leave +Jurissitz and his men still in possession of the fortress they had held +so long and so well. + +They had held it long enough to save Austria, as it proved. While the +sultan's cannon were vainly bombarding its walls, Europe was gathering +around Vienna in defence. From every side troops hurried to the +salvation of Austria from the Turks. Italy, the Netherlands, Bohemia. +Poland, Germany, sent their quotas, till an army of one hundred and +thirty thousand men were gathered around Vienna, thirty thousand of them +being cavalry. + +Solyman was appalled at the tidings brought him. It had become a +question of arithmetic to his barbarian intellect. If Guntz, with less +than a thousand men, could defy him for a month, what might not Vienna +do with more than a hundred thousand? Winter was not far away. It was +already September. He was separated from his flotilla of artillery. Was +it safe to advance? He answered the question by suddenly striking camp +and retreating with such haste that his marauding horsemen, who were out +in large numbers, were left in ignorance of the movement, and were +nearly all taken or cut to pieces. + +Thus ingloriously ended one of the most pretentious invasions of Europe. +For three years Solyman had industriously prepared, gathering the +resources of his wide dominion to the task and fulminating infinite +disaster to the infidels. Yet eight hundred men in a petty mountain town +had brought this great enterprise to naught and sent back the mighty +army of the grand Turk in inglorious retreat. + +[Illustration: THE MOSQUE OF SOLYMAN, CONSTANTINOPLE.] + +The story of Guntz has few parallels in history; the courage and ability +of its commander were of the highest type of military worthiness; yet +its story is almost unknown and the name of Jurissitz is not classed +among those of the world's heroes. Such is fame. + +There is another interesting story of the doings of Solyman and the +gallant defence of a Christian town, which is worthy of telling as an +appendix to that just given. The assault at Guntz took place in the year +1532. In 1566, when Solyman was much older, though perhaps not much +wiser, we find him at his old work, engaged in besieging the small +Hungarian town of Szigeth, west of Mohacs and north of the river Drave, +a stronghold surrounded by the small stream Almas almost as by the +waters of a lake. It was defended by a Croatian named Zrinyr and a +garrison of twenty-five hundred men. + +Around this town the Turkish army raged and thundered in its usual +fashion. Within it the garrison defended themselves with all the spirit +and energy they could muster. Step by step the Turks advanced. The +outskirts of the town were destroyed by fire and the assailants were +within its walls. The town being no longer tenable, Zrinyr took refuge, +with what remained of the garrison, in the fortress, and still bade +defiance to his foes. + +Solyman, impatient at the delay caused by the obstinacy of the defender, +tried with him the same tactics he had employed with Jurissitz many +years before,--those of threats and promises. Tempting offers of wealth +proving of no avail, the sultan threatened the bold commander with the +murder of his son George, a prisoner in his hands. This proved equally +unavailing, and the siege went on. + +It went on, indeed, until Solyman was himself vanquished, and by an +enemy he had not taken into account in his thirst for glory--the grim +warrior Death. Temper killed him. In a fit of passion he suddenly died. +But the siege went on. The vizier concealed his death and kept the +batteries at work, perhaps deeming it best for his own fortunes to be +able to preface the announcement of the sultan's death with a victory. + +The castle walls had been already crumbling under the storm of balls. +Soon they were in ruins. The place was no longer tenable. Yet Zrinyr was +as far as ever from thoughts of surrender. He dressed himself in his +most magnificent garments, filled his pockets with gold, "that they +might find something on his corpse," and dashed on the Turks at the head +of what soldiers were left. He died, but not unrevenged. Only after his +death was the Turkish army told that their great sultan was no more and +that they owed their victory to the shadow of the genius of Solyman the +Magnificent. + + + + +THE PEASANTS AND THE ANABAPTISTS. + + +Germany, in great part, under the leadership of Martin Luther, had +broken loose from the Church of Rome, the ball which he had set rolling +being kept in motion by other hands. The ideas of many of those who +followed him were full of the spirit of fanaticism. The pendulum of +religious thought, set in free swing, vibrated from the one extreme of +authority to the opposite extreme of license, going as far beyond Luther +as he had gone beyond Rome. There arose a sect to which was given the +name of Anabaptists, from its rejection of infant baptism, a sect with a +strange history, which it now falls to us to relate. + +The new movement, indeed, was not confined to matters of religion. The +idea of freedom from authority once set afloat, quickly went further +than its advocates intended. If men were to have liberty of thought, why +should they not have liberty of action? So argued the peasantry, and not +without the best of reasons, for they were pitifully oppressed by the +nobility, weighed down with feudal exactions to support the luxury of +the higher classes, their crops destroyed by the horses and dogs of +hunting-parties, their families ill-treated and insulted by the +men-at-arms who were maintained at their expense, their flight from +tyranny to the freedom of the cities prohibited by nobles and citizens +alike, everywhere enslaved, everywhere despised, it is no wonder they +joined with gladness in the revolutionary sentiment and made a vigorous +demand for political liberty. + +As a result of all this an insurrection broke out,--a double +insurrection in fact,--here of the peasantry for their rights, there of +the religious fanatics for their license. Suddenly all Germany was +upturned by the greatest and most dangerous outbreak of the laboring +classes it had ever known, a revolt which, had it been ably led, might +have revolutionized society and founded a completely new order of +things. + +In 1522 the standard of revolt was first raised, its signal a golden +shoe, with the motto, "Whoever will be free let him follow this ray of +light." In 1524 a fresh insurrection broke out, and in the spring of the +following year the whole country was aflame, the peasants of southern +Germany being everywhere in arms and marching on the strongholds of +their oppressors. + +Their demands were by no means extreme. They asked for a board of +arbitration, to consist of the Archduke Ferdinand, the Elector of +Saxony, Luther, Melanchthon, and several preachers, to consider their +proposed articles of reform in industrial and political concerns. These +articles covered the following points. They asked the right to choose +their own pastors, who were to preach the word of God from the Bible; +the abolition of dues, except tithes to the clergy; the abolition of +vassalage; the rights of hunting and fishing, and of cutting wood in the +forests; reforms in rent, in the administration of justice, and in the +methods of application of the laws; the restoration of communal property +illegally seized; and several other matters of the same general +character. + +They asked in vain. The princes ridiculed the idea of a court in which +Luther should sit side by side with the archduke. Luther refused to +interfere. He admitted the oppression of the peasantry, severely +attacked the princes and nobility for their conduct, but deprecated the +excesses which the insurgents had already committed, and saw no safety +from worse evils except in putting down the peasantry with a strong +hand. + +The rejection of the demands of the rebellious peasants was followed by +a frightful reign of license, political in the south, religious in the +north. Everywhere the people were in arms, destroying castles, burning +monasteries, and forcing numbers of the nobles to join them, under pain +of having their castles plundered and burned. The counts of Hohenlohe +were made to enter their ranks, and were told, "Brother Albert and +brother George, you are no longer lords but peasants, and we are the +lords of Hohenlohe." Other nobles were similarly treated. Various +Swabian nobles fled for safety, with their families and treasures, to +the city and castle of Weinsberg. The castle was stormed and taken, and +the nobles, seventy in number, were forced to run the gantlet between +two lines of men armed with spears, who stabbed them as they passed. It +was this deed that brought out a pamphlet from Luther, in which he +called on all the citizens of the empire to put down "the furious +peasantry, to strangle, to stab them, secretly and openly, as they can, +as one would kill a mad dog." + +There was need for something to be done if Germany was to be saved from +a revolution. The numbers of the insurgents steadily increased. Many of +the cities were in league with them, several of the princes entered in +negotiation concerning their demands; in Thuringia the Anabaptists, +under the lead of a fanatical preacher named Thomas Muenzer, were in full +revolt; in Saxony, Hesse, and lower Germany the peasantry were in arms; +there was much reason to fear that the insurgents and fanatics would +join their forces and pour like a rushing torrent through the whole +empire, destroying all before them. Of the many peasant revolts which +the history of mediaevalism records this was the most threatening and +dangerous, and called for the most strenuous exertions to save the +institutions of Germany from a complete overthrow. + +At the head of the main body of insurgents was a knight of notorious +character, the famed Goetz von Berlichingen,--Goetz with the Iron Hand, +as he is named,--a robber baron whose history had been one of feud and +contest, and of the plunder alike of armed foes and unarmed travellers. +Goethe has honored him by making him the hero of a drama, and the +peasantry sought to honor him by making him the leader of their march of +destruction. This worthy had lost his hand during youth, and replaced it +with a hand of iron. He was bold, daring, and unscrupulous, but scarcely +fitted for generalship, his knowledge of war being confined to the +tactics of highway robbery. Nor can it be said that his leadership of +the peasants was voluntary. He was as much their prisoner as their +general, his service being an enforced one. + +With the redoubtable Goetz at their head the insurgents poured onward, +spreading terror before them, leaving ruin behind them. Castles and +monasteries were destroyed, until throughout Thuringia, Franconia, +Swabia, and along the Rhine as far as Lorraine the homes of lords and +clergy were destroyed, and a universal scene of smoking ruins replaced +the formerly stately architectural piles. + +We cannot go further into the details of this notable outbreak. The +revolt of the southern peasantry was at length brought to an end by an +army collected by the Swabian league, and headed by George Truchsess of +Waldburg. Had they marched against him in force he could not have +withstood their onset. But they occupied themselves in sieges, +disregarding the advice of their leaders, and permitted themselves to be +attacked and beaten in detail. Seeing that all was at an end, Goetz von +Berlichingen secretly fled from their ranks and took refuge in his +castle. Many of the bodies of peasantry dispersed. Others made head +against the troops and were beaten with great slaughter. All was at an +end. + +Truchsess held a terrible court of justice in the city of Wuerzburg, in +which his jester Hans acted as executioner, and struck off the heads of +numbers of the prisoners, the bloody work being attended with laughter +and jests, which added doubly to its horror. All who acknowledged that +they had read the Bible, or even that they knew how to read and write, +were instantly beheaded. The priest of Schipf, a gouty old man who had +vigorously opposed the peasants, had himself carried by four of his men +to Truchsess to receive thanks for his services. Hans, fancying that he +was one of the rebels, slipped up behind him, and in an instant his head +was rolling on the floor. + +"I seriously reproved my good Hans for his untoward jest," was the easy +comment of Truchsess upon this circumstance. + +Throughout Germany similar slaughter of the peasantry and wholesale +executions took place. In many places the reprisal took the dimensions +of a massacre, and it is said that by the end of the frightful struggle +more than a hundred thousand of the peasants had been slain. As for its +political results, the survivors were reduced to a deeper state of +servitude than before. Thus ended a great struggle which had only needed +an able leader to make it a success and to free the people from feudal +bonds. It ended like all the peasant outbreaks, in defeat and renewed +oppression. As for the robber chief Goetz, while he is said by several +historians to have received a sentence of life imprisonment, Menzel +states that he was retained in prison for two years only. + +In Thuringia, as we have said, the revolt was a religious one, it being +controlled by Thomas Muenzer, a fanatical Anabaptist. He pretended that +he had the gift of receiving divine revelations, and claimed to be +better able to reveal Christian truth than Luther. God had created the +earth, he said, for believers, all government should be regulated by the +Bible and revelation, and there was no need of princes, priests, or +nobles. The distinction between rich and poor was unchristian, since in +God's kingdom all should be alike. Nicholas Storch, one of Muenzer's +preachers, surrounded himself with twelve apostles and seventy-two +disciples, and claimed that an angel brought him divine messages. + +Driven from Saxony by the influence of Luther, Muenzer went to Thuringia, +and gained such control by his preaching and his doctrines over the +people of the town of Muelhausen that all the wealthy people were driven +away, their property confiscated, and the sole control of the place fell +into his hands. + +So great was the disturbance caused by his fanatical teachings and the +exertions of his disciples that Luther again bestirred himself, and +called on the princes for the suppression of Muenzer and his fanatical +horde. A division of the army was sent into Thuringia, and came up with +a large body of the Anabaptists near Frankenhausen, on May 15, 1525. +Muenzer was in command of the peasants. The army officers, hoping to +bring them to terms by lenient measures, offered to pardon them if they +would give up their leaders and peacefully retire to their homes. This +offer might have been effective but for Muenzer, who, foreseeing danger +to himself, did his utmost to awaken the fanaticism of his followers. + +It happened that a rainbow appeared in the heavens during the +discussion. This, he declared, was a messenger sent to him from God. His +ignorant audience believed him, and for the moment were stirred up to a +mad enthusiasm which banished all thoughts of surrender. Rushing in +their fury on the ambassadors of peace and pardon, they stabbed them to +death, and then took shelter behind their intrenchments, where they +prepared for a vigorous defence. + +Their courage, however, did not long endure the vigorous assault made by +the troops of the elector. In vain they looked for the host of angels +which Muenzer had promised would come to their aid. Not the glimpse of an +angel's wing appeared in the sky. Muenzer himself took to flight, and his +infatuated followers, their blind courage vanished, fell an easy prey to +the swords of the soldiers. + +The greater part of the peasant horde were slain, while Muenzer, who had +concealed himself from pursuit in the loft of a house in Frankenhausen, +was quickly discovered, dragged forth, put to the rack, and beheaded, +his death putting an end to that first phase of the Anabaptist outbreak. + +[Illustration: OLD HOUSES AT MUeNSTER.] + +After this event, several years passed during which the Anabaptists kept +quiet, though their sect increased. Then came one of the most remarkable +religious revolts which history records. Persecution in Germany had +caused many of the new sectarians to emigrate to the Netherlands, where +their preachings were effective, and many new members were gained. But +the persecution instigated by Charles V. against heretics in the +Netherlands fell heavily upon them and gave rise to a new emigration, +great numbers of the Anabaptists now seeking the town of Muenster, the +capital of Westphalia. The citizens of this town had expelled their +bishop, and had in consequence been treated with great severity by +Luther, in his effort to keep the cause of religious reform separate +from politics. The new-comers were received with enthusiasm, and the +people of Muenster quickly fell under the influence of two of their +fanatical preachers, John Matthiesen, a baker, of Harlem, and John +Bockhold, or Bockelson, a tailor, of Leyden. + +Muenster soon became the seat of an extraordinary outburst of profligacy, +fanaticism, and folly. The Anabaptists took possession of the town, +drove out all its wealthy citizens, elected two of themselves--a +clothier named Knipperdolling and one Krechting--as burgomasters, and +started off in a remarkable career of self-government under Anabaptist +auspices. + +A community of property was the first measure inaugurated. Every person +was required to deposit all his possessions, in gold, silver, and other +articles of value, in a public treasury, which fell under the control of +Bockelson, who soon made himself lord of the city. All the images, +pictures, ornaments, and books of the churches, except their Bibles, +were publicly burned. All persons were obliged to eat together at public +tables, all made to work according to their strength and without regard +to their former station, and a general condition of communism was +established. Bockelson gave himself out as a prophet, and quickly gained +such influence over the people that they were ready to support him in +the utmost excesses of folly and profligacy. + +One of the earliest steps taken was to authorize each man to possess +several wives, the number of women who had sought Muenster being six +times greater than the men. John Bockelson set the example by marrying +three at once. His licentious example was quickly followed by others, +and for a full year the town continued a scene of unbridled profligacy +and mad license. One of John's partisans, claiming to have received a +divine communication, saluted him as monarch of the whole globe, the +"King of Righteousness," his title of royalty being "John of Leyden," +and declared that heaven had chosen him to restore the throne of David. +Twenty-eight apostles were selected and sent out, charged to preach the +new gospel to the whole earth and to bring its inhabitants to +acknowledge the divinely-commissioned king. Their success was not +great, however. Wherever they came they were seized and immediately +executed, the earth showing itself very unwilling to accept John of +Leyden as its king. + +In August, 1534, an army, led by Francis of Waldeck, the expelled +bishop, who was supported by the landgrave of Hesse and several other +princes, advanced and laid siege to the city, which the Anabaptists +defended with furious zeal. In the first assault, which was made on +August 30, the assailants were repulsed with severe loss. They then +settled down to the slower but safer process of siege, considering it +easier to starve out than to fight out their enthusiastic opponents. + +One of the two leaders of the citizens, John Matthiesen, made a sortie +against the troops with only thirty followers, filled with the idea that +he was a second Gideon, and that God would come to his aid to defeat the +oppressors of His chosen people. The aid expected did not come, and +Matthiesen and his followers were all cut down. His death left John of +Leyden supreme. He claimed absolute authority in the new "Zion," +received daily fresh visions from heaven, which his followers implicitly +believed and obeyed, and indulged in wild excesses which only the insane +enthusiasm of his followers kept them from viewing with disgust. Among +his mad freaks was that of running around the streets naked, shouting, +"The King of Zion is come." His lieutenant Knipperdolling, not to be +outdone in fanaticism, followed his example, shouting, "Every high place +shall be brought low." Immediately the mob assailed the churches and +pulled down all the steeples. Those who ventured to resist the monarch's +decrees were summarily dealt with, the block and axe, with +Knipperdolling as headsman, quickly disposing of all doubters and +rebels. + +Such was the doom of Elizabeth, one of the prophet's wives, who declared +that she could not believe that God had condemned so many people to die +of hunger while their king was living in abundance. John beheaded her +with his own hands in the market-place, and then, in insane frenzy, +danced around her body in company with his other wives. Her loss was +speedily repaired. The angels were kept busy in picking out new wives +for the inspired tailor, till in the end he had seventeen in all, one of +whom, Divara by name, gained great influence by her spirit and beauty. + +While all this was going on within the city, the army of besiegers lay +encamped about it, waiting patiently till famine should subdue the +stubborn courage of the citizens. Numbers of nobles flocked thither by +way of pastime, in the absence of any other wars to engage their +attention. Nor were the citizens without aid from a distance. Parties of +their brethren from Holland and Friesland sought to relieve them, but in +vain. All their attempts were repelled, and the siege grew straiter than +ever. + +The defence from within was stubborn, women and boys being enlisted in +the service. The boys stood between the men and fired arrows effectively +at the besiegers. The women poured lime and melted pitch upon their +heads. So obstinate was the resistance that the city might have held out +for years but for the pinch of famine. The effect of this was +temporarily obviated by driving all the old men and the women who could +be spared beyond the walls; but despite this the grim figure of +starvation came daily nearer and nearer, and the day of surrender or +death steadily approached. + +A year at length went by, the famine growing in virulence with the +passing of the days. Hundreds perished of starvation, yet still the +people held out with a fanatical courage that defied assault, still +their king kept up their courage by divine revelations, and still he +contrived to keep himself sufficiently supplied with food amid his +starving dupes. + +At length the end came. Some of the despairing citizens betrayed the +town by night to the enemy. On the night of June 25, 1535, two of them +opened the gates to the bishop's army, and a sanguinary scene ensued. +The betrayed citizens defended themselves desperately, and were not +vanquished until great numbers of them had fallen and the work of famine +had been largely completed by the sword. John of Leyden was made +prisoner, together with his two chief men,--Knipperdolling, his +executioner, and Krechting, his chancellor,--they being reserved for a +slower and more painful fate. + +For six months they were carried through Germany, enclosed in iron +cages, and exhibited as monsters to the people. Then they were taken +back to Muenster, where they were cruelly tortured, and at length put to +death by piercing their hearts with red-hot daggers. + +Their bodies were placed in iron cages, and suspended on the front of +the church of St. Lambert, in the market-place of Muenster, while the +Catholic worship was re-established in that city. The cages, and the +instruments of torture, are still preserved, probably as salutary +examples to fanatics, or as interesting mementos of Muenster's past +history. + +The Muenster madness was the end of trouble with the Anabaptists. They +continued to exist, in a quieter fashion, some of them that fled from +persecution in Germany and Holland finding themselves exposed to almost +as severe a persecution in England. As a sect they have long since +vanished, while the only trace of their influence is to be seen in those +recent sects that hold the doctrine of adult baptism. + +The history of mankind presents no parallel tale to that we have told. +It was an instance of insanity placed in power, of lunacy ruling over +ignorance and fanaticism; and the doings of John of Leyden in Muenster +may be presented as an example alike of the mad extremes to which +unquestioned power is apt to lead, and the vast capabilities of faith +and trust which exist in uneducated man. + + + + +_THE FORTUNES OF WALLENSTEIN._ + +[Illustration: WALLENSTEIN.] + +Wallenstein was in power, Wallenstein the mysterious, the ambitious, the +victorious; soldier of fortune and arbiter of empires; reader of the +stars and ally of the powers of darkness; poor by birth and rich by +marriage and imperial favor; an extraordinary man, surrounded by mystery +and silence, victorious through ability and audacity, rising from +obscurity to be master of the emperor, and falling at length by the hand +of assassination. In person he was tall and thin, in countenance sallow +and lowering, his eyes small and piercing, his forehead high and +commanding, his hair short and bristling, his expression dark and +sinister. Fortune was his deity, ambition ruled him with the sway of a +tyrant; he was born with the conquering instinct, and in the end handed +over all Germany, bound and captive, to his imperial master, and retired +to brood new conquests. + +Albert von Wallenstein was Bohemian by birth, Prague being his native +city. His parents were Lutherans, but they died, and he was educated as +a Catholic. He travelled with an astrologer, and was taught cabalistic +lore and the secrets of the stars, which he ever after believed to +control his destiny. His fortune began in his marriage to an aged but +very wealthy widow, who almost put an end to his career by +administering to him a love-potion. He had already served in the army, +fought against the Turks in Hungary, and with his wife's money raised a +regiment for the wars in Bohemia. A second marriage with a rich countess +added to his wealth; he purchased, at a fifth of their value, about +sixty estates of the exiled Bohemian nobility, and paid for them in +debased coin; the emperor, in recognition of his services, made him Duke +of Friedland, in which alone there were nine towns and fifty-seven +castles and villages; his wealth, through these marriages, purchases, +and gifts, steadily increased till he became enormously rich, and the +wealthiest man in Germany, next to the emperor. + +This extraordinary man was born in an extraordinary time, a period +admirably calculated for the exercise of his talents, and sadly suited +to the suffering of mankind in consequence. It was the period of the +frightful conflict known as the Thirty Years' War. A century had passed +since the Diet of Worms, in which Protestantism first boldly lifted its +head against Catholicism. During that period the new religious doctrines +had gained a firm footing in Germany. Charles V. had done his utmost to +put them down, and, discouraged by his failure, had abdicated the +throne. In his retreat he is said to have amused his leisure in seeking +to make two watches go precisely alike. The effort proved as vain as +that to make two people think alike, and he exclaimed, "Not even two +watches, with similar works, can I make to agree, and yet, fool that I +was, I thought I should be able to control like the works of a watch +different nations, living under diverse skies, in different climes, and +speaking varied languages." Those who followed him were to meet with a +similar result. + +The second effort to put down Protestantism by arms began in 1618, and +led to that frightful outbreak of human virulence, the Thirty Years' +War, which made Germany a desert, but left religion as it found it. The +emperor, Ferdinand II., a rigid Catholic, bitterly opposed to the spread +of Protestantism, had ordered the demolition of two new churches built +by the Bohemian Protestants. His order led to instant hostilities. Count +Thurn, a fierce Bohemian nobleman, had the emperor's representatives, +Slawata and Martinitz by name, flung out of the window of the +council-chamber in Prague, a height of seventy or more feet, and their +secretary Fabricius flung after them. It was a terrible fall, but they +escaped, for a pile of litter and old papers lay below. Fabricius fell +on Martinitz, and, polite to the last, begged his pardon for coming down +upon him so rudely. This act of violence, which occurred on May 23, +1618, is looked upon as the true beginning of the dreadful war. + +Matters moved rapidly. Bohemia was conquered by the imperial armies, its +nobles exiled or executed, its religion suppressed. This victory gained, +an effort was made to suppress Lutheranism in Upper Austria. It led to a +revolt, and soon the whole country was in a flame of war. Tilly and +Pappenheim, the imperial commanders, swept all before them, until they +suddenly found themselves opposed by a man their equal in ability, Count +Mansfeld, who had played an active part in the Bohemian wars. + +A diminutive, deformed, sickly-looking man was Mansfeld, but he had the +soul of a soldier in his small frame. No sooner was his standard raised +than the Protestants flocked to it, and he quickly found himself at the +head of twenty thousand men. But as the powerful princes failed to +support him he was compelled to subsist his troops by pillage, an +example which was followed by all the leaders during that dreadful +contest. + +And now began a frightful struggle, a game of war on the chess-board of +a nation, in which the people were the helpless pawns and suffered alike +from friends and foes. Neither side gained any decisive victory, but +both sides plundered and ravaged, the savage soldiery, unrestrained and +unrestrainable, committing cruel excesses wherever they came. + +Such was the state of affairs which preceded the appearance of +Wallenstein on the field of action. The soldiers led by Tilly were those +of the Catholic League; Ferdinand, the emperor, had no troops of his own +in the field; Wallenstein, discontented that the war should be going on +without him, offered to raise an imperial army, paying the most of its +expenses himself, but stipulating, in return, that he should have +unlimited control. The emperor granted all his demands, and made him +Duke of Friedland as a preliminary reward, Wallenstein agreeing to raise +ten thousand men. + +No sooner was his standard raised than crowds flocked to it, and an army +of forty thousand soldiers of fortune were soon ready to follow him to +plunder and victory. His fame as a soldier, and the free pillage which +he promised, had proved irresistible inducements to war-loving +adventurers of all nations and creeds. In a few months the army was +raised and fully equipped, and in the autumn of 1625 took the field, +growing as it marched. + +Christian IV., the Lutheran king of Denmark, had joined in the war, and +Tilly, jealous of Wallenstein, vigorously sought to overcome his new +adversaries before his rival could reach the field of conflict. He +succeeded, too, in great measure, reducing many of the Protestant towns +and routing the army of the Danish king. + +Meanwhile, Wallenstein came on, his army growing until sixty thousand +men--a wild and undisciplined horde--followed his banners. Mansfeld, who +had received reinforcements from England and Holland, opposed him, but +was too weak to face him successfully in the field. He was defeated on +the bridge of Dessau, and marched rapidly into Silesia, whither +Wallenstein, much to his chagrin, was compelled to follow him. + +From Silesia, Mansfeld marched into Hungary, still pursued by +Wallenstein. Here he was badly received, because he had not brought the +money expected by the king. His retreat cut off, and without the means +of procuring supplies in that remote country, the valiant warrior found +himself at the end of his resources. Return was impossible, for +Wallenstein occupied the roads. In the end he was forced to sell his +artillery and ammunition, disband his army, and proceed southward +towards Venice, whence he hoped to reach England and procure a new +supply of funds. But on arriving at the village of Urakowitz, in Bosnia, +his strength, worn out by incessant struggles and fatigues, gave way, +and the noble warrior, the last hope of Protestantism in Germany, as it +seemed, breathed his last, a disheartened fugitive. + +On feeling the approach of death, he had himself clothed in his military +coat, and his sword buckled to his side. Thus equipped, and standing +between two friends, who supported him upright, the brave Mansfeld +breathed his last. His death left his cause almost without a supporter, +for the same year his friend, Duke Christian of Brunswick, expired, and +with them the Protestants lost their only able leaders; King Christian +of Denmark, their principal successor, being greatly wanting in the +requisites of military genius. + +Ferdinand seemed triumphant and the cause of his opponents lost. All +opposition, for the time, was at an end. Tilly, whose purposes were the +complete restoration of Catholicism in Germany, held the provinces +conquered by him with an iron hand. Wallenstein, who seemingly had in +view the weakening of the power of the League and the raising of the +emperor to absolutism, broke down all opposition before his irresistible +march. + +His army had gradually increased till it numbered one hundred thousand +men,--a host which it cost him nothing to support, for it subsisted on +the devastated country. He advanced through Silesia, driving all his +enemies before him; marched into Holstein, in order to force the King of +Denmark to leave Germany; invaded and devastated Jutland and Silesia; +and added to his immense estate the duchy of Sagan and the whole of +Mecklenburg, which latter was given him by the emperor in payment of his +share of the expenses of the war. This raised him to the rank of prince. +As for Denmark, he proposed to get rid of its king and have Ferdinand +elected in his stead. + +The career of this incomprehensible man had been strangely successful. +Not a shadow of reverse had met him. What he really intended no one +knew. As his enemies decreased he increased his forces. Was it the +absolutism of the emperor or of himself that he sought? Several of the +princes appealed to Ferdinand to relieve their dominions from the +oppressive burden of war, but the emperor was weaker than his general, +and dared not act against him. The whole of north Germany lay prostrate +beneath the powerful warrior, and obeyed his slightest nod. He lived in +a style of pomp and ostentation far beyond that of the emperor himself. +His officers imitated him in extravagance. Even his soldiers lived in +luxury. To support this lavish display many thousands of human beings +languished in misery, starvation threatened whole provinces, and +destitution everywhere prevailed. + +From Mecklenburg, Wallenstein fixed his ambitious eyes on Pomerania, +which territory he grew desirous of adding to his dominions. Here was an +important commercial city, Stralsund, a member of the Hanseatic League, +and one which enjoyed the privilege of self-government. It had +contributed freely to the expenses of the imperial army, but +Wallenstein, in furtherance of his designs upon Pomerania, now +determined to place in it a garrison of his own troops. + +This was an interference with their vested rights which roused the wrath +of the citizens of Stralsund. They refused to receive the troops sent +them: Wallenstein, incensed, determined to teach the insolent burghers a +lesson, and bade General Arnim to march against and lay siege to the +place, doubting not that it would be quickly at his mercy. + +He was destined to a disappointment. Stralsund was to put the first +check upon his uniformly successful career. The citizens defended their +walls with obstinate courage. Troops, ammunition, and provisions were +sent them from Denmark and Sweden, and they continued to oppose a +successful resistance to every effort to reduce them. + +This unlooked for perversity of the Stralsunders filled the soul of +Wallenstein with rage. It seemed to him unexampled insolence that these +merchants should dare defy his conquering troops. "Even if this +Stralsund be linked by chains to the very heavens above," he declared, +"still I swear it shall fall!" + +He advanced in person against the city and assailed it with his whole +army, bringing all the resources at his command to bear against its +walls. But with heroic courage the citizens held their own. Weeks +passed, while he continued to thunder upon it with shot and shell. The +Stralsunders thundered back. His most furious assaults were met by them +with a desperate valor which in time left his ranks twelve thousand men +short. In the end, to his unutterable chagrin, he was forced to raise +the siege and march away, leaving the valiant burghers lords of their +homes. + +The war now seemingly came to its conclusion. The King of Denmark asked +for peace, which the emperor granted, and terms were signed at Luebeck on +May 12, 1629. The contest was, for the time being, at an end, for there +was no longer any one to oppose the emperor. For twelve years it had +continued, its ravages turning rich provinces into deserts, and making +beggars and fugitives of wealthy citizens. The opposition of the +Protestants was at an end, and there were but two disturbing elements of +the seemingly pacific situation. + +One of these was the purpose which the Catholic party soon showed to +suppress Protestantism and bring what they considered the heretical +provinces again under the dominion of the pope. The other was the army +of Wallenstein, whose intolerable tyranny over friends and foes alike +had now passed the bounds of endurance. From all sides complaints +reached the emperor's ears, charges of pillage, burnings, outrages, and +shameful oppressions of every sort inflicted by the imperial troops upon +the inhabitants of the land. So many were the complaints that it was +impossible to disregard them. The whole body of princes--every one of +whom cordially hated Wallenstein--joined in the outcry, and in the end +Ferdinand, with some hesitation, yielded to their wishes, and bade the +general to disband his forces. + +Would he obey? That was next to be seen. The mighty chief was in a +position to defy princes and emperor if he chose. The plundering bands +who followed him were his own, not the emperor's soldiers; they knew but +one master and were ready to obey his slightest word; had he given the +order to advance upon Vienna and drive the emperor himself from his +throne, there is no question but that they would have obeyed. As may be +imagined, then, the response of Wallenstein was awaited in fear and +anxiety. Should ambition counsel him to revolution, the very foundations +of the empire might be shaken. What, then, was the delight of princes +and people when word came that he had accepted the emperor's command +without a word, and at once ordered the disbanding of his troops. + +The stars were perhaps responsible for this. Astrology was his passion, +and the planetary conjunctions seemed then to be in favor of submission. +The man was superstitious, with all his clear-sighted ability, and +permitted himself to be governed by influences which have long since +lost their force upon men's minds. + +"I do not complain against or reproach the emperor," he said to the +imperial deputies; "the stars have already indicated to me that the +spirit of the Elector of Bavaria holds sway in the imperial councils. +But his majesty, in dismissing his troops, is rejecting the most +precious jewel of his crown." + +The event which we have described took place in September, 1630. +Wallenstein, having paid off and dispersed his great army to the four +winds, retired to his duchy of Friedland, and took up his residence at +Gitschen, which had been much enlarged and beautified by his orders. +Here he quietly waited and observed the progress of events. + +He had much of interest to observe. The effort of Ferdinand and his +advisers to drive Protestantism out of Germany had produced an effect +which none of them anticipated. The war, which had seemed at an end, was +quickly afoot again, with a new leader of the Protestant cause, new +armies, and new fortunes. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, had come to +the rescue of his threatened fellow-believers, and before the army of +Wallenstein had been dissolved the work of the peace-makers was set +aside, and the horrors of war returned. + +The dismissed general had now left Gitschen for Bohemia, where he dwelt +upon his estates in a style of regal luxury, and in apparent disregard +of the doings of emperors and kings. His palace in Prague was royal in +its adornments, and while his enemies were congratulating themselves on +having forced him into retirement, he had Italian artists at work +painting on the walls of this palace his figure in the character of a +conqueror, his triumphal car drawn by four milk-white steeds, while a +star shone above his laurel-crowned head. Sixty pages, of noble birth, +richly attired in blue and gold velvet, waited upon him, while some of +his officers and chamberlains had served the emperor in the same rank. +In his magnificent stables were three hundred horses of choice breeds, +while the daily gathering of distinguished men in his halls was not +surpassed by the assemblies of the emperor himself. + +Yet in his demeanor there was nothing to show that he entertained a +shadow of his former ambition. He affected the utmost ease and +tranquillity of manner, and seemed as if fully content with his present +state, and as if he cared no longer who fought the wars of the world. + +But inwardly his ambition had in no sense declined. He beheld the +progress of the Swedish conqueror with secret joy, and when he saw Tilly +overthrown at Leipsic, and the fruits of twelve years of war wrested +from the emperor at a single blow, his heart throbbed high with hope. +His hour of revenge upon the emperor had come. Ferdinand must humiliate +himself and come for aid to his dismissed general, for there was not +another man in the kingdom capable of saving it from the triumphant foe. + +He was right. The emperor's deputies came. He was requested, begged, to +head again the imperial armies. He received the envoys coldly. Urgent +persuasions were needed to induce him to raise an army of thirty +thousand men. Even then he would not agree to take command of it. He +would raise it and put it at the emperor's disposal. + +He planted his standard; the men came; many of them his old followers. +Plenty and plunder were promised, and thousands flocked to his tents. By +March of 1632 the thirty thousand men were collected. Who should command +them? There was but one, and this the emperor and Wallenstein alike +knew. They would follow only the man to whose banner they had flocked. + +The emperor begged him to take command. He consented, but only on +conditions to which an emperor has rarely agreed. Wallenstein was to +have exclusive control of the army, without interference of any kind, +was to be given irresponsible control over all the provinces he might +conquer, was to hold as security a portion of the Austrian patrimonial +estates, and after the war might choose any of the hereditary estates of +the empire for his seat of retirement. The emperor acceded, and +Wallenstein, clothed with almost imperial power, marched to war. His +subsequent fortunes the next narrative must declare. + + + + +_THE END OF TWO GREAT SOLDIERS._ + + +Two armies faced each other in central Bavaria, two armies on which the +fate of Germany depended, those of Gustavus Adolphus, the right hand of +Protestantism, and of Wallenstein, the hope of Catholic imperialism. +Gustavus was strongly intrenched in the vicinity of Nuremberg, with an +army of but sixteen thousand men. Wallenstein faced him with an army of +sixty thousand, yet dared not attack him in his strong position. He +occupied himself in efforts to make his camp as impregnable as that of +his foeman, and the two great opponents lay waiting face to face, while +famine slowly decimated their ranks. + +It was an extraordinary position. Both sides depended for food on +foraging, and between them they had swept the country clean. The +peasantry fled in every direction from Wallenstein's pillaging troops, +who destroyed all that they could not carry away. It had become a +question with the two armies which could starve the longest, and for +three months they lay encamped, each waiting until famine should drive +the other out. Surely such a situation had never before been known. + +What had preceded this event? A few words will tell. Ferdinand the +emperor had, with the aid of Tilly and Wallenstein, laid all Germany +prostrate at his feet. Ferdinand the zealot had, by this effort to +impose Catholicism on the Protestant states, speedily undone the work of +his generals, and set the war on foot again. Gustavus Adolphus, the hero +of Sweden, had come to the aid of the oppressed Protestants of Germany, +borne down all before him, and quickly won back northern Germany from +the oppressor's hands. + +And now the cruelty of that savage war reached its culminating point. +When Germany submitted to the emperor, one city did not submit. +Magdeburg still held out. All efforts to subdue it proved fruitless, and +it continued free and defiant when all the remainder of Germany lay +under the emperor's control. + +It was to pay dearly for the courage of its citizens. When the war broke +out again, Magdeburg was besieged by Tilly with his whole force. After a +most valiant defence it was taken by storm, and a scene of massacre and +ruin followed without a parallel in modern wars. When it ended, +Magdeburg was no more. Of its buildings all were gone, except the +cathedral and one hundred and thirty-seven houses. Of its inhabitants +all had perished, except some four thousand who had taken refuge in the +cathedral. Man, woman, and child, the sword had slain them all, Tilly +being in considerable measure responsible for the massacre, for he was +dilatory in ordering its cessation. When at length he did act there was +little to save. All Europe thrilled with horror at the dreadful news, +and from that day forward fortune fled from the banners of Count Tilly. + +On September 7, 1631, the armies of Gustavus and Tilly met at Leipsic, +and a terrible battle ensued, in which the imperialists were completely +defeated and all the fruits of their former victories torn from their +hands. In the following year Tilly had his thigh shattered by a +cannon-ball at the battle of the Lech, and died in excruciating agonies. + +Such were the preludes to the scene we have described. The Lutheran +princes everywhere joined the victorious Gustavus; Austria itself was +threatened by his irresistible arms; and the emperor, in despair, called +Wallenstein again to the command, yielding to the most extreme demands +of this imperious chief. + +The next scene was that we have described, in which the armies of +Gustavus and Wallenstein lay face to face at Nuremberg, each waiting +until starvation should force the other to fight or to retreat. + +Gustavus had sent for reinforcements, and his army steadily grew. That +of Wallenstein dwindled away under the assaults of famine and +pestilence. A large convoy of provisions intended for Wallenstein was +seized by the Swedes. Soon afterwards Gustavus was so strongly +reinforced that his army grew to seventy thousand men. At his back lay +Nuremberg, his faithful ally, ready to aid him with thirty thousand +fighting men besides. As his force grew that of Wallenstein shrank, +until by the end of the siege pestilence and want had reduced his army +to twenty-four thousand men. + +The Swedes were the first to yield in this game of starvation. As their +numbers grew their wants increased, and at length, furious with famine, +they made a desperate assault upon the imperial camp. They were driven +back, with heavy loss. Two weeks more Gustavus waited, and then, +despairing of drawing his opponent from his works, he broke camp and +marched with sounding trumpets past his adversary's camp, who quietly +let him go. The Swedes had lost twenty thousand men, and Nuremberg ten +thousand of her inhabitants, during this period of hunger and slaughter. + +This was in September, 1632. In November of the same year the two armies +met again, on the plain of Luetzen, in Saxony, not far from the scene of +Tilly's defeat, a year before. Wallenstein, on the retreat of Gustavus, +had set fire to his own encampment and marched away, burning the +villages around Nuremberg and wasting the country as he advanced, with +Saxony as his goal. Gustavus, who had at first marched southward into +the Catholic states, hastened to the relief of his allies. On the 15th +of November the two great opponents came once more face to face, +prepared to stake the cause of religious freedom in Germany on the issue +of battle. + +Early in the morning of the 16th Gustavus marshalled his forces, +determined that that day should settle the question of victory or +defeat. Wallenstein had weakened his ranks by sending Count Pappenheim +south on siege duty, and the Swedish king, without waiting for +reinforcements, decided on an instant attack. + +Unluckily for him the morning dawned in fog. The entire plain lay +shrouded. It was not until after eleven o'clock that the mist rose and +the sun shone on the plain. During this interval Count Pappenheim, for +whom Wallenstein had sent in haste the day before, was speeding north by +forced marches, and through the chance of the fog was enabled to reach +the field while the battle was at its height. + +The troops were drawn up in battle array, the Swedes singing to the +accompaniment of drums and trumpets Luther's stirring hymn, and an ode +composed by the king himself: "Fear not, thou little flock." They were +strongly contrasted with the army of their foe, being distinguished by +the absence of armor, light colored (chiefly blue) uniforms, quickness +of motion, exactness of discipline, and the lightness of their +artillery. The imperialists, on the contrary, wore old-fashioned, +close-fitting uniforms, mostly yellow in color, cuirasses, thigh-pieces, +and helmets, and were marked by slow movements, absence of discipline, +and the heaviness and unmanageable character of their artillery. The +battle was to be, to some extent, a test of excellence between the new +and the old ideas in war. + +At length the fog rose and the sun broke out, and both sides made ready +for the struggle. Wallenstein, though suffering from a severe attack of +his persistent enemy, the gout, mounted his horse and prepared his +troops for the assault. His infantry were drawn up in squares, with the +cavalry on their flanks, in front a ditch defended by artillery. His +purpose was defensive, that of Gustavus offensive. The Swedish king +mounted in his turn, placed himself at the head of his right wing, and, +brandishing his sword, exclaimed, "Now, onward! May our God direct us! +Lord! Lord! help me this day to fight for the glory of Thy name!" Then, +throwing aside his cuirass, which annoyed him on account of a slight +wound he had recently received, he cried, "God is my shield!" and led +his men in a furious charge upon the cannon-guarded ditch. + +The guns belched forth their deadly thunders, many fell, but the +remainder broke irresistibly over the defences and seized the battery, +driving the imperialists back in disorder. The cavalry, which had +charged the black cuirassiers of Wallenstein, was less successful. They +were repulsed, and the cuirassiers fiercely charged the Swedish infantry +in flank, driving it back beyond the trenches. + +This repulse brought on the great disaster of the day. Gustavus, seeing +his infantry driven back, hastened to their aid with a troop of horse, +and through the disorder of the field became separated from his men, +only a few of whom accompanied him, among them Francis, Duke of +Saxe-Lauenburg. His short-sightedness, or the foggy condition of the +atmosphere, unluckily brought him too near a party of the black +cuirassiers, and in an instant a shot struck him, breaking his left arm. + +"I am wounded; take me off the field," he said to the Duke of Lauenburg, +and turned his horse to retire from the perilous vicinity. + +As he did so a second ball struck him in the back. "My God! My God!" he +exclaimed, falling from the saddle, while his horse, which had been +wounded in the neck, dashed away, dragging the king, whose foot was +entangled in the stirrup, for some distance. + +The duke fled, but Luchau, the master of the royal horse, shot the +officer who had wounded the king. The cuirassiers advanced, while +Leubelfing, the king's page, a boy of eighteen, who had alone remained +with him, was endeavoring to raise him up. + +"Who is he?" they asked. + +The boy refused to tell, and was shot and mortally wounded. + +"I am the King of Sweden!" Gustavus is said to have exclaimed to his +foes, who had surrounded and were stripping him. + +On hearing this they sought to carry him off, but a charge of the +Swedish cavalry at that moment drove them from their prey. As they +retired they discharged their weapons at the helpless king, one of the +cuirassiers shooting him through the head as he rushed past his +prostrate form. + +The sight of the king's charger, covered with blood, and galloping with +empty saddle past their ranks, told the Swedes the story of the +disastrous event. The news spread rapidly from rank to rank, carrying +alarm wherever it came. Some of the generals wished to retreat, but Duke +Bernhard of Weimar put himself at the head of a regiment, ran its +colonel through for refusing to obey him, and called on them to follow +him to revenge their king. + +His ardent appeal stirred the troops to new enthusiasm. Regardless of a +shot that carried away his hat, Bernhard charged at their head, broke +over the trenches and into the battery, retook the guns, and drove the +imperial troops back in confusion, regaining all the successes of the +first assault. + +The day seemed won. It would have been but for the fresh forces of +Pappenheim, who had some time before reached the field, only to fall +before the bullets of the foe. His men took an active part in the fray, +and swept backward the tide of war. The Swedes were again driven from +the battery and across the ditch, with heavy loss, and the imperialists +regained the pivotal point of the obstinate struggle. + +But now the reserve corps of the Swedes, led by Kniphausen, came into +action, and once more the state of the battle was reversed. They charged +across the ditch with such irresistible force that the position was for +the third time taken, and the imperialists again driven back. This ended +the desperate contest. Wallenstein ordered the retreat to be sounded. +The dead Gustavus had won the victory. + +A thick fog came on as night fell and prevented pursuit, even if the +weariness of the Swedes would have allowed it. They held the field, +while Wallenstein hastened away, his direction of retreat being towards +Bohemia. The Swedes had won and lost, for the death of Gustavus was +equivalent to a defeat, and the emperor, with unseemly rejoicing, +ordered a Te Deum to be sung in all his cities. + +On the following day the Swedes sought for the body of their king. They +found it by a great stone, which is still known as the Swedish stone. It +had been so trampled by the hoofs of charging horses, and was so covered +with blood from its many wounds, that it was difficult to recognize. The +collar, saturated with blood, which had fallen into the hands of the +cuirassiers, was taken to Vienna and presented to the emperor, who is +said to have shed tears on seeing it. The corpse was laid in state +before the Swedish army, and was finally removed to Stockholm, where it +was interred. + +Thus perished one of the great souls of Europe, a man stirred deeply by +ambition, full of hopes greater than he himself acknowledged, a military +hero of the first rank, and one disposed to prosecute war with a +humanity far in advance of his age. He severely repressed all excesses +of his soldiery, was solicitous for the security of citizens and +peasantry, and strictly forbade any revengeful reprisals on Catholic +cities for the frightful work done by his opponents upon the +Protestants. Seldom has a conqueror shown such magnanimity and nobility +of sentiment, and his untimely death had much to do with exposing +Germany to the later desolation of that most frightful of religious +wars. + +His defeated foe, Wallenstein, was not long to survive him. After his +defeat he acted in a manner that gave rise to suspicions that he +intended to play false to the emperor. He executed many of his officers +and soldiers in revenge for their cowardice, as he termed it, recruited +his ranks up to their former standard, but remained inactive, while +Bernhard of Weimar was leading the Swedes to new successes. + +His actions were so problematical, indeed, that suspicion of his motives +grew more decided, and at length a secret conspiracy was raised against +him with the connivance of the emperor. Wallenstein, as if fearful of an +attempt to rob him of his power, had his superior officers assembled at +a banquet given at Pilsen, in January, 1634. A fierce attack of gout +prevented him from presiding, but his firm adherents, Field-Marshals +Illo and Terzka, took his place, and all the officers signed a compact +to adhere faithfully to the duke in life and death as long as he should +remain in the emperor's service. Some signed it who afterwards proved +false to him, among them Field-Marshal Piccolomini, who afterwards +betrayed him. + +Just what designs that dark and much revolving man contemplated it is +not easy to tell. It may have been treachery to the emperor, but he was +not the man to freely reveal his secrets. The one person he trusted was +Piccolomini, whose star seemed in favorable conjunction with his own. +To him he made known some of his projected movements, only to find in +the end that his trusted confidant had revealed them all to the emperor. + +The plot against Wallenstein was now put into effect, the emperor +ordering his deposition from his command, and appointing General Gablas +to replace him, while a general amnesty for all his officers was +announced. Wallenstein was quickly taught how little he could trust his +troops and officers. Many of his generals fell from him at once. A few +regiments only remained faithful, and even in their ranks traitors +lurked. With but a thousand men to follow him he proceeded to Eger, and +from there asked aid of Bernhard of Weimar, as if he purposed to join +with those against whom he had so long fought. Bernhard received the +message with deep astonishment, and exclaimed, moved by his belief that +Wallenstein was in league with the devil,-- + +"He who does not trust in God can never be trusted by man!" + +The great soldier of fortune was near his end. The stars were powerless +to save him. It was not enough to deprive him of his command, his +enemies did not deem it safe to let him live. One army gone, his wealth +and his fame might soon bring him another, made up of those mercenary +soldiers of all nations, and of all or no creeds, who would follow Satan +if he promised them plunder. His death had been resolved upon, and the +agent chosen for its execution was Colonel Butler, one of the officers +who had accompanied him to Eger. + +It was late in February, 1634. On the night fixed for the murder, +Wallenstein's faithful friends, Illo, Terzka, Kinsky, and Captain +Neumann were at a banquet in the castle of Eger. The agents of death +were Colonel Butler, an Irish officer named Lesley, and a Scotchman +named Gordon, while the soldiers employed were a number of dragoons, +chiefly Irish. + +In the midst of the dinner the doors of the banqueting hall were burst +open, and the assassins rushed upon their victims, killing them as they +sat, with the exception of Terzka, who killed two of his assailants +before he was despatched. + +From this scene of murder the assassins rushed to the quarters of +Wallenstein. It was midnight and he had gone to bed. He sprang up as his +door was burst open, and Captain Devereux, one of the party, rushed with +drawn sword into the room. + +"Are you the villain who would sell the army to the enemy and tear the +crown from the emperor's head?" he shouted. + +Wallenstein's only answer was to open his arms and receive the blow +aimed at his breast. He died without a word. Thus, with a brief interval +between, had fallen military genius and burning ambition in two +forms,--that of the heroic Swede and that of the ruthless Bohemian. + + + + +_THE SIEGE OF VIENNA._ + + +Once more the Grand Turk was afoot. Straight on Vienna he had marched, +with an army of more than two hundred thousand men. At length he had +reached the goal for which he had so often aimed, the Austrian capital, +while all western Europe was threatened by his arms. The grand vizier, +Kara Mustapha, headed the army, which had marched straight through +Hungary without wasting time in petty sieges, and hastened towards the +imperial city with scarce a barrier in its path. + +Consternation filled the Viennese as the vast army of the Turks rolled +steadily nearer and nearer, pillaging the country as it came, and moving +onward as irresistibly and almost as destructively as a lava flow. The +emperor and his court fled in terror. Many of the wealthy inhabitants +followed, bearing with them such treasures as they could convey. The +land lay helpless under the shadow of terror which the coming host threw +far before its columns. + +But pillage takes time. The Turks, through the greatness of their +numbers, moved slowly. Some time was left for action. The inhabitants of +the city, taking courage, armed for defence. The Duke of Lorraine, whose +small army had not ventured to face the foe, left twelve thousand men in +the city, and drew back with the remainder to wait for reinforcements. +Count Ruediger of Stahrenberg was left in command, and made all haste to +put the imperilled city in a condition of defence. + +[Illustration: THE PARLIAMENT HOUSE IN VIENNA.] + +On came the Turks, the smoke of burning villages the signal of their +approach. On the 14th of June, 1683, their mighty army appeared before +the walls, and a city of tents was built that covered a space of six +leagues in extent. + +Their camp was arranged in the form of a crescent, enclosing within its +boundaries a promiscuous mass of soldiers and camp-followers, camels, +and baggage-wagons, which seemed to extend as far as the eye could +reach. In the centre was the gorgeous tent of the vizier, made of green +silk, and splendid with its embroidery of gold, silver, and precious +stones, while inside it was kept the holy standard of the prophet. +Marvellous stories are told of the fountains, baths, gardens, and other +appliances of Oriental luxury with which the vizier surrounded himself +in this magnificent tent. + +Two days after the arrival of the Turkish host the trenches were opened, +the cannon placed, and the siege of Vienna began. For more than two +centuries the conquerors of Constantinople had kept their eyes fixed on +this city as a glorious prize. Now they had reached it, and the thunder +of their cannon around its walls was full of threat for the West. Vienna +once theirs, it was not easy to say where their career of conquest would +be stayed. + +Fortunately, Count Ruediger was an able and vigilant soldier, and +defended the city with a skill and obstinacy that baffled every effort +of his foes. The Turks, determined on victory, thundered upon the walls +till they were in many parts reduced to heaps of ruins. With incessant +labor they undermined them, blew up the strongest bastions, and laid +their plans to rush into the devoted city, from which they hoped to gain +a glorious booty. But active as they were the besieged were no less so. +The damage done by day was repaired by night, and still Vienna turned a +heroic face to its thronging enemies. + +Furious assaults were made, multitudes of the Turks rushing with savage +cries to the breaches, only to be hurled back by the obstinate valor of +the besieged. Every foot of ground was fiercely contested, the struggle +at each point being desperate and determined. It was particularly so +around the Loebel bastion, where scarcely an inch of ground was left +unstained by the blood of the struggling foes. + +Count Ruediger, although severely wounded, did not let his hurt reduce +his vigilance. Daily he had himself carried round the circle of the +works, directing and cheering his men. Bishop Kolonitsch attended the +wounded, and with such active and useful zeal that the grand vizier sent +him a threat that he would have his head for his meddling. Despite this +fulmination of fury, the worthy bishop continued to use his threatened +head in the service of mercy and sympathy. + +But the numbers of the garrison grew rapidly less, and their incessant +duty wore them out with fatigue. The commandant was forced to threaten +death to any sentinel found asleep upon his post. A fire broke out +which was only suppressed with the greatest exertion. Famine also began +to invade the city, and the condition of the besieged grew daily more +desperate. Their only hope lay in relief from without, and this did not +come. + +Two months passed slowly by. The Turks had made a desert of the +surrounding country, and held many thousands of its inhabitants as +prisoners in their camp. Step by step they gained upon the defenders. By +the end of August they possessed the moat around the city walls. On the +4th of September a mine was sprung under the Burg bastion, with such +force that it shook half the city like an earthquake. The bastion was +rent and shattered for a width of more than thirty feet, portions of its +walls being hurled far and wide. + +Into the great breach made the assailants poured in an eager multitude. +But the defenders were equally alert, and drove them back with loss. On +the following day they charged again, and were again repulsed by the +brave Viennese, the ruined bastion becoming a very gulf of death. + +The Turks, finding their efforts useless, resumed the work of mining, +directing their efforts against the same bastion. On the 10th of +September the new mine was sprung, and this time with such effect that a +breach was made through which a whole Turkish battalion was able to +force its way. + +This city now was in the last extremity of danger; unless immediate +relief came all would soon be lost. The garrison had been much reduced +by sickness and wounds, while those remaining were so completely +exhausted as to be almost incapable of defence. Ruediger had sent courier +after courier to the Duke of Lorraine in vain. In vain the lookouts +swept the surrounding country with their eyes in search of some trace of +coming aid. All seemed at an end. During the night a circle of rockets +was fired from the tower of St. Stephen's as a signal of distress. This +done the wretched Viennese waited for the coming day, almost hopeless of +repelling the hosts which threatened to engulf them. At the utmost a few +days must end the siege. A single day might do it. + +That dreadful night of suspense passed away. With the dawn the wearied +garrison was alert, prepared to strike a last blow for safety and +defence, and to guard the yawning breach unto death. They waited with +the courage of despair for an assault which did not come. Hurried and +excited movements were visible in the enemy's camp. Could succor be at +hand? Yes, from the summit of the Kahlen Hill came the distant report of +three cannon, a signal that filled the souls of the garrison with joy. +Quickly afterwards the lookouts discerned the glitter of weapons and the +waving of Christian banners on the hill. The rescuers were at hand, and +barely in time to save the city from its almost triumphant foes. + +During the siege the Christian people outside had not been idle. +Bavaria, Saxony, and the lesser provinces of the empire mustered their +forces in all haste, and sent them to the reinforcement of Charles of +Lorraine. To their aid came Sobieski, the chivalrous King of Poland, +with eighteen thousand picked men at his back. He himself was looked +upon as a more valuable reinforcement than his whole army. He had +already distinguished himself against the Turks, who feared and hated +him, while all Europe looked to him as its savior from the infidel foe. + +There were in all about seventy-seven thousand men in the army whose +vanguard ascended the Kahlen Hill on that critical 11th of September, +and announced its coming to the beleaguered citizens by its three signal +shots. The Turks, too confident in their strength, had thoughtlessly +failed to occupy the heights, and by this carelessness gave their foes a +position of vantage. In truth, the vizier, proud in his numbers, viewed +the coming foe with disdain, and continued to pour a shower of bombs and +balls upon the city while despatching what he deemed would be a +sufficient force to repel the enemy. + +On the morning of September 12, Sobieski led his troops down the hill to +encounter the dense masses of the Moslems in the plain below. This +celebrated chief headed his men with his head partly shaved, in the +Polish fashion, and plainly dressed, though he was attended by a +brilliant retinue. In front went an attendant bearing the king's arms +emblazoned. Beside him was another who carried a plume on the point of +his lance. On his left rode his son James, on his right Charles of +Lorraine. Before the battle he knighted his son and made a stirring +address to his troops, in which he told them that they fought not for +Vienna alone, but for all Christendom; not for an earthly sovereign, but +for the King of kings. + +Early in the day the left wing of the army had attacked and carried the +village of Nussdorf, on the Danube, driving out its Turkish defenders +after an obstinate resistance. It was about mid-day when the King of +Poland led the right wing into the plain against the dense battalions of +Turkish horsemen which there awaited his assault. + +The ringing shouts of his men told the enemy that it was the dreaded +Sobieski whom they had to meet, their triumphant foe on many a +well-fought field. At the head of his cavalry he dashed upon their +crowded ranks with such impetuosity as to penetrate to their very +centre, carrying before him confusion and dismay. So daring was his +assault that he soon found himself in imminent danger, having ridden +considerably in advance of his men. Only a few companions were with him, +while around him crowded the dense columns of the foe. In a few minutes +more he would have been overpowered and destroyed, had not the German +cavalry perceived his peril and come at full gallop to his rescue, +scattering with the vigor of their charge the turbaned assailants, and +snatching him from the very hands of death. + +So sudden and fierce was the assault, so poorly led the Turkish +horsemen, and so alarming to them the war-cry of Sobieski's men, that in +a short time they were completely overthrown, and were soon in flight +in all directions. This, however, was but a partial success. The main +body of the Turkish army had taken no part. Their immense camp, with its +thousands of tents, maintained its position, and the batteries continued +to bombard the city as if in disdain of the paltry efforts of their +foes. + +Yet it seems to have been rather rage and alarm than disdain that +animated the vizier. He is said to have, in a paroxysm of fury, turned +the scimitars of his followers upon the prisoners in his camp, +slaughtering thirty thousand of these unfortunates, while bidding his +cannoneers to keep up their assault upon the city. + +These evidences of indecision and alarm in their leader filled the Turks +with dread. They saw their cavalry battalions flying in confusion, heard +the triumphant trumpets of their foes, learned that the dreaded Polish +king was at the head of the irresistible charging columns, and yet +beheld their commander pressing the siege as if no foe were in the +field. It was evident that the vizier had lost his head through fright. +A sudden terror filled their souls. They broke and fled. While Sobieski +and the other leaders were in council to decide whether the battle +should be continued that evening or left till the next morning, word was +brought them that the enemy was in full flight, running away in every +direction. + +They hastened out. The tidings proved true. A panic had seized the +Turks, and, abandoning tents, cannon, baggage, everything, they were +flying in wild haste from the beleaguered walls. The alarm quickly +spread through their ranks. Those who had been firing on the city left +their guns and joined in the flight. From rank to rank, from division to +division, it extended, until the whole army had decamped and was +hastening in panic terror over the plain, hotly pursued by the +death-dealing columns of the Christian cavalry, and thinking only of +Constantinople and safety. + +The booty found in the camp was immense. The tent of the grand vizier +alone was valued at nearly half a million dollars, and the whole spoil +was estimated as worth fifteen million dollars. The king wrote to his +wife as follows: + +"The whole of the enemy's camp, together with their artillery and an +incalculable amount of property, has fallen into our hands. The camels +and mules, together with the captive Turks, are driven away in herds, +while I myself am become the heir of the grand vizier. The banner which +was usually borne before him, together with the standard of Mohammed, +with which the sultan had honored him in this campaign, and the tents, +wagons, and baggage, are all fallen to my share; even some of the +quivers captured among the rest are alone worth several thousand +dollars. It would take too long to describe all the other objects of +luxury found in his tents, as, for instance, his baths, fountains, +gardens, and a variety of rare animals. This morning I was in the city, +and found that it could hardly have held out more than five days. Never +before did the eye of man see a work of equal magnitude despatched with +a vigor like that with which they blew up, and shattered to pieces, huge +masses of stone and rocks." + +Sobieski, on entering Vienna, was greeted with the warmest gratitude and +enthusiasm by crowds of people, who looked upon him as their deliverer. +The governor, Count Ruediger, grasped his hand with affection, the +populace followed him in his every movement, while cries of "Long live +the king!" everywhere resounded. Never had been a more signal delivery, +and the citizens were beside themselves with joy. + +In this siege the Turks had lost forty-eight thousand men. Twenty +thousand more fell on the day of battle, and an equal number during the +retreat. It is said that in the tent of the grand vizier were found +letters from Louis XIV. containing the full plan of the siege, and to +the many crimes of ambition of this monarch seems to be added that of +bringing this frightful peril upon Europe for his own selfish ends. As +for the unlucky vizier, he was put to death by strangling, by order of +the angry sultan, on his reaching Belgrade. It is said that his head, +found on the taking of Belgrade by Eugene, years afterwards, was sent to +Bishop Kolonitsch, whose own head the vizier had threatened to take in +revenge for his labors among the wounded of Vienna. + +The war with the Turks continued, with some few intermissions, for +fifteen years afterwards. It ended to the great advantage of the +Christian armies. One after another the fortresses of Hungary were +wrested from their hands, and in the year 1687 they were totally +defeated at Mohacz by the Duke of Lorraine and Prince Eugene, and the +whole of Hungary torn from their grasp. + +In 1697 another great victory over them was won by Eugene, at Zenta, by +which the power of the Turks was completely broken. Belgrade, which they +had long held, fell into his hands, and a peace was signed which +confirmed Austria in the possession of all Hungary. From that time +forward the terror which the Turkish name had so long inspired vanished, +and the siege of Vienna may be looked upon as the concluding act in the +long array of invasions of Europe by the Mongolian hordes of Asia. It +was to be followed by the gradual recovery, now almost consummated, of +their European dominions from their hands. + + + + +_THE YOUTH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT._ + + +An extraordinarily rude, coarse, and fierce old despot was Frederick +William, first King of Prussia, son of the great Elector and father of +Frederick the Great. He hated France and the French language and +culture, then so much in vogue in Europe; he despised learning and +science; ostentation was to him a thing unknown; and he had but two +passions, one being to possess the tallest soldiers in Europe, the other +to have his own fierce will in all things on which he set his mind. +About all that we can say in his favor is that he paid much attention to +the promotion of education in his realm, many schools being opened and +compulsory attendance enforced. + +Of the fear with which he inspired many of his subjects, and the methods +he took to overcome it, there is no better example than that told in +relation to a Jew, whom the king saw as he was riding one day through +Berlin. The poor Israelite was slinking away in dread, when the king +rode up, seized him, and asked in harsh tones what ailed him. + +"Sire, I was afraid of you," said the trembling captive. + +"Fear me! fear me, do you?" exclaimed the king in a rage, lashing his +riding-whip across the man's shoulders with every word. "You dog! I'll +teach you to love me!" + +[Illustration: STATUE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT, UNTER DEN LINDEN, +BERLIN.] + +It was in some such fashion that he sought to make his son love him, and +with much the same result. In fact, he seemed to entertain a bitter +dislike for the beautiful and delicate boy whom fortune had sent him as +an heir, and treated him with such brutal severity that the unhappy +child grew timid and fearful of his presence. This the harsh old despot +ascribed to cowardice, and became more violent accordingly. + +On one occasion when young Frederick entered his room, something having +happened to excite his rage against him, he seized him by the hair, +flung him violently to the floor, and caned him until he had exhausted +the strength of his arm on the poor boy's body. His fury growing with +the exercise of it, he now dragged the unresisting victim to the +windows, seized the curtain cord, and twisted it tightly around his +neck. Frederick had barely strength enough to grasp his father's hand +and scream for help. The old brute would probably have strangled him had +not a chamberlain rushed in and saved him from the madman's hands. + +The boy, as he grew towards man's estate, developed tastes which added +to his father's severity. The French language and literature which he +hated were the youth's delight, and he took every opportunity to read +the works of French authors, and particularly those of Voltaire, who was +his favorite among writers. This predilection was not likely to +overcome the fierce temper of the king, who discovered his pursuits and +flogged him unmercifully, thinking to cane all love for such enervating +literature, as he deemed it, out of the boy's mind. In this he failed. +Germany in that day had little that deserved the name of literature, and +the expanding intellect of the active-minded youth turned irresistibly +towards the tabooed works of the French. + +In truth, he needed some solace for his expanding tastes, for his +father's house and habits were far from satisfactory to one with any +refinement of nature. The palace of Frederick William was little more +attractive than the houses of the humbler citizens of Berlin. The floors +were carpetless, the rooms were furnished with common bare tables and +wooden chairs, art was conspicuously absent, luxury wanting, comfort +barely considered, even the table was very parsimoniously served. + +The old king's favorite apartment in all his places of residence was his +smoking-room, which was furnished with a deal table covered with green +baize and surrounded by hard chairs. This was his audience-chamber, his +hall of state, the room in which the affairs of the kingdom were decided +in a cloud of smoke and amid the fumes of beer. Here sat generals in +uniform, ministers of state wearing their orders, ambassadors and noble +guests from foreign realms, all smoking short Dutch pipes and breathing +the vapors of tobacco. Before each was placed a great mug of beer, and +the beer-casks were kept freely on tap, for the old despot insisted that +all should drink or smoke whether or not they liked beer and tobacco, +and he was never more delighted than when he could make a guest drunk or +sicken him with smoke. For food, when they were in need of it, bread and +cheese and similar viands might be had. + +A strange picture of palatial grandeur this. Fortune had missed +Frederick William's true vocation in not making him an inn-keeper in a +German village instead of a king. Around this smoke-shrouded table the +most important affairs of state were discussed. Around it the rudest +practical jokes were perpetrated. Gundling, a beer-bibbing author, whom +the king made at once his historian and his butt, was the principal +sufferer from these frolics, which displayed abundantly that absence of +wit and presence of brutality which is the characteristic of the +practical joke. As if in scorn of rank and official dignity, Frederick +gave this sot and fool the title of baron and created him chancellor and +chamberlain of the palace, forcing him always to wear an absurdly +gorgeous gala dress, while to show his disdain of learned pursuits he +made him president of his Academy of Sciences, an institution which, in +its condition at that time, was suited to the presidency of a Gundling. + +For these dignities he made the poor butt suffer. On one occasion the +kingly joker had a brace of bear cubs laid in Gundling's bed, and the +drunken historian tossed in between them, with little heed of the danger +to which he exposed the poor victim of his sport. On another occasion, +when Gundling grew sullen and refused to leave his room, the king and +his boon companions besieged him with rockets and crackers, which they +flung in at the open window. A third and more elaborate trick was the +following. The king had the door of Gundling's room walled up, so that +the drunken dupe wandered the palace halls the whole night long, vainly +seeking his vanished door, getting into wrong rooms, disturbing sleepers +to ask whither his room had flown, and making the palace almost as +uncomfortable for its other inmates as for himself. He ended his journey +in the bear's den, where he got a severe hug for his pains. + +Such were the ideas of royal dignity, of art, science, and learning, and +of wit and humor, entertained by the first King of Prussia, the +coarse-mannered and brutal-minded progenitor of one of the greatest of +modern monarchs. His ideas of military power were no wiser or more +elevated. His whole soul was set on having a play army, a brigade of +tall recruits, whose only merit lay in their inches above the ordinary +height of humanity. Much of the revenues of the kingdom were spent upon +these giants, whom he had brought from all parts of Europe, by strategy +and force where cash and persuasion did not avail. His agents were +everywhere on the lookout for men beyond the usual stature, and on more +than one occasion blood was shed in the effort to kidnap recruits, while +some of his crimps were arrested and executed. More than once Prussia +was threatened with war for the practices of its king, yet so eager was +he to add to the number of his giants that he let no such difficulties +stand in his way. + +His tall recruits were handsomely paid and loaded with favors. To one +Irishman of extraordinary stature he paid one thousand pounds, while the +expense of watching and guarding him while bringing him from Ireland was +two hundred pounds more. It is said that in all twelve million dollars +left the country in payment for these showy and costly giants. + +By his various processes of force, fraud, and stratagem he collected +three battalions of tall show soldiers, comprising at one time several +thousand men. Not content with the unaided work of nature in providing +giants, he attempted to raise a gigantic race in his own dominions, +marrying his grenadiers to the tallest women he could find. There is +nothing to show that the result of his efforts was successful. + +The king's giants found life by no means a burden. They enjoyed the +highest consideration in Berlin, were loaded with favors, and presented +with houses, lands, and other evidences of royal grace, while their only +duties were show drills and ostentatious parades. They were too costly +and precious to expose to the dangers of actual war. When Frederick +William's son came to the throne the military career of the giants +suddenly ended. They were disbanded, pensioned off, or sent to invalid +institutions, with secret instructions to the officers that if any of +them tried to run away no hinderance should be placed in their path to +freedom. + +It is, however, with Frederick William's treatment of his son that we +are principally concerned. As the boy grew older his predilection for +the culture and literature of France increased, and under the influence +of his favorite associates, two young men named Katte and Keith, a +degree of licentiousness was developed in his habits. To please his +father he accepted a position in the army, but took every opportunity to +throw aside the hated uniform, dress in luxurious garments, solace +himself with the flute, bury himself among his books, and enjoy the +society of the women he admired and the friends he loved. He was +frequently forced to attend the king's smoking-parties, where he seems +to have avoided smoking and drinking as much as possible, escaping from +the scene before it degenerated into an orgy of excess, in which it was +apt to terminate. + +These tastes and tendencies were not calculated to increase the love of +the brutal old monarch for his son, and the life of the boy became +harder to bear as he grew older. His sister Wilhelmina was equally +detested by the harsh old king, who treated them both with shameful +brutality, knocking them down and using his cane upon them on the +slightest provocation, confining them and sending them food unfit to +eat, omitting to serve them at table, and using disgusting means to +render their food unpalatable. + +"The king almost starved my brother and me," says the princess. "He +performed the office of carver, and helped everybody excepting us two, +and when there happened to be something left in a dish, he would spit +upon it to prevent us from eating it. On the other hand, I was treated +with abundance of abuse and invectives, being called all day long by all +sorts of names, no matter who was present. The king's anger was +sometimes so violent that he drove my brother and me away, and forbade +us to appear in his presence except at meal-times." + +This represented the state of affairs when they were almost grown up, +and is a remarkable picture of court habits and manners in Germany in +the early part of the eighteenth century. The scene we have already +described, in which the king attempted to strangle his son with the +curtain cord, occurred when Frederick was in his nineteenth year, and +was one of the acts which gave rise to his resolution to run away, the +source of so many sorrows. + +Poor Frederick's lot had become too hard to bear. He was bent on flight. +His mother was the daughter of George I. of England, and he hoped to +find at the English court the happiness that failed him at home. He +informed his sister of his purpose, saying that he intended to put it +into effect during a journey which his father was about to make, and in +which opportunities for flight would arise. Katte, he said, was in his +interest; Keith would join him; he had made with them all the +arrangements for his flight. His sister endeavored to dissuade him, but +in vain. His father's continued brutality, and particularly his use of +the cane, had made the poor boy desperate. He wrote to Lieutenant +Katte,-- + +"I am off, my dear Katte. I have taken such precautions that I have +nothing to fear. I shall pass through Leipsic, where I shall assume the +name of Marquis d'Ambreville. I have already sent word to Keith, who +will proceed direct to England. Lose no time, for I calculate on finding +you at Leipsic. Adieu, be of good cheer." + +The king's journey took place. Frederick accompanied him, his mind full +of his projected flight. The king added to his resolution by +ill-treatment during the journey, and taunted him as he had often done +before, saying,-- + +"If my father had treated me so, I would soon have run away; but you +have no heart; you are a coward." + +This added to the prince's resolution. He wrote to Katte at Berlin, +repeating to him his plans. But now the chapter of accidents, which have +spoiled so many well-laid plots, began. In sending this letter he +directed it "_via_ Nuernberg," but in his haste or agitation forgot to +insert Berlin. By ill luck there was a cousin of Katte's, of the same +name, at Erlangen, some twelve miles off. The letter was delivered to +and read by him. He saw the importance of its contents, and, moved by an +impulse of loyalty, sent it by express to the king at Frankfort. + +Another accident came from Frederick's friend Keith being appointed +lieutenant, his place as page to the prince being taken by his brother, +who was as stupid as the elder Keith was acute. The royal party had +halted for the night at a village named Steinfurth. This the prince +determined to make the scene of his escape, and bade his page to call +him at four in the morning, and to have horses ready, as he proposed to +make an early morning call upon some pretty girls at a neighboring +hamlet. He deemed the boy too stupid to trust with the truth. + +Young Keith managed to spoil all. Instead of waking the prince, he +called his valet, who was really a spy of the king's, and who, +suspecting something to be amiss, pretended to fall asleep again, while +heedfully watching. Frederick soon after awoke, put on a coat of French +cut instead of his uniform, and went out. The valet immediately roused +several officers of the king's suite, and told them his suspicions. Much +disturbed, they hurried after the prince. + +After searching through the village, they found him at the horse-market +leaning against a cart. His dress added to their suspicions, and they +asked him respectfully what he was doing there. He answered sharply, +angry at being discovered. + +"For God's sake, change your coat!" exclaimed Colonel Rochow. "The king +is awake, and will start in half an hour. What would be the consequence +if he were to see you in this dress?" + +"I promise you that I will be ready before the king," said Frederick. +"I only mean to take a little turn." + +While they were arguing, the page arrived with the horses. The prince +seized the bridle of one of them, and would have leaped upon it but for +the interference of those around him, who forced him to return to the +barn in which the royal party had found its only accommodation for that +night. Here he was obliged to put on his uniform, and to restrain his +anger. + +During the day the valet and others informed the king of what had +occurred. He said nothing, as there were no proofs of the prince's +purpose. That night they reached Frankfort. Here the king received, the +next morning, the letter sent him by Katte's cousin. He showed it to two +of his officers, and bade them on peril of their heads to keep a close +watch on the prince, and to take him immediately to the yacht on which +the party proposed to travel the next day by water to Wesel. + +The king embarked the next morning, and as soon as he saw the prince his +smothered rage burst into fury. He grasped him violently by the collar, +tore his hair out by the roots, and struck him in the face with the knob +of his stick till the blood ran. Only by the interference of the two +officers was the unhappy youth saved from more extreme violence. + +His sword was taken from him, his effects were seized by the king, and +his papers burned by his valet before his face,--in which he did all +concerned "an important service." + +At the request of his keepers the prince was taken to another yacht. On +reaching the bridge of boats at the entrance to Wesel, he begged +permission to land there, so that he might not be known. His keepers +acceded, but he was no sooner on land than he ran off at full speed. He +was stopped by a guard, whom the king had sent to meet him, and was +conducted to the town-house. Not a word was said to the king about this +attempt at flight. + +The next day Frederick was brought before his father, who was in a +raging passion. + +"Why did you try to run away?" he furiously asked. + +"Because," said Frederick, firmly, "you have not treated me like your +son, but like a base slave." + +"You are an infamous deserter, and have no honor." + +"I have as much as you," retorted the prince. "I have done no more than +I have heard you say a hundred times that you would do if you were in my +place." + +This answer so incensed the old tyrant that he drew his sword in fury +from its scabbard, and would have run the boy through had not General +Mosel hastily stepped between, and seized the king's arm. + +"If you must have blood, stab me," he said; "my old carcass is not good +for much; but spare your son." + +These words checked the king's brutal fury. He ordered them to take the +boy away, and listened with more composure to the general, who entreated +him not to condemn the prince without a hearing, and not to commit the +unpardonable crime of becoming his son's executioner. + +Events followed rapidly upon this discovery. Frederick contrived to +despatch a line in pencil to Keith. "Save yourself," he wrote; "all is +discovered." Keith at once fled, reached the Hague, where he was +concealed in the house of Lord Chesterfield, the English ambassador, and +when searched for there, succeeded in escaping to England in a +fishing-boat. He was hung in effigy in Prussia, but became a major of +cavalry in the service of Portugal. + +Katte was less fortunate. He was warned in time to escape, and the +marshal who was sent to arrest him purposely delayed, but he lost +precious time in preparation, and was seized while mounting his horse. + +His arrest filled the queen with terror. Numerous letters were in his +possession which had been written by herself and her daughter to the +prince royal. In these they had often spoken with great freedom of the +king. It might be ruinous should these letters fall into his hands. + +Some friend sent the portfolio supposed to contain them to the queen. It +was locked, corded, and sealed. The trouble about the seal was overcome +by an old valet, who had found in the palace garden one just like it. +The portfolio was opened, and the queen's fears found to be correct. It +contained the letters, not less than fifteen hundred in all. They were +all hastily thrown into the fire,--too hastily, for many of them were +innocent of offence. + +But it would not do to return an empty portfolio. The queen and her +daughter immediately began to write letters to replace the burned ones, +taking paper of each year's manufacture to prevent discovery. For three +days they diligently composed and wrote, and in that period fabricated +no less than six or seven hundred letters. These far from filled the +portfolio, but the queen packed other things into it, and then locked +and sealed it, so that no change in its appearance could be perceived. +This done, it was restored to its place. + +We must hasten over what followed. On the king's return his first +greeting to his wife was, "Your good-for-nothing son is dead." He +immediately demanded the portfolio, tore it open, and carried away the +letters which had been so recently concocted. In a few minutes he +returned, and on seeing his daughter broke out into a fury of rage, his +eyes glaring, his mouth foaming. + +"Infamous wretch!" he shouted; "dare you appear in my presence? Go keep +your scoundrel of a brother company." + +He seized her as he spoke and struck her several times violently in the +face, one blow on the temple hurling her to the floor. Mad with rage, he +would have trampled on her had not the ladies present got her away. The +scene was a frightful one. The queen, believing her son dead, and +completely unnerved, ran wildly around the room, shrieking with agony. +The king's face was so distorted with rage as to be frightful to look +at. His younger children were around his knees, begging him with tears +to spare their sister. Wilhelmina, her face bruised and swollen, was +supported by one of the ladies of the court. Rarely had insane rage +created a more distressing spectacle. + +In the end the king acknowledged that Frederick was still alive, but +vowed that he would have his head off as a deserter, and that +Wilhelmina, his confederate, should be imprisoned for life. He left the +room at length to question Katte, who was being brought before him, +harshly exclaiming as he did so, "Now I shall have evidence to convict +the scoundrel Fritz and that blackguard Wilhelmina. I shall find plenty +of reasons to have their heads off." + +But we must hasten to the conclusion. Both the captives were tried by +court-martial, on the dangerous charge of desertion from the army. The +court which tried Frederick proved to be subservient to the king's will. +They pronounced sentence of death on the prince royal. Katte was +sentenced to imprisonment for life, on the plea that his crime had been +only meditated, not committed. The latter sentence did not please the +despot. He changed it himself from life imprisonment to death, and with +a refinement of cruelty ordered the execution to take place under the +prince's window, and within his sight. + +On the 5th of November, 1730, Frederick, wearing a coarse prison dress, +was conducted from his cell in the fortress of Cuestrin to a room on the +lower floor, where the window-curtains, let down as he entered, were +suddenly drawn up. He saw before him a scaffold hung with black, which +he believed to be intended for himself, and gazed upon it with +shuddering apprehension. When informed that it was intended for his +friend, his grief and pain became even more acute. He passed the night +in that room, and the next morning was conducted again to the window, +beneath which he saw his condemned friend, accompanied by soldiers, an +officer, and a minister of religion. + +"Oh," cried the prince, "how miserable it makes me to think that I am +the cause of your death! Would to God I were in your place!" + +"No," replied Katte; "if I had a thousand lives, gladly would I lay them +down for you." + +Frederick swooned as his friend moved on. In a few minutes afterwards +Katte was dead. It was long before the sorrowing prince recovered from +the shock of that cruel spectacle. + +Whether the king actually intended the execution of his son is +questioned. As it was, earnest remonstrances were addressed to him from +the Kings of Sweden and Poland, the Emperor of Germany, and other +monarchs. He gradually recovered from the insanity of his rage, and, on +humble appeals from his son, remitted his sentence, requiring him to +take a solemn oath that he was converted from his infidel beliefs, that +he begged a thousand pardons from his father for his crimes, and that +he repented not having been always obedient to his father's will. + +This done, Frederick was released from prison, but was kept under +surveillance at Cuestrin till February, 1732, when he was permitted to +return to Berlin. He had been there before on the occasion of his +sister's marriage, in November, 1731, the poor girl gladly accepting +marriage to a prince she had never seen as a means of escape from a king +of whom she had seen too much. With this our story ends. Father and son +were reconciled, and lived to all appearance as good friends until 1740, +when the old despot died, and Frederick succeeded him as king. + + + + +_VOLTAIRE AND FREDERICK THE GREAT._ + + +Voltaire, who was an adept in the art of making France too hot to hold +him, had gone to Prussia, as a place of rest for his perturbed spirit, +and, in response to the repeated invitations of his ardent admirer, +Frederick the Great. It was a blunder on both sides. If they had wished +to continue friends, they should have kept apart. Frederick was +autocratic in his ways and thoughts; Voltaire embodied the spirit of +independence in thought and speech. The two men could no more meet +without striking fire than flint and steel. Moreover, Voltaire was +normally satirical, restless, inclined to vanity and jealousy, and that +terrible pen of his could never be brought to respect persons and +places. With a martinet like Frederick, the visit was sure to end in a +quarrel, despite the admiration of the prince for the poet. + +Frederick, though a German king, was French in his love for the Gallic +literature, philosophy, and language. He cared little for German +literature--there was little of it in his day worth caring for--and +always wrote and spoke in French, while French wits and thinkers who +could not live in safety in straitlaced Paris, gained the amplest scope +for their views in his court. Voltaire found three such emigrants +there, Maupertuis, La Mettrie, and D'Arnaud. He was received by them +with enthusiasm, as the sovereign of their little court of free thought. +Frederick had given him a pension and the post of chamberlain,--an +office with very light duties,--and the expatriated poet set himself out +to enjoy his new life with zest and animation. + +"A hundred and fifty thousand victorious soldiers," he wrote to Paris, +"no attorneys, opera, plays, philosophy, poetry, a hero who is a +philosopher and a poet, grandeur and graces, grenadiers and muses, +trumpets and violins, Plato's symposium, society and freedom! Who would +believe it? It is all true, however." + +"It is Caesar, it is Marcus Aurelius, it is Julian, it is sometimes Abbe +Chaulieu, with whom I sup," he further wrote; "there is the charm of +retirement, there is the freedom of the country, with all those little +delights which the lord of a castle who is a king can procure for his +very obedient humble servants and guests. My own duties are to do +nothing. I enjoy my leisure. I give an hour a day to the King of Prussia +to touch up a bit his works in prose and verse; I am his grammarian, not +his chamberlain ... Never in any place in the world was there more +freedom of speech touching the superstitions of men, and never were they +treated with more banter and contempt. God is respected, but all they +who have cajoled men in His name are treated unsparingly." + +It was, in short, an Eden for a free-thinker; but an Eden with its +serpent, and this serpent was the envy, jealousy, and unrestrainable +satiric spirit of Voltaire. There was soon trouble between him and his +fellow-exiles. He managed to get Arnaud exiled from the country, and +gradually a coolness arose between him and Maupertuis, whom Frederick +had made president of the Berlin Academy. There were other quarrels and +complications, and Voltaire grew disgusted with the occupation of what +he slyly called "buck-washing" the king's French verses,--poor affairs +they were. Step by step he was making Berlin as hot as he had made +Paris. The new Adam was growing restless in his new Paradise. He wrote +to his niece,-- + +"So it is known by this time in Paris, my dear child, that we have +played the 'Mort de Caesar' at Potsdam, that Prince Henry is a good +actor, has no accent, and is very amiable, and that this is the place +for pleasure? All this is true, but--The king's supper parties are +delightful; at them people talk reason, wit, science; freedom prevails +thereat; he is the soul of it all; no ill-temper, no clouds, at any rate +no storms; my life is free and well occupied,--but--Opera, plays, +carousals, suppers at Sans Souci, military manoeuvres, concerts, studies, +readings,--but--The city of Berlin, grand, better laid out than Paris; +palaces, play-houses, affable queens, charming princesses, maids of +honor beautiful and well-made, the mansion of Madame de Tyrconnel always +full and sometimes too much so,--but--but--My dear child, the weather +is beginning to settle down into a fine frost." + +Voltaire brought the frost. He got into a disreputable quarrel with a +Jew, and meddled in other affairs, until something very like a quarrel +arose between him and Frederick. The king wrote him a severe letter of +reprimand. The poet apologized. But immediately afterwards his +irrepressible spirit of mischief broke out in a new place. It was his +ill-humor with Maupertuis which now led him astray. He wrote a pamphlet, +full of wit and as full of bitterness, called "La diatribe du docteur +Akakia," so evidently satirizing Maupertuis that the king grew furious. +It was printed anonymously, and circulated surreptitiously in Berlin, +but a copy soon fell into Frederick's hand, who knew at once that but +one man in the kingdom was capable of such a production. He wrote so +severely to Voltaire that the malicious satirist was frightened and gave +up the whole edition of the pamphlet, which was burnt before his eyes in +the king's own closet, though Frederick could not help laughing at its +wit. + +But Voltaire's daring was equal to a greater defiance than Frederick +imagined. Despite the work of the flames, a copy of the diatribe found +its way to Paris, was printed there, and copies of it made their way +back to Prussia by mail. Everybody was reading it, everybody laughing, +people fought for copies of the satire, which spread over Europe. The +king, enraged by this treacherous disobedience, as he deemed it, +retorted on Voltaire by having the pamphlet burned in the Place d'Armes. + +This brought matters to a crisis. The next day Voltaire sent his +commissions and orders back to Frederick; the next, Frederick returned +them to him. He was bent on leaving Prussia at once, but wished to do it +without a quarrel with the king. + +"I sent the Solomon of the North," he wrote to Madame Denis, "for his +present, the cap and bells he gave me, with which you reproached me so +much. I wrote him a very respectful letter, for I asked him for leave to +go. What do you think he did? He sent me his great factotum, Federshoff, +who brought me back my toys; he wrote me a letter saying that he would +rather have me to live with than Maupertuis. What is quite certain is +that I would rather not live with either the one or the other." + +In truth, Frederick could not bear to lose Voltaire. Vexed as he was +with him, he was averse to giving up that charming conversation from +which he had derived so much enjoyment. Voltaire wanted to get away; +Frederick pressed him to stay. There was protestation, warmth, coolness, +a gradual breaking of links, letters from France urging the poet to +return, communications from Frederick wishing him to remain, and a +growing attraction from Paris drawing its flown son back to that centre +of the universe for a true Frenchman. + +At length Frederick yielded; Voltaire might go. The poet approached him +while reviewing his troops. + +"Ah! Monsieur Voltaire," said the king, "so you really intend to go +away?" + +"Sir, urgent private affairs, and especially my health, leave me no +alternative." + +"Monsieur, I wish you a pleasant journey." + +This was enough for Voltaire; in an hour he was in his carriage and on +the road to Leipsic. He thought he was done for the rest of his life +with the "exactions" and "tyrannies" of the King of Prussia. He was to +experience some more of them before he left the land. Frederick bided +his time. + +It was on March 26, 1753, that Voltaire left Potsdam. It was two months +afterwards before he reached Frankfort. He had tarried at Leipsic and at +Gotha, engaged in the latter place on a dry chronicle asked for by the +duchess, entitled "The Annals of the Empire." During this time also, in +direct disregard of a promise he had made Frederick, there appeared a +supplement to "Doctor Akakia," more offensive than the main text. It was +followed by a virulent correspondence with Maupertuis. Voltaire was +filling up the vials of wrath of the king. + +On May 31 he reached Frankfort. Here the blow fell. There occurred an +incident which has become famous in literary history, and which, while +it had some warrant on Frederick's side, tells very poorly for that +patron of literature. No unlettered autocrat could have acted with less +regard to the rights and proprieties of citizenship. + +"Here is how this fine adventure came about," writes Voltaire. "There +was at Frankfort one Freytag, who had been banished from Dresden and had +become an agent for the King of Prussia....He notified me, on behalf of +his Majesty, that I was not to leave Frankfort till I had restored the +valuable effects I was carrying away from his Majesty. + +"'Alack, sir, I am carrying away nothing from that country, if you +please, not even the smallest regret. What, pray, are those jewels of +the Brandenburg crown that you require?' + +"'It be, sir,' replied Freytag, 'the work of _poeshy_ of the king, my +gracious master.' + +"'Oh, I will give him back his prose and verse with all my heart,' +replied I, 'though, after all, I have more than one right to the work. +He made me a present of a beautiful copy printed at his expense. +Unfortunately, the copy is at Leipsic with my other luggage.' + +"Then Freytag proposed to me to remain at Frankfort until the treasure +which was at Leipsic should have arrived; and he signed an order for +it." + +The volume which Frederick wanted he had doubtless good reason to +demand, when it is considered that it was in the hands of a man who +could be as malicious as Voltaire. It contained a burlesque and +licentious poem, called the "Palladium," in which the king scoffed at +everybody and everything in a manner he preferred not to make public. +Voltaire in Berlin might be trusted to remain discreet. In Paris his +discretion could not be counted on. Frederick wanted the poem in his +own hands. + +There was delay in the matter; references to Frederick and returns; the +affair dragged on slowly. The package arrived. Voltaire, agitated at his +detention, ill and anxious, wanted to get away, in company with Madame +Denis, who had just joined him. Freytag refused to let him go. Very +unwisely, the poet determined to slip away, imagining that in a "free +city" like Frankfort he could not be disturbed. He was mistaken. The +freedom of Frankfort was subject to the will of Frederick. The poet +tells for himself what followed. + +"The moment I was off, I was arrested, I, my secretary and my people; my +niece is arrested; four soldiers drag her through the mud to a +cheesemonger's named Smith, who had some title or other of privy +councillor to the King of Prussia; my niece had a passport from the King +of France, and, what is more, she had never corrected the King of +Prussia's verses. They huddled us all into a sort of hostelry, at the +door of which were posted a dozen soldiers; we were for twelve days +prisoners of war, and we had to pay a hundred and forty crowns a day." + +Voltaire was furious; Madame Denis was ill, or feigned to be; she wrote +letter after letter to Voltaire's friends in Prussia, and to the king +himself. The affair was growing daily more serious. Finally the city +authorities themselves, who doubtless felt that they were not playing a +very creditable part, put an end to it by ordering Freytag to release +his prisoner. Voltaire, set free, travelled leisurely towards France, +which, however, he found himself refused permission to enter. He +thereupon repaired to Geneva, and thereafter, freed from the patronage +of princes and the injustice of the powerful, spent his life in a land +where full freedom of thought and action was possible. + +As for the worthy Freytag, he felicitated himself highly on the way he +had handled that dabbler in _poeshy_. "We would have risked our lives +rather than let him get away," he wrote; "and if I, holding a council of +war with myself, had not found him at the barrier but in the open +country, and he had refused to jog back, I don't know that I shouldn't +have lodged a bullet in his head. To such a degree had I at heart the +letters and writing of the king." + +The too trusty agent did not feel so self-satisfied on receiving the +opinion of the king. + +"I gave you no such orders as that," wrote Frederick. "You should never +make more noise than a thing deserves. I wanted Voltaire to give you up +the key, the cross, and the volume of poems I had intrusted to him; as +soon as all that was given up to you I can't see what earthly reason +could have induced you to make this uproar." + +It is very probable, however, that Frederick wished to humiliate +Voltaire, and the latter did not fail to revenge himself with that +weapon which he knew so well how to wield. In his poem of "La Loi +naturelle" he drew a bitter but truthful portrait of Frederick which +must have made that arbitrary gentleman wince. He was, says the poet,-- + + "Of incongruities a monstrous pile, + Calling men brothers, crushing them the while; + With air humane, a misanthropic brute; + Ofttimes impulsive, sometimes over-'cute; + Weak 'midst his choler, modest in his pride; + Yearning for virtue, lust personified; + Statesman and author, of the slippery crew; + My patron, pupil, persecutor too." + + + + +_SCENES FROM THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR._ + +[Illustration: SANS SOUCI, PALACE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.] + +The story of Frederick the Great is a story of incessant wars, wars +against frightful odds, for all Europe was combined against him, and for +seven years the Austrians, the French, the Russians, and the Swedes +surrounded his realm, with the bitter determination to crush him, if not +to annihilate the Prussian kingdom. England alone was on his side. +Russia had joined the coalition through anger of the Empress Elizabeth +at Frederick's satire upon her licentious life; France had joined it +through hostility to England; Austria had organized it from indignation +at Frederick's lawless seizure of Silesia; the army raised to operate +against Prussia numbered several hundred thousand men. + +For years Frederick fought them all single-handed, with a persistence, +an energy, and a resolute rising under the weight of defeat that +compelled the admiration even of his enemies, and in the end gave him +victory over them all. To the rigid discipline of his troops, his own +military genius, and his indomitable perseverance, he owed his final +success and his well-earned epithet of "The Great." + +The story of battle, stirring as it is, is apt to grow monotonous, and +we have perhaps inflicted too many battle scenes already upon our +readers, though we have selected only such as had some particular +feature of interest to enliven them. Out of Frederick's numerous battles +we may be able to present some examples sufficiently diverse from the +ordinary to render them worthy of classification, under the title of the +romance of history. + +Let us go back to the 5th of November, 1757. On that date the army of +Frederick lay in the vicinity of Rossbach, on the Saale, then occupied +by a powerful French army. The Prussian commander, after vainly +endeavoring to bring the Austrians to battle, had turned and marched +against the French, with the hope of driving them out of Saxony. + +His hope was not a very promising one. The French army was sixty +thousand strong. He had but little over twenty thousand men. While he +felt hope the French felt assurance. They had their active foe now in +their clutches, they deemed. With his handful of men he could not +possibly stand before their onset. He had escaped them more than once +before; this time they had him, as they believed. + +His camp was on a height, near the Saale. Towards it the French +advanced, with flying colors and sounding trumpets, as if with purpose +to strike terror into the ranks of their foes. That Frederick would +venture to stand before them they scarcely credited. If he should, his +danger would be imminent, for they had laid their plans to surround his +small force and, by taking the king and his army prisoners, end at a +blow the vexatious war. They calculated shrewdly but not well, for they +left Frederick out of the account in their plans. + +As they came up, line after line, column after column, they must have +been surprised by the seeming indifference of the Prussians. There were +in their ranks no signs of retreat and none of hostility. They remained +perfectly quiet in their camp, not a gun being fired, not a movement +visible, as inert and heedless to all seeming of the coming of the +French as though there were no enemy within a hundred miles. + +There was a marked difference between the make-up of the two armies, +which greatly reduced their numerical odds. Frederick's army was +composed of thoroughly disciplined and trained soldiers, every man of +whom knew his place and his duty, and could be trusted in an emergency. +The French, on the contrary, had brought all they could of Paris with +them; their army was encumbered with women, wig-makers, barbers, and the +like impedimenta, and confusion and gayety in their ranks replaced the +stern discipline of Frederick's camp. After the battle, the booty is +said to have consisted largely of objects of gallantry better suited for +a boudoir than a camp. + +The light columns of smoke that arose from the Prussian camp as the +French advanced indicated their occupation,--and that by no means +suggested alarm. They were cooking their dinners, with as much unconcern +as though they had not yet seen the coming enemy nor heard the clangor +of trumpets that announced their approach. Had the French commanders +been within the Prussian lines they would have been more astonished +still, for they would have seen Frederick with his staff and general +officers dining at leisure and with the utmost coolness and +indifference. There was no appearance of haste in their movements, and +no more in those of their men, whose whole concern just then seemed to +be the getting of a good meal. + +The hour passed on, the French came nearer, their trumpet clangor was +close at hand, every moment seemed to render the peril of the Prussians +more imminent, yet their inertness continued; it looked almost as though +they had given up the idea of defence. The confidence of the French must +have grown rapidly as their plan of surrounding the Prussians with their +superior numbers seemed more and more assured. + +But Frederick had his eye upon them. He was biding his time. Suddenly +there came a change. It was about half-past two in the afternoon. The +French had reached the position for which he had been waiting. Quickly +the staff officers dashed right and left with their orders. The trumpets +sounded. As if by magic the tents were struck, the men sprang to their +ranks and were drawn up in battle array, the artillery opened its fire, +the seeming inertness which had prevailed was with extraordinary +rapidity exchanged for warlike activity; the complete discipline of the +Prussian army had never been more notably displayed. + +The French, who had been marching forward with careless ease, beheld +this change of the situation with astounded eyes. They looked for +heaviness and slowness of movement among the Germans, and could scarcely +believe in the possibility of such rapidity of evolution. But they had +little time to think. The Prussian batteries were pouring a rain of +balls through their columns. And quickly the Prussian cavalry, headed by +the dashing Seidlitz, was in their midst, cutting and slashing with +annihilating vigor. + +The surprise was complete. The French found it impossible to form into +line. Everywhere their columns were being swept by musketry and +artillery, and decimated by the sabres of the charging cavalry. In +almost less time than it takes to tell it they were thrown into +confusion, overwhelmed, routed; in the course of less than half an hour +the fate of the battle was decided, and the French army completely +defeated. + +Their confidence of a short time before was succeeded by panic, and the +lately trim ranks fled in utter disorganization, so utterly broken that +many of the fugitives never stopped till they reached the other side of +the Rhine. + +Ten thousand prisoners fell into Frederick's hands, including nine +generals and numerous other officers, together with all the French +artillery, and twenty-two standards; while the victory was achieved with +the loss of only one hundred and sixty-five killed and three hundred and +fifty wounded on the Prussian side. The triumph was one of discipline +against over-confidence. No army under less complete control than that +of Frederick could have sprung so suddenly into warlike array. To this, +and to the sudden and overwhelming dash of Seidlitz and his cavalry, the +remarkable victory was due. + +Just one month from that date, on the 5th of December, another great +battle took place, and another important victory for Frederick the +Great. With thirty-four thousand Prussians he defeated eighty thousand +Austrians, while the prisoners taken nearly equalled in number his +entire force. + +The Austrians had taken the opportunity of Frederick's campaign against +the French to overrun Silesia. Breslau, its capital, with several other +strongholds, fell into their hands, and the probability was that if left +there during the winter they would so strongly fortify it as to defy any +attempt of the Prussian king to recapture it. + +Despite the weakness of his army Frederick decided to make an effort to +regain the lost province, and marched at once against the Austrians. +They lay in a strong position behind the river Lohe, and here their +leader, Field-Marshal Daun, wished to have them remain, having had +abundant experience of his opponent in the open field. This cautious +advice was not taken by Prince Charles, who controlled the movements of +the army, and whom several of the generals persuaded that it would be +degrading for a victorious army to intrench itself against one so much +inferior in numbers, and advised him to march out and meet the +Prussians. "The parade guard of Berlin," as they contemptuously +designated Frederick's army, "would never be able to make a stand +against them." + +The prince, who was impetuous in disposition, agreed with them, marched +out from his intrenchments, and met Frederick's army in the vast plain +near Leuthen. On December 5 the two armies came face to face, the lines +of the imperial force extending over a space of five miles, while those +of Frederick occupied a much narrower space. + +In his lack of numbers the Prussian king was obliged to substitute +celerity of movement, hoping to double the effectiveness of his troops +by their quickness of action. The story of the battle may be given in a +few words. A false attack was made on the Austrian right, and then the +bulk of the Prussian army was hurled upon their left wing, with such +impetuosity as to break and shatter it. The disorder caused by this +attack spread until it included the whole army. In three hours' time +Frederick had completely defeated his foes, one-third of whom were +killed, wounded, or captured, and the remainder put to flight. The field +was covered with the slain, and whole battalions surrendered, the +Prussians capturing in all twenty-one thousand prisoners. They took +besides one hundred and thirty cannon and three thousand baggage and +ammunition wagons. The victory was a remarkable example of the supremacy +of genius over mere numbers. Napoleon says of it, "That battle was a +master-piece. Of itself it is sufficient to entitle Frederick to a place +in the first rank of generals." It restored Silesia to the Prussian +dominions. + +There is one more of Frederick's victories of sufficiently striking +character to fit in with those already given. It took place in 1760, +several years after those described, years in which Frederick had +struggled persistently against overwhelming odds, and, though often +worsted, yet coming up fresh after every defeat, and unconquerably +keeping the field. + +He was again in Silesia, which was once more seriously threatened by the +Austrian forces. His position was anything but a safe one. The Austrians +almost surrounded him. On one side was the army of Field-Marshal Daun, +on the other that of General Lasci; in front was General Laudon. +Fighting day and night he advanced, and finally took up his position at +Liegnitz, where he found his forward route blocked, Daun having formed a +junction with Laudon. His magazines were at Breslau and Schweidnitz in +front, which it was impossible to reach; while his brother, Prince +Henry, who might have marched to his relief, was detained by the +Russians on the Oder. + +The position of Frederick was a critical one. He had only a few days' +supply of provisions; it was impossible to advance, and dangerous to +retreat; the Austrians, in superior numbers, were dangerously near him; +only fortune and valor could save him from serious disaster. In this +crisis of his career happy chance came to his aid, and relieved him from +the awkward and perilous situation into which he had fallen. + +The Austrians were keenly on the alert, biding their time and watchful +for an opportunity to take the Prussians at advantage. The time had now +arrived, as they thought, and they laid their plans accordingly. On the +night before the 15th of August Laudon set out on a secret march, his +purpose being to gain the heights of Puffendorf, from which the +Prussians might be assailed in the rear. At the same time the other +corps were to close in on every side, completely surrounding Frederick, +and annihilating him if possible. + +It was a well-laid and promising plan, but accident befriended the +Prussian king. Accident and alertness, we may say; since, to prevent a +surprise from the Austrians, he was in the habit of changing the +location of his camp almost every night. Such a change took place on the +night in question. On the 14th the Austrians had made a close +reconnoisance of his position. Fearing some hostile purpose in this, +Frederick, as soon as the night had fallen, ordered his tents to be +struck and the camp to be moved with the utmost silence, so as to avoid +giving the foe a hint of his purpose. As it chanced, the new camp was +made on those very heights of Puffendorf towards which Laudon was +advancing with equal care and secrecy. + +That there might be no suspicion of the Prussian movement, the +watch-fires were kept up in the old camp, peasants attending to them, +while patrols of hussars cried out the challenge every quarter of an +hour. The gleaming lights, the watch-cries of the sentinels, all +indicated that the Prussian army was sleeping on its old ground, without +suspicion of the overwhelming blow intended for it on the morrow. + +Meanwhile the king and his army had reached their new quarters, where +the utmost caution and noiselessness was observed. The king, wrapped in +his military cloak, had fallen asleep beside his watch-fire; Ziethen, +his valiant cavalry leader, and a few others of his principal officers, +being with him. Throughout the camp the greatest stillness prevailed, +all noise having been forbidden. The soldiers slept with their arms +close at hand, and ready to be seized at a moment's notice. Frederick +fully appreciated the peril of his situation, and was not to be taken by +surprise by his active foes. And thus the night moved on until midnight +passed, and the new day began its course in the small hours. + +About two o'clock a sudden change came in the situation. A horseman +galloped at full speed through the camp, and drew up hastily at the +king's tent, calling Frederick from his light slumbers. He was the +officer in command of the patrol of hussars, and brought startling news. +The enemy was at hand, he said; his advance columns were within a few +hundred yards of the camp. It was Laudon's army, seeking to steal into +possession of those heights which Frederick had so opportunely occupied. + +The stirring tidings passed rapidly through the camp. The soldiers were +awakened, the officers seized their arms and sprang to horse, the troops +grasped their weapons and hastened into line, the cannoneers flew to +their guns, soon the roar of artillery warned the coming Austrians that +they had a foe in their front. + +Laudon pushed on, thinking this to be some advance column which he could +easily sweep from his front. Not until day dawned did he discover the +true situation, and perceive, with astounded eyes, that the whole +Prussian army stood in line of battle on those very heights which he had +hoped so easily to occupy. + +The advantage on which the Austrian had so fully counted lay with the +Prussian king. Yet, undaunted, Laudon pushed on and made a vigorous +attack, feeling sure that the thunder of the artillery would be borne to +Daun's ears, and bring that commander in all haste, with his army, to +take part in the fray. + +But the good fortune which had so far favored Frederick did not now +desert him. The wind blew freshly in the opposite direction, and carried +the sound of the cannon away from Daun's hearing. Not the roar of a +piece of artillery came to him, and his army lay moveless during the +battle, he deeming that Laudon must now be in full possession of the +heights, and felicitating himself on the neat trap into which the King +of Prussia had fallen. While he thus rested on his arms, glorying in his +soul on the annihilation to which the pestilent Prussians were doomed, +his ally was making a desperate struggle for life, on those very heights +which he counted on taking without a shot. Truly, the Austrians had +reckoned without their foe in laying their cunning plot. + +Three hours of daylight finished the affray. Taken by surprise as they +were, the Austrians proved unable to sustain the vigorous Prussian +assault, and were utterly routed, leaving ten thousand dead and wounded +on the field, and eighty-two pieces of artillery in the enemy's hands. +Shortly afterwards Daun, advancing to carry out his share of the scheme +of annihilation, fell upon the right wing of the Prussians, commanded by +General Ziethen, and was met with so fierce an artillery fire that he +halted in dismay. And now news of Laudon's disaster was brought to him. +Seeing that the game was lost and himself in danger, he emulated his +associate in his hasty retreat. + +Fortune and alertness had saved the Prussian king from a serious danger, +and turned peril into victory. He lost no time in profiting by his +advantage, and was in full march towards Breslau within three hours +after the battle, the prisoners in the centre, the wounded--friend and +foe alike,--in wagons in the rear, and the captured cannon added to his +own artillery train. Silesia was once more delivered into his hands. + +Never in history had there been so persistent and indomitable a +resistance against overwhelming numbers as that which Frederick +sustained for so many years against his numerous foes. At length, when +hope seemed almost at an end, and it appeared as if nothing could save +the Prussian kingdom from overthrow, death came to the aid of the +courageous monarch. The Empress Elizabeth of Russia died, and +Frederick's bitterest foe was removed. The new monarch, Peter III., was +an ardent admirer of Frederick, and at once discharged all the Prussian +prisoners in his hands, and signed a treaty of alliance with Prussia. +Sweden quickly did the same, leaving Frederick with no opponents but the +Austrians. Four months more sufficed to bring his remaining foes to +terms, and by the end of the year 1762 the distracting Seven Years' War +was at an end, the indomitable Frederick remaining in full possession of +Silesia, the great bone of contention in the war. His resolution and +perseverance had raised Prussia to a high position among the kingdoms of +Europe, and laid the foundations of the present empire of Germany. + + + + +_THE PATRIOTS OF THE TYROL._ + + +On the 9th of April, 1809, down the river Inn, in the Tyrol, came +floating a series of planks, from whose surface waved little red flags. +What they meant the Bavarian soldiers, who held that mountain land with +a hand of iron, could not conjecture. But what they meant the peasantry +well knew. On the day before peace had ruled throughout the Alps, and no +Bavarian dreamed of war. Those flags were the signal for insurrection, +and on their appearance the brave mountaineers sprang at once to arms +and flew to the defence of the bridges of their country, which the +Bavarians were marching to destroy, as an act of defence against the +Austrians. + +On the 10th the storm of war burst. Some Bavarian sappers had been sent +to blow up the bridge of St. Lorenzo. But hardly had they begun their +work, when a shower of bullets from unseen marksmen swept the bridge. +Several were killed; the rest took to flight; the Tyrol was in revolt. + +News of this outbreak was borne to Colonel Wrede, in command of the +Bavarians, who hastened with a force of infantry, cavalry, and artillery +to the spot. He found the peasants out in numbers. The Tyrolean +riflemen, who were accustomed to bring down chamois from the mountain +peaks, defended the bridge, and made terrible havoc in the Bavarian +ranks. They seized Wrede's artillery and flung guns and gunners together +into the stream, and finally put the Bavarians to rout, with severe +loss. + +The Bavarians held the Tyrol as allies of the French, and the movement +against the bridges had been directed by Napoleon, to prevent the +Austrians from reoccupying the country, which had been wrested from +their hands. Wrede in his retreat was joined by a body of three thousand +French, but decided, instead of venturing again to face the daring foe, +to withdraw to Innsbruck. But withdrawal was not easy. The signal of +revolt had everywhere called the Tyrolese to arms. The passes were +occupied. The fine old Roman bridge over the Brenner, at Laditsch, was +blown up. In the pass of the Brixen, leading to this bridge, the French +and Bavarians found themselves assailed in the old Swiss manner, by +rocks and logs rolled down upon their heads, while the unerring rifles +of the hidden peasants swept the pass. Numbers were slain, but the +remainder succeeded in escaping by means of a temporary bridge, which +they threw over the stream on the site of the bridge of Laditsch. + +Of the Tyrolese patriots to whom this outbreak was due two are worthy of +special mention, Joseph Speckbacher, a wealthy peasant of Rinn, and the +more famous Andrew Hofer, the host of the Sand Inn at Passeyr, a man +everywhere known through the mountains, as he traded in wine, corn, and +horses as far as the Italian frontier. + +Hofer was a man of herculean frame and of a full, open, handsome +countenance, which gained dignity from its long, dark-brown beard, which +fell in rich curls upon his chest. His picturesque dress--that of the +Tyrol--comprised a red waistcoat, crossed by green braces, which were +fastened to black knee breeches of chamois leather, below which he wore +red stockings. A broad black leather girdle clasped his muscular form, +while over all was worn a short green coat. On his head he wore a +low-crowned, broad-brimmed Tyrolean hat, black in color, and ornamented +with green ribbons and with the feathers of the capercailzie. + +This striking-looking patriot, at the head of a strong party of +peasantry, made an assault, early on the 11th, upon a Bavarian infantry +battalion under the command of Colonel Baeraklau, who retreated to a +table-land named Sterzinger Moos, where, drawn up in a square, he +resisted every effort of the Tyrolese to dislodge him. Finally Hofer +broke his lines by a stratagem. A wagon loaded with hay, and driven by a +girl, was pushed towards the square, the brave girl shouting, as the +balls flew around her, "On with ye! Who cares for Bavarian dumplings!" +Under its shelter the Tyrolese advanced, broke the square, and killed or +made prisoners the whole of the battalion. + +Speckbacher, the other patriot named, was no less active. No sooner had +the signal of revolt appeared in the Inn than he set the alarm-bells +ringing in every church-tower through the lower valley of that stream, +and quickly was at the head of a band of stalwart Tyrolese. On the night +of the 11th he advanced on the city of Hall, and lighted about a hundred +watch-fires on one side of the city, as if about to attack it from that +quarter. While the attention of the garrison was directed towards these +fires, he crept through the darkness to the gate on the opposite side, +and demanded entrance as a common traveller. The gate was opened; his +hidden companions rushed forward and seized it; in a brief time the +city, with its Bavarian garrison, was his. + +On the 12th he appeared before Innsbruck, and made a fierce assault upon +the city in which he was aided by a murderous fire poured upon the +Bavarians by the citizens from windows and towers. The people of the +upper valley of the Inn flocked to the aid of their fellows, and the +place, with its garrison, was soon taken, despite their obstinate +defence. Dittfurt, the Bavarian leader, who scornfully refused to yield +to the peasant dogs, as he considered them, fought with tiger-like +ferocity, and fell at length, pierced by four bullets. + +One further act completed the freeing of the Tyrol from Bavarian +domination. The troops under Colonel Wrede had, as we have related, +crossed the Brenner on a temporary bridge, and escaped the perils of the +pass. Greater perils awaited them. Their road lay past Sterzing, the +scene of Hofer's victory. Every trace of the conflict had been +obliterated, and Wrede vainly sought to discover what had become of +Baeraklau and his battalion. He entered the narrow pass through which the +road ran at that place, and speedily found his ranks decimated by the +rifles of Hofer's concealed men. + +After considerable loss the column broke through, and continued its +march to Innsbruck, where it was immediately surrounded by a triumphant +host of Tyrolese. The struggle was short, sharp, and decisive. In a few +minutes several hundred men had fallen. In order to escape complete +destruction the rest laid down their arms. The captors entered Innsbruck +in triumph, preceded by the military band of the enemy, which they +compelled to play, and guarding their prisoners, who included two +generals, more than a hundred other officers, and about two thousand +men. + +In two days the Tyrol had been freed from its Bavarian oppressors and +their French allies and restored to its Austrian lords. The arms of +Bavaria were everywhere cast to the ground, and the officials removed. +But the prisoners were treated with great humanity, except in the single +instance of a tax-gatherer, who had boasted that he would grind down the +Tyrolese until they should gladly eat hay. In revenge, they forced him +to swallow a bushel of hay for his dinner. + +The freedom thus gained by the Tyrolese was not likely to be permanent +with Napoleon for their foe. The Austrians hastened to the defence of +the country which had been so bravely won for their emperor. On the +other side came the French and Bavarians as enemies and oppressors. +Lefebvre, the leader of the invaders, was a rough and brutal soldier, +who encouraged his men to commit every outrage upon the mountaineers. + +For some two or three months the conflict went on, with varying +fortunes, depending upon the conditions of the war between France and +Austria. At first the French were triumphant, and the Austrians withdrew +from the Tyrol. Then came Napoleon's defeat at Aspern, and the Tyrolese +rose and again drove the invaders from their country. In July occurred +Napoleon's great victory at Wagram, and the hopes of the Tyrol once more +sank. All the Austrians were withdrawn, and Lefebvre again advanced at +the head of thirty or forty thousand French, Bavarians, and Saxons. + +The courage of the peasantry vanished before this threatening invasion. +Hofer alone remained resolute, saying to the Austrian governor, on his +departure, "Well, then, I will undertake the government, and, as long as +God wills, name myself Andrew Hofer, host of the Sand at Passeyr, and +Count of the Tyrol." + +He needed resolution, for his fellow-chiefs deserted the cause of their +country on all sides. On his way to his home he met Speckbacher, +hurrying from the country in a carriage with some Austrian officers. + +"Wilt thou also desert thy country!" said Hofer to him in tones of sad +reproach. + +Another leader, Joachim Haspinger, a Capuchin monk, nicknamed Redbeard, +a man of much military talent, withdrew to his monastery at Seeben. +Hofer was left alone of the Tyrolese leaders. While the French advanced +without opposition, he took refuge in a cavern amid the steep rocks that +overhung his native vale, where he implored Heaven for aid. + +The aid came. Lefebvre, in his brutal fashion, plundered and burnt as he +advanced, and published a proscription list instead of the amnesty +promised. The natural result followed. Hofer persuaded the bold Capuchin +to leave his monastery, and he, with two others, called the western +Tyrol to arms. Hofer raised the eastern Tyrol. They soon gained a +powerful associate in Speckbacher, who, conscience-stricken by Hofer's +reproach, had left the Austrians and hastened back to his country. The +invader's cruelty had produced its natural result. The Tyrol was once +more in full revolt. + +With a bunch of rosemary, the gift of their chosen maidens, in their +green hats, the young men grasped their trusty rifles and hurried to the +places of rendezvous. The older men wore peacock plumes, the Hapsburg +symbol. With haste they prepared for the war. Cannon which did good +service were made from bored logs of larch wood, bound with iron rings. +Here the patriots built abatis; there they gathered heaps of stone on +the edges of precipices which rose above the narrow vales and passes. +The timber slides in the mountains were changed in their course so that +trees from the heights might be shot down upon the important passes and +bridges. All that could be done to give the invaders a warm welcome was +prepared, and the bold peasants waited eagerly for the coming conflict. + +From four quarters the invasion came, Lefebvre's army being divided so +as to attack the Tyrolese from every side, and meet in the heart of the +country. They were destined to a disastrous repulse. The Saxons, led by +Rouyer, marched through the narrow valley of Eisach, the heights above +which were occupied by Haspinger the Capuchin and his men. Down upon +them came rocks and trees from the heights. Rouyer was hurt, and many of +his men were slain around him. He withdrew in haste, leaving one +regiment to retain its position in the Oberau. This the Tyrolese did not +propose to permit. They attacked the regiment on the next day, in the +narrow valley, with overpowering numbers. Though faint with hunger and +the intense heat, and exhausted by the fierceness of the assault, a part +of the troops cut their way through with great loss and escaped. The +rest were made prisoners. + +The story is told that during their retreat, and when ready to drop with +fatigue, the soldiers found a cask of wine. Its head was knocked in by a +drummer, who, as he stooped to drink, was pierced by a bullet, and his +blood mingled with the wine. Despite this, the famishing soldiery +greedily swallowed the contents of the cask. + +A second _corps d'armee_ advanced up the valley of the Inn as far as +the bridges of Pruz. Here it was repulsed by the Tyrolese, and retreated +under cover of the darkness during the night of August 8. The infantry +crept noiselessly over the bridge of Pontlaz. The cavalry followed with +equal caution but with less success. The sound of a horse's hoof aroused +the watchful Tyrolese. Instantly rocks and trees were hurled upon the +bridge, men and horses being crushed beneath them and the passage +blocked. All the troops which had not crossed were taken prisoners. The +remainder were sharply pursued, and only a handful of them escaped. + +The other divisions of the invading army met with a similar fate. +Lefebvre himself, who reproached the Saxons for their defeat, was not +able to advance as far as they, and was quickly driven from the +mountains with greatly thinned ranks. He was forced to disguise himself +as a common soldier and hide among the cavalry to escape the balls of +the sharp-shooters, who owed him no love. The rear-guard was attacked +with clubs by the Capuchin and his men, and driven out with heavy loss. +During the night that followed all the mountains around the beautiful +valley of Innsbruck were lit up with watch-fires. In the valley below +those of the invaders were kept brightly burning while the troops +silently withdrew. On the next day the Tyrol held no foes; the invasion +had failed. + +Hofer placed himself at the head of the government at Innsbruck, where +he lived in his old simple mode of life, proclaimed some excellent +laws, and convoked a national assembly. The Emperor of Austria sent him +a golden chain and three thousand ducats. He received them with no show +of pride, and returned the following naive answer: "Sirs, I thank you. I +have no news for you to-day. I have, it is true, three couriers on the +road, the Watscher-Hiesele, the Sixten-Seppele, and the Memmele-Franz, +and the Schwanz ought long to have been here. I expect the rascal every +hour." + +Meanwhile, Speckbacher and the Capuchin kept up hostilities successfully +on the eastern frontier. Haspinger wished to invade the country of their +foes, but was restrained by his more prudent associate. Speckbacher is +described as an open-hearted, fine-spirited fellow, with the strength of +a giant, and the best marksman in the country. So keen was his vision +that he could distinguish the bells on the necks of the cattle at the +distance of half a mile. + +His son Anderle, but ten years of age, was of a spirit equal to his own. +In one of the earlier battles of the war he had occupied himself during +the fight in collecting the enemy's balls in his hat, and so obstinately +refused to quit the field that his father had him carried by force to a +distant alp. During the present conflict, Anderle unexpectedly appeared +and fought by his father's side. He had escaped from his mountain +retreat. It proved an unlucky escape. Shortly afterwards, the father was +surprised by treachery and found himself surrounded with foes, who tore +from him his arms, flung him to the ground, and seriously injured him +with blows from a club. But in an instant more he sprang furiously to +his feet, hurled his assailants to the earth, and escaped across a wall +of rock impassable except to an expert mountaineer. A hundred of his men +followed him, but his young son was taken captive by his foes. The king, +Maximilian Joseph, attracted by the story of his courage and beauty, +sent for him and had him well educated. + +The freedom of the Tyrol was not to last long. The treaty of Vienna, +between the Emperors of Austria and France, was signed. It did not even +mention the Tyrol. It was a tacit understanding that the mountain +country was to be restored to Bavaria, and to reduce it to obedience +three fresh armies crossed its frontiers. They were repulsed in the +south, but in the north Hofer, under unwise advice, abandoned the +anterior passes, and the invaders made their way as far as Innsbruck, +whence they summoned him to capitulate. + +During the night of October 30 an envoy from Austria appeared in the +Tyrolese camp, bearing a letter from the Archduke John, in which he +announced the conclusion of peace and commanded the mountaineers to +disperse, and not to offer their lives as a useless sacrifice. The +Tyrolese regarded him as their lord, and obeyed, though with bitter +regret. A dispersion took place, except of the band of Speckbacher, +which held its ground against the enemy until the 3d of November, when +he received a letter from Hofer saying, "I announce to you that Austria +has made peace with France, and has forgotten the Tyrol." On receiving +this news he disbanded his followers, and all opposition ceased. + +The war was soon afoot again, however, in the native vale of Hofer, the +people of which, made desperate by the depredations of the Italian bands +which had penetrated their country, sprang to arms and resolved to +defend themselves to the bitter end. They compelled Hofer to place +himself at their head. + +For a time they were successful. But a traitor guided the enemy to their +rear, and defeat followed. Hofer escaped and took refuge among the +mountain peaks. Others of the leaders were taken and executed. The most +gallant among the peasantry were shot or hanged. There was some further +opposition, but the invaders pressed into every valley and disarmed the +people, the bulk of whom obeyed the orders given them and offered no +resistance. The revolt was quelled. + +Hofer took refuge at first, with his wife and child, in a narrow hollow +in the Kellerlager. This he soon left for a hut on the highest alps. He +was implored to leave the country, but he vowed that he would live or +die on his native soil. Discovery soon came. A peasant named Raffel +learned the location of his hiding-place by seeing the smoke ascend from +his distant hut. He foolishly boasted of his knowledge; his story came +to the ears of the French; he was arrested, and compelled to guide them +to the spot. Two thousand French were spread around the mountain; a +thousand six hundred ascended it; Hofer was taken. + +[Illustration: THE LAST DAY OF ANDREAS HOFER.] + +His captors treated him with brutal violence. They tore out his beard, +and dragged him pinioned, barefoot, and in his night-dress, over ice and +snow to the valley. Here he was placed in a carriage and carried to the +fortress of Mantua, in Italy. Napoleon, on news of the capture being +brought to him at Paris, sent orders to shoot him within twenty-four +hours. + +He died as bravely as he had lived. When placed before the firing-party +of twelve riflemen, he refused either to kneel or to allow himself to be +blindfolded. "I stand before my Creator," he exclaimed, in firm tones, +"and standing will I restore to him the spirit he gave." + +He gave the signal to fire, but the men, moved by the scene, missed +their aim. The first fire brought him to his knees, the second stretched +him on the ground, where a corporal terminated the cruel scene by +shooting him through the head. He died February 20, 1810. At a later +date his remains were borne back to his native alps, a handsome monument +of white marble was erected to his memory in the church at Innsbruck, +and his family was ennobled. + +Of the two other principal leaders of the Tyrolese, Haspinger, the +Capuchin, escaped to Vienna, which Speckbacher also succeeded in +reaching, after a series of perils and escapes which are well worth +relating. + +After the dispersal of his troops he, like Hofer, sought concealment in +the mountains where the Bavarians sought for him in troops, vowing to +"cut his skin into boot-straps if they caught him." He attempted to +follow the mountain paths to Austria, but at Dux found the roads so +blocked with snow that further progress was impossible. Here the +Bavarians came upon his track and attacked the house in which he had +taken refuge. He escaped by leaping from its roof, but was wounded in +doing so. + +For the twenty-seven days that followed he roamed through the snowy +mountain forests, in danger of death both from cold and starvation. Once +for four days together he did not taste food. At the end of this time he +found shelter in a hut at Bolderberg, where by chance he found his wife +and children, who had sought the same asylum. + +His bitterly persistent foes left him not long in safety here. They +learned his place of retreat, and pursued him, his presence of mind +alone saving him from capture. Seeing them approach, he took a sledge +upon his shoulders, and walked towards and past them as though he were a +servant of the house. + +His next place of refuge was in a cave on the Gemshaken, in which he +remained until the opening of spring, when he had the ill-fortune to be +carried by a snow-slide a mile and a half into the valley. It was +impossible to return. He crept from the snow, but found that one of his +legs was dislocated. The utmost he could do, and that with agonizing +pain, was to drag himself to a neighboring hut. Here were two men, who +carried him to his own house at Rinn. + +Bavarians were quartered in the house, and the only place of refuge open +to him was the cow-shed, where his faithful servant Zoppel dug for him a +hole beneath the bed of one of the cows, and daily supplied him with +food. His wife had returned to the house, but the danger of discovery +was so great that even she was not told of his propinquity. + +For seven weeks he remained thus half buried in the cow-shed, gradually +recovering his strength. At the end of that time he rose, bade adieu to +his wife, who now first learned of his presence, and again betook +himself to the high paths of the mountains, from which the sun of May +had freed the snow. He reached Vienna without further trouble. + +Here the brave patriot received no thanks for his services. Even a small +estate he had purchased with the remains of his property he was forced +to relinquish, not being able to complete the purchase. He would have +been reduced to beggary but for Hofer's son, who had received a fine +estate from the emperor, and who engaged him as his steward. Thus ended +the active career of the ablest leader in the Tyrolean war. + + + + +_THE OLD EMPIRE AND THE NEW._ + + +During the Christmas festival of the year 800 the crown of the imperial +dignity was placed at Rome on the head of Charles the Great, and the +Roman Empire of the West again came into being, so far as a dead thing +could be restored to life. For one thousand and six years afterwards +this title of emperor was retained in Germany, though the power +represented by it became at times a very shadowy affair. The authority +and influence of the emperors reached their culmination during the reign +of the Hohenstauffens (1138 to 1254). For a few centuries afterwards the +title represented an empire which was but a quarter fact, three-quarters +tradition, the emperor being duly elected by the diet of German princes, +but by no means submissively obeyed. The fraction of fact which remained +of the old empire perished in the Thirty Years' War. After that date the +title continued in existence, being held by the Hapsburgs of Austria as +an hereditary dignity, but the empire had vanished except as a tradition +or superstition. Finally, on the 6th of August, 1806, Francis II., at +the absolute dictum of Napoleon, laid down the title of "Emperor of the +Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation," and the long defunct empire was +finally buried. + +The shadow which remained of the empire of Charlemagne had vanished +before the rise of a greater and more vital thing, the empire of France, +brought into existence by the genius of Napoleon Bonaparte, the +successor of Charles the Great as a mighty conqueror. For a few years it +seemed as if the original empire might be restored. The power of +Napoleon, indeed, extended farther than that of his great predecessor, +all Europe west of Russia becoming virtually his. Some of the kings were +replaced by monarchs of his creation. Others were left upon their +thrones, but with their power shorn, their dignity being largely one of +vassalage to France. Not content with an empire that stretched beyond +the limits of that of Charlemagne or of the Roman Empire of the West, +Napoleon ambitiously sought to subdue all Europe to his imperial will, +and marched into Russia with nearly all the remaining nations of Europe +as his forced allies. + +His career as a conqueror ended in the snows of Muscovy and amid the +flames of Moscow. The shattered fragment of the grand army of conquest +that came back from that terrible expedition found crushed and dismayed +Germany rising into hostile vitality in its rear. Russia pursued its +vanquished invader, Prussia rose against him, Austria joined his foes, +and at length, in October, 1813, united Germany was marshalled in arms +against its mighty enemy before the city of Leipsic, the scene of the +great battles of the Thirty Years' War, nearly two centuries before. + +Here was fought one of the fiercest and most decisive struggles of that +quarter century of conflict. It was a fight for life, a battle to decide +the question of who should be lord of Europe. Napoleon had been brought +to bay. Despising to the last his foes, he had weakened his army by +leaving strong garrisons in the German cities, which he hoped to +reoccupy after he had beaten the German armies. On the 16th of October +the great contest began. It was fought fiercely throughout the day, with +successive waves of victory and defeat, the advantage at the end resting +with the allies through sheer force of numbers. The 17th was a day of +rest and negotiation, Napoleon vainly seeking to induce the Emperor of +Austria to withdraw from the alliance. While this was going on large +bodies of Swedes, Russians, and Austrians were marching to join the +German ranks, and the battle of the 18th was fought between a hundred +and fifty thousand French and a hostile army of double that strength, +which represented all northern and eastern Europe. + +The battle was one of frightful slaughter. Its turning-point came when +the Saxon infantry, which had hitherto fought on the French side, +deserted Napoleon's cause in the thick of the fight, and went over in a +body to the enemy. It was an act of treachery whose fatal effect no +effort could overcome. The day ended with victory in the hands of the +allies. The French were driven back close upon the walls of Leipsic, +with the serried columns of Germany and Russia closing them in, and +bent on giving no relaxation to their desperate foe. + +The struggle was at an end. Longer resistance would have been madness. +Napoleon ordered a retreat. But the Elster had to be crossed, and only a +single bridge remained for the passage of the army and its stores. All +night long the French poured across the bridge with what they could take +of their wagons and guns. Morning dawned with the rush and hurry of the +retreat still in active progress. A strong rear-guard held the town, and +Napoleon himself made his way across the bridge with difficulty through +the crowding masses. + +Hardly had he crossed when a frightful misfortune occurred. The bridge +had been mined, to blow it up on the approach of the foe. This duty had +been carelessly trusted to a subaltern, who, frightened by seeing some +of the enemy on the river-side, set fire hastily to the train. The +bridge blew up with a tremendous explosion, leaving a rear-guard of +twenty-five thousand men in Leipsic cut off from all hope of escape. +Some officers plunged on horseback into the stream and swam across. +Prince Poniatowsky, the gallant Pole, essayed the same, but perished in +the attempt. The soldiers of the rear-guard were forced to surrender as +prisoners of war. In this great conflict, which had continued for four +days, and in which the most of the nations of Europe took part, eighty +thousand men are said to have been slain. The French lost very heavily +in prisoners and guns. Only a hasty retreat to the Rhine saved the +remainder of their army from being cut off and captured. On the 20th +Napoleon succeeded in crossing that frontier river of his kingdom with +seventy thousand men, the remnant of the grand army with which he had +sought to hold Prussia after the disastrous end of the invasion of +Russia. + +[Illustration: A GERMAN MILK WAGON.] + +Germany was at length freed from its mighty foe. The garrisons which had +been left in its cities were forced to surrender as prisoners of war. +France in its turn was invaded, Paris taken, and Napoleon forced to +resign the imperial crown, and to retire from his empire to the little +island of Elba, near the Italian coast. In 1815 he returned, again set +Europe in flame with war, and fell once more at Waterloo, to end his +career in the far-off island of St. Helena. + +Thus ended the empire founded by the great conqueror. The next to claim +the imperial title was Louis Napoleon, who in 1851 had himself crowned +as Napoleon III. But his so-called empire was confined to France, and +fell in 1870 on the field of Sedan, himself and his army being taken +prisoners. A republic was declared in France, and the second French +empire was at an end. + +And now the empire of Germany was restored, after having ceased to exist +for sixty-five years. The remarkable success of William of Prussia gave +rise to a wide-spread feeling in the German states that he should assume +the imperial crown, and the old empire be brought again into existence +under new conditions; no longer hampered by the tradition of a Roman +empire, but as the title of united Germany. + +On December 18, 1870, an address from the North German Parliament was +read to King William at Versailles, asking him to accept the imperial +crown. He assented, and on January 18, 1871, an imposing ceremony was +held in the splendid Mirror Hall (_Galerie des Glaces_) of Louis XIV., +at the royal palace of Versailles. The day was a wet one, and the king +rode from his quarters in the prefecture to the great gates of the +chateau, where he alighted and passed through a lane of soldiers, the +roar of cannon heralding his approach, and rich strains of music +signalling his entrance to the hall. + +William wore a general's uniform, with the ribbon of the Black Eagle on +his breast. Helmet in hand he advanced slowly to the dais, bowed to the +assembled clergymen, and turned to survey the scene. There had been +erected an altar covered with scarlet cloth, which bore the device of +the Iron Cross. Right and left of it were soldiers bearing the standards +of their regiments. Attending on the king were the crown-prince, and a +brilliant array of the princes, dukes, and other rulers of the German +states arranged in semicircular form. Just above his head was a great +allegorical painting of the Grand Monarch, with the proud subscription, +"_Le Roi gouverne par lui meme_," the motto of the autocrat. + +The ceremony began with the singing of psalms, a short sermon, and a +grand German chorale, in which all present joined. Then William, in a +loud but broken voice, read a paper, in which he declared the German +empire re-established, and the imperial dignity revived, to be invested +in him and his descendants for all future time, in accordance with the +will of the German people. + +Count Bismarck followed with a proclamation addressed by the emperor to +the German nation. As he ended, the Grand-Duke of Baden, William's +son-in-law, stepped out from the line, raised his helmet in the air, and +shouted in stentorian tones, "Long live the German Emperor William! +Hurrah!" + +Loud cheers and waving of swords and helmets responded to his stirring +appeal, the crown-prince fell on his knee to kiss the emperor's hand, +and a military band outside the hall struck up the German National +Anthem, while, as a warlike background to the scene, came the roar of +French cannon from Mount Valerien, still besieged by the Germans, their +warlike peal the last note of defiance from vanquished France. Ten days +afterwards Paris surrendered, and the war was at an end. On the 16th of +June the army made a triumphant entrance into Berlin, William riding at +its head, to be triumphantly hailed as emperor by his own people on his +own soil. All Germany, with the exception of Austria, was for the first +time fully united into an empire, the minor princes having ceased to +exist as ruling potentates. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Historical Tales, Vol 5 (of 15), by Charles Morris + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORICAL TALES, VOL 5 (OF 15) *** + +***** This file should be named 16587.txt or 16587.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/5/8/16587/ + +Produced by Janet Blenkinship and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/16587.zip b/16587.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..751d7dc --- /dev/null +++ b/16587.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..21cd1fa --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #16587 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16587) |
