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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pinnock's Improved Edition of Dr.
+Goldsmith's History of Rome, by Oliver Goldsmith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Pinnock's Improved Edition of Dr. Goldsmith's History of Rome
+
+Author: Oliver Goldsmith
+
+Editor: William C. Taylor
+
+Release Date: July 29, 2005 [EBook #16387]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Alicia Williams, Jayam Subramanian and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+  PINNOCK'S
+
+  IMPROVED EDITION OF
+
+
+
+
+  DR. GOLDSMITH'S
+
+  HISTORY OF ROME:
+
+
+
+
+  TO WHICH IS PREFIXED AN
+
+  INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF ROMAN HISTORY,
+
+  AND
+
+  A GREAT VARIETY OF VALUABLE INFORMATION ADDED THROUGHOUT THE WORK, ON
+  THE
+
+  MANNERS, INSTITUTIONS, AND ANTIQUITIES OF THE ROMANS;
+
+  WITH
+
+  NUMEROUS BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL NOTES;
+
+  AND
+
+  QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION
+
+  AT THE END OF EACH SECTION.
+
+  ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
+
+  [Illustration: Coliseum.]
+
+  BY
+
+  WM. C. TAYLOR, LL.D.,
+
+  OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN.
+
+  AUTHOR OF MANUAL OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY, ETC. ETC.
+
+
+
+
+  THIRTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, FROM THE TWENTY-THIRD ENGLISH EDITION
+
+  PHILADELPHIA:
+
+  THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO.
+
+  1851.
+
+
+
+
+
+  Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1848, by
+
+  THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO.
+
+  In the clerk's office of the District Court of the United States for
+  the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
+
+  PRINTED BY SMITH & PETERS,
+
+  Franklin Buildings, Sixth Street below Arch, Philadelphia.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+The researches of Niebuhr and several other distinguished German
+scholars have thrown a new light on Roman History, and enabled us to
+discover the true constitution of that republic which once ruled the
+destinies of the known world, and the influence of whose literature
+and laws is still powerful in every civilized state, and will probably
+continue to be felt to the remotest posterity. These discoveries have,
+however, been hitherto useless to junior students in this country; the
+works of the German critics being unsuited to the purposes of schools,
+not only from their price, but also from the extensive learning
+requisite to follow them through their laborious disquisitions. The
+editor has, therefore, thought that it would be no unacceptable
+service, to prefix a few Introductory Chapters, detailing such results
+from their inquiries as best elucidate the character and condition of
+the Roman people, and explain the most important portion of the
+history. The struggles between the patricians and plebeians,
+respecting the agrarian laws have been so strangely misrepresented,
+even by some of the best historians, that the nature of the contest
+may, with truth, be said to have been wholly misunderstood before the
+publication of Niebuhr's work: a perfect explanation of these
+important matters cannot be expected in a work of this kind; the
+Editors trust that the brief account given here of the Roman tenure of
+land, and the nature of the agrarian laws, will be found sufficient
+for all practical purposes. After all the researches that have been
+made, the true origin of the Latin people, and even of the Roman city,
+is involved in impenetrable obscurity; the legendary traditions
+collected by the historians are, however, the best guides that we can
+now follow; but it would be absurd to bestow implicit credit on all
+the accounts they have given, and the editor has, therefore, pointed
+out the uncertain nature of the early history, not to encourage
+scepticism, but to accustom students to consider the nature of
+historical evidence, and thus early form the useful habit of
+criticising and weighing testimony.
+
+The authorities followed in the geographical chapters, are principally
+Heeren and Cramer; the treatise of the latter on ancient Italy is one
+of the most valuable aids acquired by historical students within the
+present century. Much important information respecting the peculiar
+character of the Roman religion has been derived from Mr. Keightley's
+excellent Treatise on Mythology; the only writer who has, in our
+language, hitherto, explained the difference between the religious
+systems of Greece and Rome. The account of the barbarians in the
+conclusion of the volume, is, for the most part, extracted from
+"Koch's Revolutions of Europe;" the sources of the notes, scattered
+through the volume, are too varied for a distinct acknowledgment of
+each.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+CHAPTER
+
+I. Geographical Outline of Italy
+
+II. The Latin Language and People--Credibility of the Early History
+
+III. Topography of Rome
+
+IV. The Roman Constitution
+
+V. The Roman Tenure of Land--Colonial Government
+
+VI. The Roman Religion
+
+VII. The Roman Army and Navy
+
+VIII. Roman Law.--Finance
+
+IX. The public Amusements and private Life of the Romans
+
+X. Geography of the empire at the time of its greatest extent
+
+HISTORY.
+
+I. Of the Origin of the Romans
+
+II. From the building of Rome to the death of Romulus
+
+III. From the death of Romulus to the death of Numa
+
+IV. From the death of Numa to the death of Tullus Hostilius
+
+V. From the death of Tullus Hostilius to the death of Ancus Martius
+
+VI. From the death of Ancus Martius to the death of Taiquinius Priscus
+
+VII. From the death of Tarquinius Priscus to the death of Servius Tullius
+
+VIII. From the death of Servius Tullius to the banishment of Tarquinius
+  Superbus
+
+IX. From the banishment of Tarquinius Superbus to the appointment of the
+  first Dictator
+
+X. From the Creation of the Dictator to the election of the Tribunes
+
+XI. From the Creation of the Tribunes to the appointment of the Decemviri,
+  viz.
+
+Section 1.--The great Volscian war
+
+ ----   2.--Civil commotions on account of the Agrarian law
+
+XII. From the creation of the Decemviri to the destruction of the city
+  by the Gauls, viz.
+
+Section 1.--Tyranny of the Decemviri
+
+ ----   2.--Crimes of Appius--Revolt of the army
+
+ ----   3.--Election of Military Tribunes--Creation of the
+  Censorship
+
+ ----   4.--Siege and capture of Veii--Invasion of the Gauls
+
+ ----   5.--Deliverance of Rome from the Gauls
+
+XIII. From the wars with the Samnites to the First Punic war, viz.
+
+Section 1.--The Latin war
+
+ ----   2.--Invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus
+
+ ----   3.--Defeat and departure of Pyrrhus
+
+XIV. From the beginning of the First Punic war to the beginning of the
+  Second, viz.
+
+Section 1.--Causes and commencement of the war--Invasion of Africa by
+  Regulus
+
+ ----   2.--Death of Regulus--Final Triumph of the Romans
+
+XV. The Second Punic war, viz.
+
+Section 1.--Commencement of the war--Hannibal's invasion of Italy
+
+ ----   2.--Victorious career of Hannibal
+
+ ----   3.--Retrieval of the Roman affairs--Invasion of Africa by
+  Scipio--Conclusion of the war
+
+XVI. Macedonian, Syrian, Third Punic, and Spanish wars
+
+XVII. From the Destruction of Carthage to the end of the Sedition of the
+  Gracchi, viz.
+
+Section 1.--Murder of Tiberius Gracchus
+
+ ----   2.--Slaughter of Caius Gracchus and his adherents
+
+XVIII. From the Sedition of Gracchus to the perpetual Dictatorship of
+  Sylla, viz.
+
+Section 1.--The Jugurthine and Social wars
+
+ ----   2.--The cruel massacres perpetrated by Marius and Sylla
+
+XIX. From the perpetual Dictatorship of Sylla to the first Triumvirate
+
+XX. From the First Triumvirate to the death of Pompey, viz.
+
+Section 1.--Cæsar's wars in Gaul--Commencement of the Civil war
+
+ ----   2.--Cæsar's victorious career
+
+ ----   3.--The campaign in Thessaly and Epirus
+
+ ----   4.--The battle of Pharsalia----5.--Death of Pompey
+
+XXI. From the Destruction of the Commonwealth to the establishment of the
+  first Emperor, Augustus, viz.
+
+Section 1.--Cæsar's Egyptian campaign
+
+ ----   2.--The African campaign
+
+ ----   3.--Death of Cæsar
+
+ ----   4.--The Second Triumvirate
+
+ ----   5.--The Battle of Philippi
+
+ ----   6.--Dissensions of Antony and Augustus
+
+ ----   7.--The Battle of Actium
+
+ ----   8.--The Conquest of Egypt
+
+XXII. From the accession of Augustus to the death of Domitian, viz.
+
+Section 1.--The beneficent Administration of Augustus
+
+ ----   2.--Death of Augustus
+
+ ----   3.--The reign of Tiberius--Death of Germanicus
+
+ ----   4.--Death of Sejanus and Tiberius--Accession of Caligula
+
+ ----   5.--Extravagant cruelties of Caligula--His death
+
+ ----   6.--The Reign of Claudius
+
+ ----   7.--The reign of Nero
+
+ ----   8.--Death of Nero--Reigns of Galba and Otho
+
+ ----   9.--The reigns of Vitellius and Vespasian--The siege of
+  Jerusalem by Titus
+
+ ----  10.--The Reigns of Titus and Domitian
+
+ ----  11.--The assassination of Domitian
+
+XXIII. The Five good emperors of Rome, viz.
+
+Section 1.--The Reigns of Nerva and Trajan
+
+ ----   2.--The Reign of Adrian
+
+ ----   3.--The Reign of Antoninus Pius
+
+ ----   4.--The reign of Marcus Aurelius
+
+XXIV. From the accession of Commodus to the change of the seat of
+  Government, from Rome to Constantinople, viz.
+
+Section 1.--The Reigns of Commodus, Pertinax, and Didius
+
+ ----   2.--The Reigns of Severus, Caracalla, Maximus, and Heliogabalus
+
+ ----   3.--The reigns of Alexander, Maximin, and Gordian
+
+ ----   4.--The Reigns of Philip, Decius, Gallus, Valerian, Claudius,
+  Aurelian, Tacitus, and Probus
+
+ ----   5.--The reigns of Carus, Carinus, Dioclesian, and
+  Constantius--Accession of Constantine
+
+ ----   6.--The reign of Constantine XXV.
+
+XXV. From the death of Constantine, to the reunion of the Roman empire
+  under Theodosius the Great, viz.
+
+Section 1.--The Reign of Constantius
+
+ ----   2.--The Reigns of Julian Jovian, the Valentinians, and
+  Theodosius
+
+XXVI. From the death of Theodosius to the subversion of the Western Empire,
+  viz.
+
+Section 1.--The division of the Roman dominions into the Eastern and
+  Western empires
+
+ ----   2.--Decline and fall of the Western empire
+
+XXVII. Historical notices of the different barbarous tribes that aided in
+  overthrowing the Roman empire
+
+XXVIII. The progress of Christianity
+
+Chronological Index
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+  HISTORY OF ROME
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF ITALY.
+
+  Italia! oh, Italia! thou who hast
+  The fatal gift of beauty, which became
+  A funeral dower of present woes and past,
+  On thy sweet brow is sorrow plough'd by shame,
+  And annals traced in characters of flame.--_Byron_.
+
+1. The outline of Italy presents a geographical unity and completeness
+which naturally would lead us to believe that it was regarded as a
+whole, and named as a single country, from the earliest ages. This
+opinion would, however, be erroneous; while the country was possessed
+by various independent tribes of varied origin and different customs,
+the districts inhabited by each were reckoned separate states, and it
+was not until these several nations had fallen under the power of one
+predominant people that the physical unity which the peninsula
+possesses was expressed by a single name. Italy was the name
+originally given to a small peninsula in Brut'tium, between the
+Scylacean and Napetine gulfs; the name was gradually made to
+comprehend new districts, until at length it included the entire
+country lying south of the Alps, between the Adriatic and Tuscan seas.
+2. The names Hespéria, Satúrnia, and Oenot'ria have also been given
+to this country by the poets; but these designations are not properly
+applicable; for Hespéria was a general name for all the countries
+lying to the west of Greece, and the other two names really belonged
+to particular districts.
+
+3. The northern boundary of Italy, in its full extent, is the chain of
+the Alps, which forms a kind of crescent, with the convex side towards
+Gaul. The various branches of these mountains had distinct names; the
+most remarkable were, the Maritime Alps, extending from the Ligurian
+sea to Mount Vésulus, _Veso_; the Collian, Graian, Penine, Rhoetian,
+Tridentine, Carnic, and Julian Alps, which nearly complete the
+crescent; the Euganean, Venetian, and Pannonian Alps, that extend the
+chain to the east.
+
+4. The political divisions of Italy have been frequently altered, but
+it may be considered as naturally divided into Northern, Central, and
+Southern Italy.
+
+The principal divisions of Northern Italy were Ligu'ria and Cisalpine
+Gaul.
+
+5. Only one half of Liguria was accounted part of Italy; the remainder
+was included in Gaul. The Ligurians originally possessed the entire
+line of sea-coast from the Pyrennees to the Tiber, and the mountainous
+district now called _Piedmont_; but before the historic age a great
+part of their territory was wrested from them by the Iberians, the
+Celts, and the Tuscans, until their limits were contracted nearly to
+those of the present district attached to Genoa. Their chief cities
+were Genúa, _Genoa_; Nicoe'a, _Nice_, founded by a colony from
+Marseilles; and As'ta, _Asti_. The Ligurians were one of the last
+Italian states conquered by the Romans; on account of their inveterate
+hostility, they are grossly maligned by the historians of the
+victorious people, and described as ignorant, treacherous, and
+deceitful; but the Greek writers have given a different and more
+impartial account; they assure us that the Ligurians were eminent for
+boldness and dexterity, and at the same time patient and contented.
+
+6. Cisalpine Gaul extended from Liguria to the Adriatic or Upper Sea,
+and nearly coincides with the modern district of Lombardy. The country
+is a continuous plain divided by the Pa'dus, _Po_, into two parts; the
+northern, Gallia Transpada'na, was inhabited by the tribes of the
+Tauri'ni, In'subres, and Cenoma'nni; the southern, Gallia Cispada'na,
+was possessed by the Boi'i, Leno'nes, and Lingo'nes. 7. These plains
+were originally inhabited by a portion of the Etrurian or Tuscan
+nation, once the most powerful in Italy; but at an uncertain period a
+vast horde of Celtic Gauls forced the passage of the Alps and spread
+themselves over the country, which thence received their name.
+
+8. It was sometimes called Gallia Toga'ta, because the invaders
+conformed to Italian customs, and wore the toga. Cisalpine Gaul was
+not accounted part of Italy in the republican age; its southern
+boundary, the river Rubicon, being esteemed by the Romans the limit of
+their domestic empire.
+
+9. The river Pa'dus and its tributary streams fertilized these rich
+plains. The principal rivers falling into the Padus were, from the
+north, the Du'ria, _Durance_; the Tici'nus, _Tessino_; the Ad'dua,
+_Adda_; the Ol'lius, _Oglio_; and the Min'tius, _Minzio_: from
+the south, the Ta'narus, _Tanaro_, and the Tre'bia. The Ath'esis,
+_Adige_; the Pla'vis, _Paive_; fall directly into the Adriatic.
+
+10. The principal cities in Cisalpine Gaul were Roman colonies with
+municipal rights; many of them have preserved their names unchanged to
+the present day. The most remarkable were; north of the Pa'dus,
+Terge'ste, _Trieste_; Aquilei'a; Pata'vium, _Padua_; Vincen'tia,
+Vero'na, all east of the Athe'sis: Mantua; Cremo'na; Brix'ia,
+_Brescia_; Mediola'num, _Milan_; Tici'num, _Pavia_; and Augusta
+Turino'rum, _Turin_; all west of the Athe'sis. South of the Po we find
+Raven'na; Bono'nia, _Bologna_; Muti'na, _Modena_; Par'ma, and
+Placen'tia. 11. From the time that Rome was burned by the Gauls (B.C.
+390), the Romans were harassed by the hostilities of this warlike
+people; and it was not until after the first Punic war, that any
+vigorous efforts were made for their subjugation. The Cisalpine Gauls,
+after a fierce resistance, were overthrown by Marcell'us (B.C. 223)
+and compelled to submit, and immediately afterwards military colonies
+were sent out as garrisons to the most favourable situations in their
+country. The Gauls zealously supported An'nibal when he invaded Italy,
+and were severely punished when the Romans finally became victorious.
+
+12. North-east of Cisalpine Gaul, at the upper extremity of the
+Adriatic, lay the territory of the Venetians; they were a rich and
+unwarlike people, and submitted to the Romans without a struggle, long
+before northern Italy had been annexed to the dominions of the
+republic.
+
+13. Central Italy comprises six countries, Etru'ria, La'tium, and
+Campa'nia on the west; Um'bria, Pice'num, and Sam'nium, on the east.
+
+14. Etru'ria, called also Tus'cia (whence the modern name _Tuscany_)
+and Tyrrhe'nia, was an extensive mountainous district, bounded on the
+north by the river Mac'ra, and on the south and east by the Tiber. The
+chain of the Apennines, which intersects middle and Lower Italy,
+commences in the north of Etru'ria. The chief river is the Ar'nus,
+_Arno_. 15. The names Etruscan and Tyrrhenian, indifferently applied
+to the inhabitants of this country, originally belonged to different
+tribes, which, before the historic age, coalesced into one people. The
+Etruscans appear to have been Celts who descended from the Alps; the
+Tyrrhenians were undoubtedly a part of the Pelas'gi who originally
+possessed the south-east of Europe. The circumstances of the
+Pelasgic migration are differently related by the several historians,
+but the fact is asserted by all.[1] These Tyrrhenians brought with
+them the knowledge of letters and the arts, and the united people
+attained a high degree of power and civilization, long before the name
+of Rome was known beyond the precincts of Latium. They possessed a
+strong naval force, which was chiefly employed in piratical
+expeditions, and they claimed the sovereignty of the western seas. The
+first sea-fight recorded in history was fought between the fugitive
+Phocians,[2] and the allied fleets of the Tyrrhenians and the
+Carthaginians (B.C. 539.)
+
+16. To commerce and navigation the Etruscans were indebted for their
+opulence and consequent magnificence; their destruction was owing to
+the defects of their political system. There were twelve Tuscan cities
+united in a federative alliance. Between the Mac'ra and Arnus were,
+Pi'sæ, _Pisa_; Floren'tia, _Florence_; and Fæ'sulæ: between the Arnus
+and the Tiber, Volate'rræ, _Volterra_; Volsin'ii, _Bolsena_; Clu'sium,
+_Chiusi_; Arre'tium, _Arrezzo_; Corto'na; Peru'sia, _Perugia_, (near
+which is the Thrasamene lake); Fale'rii, and Ve'ii.
+
+17. Each of these cities was ruled by a chief magistrate called
+_lu'cumo_, chosen for life; he possessed regal power, and is
+frequently called a king by the Roman historians. In enterprises
+undertaken by the whole body, the supreme command was committed to one
+of the twelve _lucumones_, and he received a lictor from each city.
+But from the time that Roman history begins to assume a regular form,
+the Tuscan cities stand isolated, uniting only transiently and
+casually; we do not, however, find any traces of intestine wars
+between the several states.
+
+18. The Etrurian form of government was aristocratical, and the
+condition of the people appears to have been miserable in the extreme;
+they were treated as slaves destitute of political rights, and
+compelled to labour solely for the benefit of their taskmasters. A
+revolution at a late period took place at Volsin'ii, and the exclusive
+privileges of the nobility abolished after a fierce and bloody
+struggle; it is remarkable that this town, in which the people had
+obtained their rights, alone made an obstinate resistance to the
+Romans.
+
+19. The progress of the Tuscans in the fine arts is attested by the
+monuments that still remain; but of their literature we know
+nothing; their language is unknown, and their books have perished. In
+the first ages of the Roman republic, the children of the nobility
+were sent to Etru'ria for education, especially in divination and the
+art of soothsaying, in which the Tuscans were supposed to excel. The
+form of the Roman constitution, the religious ceremonies, and the
+ensigns of civil government, were borrowed from the Etrurians.
+
+20. La'tium originally extended along the coast from the Tiber to the
+promontory of Circe'ii; hence that district was called, old La'tium;
+the part subsequently added, called new La'tium, extended from Circeii
+to the Li'ris, _Garigliano_. The people were called Latins; but
+eastward, towards the Apennines, were the tribes of the Her'nici, the
+Æ'qui, the Mar'si, and the Sabines; and on the south were the Vols'ci,
+Ru'tuli, and Aurun'ci. The chief rivers in this country were the
+A'nio, _Teverone_; and Al'lia, which fall into the Tiber; and the
+Liris, _Garigliano_; which flows directly into the Mediterranean.
+
+21. The chief cities in old Latium were ROME; Ti'bur, _Tivoli_;
+Tus'culum, _Frescati_; Al'ba Lon'ga, of which no trace remains;
+Lavin'ium; An'tium; Ga'bii; and Os'tia, _Civita Vecchia_; the chief
+towns in new Latium were Fun'di, Anx'ur or Terraci'na, Ar'pinum,
+Mintur'næ, and For'miæ.
+
+22. CAMPA'NIA included the fertile volcanic plains that lie between
+the Liris on the north, and the Si'lanus, _Selo_, on the south; the
+other most remarkable river was the Voltur'nus, _Volturno_. The chief
+cities were, Ca'pua the capital, Linter'num, Cu'mæ, Neapo'lis,
+_Naples_; Hercula'neum, Pompe'ii, Surren'tum, Saler'num, &c. The
+original inhabitants of Campa'nia, were the Auso'nes and Op'ici or
+Osci, the most ancient of the native Italian tribes. The Tyrrhenian
+Pelas'gi made several settlements on the coast, and are supposed to
+have founded Cap'ua. The Etruscans were afterwards masters of the
+country, but their dominion was of brief duration, and left no trace
+behind. Campa'nia was subdued by the Romans after the Volscian war.
+
+23. The soil of Campa'nia is the most fruitful, perhaps, in the world,
+but it is subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Mount
+Vesu'vius in the early ages of Italy was not a volcano; its first
+eruption took place A.D. 79.
+
+24. UM'BRIA extended along the middle and east of Italy, from the
+river Rubicon in the north, to the Æ'sis, _Gesano_, dividing it
+from Pise'num, and the Nar, _Nera_, separating it from Sam'nium in the
+south. The Umbrians were esteemed one of the most ancient races in
+Italy, and were said to have possessed the greater part of the
+northern and central provinces. They were divided into several tribes,
+which seem to have been semi-barbarous, and they were subject to the
+Gauls before they were conquered by the Romans. Their chief towns were
+Arimi'nium, _Rimini_; Spole'tium, _Spoleto_; Nar'nia, _Narni_; and
+Ocricu'lum, _Otriculi_.
+
+25. PICE'NUM was the name given to the fertile plain that skirts the
+Adriatic, between the Æ'sis, _Gesano_, and the Atar'nus, _Pescara_.
+The chief cities were Anco'na and Asc'ulum Pice'num, _Ascoli_. The
+Picentines were descended from the Sabines, and observed the strict
+and severe discipline of that warlike race, but they were destitute of
+courage or vigour.
+
+26. SAM'NIUM included the mountainous tract which stretches from the
+Atar'nus in the north, to the Fren'to in the south. It was inhabited
+by several tribes descended from the Sabines[3] and Ma'rsi, of which
+the Samnites were the most distinguished; the other most remarkable
+septs were the Marruci'ni and Pelig'ni in the north, the Frenta'ni in
+the east, and the Hirpi'ni in the south.
+
+27. The Samnites were distinguished by their love of war, and their
+unconquerable attachment to liberty; their sway at one time extended
+over Campa'nia, and the greater part of central Italy; and the Romans
+found them the fiercest and most dangerous of their early enemies. The
+chief towns in the Samnite territory were Alli'fæ, Beneventum, and
+Cau'dium.
+
+28. Lower Italy was also called Magna Græ'cia, from the number of
+Greek[4] colonies that settled on the coast; it comprised four
+countries; Luca'nia and Brut'tium on the west, and Apu'lia and
+Cala'bria on the east.
+
+29. LUCA'NIA was a mountainous country between the Sil'arus, _Selo_,
+on the north, and the Lä'us, _Lavo_, on the south. The Lucanians were
+of Sabine origin, and conquered the Oenotrians, who first
+possessed the country: they also subdued several Greek cities on the
+coast. The chief cities were Posido'nia or Pæstum, He'lia or Ve'lia,
+Sib'aris and Thu'rii.
+
+30. Brut'tium is the modern Cala'bria, and received that name when the
+ancient province was wrested from the empire. It included the tongue
+of land from the river Läus to the southern extremity of Italy at
+Rhe'gium. The mountains of the interior were inhabited by the
+Bruta'tes or Brut'tii, a semi-barbarous tribe, at first subject to the
+Sibarites, and afterwards to the Lucanians. In a late age they
+asserted their independence, and maintained a vigorous resistance to
+the Romans. As the Brut'tii used the Oscan language, they must have
+been of the Ausonian race. The chief towns were the Greek settlements
+on the coast, Consen'tia, _Cosenza_; Pando'sia, _Cirenza_; Croto'na,
+Mame'rtum, Petil'ia, and Rhe'gium, _Reggio_.
+
+31. Apu'lia extended along the eastern coast from the river Fren'to,
+to the eastern tongue of land which forms the foot of the boot, to
+which Italy has been compared. It was a very fruitful plain, without
+fortresses or harbours, and was particularly adapted to grazing
+cattle. It was divided by the river Au'fidus, _Ofanto_, into Apu'lia
+Dau'nia, and Apu'lia Peuce'tia, or pine-bearing Apu'lia. The chief
+towns were, in Dau'nia, Sipon'tum and Luce'ria: in Peuce'tia, Ba'rium,
+Can'næ, and Venu'sia.
+
+32. Cala'bria, or Messa'pia, is the eastern tongue of land which
+terminates at Cape Japy'gium, _Santa Maria_; it was almost wholly
+occupied by Grecian colonies. The chief towns were Brundu'sium,
+_Brindisi_: Callipolis, _Gallipoli_: and Taren'tum.
+
+33. The islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia, which are now
+reckoned as appertaining to Italy, were by the Romans considered
+separate provinces.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. How is Italy situated?
+
+2. By what names was the country known to the ancients?
+
+3. How is Italy bounded on the north?
+
+4. What districts were in northern Italy?
+
+5. What was the extent of Liguria, and the character of its
+inhabitants?
+
+6. How was Cisalpine Gaul divided?
+
+7. By whom was Cisalpine Gaul inhabited?
+
+8. Why was it called Togata?
+
+9. What are the principal rivers in northern Italy?
+
+10. What are the chief cities in Cisalpine Gaul?
+
+11. When did the Romans subdue this district?
+
+12. Did the Venetians resist the Roman power?
+
+13. What are the chief divisions of central Italy?
+
+14. How is Etruria situated?
+
+15. By what people was Etruria colonized?
+
+16. What were the Tuscan cities?
+
+17. How were the cities ruled?
+
+18. What was the general form of Tuscan government?
+
+19. For what were the Tuscans remarkable?
+
+20. What was the geographical situation of Latium?
+
+21. What were the chief towns in Latium?
+
+22. What towns and people were in Campania?
+
+23. For what is the soil of Campania remarkable?
+
+24. What description is given of Umbria?
+
+25. What towns and people were in Picenum?
+
+26. From whom were the Samnites descended?
+
+27. What was the character of this people?
+
+28. How was southern Italy divided?
+
+29. What description is given of Lucania?
+
+30. By what people was Bruttium inhabited?
+
+31. What is the geographical situation of Apulia?
+
+32. What description is given of Calabria?
+
+33. What islands belong to Italy?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] See Pinnock's History of Greece, Chap. I.
+
+[2] See Historical Miscellany, Part II. Chap. I.
+
+[3] These colonies, sent out by the Sabines, are said to have
+originated from the observance of the Ver sacrum (_sacred spring_.)
+During certain years, every thing was vowed to the gods that was born
+between the calends (first day) of March and May, whether men or
+animals. At first they were sacrificed; but in later ages this cruel
+custom was laid aside, and they were sent out as colonists.
+
+[4] The history of these colonies is contained in the Historical
+Miscellany, Part II. Chap. ii.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE LATIN LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE--CREDIBILITY OF THE EARLY HISTORY.
+
+  Succeeding times did equal folly call.
+  Believing nothing, or believing all.--_Dryden._
+
+The Latin language contains two primary elements, the first intimately
+connected with the Grecian, and the second with the Oscan tongue; to
+the former, for the most part, belong all words expressing the arts
+and relations of civilized life; to the latter, such terms as express
+the wants of men before society has been organized. We are therefore
+warranted in conjecturing that the Latin people was a mixed race; that
+one of its component parts came from some Grecian stock, and
+introduced the first elements of civilization, and that the other was
+indigenous, and borrowed refinement from the strangers. The traditions
+recorded by the historians sufficiently confirm this opinion; they
+unanimously assert that certain bodies of Pelasgi came into the
+country before the historic age, and coalesced with the ancient
+inhabitants. The traditions respecting these immigrations are so
+varied, that it is impossible to discover any of the circumstances;
+but there is one so connected with the early history of Rome, that it
+cannot be passed over without notice. All the Roman historians
+declare, that after the destruction of Troy, Æneas, with a body of the
+fugitives, arrived in Latium, and having married the daughter of king
+Lati'nus, succeeded him on the throne. It would be easy to show that
+this narrative is so very improbable, as to be wholly unworthy of
+credit; but how are we to account for the universal credence which it
+received? To decide this question we must discuss the credibility of
+the early Roman history, a subject which has of late years attracted
+more than ordinary attention.
+
+The first Roman historian of any authority, was Fa'bius Pic'tor, who
+flourished at the close of the second Punic war; that is, about five
+centuries and a half after the foundation of the city, and nearly a
+thousand years after the destruction of Troy. The materials from which
+his narrative was compiled, were the legendary ballads, which are in
+every country the first record of warlike exploits; the calendars and
+annals kept by the priests, and the documents kept by noble families
+to establish their genealogy. Imperfect as these materials must
+necessarily have been under any circumstances, we must remember that
+the city of Rome was twice captured; once by Porsenna, and a second
+time by the Gauls, about a century and a half before Fabius was born.
+On the latter occasion the city was burned to the ground, and the
+capital saved only by the payment of an immense ransom. By such a
+calamity it is manifest that the most valuable documents must have
+been dispersed or destroyed, and the part that escaped thrown into
+great disorder. The heroic songs might indeed have been preserved in
+the memory of the public reciters; but there is little necessity for
+proving that poetic historians would naturally mingle so much fiction
+with truth, that few of their assertions could be deemed authentic.
+The history of the four first centuries of the Roman state is
+accordingly full of the greatest inconsistences and improbabilities;
+so much so, that many respectable writers have rejected the whole as
+unworthy of credit; but this is as great an excess in scepticism, as
+the reception of the whole would be of credulity. But if the
+founders of the city, the date of its erection, and the circumstances
+under which its citizens were assembled be altogether doubtful, as
+will subsequently be shown, assuredly the history of events that
+occurred four centuries previous must be involved in still greater
+obscurity. The legend of Æneas, when he first appears noticed as a
+progenitor of the Romans, differs materially from that which
+afterwards prevailed. Romulus, in the earlier version of the story, is
+invariably described as the son or grandson of Æneas. He is the
+grandson in the poems of Nævius and Ennius, who were both nearly
+contemporary with Fabius Pictor. This gave rise to an insuperable
+chronological difficulty; for Troy was destroyed B.C. 1184, and Rome
+was not founded until B.C. 753. To remedy this incongruity, a list of
+Latin kings intervening between Æne'as and Rom'ulus, was invented; but
+the forgery was so clumsily executed, that its falsehood is apparent
+on the slightest inspection. It may also be remarked, that the actions
+attributed to Æneas are, in other traditions of the same age and
+country, ascribed to other adventurers; to Evander, a Pelasgic leader
+from Arcadia, who is said to have founded a city on the site
+afterwards occupied by Rome; or to Uly'sses, whose son Tele'gonus is
+reported to have built Tus'culum.
+
+If then we deny the historical truth of a legend which seems to have
+been universally credited by the Romans, how are we to account for the
+origin of the tale? Was the tradition of native growth, or was it
+imported from Greece when the literature of that country was
+introduced into Latium? These are questions that can only be answered
+by guess; but perhaps the following theory may in some degree be found
+satisfactory. We have shown that tradition, from the earliest age,
+invariably asserted that Pelasgic colonies had formed settlements in
+central Italy; nothing is more notorious than the custom of the
+Pelasgic tribes to take the name of their general, or of some town in
+which they had taken up their temporary residence; now Æne'a and Æ'nus
+were common names of the Pelasgic towns; the city of Thessaloni'ca was
+erected on the site of the ancient Æne'a; there was an Æ'nus in
+Thrace,[A] another in Thessaly,[A] another among the Locrians, and
+another in Epi'rus:[1] hence it is not very improbable but that some
+of the Pelasgic tribes which entered Latium may have been called
+the Æne'adæ; and the name, as in a thousand instances, preserved after
+the cause was forgotten. This conjecture is confirmed by the fact,
+that temples traditionally said to have been erected by a people
+called the Æne'adæ, are found in the Macedonian peninsula of
+Pall'ene,[2] in the islands of De'los, Cythe'ra, Zacy'nthus,
+Leuca'dia, and Sicily, on the western coasts of Ambra'cia and Epi'rus,
+and on the southern coast of Sicily.
+
+The account of several Trojans, and especially Æne'as, having survived
+the destruction of the city, is as old as the earliest narrative of
+that famous siege; Homer distinctly asserts it when he makes Neptune
+declare,
+
+    --Nor thus can Jove resign
+  The future father of the Dardan line:
+  The first great ancestor obtain'd his grace,
+  And still his love descends on all the race.
+  For Priam now, and Priam's faithless kind,
+  At length are odious, to the all-seeing mind;
+  On great Æneas shall devolve the reign,
+  And sons succeeding sons the lasting line sustain.
+    ILIAD, xx.
+
+But long before the historic age, Phrygia and the greater part of the
+western shores of Asia Minor were occupied by Grecian colonies, and
+all remembrance of Æne'as and his followers lost. When the narrative
+of the Trojan war, with other Greek legends, began to be circulated in
+Lati'um, it was natural that the identity of name should have led to
+the confounding of the Æne'adæ who had survived the destruction of
+Troy, with those who had come to La'tium from the Pelasgic Æ'nus. The
+cities which were said to be founded by the Æne'adæ were, Latin Troy,
+which possessed empire for three years; Lavinium, whose sway lasted
+thirty; Alba, which was supreme for three hundred years; and Rome,
+whose dominion was to be interminable, though some assign a limit of
+three thousand years. These numbers bear evident traces of
+superstitious invention; and the legends by which these cities are
+successively deduced from the first encampment of Æne'as, are at
+variance with these fanciful periods. The account that Alba was built
+by a son of Æne'as, who had been guided to the spot by a white sow,
+which had farrowed thirty young, is clearly a story framed from
+the similarity of the name to Albus (_white_,) and the circumstance of
+the city having been the capital of the thirty Latin tribes. The city
+derived its name from its position on the Alban mountain; for _Alb_,
+or _Alp_, signifies lofty in the ancient language of Italy, and the
+emblem of a sow with thirty young, may have been a significant emblem
+of the dominion which it unquestionably possessed over the other Latin
+states. The only thing that we can establish as certain in the early
+history of La'tium is, that its inhabitants were of a mixed race, and
+the sources from whence they sprung Pelasgic and Oscan; that is, one
+connected with the Greeks, and the other with some ancient Italian
+tribe. We have seen that this fact is the basis of all their
+traditions, that it is confirmed by the structure of their language,
+and, we may add, that it is further proved by their political
+institutions. In all the Latin cities, as well as Rome, we find the
+people divided into an aristocracy and democracy, or, as they are more
+properly called, Patricians and Plebeians. The experience of all ages
+warrants the inference, which may be best stated in the words of Dr.
+Faber: "In the progress of the human mind there is an invariable
+tendency not to introduce into an undisturbed community a palpable
+difference between lords and serfs, instead of a legal equality of
+rights; but to abolish such difference by enfranchising the serfs.
+Hence, from the universal experience of history, we may be sure that
+whenever this distinction is found to exist, the society must be
+composed of two races differing from each other in point of origin."
+
+The traditions respecting the origin of Rome are innumerable; some
+historians assert that its founder was a Greek; others, Æneas and his
+Trojans; and others give the honour to the Tyrrhenians: all, however,
+agree, that the first inhabitants were a Latin colony from Alba. Even
+those who adopted the most current story, which is followed by Dr.
+Goldsmith, believed that the city existed before the time of Rom'ulus,
+and that he was called the founder from being the first who gave it
+strength and stability. It seems probable that several villages might
+have been formed at an early age on the different hills, which were
+afterwards included in the circuit of Rome; and that the first of them
+which obtained a decided superiority, the village on the Palatine
+hill, finally absorbed the rest, and gave its name to "the eternal
+city".
+
+There seems to be some uncertainty whether Romulus gave his name
+to the city, or derived his own from it; the latter is asserted by
+several historians, but those who ascribe to the city a Grecian
+origin, with some show of probability assert that Romus (another form
+of Romulus) and Roma are both derived from the Greek [Greek: rômê],
+_strength_. The city, we are assured, had another name, which the
+priests were forbidden to divulge; but what that was, it is now
+impossible to discover.
+
+We have thus traced the history of the Latins down to the period when
+Rome was founded, or at least when it became a city, and shown how
+little reliance can be placed on the accounts given of these periods
+by the early historians. We shall hereafter see that great uncertainty
+rests on the history of Rome itself during the first four centuries of
+its existence.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] It is scarcely necessary to remark that the Pelas'gi were the
+original settlers in these countries.
+
+[2] In all these places we find also the Tyrrhenian Pelas'gi.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME.
+
+  Full in the centre of these wondrous works
+  The pride of earth! Rome in her glory see.--_Thomson._
+
+1. The city of Rome, according to _Varro_, was founded in the fourth
+year of the sixth _Olympiad_, B.C. 753; but Cato, the censor, places
+the event four years later, in the second year of the seventh
+Olympiad. The day of its foundation was the 21st of April, which was
+sacred to the rural goddess Pa'les, when the rustics were accustomed
+to solicit the increase of their flocks from the deity, and to purify
+themselves for involuntary violation of the consecrated places. The
+account preserved by tradition of the ceremonies used on this
+occasion, confirms the opinion of those who contend that Rome had a
+previous existence as a village, and that what is called its
+foundation was really an enlargement of its boundaries, by taking in
+the ground at the foot of the Palatine hill. The first care of
+Ro'mulus was to mark out the Pomoe'rium; a space round the walls of
+the city, on which it was unlawful to erect buildings.
+
+2. The person who determined the Pomoe'rium yoked a bullock and
+heifer to a plough, having a copper-share, and drew a furrow to mark
+the course of the future wall; he guided the plough so that all the
+sods might fall inwards, and was followed by others, who took
+care that none should lie the other way. 3. When he came to the place
+where it was designed to erect a gate, the plough was taken up,[1] and
+carried to where the wall recommenced. The next ceremony was the
+consecration of the commit'ium, or place of public assembly. A vault
+was built under ground, and filled with the firstlings of all the
+natural productions that sustain human life, and with earth which each
+foreign settler had brought from his own home. This place was called
+_Mun'dus_, and was supposed to become the gate of the lower world; it
+was opened on three several days of the year, for the spirits of the
+dead.
+
+4. The next addition made to the city was the Sabine town,[2] which
+occupied the Quirinal and part of the Capitoline hills. The name of
+this town most probably was Qui'rium, and from it the Roman people
+received the name Quirites. The two cities were united on terms of
+equality, and the double-faced Ja'nus stamped on the earliest Roman
+coins was probably a symbol of the double state. They were at first so
+disunited, that even the rights of intermarriage did not exist between
+them, and it was probably from Qui'rium that the Roman youths obtained
+the wives[3] by force, which were refused to their entreaties. 5. The
+next addition was the Coelian hill,[4] on which a Tuscan colony
+settled; from these three colonies the three tribes of Ram'nes,
+Ti'ties, and Lu'ceres were formed. 6. The Ram'nes, or Ram'nenses,
+derived their name from Rom'ulus; the Tities, or Titien'ses, from
+Titus Tatius, the king of the Sabines; and the Lu'ceres, from
+Lu'cumo, the Tuscan title of a general or leader.[5] From this it
+appears that the three tribes[6] were really three distinct nations,
+differing in their origin, and dwelling apart.
+
+7. The city was enlarged by Tullus Hostilius,[7] after the destruction
+of Alba, and the Viminal hill included within the walls; Ancus Martius
+added mount Aventine, and the Esquiline and Capitoline[8] being
+enclosed in the next reign, completed the number of the seven hills on
+which the ancient city stood.
+
+8. The hill called Jani'culum, on the north bank of the Tiber, was
+fortified as an outwork by Ancus Martius, and joined to the city by
+the bridge; he also dug a trench round the newly erected buildings,
+for their greater security, and called it the ditch of the Quirites.
+9. The public works erected by the kings were of stupendous magnitude,
+but the private buildings were wretched, the streets narrow, and the
+houses mean. It was not until after the burning of the city by the
+Gauls that the city was laid out on a better plan; after the Punic
+wars wealth flowed in abundantly, and private persons began to erect
+magnificent mansions. From the period of the conquest of Asia until
+the reign of Augustus, the city daily augmented its splendour, but so
+much was added by that emperor, that he boasted that "he found Rome a
+city of brick, and left it a city of marble."
+
+10. The circumference of the city has been variously estimated, some
+writers including in their computation a part of the suburbs;
+according to Pliny it was near twenty miles round the walls. In
+consequence of this great extent the city had more than thirty gates,
+of which the most remarkable were the Carmental, the Esquiline, the
+Triumphal, the Naval, and those called Tergem'ina and Cape'na.
+
+11. The division of the city into four tribes continued until the
+reign of Augustus; a new arrangement was made by the emperor, who
+divided Rome into fourteen wards, or regions.[9] The magnificent
+public and private buildings in a city so extensive and wealthy were
+very numerous, and a bare catalogue of them would fill a volume;[10]
+our attention must be confined to those which possessed some
+historical importance.
+
+12. The most celebrated and conspicuous buildings were in the eighth
+division of the city, which contained the Capitol and its temples, the
+Senate House, and the Forum. The Capitoline-hill was anciently called
+Saturnius, from the ancient city of Satur'nia, of which it was the
+citadel; it was afterwards called the Tarpeian mount, and finally
+received the name of Capitoline from a human head[11] being found on
+its summit when the foundations of the temple of Jupiter were laid. It
+had two summits; that on the south retained the name Tarpeian;[12] the
+northern was properly the Capitol. 13. On this part of the hill
+Romulus first established his asylum, in a sacred grove, dedicated to
+some unknown divinity; and erected a fort or citadel[13] on the
+Tarpeian summit. The celebrated temple of Jupiter Capitoli'nus,
+erected on this hill, was begun by the elder Tarquin, and finished by
+Tarquin the Proud. It was burned down in the civil wars between
+Ma'rius and Syl'la,  but restored by the latter, who adorned it
+with pillars taken from the temple of Jupiter at Olympia. It was
+rebuilt after similar accidents by Vespa'sian and Domitian, and on
+each occasion with additional splendour. The rich ornaments and gifts
+presented to this temple by different princes and generals amounted to
+a scarcely credible sum. The gold and jewels given by Augustus alone
+are said to have exceeded in value four thousand pounds sterling. A
+nail was annually driven into the wall of the temple to mark the
+course of time; besides this chronological record, it contained the
+Sibylline books, and other oracles supposed to be pregnant with the
+fate of the city. There were several other temples on this hill, of
+which the most remarkable was that of Jupiter Feretrius, erected by
+Romulus, where the spolia opima were deposited.
+
+14. The Forum, or place of public assembly, was situated between the
+Palatine and Capitoline hills. It was surrounded with temples,
+basilicks,[14] and public offices, and adorned with innumerable
+statues.[15] On one side of this space were the elevated seats from
+which the Roman magistrates and orators addressed the people; they
+were called Rostra, because they were ornamented with the beaks of
+some galleys taken from the city of Antium. In the centre of the forum
+was a place called the Curtian Lake, either from a Sabine general
+called Curtius, said to have been smothered in the marsh which was
+once there; or from[16] the Roman knight who plunged into a gulf that
+opened suddenly on the spot. The celebrated temple of Ja'nus, built
+entirely of bronze, stood in the Forum; it is supposed to have been
+erected by Numa. The gates of this temple were opened in time of war,
+and shut during peace. So continuous we're the wars of the Romans,
+that the gates were only closed three times during the space of eight
+centuries. In the vicinity stood the temple of Concord, where the
+senate frequently assembled, and the temple of Vesta, where the
+palla'dium was said to be deposited.
+
+15. Above the rostra was the Senate-house, said to have been
+first erected by Tullus Hostilius; and near the Comitium, or place of
+meeting for the patrician Curiæ.[17] This area was at first uncovered,
+but a roof was erected at the close of the second Pu'nic war.
+
+16. The Cam'pus Mar'tius, or field of Mars, was originally the estate
+of Tarquin the Proud, and was, with his other property, confiscated
+after the expulsion of that monarch. It was a large space, where
+armies were mustered, general assemblies of the people held, and the
+young nobility trained in martial exercises. In the later ages, it was
+surrounded by several magnificent structures, and porticos were
+erected, under which the citizens might take their accustomed exercise
+in rainy weather. These improvements were principally made by Marcus
+Agrippa, in the reign of Augustus. 17. He erected in the
+neighbourhood, the Panthe'on, or temple of all the gods, one of the
+most splendid buildings in ancient Rome. It is of a circular form, and
+its roof is in the form of a cupola or dome; it is used at present as
+a Christian church. Near the Panthe'on were the baths and gardens
+which Agrippa, at his death, bequeathed to the Roman people.
+
+18. The theatres and circi for the exhibition of public spectacles
+were very numerous. The first theatre was erected by Pompey the Great;
+but the Circus Maximus, where gladiatorial combats were displayed, was
+erected by Tarquinus Priscus; this enormous building was frequently
+enlarged, and in the age of Pliny could accommodate two hundred
+thousand spectators. A still more remarkable edifice was the
+amphitheatre erected by Vespasian, called, from its enormous size, the
+Colosse'um.
+
+19. Public baths were early erected for the use of the people, and in
+the later ages were among the most remarkable displays of Roman luxury
+and splendour. Lofty arches, stately pillars, vaulted ceilings, seats
+of solid silver, costly marbles inlaid with precious stones, were
+exhibited in these buildings with the most lavish profusion.
+
+20. The aqueducts for supplying the city with water, were still more
+worthy of admiration; they were supported by arches, many of them a
+hundred feet high, and carried over mountains and morasses that might
+have appeared insuperable. The first aqueduct was erected by Ap'pius
+Clo'dius, the censor, four hundred years after the foundation
+of the city; but under the emperors there were not less than twenty of
+these useful structures, and such was the supply of water, that rivers
+seemed to flow through the streets and sewers. Even now, though only
+three of the aqueducts remain, such are their dimensions that no city
+in Europe has a greater abundance of wholesome water than Rome.
+
+21. The Cloa'cæ, or common sewers, attracted the wonder of the
+ancients themselves; the largest was completed by Tarquin the Proud.
+The innermost vault of this astonishing structure forms a semicircle
+eighteen Roman palms wide, and as many high: this is inclosed in a
+second vault, and that again in a third, all formed of hewn blocks of
+pepenno, fixed together without cement. So extensive were these
+channels, that in the reign of Augustus the city was subterraneously
+navigable.
+
+22. The public roads were little inferior to the aqueducts and Cloa'cæ
+in utility and costliness; the chief was the Appian road from Rome to
+Brundu'sium; it extended three hundred and fifty miles, and was paved
+with huge squares through its entire length. After the lapse of
+nineteen centuries many parts of it are still as perfect as when it
+was first made.
+
+23. The Appian road passed through the following towns; Ari'cia,
+Fo'rum Ap'pii, An'xur or Terraci'na, Fun'di, Mintur'næ, Sinue'ssa,
+Cap'ua, Can'dium, Beneven'tum, Equotu'ticum, Herdo'nia, Canu'sium,
+Ba'rium, and Brundu'sium. Between Fo'rum Ap'pii and Terraci'na lie the
+celebrated Pomptine marshes, formed by the overflowing of some small
+streams. In the flourishing ages of Roman history these pestilential
+marshes did not exist, or were confined to a very limited space; but
+from the decline of the Roman empire, the waters gradually encroached,
+until the successful exertions made by the Pontiffs in modern times to
+arrest their baleful progress. Before the drainage of Pope Sixtus, the
+marshes covered at least thirteen thousand acres of ground, which in
+the earlier ages was the most fruitful portion of the Italian soil.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. When was Rome founded?
+
+2. What ceremonies were used in determining the pomcerium?
+
+3. How was the comitium consecrated?
+
+4. What was the first addition made to Rome?
+
+5. What was the next addition?
+
+6. Into what tribes were the Romans divided?
+
+7. What were the hills added in later times to Rome?
+
+8. Had the Romans any buildings north of the Tiber?
+
+9. When did Rome become a magnificent city?
+
+10. What was the extent of the city?
+
+11. How was the city divided?
+
+12. Which was the most remarkable of the seven hills?
+
+13. What buildings were on the Capitoline hill?
+
+14. What description is given of the forum?
+
+15. Where was the senate-house and comitium?
+
+16. What use was made of the Campus Martius?
+
+17. What was the Pantheon?
+
+18. Were the theatres and circii remarkable?
+
+19. Had the Romans public baths?
+
+20. How was the city supplied with water?
+
+21. Were the cloacæ remarkable for their size?
+
+22. Which was the chief Italian road?
+
+23. What were the most remarkable places on the Appian road?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Hence a gate was called _porta_, from _porta're_, to carry. The
+reason of this part of the ceremony was, that the plough being deemed
+holy, it was unlawful that any thing unclean should pollute the place
+which it had touched; but it was obviously necessary that things clean
+and unclean should pass through the gates of the city. It is
+remarkable that all the ceremonies here mentioned were imitated from
+the Tuscans.
+
+[2] This, though apparently a mere conjecture, has been so fully
+proved by Niebuhr, (vol. i. p. 251,) that it may safely be assumed as
+an historical fact.
+
+[3] See Chapter II. of the following history.
+
+[4] All authors are agreed that the Coelian hill was named from
+Coeles Viben'na, a Tuscan chief; but there is a great variety in the
+date assigned to his settlement at Rome. Some make him cotemporary
+with Rom'ulus, others with the elder Tarquin, or Servius Tullius. In
+this uncertainty all that can be satisfactorily determined is, that at
+some early period a Tuscan colony settled in Rome.
+
+[5] Others say that they were named so in honour of Lu'ceres, king of
+Ardea, according to which theory the third would have been a
+Pelasgo-Tyrrhenian colony.
+
+[6] We shall hereafter have occasion to remark, that the Lu'ceres were
+subject to the other tribes.
+
+[7] See History, Chapter IV.
+
+[8] The Pincian and Vatican hills were added at a much later period
+and these, with Janiculum, made the number ten.
+
+[9] They were named as follow:
+
+1. Porta Cape'na 2. Coelimon'tium 3. I'sis and Sera'pis 4. Via
+Sa'cra 5. Esquili'na 6. Acta Se'mita 7. Vita Lata 8. Forum Roma'num 9.
+Circus Flamin'ius 10. Pala'tium 11. Circus Max'imus 12. Pici'na
+Pub'lica 13. Aventinus 14. Transtiberi'na.
+
+The divisions made by Servius were named: the Suburan, which comprised
+chiefly the Coelian mount; the Colline, which included the Viminal
+and Quirinal hills; the Esquiline and Palatine, which evidently
+coincided with the hills of the same name.
+
+[10] Among the public buildings of ancient Rome, when in her zenith,
+are numbered 420 temples, five regular theatres, two amphitheatres,
+and seven circusses of vast extent; sixteen public baths, fourteen
+aqueducts, from which a prodigious number of fountains were constantly
+supplied; innumerable palaces and public halls, stately columns,
+splendid porticos, and lofty obelisks.
+
+[11] From _caput_, "a head."
+
+[12] State criminals were punished by being precipitated from the
+Tarpeian rock; the soil has been since so much raised by the
+accumulation of ruins, that a fall from it is no longer dangerous.
+
+[13] In the reign of Numa, the Quirinal hill was deemed the citadel of
+Rome; an additional confirmation of Niebuhr's theory, that Quirium was
+a Sabine town, which, being early absorbed in Rome, was mistaken by
+subsequent, writers for Cu'res.
+
+[14] Basilicks were spacious halls for the administration of justice.
+
+[15] It is called _Templum_ by Livy; but the word templum with the
+Romans does not mean an edifice, but a consecrated inclosure. From its
+position, we may conjecture that the forum was originally a place of
+meeting common to the inhabitants of the Sabine town on the Quirinal,
+and the Latin town on the Palatine hill.
+
+[16] See Chap. XII. Sect. V. of the following History.
+
+[17] See the following chapter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION.
+
+  As once in virtue, so in vice extreme,
+  This universal fabric yielded loose,
+  Before ambition still; and thundering down,
+  At last beneath its ruins crush'd a world.--_Thomson_.
+
+I. The most remarkable feature in the Roman constitution is the
+division of the people into Patricians and Plebeians, and our first
+inquiry must be the origin of this separation. It is clearly
+impossible that such a distinction could have existed from the very
+beginning, because no persons would have consented in a new community
+to the investing of any class with peculiar privileges. We find that
+all the Roman kings, after they had subdued a city, drafted a portion
+of its inhabitants to Rome; and if they did not destroy the subjugated
+place, garrisoned it with a Roman colony. The strangers thus brought
+to Rome were not admitted to a participation of civic rights; they
+were like the inhabitants of a corporate town who are excluded from
+the elective franchise: by successive immigrations, the number of
+persons thus disqualified became more numerous than that of the first
+inhabitants or old freemen, and they naturally sought a share in the
+government, as a means of protecting their persons and properties. On
+the other hand, the men who possessed the exclusive power of
+legislation, struggled hard to retain their hereditary privileges, and
+when forced to make concessions, yielded as little as they
+possibly could to the popular demands. Modern history furnishes us
+with numerous instances of similar struggles between classes, and of a
+separation in interests and feelings between inhabitants of the same
+country, fully as strong as that between the patricians and plebeians
+at Rome.
+
+2. The first tribes were divided by Ro'mulus into thirty _cu'riæ,_ and
+each cu'ria contained ten _gentes_ or associations. The individuals of
+each gens were not in all cases, and probably not in the majority of
+instances, connected by birth;[1] the attributes of the members of a
+_gens_, according to Cicero, were, a common name and participation in
+private religious rites; descent from free ancestors; the absence of
+legal disqualification. 3. The members of these associations were
+united by certain laws, which conferred peculiar privileges, called
+jura gentium; of these the most remarkable were, the succession to the
+property of every member who died without kin and intestate, and the
+obligation imposed on all to assist their indigent fellows under any
+extraordinary burthen.[2] 4. The head of each gens was regarded as a
+kind of father, and possessed a paternal authority over the members;
+the chieftancy was both elective and hereditary;[3] that is, the
+individual was always selected from some particular family.
+
+5. Besides the members of the gens, there were attached to it a number
+of dependents called clients, who owed submission to the chief as
+their patron, and received from him assistance and protection. The
+clients were generally foreigners who came to settle at Rome, and not
+possessing municipal rights, were forced to appear in the courts of
+law, &c. by proxy. In process of time this relation assumed a feudal
+form, and the clients were bound to the same duties as vassals[4] in
+the middle ages.
+
+6. The chiefs of the gentes composed the senate, and were called
+"fathers," (patres.) In the time of Romulus, the senate at first
+consisted only of one hundred members, who of course represented the
+Latin tribe Ramne'nses; the number was doubled after the union with
+the Sabines, and the new members were chosen from the Titienses. The
+Tuscan tribe of the Lu'ceres remained unrepresented in the senate
+until the reign of the first Tarquin, when the legislative body
+received another hundred[5] from that tribe. Tarquin the elder was,
+according to history, a Tuscan Iticumo, and seems to have owed his
+elevation principally to the efforts of his compatriots settled at
+Rome. It is to this event we must refer, in a great degree, the number
+of Tuscan ceremonies which are to be found in the political
+institutions of the Romans.
+
+7. The gentes were not only represented in the senate, but met also in
+a public assembly called "comitia curiata." In these comitia the kings
+were elected and invested with royal authority. After the complete
+change of the constitution in later ages, the "comitia curiata"[6]
+rarely assembled, and their power was limited to religious matters;
+but during the earlier period of the republic, they claimed and
+frequently exercised the supreme powers of the state, and were named
+emphatically, The People.
+
+8. The power and prerogatives of the kings at Rome, were similar to
+those of the Grecian sovereigns in the heroic ages. The monarch was
+general of the army, a high priest,[7] and first magistrate of the
+realm; he administered justice in person every ninth day, but an
+appeal lay from his sentence, in criminal cases, to the general
+assemblies of the people. The pontiffs and augurs, however, were
+in some measure independent of the sovereign, and assumed the
+uncontrolled direction of the religion of the state.
+
+9. The entire constitution was remodelled by Ser'vius Tul'lius, and a
+more liberal form of government introduced. His first and greatest
+achievement was the formation of the plebeians into an organized order
+of the state, invested with political rights. He divided them into
+four cities and twenty-six rustic tribes, and thus made the number of
+tribes the same as that of the curiæ. This was strictly a geographical
+division, analagous to our parishes, and had no connection with
+families, like that of the Jewish tribes.
+
+10. Still more remarkable was the institution of the census, and the
+distribution of the people into classes and centuries proportionate to
+their wealth. The census was a periodical valuation of all the
+property possessed by the citizens, and an enumeration of all the
+subjects of the state: there were five classes, ranged according to
+the estimated value of their possessions, and the taxes they
+consequently paid. The first class contained eighty centuries out of
+the hundred and seventy; the sixth class, in which those were included
+who were too poor to be taxed, counted but for one. We shall,
+hereafter have occasion to see that this arrangement was also used for
+military purposes; it is only necessary to say here, that the sixth
+class were deprived of the use of arms, and exempt from serving in
+war.
+
+11. The people voted in the comitia centuriata by centuries; that is,
+the vote of each century was taken separately and counted only as one.
+By this arrangement a just influence was secured to property; and the
+clients of the patricians in the sixth class prevented from
+out-numbering the free citizens.
+
+12. Ser'vius Tul'lius undoubtedly intended that the comitia centuriata
+should form the third estate of the realm, and during his reign they
+probably held that rank; but when, by an aristocratic insurrection he
+was slain in the senate-house, the power conceded to the people was
+again usurped by the patricians, and the comitio centuriata did not
+recover the right[8] of legislation before the laws[9] of the twelve
+tables were established.
+
+13. The law which made the debtor a slave to his creditor was repealed
+by Ser'vius, and re-enacted by his successor; the patricians preserved
+this abominable custom during several ages, and did not resign it
+until the state had been brought to the very brink of ruin.
+
+14. During the reign of Ser'vius, Rome was placed at the head of the
+Latin confederacy, and acknowledged to be the metropolitan city. It
+was deprived of this supremacy after the war with Porsen'na, but soon
+recovered its former greatness.
+
+15. The equestrian rank was an order in the Roman state from the very
+beginning. It was at first confined to the nobility, and none but the
+patricians had the privilege of serving on horseback. But in the later
+ages, it became a political dignity, and persons were raised to the
+equestrian rank by the amount of their possessions.
+
+16. The next great change took place after the expulsion of the kings;
+annual magistrates, called consuls, were elected in the comitia
+centuriata, but none but patricians could hold this office. 17. The
+liberties of the people were soon after extended and secured by
+certain laws, traditionally attributed to Vale'rius Public'ola, of
+which the most important was that which allowed[10] an appeal to a
+general assembly of the people from the sentence of a magistrate. 18.
+To deprive the plebeians of this privilege was the darling object of
+the patricians, and it was for this purpose alone that they instituted
+the dictatorship. From the sentence of this magistrate there was no
+appeal to the tribes or centuries, but the patricians kept their own
+privilege of being tried before the tribunal of the curiæ. 19. The
+power of the state was now usurped by a factious oligarchy, whose
+oppressions were more grievous than those of the worst tyrant; they at
+last became so intolerable, that the commonalty had recourse to arms,
+and fortified that part of the city which was exclusively inhabited by
+the plebeians, while others formed a camp on the Sacred Mount at some
+distance from Rome. A tumult of this kind was called a secession; it
+threatened to terminate in a civil war, which would have been both
+long and doubtful; for the patricians and their clients were probably
+as numerous as the people. A reconciliation was effected, and the
+plebeians placed under the protection of magistrates chosen from their
+own body, called tribunes of the people.
+
+20. The plebeians, having now authorised leaders, began to struggle
+for an equalization of rights, and the patricians resisted them with
+the most determined energy. In this protracted contest the popular
+cause prevailed, though the patricians made use of the most violent
+means to secure their usurped powers. The first triumph obtained by
+the people was the right to summon patricians before the comitia
+tributa, or assemblies of people in tribes; soon after they obtained
+the privilege of electing their tribunes at these comitia, instead of
+the centuria'ta; and finally, after a fierce opposition, the
+patricians were forced to consent that the state should be governed by
+a written code.
+
+21. The laws of the twelve tables did not alter the legal relations
+between the citizens; the struggle was renewed with greater violence
+than ever after the expulsion of the decem'viri, but finally
+terminated in the complete triumph of the people. The Roman
+constitution became essentially democratical; the offices of the state
+were open to all the citizens; and although the difference between the
+patrician and plebeian families still subsisted, they soon ceased of
+themselves to be political parties. From the time that equal rights
+were granted to all the citizens, Rome advanced rapidly in wealth and
+power; the subjugation of Italy was effected within the succeeding
+century, and that was soon followed by foreign conquests.
+
+22. In the early part of the struggle between the patricians and
+plebeians, the magistracy, named the censorship, was instituted. The
+censors were designed at first merely to preside over the taking of
+the census, but they afterwards obtained the power of punishing, by a
+deprivation of civil rights, those who were guilty of any flagrant
+immorality. The patricians retained exclusive possession of the
+censorship, long after the consulship had been opened to the
+plebeians.
+
+23. The senate,[11] which had been originally a patrician
+council, was gradually opened to the plebeians; when the free
+constitution was perfected, every person possessing a competent
+fortune that had held a superior magistracy, was enrolled as a senator
+at the census immediately succeeding the termination of his office.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What is the most probable account given of the origin of the
+distinction between the patricians and the plebeians at Rome?
+
+2. How did Romulus subdivide the Roman tribes?
+
+3. By what regulations were the gentes governed?
+
+4. Who were the chiefs of the gentes?
+
+5. What was the condition of the clients?
+
+6. By whom were alterations made in the number and constitution of the
+senate?
+
+7. What assembly was peculiar to the patricians?
+
+8. What were the powers of the Roman kings?
+
+9. What great change was made in the Roman constitution by Servius
+Tullius?
+
+10. For what purpose was the census instituted?
+
+11. How were votes taken in the comitia centuriata?
+
+12. Were the designs of Servius frustrated?
+
+13. What was the Roman law respecting debtors?
+
+14. When did the Roman power decline?
+
+15. What changes were made in the constitution of the equestrian rank?
+
+16. What change was made after the abolition of royalty?
+
+17. How were the liberties of the people secured?
+
+18. Why was the office of dictator appointed?
+
+19. How did the plebeians obtain the protection of magistrates chosen
+from their own order?
+
+20. What additional triumphs were obtained by the plebeians?
+
+21. What was the consequence of the establishment of freedom?
+
+22. For what purpose was the censorship instituted?
+
+23. What change took place in the constitution of the senate?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The same remark may be applied to the Scottish clans and the
+ancient Irish septs, which were very similar to the Roman _gentes_.
+
+[2] When the plebeians endeavoured to procure the repeal of the laws
+which prohibited the intermarriage of the patricians and plebeians,
+the principal objection made by the former was, that these rights and
+obligations of the gentes (jura gentium) would be thrown into
+confusion.
+
+[3] This was also the case with the Irish tanists, or chiefs of septs;
+the people elected a tanist, but their choice was confined to the
+members of the ruling family.
+
+[4] See Historical Miscellany Part III. Chap. i.
+
+[5] They were called "patres nunorum gentium," the senators of the
+inferior gentes.
+
+[6] The "comitia curiata," assembled in the comi'tium, the general
+assemblies of the people were held in the forum. The patrician curiæ
+were called, emphatically, the council of the people; (concilium
+populi;) the third estate was called plebeian, (plebs.) This
+distinction between _populus_ and _plebs_ was disregarded after the
+plebeians had established their claim to equal rights. The English
+reader will easily understand the difference, if he considers that the
+patricians were precisely similar to the members of a close
+corporation, and the plebeians to the other inhabitants of a city. In
+London, for example, the common council may represent the senate, the
+livery answer for the populus, patricians, or comitia curiata, and the
+general body of other inhabitants will correspond with the plebs.
+
+[7] There were certain sacrifices which the Romans believed could only
+be offered by a king; after the abolition of royalty, a priest, named
+the petty sacrificing king, (rex sacrificulus,) was elected to perform
+this duty.
+
+[8] Perhaps it would be more accurate to say the _exclusive_ right of
+legislation; for it appears that the comitia centuriata were sometimes
+summoned to give their sanction to laws which had been previously
+enacted by the curiæ.
+
+[9] See Chap. XII.
+
+[10] The Romans were previously acquainted with that great principle
+of justice, the right of trial by a person's peers. In the earliest
+ages the patricians had a right of appeal to the curiæ; the Valerian
+laws extended the same right to the plebeians.
+
+[11] The senators were called conscript fathers, (patres conscripti,)
+either from their being enrolled on the censor's list, or more
+probably from the addition made to their numbers after the expulsion
+of the kings, in order to supply the places of those who had been
+murdered by Tarquin. The new senators were at first called conscript,
+and in the process of time the name was extended to the entire body.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE ROMAN TENURE OF LAND--COLONIAL GOVERNMENT.
+
+  Each rules his race, his neighbour not his care,
+  Heedless of others, to his own severe.--_Homer_.
+
+[As this chapter is principally designed for advanced students, it has
+not been thought necessary to add questions for examination.]
+
+The contests respecting agrarian laws occupy so large a space in Roman
+history, and are so liable to be misunderstood, that it is necessary
+to explain their origin at some length. According to an almost
+universal custom, the right of conquest was supposed to involve the
+property of the land. Thus the Normans who assisted William I. were
+supposed to have obtained a right to the possessions of the Saxons;
+and in a later age, the Irish princes, whose estates were not
+confirmed by a direct grant from the English crown, were exposed to
+forfeiture when legally summoned to prove their titles. The extensive
+acquisitions made by the Romans, were either formed into extensive
+national domains, or divided into small lots among the poorer classes.
+The usufruct of the domains was monopolized by the patricians who
+rented them from the state; the smaller lots were assigned to the
+plebeians, subject to a tax called tribute, but not to rent. An
+agrarian law was a proposal to make an assignment of portions of the
+public lands to the people, and to limit the quantity of national land
+that could be farmed by any particular patrician.[1] Such a law may
+have been frequently impolitic, because it may have disturbed ancient
+possessions, but it could never have been unjust; for the property of
+the land was absolutely fixed in the state. The lands held by the
+patricians, being divided into extensive tracts, were principally used
+for pasturage; the small lots assigned to the plebeians were, of
+necessity, devoted to agriculture. Hence arose the first great cause
+of hostility between the two orders; the patricians were naturally
+eager to extend their possessions in the public domains, which enabled
+them to provide for their numerous clients, and in remote districts
+they frequently wrested the estates from the free proprietors in their
+neighbourhood; the plebeians, on the other hand, deemed that they
+had the best right to the land purchased by their blood, and saw with
+just indignation, the fruits of victory monopolized by a single order
+in the state. The tribute paid by the plebeians increased this
+hardship, for it was a land-tax levied on estates, and consequently
+fell most heavily on the smaller proprietors; indeed, in many cases,
+the possessors of the national domains paid nothing.
+
+From all this it is evident that an agrarian law only removed tenants
+who held from the state at will, and did not in any case interfere
+with the sacred right of property; but it is also plain that such a
+change must have been frequently inconvenient to the individual in
+possession. It also appears, that had not agrarian laws been
+introduced, the great body of the plebeians would have become the
+clients of the patricians, and the form of government would have been
+a complete oligarchy.
+
+The chief means to which the Romans, even from the earliest ages, had
+recourse for securing their conquests, and at the same time relieving
+the poorer classes of citizens, was the establishment of colonies in
+the conquered states. The new citizens formed a kind of garrison, and
+were held together by a constitution formed on the model of the parent
+state. From what has been said above, it is evident that a law for
+sending out a colony was virtually an agrarian law, since lands were
+invariably assigned to those who were thus induced to abandon their
+homes.
+
+The relations between Rome and the subject cities in Italy were very
+various. Some, called _municipia_, were placed in full possession of
+the rights of Roman citizens, but could not in all cases vote in the
+comitia. The privileges of the colonies were more restricted, for they
+were absolutely excluded from the Roman comitia and magistracies. The
+federative[2] states enjoyed their own constitutions, but were bound
+to supply the Romans with tribute and auxiliary forces. Finally, the
+subject states were deprived of their internal constitutions, and were
+governed by annual prefects chosen in Rome.
+
+Before discussing the subject of the Roman constitution, we must
+observe that it was, like our own, gradually formed by practice; there
+was no single written code like those of Athens and Sparta, but
+changes were made whenever they were required by circumstances; before
+the plebeians obtained an equality of civil rights, the state neither
+commanded respect abroad, nor enjoyed tranquillity at home. The
+patricians sacrificed their own real advantages, as well as the
+interests of their country, to maintain an ascendancy as injurious to
+themselves, as it was unjust to the other citizens. But no sooner had
+the agrarian laws established a more equitable distribution of
+property, and other popular laws opened the magistracy to merit
+without distinction of rank, than the city rose to empire with
+unexampled rapidity.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The Licinian law provided that no one should rent at a time more
+than 500 acres of public land.
+
+[2] The league by which the Latin states were bound (jus Latii) was
+more favourable than that granted to the other Italians (jus
+Italicum.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE ROMAN RELIGION.
+
+  First to the gods 'tis fitting to prepare
+  The due libation, and the solemn prayer;
+  For all mankind alike require their grace,
+  All born to want; a miserable race.--_Homer_.
+
+1. We have shown that the Romans were, most probably, a people
+compounded of the Latins, the Sabines, and the Tuscans; and that the
+first and last of these component parts were themselves formed from
+Pelasgic and native tribes. The original deities[1] worshipped by the
+Romans were derived from the joint traditions of all these tribes; but
+the religious institutions and ceremonies were almost wholly borrowed
+from the Tuscans. Unlike the Grecian mythology, with which, in later
+ages, it was united, the Roman system of religion had all the gloom
+and mystery of the eastern superstitions; their gods were objects of
+fear rather than love, and were worshipped more to avert the
+consequences of their anger than to conciliate their favour. A
+consequence of this system was, the institution of human sacrifices,
+which were not quite disused in Rome until a late period of the
+republic.
+
+2. The religious institutions of the Romans form an essential part of
+their civil government; every public act, whether of legislation or
+election, was connected with certain determined forms, and thus
+received the sanction of a higher power. Every public assembly was
+opened by the magistrate and augurs taking the auspices, or signs
+by which they believed that the will of the gods could be determined;
+and if any unfavourable omen was discovered, either then or at any
+subsequent time, the assembly was at once dismissed. 3. The right of
+taking auspices was long the peculiar privilege of the patricians, and
+frequently afforded them pretexts for evading the demands of the
+plebeians; when a popular law was to be proposed, it was easy to
+discover some unfavourable omen which prohibited discussion; when it
+was evident that the centuries were about to annul some patrician
+privilege, the augurs readily saw or heard some signal of divine
+wrath, which prevented the vote from being completed. It was on this
+account that the plebeians would not consent to place the comitia
+tributa under the sanction of the auspices.
+
+4. The augurs were at first only three in number, but they were in
+later ages increased to fifteen, and formed into a college. Nothing of
+importance was transacted without their concurrence in the earlier
+ages of the republic, but after the second punic war, their influence
+was considerably diminished.[2] 5. They derived omens from five
+sources: 1, from celestial phenomena, such as thunder, lightning,
+comets, &c.; 2, from the flight of birds; 3, from the feeding of the
+sacred chickens; 4, from the appearance of a beast in any unusual
+place; 5, from any accident that occurred unexpectedly.
+
+6. The usual form of taking an augury was very solemn; the augur
+ascended a tower, bearing in his hand a curved stick called a lituus.
+He turned his face to the east, and marked out some distant objects as
+the limits within which he would make his observations, and
+divided mentally the enclosed space into four divisions. He next, with
+covered head, offered sacrifices to the gods, and prayed that they
+would vouchsafe some manifestation of their will. After these
+preliminaries he made his observations in silence, and then announced
+the result to the expecting people.
+
+7. The Arusp'ices were a Tuscan order of priests, who attempted to
+predict futurity by observing the beasts offered in sacrifice. They
+formed their opinions most commonly from inspecting the entrails, but
+there was no circumstance too trivial to escape their notice, and
+which they did not believe in some degree portentous. The arusp'ices
+were most commonly consulted by individuals; but their opinions, as
+well as those of the augurs, were taken on all important affairs of
+state. The arusp'ices seem not to have been appointed officially, nor
+are they recognised as a regular order of priesthood.
+
+8. The pontiffs and fla'mens, as the superior priests were designated,
+enjoyed great privileges, and were generally men of rank. When the
+republic was abolished, the emperors assumed the office of pontifex
+maximus, or chief pontiff, deeming its powers too extensive to be
+entrusted to a subject.
+
+9. The institution of vestal virgins was older than the city itself,
+and was regarded by the Romans as the most sacred part of their
+religious system. In the time of Numa there were but four, but two
+more were added by Tarquin; probably the addition made by Tarquin was
+to give the tribe of the Lu'ceres a share in this important
+priesthood. The duty of the vestal virgins was to keep the sacred fire
+that burned on the altar of Vesta from being extinguished; and to
+preserve a certain sacred pledge on which the very existence of Rome
+was supposed to depend. What this pledge was we have no means of
+discovering; some suppose that it was the Trojan Palla'dium, others,
+with more probability, some traditional mystery brought by the
+Pelas'gi from Samothrace.
+
+10. The privileges conceded to the vestals were very great; they had
+the most honourable seats at public games and festivals; they were
+attended by a lictor with fasces like the magistrates; they were
+provided with chariots when they required them; and they possessed the
+power of pardoning any criminal whom they met on the way to execution,
+if they declared that the meeting was accidental. The magistrates
+were obliged to salute them as they passed, and the fasces of the
+consul were lowered to do them reverence. To withhold from them marks
+of respect subjected the offender to public odium; a personal insult
+was capitally punished. They possessed the exclusive privilege of
+being buried within the city; an honour which the Romans rarely
+extended to others.
+
+11. The vestals were bound by a vow of perpetual virginity, and a
+violation of this oath was cruelly punished. The unfortunate offender
+was buried alive in a vault constructed beneath the Fo'rum by the
+elder Tarquin. The terror of such a dreadful fate had the desired
+effect; there were only eighteen instances of incontinence among the
+vestals, during the space of a thousand years.
+
+12. The mixture of religion with civil polity, gave permanence and
+stability to the Roman institutions; notwithstanding all the changes
+and revolutions in the government the old forms were preserved; and
+thus, though the city was taken by Porsenna, and burned by the Gauls,
+the Roman constitution survived the ruin, and was again restored to
+its pristine vigour.
+
+13. The Romans always adopted the gods of the conquered nations, and,
+consequently, when their empire became very extensive, the number of
+deities was absurdly excessive, and the variety of religious worship
+perfectly ridiculous. The rulers of the world wanted the taste and
+ingenuity of the lively Greeks, who accommodated every religious
+system to their own, and from some real or fancied resemblance,
+identified the gods of Olym'pus with other nations. The Romans never
+used this process of assimilation, and, consequently, introduced so
+much confusion into their mythology, that philosophers rejected the
+entire system. This circumstance greatly facilitated the progress of
+Christianity, whose beautiful simplicity furnished a powerful contrast
+to the confused and cumbrous mass of divinities, worshipped in the
+time of the emperors.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. How did the religion of the Romans differ from that of the Greeks?
+
+2. Was the Roman religion connected with the government?
+
+3. How was the right of taking the Auspices abused?
+
+4. Who were the augurs?
+
+5. From what did the augurs take omens?
+
+6. What were the forms used in taking the auspices?
+
+7. Who were the aruspices?
+
+8. What other priests had the Romans?
+
+9. What was the duty of the vestal virgins?
+
+10. Did the vestals enjoy great privileges?
+
+11. How were the vestals punished for a breach of their vows?
+
+12. Why was the Roman constitution very permanent?
+
+13. Whence arose the confusion in the religious system of the Romans?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The reader will find an exceedingly interesting account of the
+deities peculiar to the Romans, in Mr. Keightley's very valuable work
+on Mythology.
+
+2:
+ The poet Ennius, who was of Grecian descent, ridiculed
+very successfully the Roman superstitions; the following fragment,
+translated by Dunlop, would, probably, have been punished as
+blasphemous in the first ages of the republic:--
+
+  For no Marsian augur (whom fools view with awe,)
+  Nor diviner, nor star-gazer, care I a straw;
+  The Isis-taught quack, an expounder of dreams,
+  Is neither in science nor art what he seems;
+  Superstitious and shameless they prowl through our streets,
+  Some hungry, some crazy, but all of them cheats.
+  Impostors, who vaunt that to others they'll show
+  A path which themselves neither travel nor know:
+  Since they promise us wealth if we pay for their pains,
+  Let them take from that wealth and bestow what remains
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE ROMAN ARMY AND NAVY.
+
+                     Is the soldier found
+  In the riot and waste which he spreads around?
+  The sharpness makes him--the dash, the tact,
+  The cunning to plan, and the spirit to act.--_Lord L. Gower_.
+
+1. It has been frequently remarked by ancient writers that the
+strength of a free state consists in its infantry; and, on the other
+hand, that when the infantry in a state become more valuable than the
+cavalry, the power of the aristocracy is diminished, and equal rights
+can no longer be withheld from the people. The employment of mercenary
+soldiers in modern times renders these observations no longer
+applicable; but in the military states of antiquity, where the
+citizens themselves served as soldiers, there are innumerable examples
+of this mutual connection between political and military systems. It
+is further illustrated in the history of the middle ages; for we can
+unquestionably trace the origin of free institutions in Europe to the
+time when the hardy infantry of the commons were first found able to
+resist the charges of the brilliant chivalry of the nobles. 2. Rome
+was, from the very commencement, a military state; as with the
+Spartans, all their civil institutions had a direct reference to
+warlike affairs; their public assemblies were marshalled like armies;
+the order of their line of battle was regulated by the distinction of
+classes in the state. It is, therefore, natural to conclude, that the
+tactics of the Roman armies underwent important changes when the
+revolutions mentioned in the preceding chapters were effected, though
+we cannot trace the alterations with precision, because no historians
+appeared until the military system of the Romans had been brought to
+perfection.
+
+3. The strength of the Tuscans consisted principally in their cavalry;
+and if we judge from the importance attributed to the equestrian rank
+in the earliest ages, we may suppose that the early Romans
+esteemed this force equally valuable. It was to Ser'vius Tul'lius, the
+great patron of the commonalty, that the Romans were indebted for the
+formation of a body of infantry, which, after the lapse of centuries,
+received so many improvements that it became invincible.
+
+4. The ancient battle array of the Greeks was the phalanx; the troops
+were drawn up in close column, the best armed being in front. The
+improvements made in this system of tactics by Philip, are recorded in
+Grecian history; they chiefly consisted in making the evolutions of
+the entire body more manageable, and counteracting the difficulties
+which attended the motions of this cumbrous mass.
+
+5. The Romans originally used the phalanx; and the lines were formed
+according to the classes determined by the centuries. Those who were
+sufficiently wealthy to purchase a full suit of armour, formed the
+front ranks; those who could only purchase a portion of the defensive
+weapons, filled the centre; and the rear was formed by the poorer
+classes, who scarcely required any armour, being protected by the
+lines in front. From this explanation, it is easy to see why, in the
+constitution of the centuries by Servius Tullius, the first class were
+perfectly covered with mail, the second had helmets and breast-plates
+but no protection for the body, the third, neither a coat of mail, nor
+greaves. 6. The defects of this system are sufficiently obvious; an
+unexpected attack on the flanks, the breaking of the line by rugged
+and uneven ground, and a thousand similar accidents exposed the
+unprotected portions of the army to destruction besides, a line with
+files ten deep was necessarily slow in its movements and evolutions.
+Another and not less important defect was, that the whole should act
+together; and consequently, there were few opportunities for the
+display of individual bravery.
+
+7. It is not certainly known who was the great commander that
+substituted the living body of the Roman legion for this inanimate
+mass; but there is some reason to believe that this wondrous
+improvement was effected by Camil'lus. Every legion was in itself an
+army, combining the advantages of every variety of weapon, with the
+absolute perfection of a military division.
+
+8. The legion consisted of three lines or battalions; the _Hasta'ti_,
+the _Prin'cipes_, and the _Tria'rii_; there were besides two classes,
+which we may likewise call battalions, the _Rora'rii_, or _Velites_,
+consisting of light armed troops, and the _Accen'si_, or
+supernumeraries, who were ready to supply the place of those that fell.
+Each of the two first battalions contained fifteen manip'uli, consisting
+of sixty privates, commanded by two centurions, and having each a
+separate standard (_vexil'lum_) borne by one of the privates called
+Vexilla'rius; the manip'uli in the other battalions were fewer in
+number, but contained a greater portion of men; so that, in round
+numbers, nine hundred men may be allowed to each battalion, exclusive of
+officers. If the officers and the troop of three hundred cavalry be
+taken into account, we shall find that the legion, as originally
+constituted, contained about five thousand men. The Romans, however, did
+not always observe these exact proportions, and the number of soldiers
+in a legion varied at different times of their history.[1]
+
+9. A cohort was formed by taking a manipulus from each of the
+battalions; more frequently two manipuli were taken, and the cohort
+then contained six hundred men. The cavalry were divided into tur'mæ,
+consisting each of thirty men.
+
+10. A battle was usually commenced by the light troops, who skirmished
+with missile weapons; the hasta'ti then advanced to the charge, and if
+defeated, fell back on the prin'cipes; if the enemy proved still
+superior, the two front lines retired to the ranks of the tria'rii,
+which being composed of veteran troops, generally turned the scale.
+But this order was not always observed; the number of divisions in the
+legion made it extremely flexible, and the commander-in-chief could
+always adapt the form of his line to circumstances.
+
+11. The levies of troops were made in the Cam'pus Mar'tius, by the
+tribunes appointed to command the legions. The tribes which were to
+supply soldiers were determined by lot, and as each came forward, the
+tribunes, in their turn, selected such as seemed best fitted for war.
+Four legions was most commonly the number in an army. When the
+selected individuals had been enrolled as soldiers, one was chosen
+from each legion to take the military oath of obedience to the
+generals; the other soldiers swore in succession, to observe the oath
+taken by their foreman.
+
+12. Such was the sacredness of this obligation, that even in the midst
+of the political contests by which the city was distracted, the
+soldiers, though eager to secure the freedom of their country, would
+not attempt to gain it by mutiny against their commanders. On this
+account the senate frequently declared war, and ordered a levy as an
+expedient to prevent the enactment of a popular law, and were of
+course opposed by the tribunes of the people.
+
+13. There was no part of the Roman discipline more admirable than
+their form of encampment. No matter how fatigued the soldiers might be
+by a long march, or how harassed by a tedious battle, the camp was
+regularly measured out and fortified by a rampart and ditch, before
+any one sought sleep or refreshment. Careful watch was kept during the
+night, and frequent picquets sent out to guard against a surprise, and
+to see that the sentinels were vigilant. As the arrangement in every
+camp was the same, every soldier knew his exact position, and if an
+alarm occurred, could easily find the rallying point of his division.
+To this excellent system Polyb'ius attributes the superiority of the
+Romans over the Greeks; for the latter scarcely ever fortified their
+camp, but chose some place naturally strong, and did not keep their
+ranks distinct.
+
+14. The military age extended from the sixteenth to the forty-sixth
+year; and under the old constitution no one could hold a civic office
+who had not served ten campaigns. The horsemen were considered free
+after serving through ten campaigns, but the foot had to remain during
+twenty. Those who had served out their required time were free for the
+rest of their lives, unless the city was attacked, when all under the
+age of sixty were obliged to arm in its defence.
+
+15. In the early ages, when wars were begun and ended in a few days,
+the soldiers received no pay; but when the conquest of distant
+countries became the object of Roman ambition, it became necessary to
+provide for the pay and support of the army. This office was given to
+the quæstors, who were generally chosen from the younger nobility, and
+were thus prepared for the higher magistracies by acquiring a
+practical acquaintance with finance.
+
+16. The soldiers were subject to penalties of life and limb at the
+discretion of the commander-in-chief, without the intervention of a
+court-martial; but it deserves to be recorded that this power was
+rarely abused. 17. There were several species of rewards to excite
+emulation; the most honourable were, the civic crown of gold to
+him who had saved the life of a citizen; the mural crown to him who
+had first scaled the wall of a besieged town; a gilt spear to him who
+had severely wounded an enemy; but he who had slain and spoiled his
+foe, received, if a horseman, an ornamental trapping; if a foot
+soldier, a goblet.
+
+18. The lower classes of the centuries were excused from serving in
+the army, except on dangerous emergencies; but they supplied sailors
+to the navy. We learn, from a document preserved by Polyb'ius, that
+the Romans were a naval power at a very early age. 19. This
+interesting record is the copy of a treaty concluded with the
+Carthaginians, in the year after the expulsion of the kings. It is not
+mentioned by the Roman historians, because it decisively establishes a
+fact which they studiously labour to conceal, that is, the weakness
+and decline of the Roman power during the two centuries that followed
+the abolition of royalty, when the power of the state was monopolized
+by a vile aristocracy. In this treaty Rome negociates for the cities
+of La'tium, as her dependencies, just as Carthage does for her subject
+colonies. But in the course of the following century, Rome lost her
+supremacy over the Latin cities, and being thus nearly excluded from
+the coast, her navy was ruined.
+
+20. At the commencement of the first Punic war, the Romans once more
+began to prepare a fleet, and luckily obtained an excellent model in a
+Carthaginian ship that had been driven ashore in a storm. 21. The
+vessels used for war, were either long ships or banked galleys; the
+former were not much used in the Punic wars, the latter being found
+more convenient. The rowers of these sat on banks or benches, rising
+one above the other, like stairs; and from the number of these
+benches, the galleys derived their names; that which had three rows of
+benches was called a _trireme_; that which had four, a _quadrireme_;
+and that which had five, a _quinquireme_. Some vessels had turrets
+erected in them for soldiers and warlike engines; others had sharp
+prows covered with brass, for the purpose of dashing against and
+sinking their enemies.
+
+22. The naval tactics of the ancients were very simple; the ships
+closed very early, and the battle became a contest between single
+vessels. It was on this account that the personal valour of the Romans
+proved more than a match for the naval skill of the
+Carthaginians, and enabled them to, add the empire of the sea to that
+of the land.
+
+23. Before concluding this chapter, we must notice the triumphal
+processions granted to victorious commanders. Of these there are two
+kinds; the lesser triumph, called an ovation,[2] and the greater,
+called, emphatically, the triumph. In the former, the victorious
+general entered the city on foot, wearing a crown of myrtle; in the
+latter, he was borne in a chariot, and wore a crown of laurel. The
+ovation was granted to such generals as had averted a threatened war,
+or gained some great advantage without inflicting great loss on the
+enemy. The triumph was allowed only to those who had gained some
+signal victory, which decided the fate of a protracted war. The
+following description, extracted from Plutarch, of the great triumph
+granted to Paulus Æmilius, for his glorious termination of the
+Macedonian war, will give the reader an adequate idea of the splendour
+displayed by the Romans on these festive occasions.
+
+The people erected scaffolds in the forum and circus, and all other
+parts of the city where they could best behold the pomp. The
+spectators were clad in white garments; all the temples were open, and
+full of garlands and perfumes; and the ways cleared and cleansed by a
+great many officers, who drove away such as thronged the passage, or
+straggled up and down.
+
+The triumph lasted three days; on the first, which was scarce long
+enough for the sight, were to be seen the statues, pictures, and
+images of an extraordinary size, which were taken from the enemy,
+drawn upon seven hundred and fifty chariots. On the second was
+carried, in a great many _wains_, the fairest and richest armour of
+the Macedonians, both of brass and steel, all newly furbished and
+glittering: which, although piled up with the greatest art and order,
+yet seemed to be tumbled on heaps carelessly and by chance; helmets
+were thrown on shields, coats of mail upon greaves; Cretan targets and
+Thracian bucklers, and quivers of arrows, lay huddled among the
+horses' bits; and through these appeared the points of naked swords,
+intermixed with long spears. All these arms were tied together with
+such a just liberty, that they knocked against one another as they
+were drawn along, and made a harsh and terrible noise, so that
+the very spoils of the conquered could not be beheld without dread.
+After these wagons loaded with armour, there followed three thousand
+men, who carried the silver that was coined, in seven hundred and
+fifty vessels, each of which weighed three talents, and was carried by
+four men. Others brought silver bowls, and goblets, and cups, all
+disposed in such order as to make the best show, and all valuable, as
+well for their magnitude as the thickness of their engraved work. On
+the third day, early in the morning, first came the trumpeters, who
+did not sound as they were wont in a procession or solemn entry, but
+such a charge as the Romans use when they encourage their soldiers to
+fight. Next followed young men, girt about with girdles curiously
+wrought, who led to the sacrifice one hundred and twenty stalled oxen,
+with their horns gilded, and their heads adorned with ribbons and
+garlands, and with these were boys that carried dishes of silver and
+gold. After these was brought the gold coin, which was divided into
+vessels that weighed three talents each, similar to those that
+contained the silver; they were in number fourscore, wanting three.
+These were followed by those that brought the consecrated bowl which
+Emil'ius caused to be made, that weighed ten talents, and was adorned
+with precious stones. Then were exposed to view the cups of Antig'onus
+and Seleu'cus, and such as were made after the fashion invented by
+The'ricles, and all the gold plate that was used at Per'seus's table.
+Next to these came Per'seus's chariot, in which his armour was placed,
+and on that his diadem. After a little intermission the king's
+children were led captives, and with them a train of nurses, masters,
+and governors, who all wept, and stretched forth their hands to the
+spectators, and taught the little infants to beg and intreat their
+compassion. There were two sons and a daughter, who, by reason of
+their tender age, were altogether insensible of the greatness of their
+misery; which insensibility of their condition rendered it much more
+deplorable, insomuch that Per'seus himself was scarce regarded as he
+went along, whilst pity had fixed the eyes of the Romans upon the
+infants, and many of them could not forbear tears; all beheld the
+sight with a mixture of sorrow and joy until the children were past.
+After his children and attendants came Per'seus himself, clad in
+black, and wearing slippers after the fashion of his country; he
+looked like one altogether astonished, and deprived of reason, through
+the greatness of his misfortune. Next followed a great company
+of his friends and familiars, whose countenances were disfigured with
+grief, and who testified, to all that beheld them, by their tears and
+their continual looking upon Per'seus, that it was his hard fortune
+they so much lamented, and that they were regardless of their own.
+After these were carried four hundred crowns of gold, sent from the
+cities by their respective ambassadors to Emil'ius, as a reward due to
+his valour. Then he himself came, seated on a chariot magnificently,
+adorned, (a man worthy to be beheld even without these ensigns of
+power) clad in a garland of purple interwoven with gold, and with a
+laurel branch in his right hand. All the army in like manner, with
+boughs of laurel in their hands, and divided into bands and companies,
+followed the chariot of their commander; some singing odes according
+to the usual custom, mingled with raillery; others songs of triumph
+and the praises of Emil'ius's deeds, who was admired and accounted
+happy by all men, yet unenvied by every one that was good.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What political change has frequently resulted from improved
+military tactics?
+
+2. Was Rome a military state?
+
+3. Why are we led to conclude that the Romans considered cavalry an
+important force?
+
+4. By whom was the phalanx instituted?
+
+5. How was the phalanx formed?
+
+6. What were the defects of the phalanx?
+
+7. By whom was the legion substituted for the phalanx?
+
+8. Of what troops was a legion composed?
+
+9. What was a cohort?
+
+10. What was the Roman form of battle?
+
+11. In what manner was an army levied?
+
+12. How was the sanctity of the military oath proved?
+
+13. What advantages resulted from the Roman form of encampment?
+
+14. How long was the citizens liable to be called upon as soldiers?
+
+15. How was the army paid?
+
+16. What power had the general?
+
+17. On what occasion did the soldiers receive rewards?
+
+18. How was the navy supplied with sailors?
+
+19. What fact concealed by the Roman historians is established by
+Polybius?
+
+20. How did the Romans form a fleet?
+
+21. What were the several kinds of ships?
+
+22. What naval tactics did the Romans use?
+
+23. How did an ovation differ from a triumph?
+
+24. Can you give a general description of a triumph?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] This is virtually the same account as that given by Niebuhr, but
+he excludes the accensi and cavalry from his computation, which brings
+down the amount to 3600 soldiers.
+
+[2] From _ovis_, a sheep, the animal on this occasion offered in
+sacrifice; in the greater triumph the victim was a milk-white bull
+hung over with garlands, and having his horns tipped with gold.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ROMAN LAW--FINANCE.
+
+  Then equal laws were planted in the state,
+  To shield alike the humble and the great.--_Cooke_.
+
+1. In the early stages of society, little difficulty is felt in
+providing for the administration of justice, because the subjects of
+controversy are plain and simple, such as any man of common sense may
+determine; but as civilization advances, the relations between men
+become more complicated, property assumes innumerable forms, and the
+determination of questions resulting from these changes, becomes a
+matter of no ordinary difficulty. In the first ages of the republic,
+the consuls were the judges in civil and criminal matters, as the
+kings had previously been;[1] but as the state increased, a new class
+of magistrates, called prætors, was appointed to preside in the courts
+of law. Until the age of the decemvirs, there was no written code to
+regulate their decisions; and even after the laws of the twelve tables
+had been established, there was no perfect system of law, for the
+enactments in that code were brief, and only asserted a few leading
+principles. 2. The Roman judges did not, however, decide altogether
+according to their own caprice; they were bound to regard the
+principles that had been established by the decisions of former
+judges; and consequently, a system of law was formed similar to the
+common law of England, founded on precedent and analogy. In the later
+ages of the empire, the number of law-books and records became so
+enormous, that it was no longer possible to determine the law with
+accuracy, and the contradictory decisions made at different periods,
+greatly increased the uncertainty. To remedy this evil, the emperor
+Justinian caused the entire to be digested into a uniform system, and
+his code still forms the basis of the civil law in Europe.
+
+3. The trials in courts refer either to the affairs of the
+state, or to the persons or properties of individuals, and are called
+state, criminal, or civil trials. The two former are the most
+important in regard to history.
+
+4. The division of the Roman people into two nations, made the
+classification of state offences very difficult. In general, the
+council of the patricians judged any plebeian who was accused of
+conspiring against their order; and the plebeians on the other hand,
+brought a patrician accused of having violated their privileges before
+their own tribunal. 5. Disobedience to the commands of the chief
+magistrate was punished by fine and imprisonment, and from his
+sentence there was no appeal; but if the consul wished to punish any
+person by stripes or death, the condemned man had the right of
+appealing to the general assembly of his peers.[2] 6. To prevent
+usurpation, it was established that every person who exercised an
+authority not conferred on him by the people, should be devoted as a
+victim to the gods.[3] This, was at once a sentence of outlawry and
+excommunication; the Criminal might be slain by any person-with
+impunity, and all connection with him was shunned as pollution. 7. No
+magistrate could legally be brought to trial during the continuance of
+his office, but when his time was expired, he could be accused before
+the general assembly of the people, if he had transgressed the legal
+limits of his authority. The punishment in this case was banishment;
+the form of the sentence declared that the criminal "should be
+deprived of fire and water;" that is, the citizens, were prohibited
+from supplying him with the ordinary necessaries of life.
+
+8. In all criminal trials, and in all cases where damages were sought
+to be recovered for wrongs or injuries, the prætor impanelled a jury,
+but the number of which it was to consist seems to have been left
+to his discretion. The jurors were called ju'dices, and the opinion of
+the majority decided the verdict. Where the votes were equal, the
+traverser or defendant escaped; and when half the jury assessed
+damages at one amount, and half at another, the defendant paid only
+the lesser sum. In disputes about property, the prætor seldom called
+for the assistance of a jury.
+
+9. The general form of all trials was the same; the prosecutor or
+plaintiff made his complaint, and the defendant was compelled either
+to find sufficient bail, or to go into prison until the day of trial.
+On the appointed day, the plaintiff, or his advocate, stated his case,
+and proceeded to establish it by evidence; the defendant replied; and
+the jury then gave their verdict by ballot.
+
+10. In cases tried before the general assembly of the people, it was
+allowed to make use of artifices in order to conciliate the popular
+favour. The accused and his friends put on mourning robes to excite
+pity; they went into the most public places and took every opportunity
+of showing their respect for popular power. When Cicero was accused by
+Clo'dius for having illegally put to death the associates of Cataline,
+the entire senatorian rank changed their robes to show the deep
+interest they felt in his fate. At these great trials, the noblest
+specimens of forensic eloquence were displayed by the advocates of the
+accuser and the accused; but the decisions were usually more in
+accordance with the spirit of party than strict justice.
+
+11. The accused, however, might escape, if he could prevail on any of
+the tribunes to interpose in his behalf, or the accuser to relinquish
+his charge; if unfavourable omens appeared during the trial, it was
+usually adjourned, or sometimes the accusation withdrawn; and up to
+the very moment of the commencement of the trial, the criminal had the
+option of escaping a heavier penalty by going into voluntary exile.
+
+12. The punishments to which state criminals were sentenced, were
+usually, in capital cases, precipitation from the Tarpeian rock,
+beheading, or strangulation in prison; when life was spared, the
+penalties were either exile or fine. Under the emperors severer
+punishments were introduced, such as exposure to wild beasts, or
+burning alive; and torture, which, under the republic, could not be
+inflicted on free citizens, was exercised unsparingly.
+
+13. The punishment of parricides was curious; the criminal having
+been beaten with rods, was sown up in a sack together with a serpent,
+an ape and a cock, and thrown either into the sea or a river, as if
+even the inanimate carcase of such a wretch would pollute the earth.
+
+14. Masters had an absolute, authority over their slaves, extending to
+life or limb; and in the earlier ages patrons had similar power over
+their clients. The condition of slaves in Rome was most miserable,
+especially in the later ages; they were subject to the most
+excruciating tortures, and when capitally punished, were generally
+crucified. Except in this single particular, the Roman criminal code,
+was very lenient and sparing of human life. This was chiefly owing to
+the exertions of the plebeians, for the patricians always patronized a
+more sanguinary policy; and could do so the more easily, as the
+aristocracy retained their monopoly of the administration of justice
+much longer than that of civil government.
+
+15. The Roman system of finance was at first very simple, the public
+revenue being derived from a land-tax on Quiritary property,[4] and
+the tithes of the public lands; but after the conquest of Macedon, the
+revenues from other sources were so abundant, that tribute was no
+longer demanded from Roman citizens. These sources were:--
+
+1. The tribute of the allies, which was a property tax, differing in
+different places according to the terms of their league.
+
+2. The tribute of the provinces, which was both a property and
+poll-tax.
+
+3. Revenue of the national domains leased out by the censors.
+
+4. Revenue from the mines, especially from the Spanish silver-mines.
+
+5. Duties on imports and exports. And,
+
+6. A duty on enfranchised slaves.
+
+The receipts were all paid into the national treasury, and the senate
+had the uncontrolled direction of the general expenditure, as well as
+the regulation of the amount of imposts. The officers employed to
+manage the affairs of the revenue, were the quæstors, chosen annually,
+and under them the scribes, who held their situations for life. Those
+who farmed the public revenue were called-publicans, and were
+generally persons of equestrian dignity; but in the remote provinces
+they frequently sublet to other collectors, who were guilty of great
+extortion. The latter are the publicans mentioned in the New
+Testament.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. When did the Romans first appoint judges?
+
+2. How were the decisions of the prætors regulated?
+
+3. How are trials divided?
+
+4. In what manner were offences against the classes of patricians and
+plebeians tried?
+
+5. How was disobedience to the chief magistrate punished?
+
+6. What was the penalty for usurpation?
+
+7. How was mal-administration punished?
+
+8. When did the prætors impannel a jury?
+
+9. What was the form of a trial?
+
+10. Were there any other forms used, in trials before the people?
+
+11. Had the criminal any chances of escape?
+
+12. What were the usual punishments?
+
+13. How was parricide punished?
+
+14. In what respect alone was the criminal law of the Romans severe?
+
+15. What were the sources of the Roman revenue?
+
+16. To whom was the management of the finances entrusted?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Niebuhr, however, is of opinion, that judicial officers were
+elected by the "comitia curiata," from the earliest ages.
+
+[2] This privilege was conceded to the plebeians by the Valerian law,
+but must have been possessed by the patricians from the earliest
+times; for Horatius, when condemned for the murder of his sister, in
+the reign of Tullus Hostilius, escaped by appealing to the comitia
+curiata. The Valerian law had no sanction, that is, no penalty was
+annexed to its transgression; and during the two centuries of
+patrician usurpation and tyranny, was frequently and flagrantly
+violated. On this account the law, though never repealed, was
+frequently re-enacted.
+
+[3] The formula "to devote his head to the gods," used to express the
+sentence of capital punishment, was derived from the human sacrifices
+anciently used in Rome; probably, because criminals were usually
+selected for these sanguinary offerings.
+
+[4] The lands absolutely assigned to the plebeians free from rent,
+were the most remarkable species of Quiritary property. It was so
+called from the Quirites, who formed a constituent part of the Roman
+people, and whose name was subsequently given to the entire.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE PUBLIC AMUSEMENTS AND PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS.
+
+Butchered to make a Roman holiday.--_Byron_.
+
+The inferiority of the Romans to the Greeks in intellectual
+acquirements, was no where more conspicuous than in their public
+amusements. While the refined Grecians sought to gratify their taste
+by music, the fine arts, and dramatic entertainments, the Romans
+derived their chief pleasure from contemplating the brutal and bloody
+fights of gladiators; or at best, such rich shows and processions as
+gratify the uneducated vulgar. The games in the circus, with which the
+Romans were so delighted, that they considered them of equal
+importance, with the necessaries of life, consisted of athletic
+exercises, such as boxing, racing, wrestling, and gladiatorial
+combats. To these, chariot-racing was added under the emperors, and
+exhibitions of combats between wild beasts, and, in numerous
+instances, between men and beasts.
+
+2. After the establishment of the naval power of Rome, naumachiæ, or
+naval combats, were frequently exhibited in circi built for the
+purpose. These were not always sham fights; the contests were, in many
+instances, real engagements displaying all the horrors of a sanguinary
+battle.
+
+3. The custom of exhibiting shows of gladiators, originated in the
+barbarous sacrifices of human beings, which prevailed in remote ages.
+In the gloomy superstition of the Romans, it was believed that the
+manes, or shades of the dead, derived pleasure from human blood, and
+they therefore sacrificed, at the tombs of their ancestors, captives
+taken in war, or wretched slaves. It was soon found that sport to the
+living might be combined with this horrible offering to the dead; and
+instead of giving up the miserable victims to the executioner, they
+were compelled to fight with each other, until the greater part was
+exterminated.
+
+4. The pleasure that the people derived from this execrable amusement,
+induced the candidates for office to gratify, them frequently with
+this spectacle. The exhibitions were no longer confined to funerals;
+they formed an integrant part of every election, and were found more
+powerful than merit in opening a way to office. The utter
+demoralization of the Roman people, and the facility with which the
+tyranny of the emperors was established, unquestionably was owing, in
+a great degree to the pernicious prevalence of these scandalous
+exhibitions.
+
+5. To supply the people with gladiators, schools were, established in
+various parts of Italy, each under the controul of a _lanis'ta_, or
+fencing-master, who instructed them in martial exercises. The victims
+were either prisoners of war, or refractory slaves, sold by their
+masters; but in the degenerate ages of the empire, freemen, and even
+senators, ventured their lives on the stage along with the regular
+gladiators. Under the mild and merciful influence of Christianity
+these combats were abolished, and human blood was no longer shed to
+gratify a cruel and sanguinary populace.
+
+6. So numerous were the gladiators, that Spar'tacus, one of their
+number, having escaped from a school, raised an army of his
+fellow-sufferers, amounting to seventy thousand men; he was finally
+subdued by Cras'sus, the colleague of Pompey. Ju'lius Cæsar,
+during his ædileship, exhibited at one time three hundred and twenty
+pairs of gladiators; but even this was surpassed by the emperor
+Trajan, who displayed no less than one thousand.
+
+7. The gladiators were named from their peculiar arms; the most common
+were the _retiarius_, who endeavoured to hamper his antagonist with a
+net; and his opponent the _secutor_.
+
+8. When a gladiator was wounded, or in any way disabled, he fled to
+the extremity of the stage, and implored the pity of the spectators;
+if he had shown good sport, they took him under their protection by
+pressing down their thumbs; but if he had been found deficient in
+courage or activity, they held the thumb back, and he was instantly
+murdered by his adversary.
+
+9. The Roman theatre was formed after the model of the Greeks, but
+never attained equal eminence. The populace always paid more regard to
+the dresses of the actors, and the richness of the decoration, than to
+ingenious structure of plot, or elegance of language. Scenic
+representations do not appear to have been very popular at Rome,
+certainly never so much as the sports of the circus. Besides comedies
+and tragedies, the Romans had a species of drama peculiar to their
+country, called the Atellane farces, which were, in general, low
+pieces of gross indecency and vulgar buffoonery, but sometimes
+contained spirited satires on the character and conduct of public men.
+
+10. We should be greatly mistaken if we supposed that the theatres in
+ancient Rome at all resembled those of modern times; they were
+stupendous edifices, some of which could accommodate thirty thousand
+spectators, and an army could perform its evolutions on the stage. To
+remedy the defects of distance, the tragic actors wore a buskin with
+very thick soles, to raise them above their natural size, and covered
+their faces with a mask so contrived as to render the voice more clear
+and full.[1] Instead of the buskin, comic actors wore a sort of
+slipper called a sock.
+
+11. The periodical festivals of the Romans were celebrated with
+theatrical entertainments and sports in the circus at the public
+expense. The most remarkable of these festivals was the secular,
+which occurred only at periods of one hundred and ten years. The
+others occurred annually, and were named from the gods to whose honour
+they were dedicated.
+
+12. The Romans were a more grave and domestic people than the lively
+Greeks; their favourite dress, the toga or gown, was more formal and
+stately than the Grecian short cloak; their demeanour was more stern,
+and their manners more imposing. The great object of the old Roman
+was, to maintain his dignity under all circumstances, and to show that
+he could controul the emotions to which ordinary men too readily
+yield. Excessive joy or grief, unqualified admiration, or intense
+surprise, were deemed disgraceful; and even at a funeral, the duty of
+lamenting the deceased was entrusted to hired mourners. Temperance at
+meals was a leading feature in the character of the Romans during the
+early ages of the republic; but after the conquest of Asia, their
+luxuries were more extravagant than those of any nation recorded in
+history. But there was more extravagance than refinement in the Roman
+luxury; and though immense sums were lavished on entertainments, they
+were destitute of that taste and elegance more delightful than the
+most costly delicacies.
+
+13. The Roman ladies, enjoyed more freedom than those in any other,
+ancient nation. They visited all places of public amusement
+uncontrolled, and mingled in general society. The power of the
+husband, however, was absolute, and he could divorce his wife at
+pleasure without assigning any cause. In the early ages of the
+republic this privilege was rarely exercised, and the Roman ladies
+were strictly virtuous; but at a later period divorces were
+multiplied, and the most shocking depravity was the consequence.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the national amusements of the Romans?
+
+2. What were the naumachiæ?
+
+3. Whence arose the custom of gladiatorial combats?
+
+4. Why were these exhibitions of frequent occurrence?
+
+5. How was the supply of gladiators kept up?
+
+6. From what circumstances do we learn the great numbers of the
+gladiators?
+
+7. What names were given to the gladiators?
+
+8. How were these combats terminated?
+
+9. What pieces were exhibited on the Roman stage?
+
+10. How did the dramatic entertainments in Rome differ from those of
+modern times?
+
+11. Which were the most remarkable Roman festivals?
+
+12. What was the general character of the Roman people?
+
+13. How were women treated in Rome?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Hence the mask was called _persona_, from _personare_, to sound
+through. From _persona_ the English word _person_ is derived, which
+properly signifies not so much an individual, as the aspect of that
+individual in relation to civil society.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+GEOGRAPHY OF THE EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF ITS GREATEST EXTENT.
+
+  The Roman eagle seized
+  The double prey, and proudly perch'd on high
+  And here a thousand years he plumed his wing
+  Till from his lofty eyry, tempest-tost,
+  And impotent through age, headlong he plunged,
+  While nations shuddered as they saw him fall.--_Anon._
+
+1. The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, over which, however,
+it sometimes passed, were, in Europe, the two great rivers of the
+Rhine and Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the Syrian deserts; in
+Africa, the tracts of arid sand which fence the interior of that
+continent. It thus contained those fertile and rich countries which
+surround the Mediterranean sea, and constitute the fairest portion of
+the earth.
+
+2. Beginning at the west of Europe,[1] we find, first, Hispa'nia,
+_Spain_. Its boundaries are, on the east, the chain of the Pyrenees;
+on every other side, the sea. It was divided into three provinces: 1.
+Lusita'nia, _Portugal_, bounded on the north by the Du'rius, _Douro_,
+and on the south by the Anas; _Guadiana_: 2. Bo'etica, bounded on the
+north and west by the A'nas, and on the east by the mountains of
+Orospe'da, _Sierra Moreno_: 3. Tarracone'nsis, which includes the
+remainder of the Spanish peninsula. 3. Spain was annexed to the Roman
+empire after the conclusion of the second _Punic_ war; Lusitania,
+after a desperate resistance, was added at a later period.
+
+4. Transalpine Gaul was the name given to the entire country between
+the Pyrenees and the Rhine; it consequently included France,
+Switzerland, and Belgium.
+
+5. Gaul was divided in four provinces: 1. Narbonen'sis or Bracca'ta,
+bounded on the west by the Pyrenees; on the north by the Cevennian
+mountains, and on the east by the Va'rus, _Var_: 2. Lugdunen'sis or
+Cel'tica, bounded on the south and west by the Li'ger, _Loire_; on the
+north by the Sequa'na, _Seine_, and on the east by the A'rar,
+_Saone_: 3. Aquita'nica, bounded by the Pyrenees on the south,
+and the Li'ger on the north and east: 4. Bel'gica, bounded on the
+north and east by the Rhe'nus, _Rhine;_ on the west by the Arar, and
+on the south by the Rhoda'nus, _Rhone_, as far as the city Lugdu'num,
+_Lyons_. Helve'tia, the modern Switzerland, was included in Belgic
+Gaul. This extensive country was not totally subdued before the time
+of Julius Cæsar.
+
+6. Italy has been already mentioned in the first chapter; we shall
+therefore pass it over and come to the islands in the Mediterranean.
+
+Sici'lia or Trinac'ria, _Sicily_, was the first province that the
+Romans gained beyond the confines of Italy. The cities on its coast
+were founded by Phoenician and Grecian colonies, but the native
+inhabitants retained possession of the interior; one tribe, named the
+Sic'uli, are said to have migrated from Italy, and to have given their
+name to the island. The Greeks and Carthaginians long contended for
+supremacy in this island, but it was wrested from both by the Romans
+towards the close of the second _Punic_ war. Nearly at the same time,
+the islands of Corsica and Sardinia were annexed to the empire.
+
+7. Britan'nia, divided into Britan'nia Roma'na, which contained
+England and the south of Scotland; and Britannia Bar'bara or
+Caledo'nia, the northern part of Scotland, into which the Romans never
+penetrated. Britain was first invaded by Julius Cæsar, but was not
+wholly subdued before the time of Nero. As for Hiber'nia or Ier'ne,
+_Ireland_, it was visited by Roman merchants, but never by Roman
+legions.
+
+8. The countries south of the Danube, were subdued and divided into
+provinces during the reign of Augustus. The number of these provinces
+was seven: 1. Vindeli'cia, bounded on the north by the Danube; on the
+east by the Æ'nus, _Inn_; on the west by Helve'tia, and on the south
+by Rhæ'tia: 2. Rhætia, lying between Helve'tia, Vindeli'cia, and the
+eastern chain of the Alps: 3. Novi'cum, bounded on the north by the
+Danube, on the west by the Æ'nus, _Inn_, on the east by mount Ce'tius
+_Kahlenberg_, and on the south by the Julian Alps and the Sa'vus,
+_Save_: 4. Panno'nia Superior, having as boundaries, the Danube on the
+north and east; the Ar'rabo, _Raab_, on the south; and the Cetian
+mountains on the west: 5. Panno'nia Inferior, having the Ar'rabo on
+the north; the Ar'rabo on the east; and the Sa'vus on the south: 6.
+Moe'sia Superior, bounded on the north by the Danube, on the
+south by Mount Scar'dus. _Tihar-dag_; on the west by the Pan'nonia,
+and on the east by the river Ce'brus, _Isker_: 7. Moe'sia Inferior,
+having the Danube on the north; the Ce'brus on the west; the chain of
+mount Hæ'mus on the south, and the Pon'tus Eux'imus, _Black Sea_, on
+the east.
+
+9. Illyricum included the districts along the eastern coast of the
+Adriatic, from Rhæ'tia to the river Dri'nus, _Drino Brianco_, in the
+south, and the Sa'vus, _Save_, on the east. It was subdued by the
+Romans about the time of the Macedonian war.
+
+10. Macedon and Greece were subdued after the conquest of Carthage;
+for the particulars of their geography, the student is referred to the
+introduction prefixed to the last edition of the Grecian History.
+Thrace was governed by its own kings, who were tributary to the Romans
+until the reign of the emperor Claudian, when it was made a province.
+
+11. Da'cia was first subdued by the emperor Trajan, and was the only
+province north of the Danube; its boundaries were, the Carpathian
+mountains on the north, the Tibis'eus, _Theiss_, on the west, the
+Hiera'sus, _Pruth_, on the east, and the Danube on the south.
+
+12. The principal Asiatic provinces were, Asia Minor, Syria, and
+Phoeni'cia. Beyond the Euphra'tes, Arme'nia and Mesopota'mia were
+reduced to provinces by Trajan, but abandoned by his successor Adrian.
+
+13. The African provinces were, Egypt, Cyrena'ica, Namidia, and
+Maurita'nia.
+
+14. The principal states on the borders of the empire were, Germa'nia
+and Sarma'tia in Europe, Arme'nia and Par'thia in Asia, and Æthio'pia
+in Africa.
+
+15. Eastern Asia, or India, was only known to the Romans by a
+commercial intercourse, which was opened with that country soon after
+the conquest of Egypt.
+
+It was divided into India on this side the Ganges, and India beyond
+the Ganges, which included Se'rica, a country of which the Romans
+possessed but little knowledge. India at the western side of the
+Ganges contained, 1. The territory between the In'dus and Gan'ges: 2.
+The western coast, now called Malabar, which was the part best known,
+and, 3. The island of Taproba'ne, _Ceylon_.
+
+16. The commerce between Europe and southern Asia became important in
+the reign of Alexan'der the Great; the greater part of the towns
+founded by that mighty conqueror were intended to facilitate this
+lucrative trade.[2] After his death, the Ptol'emys of Egypt became the
+patrons of Indian traffic, which was unwisely neglected by the kings
+of Syria. When Egypt was conquered by the Romans, the commerce with
+India was not interrupted, and the principal mart for Indian commerce
+under the Roman emperors, was always Alexandria. The jealousy of the
+Parthians excluded strangers from their territories, and put an end to
+the trade that was carried on between northern India, the shores of
+the Caspian sea, and thence to the Ægean. In consequence of this
+interruption, Palmy'ra and Alexandri'a became the great depots of
+eastern commerce, and to this circumstance they owed their enormous
+wealth and magnificence.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the boundaries of the Roman empire?
+
+2. How was Spain divided?
+
+3. When was Spain annexed to the Roman empire?
+
+4. What countries were included in Transalpine Gaul?
+
+5. How was Gaul divided?
+
+6. What islands in the Mediterranean were included in the Roman
+empire?
+
+7. When was Britain invaded by the Romans, and how much of the country
+did they subdue?
+
+8. Into what provinces were the countries south of the Danube divided?
+
+9. What was the extent of Illyricum?
+
+10. What were the Roman provinces in the east of Europe?
+
+11. By whom was Dacia conquered?
+
+12. What were the Asiatic provinces?
+
+13. What were the African provinces?
+
+14. What were the principal states bordering on the empire?
+
+15. Was India known to the Romans?
+
+16. What cities under the Romans enjoyed the greatest commerce with
+India?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The student will find the particulars of the ancient state of
+these countries detailed more fully in Mitchell's Ancient Geography.
+
+[2] See Pinnock's Grecian History.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+END OF THE INTRODUCTION.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HISTORY OF ROME
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+OF THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANS.
+
+In Alba he shall fix his royal seat.--_Dryden_.
+
+1. The Romans were particularly desirous of being thought descendants
+of the gods, as if to hide the meanness of their real ancestry.
+_Æne'as_, the son of _Venus_ and _Anchi'ses_, having escaped from the
+destruction of Troy, after many adventures and dangers, arrived in
+Italy, A.M. 2294, where he was kindly received by Lati'nus, king of
+the Latins, who promised him his daughter Lavin'ia in marriage.
+
+2. Turnus, king of the _Ru'tuli_, was the first who opposed Æne'as, he
+having long made pretensions to her himself. A war ensued, in which
+the Trojan hero was victorious, and Turnus slain. In consequence of
+this, Lavin'ia became the wife of Æne'as, who built a city to her
+honour, and called it Lavin'ium. Some time after, engaging in a war
+against _Mezen'tius_, one of the petty kings of the country, he was
+vanquished in turn, and died in battle, after a reign of four years.
+3. Asca'nius his son, succeeded to the kingdom; and to him Sil'vius, a
+second son, whom he had by Lavin'ia. It would be tedious and
+uninteresting to recite a dry catalogue of the kings that followed, of
+whom we know little more than the names; it will be sufficient to say,
+that the succession continued for nearly four hundred years in the
+same family, and that Nu'mitor, the fifteenth from Æne'as, was the
+last king of Alba.
+
+Nu'mitor, who took possession of the kingdom in consequence of his
+father's will, had a brother named Amu'lius, to whom were left the
+treasures which had been brought from Troy. 4. As riches too generally
+prevail against right, Amu'lius made use of his wealth to supplant his
+brother, and soon found means to possess himself of the kingdom. Not
+contented with the crime of usurpation, he added that of murder also.
+Nu'mitor's sons first fell a sacrifice to his suspicions; and to
+remove all apprehensions of being one day disturbed in his
+ill-gotten power, he caused Rhe'a Sil'via, his brother's only
+daughter, to become a vestal.
+
+5. His precautions, however, were all frusrtrated in the event. Rhe'a
+Sil'via, and, according to tradition, Mars the god of war, were the
+parents of two boys, who were no sooner born, than devoted by the
+usurper to destruction. 7. The mother was condemned to be buried
+alive, the usual punishment for vestals who had violated their vows,
+and the twins were ordered to be flung into the river Tiber. 8. It
+happened, however, at the time this rigorous sentence was put into
+execution, that the river had, more than usual, overflowed its banks,
+so that the place where the children were thrown being distant from
+the main current, the water was too shallow to drown them. It is said
+by some, that they were exposed in a cradle, which, after floating for
+a time, was, by the water's retiring, left on dry ground; that a wolf,
+descending from the mountains to drink, ran, at the cry of the
+children, and fed them under a fig-tree, caressing and licking them as
+if they had been her own young, the infants hanging on to her as if
+she had been their mother, until Faus'tulus, the king's shepherd,
+struck with so surprising a sight, conveyed them home, and delivered
+them to his wife, Ac'ca Lauren'tia, to nurse, who brought them up as
+her own. 9. Others, however, assert, that from the vicious life of
+this woman, the shepherds had given her the nickname of Lupa, or wolf,
+which they suppose might possibly be the occasion of this marvellous
+story.
+
+10. Romu'lus and Re'mus, the twins, in whatever manner preserved,
+seemed early to discover abilities and desires above the meanness of
+their supposed origin. From their very infancy, an air of superiority
+and grandeur seemed to discover their rank. They led, however, the
+shepherd's life like the rest; worked for their livelihood, and built
+their own huts. But pastoral idleness displeased them, and, from
+tending their flocks, they betook themselves to the chase. Then, no
+longer content with hunting wild beasts, they turned their strength
+against the robbers of their country, whom they often stripped of
+their plunder, and divided it among the shepherds. 11. The youths who
+continually joined them so increased in number, as to enable them to
+hold assemblies, and celebrate games. In one of their excursions, the
+two brothers were surprised. Re'mus was taken prisoner, carried before
+the king, and accused of being a plunderer and robber on Nu'mitor's
+lands. Rom'ulus had escaped; but Re'mus, the king sent to
+Nu'mitor, that he might do himself justice.
+
+12. From many circumstances, Faus'tulus suspected the twins under his
+care to be the same that Amu'lius had exposed on the Ti'ber, and at
+length divulged his suspicions to Rom'ulus. Nu'mitor made the same
+discovery to Re'mus. From that time nothing was thought of but the
+tyrant's destruction. He was beset on all sides; and, during the
+amazement and distraction that ensued, was taken and slain; while
+Nu'mitor, who had been deposed for forty years, recognised his
+grandsons, and was once more placed on the throne.
+
+13. The two brothers, leaving Nu'mitor the kingdom of Alba, determined
+to build a city upon the spot where they had been exposed and
+preserved. But a fatal desire of reigning seized them both, and
+created a difference between these noble youths, which terminated
+tragically. Birth right in the case of twins could claim no
+precedence; they therefore were advised by the king to take an omen
+from the flight of birds, to know to which of them the tutelar gods
+would decree the honour of governing the rising city, and,
+consequently, of being the director of the other. 14. In compliance
+with this advice, each took his station on a different hill. To Re'mus
+appeared six vultures; in the moment after, Rom'ulus saw twelve. Two
+parties had been formed for this purpose; the one declared for Re'mus,
+who first saw the vultures; the other for Rom'ulus, who saw the
+greater number. Each party called itself victorious; the one having
+the first omen, the other that which was most complete. This produced
+a contest which ended in a battle, wherein Re'mus was slain. It is
+even said, that he was killed by his brother, who, being provoked at
+his leaping contemptuously over the city wall, struck him dead upon
+the spot.
+
+15. Rom'ulus being now sole commander and eighteen years of age, began
+the foundation of a city that was one day to give laws to the world.
+It was called Rome, after the name of the founder, and built upon the
+Palatine hill, on which he had taken his successful omen, A.M. 3252;
+ANTE c. 752. The city was at first nearly square, containing about a
+thousand houses. It was almost a mile in circumference, and commanded
+a small territory round it of eight miles over. 16. However, small as
+it appears, it was yet worse inhabited; and the first method made use
+of to increase its numbers, was the opening of a sanctuary for
+all malefactors and slaves, and such as were desirous of novelty;
+these came in great multitudes, and contributed to increase the number
+of our legislator's new subjects.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the origin of the Romans?
+
+2. Who first opposed Æneas, and what was the result?
+
+3. Who were the successors of Æneas?
+
+4. What was the conduct of Amulius?
+
+5. What event frustrated his precautions?
+
+6. What followed?
+
+7. What was the sentence on Rhea Silvia and her children?
+
+8. How were the children preserved?
+
+9. What is supposed to have occasioned this marvellous story?
+
+10. What was the character and conduct of Romulus and Remus?
+
+11. In what manner were they surprised?
+
+12. How was the birth of Romulus and Remus discovered, and what
+consequences followed?
+
+13. What caused a difference between the brothers?
+
+14. Relate the circumstances which followed?
+
+15. By whom was Rome built, and what was then its situation?
+
+16. By what means was the new city peopled?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+FROM THE BUILDING OF ROME TO THE DEATH OF ROMULUS.
+
+  See Romulus the great, born to restore
+  The crown that once his injured grandsire wore.
+  This prince a priestess of our blood shall bear;
+  And like his sire in arms he shall appear.--_Dryden_.
+
+1. Scarcely was the city raised above its foundation, when its rude
+inhabitants began to think of giving some form to their constitution.
+Rom'ulus, by an act of great generosity, left them at liberty to
+choose whom they would for their king; and they, in gratitude,
+concurred to elect him for their founder. He, accordingly, was
+acknowledged as chief of their religion, sovereign magistrate of Rome,
+and general of the army. Beside a guard to attend his person, it was
+agreed, that he should be preceded wherever he went, by twelve
+lictors, each armed with an axe tied up in a bundle of rods;[1] these
+were to serve as executioners of the law, and to impress his new
+subjects with an idea of his authority.
+
+2. The senate, who were to act as counsellors to the king, was
+composed of a hundred of the principal citizens of Rome, consisting of
+men whose age, wisdom, or valour, gave them a natural authority over
+their fellow-subjects. The king named the first senator, who was
+called prince of the senate, and appointed him to the government of
+the city, whenever war required his own absence.
+
+3. The patricians, who composed the third part of the legislature,
+assumed to themselves the power of authorising those laws which were
+passed by the king, or the senate. All things relative to peace or
+war, to the election of magistrates, and even to the choosing a king,
+were confirmed by suffrages in their assemblies.
+
+4. The plebeians were to till the fields, feed cattle, and follow
+trades; but not to have any share in the government, to avoid the
+inconveniences of a popular power.
+
+5. The first care of the new-created king was, to attend to the
+interests of religion. The precise form of their worship is unknown;
+but the greatest part of the religion of that age consisted in a firm
+reliance upon the credit of their soothsayers, who pretended, from
+observation on the flight of birds, and the entrails of beasts, to
+direct the present, and to dive into futurity. Rom'ulus, by an express
+law, commanded that no election should be made, nor enterprise
+undertaken, without first consulting them.
+
+6. Wives were forbidden, upon any pretext whatsoever, to separate from
+their husbands; while, on the contrary, the husband was empowered to
+repudiate the wife, and even, in some cases, to put her to death. The
+laws between children and their parents were still more severe; the
+father had entire power over his offspring, both of fortune and life;
+he could imprison and sell them at any time of their lives, or in any
+stations to which they were arrived.
+
+7. After endeavouring to regulate his subjects by law, Rom'ulus next
+gave orders to ascertain their numbers. The whole amounted to no more
+than three thousand foot, and about as many hundred horsemen, capable
+of bearing arms. These, therefore, were divided equally into three
+tribes, and to each he assigned a different part of the city. Each of
+these tribes was subdivided into ten curiæ, or companies, consisting of
+a hundred men each, with a centurion to command it; a priest called
+curio, to perform the sacrifices, and two of the principal inhabitants,
+called duumviri, to distribute justice.
+
+8. By these judicious regulations, each day added strength to the new
+city; multitudes of people flocked in from all the adjacent towns, and
+it only seemed to want women to insure its duration. In this exigence,
+Rom'ulus, by the advice of the senate, sent deputies among the
+Sab'ines, his neighbours, entreating their alliance; and, upon these
+terms, offering to cement the strictest confederacy with them. The
+Sab'ines, who were at that time considered as the most warlike people
+of Italy, rejected the proposal with disdain. 9. Rom'ulus, therefore,
+proclaimed a feast, in honour of Neptune,[2] throughout all the
+neighbouring villages, and made the most magnificent preparations for
+celebrating it. These feasts were generally preceded by sacrifices,
+and ended in shows of wrestlers, gladiators, and chariot-courses. The
+Sab'ines, as he had expected, were among the foremost who came to be
+spectators, bringing their wives and daughters with them, to share the
+pleasures of the sight. 10. In the mean time the games began, and
+while the strangers were most intent upon the spectacle, a number of
+the Roman youth rushed in among them with drawn swords, seized the
+youngest and most beautiful women, and carried them off by violence.
+In vain the parents protested against this breach of hospitality; the
+virgins were carried away and became the wives of the Romans.
+
+11. A bloody war ensued. The cities of Cæ'nina,[3] Antem'næ,[4] and
+Crustumi'num,[5] were the first who resolved to avenge the common
+cause, which the Sab'ines seemed too dilatory in pursuing. But all
+these, by making separate inroads, became an easy conquest to
+Rom'ulus, who made the most merciful use of his victories; instead of
+destroying their towns, or lessening their numbers, he only placed
+colonies of Romans in them, to serve as a frontier to repress more
+distant invasions.
+
+12. Ta'tius, king of Cures, a Sabine city, was the last, although the
+most formidable, who undertook to revenge the disgrace his
+country had suffered. He entered the Roman territories at the head of
+twenty-five thousand men, and not content with a superiority of
+forces, he added stratagem also. 13. Tarpe'ia, who was daughter to the
+commander of the Capit'oline hill, happened to fall into his hands, as
+she went without the walls of the city to fetch water. Upon her he
+prevailed, by means of large promises, to betray one of the gates to
+his army. The reward she engaged for, was what the soldiers wore on
+their arms, by which she meant their bracelets. They, however, either
+mistaking her meaning, or willing to punish her perfidy, threw their
+bucklers upon her as they entered, and crushed her to death. 14. The
+Sab'ines being thus possessed of the Capit'oline, after some time a
+general engagement ensued, which was renewed for several days, with
+almost equal success, and neither army could think of submitting; it
+was in the valley between the Capit'oline and Quiri'nal hills that the
+last engagement was fought between the Romans and the Sab'ines. 15.
+The battle was now become general, and the slaughter prodigious; when
+the attention of both sides was suddenly turned from the scene of
+horror before them to another. The Sab'ine women, who had been carried
+off by the Romans, flew in between the combatants, with their hair
+loose, and their ornaments neglected, regardless of their own danger;
+and, with loud outcries, implored their husbands and their fathers to
+desist. Upon this the combatants, as if by natural impulse, let fall
+their weapons. 16. An accommodation ensued, by which it was agreed,
+that Rom'ulus and Ta'tius should reign jointly in Rome, with equal
+power and prerogative; that a hundred Sab'ines should be admitted into
+the senate; that the city should retain its former name, but the
+citizens, should be called Qui'rites, after Cu'res, the principal town
+of the Sab'ines; and that both nations being thus united, such of the
+Sab'ines as chose it, should be admitted to live in and enjoy all the
+privileges of citizens of Rome. 17. The conquest of Came'ria was the
+only military achievement under the two kings, and Ta'tius was killed
+about five years after by the Lavin'ians, for having protected some of
+his servants who had plundered them and slain their ambassadors; so
+that, by this accident, Rom'ulus once more saw himself sole monarch of
+Rome. 18. Soon after the death of Ta'tius, a cruel plague and famine
+having broken out at Rome, the Camerini embraced the opportunity to
+lay waste the Roman territory. But Rom'ulus gave them battle,
+killed six thousand on the spot, and returned in triumph to Rome. He
+took likewise Fidenæ, a city about forty furlongs distant from his
+capital, and reduced the Veien'tes to submission.
+
+19. Successes like these produced an equal share of pride in the
+conqueror. From being contented with those limits which had been
+wisely assigned to his power, he began to affect absolute sway, and to
+controul those laws to which he had himself formerly professed
+implicit obedience. The senate was particularly displeased at his
+conduct, as they found themselves used only as instruments to ratify
+the rigour of his commands. 20. We are not told the precise manner
+which they employed to get rid of the tyrant. Some say that he was
+torn in pieces in the senate-house; others, that he disappeared while
+reviewing his army; certain it is, that, from the secrecy of the fact,
+and the concealment of the body, they took occasion to persuade the
+multitude that he was taken up into heaven; thus, him whom they could
+not bear as a king, they were contented to worship as a god. Rom'ulus
+reigned thirty-seven years; and, after his death, had a temple built
+to him, under the name of Quiri'nus.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What were the first proceedings of the rude inhabitants of Rome?
+
+2. Of whom was the senate composed?
+
+3. Who were the patricians?
+
+4. Who were the plebeians?
+
+5. What was the first care of the new king? In what did the Religion
+of Rome consist?
+
+6. What were the laws between husband and wife, and between parents
+and children?
+
+7. What were the regulations directed by Romulus?
+
+8. What was the result of these regulations?
+
+9. What conduct did Romulus adopt in consequence?
+
+10. What treatment did the Sabines experience?
+
+11. Did they tamely acquiesce in this outrage?
+
+12. Who undertook to revenge the disgrace of the Sabines?
+
+13. What was this stratagem, and how was its perpetrator rewarded?
+
+14. Did the possession of the Capitoline put an end to the war?
+
+15. What put a stop to this sanguinary conflict?
+
+16. What were the terms of accommodation?
+
+17. Was this joint sovereignty of long continuance?
+
+18. Was Romulus successful in military affairs?
+
+19. What was the consequence?
+
+20. What was the manner of his death?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] This symbol of authority was borrowed from his neighbours, the
+Istrurians.
+
+[2] More properly in honour of Con'sus, a deity of Sabine origin, whom
+the Romans, in a later age, confounded with Neptune. (See Keightley's
+Mythology.)
+
+[3] A town of Latium, near Rome. (Livy.)
+
+[4] A city of the Sabines, between Rome and the Anio, from whence its
+name,--Ante Amnem. (Dionys. Hal.)
+
+[5] A town of Etruria, near Veii. (Virg.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF ROMULUS TO THE DEATH OF NUMA POMPILIUS, THE SECOND
+KING OF ROME.--U.C. 38.
+
+  When pious Numa reigned, Bellona's voice
+    No longer called the Roman youth to arms;
+  In peaceful arts he bid her sons rejoice,
+    And tranquil live, secure from war's alarms.--_Brooke._
+
+1. Upon the death of Rom'ulus, the city seemed greatly divided in the
+choice of a successor. The Sab'ines were for having a king chosen from
+their body; but the Romans could not endure the thoughts of advancing
+a stranger to the throne. In this perplexity, the senators undertook
+to supply the place of the king, by taking the government each of them
+in turn, for five days, and during that time enjoying all the honours
+and all the privileges of royalty. 2. This new form of government
+continued for a year; but the plebeians, who saw this method of
+transferring power was only multiplying their masters, insisted upon
+altering that mode of government. The senate being thus driven to an
+election, at length pitched upon Nu'ma Pompil'ius, a Sab'ine, and
+their choice was received with universal approbation by the people.[1]
+
+3. Nu'ma Pompil'ius, who was now about forty, had long been eminent
+for his piety, his justice, his moderation, and exemplary life. He was
+skilled in all the learning and philosophy of the Sab'ines, and lived
+at home at Cu'res,[2] contented with a private fortune; unambitious of
+higher honours. It was not, therefore, without reluctance, that he
+accepted the dignity; which, when he did so, produced such joy, that
+the people seemed not so much to receive a king as a kingdom.
+
+4. No monarch could be more proper for them than Nu'ma, at a
+conjuncture when the government was composed of various petty states
+lately subdued, and but ill united to each other: they wanted a master
+who could, by his laws and precepts, soften their fierce dispositions;
+and, by his example, induce them to a love of religion, and every
+milder virtue. 5. Numa's whole time, therefore, was spent in
+inspiring his subjects with a love of piety, and a veneration for the
+gods. He built many new temples, instituted sacred offices and feasts;
+and the sanctity of his life gave strength to his assertion--that he
+had a particular correspondence with the goddess _Ege'ria_. By her
+advice he built the temple of _Janus_, which was to be shut in time of
+peace, and open in war. He regulated the appointment of the vestal
+virgins, and added considerably to the privileges which they had
+previously enjoyed.
+
+6. For the encouragement of agriculture, he divided those lands, which
+Romulus had gained in war, among the poorer part of the people; he
+regulated the calendar, and abolished the distinction between Romans
+and Sabines, by dividing the people according to their several trades,
+and compelling them to live together. Thus having arrived at the age
+of fourscore years, and having reigned forty-three in profound peace,
+he died, ordering his body, contrary to the custom of the times, to be
+buried in a stone coffin; and his books of ceremonies, which consisted
+of twelve in Latin, and as many in Greek, to be buried by his side in
+another.[3]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. Upon the death of Romulus, what took place in regard to his
+successor?
+
+2. How long did this order of things continue?
+
+3. What was the character of Numa Pompilius?
+
+4. Was Numa a monarch suited to this peculiar conjuncture?
+
+5. Relate the acts of Numa?
+
+6. What were the further acts of Numa?
+
+7. What orders did he leave at his death?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Nu'ma Pompil'ius was the fourth son of Pompil'ius Pom'po, an
+illustrious Sab'ine. He had married Ta'tia, the daughter of Ta'tius,
+the colleague of Rom'ulus, and on the death of his wife, gave himself
+up entirely to solitude and study. (Plutarch--Livy.)
+
+[2] More probably at Quirium, the Sabine town which was united with
+Rome. (See Introduction, Chap. II.)
+
+[3] The age of Nu'ma is scarcely more historical than that of
+Rom'ulus, but the legends respecting it are fewer and partake less of
+extravagance. Indeed, he had himself discouraged the songs of the
+bards, by ordering the highest honours to be paid to Tac'ita, the
+Came'na or Muse of Silence. His memory was best preserved by the
+religious ceremonies ascribed to him by universal tradition. The later
+poets loved to dwell on his peaceful virtues, and on the pure
+affection that existed between him and the nymph Egeria. They tell us
+that when the king served up a moderate repast to his guests on
+earthen-ware, she suddenly changed the dishes into gold, and the plain
+food into the most sumptuous viands. They also add, that when he died,
+Egeria melted away in tears for his loss, and was changed into a
+fountain.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF NUMA TO THE DEATH OF TULLUS HOSTILIUS THE THIRD KING
+OF ROME.--U.C. 82.
+
+  From either army shall be chose three champions,
+  To fight the cause alone.--_Whitehead._
+
+1. At the death of Nu'ma, the government once more devolved upon the
+senate, and so continued, till the people elected Tullus Hostil'ius
+for their king, which choice had also the concurrence of the other
+part of the constitution. This monarch, the grandson of a noble
+Roman,[1] who had formerly signalized himself against the Sab'ines,
+was every way unlike his predecessor, being entirely devoted to war,
+and more fond of enterprise than even the founder of the empire
+himself had been; so that he only sought a pretext for leading his
+forces to the field.
+
+2. The _Albans_, by committing some depredations on the Roman
+territory, were the first people that gave him an opportunity of
+indulging his favourite inclinations. The forces of the two states met
+about five miles from Rome, prepared to decide the fate of their
+respective kingdoms; for, in these times, a single battle was
+generally decisive. The two armies were for some time drawn out in
+array, awaiting the signal to begin, both chiding the length of that
+dreadful suspense, when an unexpected proposal from the Alban general
+put a stop to the onset. 3. Stepping in between both armies, he
+offered the Romans to decide the dispute by single combat; adding,
+that the side whose champion was overcome, should submit to the
+conqueror. A proposal like this, suited the impetuous temper of the
+Roman king, and was embraced with joy by his subjects, each of whom
+hoped that he himself should be chosen to fight the cause of his
+country. 4. There were, at that time, three twin brothers in each
+army; those of the Romans were called Hora'tii, and those of the
+Albans Curia'tii; all six remarkable for their courage, strength, and
+activity, and to these it was resolved to commit the management of the
+combat.[2] At length the champions met, and each, totally
+regardless of his own safety, only sought the destruction of his
+opponent. The spectators, in horrid silence, trembled at every blow,
+and wished to share the danger, till fortune seemed to decide the
+glory of the field. 5. Victory, that had hitherto been doubtful,
+appeared to declare against the Romans: they beheld two of their
+champions lying dead upon the plain, and the three Curia'tii, who were
+wounded, slowly endeavouring to pursue the survivor, who seemed by
+flight to beg for mercy. Too soon, however, they perceived that his
+flight was only pretended, in order to separate his three antagonists,
+whom he was unable to oppose united; for quickly after, stopping his
+course, and turning upon the first, who followed closely behind, he
+laid him dead at his feet: the second brother, who was coming up to
+assist him that had already fallen, shared the same fate. 6. There now
+remained but the last Curia'tius to conquer, who, fatigued and
+disabled by his wounds, slowly advanced to offer an easy victory. He
+was killed, almost unresisting, while the conqueror, exclaiming, "Two
+have I already sacrificed to the manes of my brothers, the third I
+will offer up to my country," despatched him as a victim to the
+superiority of the Romans, whom now the Alban army consented to
+obey.[3]
+
+7. But the virtues of that age were not without alloy; that very hand
+that in the morning was exerted to save his country, was, before
+night, imbrued in the blood of a sister: for, returning triumphant
+from the field, it raised his indignation to behold her bathed in
+tears, and lamenting the loss of her lover, one of the Curia'tii, to
+whom she had been betrothed. This so provoked him beyond the powers of
+sufferance, that in a rage he slew her: but the action displeased the
+senate, and drew after it the condemnation of the magistrate. He was,
+however, pardoned, by making his appeal to the people, but obliged to
+pass under the yoke; an ignominious punishment, usually inflicted on
+prisoners of war.[4]
+
+8. Tullus having greatly increased the power and wealth of Rome by
+repeated victories, now thought proper to demand satisfaction of the
+Sab'ines for the insults which had been formerly offered to some Roman
+citizens at the temple of the goddess Fero'nia, which was common
+to both nations A war ensued, which lasted some years, and ended in
+the total overthrow of the Sab'ines.
+
+[Illustration: The victorious Horatius killing his sister.]
+
+Hostil'ius died after a reign of thirty-two years; some say by
+lightning; others, with more probability, by treason.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. On whom devolved the government on the death of Numa, and what is
+the character of his successor?
+
+2. What opportunity first offered of indulging the new king's
+inclinations?
+
+3. What proposal was offered, and accepted for deciding the dispute?
+
+4-6. Relate the circumstances which attended the combat, and the
+result of it.
+
+7. What act followed the victory?
+
+8. What conquest was next achieved?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] It seems to have been part of the compact between the Romans and
+Sabines, that a king of each people should reign alternately.
+
+[2] The Hora'tii and Curia'tii were, according to Diony'sius of
+Halicarnas'sus, the sons of two sisters, daughters of Sequin'ius, an
+illustrious citizen of Alba. One married to Curia'tius, a citizen of
+Alba, and the other to Hora'tius, a Roman: so that the champions were
+near relatives.
+
+[3] This obedience of the Albans was of short duration; they soon
+rebelled and were defeated by Tullus, who razed the city of Alba to
+the ground, and transplanted the inhabitants to Rome, where he
+conferred on them the privileges of citizens.
+
+[4] Livy, lib. i. cap. 26. Dion. Hal. l. 3.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF TULLUS HOSTILIUS TO THE DEATH OF ANCUS MARTIUS THE
+FOURTH KING OF ROME.--U.C. 115.
+
+                       Where what remains
+  Of Alba, still her ancient rights retains,
+  Still worships Vesta, though an humbler way,
+  Nor lets the hallow'd Trojan fire decay.--_Juvenal_.
+
+1. After an interregnum, as in the former case, Ancus Mar'tius, the
+grandson of Numa, was elected king by the people, and their choice was
+afterwards confirmed by the senate. As this monarch was a lineal
+descendant from Numa, so he seemed to make him the great object
+of his imitation. He instituted the sacred ceremonies, which were to
+precede a declaration of war;[1] but he took every occasion to advise
+his subjects to return to the arts of agriculture, and to lay aside
+the less useful stratagems of war.
+
+2. These institutions and precepts were considered by the neighbouring
+powers rather as marks of cowardice than of wisdom. The Latins
+therefore began to make incursions upon his territories, but their
+success was equal to their justice. An'cus conquered the Latins,
+destroyed their cities, removed their inhabitants to Rome, and
+increased his dominions by the addition of part of theirs. He quelled
+also an insurrection of the _Ve'ii_, the _Fiden'ates_, and the
+_Vol'sci_; and over the Sab'ines he obtained a second triumph.
+
+3. But his victories over the enemy were by no means comparable to his
+works at home, in raising temples, fortifying the city, making a
+prison for malefactors, and building a sea-port at the mouth of the
+Ti'ber, called Os'tia, by which he secured to his subjects the trade
+of that river, and that of the salt-pits adjacent. Thus having
+enriched his subjects, and beautified the city, he died, after a reign
+of twenty-four years.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Who was elected by the people after the interregnum, and what
+measures did he pursue?
+
+2. In what light did his enemies consider his institutions? With what
+success did they oppose him?
+
+3. What were the other acts of Ancus? How many years did he reign?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] First an ambassador was sent to demand satisfaction for the
+alleged injury; if this were not granted within thirty-three days,
+heralds were appointed to proclaim the war in the name of the gods and
+people of Rome. At the conclusion of their speech, they threw their
+javelins into the enemy's confines, and departed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF ANCUS MARTIUS, TO THE DEATH OF TARQUINIUS PRISCUS
+THE FIFTH KING OF ROME.--U.C. 130.
+
+  The first of Tarquin's hapless race was he,
+  Who odium tried to cast on augury;
+  But Nævius Accius, with an augur's skill.
+  Preserved its fame, and raised it higher still.--_Robertson_.
+
+1. Lu'cius Tarquin'ius Pris'cus was appointed guardian to the sons of
+the late king, and took the surname of Tarquin'ius from the city of
+_Tarquin'ia_, whence he last came. His father was a merchant of
+Corinth,[1] who had acquired considerable wealth by trade, and had
+settled in Italy, upon account of some troubles at home. His son, who
+inherited his fortune, married a woman of family in the city of
+Tarquin'ia.
+
+2. His birth, profession, and country, being contemptible to the
+nobles of the place, he, by his wife's persuasion, came to settle at
+Rome, where merit also gave a title to distinction. On his way
+thither, say the historians, as he approached the city gate, an eagle,
+stooping from above, took off his hat, and flying round his chariot
+for some time, with much noise, put it on again. This his wife
+Tan'aquil, who it seems was skilled in augury, interpreted as a
+presage that he should one day wear the crown. Perhaps it was this
+which first fired his ambition to pursue it.
+
+3. Ancus being dead, and the kingdom, as usual, devolving upon the
+senate, Tarquin used all his power and arts to set aside the children
+of the late king, and to get himself elected in their stead. For this
+purpose, upon the day appointed for election, he contrived to have
+them sent out of the city; and in a set speech, in which he urged his
+friendship for the people, the fortune he had spent among them, and
+his knowledge of their government, he offered himself for their king.
+As there was nothing in this harangue that could be contested, it had
+the desired effect, and the people, with one consent, elected him as
+their sovereign.
+
+4. A kingdom thus obtained by _intrigue_, was, notwithstanding,
+governed with equity. In the beginning of his reign, in order to
+recompense his friends, he added a hundred members more to the senate,
+which made them, in all, three hundred.
+
+5. But his peaceful endeavours were soon interrupted by the inroads of
+his restless neighbours, particularly the Latins, over whom he
+triumphed, and whom he forced to beg for peace. He then turned his
+arms against the Sabines, who had risen once more, and had passed the
+river Ti'ber; but attacking them with vigour, Tarquin routed their
+army; so that many who escaped the sword, were drowned in attempting
+to cross over, while their bodies and armour, floating down to Rome,
+brought news of the victory, even before the messengers could arrive
+that were sent with the tidings. These conquests were followed by
+several advantages over the Latins, from whom he took many towns,
+though without gaining any decisive victory.
+
+6. Tarquin, having thus forced his enemies into submission, was
+resolved not to let his subjects grow corrupt through indolence. He
+therefore undertook and perfected several public works for the
+convenience and embellishment of the city.[2]
+
+7. In his time it was, that the augurs came into a great increase of
+reputation. He found it his interest to promote the superstition of
+the people; for this was, in fact, but to increase their obedience.
+Tan'aquil, his wife, was a great pretender to this art; but Ac'cius
+Næ'vius was the most celebrated adept of the kind ever known in Rome.
+8. Upon a certain occasion, Tarquin, being resolved to try the augur's
+skill, asked him, whether what he was then pondering in his mind could
+be effected? Næ'vius, having consulted his auguries, boldly affirmed
+that it might: "Why, then," cries the king, with an insulting smile,
+"I had thoughts of cutting this whetstone with a razor." "Cut boldly,"
+replied the augur; and the king cut it through accordingly.
+Thenceforward nothing was undertaken in Rome without consulting the
+augurs, and obtaining their advice and approbation.
+
+9. Tarquin was not content with a kingdom, without having also the
+ensigns of royalty. In imitation of the Lyd'ian kings, he assumed a
+crown of gold, an ivory throne, a sceptre with an eagle on the top,
+and robes of purple. It was, perhaps, the splendour of these royalties
+that first raised the envy of the late king's sons, who had now,
+for above thirty-seven years, quietly submitted to his government. His
+design also of adopting Ser'vius Tul'lius, his son-in-law, for his
+successor, might have contributed to inflame their resentment. 10.
+Whatever was the cause of their tardy vengeance, they resolved to
+destroy him; and, at last, found means to effect their purpose, by
+hiring two ruffians, who, demanding to speak with the king, pretending
+that they came for justice, struck him dead in his palace with the
+blow of an axe. The lictors, however, who waited upon the person of
+the king, seized the murderers as they were attempting to escape, and
+put them to death: but the sons of Ancus, who were the instigators,
+found safety in flight.
+
+11. Thus fell Lu'cius Tarquin'ius, surnamed Pris'cus, to distinguish
+him from one of his successors of the same name. He was eighty years
+of age, and had reigned thirty-eight years.[3]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Who was Lucius Tarquinius Priscus?
+
+2. What occasioned his removal to Rome, and what circumstances
+attended it?
+
+3. Was this presage fulfilled, and by what means?
+
+4. In what manner did he govern?
+
+5. Was Tarquin a warlike prince?
+
+6. How did he improve his victories?
+
+7. By what act did he insure the obedience of his subjects?
+
+8. What contributed to increase the reputation of the augurs?
+
+9. What part of his conduct is supposed, to have raised the envy of
+the late king's sons?
+
+10. What was the consequence of this envy and resentment?
+
+11. What was his age, and how long did he reign?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Corinth (now Corito) was a celebrated city of ancient Greece,
+situated on the isthmus of that name, about sixty stadia or furlongs
+from the sea. Its original name was Ephy're.
+
+[2] Preparations for building the Capitol were made in this reign. The
+city was likewise fortified with stone walls, and the cloacæ, or
+common sewers, constructed by the munificence of this prince. (See
+Introd.)
+
+[3] The history of the elder Tarquin presents insuperable
+difficulties. We are told that his original name was Lu'cumo; but
+that, as has been mentioned in the Introduction, was the Etrurian
+designation of a chief magistrate. One circumstance, however, is
+unquestionable, that with him began the greatness and the splendour of
+the Roman city. He commenced those vaulted sewers which still attract
+the admiration of posterity; he erected the first circus for the
+exhibition of public spectacles; he planned the Capitol, and
+commenced, if he did not complete, the first city wall. The tradition
+that he was a Tuscan prince, appears to be well founded; but the
+Corinthian origin of his family is very improbable.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF TARQUINIUS PRISCUS TO THE DEATH OF SERVIUS TULLIUS
+THE SIXTH KING OF ROME.--U.C. 176.
+
+  Servius, the king, who laid the solid base
+  On which o'er earth the vast republic spread.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. The report of the murder of Tarquin filled all his subjects with
+complaint and indignation; while the citizens ran from every quarter
+to the palace, to learn the truth of the account, or to take vengeance
+on the assassins. 2. In this tumult, Tan'aquil, widow of the late
+king, considering the danger she must incur, in case the conspirators
+should succeed to the crown, and desirous of seeing her son-in-law his
+successor, with great art dissembled her sorrow, as well as the king's
+death. She assured the people, from one of the windows of the palace,
+that he was not killed, but only stunned by the blow; that he would
+shortly recover; and that in the meantime he had deputed his power to
+Ser'vius Tul'lius, his son-in-law. Ser'vius, accordingly, as it had
+been agreed upon between them, issued from the palace, adorned with
+the ensigns of royalty, and, preceded by his lictors, went to despatch
+some affairs that related to the public safety, still pretending that
+he took all his instructions from the king. This scene of
+dissimulation continued for some days, till he had made his party good
+among the nobles; when, the death of Tarquin being publicly
+ascertained, Ser'vius came to the crown, solely at the senate's
+appointment, and without attempting to gain the suffrages of the
+people.
+
+3. Ser'vius was the son of a bondwoman, who had been taken at the
+sacking of a town belonging to the Latins, and was born whilst his
+mother was a slave. While yet an infant in his cradle, a lambent
+flame[1] is said to have played round his head, which Tan'aquil
+converted into an omen of future greatness.
+
+4. Upon being acknowledged king, he determined to make a great change
+in the Roman constitution by admitting the plebeians to a
+participation in the civil government. The senate was too weak to
+resist the change when it was proposed, but it submitted with great
+reluctance. 5. Ser'vius divided all the Romans into classes and
+centuries according to their wealth and the amount of taxes paid
+to the state. The number of centuries in the first class nearly
+equalled that of all the others; a great advantage to the plebeians;
+for the lower classes being chiefly clients of the patricians, were
+always inclined to vote according to the prejudices or interests of
+their patrons.
+
+6. The classification by centuries was also used for military
+purposes; the heavy armed infantry being selected from the richer
+classes; the light troops, whose arms and armour could be obtained at
+less expense, were levied among the lower centuries.
+
+7. In order to ascertain the increase or decay of his subjects, and
+their fortunes, he instituted another regulation, which he called a
+_lustrum_. By this, all the citizens were to assemble in the Cam'pus
+Mar'tius,[2] in complete armour, and in their respective classes, once
+in five years, and there to give an exact account of their families
+and fortune.
+
+8. Having enjoyed a long reign, spent in settling the domestic policy
+of the state, and also not inattentive to foreign concerns, he
+conceived reasonable hopes of concluding it with tranquillity and
+ease. He even had thoughts of laying down his power; and, having
+formed the kingdom into a republic, to retire into obscurity; but so
+generous a design was frustrated ere it could be put into execution.
+
+9. In the beginning of his reign, to secure the throne by every
+precaution, he had married his two daughters to the two grandsons of
+Tarquin; and as he knew that the women, as well as their intended
+husbands, were of opposite dispositions, he resolved to cross their
+tempers, by giving each to him of a contrary turn of mind; her that
+was meek and gentle to him that was bold and furious; her that was
+ungovernable and proud, to him that was remarkable for a contrary
+character; by this he supposed that each would correct the failings of
+the other, and that the mixture would be productive of concord. 10.
+The event, however, proved otherwise. Lu'cius, the haughty son-in-law,
+soon grew displeased with the meekness of his consort, and placed his
+whole affections upon his brother's wife, Tul'lia, who answered his
+passion with sympathetic ardour. As their wishes were ungovernable,
+they soon resolved to break through every restraint that
+prevented their union; they both undertook to murder their respective
+consorts; they succeeded, and were soon after married together. 11. A
+first crime ever produces a second; from the destruction of their
+consorts, they proceeded to conspiring that of the king. They began by
+raising factions against him, alleging his illegal title to the crown,
+and Lu'cius claiming it as his own, as heir to Tarquin. At length,
+when he found the senate ripe for seconding his views, he entered the
+senate-house, adorned with all the ensigns of royalty, and, placing
+himself upon the throne, began to harangue them on the obscurity of
+the king's birth, and the injustice of his title. 12. While he was yet
+speaking, Ser'vius entered, attended by a few followers, and seeing
+his throne thus rudely invaded, offered to push the usurper from his
+seat; but Tarquin, being in the vigour of youth, threw the old king
+down the steps which led to the throne; some of his adherents, who
+were instructed for that purpose, followed him, as he was feebly
+attempting to get to the palace, dispatched him by the way, and threw
+his body, all mangled and bleeding, as a public spectacle, into the
+street. 13. In the mean time, Tul'lia, burning with impatience for the
+event, was informed of what her husband had done, and, resolving to be
+among the first who should salute him as monarch, ordered her chariot
+to the senate-house. But as her charioteer approached the place where
+the body of the old king, her father, lay exposed and bloody; the man,
+amazed at the inhuman spectacle, and not willing to trample upon it
+with his horses, offered to turn another way; this serving only to
+increase the fierceness of her anger, she threw the foot-stool at his
+head, and ordered him to drive over the body without hesitation.[3]
+
+14. This was the end of Ser'vius Tul'lius, a prince of eminent justice
+and moderation, after an useful and prosperous reign of forty-four
+years.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What effect had the murder of Tarquin on his subjects?
+
+2. By what means was the succession assured to Servius Tullius?
+
+3. Who was Servius?
+
+4. What was the chief object of his reign?
+
+5. What was the nature of the change made by Servius in the Roman
+constitution?
+
+6. Was the classification by centuries used for civil purposes only?
+
+7. What other important measure did he adopt?
+
+8. What hopes did he entertain in his old age?
+
+9. By what means did he hope to secure tranquil possession of the
+throne?
+
+10. How was it that the event failed to answer his expectations?
+
+11. To what farther crimes did the commencement lead?
+
+12. What followed?
+
+13. What was the conduct of his daughter on this melancholy occasion?
+
+14. What was the character of Servius, and how long did he reign?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] A flame of fire gliding about without doing any harm.
+
+[2] A large plain at Rome, without the walls of the city, where the
+Roman youth performed their exercises. Cam'pus is the Latin word for
+field; and this field or plain was called Mar'tius, because it was
+dedicated to Mars, the god of war.
+
+[3] The blood of the good old king is said to have dyed the chariot
+wheels, and even the clothes of the inhuman daughter; from that time
+the street where it happened was called _vicus sceleratus_, the wicked
+or accursed street.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF SERVIUS TULLIUS TO THE BANISHMENT OF TARQUINIUS
+SUPERBUS THE SEVENTH AND LAST KING OF ROME U.C. 220.
+
+  A nobler spirit warm'd
+  Her sons; and roused by tyrants, nobler still
+  It burn'd in Brutus.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. LU'CIUS TARQUIN'IUS, afterwards called Super'bus, or the Proud,
+having placed himself upon the throne, in consequence of this horrid
+deed, was resolved to support his dignity with the same violence with
+which it was acquired. Regardless of the senate or the people's
+approbation, he seemed to claim the crown by an hereditary right, and
+refused burial to the late king's' body, under pretence of his being
+an usurper. 2. All the good part of mankind, however, looked upon his
+accession with detestation and horror: and this act of inefficient
+cruelty only served to confirm their hatred. 3. Conscious of this, he
+ordered all such as he suspected to have been attached to Ser'vius, to
+be put to death; and fearing the natural consequences of his tyranny,
+he increased the guard round his person.
+
+4. His chief policy seems to have been to keep the people always
+employed either in wars or public works, by which means he diverted
+their attention from his unlawful method of coming to the crown. He
+first marched against the Sab'ines, who refused to pay him obedience;
+and he soon reduced them to submission. 5. In the meantime, many of
+the discontented patricians, abandoning their native country, took
+refuge in Ga'bii, a city of Latium, about twelve miles from Rome,
+waiting an opportunity to take up arms, and drive Tarquin from his
+throne. To escape this danger. Tarquin had recourse to the following
+stratagem. 6. He caused his son Sextus to counterfeit desertion, upon
+pretence of barbarous usage, and to seek refuge among the inhabitants
+of the place. There, by artful complaints and studied lamentations,
+Sextus so prevailed upon the pity of the people, as to be chosen their
+governor, and, soon after, general of their army. 7. At first, in
+every engagement, he appeared successful; till, at length, finding
+himself entirely possessed of the confidence of the state, he sent a
+trusty messenger to his father for instructions. Tarquin made no
+answer; but taking the messenger to the garden, he cut down before him
+the tallest poppies. Sextus readily understood the meaning of this
+reply, and found means to destroy or remove, one by one, the principal
+men of the city; taking care to confiscate their effects among the
+people. 8. The charms of this dividend kept the giddy populace blind
+to their approaching ruin, till they found themselves at last without
+counsellors or head; and, in the end, fell under the power of Tarquin,
+without even striking a blow.[1]
+
+9. But, while he was engaged in wars abroad, he took care not to
+suffer the people to continue in idleness at home. He undertook to
+build the Capitol, the foundation of which had been laid in a former
+reign; and an extraordinary event contributed to hasten the execution
+of his design. A woman, in strange attire, made her appearance at
+Rome, and came to the king, offering to sell nine books, which, she
+said, were of her own composing. 10. Not knowing the abilities of the
+seller, or that she was, in fact, one of the celebrated _Sybils_,
+whose prophecies were never found to fail, Tarquin refused to buy
+them. Upon this she departed, and burning three of her books, returned
+again, demanding the same price for the six remaining. 11. Being once
+more despised as an impostor, she again departed, and burning three
+more, she returned with the remaining three, still asking the same
+price as at first. Tarquin, surprised at the inconsistency of her
+behaviour, consulted the augurs, to be advised what to do. These much
+blamed him for not buying the nine, and commanded him to take the
+three remaining, at whatsoever price they were to be had. 12. The
+woman, says the historian, after thus selling and delivering the three
+prophetic volumes, and advising him to have a special attention to
+what they contained, vanished from before him, and was never seen
+after. A trick this, invented probably by Tarquin himself, to impose
+upon the people; and to find in the Sybil's leaves whatever the
+government might require. However this was, he chose proper persons to
+keep them, who, though but two at first, were afterwards increased to
+fifteen, under the name of _Quindecemviri_. The important volumes were
+put into a stone chest, and a vault in the newly designed building was
+thought the properest place to secure them.[2]
+
+13. The people, having been now for four years together employed in
+building the Capitol, began, at last, to wish for something new to
+engage them; Tarquin, therefore, to satisfy their wishes, proclaimed
+war against the Ru'tuli, upon a frivolous pretence of their having
+entertained some malefactors, whom he had banished; and invested their
+chief city, Ar'dea, which lay about sixteen miles from Rome. 14. While
+the army was encamped before this place, the king's son Sextus
+Tarquinius, Collati'nus a noble Roman, and some others, sitting in a
+tent drinking together, the discourse turned upon wives, each man
+preferring the beauty and virtue of his own. Collati'nus offered to
+decide the dispute by putting it to an immediate trial, whose wife
+should be found possessed of the greatest beauty, and most sedulously
+employed at that very hour: being heated with wine, the proposal was
+relished by the whole company; and, taking horse without delay, they
+posted to Rome, though the night was already pretty far advanced.
+
+15. There they found Lucre'tia, the wife of Collati'nus, not like the
+other women of her age, spending the time in ease and luxury, but
+spinning in the midst of her maids, and cheerfully portioning out
+their tasks. Her modest beauty, and the easy reception she gave her
+husband and his friends, so charmed them all, that they unanimously
+gave her the preference, but kindled, in the breast of Sextus
+Tarquin'ius, a detestable passion, which occasioned the grossest
+insult and injury to Lucre'tia, who, detesting the light, and
+resolving to destroy herself for the crime of another, demanded her
+husband Collati'nus, and Spu'rius, her father, to come to her; an
+indelible disgrace having befallen the family. 16. They instantly
+obeyed the summons, bringing with them Valerius, a kinsman of her
+father, and Junius Bru'tus, a reputed idiot, whose father Tarquin had
+murdered, and who had accidentally met the messenger by the way. 17.
+Their arrival only served to increase Lucre'tia's poignant anguish;
+they found her in a state of the deepest desperation, and vainly
+attempted to give her relief. After passionately charging Sextus
+Tarquin'ius with the basest perfidy towards her husband and injury to
+herself, she drew a poinard from beneath her robe, and instantly
+plunging it into her bosom, expired without a groan. 18. Struck with
+sorrow, pity, and indignation, Spu'rius and Collati'nus gave vent to
+their grief; but Bru'tus, drawing the poinard, reeking, from
+Lucre'tia's wound, and lifting it up towards heaven, "Be witness, ye
+gods," he cried, "that, from this moment, I proclaim myself the
+avenger of the chaste Lucretia's cause; from this moment I profess
+myself the enemy of Tarquin and his wicked house; from henceforth this
+life, while life continues, shall be employed in opposition to
+tyranny, and for the happiness and freedom of my much-loved country."
+19. A new amazement seized the hearers: he, whom they had hitherto
+considered as an idiot, now appearing, in his real character, the
+friend of justice, and of Rome. He told them, that tears and
+lamentations were unmanly, when vengeance called so loudly; and,
+delivering the poinard to the rest, imposed the same oath upon them
+which he himself had just taken.
+
+20. Ju'nius Brutus was the son of Marcus Ju'nius, who was put to death
+by Tarquin the Proud, and the grandson of Tarquin the elder. He had
+received an excellent education from his father, and had, from nature,
+strong sense and an inflexible attachment to virtue; but knowing that
+Tarquin had murdered his father and his eldest brother, he
+counterfeited a fool, in order to escape the same danger, and thence
+obtained the surname of Bru'tus. Tarquin, thinking his folly real,
+despised the man; and having possessed himself of his estate, kept him
+as an idiot in his house, merely with a view of making sport for his
+children.
+
+21. Brutus, however, only waited this opportunity to avenge the cause
+of his family. He ordered Lucre'tia's dead body to be brought out
+to view, and exposing it in the public forum, inflamed the ardour of
+the citizens by a display of the horrid transaction. He obtained a
+decree of the senate, that Tarquin and his family should be for ever
+banished from Rome, and that it should be capital for any to plead
+for, or to attempt his future return. 22. Thus this monarch, who had
+now reigned twenty-five years, being expelled his kingdom, went to
+take refuge with his family at Ci'ra, a little city of _Etru'ria_. In
+the mean time the Roman army made a truce with the enemy, and Bru'tus
+was proclaimed deliverer of the people.
+
+Thus ended with Tarquin, after a continuance of two hundred and
+forty-five years, the regal state of Rome.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the conduct of Lucius Tarquinius at the commencement of
+his reign?
+
+2. Was his claim quietly acquiesced in?
+
+3. What means did he adopt for his security?
+
+4. By what means did he divert the people's attention from the
+unlawful manner in which he acquired the crown?
+
+5. What happened in the mean time?
+
+6. To what mean artifice did he have recourse?
+
+7. How did Sextus accomplish his father's design?
+
+8. What were the effects of this measure?
+
+9. In what way did he employ his subjects at home during his absence,
+and what extraordinary event occurred?
+
+10. Did he accept her offer?
+
+11. Was her second application successful, and what followed?
+
+12. What became of the Sybil, and what is the general opinion
+respecting this transaction?
+
+13. Upon what pretence did Tarquin proclaim war against the Rutuli?
+
+14. What remarkable event took place at the siege of Ardea?
+
+15. What was the consequence of this intemperate frolic?
+
+16. How did Lucretia support the loss of her honour?
+
+17. Did they obey her summons, and who did they bring with them?
+
+18. What was the consequence of their arrival?
+
+19. What effect had this dreadful catastrophe on those present?
+
+20. How was this unexpected resolution received?
+
+21. Give some account of Brutus.
+
+22. For what reason, and by what means, did Brutus endeavour the
+abolition of royalty?
+
+23. What became of Tarquin after his expulsion?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] This story is manifestly a fiction formed from the Greek
+traditions respecting Zopy'nus and Thrasybu'lus. It is decisively
+contradicted by the fact, that a treaty for the union of the Romans
+and Gabians, on equitable terms, was preserved in the Capitol. It was
+painted on a shield covered with the hide of the bull which had been
+sacrificed at the ratification of the league.
+
+[2] The Capitol, or temple of Jupiter Capitoli'nus.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE COMMONWEALTH.
+
+FROM THE BANISHMENT OF TARQUIN TO THE APPOINTMENT OF THE
+DICTATOR--U.C. 245.
+
+  The great republic seek that glowed, sublime,
+  With the mixt freedom of a thousand states.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. The regal power being overthrown, a republican form of government
+was substituted in its room. The senate, however, reserved by far the
+greatest share of the authority to themselves, and decorated their own
+body with all the spoils of deposed monarchy. The centuries of the
+people chose from among the senators, instead of a king, two annual
+magistrates, whom they called CONSULS,[1] with power equal to that of
+the regal, and with the same privileges and the same ensigns of
+authority.
+
+2. Brutus, the deliverer of his country, and Collati'nus, the husband
+of Lucre'tia, were chosen the first consuls in Rome.
+
+3. But this new republic, however, which seemed so grateful to the
+people, had like to have been destroyed in its very commencement. A
+party was formed in favour of Tarquin. Some young men of the principal
+families in the state, who had been educated about the king, and had
+shared in all the luxuries and pleasures of the court, undertook to
+re-establish monarchy. 4. This party secretly increased every day; and
+what may create surprise, the sons of Bru'tus himself, and the
+Aqui'lii, the nephews of Collati'nus, were among the number, 5.
+Tarquin, who was informed of these intrigues in his favour, sent
+ambassadors from Etru'ria to Rome, under a pretence of reclaiming the
+estates of the exiles; but, in reality, with a design to give spirit
+to his faction. 6. The conspiracy was discovered by a slave who had
+accidentally hid himself in the room where the conspirators used to
+assemble. 7. Few situations could have been more terribly affecting
+than that of Bru'tus: a father placed as a judge upon the life and
+death of his own children, impelled by justice to condemn, and by
+nature to spare them. 8. The young men pleaded nothing for themselves;
+but, with conscious guilt, awaited their sentence in silence and
+agony. 9. The other judges who were present felt all the pangs of
+nature; Collati'nus wept, and Vale'rius could not repress his
+sentiments of pity. Brutus, alone, seemed to have lost all the
+softness of humanity; and, with a stern countenance and a tone of
+voice that marked his gloomy resolution, demanded of his sons if they
+could make any defence, to the crimes with which they had been
+charged. This demand he made three several times; but receiving no
+answer, he at length turned himself to the executioner: "Now," cried
+he, "it is your part to perform the rest." 10. Thus saying, he again
+resumed his seat with an air of determined majesty; nor could all the
+sentiments of paternal pity, the imploring looks of the people, nor
+yet the tears of his sons, who were preparing for execution, alter the
+tenor of his resolution. Bru'tus, unmoved by any motive but the public
+good, pronounced upon them the sentence of death, and by his office
+was obliged to see it put in execution. The prisoners were scourged
+and then beheaded, and Bru'tus beheld the cruel spectacle; but, in
+spite of his stoic firmness, could not stifle the sentiments of nature
+which he sacrificed to the necessity of his office.
+
+11. Tarquin's hopes of an insurrection in his favour being thus
+overset, he now resolved to force himself upon his former throne by
+foreign assistance. He prevailed upon the _Veians_ to assist him, and,
+with a considerable army, advanced towards Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 246.]
+
+12. The consuls were not remiss in preparations to oppose him.
+Vale'rius commanded the foot, and Bru'tus being appointed to head the
+cavalry, went out to meet him on the Roman border. 13. A'runs, the son
+of Tarquin, who commanded the cavalry for his father, seeing Bru'tus
+at a distance, resolved, by one great attempt, to decide the fate of
+the day before the engaging of the armies, when, spurring his horse he
+flew to him with fury. Bru'tus perceived his approach, and singled out
+from the ranks, they met with such ungoverned rage, that, eager only
+to assail, and thoughtless of defending, they both fell dead upon the
+field together. 14. A bloody battle ensued, with equal slaughter on
+both sides: but the Romans, remaining in possession of the field of
+battle, claimed the victory. In consequence, Vale'rius returned in
+triumph to Rome.  15. In the mean time Tarquin, no way
+intimidated by his misfortunes, prevailed upon Porsen'na, one of the
+kings of Etruria, to espouse his cause, and in person to undertake his
+quarrel. 16. This prince, equally noted for courage and conduct
+marched directly to Rome, with a numerous army, and laid siege to the
+city; while the terror of his name and arms filled all ranks of the
+people with dismay The siege was carried on with vigour; a furious
+attack was made upon the place; the consuls opposed in vain, and were
+carried off wounded from the field; while the Romans, flying in great
+consternation, were pursued by the enemy to the bridge, over which
+both victors and vanquished were about to enter the city in the
+confusion. 17. All now appeared lost, when Hora'tius Co'cles, who had
+been placed there as sentinel to defend it, opposed himself to the
+torrent of the enemy, and, assisted only by two more, for some time
+sustained the whole fury of the assault, till the bridge was broken
+down behind him. When he found the communication thus cut off,
+plunging with his arms into the torrent of the Tiber, he swam back
+victorious to his fellow-soldiers, and was received with just
+applause.[2]
+
+18. Still, however, Porsen'na was determined upon taking the city; and
+though five hundred of his men were slain in a sally of the Romans, he
+reduced it to the greatest straits, and turning the siege into a
+blockade, resolved to take it by famine. 19. The distress of the
+besieged soon began to be insufferable, and all things seemed to
+threaten a speedy surrender, when another act of fierce bravery, still
+superior to that which had saved the city before again brought about
+its safety and freedom.
+
+20. Mu'tius, a youth of undaunted courage, was resolved to rid his
+country of an enemy that so continued to oppress it; and, for this
+purpose, disguised in the habit of an Etru'rian peasant, entered the
+camp of the enemy, resolving to die or to kill the king. 21. With this
+resolution he made up to the place where Porsen'na was paying his
+troops, with a secretary by his side; but mistaking the latter for the
+king, he stabbed him to the heart, and was immediately apprehended and
+brought into the royal presence. 22. Upon Porsen'na's demanding
+who he was, and the cause of so heinous an action, Mu'tius, without
+reserve, informed him of his country and his design, and at the same
+time thrusting his right hand into a fire that was burning upon the
+altar before him, "You see," cried he, "how little I regard the
+severest punishment your cruelty can inflict. A Roman knows not only
+how to act, but how to suffer; I am not the only person you have to
+fear; three hundred Roman youths, like me, have conspired your
+destruction; therefore prepare for their attempts." 23. Porsen'na,
+amazed at so much intrepidity, had too noble a mind not to acknowledge
+merit, though found in an enemy; he therefore ordered him to be safely
+conducted back to Rome, and offered the besieged conditions of
+peace.[3] 24. These were readily accepted on their side, being neither
+hard nor disgraceful, except that twenty hostages were demanded; ten
+young men, and as many virgins, of the best families in Rome. 25. But
+even in this instance also, as if the gentler sex were resolved to be
+sharers in the desperate valour of the times, Cle'lia, one of the
+hostages, escaping from her guards, and pointing out the way to the
+rest of her female companions, swam over the Tiber on horseback,
+amidst showers of darts from the enemy, and presented herself to the
+consul. 26. This magistrate, fearing the consequences of detaining
+her, sent her back; upon which Porsen'na, not to be outdone in
+generosity, not only gave her liberty, but permitted her to choose
+such of the hostages of the opposite sex as she should think fit, to
+attend her. 27. On her part, she, with all the modesty of a Roman
+virgin, chose only such as were under fourteen, alleging, that their
+tender age was least capable of sustaining the rigours of slavery.[4]
+28. The year after the departure of Porsen'na, the Sab'ines invading
+the Roman territories, committed great devastations. The war that
+ensued was long and bloody; but at length the Sab'ines were
+compelled to purchase a peace, with corn, money, and the cession of
+part of their territory.
+
+29. Tarquin, by means of his son-in-law, Man'lius, once more stirred
+up the Latins to espouse his interest, and took the most convenient
+opportunity when the plebeians were at variance with the senators
+concerning the payment of their debts.[5] These refused to go to war,
+unless their debts were remitted upon their return: so that the
+consuls, finding their authority insufficient, offered the people to
+elect a temporary magistrate, who should have absolute power, not only
+over all ranks of the state, but even over the laws themselves. To
+this the plebeians readily consented, willing to give up their own
+power for the sake of abridging that of their superiors. 30. In
+consequence of this, Lar'tius was created the first dictator of Rome,
+for so was this high office called, being nominated to it by his
+colleague in the consulship. 31. Thus the people, who could not bear
+the very name of king, readily submitted to a magistrate possessed of
+much greater power; so much do the names of things mislead us, and so
+little is any form of government irksome to the people, when it
+coincides with their prejudices.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What form of government was substituted for the regal?
+
+2. Who were the first consuls?
+
+3. Did this new government appear stable at its commencement?
+
+4. Was this party formidable, and who were the most remarkable of its
+members?
+
+5. What share had Tarquin in this conspiracy?
+
+6. By what means was it discovered?
+
+7. In what unhappy situation was Brutus placed?
+
+8. What had the criminals to say in extenuation of their offences?
+
+9. What effect had this scene on the judges?
+
+10. Did not paternal affection cause him to relent?
+
+11. What measures did Tarquin next pursue?
+
+12. What steps were taken to resist him?
+
+13. What remarkable event attended the meeting of the armies?
+
+14. Did this decide the fate of the day?
+
+15. Did Tarquin relinquish his hopes?
+
+16. In what manner did Porsenna attempt the restoration of Tarquin?
+
+17. By what heroic action was the city saved?
+
+18. Did Porsenna persevere in his attempt?
+
+19. What was the consequence?
+
+20. What was this act of heroism?
+
+21. Did he succeed?
+
+22. What followed?
+
+23. How did Porsenna act on the occasion?
+
+24. Were these conditions accepted?
+
+25. What remarkable circumstance attended the delivery of the
+hostages?
+
+26. How did the consul act on the occasion?
+
+27. Whom did she choose?
+
+28. What happened after the departure of Porsenna?
+
+29. What measures did Tarquin next resort to?
+
+30. What was the consequence?
+
+31. What inference may be drawn from this?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] These were first called Prætors, next Judices, and afterwards
+Consuls: a Consulendo, from their consulting the good of the Common
+wealth. They had the royal ornaments, as the golden crown, sceptre,
+purple robes, lictors, and the ivory and curule chairs. The crowns and
+sceptres were, however, used only on extraordinary days of
+triumph.--See Introduction.
+
+[2] For this heroic act, Hora'tius was crowned on his return; his
+status was erected in the temple of Vulcan; as much land was given him
+as a plough could surround with a furrow in one day, and a tax was
+voluntarily imposed to make him a present in some degree suitable to
+the service he had performed.
+
+[3] From this time he obtained the additional name of Scævola, or
+left-handed, from his having lost the use of his right hand by the
+fire.
+
+[4] National pride induced the Romans to conceal the fact that the
+city was surrendered to Porsenna; Tacitus, however, expressly declares
+that it was, and Pliny informs us of the severe conditions imposed by
+the conqueror; one of the articles prohibited them from using iron
+except for the purposes of agriculture. Plutarch, in his Roman
+Questions, declares that there was a time when the Romans paid a tenth
+of their produce to the Etrurians, but that they were freed from the
+disgraceful tribute by Hercules; this tradition appears to refer to
+the conquest of the city by Porsenna.
+
+[5] Besides this, by his emissaries, he engaged the meaner sort of
+citizens and the slaves in a conspiracy. The former were, at an
+appointed time, to seize the ramparts, and the latter to murder their
+masters at the same instant. The gates were then to be opened to the
+Tar'quins, who were to enter Rome while it was yet reeking with the
+blood of the senators. This conspiracy was discovered to the consul by
+two of Tarquin's principal agents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+FROM THE CREATION OF THE DICTATOR TO THE ELECTION OF THE
+TRIBUNES.--U.C. 255.
+
+  And add the Tribunes, image of the people--_Anon_.
+
+1. LAR'TIUS, being created dictator,[1] entered upon his office,
+surrounded with lictors and all the ensigns of ancient royalty; and,
+seated upon a throne in the midst of the people, ordered the levies to
+be made, in the manner of the kings of Rome. 2. The populace looked
+with terror upon a magistrate whom they had invested with
+uncontrollable power, and each went peaceably to range himself under
+his respective standard. 3. Thus going forth to oppose the enemy, he,
+after concluding a truce for a year, returned with his army, and, in
+six months, laid down the dictatorship, with the reputation of having
+exercised it with blameless lenity.
+
+4. But, though for this time the people submitted to be led forth,
+they yet resolved to free themselves from the yoke; and, though
+they could not get their grievances redressed, yet they determined to
+fly from those whom they could not move to compassion. The grievances,
+therefore, continuing, they resolved to quit a city which gave them no
+shelter, and to form a new establishment without its limits. They,
+therefore, under the conduct of a plebe'ian, named Sicin'ius
+Bellu'tus, retired to a mountain, hence called the Mons Sacer, within
+three miles of Rome.
+
+5. Upon the news of this defection, the city was filled with tumult
+and consternation: those who wished well to the people made every
+attempt to scale the walls, in order to join it.[2] 6. The senate was
+not less agitated than the rest; some were for violent measures, and
+repelling force by force; others were of opinion that gentler arts
+were to be used, and that even a victory over such enemies would be
+worse than a defeat. At length, it was resolved to send a messenger,
+entreating the people to return home, and declare their grievances;
+promising, at the same time, an oblivion of all that had passed.
+
+7. This message not succeeding, Mene'nias Agrip'pa, one of the wisest
+and best of the senators, was of opinion, that the demands of the
+people were to be complied with. It was resolved, therefore, to enter
+into a treaty, and to make them such offers as should induce them to
+return. 8. Ten commissioners were deputed. The dignity and popularity
+of the ambassadors procured them a very respectful reception among the
+soldiers, and a conference began. They employed all their oratory;
+while Sicin'ius and Lu'cius Ju'nius, who were speakers for the
+soldiery, aggravated their distresses with all that masculine
+eloquence which is the child of nature.
+
+9. The conference had now continued for a long time, when Mene'nius
+Agrip'pa, who had been originally a plebe'ian himself, a shrewd man,
+and who, consequently, knew what kind of eloquence was most likely to
+please the people, addressed them with that celebrated fable of the
+body and the members, which is so finely told by Livy.[3]
+
+10. This fable, the application of which is obvious, had an
+instantaneous effect upon the people. They unanimously cried out, that
+Agrip'pa should lead them back to Rome; and were making preparations
+to follow him, when Lu'cius Junius withheld them; alleging, that
+though they ought gratefully to acknowledge the kind offers of the
+senate, yet they had no safeguard against their future resentments;
+that therefore it was necessary, for the security of the people, to
+have certain officers created annually from among themselves, who
+should have power to give redress to such of them as should be
+injured, and plead the cause of the community. 11. The people, who are
+generally of opinion with the last speaker,[4] highly applauded this
+proposal, with which, however, the commissioners had not power to
+comply; they, therefore, sent to Rome to take the instructions of the
+senate, who, distracted with divisions among themselves, and harassed
+by complaints from without, were resolved to have peace, at whatever
+price it should be obtained; accordingly, as if with one voice, they
+consented to the creation of these new officers, who were called
+_Tribunes[5] of the People_.
+
+12. The tribunes of the people were at first five in number, though
+afterwards their body was increased by five more. They were always
+annually elected by the people, and almost always from their body.
+They at first had their seats placed before the doors of the senate
+house, and, when called in, they were to examine every decree,
+annulling it by the word _Veto_, "I forbid it;" or confirming it by
+signing the letter _T_, which gave it validity. 13. This new office
+being thus instituted, all things were adjusted both on the one side
+and the other, and the people, after having sacrificed to the gods of
+the mountain, returned back once more in triumph to Rome.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the first acts of the dictator?
+
+2. Were his decrees peaceably obeyed?
+
+3. What were his exploits?
+
+4. Were the discontents of the people entirely appeased?
+
+5. How was the news of this defection received?
+
+6. What was its effect on the senate?
+
+7. Was this offer accepted?
+
+8. In what manner was this done, and how were they received?
+
+9. What was the result of this conference?
+
+10. What fable was addressed to the people?
+
+11. What effect did this apology produce?
+
+12. How was this obstacle removed?
+
+13. Who were the tribunes of the people, and what was their authority?
+
+14. Did this new regulation answer the desired end?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The power of the dictator was absolute; he could, of his own will,
+make peace or war, levy forces, lead them forth, disband them, and
+even dispense with the existing laws, at his pleasure, without
+consulting the senate.
+
+[2] The gates had been shut by order of the senate, to prevent further
+defection.
+
+[3] Titus Livius was born at Pad'ua (the ancient Patavi'nus) in the
+year of Rome, 695. He wrote the Roman history, from the foundation of
+the city to the year 744, in 140 books, of which only 35 remain and
+some of them are still imperfect. Though Livy was treated with great
+marks of respect by the emperor Augustus, in whose reign he
+flourished, yet he extolled Pompey so highly, that Augustus used to
+call him a Pompeian: and though he was by no means backward in
+bestowing praises on Brutus and Cassius, the enemies of Augustus, yet
+it did not interrupt their friendship. Livy died at his native city,
+in the fourth year of the reign of Tiberius, aged 76 years.
+
+[4] This is a severe satire upon the judgment of the multitude;
+indeed, it seems intended to show, that when the passions are appealed
+to, the judgment is not much consulted; and therefore, that little
+reliance ought to be placed on acts resulting from popular
+acclamation.
+
+[5] They were called tribunes, because chosen by the tribes. The first
+tribunes were L. Ju'nius Bru'tus, C. Sicin'ius Mellu'tus, Pub'lius
+Licin'ius, C. Licin'ius, and Sp. Ici'lius Ruga.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE CREATION OF THE TRIBUNES, TO THE APPOINTMENT OF THE
+DECEMVIRI--U.C. 260.
+
+  Welcome to Rome, renowned Coriolanus!--_Shakspeare_.
+
+1. During the late separation, all tillage had been entirely
+neglected, and a famine was the consequence the ensuing season. 2. The
+senate did all that lay in their power to remedy the distress; but the
+people, pinched with want and willing to throw the blame on any but
+themselves, ascribed the whole of their distress to the avarice of the
+patricians, who, having purchased all the corn, as was alleged,
+intended to indemnify themselves for the abolition of debts, by
+selling it out to great advantage. 3. But plenty soon after appeased
+them for a time. A fleet of ships, laden with corn, from Sicily, once
+more raised their spirits.
+
+4. But Coriola'nus[1] incurred their resentment, by insisting that the
+corn should not be distributed till the grievances of the senate were
+removed. For this, the tribunes summoned him to a trial before
+the people.
+
+[Illustration: Banishment of Coriola'nus.]
+
+5. When the appointed day was come, all persons were filled with the
+greatest expectations, and a vast concourse from the adjacent country
+assembled and filled the forum. Coriola'nus presented himself before
+the people, with a degree of intrepidity that merited better fortune.
+His graceful person, his persuasive eloquence, and the cries of those
+whom he had saved from the enemy, inclined the auditors to relent. 6.
+But, being unable to answer what was alleged against him to the
+satisfaction of the people, and utterly confounded with a new charge,
+of having embezzled the plunder of _Antium_, the tribunes immediately
+took the votes, and Coriola'nus was condemned to perpetual exile.
+
+7. This sentence against their bravest defender struck the senate with
+sorrow, consternation and regret. Coriola'nus alone, in the midst of
+the tumult, seemed an unconcerned spectator. 8. He returned home,
+followed by the lamentations of the most respectable senators and
+citizens, to take leave of his wife, his children, and his mother,
+Vetu'ria. Thus, recommending all to the care of Heaven, he left the
+city, without followers or fortune, to take refuge with Tullus
+At'tius,[2] a man of great power among the _Volsci_, who took him
+under his protection, and espoused his quarrel.
+
+9. Some pretence was necessary to induce the Volsci to break the
+league which had been made with Rome; and, for this purpose, Tullus
+sent many of his citizens thither, apparently for the purpose of
+seeing some games at that time celebrating; but gave the senate
+private information, that the strangers had dangerous intentions of
+burning the city. 10. This had the desired effect; the senate issued
+an order, that all strangers, whoever they were, should depart from
+Rome before sun-set. 11. This order Tullus represented to his
+countrymen as an infraction of the treaty, and procured an embassy to
+Rome, complaining of the breach, and redemanding all the territories
+belonging to the Volsci, of which they had been violently
+dispossessed; declaring war in case of refusal. This message, however,
+was treated by the senate with contempt. 12. War being, in
+consequence, declared on both sides, Coriola'nus and Tullus were made
+generals of the Volsci, and accordingly invaded the Roman territories,
+ravaging and laying waste all such lands as belonged to the plebeians,
+but letting those of the senators remain untouched. 13. In the mean
+time, the levies went on but slowly at Rome; the two consuls, who were
+re-elected by the people, seemed but little skilled in war, and even
+feared to encounter a general whom they knew to be their superior in
+the field. The allies also showed their fears, and slowly brought in
+their succours: so that Coriola'nus continued to take their towns one
+after the other. 14. Fortune followed him in every expedition, and he
+was now so famous for his victories, that the Volsci left their towns
+defenceless to follow him into the field. The very soldiers of his
+colleague's army came over to him, and would acknowledge no other
+general. 15. Thus finding himself unopposed in the field, and at the
+head of a numerous army, he at length invested the city of Rome
+itself, fully resolved to besiege it. 16. It was then the senate and
+the people unanimously agreed to send deputies to him, with proposals
+for his restoration, in case he would draw off his army. 17.
+Coriola'nus received these proposals at the head of his principal
+officers, and, with the sternness of a general that was to give the
+law, refused their offers.
+
+18. Another embassy was now sent, conjuring him not to exact from his
+native city aught but what became Romans to grant. Coriola'nus,
+however, naturally severe, still persisted in his former demands, and
+granted them only three days for deliberation. 19. In this exigence,
+all that was left to be done was another deputation, still more
+solemn than either of the former, composed of the pontiffs,
+priests, and augurs. These, clothed in their habits of ceremony, and
+with a grave and mournful deportment, issued from the city, and
+entered the camp of the conqueror: but all in vain, they found him
+severe and inflexible.
+
+[Illustration: Coriolanus yielding to the entreaties of his Mother.]
+
+20. When the people saw them return without success, they began to
+give up the commonwealth as lost. Their temples were filled with old
+men, with women and children, who, prostrate at the altars, put up
+their ardent prayers for the preservation of their country. Nothing
+was to be heard but anguish and lamentation; nothing to be seen but
+scenes of affright and distress. 21. At length it was suggested to
+them, that what could not be effected by the intercession of the
+senate, or the adjuration of the priests, might be brought about by
+the tears of a wife, or the commands of a mother. 22. This deputation
+seemed to be approved by all, and even the senate themselves gave it
+the sanction of their authority. Vetu'ria, the mother of Coriola'nus,
+at first hesitated to undertake so pious a work; knowing the
+inflexible temper of her son, and fearing only to show his
+disobedience in a new point of light, by his rejecting the commands of
+a parent; however, she at last undertook the embassy, and set forward
+from the city, accompanied by many of the principal matrons of Rome,
+with Volum'nia his wife, and his two children. 23. Coriola'nus, who at
+a distance discovered this mournful train of females, was resolved to
+give them a denial, and called his officers round him to be witnesses
+of his resolution; but, when told that his mother and his wife were
+among the number, he instantly came down from his tribunal to
+meet and embrace them. 24. At first, the women's tears and embraces
+took away the power of words, and the rough soldier himself, hardy as
+he was, could not refrain, from sharing their distress. Coriola'nus
+now seemed much agitated by contending passions; while his mother, who
+saw him moved, seconded her words by the most persuasive eloquence,
+that of tears: his wife and children hung around him, entreating for
+protection and pity: while the female train, her companions, added
+their lamentations, and deplored their own and their country's
+distress. 25. Coriola'nus for a moment was silent, feeling the strong
+conflict between honour and inclination; at length, as if roused from
+a dream, he flew to raise his mother, who had fallen at his feet,
+crying out, "O, my mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son!" He
+accordingly gave orders to draw off the army, pretending to the
+officers that the city was too strong to be taken. 26. Tullus, who had
+long envied Coriola'nus, was not remiss in aggravating the lenity of
+his conduct to his countrymen. Upon their return, Coriola'nus is said
+to have been slain by an insurrection of the people, and honourably
+buried, after a late and ineffectual repentance.
+
+27. Great and many were the public rejoicings at Rome upon the retreat
+of the Volscian army;[3] but they were clouded soon after by the
+intrigues of Spu'rius Cas'sius, who, wanting to make himself despotic
+by means of the people, was found guilty of a number of crimes, all
+tending towards altering the constitution; and was thrown headlong
+from the Tarpei'an rock,[4] by those very people whose interests he
+had endeavoured to extend.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the consequences of the late separation?
+
+2. What measures were taken to remedy these misfortunes, and to whom
+was the blame of them attributed?
+
+3. What happened to remove the popular discontent?
+
+4. What circumstances raised a fresh commotion?
+
+5. Did Coriolanus obey the summons?
+
+6. What was the issue of the trial?
+
+7. To what sensations did this sentence give rise?
+
+8. What circumstance attended his departure?
+
+9. In what manner did he commence his revenge?
+
+10. Was this information believed?
+
+11. What use did Tullus make of this order?
+
+12. To whom was the conduct of the war committed?
+
+13. Was this invasion vigorously opposed?
+
+14. Was Coriolanus uniformly successful?
+
+15. What did this good fortune induce him to undertake?
+
+16. What measures did the senate adopt on this emergency?
+
+17. How were these proposals received?
+
+18. Were they repeated?
+
+19. What was the next step adopted?
+
+20. Did the Romans boldly resolve to oppose force by force?
+
+21. What new expedient was proposed?
+
+22. Was this proposal adopted?
+
+23. What was the conduct of Coriola'nus on the occasion?
+
+24. Describe this interview.
+
+25. What was the result?
+
+26. Did the Volscians approve of this measure?
+
+27. What followed this happy deliverance?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+Like rigid Cincinnatus, nobly poor.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. The year following, the two consuls of the former year, Man'lius
+and Fa'bius, were cited by the tribunes to appear before the people.
+The Agra'rian law, which had been proposed some time before, for
+equally dividing the lands of the commonwealth among the people, was
+the object invariably pursued, and they were accused of having made
+unjustifiable delays in putting it off.
+
+2. The Agra'rian law was a grant the senate could not think of making
+to the people. The consuls, therefore, made many delays and excuses,
+till at length they were once more obliged to have recourse to a
+dictator; and they fixed upon Quintus Cincinna'tus, a man who had for
+some time, given up all views of ambition, and retired to his little
+farm, where the deputies of the senate found him holding the plough,
+and dressed in the mean attire of a labouring husbandman. 3. He
+appeared but little elevated with the addresses of ceremony, and the
+pompous habits they brought him; and, upon declaring to him the
+senate's pleasure, he testified rather a concern that his aid should
+be wanted. He naturally preferred the charms of a country retirement
+to the fatiguing splendors of office, and only said to his wife,
+as they were leading him away, "I fear, my Atti'lia, that for this
+year our little fields must remain unsown." 4. Then, taking a tender
+leave, he departed for the city, where both parties were strongly
+inflamed against each other. However, he resolved to side with
+neither; but, by a strict attention to the interests of his country,
+instead of gaining the confidence of faction, to seize the esteem of
+all. 5. Thus, by threats and well-timed submission, he prevailed upon
+the tribunes to put off their law for a time, and conducted himself so
+as to be a terror to the multitude whenever they refused to enlist,
+and their greatest encourager whenever their submission deserved it.
+6. Having, by these means, restored that tranquillity to the people
+which he so much loved himself, he again gave up the splendors of
+ambition, to enjoy it with a greater relish on his little farm.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 295.] 7. Cincinna'tus had not long retired from his
+office, when a fresh exigence of the state once more required his
+assistance; and the Æ'qui and the Vol'sci, who, although always
+worsted, were still for renewing the war, made new inroads into the
+territories of Rome. 8. Minu'tius, one of the consuls who succeeded
+Cincinna'tus, was sent to oppose them; but being naturally timid, and
+rather more afraid of being conquered than desirous of victory, his
+army was driven into a defile between two mountains, from which,
+except through the enemy, there was no egress. 9. This, however, the
+Æ'qui had the precaution to fortify, by which the Roman army was so
+hemmed in on every side, that nothing remained but submission to the
+enemy, famine, or immediate death. 10. Some knights who found means of
+getting away privately through the enemy's camp, were the first that
+brought the account of this disaster to Rome. 11. Nothing could exceed
+the consternation of all ranks of people when informed of it: the
+senate at first thought of the other consul; but not having sufficient
+experience of his abilities, they unanimously turned their eyes upon
+Cincinna'tus, and resolved to make him dictator. 12. Cincinna'tus, the
+only person on whom Rome could now place her whole dependence, was
+found, as before, by the messengers of the senate, labouring in his
+field with cheerful industry. 13. He was at first astonished at the
+ensigns of unbounded power, with which the deputies came to invest
+him; but still more at the approach of the principal of the senate,
+who came out to attend him.
+
+[Illustration: Cincinnatus called to the Dictatorship.]
+
+14. A dignity so unlooked for, however, had no effect upon the
+simplicity or integrity of his manners; and being now possessed of
+absolute power, and called upon to nominate his master of the horse,
+he chose a poor man named Tarqui'tius, one who, like himself, despised
+riches when they led to dishonour. Thus the saving a great nation was
+devolved upon a husbandman taken from the plough, and an obscure
+sentinel found among the dregs of the army. 15. Upon entering the
+city, the dictator put on a serene look, and entreated all those who
+were able to bear arms, to repair, before sunset, to the Cam'pus
+Mar'tius (the place where the levies were made) with necessary arms,
+and provisions for five days. 16. He put himself at the head of these,
+and, marching all night with great expedition, arrived early the next
+day within sight of the enemy. Upon his approach, he ordered his
+soldiers to raise a loud shout, to apprise the consul's army of the
+relief that was at hand. 17. The Æ'qui were not a little amazed when
+they saw themselves between two enemies; but still more when they
+perceived Cincinna'tus making the strongest entrenchments beyond them,
+to prevent their escape, and enclosing them as they had enclosed the
+consul. 18. To prevent this, a furious combat ensued; but the Æ'qui,
+being attacked on both sides, and unable longer to resist or fly,
+begged a cessation of arms. 19. They offered the dictator his own
+terms: he gave them their lives, and obliged them, in token of
+servitude, to pass under the yoke, which was two spears set upright,
+and another across, in the form of a gallows, beneath which the
+vanquished were to march. Their captains and generals he made
+prisoners of war, being reserved to adorn his triumph. 20. As
+for the plunder of the enemy's camp, that he gave entirely up to his
+own soldiers, without reserving any part for himself, or permitting
+those of the delivered army to have a share. 21. Thus having rescued a
+Roman army from inevitable destruction, having defeated a powerful
+enemy, having taken and fortified their city, and still more, having
+refused any part of the spoil, he resigned his dictatorship, after
+having enjoyed it but fourteen days. The senate would have enriched
+him, but he declined their proffers, choosing to retire once more to
+his farm and his cottage, content with competency and fame.
+
+22. But this repose from foreign invasion did not lessen the tumults
+of the city within. The clamours for the Agra'rian law still
+continued, and still more fiercely, when Sic'cius Denta'tus, a
+plebeian advanced in years, but of an admirable person and military
+deportment, came forward to enumerate his hardships and his merits.
+This old soldier made no scruple of extolling the various achievements
+of his youth; indeed, his merits more than supported his ostentation.
+23. He had served his country in the wars forty years: he had been an
+officer thirty, first a centurion, and then a tribune; he had fought
+one hundred and twenty battles, in which, by the force of his single
+arm, he had saved a multitude of lives; he had gained fourteen
+civic,[5] three mural,[6] and eight golden crowns; besides
+eighty-three chains, sixty bracelets, eighteen gilt spears, and
+twenty-three horse-trappings, whereof nine were for killing the enemy
+in single combat; moreover, he had received forty-five wounds in
+front, and none behind. 24. These were his honours; yet,
+notwithstanding all these, he had never received any share of those
+lands which were won from the enemy, but continued to drag on a life
+of poverty and contempt, while others were possessed of those very
+territories which his valour had won, without any merit to deserve
+them, or ever having contributed to the conquest.[7] 25. A case
+of so much hardship had a strong effect upon the multitude; they
+unanimously demanded that the law might be passed, and that such merit
+should not go unrewarded. It was in vain that some of the senators
+rose up to speak against it, their voices were drowned by the cries of
+the people. 26. When reason, therefore, could no longer be heard,
+passion, as usual, succeeded; and the young patricians, running
+furiously into the throng, broke the balloting urns, and dispersed the
+multitude that offered to oppose them. 27. For this they were, some
+time after, fined by the tribunes; their resolution, however, for the
+present, put off the Agra'rian law.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. On what accusation were Manlius and Fabius cited to appear before,
+the people?
+
+2. What measure did the consuls adopt? Where, and in what employment
+was Cincinnatus found?
+
+3. What effect had this dignity on Cincinnatus?
+
+4. How did he conduct himself?
+
+5. Were his measures successful?
+
+6. Did Cincinnatus continue in office?
+
+7. Was he permitted to continue in retirement?
+
+8. What was the exigence that required his return to office?
+
+9. What prevented the Romans from forcing their way through?
+
+10. How was this news received at Rome?
+
+11. Whom did they resolve to appoint dictator?
+
+12. How was Cincinnatus now employed when the messengers arrived?
+
+13. What was his behaviour on the occasion?
+
+14. How was he affected by this exaltation?
+
+15. What were his first measures?
+
+16. What followed?
+
+17. How were the enemy affected by his approach?
+
+18. What was the consequence?
+
+19. What were the terms of peace?
+
+20. What became of the plunder?
+
+21. What were his rewards for this important service?
+
+22. Was domestic tranquillity the consequence of foreign conquest?
+
+23. What were these achievements?
+
+24. How was he rewarded?
+
+25. What was the consequence of his appeal to the people?
+
+26. Did the people obtain their demand?
+
+27. How was this outrage punished?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] This man's name was originally Ca'ius Mar'cius. He received the
+surname of Coriola'nus as a reward for having, by his valour,
+occasioned the taking of Cori'oli, the capital of the Vol'sci.
+Previous to the occurrence mentioned in the text, he had been
+condemned to death by the tribunes, but saved by the interference of
+his friends.
+
+[2] Tullus At'tius was a most determined enemy to the Romans, and to
+Coriola'nus in particular, for the share he had in humbling the power
+of the Vol'sci. It was probably more from a hope of revenge, by means
+of this valiant soldier, than any noble principle, that he offered him
+his countenance and protection.
+
+[3] The senate commanded a temple to be erected on the spot where the
+interview between Coriola'nus and his mother took place, which saved
+Rome, and dedicated it to maternal influence?
+
+[4] Tarpe'ian Rock, or Tarpei'us Mons, a hill at Rome, about eighty
+feet in perpendicular height, whence the Romans threw down their
+condemned criminals.
+
+[5] A civic crown among the Romans, was made of oaken leaves, and
+given to those who had saved the life of a citizen.
+
+[6] A mural crown was an honorary reward, given by the ancient Romans
+to the soldiers who first scaled the walls of an enemy's city.
+
+[7] "These military toys," said he, "are the only rewards I have
+hitherto received. No lands, no share of the conquered countries.
+Usurpers, without any title but that of a patrician extraction,
+possess them. Is this to be endured? Shall they alone possess the
+fruits of our conquests? The purchase of our blood?"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE CREATION OF THE DECEMVIRI TO THE EXTINCTION OF THAT
+OFFICE.--U.C. 302.
+
+  She's gone, forever gone! The king of terrors
+  Lays his rude hands upon her lovely limbs.
+  And blasts her beauty with his icy breath.--_Dennis_.
+
+1. The commonwealth of Rome had now, for nearly sixty years, been
+fluctuating between the contending orders that composed it, till at
+length each side, as if weary, was willing to respire awhile from the
+mutual exertions of its claims. The citizens, of every rank, began to
+complain of the arbitrary decisions of their magistrates, and wished
+to be guided by a written body of laws which, being known, might
+prevent wrongs, as well as punish them. 2. In this both the senate and
+the people concurred, as hoping that such laws would put an end to the
+commotions that so long had harassed the state. 3. It was thereupon
+agreed that ambassadors should be sent to the Greek cities in Italy,
+and to Athens, to bring home such laws from thence, as, by experience,
+had been found most equitable and useful. For this purpose three
+senators, Posthu'mus, Sulpi'cius, and Man'lius, were fixed upon, and
+galleys assigned to convoy them, agreeably to the majesty of the Roman
+people. 4. While they were upon this commission abroad, a dreadful
+plague depopulated the city at home, and supplied the interval of
+their absence with other anxiety than that of wishes for their return.
+5. In about a year the plague ceased, and the ambassadors returned,
+bringing home a body of laws, collected from the most civilised states
+of Greece and Italy, which, being afterwards formed into ten tables,
+and two more being added, made that celebrated code, called, The Laws
+of the Twelve Tables.[1]
+
+6. The ambassadors were no sooner returned, than the tribunes required
+that a body of men should be chosen to digest their new laws into
+proper form, and to give weight to the execution of them. 7. After
+long debate, whether this choice should not be made from the people,
+as well as the patricians, it was at last agreed that ten of the
+principal senators should be elected, whose power, continuing for
+a year, should be equal to that of kings and consuls, and that without
+any appeal. 8. Thus the whole constitution of the state at once took a
+new form, and a dreadful experiment was about to be tried, of
+governing one nation by laws formed from the manners and customs of
+another.
+
+9. These _Decemviri_, being now invested with absolute power, agreed
+to take the reins of government by turns, each to administer justice
+for a day. 10. For the first year, they wrought with extreme
+application: and their work being finished, it was expected that they
+would be content to give up their office; but, having known the charms
+of power, they were unwilling to resign: they pretended that some laws
+were yet wanting to complete their design, and entreated the senate
+for a continuance in office; which request was readily granted.
+
+11. But they soon threw off the mask of moderation, and, regardless of
+the approbation of the senate or the people, resolved to continue,
+against all order, in the decemvirate. 12. A conduct so tyrannical
+produced discontents, and these were as sure to produce fresh acts of
+tyranny. The city was become almost a desert, with respect to all who
+had any thing to lose, and the rapacity of the decemvirs was then only
+discontinued when they wanted fresh subjects to exercise it upon. 13.
+In this state of slavery, proscription, and mutual distrust, not one
+citizen was found to strike for his country's freedom; these tyrants
+continued to rule without controul, being constantly guarded, not by
+the lictors alone, but by a numerous crowd of dependents, clients, and
+even patricians, whom their vices had confederated round them.
+
+14. In this gloomy situation of the state, the Æ'qui and Vol'sci,
+those constant enemies of the Romans, renewed their incursions, and,
+resolving to profit by the intestine divisions of the people, advanced
+within about ten miles of Rome.
+
+15. The decemviri, being in possession of all the military as well as
+of the civil power, divided their army into three parts; whereof one
+continued with Ap'pius in the city, to keep it in awe; the other two
+were commanded by his colleagues, and were led, one against the Æ'qui,
+and the other against the Vol'sci. 16. The Roman soldiers had now
+adopted a method of punishing the generals whom they disliked, by
+suffering themselves to be vanquished in the field. They put it
+in practice upon this occasion, and shamefully abandoned their camp
+upon the approach of the enemy, 17. Never was victorious news more
+joyfully received at Rome, than the tidings of this defeat; the
+generals, as is always the case, were blamed for the treachery of
+their men; some demanded that they should be deposed, others cried out
+for a dictator to lead the troops to conquest. 18. Among the rest, old
+Sic'cius Denta'tus, the tribune, spoke his sentiments with his usual
+openness; and, treating the generals with contempt, pointed out the
+faults of their discipline in the camp, and their conduct in the
+field. 19. Ap'pius, in the mean time, was not remiss in observing the
+dispositions of the people. Denta'tus, in particular, was marked out
+for vengeance; and, under pretence of doing him particular honour, he
+was appointed legate, and put at the head of the supplies which were
+sent from Rome, to reinforce the army. 20. The office of legate was
+held sacred among the Romans, as in it was united the authority of a
+general, with the reverence due to the priesthood. 21. Denta'tus, no
+way suspecting the design, went to the camp with alacrity, where he
+was received with all the external marks of respect. But the generals
+soon found means of indulging their desire of revenge. 22. He was
+appointed at the head of a hundred men to go and examine a more
+commodious place for encampment, as he had very candidly assured the
+commanders, that their present situation was wrong. 23. The soldiers,
+however, who were given as his attendants, were assassins; wretches
+who had long been ministers of the vengeance of the decemviri, and who
+had now engaged to murder him, though with all those apprehensions
+which his reputation (for he was called the Roman _Achilles_) might be
+supposed to inspire. 24. With these designs they led him into the
+hollow bosom of a retired mountain, where they began to set upon him
+behind. 25. Denta'tus too late perceived the treachery of the
+decemviri, and was resolved to sell his life as dearly as he could; he
+therefore set his back against a rock, and defended himself against
+those who pressed most closely. Though now grown old, he had still the
+remains of his former valour, and, with his own hand, killed no less
+than fifteen of the assailants, and wounded thirty. 26. The assassins
+now, therefore, terrified at his amazing bravery, showered their
+javelins upon him at a distance, all which he received in his shield
+with undaunted resolution.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Dentatus.]
+
+27. The combat, though so unequal in numbers, was managed for
+some time with doubtful success, till at length the assailants
+bethought themselves of ascending the rock, against which he stood,
+and pouring down stones upon him from above. 28. This succeeded: the
+old soldier fell beneath their united efforts; after having shown, by
+his death, that he owed to his fortitude, and not his fortune, that he
+had come off so many times victorious. 29. The decemviri pretended to
+join in the general sorrow for so brave a man, and decreed him a
+funeral with the first military honours; but their pretended grief,
+compared with their known hatred, only rendered them still more
+detestable to the people.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Of what did the Roman citizens complain, and what did they wish?
+
+2. Was this assented to by the nation at large?
+
+3. What means were adopted for this purpose?
+
+4. What happened during their absence?
+
+5. How long did this calamity last?
+
+6. What steps were taken on the return of the ambassadors?
+
+7. Who were chosen for this purpose?
+
+8. Was this proceeding an important one?
+
+9. In what manner did the decemviri govern?
+
+10. How did they discharge the duties of their office?
+
+11. Did they continue in the conscientious discharge of their duties?
+
+12. What was the consequence of this conduct?
+
+13. Was no patriot to be found bold enough to be a champion in his
+country's cause?
+
+14. What added to the miseries of the Romans?
+
+15. What steps were taken to oppose them?
+
+16. What was the conduct of the Roman soldiers on this occasion?
+
+17. How was this news received at Rome?
+
+18. Who appeared most conspicuous on this occasion?
+
+19. How was this honest sincerity received?
+
+20. Was the office of legate a respectable one?
+
+21. Did Dentatus suspect treachery?
+
+22. What plan of revenge was adopted?
+
+23. What was the character of his attendants?
+
+24. How did they commence their base design?
+
+25. Was Dentatus aware of their treachery, and what resistance did he
+make?
+
+26. Did the assassins boldly engage the hero?
+
+27. What new method of attack did they attempt?
+
+28. Was this plan successful?
+
+29. What was the conduct of the decemviri on this occasion?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  That chastity of look which seems to hang
+  A veil of purest light o'er all her beauties.
+  And, by forbidding, most inflames!--_Young_.
+
+1. But a transaction still more atrocious than the former, served to
+inspire the citizens with a resolution to break all measures of
+obedience, so as at last to restore freedom.
+
+2. Ap'pius, sitting one day on his tribunal to dispense justice, saw a
+maiden of exquisite beauty, aged about fifteen, passing to one of the
+public schools, attended by a matron, her nurse. The charms of the
+damsel, heightened by all the innocence of virgin modesty, caught his
+attention, and fired his heart. The day following, as she passed, he
+found her still more beautiful, and his breast still more inflamed. 3.
+He now, therefore, resolved to obtain the gratification of his
+passion, whatever should be the consequence, and found means to inform
+himself of the maiden's name and family. 4. Her name was Virgin'ia;
+she was the daughter of Virgin'ius, a centurion, then with the army in
+the field, and had been contracted to Icil'ius, formerly a tribune of
+the people, who had agreed to marry her at the end of the present
+campaign.
+
+5. Ap'pius at first resolved to break off this match, and to espouse
+her himself; but the laws of the Twelve Tables had forbidden the
+patricians to intermarry with the plebeians, and he could not infringe
+these, as he was the enactor of them. 6. He determined, therefore, to
+make her his slave. 7. After having vainly tried to corrupt the
+fidelity of her nurse, he had recourse to another expedient, still
+more wicked. He fixed upon one Clau'dius, who had long been the
+minister of his crimes, to assert that the beautiful maid was his
+slave, and to refer the cause to Ap'pius's tribunal for decision. 8.
+Clau'dius behaved exactly according to his instructions; for, taking
+with him a band of ruffians like himself, he entered into the public
+school, where Virginia was found among her female companions, and
+seizing upon her under pretence that she was the daughter of one of
+his slaves, was dragging her away, when he was prevented by the
+people, drawn together by her cries. 9. At length, after the first
+heat of opposition was over, he led the weeping virgin to the tribunal
+of Ap'pius, and there plausibly exposed his pretensions. 10. Clau'dius
+asserted that she was born in his house, of a female slave, who sold
+her to the wife of Virgin'ius, who had been childless. That he had
+credible evidences to prove the truth of what he had advanced; but
+that, until they could come together, it was but reasonable the slave
+should be delivered into his custody, he being her proper master. 11.
+Ap'pius pretended to be struck with the justice of his claim; he
+observed, that if the reputed father himself were present, he might
+indeed be willing to delay the delivery of the maid; but that it was
+not lawful for him, in the present case, to detain her from her
+master. He, therefore, adjudged her to Clau'dius, as his slave, to be
+kept by him till Virgin'ius should arrive, and be able to prove his
+paternity. 12. This sentence was received with loud clamours and
+reproaches by the multitude, particularly by the women, who came round
+the innocent Virgin'ia, desirous to protect her from the judge's fury;
+while Icil'ius, her lover, boldly opposed the decree, and obliged
+Clau'dius to take refuge under the tribunal of the decemvir. 13. All
+things now threatened an open insurrection, when Ap'pius, fearing the
+event, thought proper to suspend his judgment, under pretence of
+waiting the arrival of Virgin'ius, who was then about eleven miles
+from Rome, with the army. 14. The day following was fixed for the
+trial. In the mean time Ap'pius privately sent letters to the general
+to confine Virgin'ius, as his arrival in town might only serve to
+kindle sedition among the people. 15. These letters, however, being
+intercepted by the centurion's friends, they sent him a full relation
+of the design laid against his liberty and the honour of his only
+daughter. 16. Virgin'ius, upon this, pretending the death of a near
+relation, got permission to leave the camp, and hastened to Rome,
+inspired with indignation and revenge. 17. Accordingly, the next
+day, to the astonishment of Ap'pius, he appeared before the tribunal,
+leading his weeping daughter by the hand, both of them habited in deep
+mourning. 18. Clau'dius, the accuser, began by making his demand.
+Virgin'ius next spoke in turn: he represented, that, if he had had
+intentions of adopting a suppositious child, he should have fixed upon
+a boy rather than a girl; that it was notorious to all, that his wife
+had herself nursed this daughter; and that it was surprising such a
+claim should be made after a fifteen years' silence; and not till
+Virginia was become marriageable, and acknowledged to be exquisitely
+beautiful. 19. While the father spoke this, with a stern air, the eyes
+of all were turned on Virgin'ia, who stood trembling, with looks of
+persuasive eloquence and excessive grief, which added weight to his
+remonstrances, and excited compassion. 20. The people, satisfied of
+the cruelty of his case, raised an outcry, expressive of their
+indignation. 21. Ap'pius, fearing that what had been said might have a
+dangerous effect upon the multitude, and under a pretence of being
+sufficiently instructed in the merits of the cause, with rage
+interrupted him. "Yes," said he, "my conscience obliges me to declare,
+that I, myself, am a witness to the truth of the deposition of
+Clau'dius. Most of this assembly know that I was left guardian to him.
+I was early apprised that he had a right to this young slave; but
+public affairs, and the dissensions of the people, have prevented my
+doing him justice. However, it is not now too late; and by the power
+vested in me for the general good, I adjudge Virgin'ia to be the
+property of Clau'dius, the plaintiff. Go, therefore, lictors, disperse
+the multitude, and make room for the master to repossess himself of
+his slave." 22. The lictors, in obedience to his command, drove off
+the throng that pressed round the tribunal; they seized upon
+Virgin'ia, and were delivering her up into the hands of Clau'dius: the
+multitude were terrified and withdrew; and Virgin'ius, who found that
+all was over, seemed to acquiesce in the sentence. 22. He, however,
+mildly entreated of Ap'pius to be permitted to take a last farewell of
+a child whom he had at least considered as his own, and so satisfied,
+he would return to his duty with fresh alacrity. 24. Ap'pius granted
+the favour, upon condition that their endearments should pass in his
+presence. But Virgin'ius was then meditating a dreadful resolution.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Virginia.]
+
+25. The crowd made way, and Virgin'ius, with the most poignant
+anguish, taking his almost expiring daughter in his arms, for a while
+supported her head upon his breast, and wiped away the tears that
+trickled down her cheeks. 26. He most tenderly embraced her, and
+drawing her insensibly to some shops which were on the side of the
+forum, snatched up a butcher's knife: "My dearest lost child," cried
+Virgin'ius, "thus, thus alone is it in my power to preserve your
+honour and your freedom!" So saying, he plunged the weapon into her
+heart. Then drawing it out, reeking with her blood, he held it up to
+Ap'pius: "Tyrant," cried he, "by this blood I devote thy head to the
+infernal gods!" 27. Thus saying, and covered with his daughter's
+blood, the knife remaining in his hand, threatening destruction to
+whomsoever should oppose him, he ran through the city, wildly calling
+upon the people to strike for freedom. By the favour of the multitude
+he then mounted his horse, and rode directly to the camp.
+
+28. He no sooner arrived, followed by a number of his friends, than he
+informed the army of all that had been done, still holding the bloody
+knife in his hand. He asked their pardon and the pardon of the gods,
+for having committed so rash an action, but ascribed it to the
+dreadful necessity of the times. 29. The army, already predisposed to
+revolt by the murder of Denta'tus, and other acts of tyranny and
+oppression, immediately with shouts echoed their approbation, and
+decamping, left the generals behind, to take their station once more
+upon mount Aven'tine, whither they had retired about, forty years
+before. The other army, which had been to oppose the Sab'ines, felt a
+like resentment, and came over in large parties to join them.
+
+30. Ap'pius, in the mean time, did all he could to quell the
+disturbances in the city; but finding the tumult incapable of
+controul, and perceiving that his mortal enemies, Vale'rius and
+Hora'tius, were the most active in opposition, at first attempted to
+find safety by flight; nevertheless, being encouraged by Op'pius, who
+was one of his colleagues, he ventured to assemble the senate, and
+urged the punishment of all deserters. 31. The senate, however, was
+far from giving him the relief he sought for; they foresaw the dangers
+and miseries that threatened the state, in case of opposing the
+incensed army; they therefore despatched messengers to them, offering
+to restore their former mode of government. 32. To this proposal all
+the people joyfully assented, and the army gladly obeying, now
+returned to the city, if not with the ensigns, at least with the
+pleasure of a triumphant entry. 33. Ap'pius and Op'pius both died by
+their own hands in prison. The other eight decemvirs went into exile;
+and Clau'dius, the pretended master of Virgin'ia, was ignominiously
+banished.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Did the Romans tamely submit to the tyranny of the decemviri?
+
+2. Relate the particulars of this transaction.
+
+3. What resolution did Appius form?
+
+4. Who was this maiden?
+
+5. What was Appius's first determination?
+
+6. On what did he next resolve?
+
+7. To what means did he have recourse for the accomplishment of his
+purpose?
+
+8. Did Claudius undertake this base?
+
+9. Was the opposition of the people ultimately successful?
+
+10. How did Claudius attempt to make good his claims?
+
+11. What was the conduct of Appius on this occasion?
+
+12. How was this sentence received?
+
+13. What consequences were likely to ensue, and how were they averted?
+
+14. Was not this pretence a false one?
+
+15. By what means were his designs frustrated?
+
+16. Under what pretence did Virginius obtain leave of absence?
+
+17 What measures did he take on his arrival?
+
+18. How was the trial conducted?
+
+19. How did Virginia support this trying scene?
+
+20. What was the general opinion of the auditors?
+
+21. Did the arguments of Virginius induce Appius to forego his
+iniquitous designs?
+
+22. Were his commands obeyed?
+
+23. What was the request of Virginius?
+
+24. Was this favour granted?
+
+25. Describe this affecting scene?
+
+26. What was the catastrophe?
+
+27. What followed?
+
+28. What use did he make of this dreadful circumstance?
+
+29. What was the effect of his address on the army?
+
+30. How was Appius employed in the mean time?
+
+31. Did the senate second his designs?
+
+32. Did the people accede to this proposal?
+
+33. What was the fate of the tyrants?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+                        From the plough
+  Rose her dictators; fought, o'ercame return'd.
+  Yes, to the plough returned, and nail'd their peers.--_Dyer_.
+
+1. In the mean time, these intestine tumults produced weakness within
+the state, and confidence in the enemy abroad. The wars with the Æ'qui
+and the Vol'sci still continued; and, as each year some trifling
+advantage was obtained over the Romans, they, at last, advanced so
+far, as to make their incursions to the very walls of Rome.[2]
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 309]
+
+2. But not the courage only of the Romans, their other virtues also,
+particularly their justice, seemed diminished by these contests.
+
+3. The tribunes of the people now grew more turbulent; they proposed
+two laws: one to permit plebeians to intermarry with the patricians;
+and the other, to permit them to be admitted to the consulship also.
+4. The senators received these proposals with indignation, and seemed
+resolved to undergo the utmost extremities, rather than submit to
+enact these laws. However, finding their resistance only increased the
+commotions of the state, they, at last, consented to pass that
+concerning marriages, hoping that this concession would satisfy the
+people. 5. But they were to be appeased for a very short time only;
+for, returning, to their old custom of refusing to enlist upon the
+approach of an enemy, the consuls were obliged to hold a private
+conference with the chief of the senate, where, after many debates,
+Clau'dius proposed an expedient, as the most probable means of
+satisfying the people in the present conjuncture. 6. This was to
+create six or eight governors in the room of consuls, whereof one
+half, at least, should be patricians. 7. This project, which was, in
+fact, granting what the people demanded, pleased the whole meeting,
+and it was agreed, that the consuls should, contrary to their usual
+custom, begin by asking the opinion of the youngest senator. 8. Upon
+assembling the senate, one of the tribunes accused them of holding
+secret meetings, and managing dangerous designs against the people.
+The consuls, on the other hand, averred their innocence; and to
+demonstrate their sincerity, gave leave to any of the younger members
+of the house to propound their opinions. 9. These remaining silent,
+such of the older senators, as were known to be popular, began by
+observing that the people ought to be indulged in their request; that
+none so well deserved power, as those who were most instrumental in
+gaining it; and that the city could not be free until all were reduced
+to perfect equality. Clau'dius spoke next, and broke out into bitter
+invectives against the people; asserting that it was his opinion that
+the law should not pass. 10. This produced some disturbance among the
+plebeians; at length, Genu'tius proposed, as had been preconcerted,
+that six governors should be annually chosen, with consular authority;
+three from the senate, and three from the people; and that, when the
+time of their magistracy should be expired, it would be seen whether
+they would have the same office continued, or whether the consulship
+should be established upon its former footing. 11. This project was
+eagerly embraced by the people; yet so fickle were the multitude,
+that, though many of the plebeians stood candidates, the choice wholly
+fell upon the patricians who had offered themselves.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 310.]
+
+12. These new magistrates were called Military Tribunes; they were, at
+first, but three: afterwards they were increased to four, and at
+length to six; and they had the power and ensigns of consuls: yet,
+that power being divided among a number, each singly was of less
+authority. 13. The first that were chosen continued in office only
+about three months, the augurs having found something amiss in the
+ceremonies of their election.
+
+14. The military tribunes being deposed, the consuls once more came
+into office; and in order to lighten the weight of business which they
+were obliged to sustain, a new office was created; namely, that of
+Censors, who were to be chosen every fifth, year.[3] 15. Their
+business was to take an estimate of the number and estates of the
+people, and to distribute them into their proper classes: to inspect
+into the lives and manners of their fellow citizens; to degrade
+senators for misconduct; to dismount knights, and to remove plebeians
+from their tribes into an inferior class, in case of misdemeanor. 16.
+The first censors were Papir'ius and Sempro'nius, both patricians; and
+from this order censors continued to be elected for nearly a hundred
+years.
+
+17. This new creation served to restore peace for some time among the
+orders; and a triumph gained over the Vol'scians, by Gega'nius the
+consul, added to the universal satisfaction that reigned among the
+people.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 313.]
+
+18. This calm, however, was but of short continuance; for, some time
+after, a famine pressing hard upon the poor, the usual complaints
+against the rich were renewed; and these, as before, proving
+ineffectual, produced new seditions. 19. The consuls were accused of
+neglect, in not having laid in proper quantities of corn: they,
+however, disregarded the murmurs of the populace, content with using
+every exertion to supply the pressing necessity.[4] 20. But, though
+they did all that could be expected from active magistrates in
+procuring provisions, and distributing them to the poor: yet Spu'rius
+Mæ'lius, a rich knight, who had bought up all the corn of Tuscany, by
+far outshone them in liberality. 21. This demagogue, inflamed with a
+secret desire of becoming powerful by the contentions in the state,
+distributed corn in great quantities among the poorer sort each day,
+till his house became the asylum of all such as wished to exchange a
+life of labour for one of lazy dependence. 22. When he had thus gained
+a sufficient number of partisans, he procured large quantities of arms
+to be brought into his house by night, and formed a conspiracy, by
+which he was to obtain the command, while some of the tribunes, whom
+he had found means to corrupt, were to act under him, in seizing
+upon the liberties of his country. 23. Minu'tius soon discovered the
+plot, and, informing the senate, they immediately resolved to create a
+dictator, who should have the power of quelling the conspiracy without
+appealing to the people. 24. Cincinna'tus, who was now eighty years
+old, was chosen once more to rescue his country from impending danger.
+25. He began by summoning Mæ'lius to appear, who refused to obey. He
+next sent Aha'la, the master of the horse, to compel his attendance;
+when, meeting him in the forum, Aha'la, on his refusal, killed him
+upon the spot. The dictator applauded the resolution of his officer,
+and commanded the conspirator's goods to be sold, his house to be
+demolished, and his stores to be distributed among the people.[5]
+
+26. The tribunes of the people were much enraged at the death of
+Mæ'lius. In order, therefore, to punish the senate at the next
+election, instead of consuls, they insisted upon restoring the
+military tribunes, and the senate were obliged to comply.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 315.]
+
+The next year, however, the government returned to its ancient
+channel, and consuls were chosen.
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was the consequence of those intestine tumults related in the
+preceding section?
+
+2. Was it their courage only that was impaired by them?
+
+3. How did the tribunes conduct themselves?
+
+4. How were these proposals received?
+
+5. Did it answer the desired end?
+
+6. What expedient was resorted to?
+
+7. How was it received?
+
+8. What happened on assembling the senate?
+
+9. Did they avail themselves of this permission, and what farther
+passed on this occasion?
+
+10. Was his opinion agreeable to the people? What new proposition was
+offered by Genutius?
+
+11. Was this plan adopted and acted upon?
+
+12. What were the name, number, and powers of these new magistrates?
+
+13. How long did they continue in office?
+
+14. What government was substituted?
+
+15. What were the duties of the censors?
+
+16. Who were the first censors?
+
+17. What was the consequence of this new creation?
+
+18. Was this satisfaction lasting?
+
+19. How were the consuls affected by it?
+
+20, 21. Through what means did Spurius Manlius obtain credit for being
+more liberal than the consuls? And what was his real object?
+
+22. How did he proceed in his designs against the liberties of his
+country?
+
+23. By what means was the plot frustrated?
+
+24. Who was appointed dictator?
+
+25. What steps did he take?
+
+26. How were these rigorous measures received?
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+  Hence every passion, e'en the proudest, stoop'd
+  To common good; Camillus, thy revenge,
+  Thy glory, Fabius.--_Thomson._
+
+1. The Ve'ians had long been the rivals of Rome: they had even taken
+the opportunity of internal distresses to ravage its territories, and
+had even threatened its ambassadors sent to complain of these
+injuries, with outrage. 2. It seemed, now, therefore, determined that
+the city of Ve'ii, whatever it might cost, should fall; and the Romans
+accordingly sat down regularly before it, and prepared for a long and
+painful resistance. 3. The strength of the place may be inferred from
+the continuance of the siege, which lasted for ten years; during which
+time, the army continued encamped round it, lying, in winter, under
+tents made of the skins of beasts, and, in summer, driving on the
+operations of the attack. 4. Various were the successes, and many were
+the commanders that directed the siege; sometimes all their works were
+destroyed, and many of their men cut off by sallies from the town;
+sometimes they were annoyed by an army of Veians, who attempted to
+bring assistance from without. 5. A siege so bloody seemed to
+threaten depopulation to Rome itself, by a continual drain of its
+forces; so that a law was obliged to be made, for all bachelors to
+marry the widows of the soldiers who were slain. 6. Fu'rius Camil'lus
+was now created dictator, and to him was entrusted the sole power of
+managing the long protracted war. 7. Camil'lus, who, without intrigue
+or solicitation, had raised himself to the first eminence in the
+state, had been made one of the censors some time before, and was
+considered as the head of that office; he was afterwards made a
+military tribune, and had, in this post, gained several advantages
+over the enemy. 8. It was his great courage and abilities in the above
+offices that made him be thought most worthy to serve his country on
+this pressing occasion. 9. Upon his appointment, numbers of the people
+flocked to his standard, confident of success under so experienced a
+commander. 10. Conscious, however, that he was unable to take the city
+by storm, he, with vast labour, opened a passage under ground, which
+led into the very midst of the citadel. 11. Certain thus of success,
+and finding the city incapable of relief, he sent to the senate
+desiring, that all who chose to share in the plunder of Ve'ii, should
+immediately repair to the army. 12. Then, giving his directions how to
+enter at the breach, the city was instantly filled with his legions,
+to the amazement and consternation of the besieged, who, but a moment
+before, had rested in perfect security. 13. Thus, like a second
+Troy,[6] was the city of Ve'ii taken, after a ten years' siege, and,
+with its spoils, enriched the conquerors; while Camil'lus himself,
+transported with the honour of having subdued the rival of his native
+city, triumphed after the manner of the kings of Rome, having his
+chariot drawn by four milk-white horses; a distinction which did not
+fail to disgust the majority of the spectators, as they considered
+those as sacred, and more proper for doing honour to their gods than
+their generals.
+
+14. His usual good fortune attended Camil'lus in another expedition
+against the Falis'ci. He routed their army, and besieged their capital
+city Fale'rii, which threatened a long and vigorous resistance. 15.
+The reduction of this little place would have been scarcely worth
+mentioning in this scanty page, were it not for an action of the
+Roman general, that has done him more credit with posterity than all
+his other triumphs united. 16. A school-master, who had the care of
+the children belonging to the principal men in the city, having found
+means to decoy them into the Roman camp, offered to put them into the
+hands of Camil'lus, as the surest means of inducing the citizens to a
+speedy surrender. 17. The general, struck with the treachery of a
+wretch whose duty it was to protect innocence, and not to betray it,
+for some time regarded the traitor with a stern silence: but, at last,
+finding words, "Execrable villain!" cried the noble Roman, "offer thy
+abominable proposals to creatures like thyself, and not to me; what,
+though we are the enemies of your city, are there not natural ties
+that bind all mankind, which should never be broken? There are duties
+required from us in war, as well as in peace: we fight not against the
+age of innocence, but against men--men who have used us ill indeed;
+but yet, whose crimes are virtues, when compared to thine. Against
+such base acts, let it be my duty to use only the Roman ones--valour
+and arms." 18. So saying, he ordered him to be stript, his hands to be
+tied behind him, and, in that ignominious manner, to be whipped into
+the town by his own scholars. 19. This generous behaviour in Camil'lus
+effected more than his arms could do; the magistrates of the town
+submitted to the senate, leaving to Camil'lus the condition of their
+surrender; who only fined them a sum of money to satisfy the army, and
+received them under the protection, and into the alliance, of Rome.
+
+20. Notwithstanding the veneration which the virtues of Camil'lus had
+excited abroad, they seemed but little adapted to command the respect
+of the turbulent tribunes at home, who raised fresh accusations
+against him every day. 21. To the charge of being an opposer of their
+intended emigration from Rome to Ve'ii, they added that of his having
+concealed a part of the plunder of that city, particularly two brazen
+gates, for his own use; and appointed him a day on which to appear
+before the people. 22. Camil'lus, finding the multitude exasperated
+against him on many accounts, and detesting their ingratitude,
+resolved not to await the ignominy of a trial; but embracing his wife
+and children, prepared to depart from Rome. 23. He had already passed
+as far as one of the gates, unattended and unlamented. There he could
+suppress his indignation no longer, but, turning his face to the
+Capitol, and lifting up his hands to heaven, he entreated all the
+gods, that his countrymen might one day be sensible of their injustice
+and ingratitude. So saying, he passed forward to take refuge at
+Ar'dea, a town at a little distance from Rome, where he afterwards
+learned that he had been fined fifteen thousand ases[7] by the
+tribunes at Rome.
+
+24. The tribunes were not a little pleased with their triumphs over
+this great man; but they soon had reason to repent their injustice,
+and to wish for the assistance of one, who alone was able to protect
+their country from ruin: for now a more terrible and redoubtable enemy
+than the Romans had ever yet encountered, began to make their
+appearance. 25. The Gauls, a barbarous nation, had, about two
+centuries before, made an irruption from beyond the Alps, and settled
+in the northern parts of Italy. They had been invited over by the
+deliciousness of the wines, and the mildness of the climate. 26.
+Wherever they came they dispossessed the original inhabitants, as they
+were men of superior courage, extraordinary stature, fierce in aspect,
+barbarous in their manners, and prone to emigration. 27. A body of
+these, wild from their original habitations, was now besieging
+Clu'sium, a city of Etru'ria, under the conduct of Brennus, their
+king. 28. The inhabitants of Clu'sium, frightened at their numbers,
+and still more at their savage appearance, entreated the assistance,
+or, at least, the mediation of the Romans. 29. The senate, who had
+long made it a maxim never to refuse succour to the distressed, were
+willing, previously, to send ambassadors to the Gauls, to dissuade
+them from their enterprise, and to show the injustice of the
+irruption. 30. Accordingly, three young senators were chosen out of
+the family of the Fabii, to manage the commission, who seemed more
+fitted for the field than the cabinet. 31. Brennus received them with
+a degree of complaisance that argued but little of the barbarian, and
+desiring to know the business of their embassy, was answered,
+according to their instructions, that it was not customary in Italy to
+make war, but on just grounds of provocation, and that they desired to
+know what offence the citizens of Clu'sium had given to the king of
+the Gauls. 32. To this Brennus sternly replied, that the rights of
+valiant men lay in their swords; that the Romans themselves had no
+right to the many cities they, had conquered; and that he had
+particular reasons of resentment against the people of Clu'sium,
+as they refused to part with those lands, which they had neither hands
+to till, nor inhabitants to occupy. 33. The Roman ambassadors, who
+were but little used to hear the language of a conqueror, for a while
+dissembled their resentment at this haughty reply; but, upon entering
+the besieged city, instead of acting as ambassadors, and forgetful of
+their sacred character, they headed the citizens in a sally against
+the besiegers. In this combat Fa'bius Ambus'tus killed a Gaul with his
+own hand, but was discovered in the act of despoiling him of his
+armour. 34. A conduct so unjust and unbecoming excited the resentment
+of Brennus, who, having made his complaint by a herald to the senate,
+and finding no redress, broke up the siege and marched away with his
+conquering army directly for Rome. 35. The countries through which the
+Gauls made their rapid progress, gave up all hopes of safety upon
+their approach; being terrified at their numbers, the fierceness of
+their natures, and their dreadful preparations for war. 36. But the
+rage and impetuosity of this wild people were directed solely against
+Rome. They went on without doing the least injury in their march,
+breathing vengeance only against the Romans. A terrible engagement
+soon after ensued, in which the Romans were defeated near the river
+Al'lia, with the loss of about forty thousand men.[8]
+
+37. Rome, thus deprived of succour, prepared for every extremity. The
+inhabitants endeavoured to hide themselves in the neighbouring towns,
+or resolved to await the conqueror's fury, and end their lives with
+the ruin of their native city.[9] 38. But, more particularly, the
+ancient senators and priests, struck with a religious enthusiasm, on
+this occasion resolved to devote their lives to atone for the crimes
+of the people, and, habited in their robes of ceremony, placed
+themselves in the forum, on their ivory chairs. 39. The Gauls, in the
+mean time, were giving a loose to their triumph, in sharing and
+enjoying the plunder of the enemy's camp. Had they immediately marched
+to Rome, upon gaining the victory, the Capitol would, in all
+probability, have been taken; but they continued two days feasting
+upon the field of battle, and, with barbarous pleasure, exulting
+amidst their slaughtered enemies. 40. On the third day after this easy
+victory, Brennus appeared with all his forces before the city. He was
+at first much surprised to find the gates open to receive him, and the
+walls defenceless; so that he began to impute the unguarded situation
+of the place to a Roman stratagem. After proper precaution, he entered
+the city, and, marching into the forum, beheld there the ancient
+senators sitting in their order, observing a profound silence, unmoved
+and undaunted. 41. The splendid habits, the majestic gravity, and the
+venerable looks of these old men, who, in their time, had all borne
+the highest offices of state, awed the barbarous enemy into reverence;
+they mistook them for the tutelar deities of the place, and began to
+offer blind adoration; till one, more forward than the rest, putting
+forth his hand to stroke the beard of Papyr'ius, an insult the noble
+Roman could not endure, he lifted up his ivory sceptre, and struck the
+savage to the ground. 42. This proved to be a signal for general
+slaughter. Papyr'ius fell first, and all the rest shared his fate
+without mercy or distinction.[10] The fierce invaders pursued their
+slaughter for three days successively, sparing neither sex nor age;
+then, setting fire to the city, burnt every house to the ground.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the conduct of the Veians?
+
+2. What resolution was adopted in consequence?
+
+3. Was Veii a strong place?
+
+4. Did the besieged make a vigorous resistance?
+
+5. What consequences were likely to ensue, and how were they obviated?
+
+6. To whom was the conduct of the war now committed?
+
+7. Who was Camillus?
+
+8. By what means did he attain his present dignity?
+
+9. What was the consequence of his appointment?
+
+10. What plan did he adopt to take the city?
+
+11. How did he next proceed?
+
+12. What followed?
+
+13. What was the consequence of this capture, and how did Camillus
+comport himself?
+
+14. What was Camillus's next exploit?
+
+15. Was this a conquest of importance?
+
+16. Relate the particulars?
+
+17. How was his proposal received?
+
+18. How was the traitor punished?
+
+19. What was the consequence of this conduct?
+
+20. Was Camillus universally respected?
+
+21. What charges were brought against him?
+
+22. Did Camillus abide the event of a trial?
+
+23. Was he resigned to his fate, and whither did he retire?
+
+24. What followed his departure?
+
+25. Who was the enemy?
+
+26. What were the conduct and character of the Gauls?
+
+27. How were they employed at this conjuncture?
+
+28. What measure did the Clusians adopt for their defence?
+
+29. Was their application successful?
+
+30. Who were appointed for this purpose?
+
+31. How were they received?
+
+32. What was the reply of Brennus?
+
+33. What was the conduct of the ambassadors?
+
+34. What was the consequence of this improper conduct?
+
+35. What sensations were excited in the countries through which they
+passed?
+
+36. Did the Gauls commit any ravages on their march?
+
+37. What measures were adopted at Rome?
+
+38. Who more particularly displayed their devotedness on this
+occasion?
+
+39. What use did the Gauls make of their victory?
+
+40. What happened on their arrival before the city?
+
+41. What was the effect of this spectacle?
+
+42. What was the consequence of this boldness?
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+  This is true courage, not the brutal force
+  Of vulgar heroes, but the firm resolve
+  Of virtue and of reason.--_Whitehead._
+
+1. All the hopes of Rome were now placed in the Capitol; every thing
+without that fortress formed an extensive scene of misery, desolation,
+and despair.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 361.]
+
+2. Brennus first summoned it, with threats, to surrender, but in vain;
+then resolving to besiege it in form, hemmed it round with his army.
+The Romans, however, repelled the attempt with great bravery: despair
+had supplied them with that perseverance and vigour which they seemed
+to want when in prosperity.
+
+3. In the meanwhile, Brennus carried on the siege with extreme ardour.
+He hoped to starve the garrison into a capitulation; but they,
+sensible of his intent, although in actual want, caused loaves to be
+thrown into his camp, to convince him of the futility of such
+expectations. 4. His hopes were soon after revived, when some of his
+soldiers came to inform him, that they had discovered footsteps,[11]
+which led up to the rock, by which they supposed the Capitol might be
+surprised. 5. Accordingly, a chosen body of his men were ordered by
+night upon this dangerous service, which, with great labour and
+difficulty, they almost effected. 6. They were got upon the very wall;
+the Roman sentinel was fast asleep; their dogs within gave no signal,
+and all promised an instant victory, when the garrison was awakened by
+the gabbling of some sacred geese, that had been kept in the temple of
+Juno. 7. The besieged soon perceived the imminence of their danger,
+and each, snatching the weapon that first presented itself, ran to
+oppose the assailants. 8. M. Man'lius, a patrician of acknowledged
+bravery, was the first who opposed the foe, and inspired courage by
+his example. He boldly mounted the rampart, and, at one effort, threw
+two Gauls headlong down the precipice; his companions soon came to his
+assistance, and the walls were cleared of the enemy with a most
+incredible celerity.[12]
+
+9. From this time the hopes of the barbarians began to decline, and
+Brennus wished for an opportunity of raising the siege with
+credit.[13] His soldiers had often conferences with the besieged while
+upon duty, and proposals for an accommodation were wished for by the
+common men, before the chiefs thought of a congress. At length, the
+commanders on both sides came to an agreement, that the Gauls should
+immediately quit the city and territories, upon being paid a thousand
+pounds weight of gold.
+
+[Illustration: Manlius defending the Capitol.]
+
+10. This agreement being confirmed by oath on either side, the
+gold was brought forth. But, upon weighing, the Gauls fraudulently
+attempted to kick the beam, of which the Romans complaining, Brennus
+insultingly cast his sword and belt into the scale, crying out that
+the only portion of the vanquished was to suffer. 11. By this reply,
+the Romans saw that they were at the victor's mercy, and knew it was
+in vain to expostulate against any conditions he should please to
+impose. 12. But while they were thus debating upon the payment, it was
+told them that Camil'lus, their old general, was at the head of a
+large army, hastening to their relief, and entering the gates of Rome.
+13. Camil'lus actually appeared soon after, and entering the place of
+controversy, with the air of one who was resolved not to suffer
+imposition, demanded the cause of the contest; of which being
+informed, he ordered the gold to be taken and carried back to the
+Capitol. "For it has ever been," cried he, "the manner with us Romans,
+to ransom our country, not with gold, but with iron; it is I only that
+am to make peace, as being the dictator of Rome, and my sword alone
+shall purchase it." 14. Upon this a battle ensued, the Gauls were
+entirely routed, and such a slaughter followed, that the Roman
+territories were soon cleared of the invaders. Thus, by the bravery of
+Camil'lus, was Rome delivered from its enemy.[14]
+
+15. The city being one continued heap of ruins, except the Capitol,
+and the greatest number of its former inhabitants having gone to take
+refuge in Ve'ii, the tribunes of the people urged for the removal of
+the poor remains of Rome to that city, where they might have houses to
+shelter, and walls to defend them. 16. On this occasion Camil'lus
+attempted to appease them with all the arts of persuasion; observing,
+that it was unworthy of them, both as Romans and men, to desert the
+venerable seat of their ancestors, where they had been encouraged by
+repeated marks of divine approbation, in order to inhabit a city which
+they had conquered, and which wanted even the good fortune of
+defending itself. 17. By these, and such like remonstrances, he
+prevailed upon the people to go contentedly to work; and Rome soon
+began to rise from its ashes.[15]
+
+18. We have already seen the bravery of Man'lius in defending the
+Capitol, and saving the last remains of Rome. For this the people were
+by no means ungrateful. They built him a house near the place where
+his valour was so conspicuous, and appointed him a public fund for his
+support. 19. But he aspired at being more than equal to Camil'lus, and
+to be sovereign of Rome. With this view he laboured to ingratiate
+himself with the populace, paid their debts, and railed at the
+patricians, whom he called their oppressors. 20. The senate was not
+ignorant of his speeches or his designs, and created Corne'lius Cossus
+dictator, with a view to curb the ambition of Man'lius. 21. The
+dictator soon called Man'lius to an account for his conduct. Man'lius,
+however, was too much the darling of the populace to be affected by
+the power of Cossus, who was obliged to lay down his office, and
+Man'lius was carried from confinement in triumph through the city. 22.
+This success only served to inflame his ambition. He now began to talk
+of a division of the lands among the people, insinuated that there
+should be no distinctions in the state; and, to give weight to his
+discourses, always appeared at the head of a large body of the dregs
+of the people, whom largesses had[15] made his followers. 23. The
+city being thus filled with sedition and clamour, the senate had
+recourse to another expedient, which was, to oppose the power of
+Camil'lus to that of the demagogue. Camil'lus, accordingly, being made
+one of the military tribunes, appointed Man'lius a day to answer for
+his life. 24. The place in which he was tried was near the Capitol,
+whither, when he was accused of sedition, and of aspiring to
+sovereignty, he turned his eyes, and pointing to that edifice, put
+them in mind of what he had there done for his country. 25. The
+multitude, whose compassion or whose justice seldom springs from
+rational motives, refused to condemn him, so long as he pleaded in
+sight of the Capitol; but when he was brought from thence to the
+Pe'teline grove, where the Capitol was no longer in view, they
+condemned him to be thrown headlong from the Tarpe'ian rock.[16] 26.
+Thus, the place which had been the theatre of his glory, became that
+of his punishment and infamy. His house, in which his conspiracies had
+been secretly carried on, and which had been built as the reward of
+his valour, was ordered to be razed to the ground, and his family were
+forbidden ever after to assume the name of Man'lius.
+
+27. Thus the Romans went gradually forward, with a mixture of
+turbulence and superstition within their walls, and successful
+enterprises without.
+
+28. With what implicit obedience they submitted to their pontiffs, and
+how far they might be impelled to encounter even death itself, at
+their command, will evidently appear from the behaviour of Cur'tius,
+about this time.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 392.]
+
+Upon the opening of the gulf in the forum, which the augurs affirmed
+would never close till the most precious things in Rome were thrown
+into it, this heroic man, clad in complete armour, and mounted on
+horseback, boldly leaped into the midst, declaring, that nothing was
+more truly valuable than patriotism and military virtue. 29. The gulf,
+say the historians, closed immediately upon this, and Cur'tius was
+seen no more.[17]
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 396]
+
+30. This year died the great Camil'lus, deservedly regretted by all.
+He was styled a second Romulus, the first having founded, and he
+having restored the city. He is said never to have fought a battle
+without gaining a victory; never to have besieged a city without
+taking it. He was a zealous patriot, ever ready to dismiss his just
+resentments for the affronts he received, when the necessities of his
+country required his services.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the state of Rome at this period?
+
+2. What was the next step taken by Brennus, and how did it succeed?
+
+3. In what manner was the siege carried on?
+
+4. Did he consider the attempt as hopeless?
+
+5. What advantage did he take of this information?
+
+6. Was the attempt successful?
+
+7. What was the consequence?
+
+8. Was there any particular instance of valour?
+
+9. What effect had this failure on the mind of Brennus?
+
+10. In what manner was this agreement carried into execution?
+
+11. What inference did the Romans draw from this insolent speech?
+
+12. What agreeable news did they now hear?
+
+13. Was this information correct?
+
+14. What followed?
+
+15. What was the first measure proposed after this deliverance?
+
+16. Was this proposal carried into effect?
+
+17. Were his remonstrances successful?
+
+18. Was the bravery of Manlius rewarded?
+
+19. Was he content with these favours?
+
+20. What measures were taken to oppose his designs?
+
+21. Was this expedient attended with success?
+
+22. What was the conduct of Manlius after this?
+
+23. What farther measures were taken to punish his ambition?
+
+24. What defence did he set up?
+
+25. Was his plea successful?
+
+26. What is remarkable in his punishment?
+
+27. How did the Roman affairs proceed at this time?
+
+28. Relate a memorable instance of the obedience paid by the Romans to
+their pontiffs or priests?
+
+29. What was the consequence of this heroic act?
+
+30. What happened this year, and what was the character of
+Camil'lus?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] These laws were engraven on brass, and hung up in the most
+conspicuous part of the Forum.
+
+[2] They were, however, defeated, first by the consul Vale'rius, and
+next still more decisively by the consuls Quinc'tius and Fu'rius.
+
+[3] The duty of the censors, at first, was merely to perform the
+census, or numbering of the people. It was by degrees that they became
+_Magistri Morum_, or inspectors and regulators of men's lives and
+manners.
+
+[4] They appointed an extraordinary magistrate, under the title of
+_superintendent of provisions_, and the person named for this office,
+L. Minutius, an active and prudent man, immediately sent his agents
+into the neighbouring countries to buy corn; but little, however was
+procured, as Mælius had been beforehand with him. (Liv. l. iv. c. 13,
+14.)
+
+[5] The guilt of Mæ'lius was never proved, and no arms were found when
+his house was searched. The charge of aiming at royalty is more than
+absurd; it is morally impossible. He seems to have aimed at opening
+the higher offices of state to the plebeians, and to have looked upon
+the consulship with too eager desire. He fell a sacrifice, to deter
+the plebeians from aiming at breaking up a patrician monopoly of
+power. It is painful to see Cincinna'tus, at the close of a long and
+illustrious life, countenancing, if not suggesting this wanton murder.
+But, as Niebuhr remarks, "no where have characters been more cruel, no
+where has the voice of conscience against the views of faction been so
+defied, as in the aristocratic republics, and not those of antiquity
+only. Men, otherwise of spotless conduct, have frequently shed the
+purest and noblest blood, influenced by fanaticism, and often without
+any resentment, in the service of party."
+
+[6] The account of the siege of Ve'ii is full of improbabilities, and
+the story of the mine is utterly impossible, for without a compass and
+a good plan of the city, such a work could not have been formed. That
+Ve'ii, however, was besieged and taken at this time is very certain,
+but that is the only part of the legend on which we can rely.
+
+[7] The _as_ was a brass coin, about three farthings of our money.
+
+[8] This day was from henceforth marked as unlucky in their calendar,
+and called Allien'sis.
+
+[9] Among others, the Vestals fled from the city, carrying with them
+the two Palladiums and the sacred fire. They took shelter at Cære, a
+town of Etru'ria, where they continued to celebrate their religious
+rites; from this circumstance religious rites acquired the name of
+ceremonies.
+
+[10] This self-devotion was in consequence of a vow made by these
+brave old men, which Fa'bius, the Pontifex Maximus, pronounced in
+their names. The Romans believed that, by thus devoting themselves to
+the internal gods, disorder and confusion were brought among the
+enemy.
+
+[11] These were the footsteps of Pon'tius Comin'ius, who, with great
+prudence and bravery, found means to carry a message from Camil'lus to
+the Romans in the Capi'tol, and to return with the appointment of
+dictator for Camil'lus.
+
+[12] As a reward for this essential service, every soldier gave
+Man'lius a small quantity of corn and a little measure of wine, out of
+his scanty allowance; a present of no mean value in their then
+distressed situation. On the other hand, the captain of the guard, who
+ought to have kept the sentinels to their duty, was thrown headlong
+from the Capitol. In memory of this event, a goose was annually
+carried in triumph on a soft litter, finely adorned; whilst dogs were
+held in abhorrence, and were impaled every year on a branch of elder.
+
+[13] As the Gauls suffered the bodies of the Romans, who were slain in
+their frequent encounters, to lie unburied, the stench of their
+putrefaction occasioned a plague to break out, which carried off great
+numbers of the army of Brennus.
+
+[14] The authenticity of this narrative is more than suspicious.
+Polyb'ius, the most accurate of the Roman historians, says that the
+Gauls carried their old home with them. Sueto'nius confirms this
+account, and adds that it was recovered at a much later period from
+the Galli Seno'nes, by Liv'ius Dru'sus; and that on this occasion
+Dru'sus first became a name in the Livian family, in consequence of
+the victorious general having killed Drau'sus, the Gallic leader.
+
+[15] So little taste, however, for order and beauty, did those display
+who had the direction of the works, that the city, when rebuilt, was
+even less regular than in the time of Romulus.
+
+[16] This account appears so absurd as to be scarcely credible; in
+fact, Manlius was first tried by the "comitia centuriata," and
+acquitted. His second trial was before the "comitia curiata," where
+his enemies, the patricians, alone had the right of voting. See
+Introduction, Chap. III.
+
+[17] Some judicious writers, however, acknowledge that the chasm was
+afterwards filled up with earth and rubbish. (Livy, l. 7. c. 6. Val.
+Maximus, l. 5. c. 6. et alli.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE WARS WITH THE SAMNITES AND THOSE WITH PYRRHUS, TO THE
+BEGINNING OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR; WHEN THE ROMANS BEGAN TO EXTEND
+THEIR CONQUESTS BEYOND ITALY.
+
+  The brave man is not he who feels no fear
+  For that were stupid and irrational;
+  But he, whose noble soul his fear subdues,
+  And bravely dares the danger nature shrinks from.--_Baillie_.
+
+1. The Romans had triumphed over the Sab'ines, the Etru'rians, the
+Latins, the Her'nici, the Æ'qui, and the Volsci; and now began to look
+for greater conquests. They accordingly turned their arms against the
+Sam'nites, a people descended from the Sab'ines, and inhabiting a
+large tract of southern Italy, which at this day makes, a considerable
+part of the kingdom of Naples. 2. Vale'rius Cor'vus, and Corne'lius,
+were the two consuls to whose care it first fell to manage this
+dreadful contention between the rivals.
+
+3. Vale'rius was one of the greatest commanders of his time; he was
+surnamed Cor'vus, from the strange circumstance of being assisted by a
+crow in a single combat, in which he killed a Gaul of gigantic
+stature. 4. To his colleague's care it was consigned to lead an army
+to Sam'nium, the enemy's capital, while Cor'vus was sent to relieve
+Cap'ua, the capital of the Capin'ians. 5. Never was a captain more
+fitted for command than he. To a habit naturally robust and athletic,
+he joined the gentlest manners; he was the fiercest, and yet the most
+good-natured man in the army; and, while the meanest sentinel was his
+companion, no man kept them more strictly to their duty; but to
+complete his character, he constantly endeavoured to preserve his
+dignity by the same arts by which he gained it. 6. Such soldiers as
+the Romans then were, hardened by their late adversity, and led on by
+such a general, were unconquerable. The Samnites were the bravest men
+they ever yet had encountered, and the contention between the two
+nations was managed on both sides with the most determined resolution.
+7. But the fortune of Rome prevailed; the Samnites at length fled,
+averring, that they were not able to withstand the fierce looks, and
+the fire-darting eye of the Romans. 8. Corne'lius, however, was not at
+first so fortunate; for having unwarily led his army into a
+defile, he was in danger of being cut off, had not De'cius
+possessed himself of a hill which commanded the enemy; so that the
+Samnites, being attacked on both sides, were defeated with great
+slaughter; not less than thirty thousand of them being left dead upon
+the field.
+
+9. Some time after this victory, the forces stationed at Cap'ua
+mutinying, compelled Quin'tinus, an eminent old soldier, to be their
+leader; and, conducted by their rage, more than by their general, came
+within six miles of the city. 10. So terrible an enemy, almost at the
+gates, not a little alarmed the senate, who immediately created
+Vale'rius dictator, and sent him forth with an army to oppose them.
+11. The two armies were now drawn up against each other, while fathers
+and sons beheld themselves prepared to engage in opposite causes. 12.
+Any other general than Corvus would, perhaps, have brought this civil
+war to extremity; but he, knowing his influence among the soldiery,
+instead of going forward to meet the mutineers in a hostile manner,
+went with the most cordial friendship to embrace, and expostulate with
+his old acquaintances. 13. His conduct had the desired effect.
+Quin'tius, as their speaker, solicited no more than to have their
+defection from their duty forgiven; and for himself, as he was
+innocent of their conspiracy, he had no reason to solicit pardon for
+offences. 14. Thus this defection, which threatened danger to Rome,
+was repaired by the prudence and moderation of a general, whose
+ambition it was to be gentle to his friends, and formidable only to
+his enemies.
+
+15. A war between the Romans and Latins followed soon after. 16. As
+their habits, arms, and language were the same, the exactest
+discipline was necessary to prevent confusion in the engagement.
+Orders, therefore, were issued, that no soldier should leave his ranks
+on pain of death. 17. With these injunctions, both armies were drawn
+out and ready, when Me'tius, the general of the enemy's cavalry,
+pushed forward from his lines, and challenged any knight in the Roman
+army to single combat. 18. For some time there was a general pause, no
+soldier daring to disobey his orders, till Ti'tus Man'lius, son of the
+consul Man'lius, burning with shame to see the whole body of the
+Romans intimidated, boldly advanced against his adversary. 19. The
+soldiers, on both sides, for a while suspended the general engagement,
+to be spectators of this fierce encounter. The two champions drove
+their horses against each other with great violence: Me'tius
+wounded his adversary's horse in the neck; but Man'lius, with better
+fortune, killed that of Me'tius. The Latin general, fallen to the
+ground, for a while attempted to support himself upon his shield; but
+the Roman followed his blows, and laid him dead as he was endeavouring
+to rise; then despoiling him of his armour, returned in triumph to his
+father's tent, where he was preparing for, and giving orders relative
+to, the engagement. 20. However he might have been applauded by his
+fellow-soldiers, being as yet doubtful what reception he should find
+with his father, he came with hesitation, to lay the enemy's spoils at
+his feet, and with a modest air insinuated, that what he had done was
+entirely from a spirit of hereditary virtue. 21. Alas! he was soon
+dreadfully made sensible of his error; when his father, turning away,
+ordered him to be led publicly forth before his army. Being brought
+forward, the consul, with a stern countenance, and yet with tears,
+spoke as follows: "Ti'tus Man'lius, as thou hast regarded neither the
+dignity of the consulship, nor the commands of a father; as thou hast
+destroyed military discipline, and set a pattern of disobedience by
+thy example, thou hast reduced me to the deplorable extremity of
+sacrificing my son or my country. But let us not hesitate in this
+dreadful alternative; a thousand lives were well lost in such a cause;
+nor do I think that thou thyself wilt refuse to die, when thy country
+is to reap the advantage of thy sufferings. Lictor, bind him, and let
+his death be our future example." 22. At this unnatural mandate the
+whole army was struck with horror; fear, for a while, kept them in
+suspense; but when they saw their young champion's head struck off,
+and his blood streaming upon the ground, they could no longer contain
+their execrations and their groans. His dead body was carried forth
+without the camp, and, being adorned with the spoils of the vanquished
+enemy, was buried with all the pomp of military solemnity.
+
+23. In the mean time, the battle began with mutual fury; and as the
+two armies had often fought under the same leaders, they combated with
+all the animosity of a civil war. The Latins chiefly depended on
+bodily strength; the Romans on their invincible courage and conduct.
+24. Forces so nearly matched, seemed only to want the aid of their
+deities to turn the scale of victory; and in fact the augurs had
+foretold, that whatever part of the Roman army should be distressed,
+the commander of that part should devote himself for his country,
+and die as a sacrifice to the immortal gods. Man'lius commanded the
+right wing, and De'cius the left. 25. Both sides fought with doubtful
+success, as their courage was equal; but, after a time, the left wing
+of the Roman army began to give ground. 26. It was then that De'cius
+resolved to devote himself for his country; and to offer his own life,
+as an atonement, to save his army.
+
+27. Thus determined, he called out to Man'lius with a loud voice, and
+demanded his instructions, as he was the chief pontiff, how to devote
+himself, and what form of words he should use. 28. By his directions,
+therefore, being clothed in a long robe, his head covered, and his
+arms stretched forward, standing upon a javelin, he devoted himself to
+the celestial and infernal gods for the safety of Rome. Then arming
+himself, and mounting his horse, he drove furiously into the midst of
+the enemy, striking terror and consternation wherever he came, till he
+fell covered with wounds. 29. In the mean time the Roman army
+considered his devoting himself in this manner, as an assurance of
+success; nor was the superstition of the Latins less powerfully
+influenced by his resolution; a total route began to ensue: the Romans
+pressed them on every side, and so great was the carnage, that
+scarcely a fourth part of the enemy survived the defeat.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Against whom did the Romans next turn their arms?
+
+2. Who were appointed commanders in this war?
+
+3. Who was Valerius?
+
+4. What separate commands were entrusted to the consuls?
+
+5. What was the character of Valerius?
+
+6. What was the character of the hostile armies?
+
+7. To whom did the advantage belong?
+
+8. Was not the division under Cornelius led into a difficulty, and how
+was it extricated?
+
+9. What important event next occurred?
+
+10. How were the senate affected by their approach?
+
+11. What are the peculiar evils attendant on civil wars?
+
+12. What steps did Corvus take on this occasion?
+
+13. What was the consequence of this mildness?
+
+14. What reflection may be drawn from this incident?
+
+15. What was the next occurrence of note?
+
+16. What precautions were necessary in this war?
+
+17. In what way was the discipline of the Romans put to the proof?
+
+18. Was his challenge disregarded?
+
+19. Relate the particulars of the combat?
+
+20. What reception did he expect from his father?
+
+21. What was the consequence of his rashness?
+
+22. How was this sentence received by the army?
+
+23. Did a battle ensue?
+
+24. What was wanting to insure the victory?
+
+25. To whom did success incline?
+
+26 What heroic resolution did Decius make?
+
+27. In what way did he do this?
+
+28. What followed?
+
+29. What effect had this sacrifice on the hostile armies?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+U.C. 431.
+
+  Absurd the fumed advice to Pyrrhus given,
+  More praised than pander'd, specious, but unsound;
+  Sooner that hero's sword the world had quell'd,
+  Than reason, his ambition.--_Young_
+
+1. But a signal disgrace which the Romans sustained about this time,
+in their contest with the Samnites, made a pause in their usual good
+fortune, and turned the scale for a while in the enemy's favour.[1] 2.
+The senate having denied the Samnites peace, Pon'tius, their general,
+was resolved to gain by stratagem, what he had frequently lost by
+force. 3. Accordingly, leading his army into the neighbourhood of a
+defile, called Cau'dium, and taking possession of all its outlets, he
+sent ten of his soldiers, habited like shepherds, with directions to
+throw themselves into the way which the Romans were to march. 4.
+Exactly to his wishes, the Roman consul, Posthu'mius, met them, and
+taking them for what they appeared, demanded the route the Samnite
+army had taken: they, with seeming indifference, replied, that
+they were going to Luce'ria, a town in Apulia, and were then actually
+besieging it. 5 The Roman general, not suspecting the stratagem that
+was laid against him, marched directly by the shortest road, which lay
+through the defile, to relieve that city; and was not undeceived till
+he saw his army surrounded, and blocked up on every side.[2] 6.
+Pon'tius, thus having the Romans entirely in his power, first obliged
+the army to pass under the yoke, after having stript them of all but
+their under garments. He then stipulated, that they should wholly quit
+the territories of the Samnites, and that they should continue to live
+upon the terms of their former confederacy. 7. The Romans were
+constrained to submit to this ignominious treaty, and marched into
+Cap'ua disarmed, half naked, and burning with a desire of _retrieving_
+their lost honour. 8. When the army arrived at Rome, the whole city
+was most sensibly affected at their shameful return; nothing but grief
+and resentment were to be seen, and the whole city was put into
+mourning.
+
+9. This was a transitory calamity; the state had suffered a diminution
+of its glory, but not of its power.[3] The war was carried on as
+usual, for many years; the power of the Samnites declining every day,
+while that of the Romans gained fresh vigour from every victory. 10.
+Under the conduct of Papir'ius Cursor, repeated triumphs were gained.
+Fa'bius Max'imus also had his share in the glory of conquering the
+Samnites; and De'cius, the son of that Decius whom we saw devoting
+himself, for his country about forty years before, followed the
+example of his noble father, and, rushing into the midst of the enemy,
+saved the lives of his countrymen with the loss of his own.[4]
+
+11. The Samnites being driven to the most extreme distress, and unable
+to defend themselves, were obliged to call in the assistance of a
+foreign power, and have recourse to Pyr'rhus, king of Epi'rus,[5]
+to save them from impending ruin. 12. Pyr'rhus, a man of great
+courage, ambition, and power, who had always kept the example of
+Alexan'der, his great predecessor, before his eyes, promised to come
+to their assistance; and, in the mean time, despatched a body of three
+thousand men, under the command of Cin'eas, an experienced soldier,
+and a scholar of the great orator Demos'thenes.[6] 13. Nor did he
+himself remain long behind, but soon after put to sea with three
+thousand horse, twenty thousand foot, and twenty elephants, in which
+the commanders of that time began to place very great confidence. 14.
+However, only a small part of this great armament arrived in Italy
+with him; for many of his ships were dispersed, and some were totally
+lost in a storm.
+
+15. Upon his arrival at Taren'tum,[7] his first care was to reform the
+people whom he came to succour. Observing a total dissoluteness of
+manners in this luxurious city, and that the inhabitants were rather
+occupied with the pleasures of bathing, feasting, and dancing, than
+the care of preparing for war, he gave orders to have all their places
+of public entertainment shut up, and that they should be restrained in
+such amusements as rendered soldiers unfit for battle. 16. In the mean
+time the Romans did all which prudence could suggest, to oppose so
+formidable an enemy; and the consul Lævi'nus was sent with a numerous
+force to interrupt his progress. 17. Pyr'rhus, though his whole army
+was not yet arrived, drew out to meet him; but previously sent an
+ambassador, desiring to be permitted to mediate between the Romans and
+the people of Tarentum. 18. To this Lævi'nus answered, that _he
+neither esteemed him as a mediator, nor feared him as an enemy_: and
+then leading the ambassador through the Roman camp, desired him to
+observe diligently what he saw, and to report the result to his
+master.
+
+19. In consequence of this, both armies approaching, pitched their
+tents in sight of each other, upon the opposite banks of the river
+Ly'ris. Pyr'rhus was always extremely careful in directing the
+situation of his own camp, and in observing that of the enemy. 20.
+Walking along the banks of the river, and surveying the Roman method
+of encamping, he was heard to observe, that these barbarians seemed to
+be no way barbarous, and that he should too soon find their actions
+equal to their resolution. 21. In the mean time he placed a body of
+men in readiness to oppose the Romans, in case they should attempt to
+ford the stream before his whole army was brought together. 22. Things
+turned out according to his expectations; the consul, with an
+impetuosity that marked his inexperience, gave orders for passing the
+river where it was fordable; and the advanced guard, having attempted
+to oppose him in vain, was obliged to retire to the whole body of the
+army. 23. Pyr'rhus being apprised of the enemy's attempt, at first
+hoped to cut off their cavalry, before they could be reinforced by the
+foot, which were not as yet got over; and led on in person a chosen
+body of horse against them. 24. The Roman legions having, with much
+difficulty, advanced across the river, the engagement became general;
+the Greeks fought with a consciousness of their former fame, and the
+Romans with a desire of gaining fresh glory: mankind had seldom seen
+two such differently disciplined armies opposed to each other; nor is
+it to this day determined whether the Greek phalanx, or the Roman
+legion were preferable. 25. The combat was long in suspense; the
+Romans had seven times repulsed the enemy, and were as often driven
+back themselves; but at length, while the success seemed doubtful,
+Pyr'rhus sent his elephants into the midst of the engagement, and
+these turned the scale of victory in his favour. 26. The Romans, who
+had never before encountered creatures of such magnitude, were
+terrified not only at their intrepid fierceness, but at the castles
+that were fastened on their backs, filled with armed men. 27. It was
+then that Pyr'rhus saw the day was his own; and, sending his
+Thessalian cavalry to charge the enemy in disorder, the route became
+general. A dreadful slaughter of the Romans ensued, fifteen thousand
+men being killed on the spot, and eighteen hundred taken prisoners.
+28. Nor were the conquerors in a much better state than the
+vanquished, Pyr'rhus himself being wounded, and thirteen thousand of
+his forces slain. Night coming on, put an end to the slaughter on both
+sides, and Pyr'rhus was heard to exclaim, that one such victory more
+would ruin his whole army. 29. The next day, as he walked to view
+the field of battle, he could not help regarding with admiration the
+bodies of the Romans who were slain. Upon seeing them all with their
+wounds in front, their countenances, even in death, marked with noble
+resolution, and a sternness that awed him into respect, he was heard
+to cry out, in the true spirit of a military adventurer, "Oh! with
+what ease could I conquer the world, had I the Romans for soldiers, or
+had they me for their king!"
+
+30. Pyr'rhus, after this victory, was still unwilling to drive them to
+an extremity, and considering that it was best to treat with an
+humbled enemy, he resolved to send his friend Cin'eas,[8] the orator,
+to negociate a peace; of whom he often asserted, that he had won more
+towns by the eloquence of Cin'eas, than by his own arms. 31. But
+Cin'eas, with all his art, found the Romans incapable of being
+seduced, either by private bribery, or public persuasion; with a
+haughtiness little expected from a vanquished enemy, they insisted
+that Pyr'rhus should evacuate Italy, previous to a commencement of a
+treaty of peace.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Were the Romans uniformly successful?
+
+2. Who resolved to use stratagem, and why?
+
+3. By what means did he effect it?
+
+4. What followed?
+
+5. Was the Roman general deceived by this stratagem?
+
+6. What advantage did the Samnite commander take of the situation of
+the Romans?
+
+7. Were these terms accepted?
+
+8. How was this news received at Rome?
+
+9. Did this event put an end to the war?
+
+10. Who signalized themselves against the Samnites?
+
+11. What measure did the Samnites adopt in this extremity?
+
+12. What was the character of Pyrrhus, and what effort did he make for
+their relief?
+
+13. Did he follow in person?
+
+14. Did this great force arrive in safety?
+
+15. What was his first care?
+
+16. What measures did the Romans adopt?
+
+17. Did Pyrrhus immediately commence hostilities?
+
+18. What answer was returned?
+
+19. What followed?
+
+20. What opinion did Pyrrhus form of the Romans?
+
+21. What were his first measures?
+
+22. Were his precautions justified?
+
+23. In what way did Pyrrhus resist this attack?
+
+24. What is worthy of observation in this engagement?
+
+25. To whom did the victory fall?
+
+26. On what account were the Romans terrified by the appearance of the
+elephants?
+
+27. What completed the route?
+
+28. Was this victory cheaply purchased?
+
+29. What were the sensations of Pyrrhus on viewing the field of
+battle?
+
+30. What measures did he adopt after this victory?
+
+31. Were the arts of Cineas successful?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+                In public life, severe,
+  To virtue still inexorably firm;
+  But when, beneath his low illustrious roof,
+  Sweet peace and happy wisdom smoothed his brow.
+  Not friendship softer was, nor love more kind.--_Thomson._
+
+1. Being frustrated, therefore, in his expectations, Cin'eas returned
+to his master, extolling both the virtues and the grandeur of the
+Romans. The senate, he said, appeared a reverend assembly of
+demi-gods; and the city, a temple for their reception. 2. Of this
+Pyr'rhus soon after became sensible, by an embassy from Rome,
+concerning the ransom and exchange of prisoners. 3. At the head of
+this venerable deputation was Fabri'cius, an ancient senator, who had
+long been a pattern to his countrymen of the most extreme poverty,
+joined to the most cheerful content. 4. Pyr'rhus received this
+celebrated old man with great kindness; and willing to try how far
+fame had been just in his favour, offered him rich presents; but the
+Roman refused. 5. The day after, he was desirous of examining the
+equality of his temper, and ordered one of his largest elephants to be
+placed behind the tapestry, which, upon a signal given, being drawn
+aside, the huge animal raised its trunk above the ambassador's head,
+making a hideous noise, and using other arts to intimidate him. 6. But
+Fabri'cius, with an unchanged countenance, smiled upon the king, and
+told him, that he looked with an equal eye on the terrors of that day,
+as he had upon the allurements of the preceding. 7. Pyr'rhus, pleased
+to find so much virtue in one he had considered as a barbarian, was
+willing to grant him the only favour which he knew could make him
+happy; he released the Roman prisoners, entrusting them to Fabri'cius
+alone, upon his promise, that, in case the senate were determined to
+continue the war, he might reclaim them whenever he thought
+proper.
+
+8. By this time the Roman army was recovered from its late defeat, and
+Sulpi'cius and De'cius, the consuls for the following year, were
+placed at its head.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 474.]
+
+9. The panic which had formerly seized it from the elephants, now
+began to wear off, and both armies met near the city of As'culum,
+pretty nearly equal in numbers. 10. Here again, after a long and
+obstinate fight, the Grecian discipline prevailed. The Romans, pressed
+on every side, particularly by the elephants, were obliged to retire
+to their camp, leaving six thousand men upon the field of battle. 11.
+But the enemy had no great reason to boast of their triumph, as they
+had four thousand slain. Pyr'rhus again observed, to a soldier who was
+congratulating him upon his victory, "Another such a triumph, and I
+shall be undone." This battle finished the campaign. 12. The next
+season began with equal vigour on both sides; Pyr'rhus having received
+new succours from home. 13. While the two armies were approaching, and
+yet but a small distance, from each other, a letter was brought to old
+Fabri'cius, the Roman general, from the king's physician, importing
+that, for a proper reward, he would take him off by poison, and thus
+rid the Romans of a powerful enemy, and a dangerous war. 14.
+Fabri'cius felt all the honest indignation at this base proposal that
+was consistent with his former character; he communicated it to his
+colleague, and instantly gave it as his opinion, that Pyr'rhus should
+be informed of the treachery that was plotted against him. 15.
+Accordingly, letters were despatched for that purpose, informing
+Pyr'rhus of the affair, and alleging his unfortunate choice of friends
+and enemies; that he had trusted and promoted murderers, while he
+directed his resentment against the generous and brave. 16. Pyr'rhus
+now began to find that these bold barbarians were, by degrees,
+schooled into refinement, and would not suffer him to be their
+superior, even in generosity. He received the message with as much
+amazement at their candour, as indignation at his physician's
+treachery. "Admirable Fabri'cius!" cried he, "it would be as easy to
+turn the sun from its course, as thee from the path of honour." 17.
+Then, making the proper inquiry among his servants, and having
+discovered the treason, he ordered his physician to be executed. 18.
+Not to be outdone in magnanimity, he immediately sent to Rome all his
+prisoners without ransom, and again desired to negociate a peace:
+but the Romans still refused, upon any other conditions than had been
+offered before.
+
+19. After an interval of two years, Pyr'rhus, having increased his
+army by new levies, sent one part of it to oppose the march of
+Len'tulus, while he, with the other, went to attack Cu'rius Denta'tus,
+before his colleague could come up. 20. His principal aim was to
+surprise the enemy by night; but unfortunately, passing through woods,
+and the light failing him, his men lost their way; so that at the
+approach of morning, he saw himself in sight of the Roman camp, with
+the enemy drawn out ready to receive him. The vanguard of both armies
+soon met, in which the Romans had the advantage. 21. Soon after, a
+general engagement ensuing, Pyr'rhus, finding the balance of the
+victory turning still against him, had once more recourse to his
+elephants. 22. These, however, the Romans were now too well acquainted
+with, to feel any vain terrors from; and having found that fire was
+the most effectual means to repel them, they caused a number of balls
+to be made, composed of flax and rosin, which were lighted and thrown
+against them as they approached the ranks. 23. The elephants, rendered
+furious by the flame, and boldly opposed by the soldiers, could no
+longer be brought on; but ran back on their own army, bearing down
+their ranks, and filling all places with terror and confusion: thus
+victory, at length, declared in favour of Rome. 24. Pyr'rhus, in vain,
+attempted to stop the flight and slaughter of his troops; he lost not
+only twenty-three thousand of his best soldiers, but his camp was also
+taken. 25. This served as a new lesson to the Romans, who were ever
+open to improvement. They had formerly pitched their tents without
+order; but, by this new capture, they were taught to measure out their
+ground, and fortify the whole with a trench; so that many of their
+succeeding victories are to be ascribed to their improved method of
+encamping.
+
+26. Pyr'rhus, thus finding all hopes fruitless, resolved to leave
+Italy, where he found only desperate enemies, and faithless allies;
+accordingly, calling together the Taren'tines, he informed them that
+he had received assurances from Greece of speedy assistance, and
+desiring them to await the event with tranquillity, the night
+following he embarked his troops, and returned, undisturbed, into his
+native kingdom, with the remains of his shattered forces, leaving
+a garrison in Taren'tum merely to save appearances: and in this manner
+ended the war with Pyr'rhus, after six years' continuance.
+
+27. As for the poor luxurious Taren'tines, who were the original
+promoters of the war, they soon began to find a worse enemy in the
+garrison that was left for their defence, than in the Romans who
+attacked them from without. The hatred between them and Mi'lo, who
+commanded their citadel for Pyr'rhus, was become so great, that
+nothing but the fear of their old inveterate enemies, the Romans,
+could equal it. 28. In this distress they applied to the
+Carthaginians, who, with a large fleet, came and blocked up the port
+of Taren'tum; so that this unfortunate people, once famous through
+Italy for their refinements and pleasures, now saw themselves
+contended for by three different armies, without a choice of a
+conqueror. 29. At length, however, the Romans found means to bring
+over the garrison to their interest; after which they easily became
+masters of the city, and demolished its walls, granting the
+inhabitants liberty and protection.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What report did Cineas give of the Romans?
+
+2. By what means did Pyrrhus become convinced of its truth?
+
+3. Who headed this deputation?
+
+4. What reception did he experience?
+
+5. What farther trial was made of his disposition?
+
+6. What effect did this produce in Fabricius?
+
+7. In what way did Pyrrhus evince his satisfaction?
+
+8. In what state was the Roman army at this time?
+
+9. Where did the rival armies meet?
+
+10. What was the event of the engagement?
+
+11. Did it cost the enemy dear?
+
+12. Was the war continued?
+
+13. What proposal was made to Fabricius?
+
+14. How was this proposal received?
+
+15. How was this done?
+
+16. What effect had this conduct on Pyrrhus?
+
+17. What followed?
+
+18. What return did he make to the Romans?
+
+19. How was this war carried on?
+
+20. What views had he in this, and how did they succeed?
+
+21. What expedient did Pyrrhus have recourse to, to insure the
+victory?
+
+22. How did the Romans endeavour to counteract it?
+
+23. What was the consequence?
+
+24. What loss did Pyrrhus sustain?
+
+25. What advantage did the Romans gain from this victory?
+
+26. What resolution did Pyrrhus form, and how did he effect it?
+
+27. What became of the Tarentines?
+
+28. To whom did they have recourse?
+
+29. How did this terminate?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] An additional instance of the severity with which military
+discipline was maintained among the Romans, happened a short time
+previous to this: L. Papir'ius Cursor, the dictator, having occasion
+to quit the army and repair to Rome, strictly forbade Q. Fa'bius
+Rullia'nus, his master of the horse, to venture a battle in his
+absence. This order Fa'bius disobeyed, and gained a complete victory.
+Instead, however, of finding success a palliation of his offence, he
+was immediately condemned by the stern dictator to expiate his breach
+of discipline by death. In spite of the mutinous disposition of the
+army--in spite of the intercessions and threats, both of the senate
+and people, Papir'ius persisted in his resolution: but what menaces
+and powerful interposition could not obtain, was granted to the
+prayers and tears of the criminal's relatives; and Fa'bius lived to
+fill some of the highest offices of the state, with honour to himself
+and infinite advantage to his country. (Liv. l. 8. c. 30. 35.)
+
+[2] This gives but an indifferent idea of the military skill of those
+ages.
+
+[3] It appears, however, to have suffered a diminution of its honour
+on this occasion, by breaking every article of the treaty of peace
+extorted from Posthu'mius. As some atonement for this breach of faith,
+they delivered Posthu'mius, and those who signed the treaty, into the
+hands of the Samnites, to do with them as they thought fit; but this
+generous people instantly set them at liberty. Liv. l. 9. c. 8-11.
+
+[4] U.C. 447. About this time Appius Claudius, the censor,
+constructed an aqueduct, seven miles long, for supplying Rome with
+water, and that famous road from Rome to Capua, which still remains,
+the admiration of all Europe.
+
+[5] Epi'rus, a country situated between Macedonia, Achaia, and the
+Ionian sea. (Strabo.)
+
+[6] Demos'thenes, famous for his bold and nervous style of oratory,
+flourished at Athens about 320 years before the Christian era.
+
+[7] Taren'tum, now Taren'to, was a town of Calabria, in Italy, situate
+on a bay of the same name, near the mouth of the river Gale'sus: it
+was celebrated for its fine harbour. (Strabo.)
+
+[8] Cin'eas is said to have possessed so retentive a memory, that the
+day after his arrival at Rome, he could salute every senator and
+knight by name.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR, TO THE BEGINNING OF THE
+SECOND, WHEN THE ROMANS BEGAN TO GROW POWERFUL BY SEA.--U.C. 493.
+
+                            In every heart
+  Are sown the sparks that kindle fiery war,
+  Occasion needs but fan them, and they blaze.--_Cowper_.
+
+1. The Romans having destroyed all rival pretensions at home, began to
+pant after foreign conquests. 2. The Carthagin'ians were at that time
+in possession of the greatest part of Sicily, and, like the Romans,
+only wanted an opportunity of embroiling the natives, in order to
+become masters of the whole island. 3. This opportunity at length
+offered. Hi'ero, king of Sy'racuse, one of the states of that island,
+which was as yet unconquered, entreated their aid against the
+Mam'ertines, an insignificant people of the same country, and they
+sent him supplies both by sea and land. 4. The Mam'ertines, on the
+other hand, to shield off impending ruin, put themselves under the
+protection of Rome. 5. The Romans, not thinking the Mam'ertines worthy
+of the name of allies, instead of professing to assist them, boldly
+declared war against Carthage; alleging as a reason, the assistance
+which Carthage had lately sent to the southern parts of Italy against
+the Romans. In this manner a war was declared between two powerful
+states, both too great to continue patient spectators of each other's
+increase.
+
+6. Carthage, a colony of the Phoeni'cians, was built on the coast of
+Africa, near the place where Tunis now stands, about a hundred and
+thirty-seven years before the foundation of Rome. 7. As it had been
+long growing into power, so it had extended its dominions all along
+the coasts: but its chief strength lay in its fleets and commerce. 8.
+Thus circumstanced, these two great powers began what is called the
+First Punic war. The Carthagin'ians were possessed of gold and
+silver, which might be exhausted; the Romans were famous for
+perseverance, patriotism, and poverty, which gathered strength by
+every defeat.
+
+9. But there seemed to be an insurmountable obstacle to the ambitious
+views of Rome, as they had no fleet, or at least none that deserved
+the title; while the Carthagin'ians had the entire command at sea, and
+kept all the maritime towns in obedience.[1] 10. In such a situation,
+under disadvantages which nature seemed to have imposed, any people
+but the Romans would have rested; but nothing could conquer or
+intimidate them. 11. A Carthagin'ian vessel happened to be driven on
+shore, in a storm, and this was sufficient to serve as a model. They
+began to apply themselves to maritime affairs; and though without
+shipwrights to build, or seamen to navigate a fleet, they resolved to
+surmount every obstacle with inflexible perseverance. 12. The consul
+Duil'ius was the first who ventured to sea with his new-constructed
+armament; he proceeded in quest of the enemy, whom he met near the
+Lipari islands; and by means of grappling-irons, he so connected the
+ships of the Carthaginians with his own, that the combat became a sort
+of land-fight. By this manoeuvre, though his own force was far
+inferior to that of the enemy, he gained for Rome her first naval
+triumph, taking from the Carthaginians fifty ships, and what they
+valued still more, the undisturbed sovereignty of the sea. At Rome
+medals were struck and a column was erected in commemoration of the
+victory. This column, called Columna Rostrata, because adorned with
+the beaks of ships, was struck down by lightning in the interval
+between the second and third Punic wars. A new column was erected by
+the Emperor Claudius, and the inscription restored, though probably
+modernized. It still exists in a state of partial preservation.
+
+13. The Romans soon invaded Sicily, and gained some signal successes,
+principally by the aid of their ally, king Hi'ero. On one occasion the
+consul Calati'nus was entrapped by the Carthaginians in a defile, and
+would certainly have been destroyed but for the bravery of the
+military tribune Calpur'nius Flem'ma, who, with three hundred resolute
+men, possessed himself of a neighbouring eminence, and so engaged the
+attention of the Carthaginians, that the Roman army escaped with very
+little opposition. This band of heroes was slaughtered to a man, and
+Calpur'nius himself fell dreadfully wounded, but afterwards recovered,
+and was rewarded with a corona graminis, or crown made of grass. But
+notwithstanding their repeated triumphs, the Romans discovered that
+the conquest of Sicily was only to be obtained by humbling the power
+of Carthage at home. For this reason the senate resolved to carry the
+war into Africa itself, and accordingly they sent Reg'ulus and
+Man'lius, with a fleet of three hundred sail, to make the invasion.
+14. Reg'ulus was reckoned the most consummate warrior that Rome could
+then produce, and a professed example of frugal severity. His
+patriotism was still greater than his temperance: all private passions
+seemed extinguished in him; at least they were swallowed up in one
+great ruling affection, the love of his country. 15. The two generals
+set sail with their fleet, which was the greatest that had ever yet
+left an Italian port, carrying a hundred and forty thousand men. They
+were met by the Carthagin'ians with a fleet equally powerful, and men
+more used to the sea. 16. While the fight continued at a distance, the
+Carthagin'ians seemed successful; but when the Romans came to grapple
+with them, the difference between a mercenary army and one that fought
+for fame, was apparent. 17. The resolution of the Romans was crowned
+with success; the enemy's fleet was dispersed, and fifty-four of their
+vessels taken. 18. The consequence of this victory was an immediate
+descent upon the coast of Africa, and the capture of the city Clu'pea,
+together with twenty thousand men, who were made prisoners of war.
+While Reg'ulus lay encamped here, near the river Bagra'da, he is said
+to have slain a monstrous serpent by the help of his battering
+engines. Its skin, which was one hundred and twenty feet long, was
+sent to Rome and preserved for a long time with great care.
+
+19. The senate being informed of these great successes, and applied to
+for fresh instructions, commanded Man'lius back to Italy, in order to
+superintend the Sicilian war, and directed that Reg'ulus should
+continue in Africa to prosecute his victories there.
+
+[Illustration: The army of Regulus destroying the serpent.]
+
+20. A battle ensued, in which Carthage was once more defeated, and
+17,000 of its best troops were cut off. This fresh victory contributed
+to throw them into the utmost despair; for more than eighty of their
+towns submitted to the Romans. 21. In this distress, the
+Carthagin'ians, destitute of generals at home, were obliged to send to
+Lacedæ'mon, offering the command of their armies to Xantip'pus, a
+general of great experience, who undertook to conduct them.
+
+22. This general began by giving the magistrates proper instructions
+for levying their men; he assured them that their armies were hitherto
+overthrown, not by the strength of the enemy, but by the ignorance of
+their own commanders; he, therefore, required a ready obedience to his
+orders, and assured them of an easy victory. 23. The whole city seemed
+once more revived from despondence by the exhortations of a single
+stranger, and soon from hope grew into confidence. 24. This was the
+spirit the Grecian general wished to excite in them; so that when he
+saw them thus ripe for the engagement, he joyfully took the field. 25.
+The Lacedæmo'nian made the most skilful disposition of his forces; he
+placed his cavalry in the wings; he disposed the elephants at proper
+intervals, behind the line of the heavy-armed infantry, and bringing
+up the light-armed troops before, he ordered them to retire through
+the line of infantry, after they had discharged their weapons. 26. At
+length both armies engaged; after a long and obstinate resistance the
+Romans were overthrown with dreadful slaughter, the greatest part of
+their army destroyed, and Reg'ulus himself taken prisoner. 27.
+Several other distresses of the Romans followed soon after. They lost
+their fleet in a storm, and Agrigen'tum, their principal town in
+Sicily, was taken by Karth'alo, the Carthagin'ian general. They built
+a new fleet, which shared the fate of the former; for the mariners, as
+yet unacquainted with the Mediterranean shores, drove upon quicksands,
+and soon after the greater part perished in a storm.[2]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What did the Romans now desire?
+
+2. What state afforded them an opportunity for this purpose?
+
+3. Were their wishes gratified, and how?
+
+4. What measures did the Mamertines adopt?
+
+5. Did the Romans afford them the assistance they requested?
+
+6. Where was Carthage situated, and when was it built?
+
+7. Was it a powerful state?
+
+8. Had the Romans or the Carthaginians the means most likely to insure
+success?
+
+9. Were Rome and Carthage on an equal footing in other respects?
+
+10. Did the Romans attempt to overcome this obstacle?
+
+11. What assisted their endeavours?
+
+12. Who was their first naval commander, and what was his success?
+
+13. What were the means adopted to conquer Sicily?
+
+14. What was the character of Regulus?
+
+15. What was the amount of the force on both sides?
+
+16. On what side did the advantage lie?
+
+17. With whom did the victory remain?
+
+18. What was the consequence of this victory?
+
+19. What were the orders of the senate?
+
+20. What was the next event deserving notice, and its consequences?
+
+21. To what expedient were the Carthaginians obliged to have recourse?
+
+22. What were the first acts of this general?
+
+23. What were the effects his arrival produced?
+
+24. What was the consequence?
+
+25. In what way was the Carthaginian army drawn up?
+
+26. What was the event of the battle?
+
+27. What other disasters did the Romans encounter?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  Who has not heard the Fulvian heroes sung
+  Dentatus' scars, or Mutius' flaming hand?
+  How Manlius saved the capitol? the choice
+  Of steady Regulus?--_Dyer._
+
+1. The Carthagin'ians being thus successful, were desirous of a new
+treaty for peace, hoping to have better terms than those insisted upon
+by Reg'ulus. They supposed that he, whom they had now for four years
+kept in a dungeon, confined and chained, would be a proper solicitor.
+It was expected that, being wearied with imprisonment and bondage, he
+would gladly endeavour to persuade his countrymen to a discontinuance
+of the war which prolonged his captivity. 2. He was accordingly sent
+with their ambassadors to Rome, under a promise, previously exacted
+from him, to return in case of being unsuccessful. He was even given
+to understand that his life depended upon the success of his
+negociation.
+
+3. When this old general, together with the ambassadors of Carthage,
+approached Rome, numbers of his friends came out to meet him, and
+congratulate him on his return. 4. Their acclamations resounded
+through the city; but Reg'ulus refused, with settled melancholy, to
+enter the gates. In vain he was entreated on every side to visit once
+more his little dwelling, and share in that joy which his return had
+inspired. He persisted in saying that he was now a slave belonging to
+the Carthagin'ians, and unfit to partake in the liberal honours of his
+country. 5. The senate assembling without the walls, as usual, to give
+audience to the ambassadors, Reg'ulus opened his commission as he had
+been directed by the Carthagin'ian council, and their ambassadors
+seconded his proposals. 6. The senate themselves, who were weary of a
+war which had been protracted above fourteen years, were no way
+disinclinable to a peace. It only remained for Reg'ulus himself to
+give his opinion. 7. When it came to his turn to speak, to the
+surprise of the whole, he gave his voice for continuing the war. 8. So
+unexpected an advice not a little disturbed the senate: they pitied as
+well as admired a man who had used such eloquence against his private
+interest, and could conclude upon a measure which was to
+terminate in his own ruin. 9. But he soon relieved their embarrassment
+by breaking off the treaty, and by rising, in order to return to his
+bonds and his confinement. 10. In vain did the senate and his dearest
+friends entreat his stay; he still repressed their solicitations.
+Marcia, his wife, with her children, vainly entreated to be permitted
+to see him: he still obstinately persisted in keeping his promise; and
+though sufficiently apprised of the tortures that awaited his return,
+without embracing his family, or taking leave of his friends, he
+departed with the ambassadors for Carthage.
+
+11. Nothing could equal the fury and the disappointment of the
+Carthagin'ians, when they, were informed by their ambassadors that
+Regulus, instead of hastening a peace, had given his opinion for
+continuing the war. 12. They accordingly prepared to punish his
+conduct with the most studied tortures. His eye-lids were cut off, and
+he was remanded to prison. After some days, he was again brought out
+from his dark and dismal dungeon, and exposed with, his face opposite
+the burning sun. At last, when malice was fatigued studying all the
+arts of torture, he was put into a sort of barrel, stuck full of
+spikes, and in this painful position he continued till he died.
+
+13. Both sides now took up arms with more than former animosity. At
+length, Roman perseverance was crowned with success; and one victory
+followed on the back of another. Fa'bius Bu'teo, the consul, once more
+showed them the way to naval victory, by defeating a large squadron of
+the enemy's ships; but Luta'tius Cat'ulus gained a victory still more
+complete, in which the power of Carthage seemed totally destroyed at
+sea, by the loss of a hundred and twenty ships. 14. This loss
+compelled the Carthagin'ians again to sue for peace, which Rome
+thought proper to grant; but still inflexible in its demands, exacted
+the same conditions which Reg'ulus had formerly offered at the gates
+of Carthage. 15. These were, that they should lay down a thousand
+talents of silver, to defray the charge of the war, and should pay two
+thousand two hundred more within ten years; that they should quit
+Sicily, with all such islands as they possessed near it; that they
+should never make war against the allies of Rome, nor come with any
+vessels of war within the Roman dominions; and lastly, that all their
+prisoners and deserters should be delivered up without ransom.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 513.]
+
+16. To these hard conditions, the Carthagin'ians, now exhausted,
+readily subscribed; and thus ended the first Punic war, which had
+lasted twenty-four years; and, in some measure, had drained both
+nations of their resources.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the Carthaginians now desirous of obtaining?
+
+2. Was Regulus employed for this purpose?
+
+3. How was Regulus received by the Romans?
+
+4. What was the conduct of Regulus on this occasion?
+
+5. How did the negociation commence?
+
+6. Were the Romans inclined for peace?
+
+7. What was the opinion of Regulus?
+
+8. What was the effect of this advice?
+
+9. How did Regulus put an end to their embarrassment?
+
+10. Could he not be prevailed on to remain at Rome?
+
+11. How did the Carthaginians receive an account of his conduct?
+
+12. In what way did they punish him?
+
+13. With what success was the war continued?
+
+14. What was the consequence of this loss?
+
+15. What were these terms?
+
+16. Were they agreed to? What was the duration of the first Punic war?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The vessels in which they had hitherto transported their troops,
+were principally hired from their neighbours the Locrians, Tarentines,
+&c. It is certain that the Romans had ships of war before this period;
+but from the little attention they had hitherto paid to naval affairs,
+they were, probably, badly constructed and ill managed.
+
+[2] The Romans considering these two disasters as indications of the
+will of the gods that they should not contend by sea, made a decree
+that no more than fifty galleys should, for the future, be equipped.
+This decree, however, did not continue long in force.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE END OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR TO THE END OF THE SECOND.
+
+  Spain first he won, the Pyrenieans pass'd,
+  And sleepy Alps, the mounds that nature cast;
+  And with corroding juices, as he went,
+  A passage through the living rocks he rent,
+  Then, like a torrent rolling from on high,
+  He pours his headlong rage on Italy.--_Juvenal_.
+
+1. The war being ended between the Carthagin'ians and Romans, a
+profound peace ensued, and in about six years after, the temple of
+Ja'nus was shut for the second time since the foundation of the
+city.[1] 2. The Romans being thus in friendship with all nations, had
+an opportunity of turning to the arts of peace; they now began to have
+a relish for poetry, the first liberal art which rises in every
+civilized nation, and the first also that decays. 3. Hitherto they had
+been entertained only with the rude drolleries of their lowest
+buffoons, who entertained them with sports called Fescen'nine, in
+which a few debauched actors invented their own parts, while raillery
+and indecency supplied the place of humour. 4. To these a composition
+of a higher kind succeeded, called satire; a sort of dramatic poem, in
+which the characters of the great were particularly, pointed out, and
+made an object of derision to the vulgar.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 514.]
+
+5. After these, came tragedy and comedy, which were borrowed from the
+Greeks: indeed, the first dramatic poet of Rome, whose name was
+Liv'ius Andronicus, was a native of one of the Greek colonies in
+southern Italy. 6. The instant these finer kinds of composition
+appeared, this great people rejected their former impurities with
+disdain. From thenceforward they laboured upon the Grecian model; and
+though they were never able to rival their masters in dramatic
+composition, they soon surpassed them in many of the more soothing
+kinds of poetry. Elegiac, pastoral, and didactic compositions began to
+assume new beauties in the Roman language; and satire, not that rude
+kind of dialogue already mentioned, but a nobler sort, was all their
+own.
+
+7. While they were thus cultivating the arts of peace, they were not
+unmindful of making fresh preparations for war; intervals of ease
+seemed to give fresh vigour for new designs, rather than relax their
+former intrepidity.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 527.]
+
+8. The Illyr'ians were the first people upon whom they tried their
+strength. That nation happened to make depredations upon some of the
+trading subjects of Rome, which being complained of to Teuta, the
+queen of the country, she, instead of granting redress, ordered the
+ambassadors, who were sent to demand restitution, to be murdered. 9. A
+war ensued, in which the Romans were victorious; most of the Illy'ric
+towns were surrendered to the consuls, and a peace at last concluded,
+by which the greatest part of the country was ceded to Rome; a yearly
+tribute was exacted for the rest, and a prohibition added, that the
+Illyr'ians should not sail beyond the river Lissus with more than two
+barks, and those unarmed.
+
+10. The Gauls were the next people that incurred the displeasure of
+the Romans. 11. A time of peace, when the armies were disbanded, was
+the proper season for new irruptions; accordingly, these barbarians
+invited fresh forces from beyond the Alps, and entering Etru'ria,
+wasted all with fire and sword, till they came within about three
+days' journey of Rome. 12. A prætor and a consul were sent to
+oppose them, who, now instructed in the improved arts of war, were
+enabled to surround the Gauls. 13. It was in vain that those hardy
+troops, who had nothing but courage to protect them, formed two fronts
+to oppose their adversaries; their naked bodies and undisciplined
+forces were unable to withstand the shock of an enemy completely
+armed, and skilled in military evolutions. 14. A miserable slaughter
+ensued, in which forty thousand were killed, and ten thousand taken
+prisoners. 15. This victory was followed by another, gained by
+Marcel'lus, in which he killed Viridoma'rus, their king, with his own
+hand. 16. These conquests forced them to beg for peace, the conditions
+of which served greatly to enlarge the empire. Thus the Romans went on
+with success; retrieved their former losses, and only wanted an enemy
+worthy of their arms to begin a new war.
+
+17. The Carthagin'ians had made peace solely because they were no
+longer able to continue the war. They, therefore, took the earliest
+opportunity of breaking the treaty, and besieged Sagun'tum, a city of
+Spain, which had been in alliance with Rome; and, though desired to
+desist, prosecuted their operations with vigour. 18. Ambassadors were
+sent, in consequence, from Rome to Carthage, complaining of the
+infraction of their articles, and required that Han'nibal, the
+Carthagin'ian general, who had advised this measure, should be
+delivered up: which being refused, both sides prepared for a second
+Punic war.
+
+19. The Carthaginians trusted the management of it to Han'nibal. 20.
+This extraordinary man had been made the sworn foe of Rome, almost
+from his infancy; for, while yet very young, his father brought him
+before the altar, and obliged him to take an oath, that he would never
+be in friendship with the Romans, nor desist from opposing their
+power, until he or they should be no more. 21. On his first appearance
+in the field, he united in his own person the most masterly method of
+commanding, with the most perfect obedience to his superiors. Thus he
+was equally beloved by his generals, and the troops he was appointed
+to lead. 22. He was possessed of the greatest courage in opposing
+danger, and the greatest presence of mind in retiring from it. No
+fatigue was able to subdue his body, nor any misfortune to break his
+spirit; he was equally patient of heat and cold, and he took
+sustenance merely to content nature, not to delight his appetite.
+He was the best horseman and the swiftest runner, of the time. 23.
+This great general, who is considered as the most skilful commander of
+antiquity, having overrun all Spain, and levied a large army composed
+of various nations, resolved to carry the war into Italy itself, as
+the Romans had before carried it into the dominions of Carthage. 24.
+For this purpose, leaving Hanno with a sufficient force to guard his
+conquests in Spain, he crossed the Pyrene'an mountains into Gaul, with
+an army of fifty thousand foot, and nine thousand horse. He quickly
+traversed that country, which was then wild and extensive, and filled
+with nations that were his declared enemies.
+
+25. In vain its forests and rivers appeared to intimidate; in vain the
+Rhone, with its rapid current, and its banks covered with enemies, or
+the Dura branched out into numberless channels, opposed his way; he
+passed them all with undaunted spirit, and in ten days arrived at the
+foot of the Alps, over which he was to explore a new passage into
+Italy. 26. It was in the midst of winter when this astonishing project
+was undertaken. The season added new horrors to the scene. The
+prodigious height and tremendous steepness of these mountains, capped
+with snow; the people barbarous and fierce, dressed in skins, and with
+long shaggy hair, presented a picture that impressed the beholders
+with astonishment and terror. 27. But nothing was capable of subduing
+the courage of the Carthaginian general. At the end of fifteen days,
+spent in crossing the Alps, he found himself in the plains of Italy,
+with about half his army; the other half having died of cold, or been
+cut off by the natives.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the consequence of the conclusion of the first Punic war?
+
+2. What advantages did the Romans derive from this interval of peace?
+
+3. What species of entertainment had they hitherto enjoyed?
+
+4. What succeeded these low buffooneries?
+
+5. What was the next species, and from whom was it borrowed?
+
+6. Did their former amusements still continue to please?
+
+7. Were the Romans attentive only to the arts of peace?
+
+8. Who first incurred their resentment, and what was their offence?
+
+9. What was the consequence?
+
+10. Who next incurred the displeasure of the Romans? 11. What was
+their offence, and what favourable opportunity did they choose?
+
+12. What steps were taken to oppose them?
+
+13. Did the Gauls make any effectual resistance?
+
+14. What was the result of the battle?
+
+15. Did this victory decide the contest?
+
+16. What advantages occurred to the Romans from this war?
+
+17. Were the Carthaginians sincere in their overture for peace?
+
+18. What was the consequence of this refusal?
+
+19. To whom was the conduct of the war committed by the Carthaginians?
+
+20. What rendered Hannibal particularly eligible to this post?
+
+21. Was he a favourite with the army?
+
+22. Describe his corporeal and mental qualifications?
+
+23. What resolution did he adopt?
+
+24. What measures did he take for that purpose?
+
+25. Was he not deterred by the dangers of the way?
+
+26. What rendered this passage peculiarly difficult?
+
+27. Did these horrors render the attempt unsuccessful?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  With Hannibal I cleft yon Alpine rocks.
+  With Hannibal choked Thrasymene with slaughter;
+  But, O the night of Cannæ's raging field!
+  When half the Roman senate lay in blood.--_Young_.
+
+1. As soon as it was known at Rome, that Han'nibal, at the head of an
+immense army, was crossing the Alps, the senate sent Scip'io to oppose
+him; the armies met near the little river Tici'nus, and the Roman
+general was obliged to retreat with considerable loss. 2. In the mean
+time, Han'nibal, thus victorious, took the most prudent precautions to
+increase his army; giving orders always to spare the possessions of
+the Gauls, while depredations were committed upon those of Rome; and
+this so pleased that simple people, that they declared for him in
+great numbers, and flocked to his standard with alacrity.
+
+3. The second battle was fought upon the banks of the river Tre'bia.
+4. The Carthaginian general, being apprised of the Roman impetuosity,
+of which he availed himself in almost every engagement, had sent off a
+thousand horse, each with a foot soldier behind, to cross the river,
+to ravage the enemy's country, and provoke them to engage. The Romans
+quickly routed this force. Seeming to be defeated, they took the
+river, and were as eagerly pursued by Sempro'nius, the consul. No
+sooner had his army attained the opposite bank, than he perceived
+himself half-conquered, his men being fatigued with wading up to their
+arm-pits, and quite benumbed by the intense coldness of the water
+5. A total route ensued; twenty-six thousand of the Romans were either
+killed by the enemy, or drowned in attempting to repass the river. A
+body of ten thousand men were all that survived; who, finding
+themselves enclosed on every side, broke desperately through the
+enemy's ranks, and fought, retreating, till they found shelter in the
+city of Placentia.
+
+6. The third defeat the Romans sustained was at the lake of
+Thrasyme'ne, near to which was a chain of mountains, and between these
+and the lake, a narrow passage leading to a valley that was embosomed
+in hills. It was upon these hills that Han'nibal disposed his best
+troops and it was into this valley that Flamin'ius, the Roman general,
+led his men to attack him. 7. A disposition every way so favourable
+for the Carthaginians, was also assisted by accident; for a mist
+rising from the lake, kept the Romans from seeing their enemies; while
+the army upon the mountains, being above its influence, saw the whole
+disposition of their opponents. 8. The fortune of the day was such as
+might be expected from the conduct of the two generals. The Roman army
+was slaughtered, almost before they could perceive the enemy that
+destroyed them. About fifteen thousand Romans, with Flamin'ius
+himself, fell in the valley, and six thousand more were obliged to
+yield themselves prisoners of war.
+
+9. Upon the news of this defeat, after the general consternation was
+allayed, the senate resolved to elect a commander with absolute
+authority, in whom they might repose their last and greatest
+expectations. 10. The choice fell upon Fa'bius Max'imus, a man of
+great courage, with a happy mixture of caution. 11. He was apprised
+that the only way to humble the Carthaginians at such a distance from
+home, was rather by harassing than fighting. For this purpose, he
+always encamped upon the highest grounds, inaccessible to the enemy's
+cavalry. Whenever they moved, he watched their motions, straitened
+their quarters, and cut off their provisions.
+
+12. By these arts, Fa'bius had actually, at one time, enclosed
+Han'nibal among mountains, where it was impossible to winter, and from
+which it was almost impracticable to extricate his army without
+imminent danger. 13. In this exigence, nothing but one of those
+stratagems of war, which only men of great abilities invent, could
+save him. 14. He ordered a number of small faggots and lighted torches
+to be tied to the horns of two thousand oxen, which should be
+driven towards the enemy. These, tossing their heads, and funning up
+the sides of the mountain, seemed to fill the whole neighbouring
+forest with fire; while the sentinels that were placed to guard the
+approaches to the mountain, seeing such a number of flames advancing
+towards their posts, fled in consternation, supposing the whole body
+of the enemy was in arms to overwhelm them. 15. By this stratagem
+Han'nibal drew off his army, and escaped through the defiles that led
+beneath the hills, though with considerable damage to his rear.
+
+16. Fa'bius, still pursuing the same judicious measures, followed
+Han'nibal in all his movements, but at length received a letter from
+the senate, recalling him to Rome, on pretence of a solemn sacrifice,
+requiring his presence. 17. On his departure from the army, he
+strictly charged Minu'tius, his general of the horse, not to hazard an
+engagement in his absence. This command he disobeyed, and Fa'bius
+expressed his determination to punish so flagrant a breach of military
+discipline. 18. The senate, however, favouring Minu'tius, gave him an
+equal authority with the dictator. 19. On the arrival of Fa'bius at
+the camp, he divided the army with Minu'tius, and each pursued his own
+separate plan. 20. By artful management, Han'nibal soon brought the
+troops of the latter to an engagement, and they would have been cut
+off to a man, had not Fa'bius sacrificed his private resentment to the
+public good, and hastened to the relief of his colleague. 21. By their
+united forces Han'nibal was repulsed, and Minu'tius, conscious of his
+rashness, resigned the supreme command into the hands of the dictator.
+
+22. On the expiration of his year of office, Fa'bius resigned, and
+Taren'tius Varro was chosen to the command. 23. Varro was a man sprung
+from the dregs of the people, with nothing but confidence and riches
+to recommend him. 24. With him was joined Æmil'ius Paulus, of a
+disposition entirely opposite; experienced, in the field, cautious in
+action, and impressed with a thorough contempt for the abilities of
+his plebeian colleague.
+
+25. The Romans finding themselves enabled to bring a competent force
+into the field, being almost ninety thousand strong, now again
+resolved to meet Han'nibal, who was at this time encamped near the
+village of Cannæ, with a wind in his rear, that, for a certain season,
+blows constantly one way, which, raising great clouds of dust
+from the parched plains behind, he knew must greatly distress an
+approaching enemy. In this situation he waited the coming of the
+Romans with an army of forty thousand foot, and half that number of
+cavalry. 26. The consuls soon appeared to his wish, dividing their
+forces into two parts, and agreeing to take the command each day by
+turns. 27. On the first day of their arrival, Æmil'ius was entirely
+averse to engaging. The next day, however, it being Varro's turn to
+command, he, without asking his colleague's concurrence, gave the
+signal for battle: and passing the river Au'fidus, that lay between
+both armies, put his forces in array. 28. The battle began with the
+light-armed infantry; the horse engaged soon after; but the cavalry
+being unable to stand against those of Numid'ia, the legions came up
+to reinforce them. It was then that the conflict became general; the
+Roman soldiers endeavoured, in vain, to penetrate the centre, where
+the Gauls and Spaniards fought; which Han'nibal observing, he ordered
+part of those troops to give way, and to permit the Romans to embosom
+themselves within a chosen body of his Africans, whom he had placed on
+their wings, so as to surround them; upon that a terrible slaughter of
+the Romans ensued, fatigued with repeated attacks of the Africans, who
+were fresh and vigorous. 29. At last the rout became general in every
+part of the Roman army; the boastings of Varro were now no longer
+heard: while Æmil'ius, who had been wounded by a slinger, feebly led
+on his body of horse, and did all that could be done to make head
+against the enemy. 30. Unable to sit on horseback, he was forced to
+dismount. It was in these deplorable circumstances, that one
+Len'tulus, a tribune of the army, flying from the enemy, who at some
+distance pursued him, met Æmil'ius, sitting upon a stone, covered with
+blood and wounds, and waiting for the coming up of the pursuers. 31.
+"Æmil'ius," cried the generous tribune, "you, at least, are guiltless
+of this day's slaughter; take my horse and fly." "I thank thee,
+Len'tulus," cried the dying consul, "all is over, my part is chosen.
+Go, and tell the senate to fortify Rome against the approach of the
+conqueror. Tell Fa'bius, that Æmil'ius, while living, ever remembered
+his advice; and now, dying, approves it." 32. While he was yet
+speaking, the enemy approached; and Len'tulus at some distance saw the
+consul expire, feebly fighting in the midst of hundreds. 33. In this
+battle the Romans lost fifty thousand men, and so many knights,
+that it is said that Han'nibal sent three bushels of gold rings to
+Carthage, which those of this order wore on their fingers.[2]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What measures were adopted by the Romans when they heard of
+Hannibal's approach?
+
+2. What precautions did Hannibal take?
+
+3. Where was the next battle fought?
+
+4. What was the stratagem employed by Hannibal?
+
+5. What followed?
+
+6. Where was the next engagement?
+
+7. Was this a judicious disposition of the Roman general?
+
+8. What was the result?
+
+9. What expedient did the senate adopt on this occasion?
+
+10. Who was chosen to this office?
+
+11. What method of fighting did he adopt?
+
+12. What was the success of this plan?
+
+13. Was his situation hopeless?
+
+14. Describe his stratagem and its consequences?
+
+15. Did it answer his purpose?
+
+16. Was Fabius continued in office?
+
+17, 18. Of what disobedience was Minutius guilty? Was he punished?
+
+19. How was the army divided?
+
+20, 21. What plan did Fabius pursue? How was its superiority proved?
+
+22, 23, 24. Who succeeded Fabius? What was his character, and that of
+his colleague?
+
+25. How were the Carthaginians posted at Cannæ?
+
+26, 27. How did the consuls behave? How did Varro act?
+
+28. What were the circumstances of the engagement?
+
+29. How did the battle terminate?
+
+30. What was the fate of Æmilius?
+
+31. What generous offer was made by Lentulus?
+
+32. Did the consul accept the tribune's offer?
+
+33. Was the loss of the Romans severe?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+                  The storming Hannibal
+  In vain the thunder of the battle rolled.
+  The thunder of the battle they returned
+  Back on his Punic shores.--_Dyer_.
+
+1. When the first consternation was abated after this dreadful blow,
+the senate came to a resolution to create a dictator, in order to give
+strength to their government. 2. A short time after Varro arrived,
+having left behind him the wretched remains of his army. As he had
+been the principal cause of the late calamity, it was natural to
+suppose, that the senate would severely reprimand the rashness of his
+conduct. But far otherwise! The Romans went out in multitudes to meet
+him; and the senate returned him thanks that he had not despaired of
+the safety of Rome. 3. Fa'bius, who was considered as the shield, and
+Marcellus, as the sword of Rome, were appointed to lead the armies:
+and though Hannibal once more offered them peace, they refused it, but
+upon condition that he should quit Italy--a measure similar to that
+they had formerly insisted upon from Pyrrhus.
+
+4. Han'nibal finding the impossibility of marching directly to Rome,
+or willing to give his forces rest after so mighty a victory, led them
+to Cap'ua, where he resolved to winter. 5. This city had long been
+considered as the nurse of luxury, and the corrupter of all military
+virtue. 6. Here a new scene of pleasure opened to his barbarian
+troops: they at once gave themselves up to intoxication; and from
+being hardy veterans, became infirm rioters.
+
+7. Hitherto we have found this great man successful; but now we are to
+reverse the picture, and survey him struggling with accumulated
+misfortunes, and, at last, sinking beneath them.
+
+8. His first loss was at the siege of Nola, where Marcel'lus, the
+prætor, made a successful sally. He some time after attempted to raise
+the siege of Cap'ua, attacked the Romans in their trenches, and was
+repulsed with considerable loss. He then made a feint to besiege Rome,
+but finding a superior army ready to receive him, was obliged to
+retire. 9. For many years he fought with varied success; Marcel'lus,
+his opponent, sometimes gaining, and sometimes losing the advantage,
+without coming to any decisive engagement.
+
+10. The senate of Carthage at length came to a resolution of
+sending his brother As'drubal to his assistance, with a body of forces
+drawn out of Spain. 11. As'drubal's march being made known to the
+consuls Liv'ius and Nero, they went against him with great expedition;
+and, surrounding him in a place into which he was led by the treachery
+of his guides, they cut his whole army to pieces. 12. Han'nibal had
+long expected these succours with impatience; and the very night on
+which he had been assured of his brother's arrival, Nero ordered
+As'drubal's head to be cut off, and thrown into his brother's camp.
+13. The Carthaginian general now began to perceive the downfall of
+Carthage; and, with a sigh, observed to those about him, that fortune
+seemed fatigued with granting her favours.
+
+14. In the mean time, the Roman arms seemed to be favoured in other
+parts; Marcel'lus took the city of Syr'acuse, in Sicily, defended by
+the machines and the fires of Archime'des,[3] the mathematician. 15.
+The inhabitants were put to the sword, and among the rest, Archime'des
+himself, who was found, by a Roman soldier, meditating in his study.
+16. Marcel'lus, the general, was not a little grieved at his death. A
+love of literature at that time began to prevail among the higher
+ranks at Rome. Marcel'lus ordered Archime'des to be honourably buried,
+and a tomb to be erected to his memory.
+
+17. As to their fortunes in Spain, though for a while doubtful, they
+soon recovered their complexion under the conduct of Scip'io
+Africa'nus, who sued for the office of proconsul to that kingdom, at a
+time when every one else was willing to decline it. 18. Scip'io, now
+no more than twenty-four years old, had all the qualifications
+requisite for forming a great general, and a good man; he united
+courage with tenderness, was superior to Hannibal in the arts of
+peace, and almost his equal in those of war. 19. His father had been
+killed in Spain, so that he seemed to have an hereditary claim to
+attack that country. He, therefore, appeared irresistible, obtaining
+many great victories, yet subduing more by his generosity,
+mildness, and benevolent disposition, than by the force of arms.[4]
+
+20. He returned with an army from the conquest of Spain, and was made
+consul at the age of twenty-nine. It was at first supposed he intended
+meeting Hannibal in Italy, and that he would attempt driving him from
+thence: but he had formed a wiser plan, which was, to carry the war
+into Africa; and, while the Carthaginians kept an army near Rome, to
+make them tremble for their own capital.
+
+21. Scip'io was not long in Africa without employment; Hanno opposed
+him, but was defeated and slain. Sy'phax, the usurper of Numid'ia, led
+up a large army against him. 22. The Roman general, for a time,
+declined fighting, till finding an opportunity, he set fire to the
+enemy's tents, and attacking them in the midst of the confusion,
+killed forty thousand, and took six thousand prisoners.
+
+23. The Carthaginians, terrified at their repeated defeats, and at the
+fame of Scip'io's successes, determined to recall Hannibal, their
+great champion, out of Italy, in order to oppose the Romans at home.
+Deputies were accordingly despatched with a positive command for him
+to return and oppose the Roman general, who at that time threatened
+Carthage with a siege. 24. Nothing could exceed the regret and
+disappointment of Hannibal; but he obeyed the orders of his infatuated
+country with the submission of the meanest soldier; and took leave of
+Italy with tears, after having kept possession of its most beautiful
+parts above fifteen years.
+
+25. Upon his arrival at Leptis, in Africa, he set out for Adrume'tum,
+and at last approached Za'ma, a city about seventy-five miles from
+Carthage. 26. Scip'io, in the mean time, led his army to meet him,
+joined by Massinis'sa, with six thousand horse; and to show his rival
+how little he feared his approach, sent back the spies which were
+sent to explore his camp, having previously shown them the whole, with
+directions to inform Hannibal of what they had seen. 27. The
+Carthaginian general, conscious of his inferiority, endeavoured to
+discontinue the war by negociation, and desired a meeting with.
+Scip'io to confer upon terms of peace; to which the Roman general
+assented. 28. But after a long conference, both sides parting
+dissatisfied, they returned to their camps, to prepare for deciding
+the controversy by the sword. 29. Never was a more memorable battle
+fought, whether we regard the generals, the armies, the two states
+that contended, or the empire that was in dispute. The disposition
+Hannibal made of his men, is said to be superior to any even of his
+former arrangements. 30. The battle began with the elephants on the
+side of the Carthaginians, which being terrified at the cries of the
+Romans, and wounded by the slingers and archers, turned upon their
+drivers, and caused much confusion in both wings of their army, where
+the cavalry were placed. 31. Being thus deprived of the assistance of
+the horse, in which their greatest strength consisted, the heavy
+infantry joined on both sides; but the Romans being stronger of body,
+the Carthaginians gave ground. 32. In the mean time, Massinissa, who
+had been in pursuit of their cavalry, returning and attacking them in
+the rear, completed their-defeat. A total rout ensued, twenty thousand
+men were killed, and as many taken prisoners. 33. Hannibal, who had
+done all that a great and undaunted general could perform, fled with a
+small body of horse to Adrume'tum; fortune seeming to delight in
+confounding his ability, his valour, and experience.
+
+34. This victory brought on a peace. The Carthaginians, by Hannibal's
+advice, submitted to the conditions which the Romans dictated, not as
+rivals, but as sovereigns. 35. By this treaty the Carthaginians were
+obliged to quit Spain, and all the islands in the Mediterranean. They
+were bound to pay ten thousand talents in fifty years; to give
+hostages for the delivery of their ships and their elephants; to
+restore to Massanis'sa all the territories that had been taken from
+him; and not to make war in Africa but by the permission of the
+Romans. Thus ended the second Punic war, seventeen years after it had
+begun.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. By what measure did the senate attempt to retrieve this disaster?
+
+2. Did Varro venture to return, and what was his reception?
+
+3. Who were appointed to carry on the war?
+
+4. What was Hannibal's next step?
+
+5. What was the character of this city?
+
+6. What was the consequence to the Carthaginian army?
+
+7. Was Hannibal uniformly successful?
+
+8. What was his first reverse?
+
+9. What happened to him afterwards?
+
+10. What resolution did the senate of Carthage adopt?
+
+11. Did he effect a junction with his brother?
+
+12. Was Hannibal apprised of these intended succours?
+
+13. What inference did Hannibal draw from this?
+
+14. Were the Romans successful in other parts?
+
+15. What was the fate of its inhabitants?
+
+16. Was his loss deplored?
+
+17. What was the success of the Romans in Spain?
+
+18. What was the character of Scipio?
+
+19. What rendered him particularly eligible for this command?
+
+20. Were his exploits confined to Spain?
+
+21. Had he any formidable opposition to encounter?
+
+22. What was the conduct of Scipio?
+
+23. What measures did the Carthaginians have recourse to on this
+occasion?
+
+24. Was Hannibal pleased at his recall?
+
+25. Whither did he repair on his arrival in Africa?
+
+26. What was the conduct of Scipio?
+
+27. Was Hannibal desirous of continuing hostilities?
+
+28. What was the result?
+
+29. Was the battle of consequence?
+
+30. How did it commence?
+
+31. What followed?
+
+32. What completed the defeat of the Carthaginians?
+
+33. What became of Hannibal?
+
+34. What was the result of the victory?
+
+35. What were the conditions of the treaty?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The first was in the reign of Numa.
+
+[2] Hannibal has been blamed for not having marched to Rome
+immediately after this victory; but his army was by no means adequate
+to the siege of the city; and the allies of the Romans would have been
+able to curtail his quarters and intercept his convoys. He was,
+besides, badly provided with provisions and the munitions of war, both
+of which he could procure by invading Campania, the course which he
+actually pursued.
+
+[3] This great man was equal to an army for the defence of the place.
+He invented engines which threw enormous stones against the Romans,
+hoisted their ships in the air, and then dashed them against the rocks
+beneath, and dismounted their battering engines. He also set fire to
+some of the Roman ships by the use of reflectors, or looking-glasses,
+directing the sun's rays from a great number of them on the same spot
+at the same time.
+
+[4] During his command in Spain, a circumstance occurred which has
+contributed more to the fame and glory of Scipio than all his military
+exploits. At the taking of New Carthage, a lady of extraordinary
+beauty was brought to Scipio, who found himself greatly affected by
+her charms. Understanding, however, that she was betrothed to a
+Celtibe'rian prince, named Allu'cius, he generously resolved to
+conquer his rising passion, and sending for her lover, restored her
+without any other recompence than requesting his friendship to the
+republic. Her parents had brought a large sum of money for her ransom,
+which they earnestly entreated Scipio to accept; but he generously
+bestowed it on Allu'cius, as the portion of his bride. (Liv. l. xxvi.
+c. 50.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+     Beauteous Greece,
+  Torn from her joys, in vain, with languid arm,
+  Half raised her lusty shield.--_Dyer_.
+
+1. While the Romans were engaged with Hannibal, they carried on also a
+vigorous war against Philip, king of Ma'cedon, not a little incited
+thereto by the prayers of the Athe'nians; who, from once controlling
+the powers of Persia, were now unable to defend themselves. The
+Rho'dians with At'talus, king of Per'gamus, also entered into the
+confederacy against Philip. 2. He was more than once defeated by
+Galba, the consul. He attempted to besiege Athens, but the Romans
+obliged him to raise the siege. He tried to take possession of the
+Straits of Thermop'ylæ, but was driven from thence by Quin'tus
+Flamin'ius, with great slaughter. He attempted to take refuge in
+Thes'saly, where he was again defeated, with considerable loss, and
+obliged to beg a peace, upon condition of paying a thousand talents.
+3. Peace with Philip gave the Romans an opportunity of showing their
+generosity, by restoring liberty to Greece.
+
+4. Antio'chus, king of Syria, was next brought to submit to the Roman
+arms: after embassies on the one side and on the other, hostilities
+were commenced against him five years after the conclusion of the
+Macedo'nian war. 5. After many mistakes and great misconduct, he
+attempted to obtain a peace, by offering to quit all his places in
+Europe, and such in Asia as professed alliance to Rome. 6. But it was
+now too late; Scip'io perceived his own superiority, and was resolved
+to avail himself of it. 7. Antio'chus, thus driven into resistance,
+for some time retreated before the enemy, till, being pressed hard,
+near the city of Magnesia he was forced to draw out his men, to the
+number of seventy thousand foot, and twelve thousand horse.
+
+8. Scip'io opposed him with forces as much inferior in number, as they
+were superior in courage and discipline. Antio'chus, therefore, was in
+a short time entirely defeated; his own chariots, armed with scythes,
+being driven back upon his men, contributed much to his overthrow. 9.
+Being thus reduced to the last extremity, he was glad to procure peace
+from the Romans, upon their own terms; which were, to pay fifteen
+thousand talents; to quit his possessions in Europe, and in Asia, on
+the hither side of Mount Taurus; to give twenty hostages, as pledges
+of his fidelity; and to deliver up Hannibal, the inveterate enemy of
+Rome, who had taken refuge at his court.
+
+10. In the mean time Hannibal, whose destruction was one of the
+articles of this extorted treaty, endeavoured to avoid the threatened
+ruin. 11. This consummate general had long been a wanderer, and an
+exile from his ungrateful country. He had taken refuge at the court of
+Antio'chus who, at first, gave him a sincere welcome, and made
+him admiral of his fleet, in which station he showed his usual
+skill in stratagem.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Hannibal]
+
+12. But he soon sunk in the Syrian's esteem for projecting schemes
+which that monarch had neither genius to understand, nor talents to
+execute. 13. Sure, therefore, to find no safety or protection, he
+departed by stealth; and, after wandering for a time among the petty
+states, which had neither power nor generosity to protect him, he took
+refuge at the court of Pru'sias, king of Bythin'ia. 14. In the mean
+time, the Romans, with a vindictive spirit utterly unworthy of them,
+sent Æmil'ius, one of their most celebrated generals, to demand him of
+this king; who, fearing the resentment of Rome, and willing to
+conciliate their friendship by this breach of hospitality, ordered a
+guard to be placed upon Hannibal, with an intent to deliver him up.
+15. The poor old general, thus implacably persecuted from one country
+to another, and finding every method of safety cut off, determined to
+die. He, therefore, desired one of his followers to bring him poison;
+and drinking it, he expired as he had lived, with intrepid bravery.
+
+[Sidenote: U. C 513]
+
+16. A second Macedo'nian war was soon after proclaimed against
+Per'seus, the son of that Philip who had been obliged to beg peace of
+the Romans. 17. Perseus, in order to secure the crown, had murdered
+his brother Deme'trius; and, upon the death of his father, pleased
+with the hopes of imaginary triumphs, made war against Rome. 18,
+During the course of this war, which continued about three years,
+opportunities were offered him of cutting off the Roman army; but
+being ignorant how to take advantage of their rashness, he spent the
+time in empty overtures for peace. 19. At length Æmil'ius gave
+him a decisive overthrow. He attempted to procure safety by flying
+into Crete: but being abandoned by all, he was obliged to surrender
+himself, and to grace the splendid triumph of the Roman general.[1]
+
+20. About this time Massinis'sa, the Numidian, having made some
+incursions into a territory claimed by the Carthaginians, they
+attempted to repel the invasion. 21. This brought on a war between
+that monarch and them; while the Romans, who pretended to consider
+this conduct of theirs as an infraction of the treaty, sent to make a
+complaint. 22. The ambassadors who were employed upon this occasion,
+finding the city very rich and flourishing, from the long interval of
+peace which it had now enjoyed for nearly fifty years, either from
+motives of avarice to possess its plunder, or from fear of its growing
+greatness, insisted much on the necessity of a war, which was soon
+after proclaimed, and the consuls set out with a thorough resolution
+utterly to demolish Carthage.
+
+The territory thus invaded by Massinis'sa, was Tysca, a rich province,
+undoubtedly belonging to the Carthaginians. One of the ambassadors
+sent from Rome was the celebrated Cato, the censor, who, whatever his
+virtues may have been, appears to have imbibed an inveterate hatred to
+Carthage. For, on whatever subject he debated in the senate, he never
+failed to conclude in these words, "I am also of opinion that Carthage
+should be destroyed." The war, however, which had broken out in Spain,
+and the bad success of the Roman arms in that quarter, for some time
+delayed the fate of that devoted city; and it might, perhaps, have
+stood much longer, had not some seditious demagogues incited the
+populace to insult the Roman ambassador, and to banish those senators
+who voted for peace.
+
+To account for the apparent pusillanimity of the Carthaginians, it is
+necessary to observe, that they had suffered repeated defeats in their
+war with Massinis'sa; and that fifty thousand of their troops, after
+having been blocked up in their camp till from want they were obliged
+to submit to the most humiliating conditions, were inhumanly massacred
+by Gulus'sa, the son of the Numidian king. The Romans chose this
+distressing juncture to declare war against them.
+
+As one proof of their sincere desire for peace, they had
+previously delivered up to the Romans all their arms and warlike
+engines, of which they possessed prodigious magazines; thus leaving
+themselves still more defenceless than before.
+
+23. The wretched Carthaginians, finding that the conquerors would not
+desist from making demands, while the vanquished had any thing to
+give, attempted to soften the victors by submission; but they received
+orders to leave the city, which was to be levelled with the ground.
+24. This severe command they received with all the distress of a
+despairing people: they implored for a respite from such a hard
+sentence: they used tears and lamentations; but finding the consuls
+inexorable, they departed with a gloomy resolution, prepared to suffer
+the utmost extremities, and fight to the last for their seat of
+empire.
+
+25. Those vessels, therefore, of gold and silver, which their luxury
+had taken such pride in, were converted into arms. The women parted
+also with their ornaments, and even cut off their hair to be converted
+into strings for the bowmen. As'drubal, who had been lately condemned
+for opposing the Romans, was now taken from prison to head their army;
+and such preparations were made, that when the consuls came before the
+city, which they expected to find an easy conquest, they met with such
+resistance as quite dispirited their forces and shook their
+resolution. 26. Several engagements were fought before the walls, with
+disadvantage to the assailants; so that the siege would have been
+discontinued, had not Scip'io Æmilia'nus, the adopted son of
+Africa'nus, who was now appointed to command it, used as much skill to
+save his forces after a defeat, as to inspire them with fresh hopes of
+a victory. 27. But all his arts would have failed, had he not found
+means to seduce Phar'nes, the master of the Carthaginian horse, who
+came over to his side. The unhappy townsmen soon saw the enemy make
+nearer approaches; the wall which led to the haven was quickly
+demolished; soon after the forum itself was taken, which offered to
+the conquerors a deplorable spectacle of houses nodding to their fall,
+heaps of men lying dead, hundreds of the wounded struggling to emerge
+from the carnage around them, and deploring their own and their
+country's ruin. The citadel soon after surrendered at discretion. 28.
+All now but the temple was subdued, and that was defended by deserters
+from the Roman army, and those who had been most forward to undertake
+the war. These expected no mercy, and finding their condition desperate,
+set fire to the building, and voluntarily perished in the flames. This
+was the end of one of the most renowned cities in the world, for arts,
+opulence, and extent of dominion; it had rivalled Rome for above a
+hundred years, and, at one time, was thought to have the superiority.
+
+[Illustration: Destruction of Carthage.]
+
+29. The conquest of Carthage was soon followed by many others. The
+same year Corinth, one of the noblest cities of Greece, was levelled
+to the ground. Scip'io also having laid siege to Numan'tia, the
+strongest city in Spain, the wretched inhabitants, to avoid falling
+into the hands of the enemy, fired the city, over their own heads; and
+all, to a man, expired in the flames. Thus Spain became a Roman
+province, and was governed thenceforward by two annual prætors.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. With whom were the Romans at war besides Carthage, and who assisted
+in it?
+
+2. What was the success of Philip in this war?
+
+3. What was the consequence of peace with Philip?
+
+4. Who next fell under the displeasure of the Romans?
+
+5. What was the result?
+
+6. Were his offers accepted?
+
+7. Did Antiochus boldly face the Romans?
+
+8. What were the strength and character of the Roman army, and what
+the result of the battle?
+
+9. Was he able to make further resistance?
+
+10. Was Hannibal delivered up?
+
+11. What occasioned Hannibal to put himself in the power of Antiochus?
+
+12. Was this kindness lasting?
+
+13. Whither did he next betake himself?
+
+14. Was he in safety at this court?
+
+15. How did Hannibal escape his persecution?
+
+16. Against whom did the Romans next direct their arms?
+
+17. What occasioned it?
+
+18. Was Perseus a skilful general?
+
+19. What was the result of the war?
+
+20. What farther happened about this time?
+
+21. What was the consequence?
+
+22. Was this misunderstanding peaceably accommodated?
+
+23. By what means did the Carthaginians endeavour to avert their fate?
+
+24. Did they obey these orders?
+
+25. What extraordinary efforts were made for the defence of the city?
+
+26. Were the Romans successful in their attempts?
+
+27. Describe the progress of the siege.
+
+28. Was the city now completely in the power of the Romans?
+
+29. What other conquests were made by the Romans?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] From this time, Macedon became a Roman province.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE TO THE END OF THE SEDITION OF THE
+GRACCHI.--U.C. 621.
+
+  Seldom is faction's ire in haughty minds
+  Extinguished but by death; it oft, like flame
+  Suppressed, breaks forth again, and blazes higher.--_May._
+
+1. The Romans being now left without a rival, the triumphs and the
+spoils of Asia introduced a taste for splendid expense, and this
+produced avarice and inverted ambition. 2. The two Gracchi were the
+first who saw this strange corruption among the great, and resolved to
+repress it, by renewing the Licinian law, which had enacted that no
+person in the state should possess above five hundred acres of land.
+3. Tibe'rius Gracchus, the elder of the two, was, both for the
+advantages of his person and the qualities of his mind, very different
+from Scipio, of whom he was the grandson. He seemed more ambitious of
+power than desirous of glory; his compassion for the oppressed was
+equal to his animosity against the oppressors; but unhappily his
+passions, rather than his reason, operated even in his pursuits
+of virtue; and these always drove him beyond the line of duty. 4. This
+was the disposition of the elder Gracchus, who found the lower orders
+of people ready to second all his proposals. 5. The above law, though
+at first carried on with proper moderation, greatly disgusted the
+rich, who endeavoured to persuade the people that the proposer only
+aimed at disturbing the government, and throwing all things into
+confusion. 6. But Gracchus, who was a man of the greatest eloquence of
+his time, easily wiped off these impressions from the minds of the
+people, already irritated by their wrongs, and at length the law was
+passed.
+
+7. The death of At'talus, king of Per'gamus, furnished Gracchus with a
+new opportunity of gratifying the meaner part of the people at the
+expense of the great. 8. This king had by his last will made the
+Romans his heirs; and it was now proposed, that the money so left
+should be divided among the poor, in order to furnish them with proper
+utensils for cultivating the lands which became theirs by the late law
+of partition. 9. This caused still greater disturbances than before,
+and the senate assembled upon the occasion, in order to concert the
+most proper methods of securing these riches to themselves, which they
+now valued above the safety of the commonwealth. 10. They had numerous
+dependents, who were willing to give up liberty for plenty and ease.
+These, therefore, were commanded to be in readiness to intimidate the
+people, who expected no such opposition, and who were now attending to
+the harangues of Gracchus in the capitol. 11. Here, as a clamour was
+raised by the clients of the great on one side, and by the favourers
+of the law on the other, Gracchus found his speech entirely
+interrupted, and begged in vain to be attended to; till at last,
+raising his hand to his head, to intimate that his life was in danger,
+the partisans of the senate gave out that he wanted a diadem. 12. In
+consequence of this an universal uproar spread itself through all
+ranks of the people; the corrupt part of the senate were of opinion
+that the consul should defend the commonwealth by force of arms; but
+this prudent magistrate declining such violence, Scip'io Nas'ica,
+kinsman to Gracchus, immediately rose up, and preparing himself for
+the contest, desired that all who would defend the dignity and
+authority of the laws, should follow him. 13. Upon this, attended by a
+large body of senators and clients armed with clubs, he went directly
+to the Capitol, striking down all who ventured to resist.
+
+14. Tibe'rius Gracchus, perceiving by the tumult that his life was in
+danger, endeavoured to fly; and throwing away his robe to expedite his
+escape, attempted to get through the throng; but happening to fall
+over a person already on the ground, Sature'ius, one of his colleagues
+in the tribuneship, who was of the opposite faction, struck him dead
+with a piece of a seat; and not less than three hundred of his hearers
+shared the same fate, being killed in the tumult. 15. Nor did the
+vengeance of the senate rest here, but extended to numbers of those
+who seemed to espouse his cause; many of them were put to death, many
+were banished, and nothing was omitted to inspire the people with an
+abhorrence of his pretended crimes. Soon after the death of Gracchus a
+rebellion broke out in Sicily among the slaves, who, exasperated by
+the cruelties exercised upon them by their masters, revolted, and
+having seized Enna, chose one Eunus for their king. This new monarch
+gained considerable advantages over the Romans, took the strong city
+of Tauromin'ium, and protracted the war upwards of six years. At
+length he was completely defeated by the consul Rupil'ius, and his
+followers slaughtered or executed: as for Eunus, he died in prison.
+
+16. Ca'ius Gracchus was but twenty-one upon the death of Tibe'rius his
+brother; and as he was too young to be much dreaded by the great, so
+he was at first unwilling to incur their resentment by aims beyond his
+reach; he therefore lived in retirement, unseen and forgotten. 17.
+But, while he thus seemed desirous of avoiding popularity, he was
+employed in his solitude in the study of eloquence, which was the
+surest means to obtain it. 18. At length, when he thought himself
+qualified to serve his country, he offered himself a candidate for the
+_quæstorship_ to the army in Sardin'ia, which he easily obtained. His
+valour, affability, and temperance in this office were remarked by
+all. 19. The king of Numid'ia sending a present of corn to the Romans,
+ordered his ambassadors to say, that it was a tribute to the virtues
+of Ca'ius Gracchus. 20. This the senate treated with scorn, and
+ordered the ambassadors to be treated with contempt, as ignorant
+barbarians, which so inflamed the resentment of young Gracchus, that
+he immediately came from the army to complain of the indignity thrown
+upon his reputation, and to offer himself for the tribuneship of the
+people. 21. It was then that this youth, who had been hitherto
+neglected, proved a more formidable enemy than even his brother
+had been. Notwithstanding the warmest opposition from the senate, he
+was declared tribune by a very large majority; and he now prepared for
+the career which his brother had run before him.
+
+22. His first effort was to have Pompil'ius, one of the most
+inveterate of his brother's enemies, cited before the people; but
+rather than stand the event of a trial, he chose to go into voluntary
+banishment. 23. He next procured an edict, granting the freedom of the
+city to the inhabitants of La'tium, and soon after to all the people
+on the hither side of the Alps. 24. He afterwards fixed the price of
+corn at a moderate standard, and procured a monthly distribution of it
+among the people. 25. He then proceeded to an inspection into the late
+corruptions of the senate; in which the whole body being convicted of
+bribery, extortion, and the sale of offices (for at that time a total
+degeneracy seemed to have taken place,) a law was made, transferring
+the power of judging corrupt magistrates from the senate to the
+knights, which made a great alteration in the constitution.
+
+26. Gracchus, by these means, being grown not only popular, but
+powerful, was become an object at which the senate aimed all their
+resentment. 27. But he soon found the populace a faithless and
+unsteady support. They began to withdraw all their confidence from
+him, and to place it upon Drusus, a man insidiously set up against him
+by the senate. 28. It was in vain that he revived the Licin'ian law in
+their favour, and called up several of the inhabitants of the
+different towns of Italy to his support; the senate ordered all to
+depart from Rome, and even sent one stranger to prison whom Gracchus
+had invited to live with him, and honoured with his table and
+friendship. 29. To this indignity was shortly after added a disgrace
+of a more fatal tendency; for, standing for the tribuneship a third
+time, he was rejected. It was supposed that the officers, whose duty
+it was to make the return, were bribed to reject him, though fairly
+chosen.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What consequences followed this great prosperity of the Roman arms?
+
+2. Who first resolved to repress the corruption which had taken place
+in the manners of the people?
+
+3. What was the character of Tiberius Gracchus?
+
+4. Had he any influence with the people?
+
+5. How was the Licinian law received?
+
+6. Did the people believe them?
+
+7. What furthered his views?
+
+8. What advantages occurred to the Romans by his death?
+
+9. What was the effect of this will?
+
+10. What measures did they adopt for this purpose?
+
+11. What was the consequence of their interference?
+
+12. Was this insinuation believed?
+
+13. Did Scipio use violence?
+
+14. What was the fate of Gracchus and his friends?
+
+15. Were his enemies satisfied with this vengeance?
+
+16. What became of Caius Gracchus in the mean time?
+
+17. Was he really desirous of avoiding popularity?
+
+18. In what way did he bring himself into notice?
+
+19. What proof of esteem was given him?
+
+20. How was this compliment received?
+
+21. What was the consequence of this resentment?
+
+22. What was his first effort?
+
+23. What was his next act?
+
+24. What was the next?
+
+25. What followed?
+
+26. What was the consequence of these acts?
+
+27. Did he find steady friends?
+
+28. Were his measures of precaution successful?
+
+29. What farther indignities did he experience?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  Say, Romans, whence so dire a fury rose,
+  To glut with Latin blood your barbarous foes?
+  Could you in wars like these provoke your fate?
+  Wars, where no triumphs on the victors wait?--_Rowe's Lucan_.
+
+1. It was now seen that the fate of Gracchus was resolved on.
+Opim'ius, the consul, was not contented with the protection of the
+senate, the knights, and a numerous retinue of slaves and clients; he
+ordered a body of Candians, who were mercenaries in the Roman service,
+to follow and attend him. 2. Thus guarded, and conscious of the
+superiority of his forces, he insulted Gracchus whereever he met him,
+doing all in his power to produce a quarrel, in which he might have a
+pretence for despatching his enemy in the fray. 3. Gracchus avoided
+all recrimination, and, as if apprised of the consul's designs, would
+not even wear any arms for his defence. 4. His friend Ful'vius
+Flaccus, however, a zealous tribune, was not so remiss, but resolved
+to oppose party against party, and for this purpose brought up several
+countrymen to Rome, who came under pretence of desiring
+employment. 5. When the day for determining the controversy was
+arrived, the two parties, early in the morning, attended at the
+Capitol, where, while the consul was sacrificing, according to custom,
+one of the lictors taking up the entrails of the beast that was slain
+in order to remove them, could not forbear crying out to Flac'cus and
+his party, "Make way, ye factious citizens, for honest men." 6. This
+insult so provoked, the party to whom it was addressed, that they
+instantly fell upon him, and pierced him to death with the instruments
+they used in writing, which they then happened to have in their hands.
+7. This murder caused a great disturbance in the assembly. Gracchus,
+who saw the consequences that were likely to ensue, reprimanded his
+party for giving his enemies such advantage over him; and now prepared
+to lead his followers to Mount Av'entine. 8. It was there he learned,
+that a proclamation had been made by the consuls, that whosoever
+should bring either his head, or that of Flaccus, should receive its
+weight in gold as a reward. 9. It was to no purpose that he sent the
+youngest son of Flaccus, who was yet a child, with proposals for an
+accommodation. The senate and the consuls, who were sensible of their
+superiority, rejected all his offers, and resolved to punish his
+offence with nothing less than death; and they offered pardon also to
+all who should leave him immediately. 10. This produced the desired
+effect; the people fell from him by degrees, and left him with very
+inferior forces. 11. In the meantime, Opim'ius, the consul, who
+thirsted for slaughter, leading his forces up to Mount Av'entine, fell
+in among the crowd with ungovernable fury. A terrible slaughter of the
+scarcely resisting multitude ensued, and not less than three thousand
+citizens were slain upon the spot. 12. Flaccus attempted to find
+shelter in a ruinous cottage; but, being discovered, was slain, with
+his eldest son. Gracchus, at first, retired to the temple of Dian'a,
+where he resolved to die by his own hand, but was prevented by two of
+his faithful friends and followers, Pompo'nius and Lucin'ius, who
+forced him to seek safety by flight. Thence he made the best of his
+way across a bridge that led from the city, still attended by his two
+generous friends, and a Grecian slave, whose name was Philoc'rates.
+13. But his pursuers still pressed upon him from behind, and when come
+to the foot of the bridge, he was obliged to turn and face the enemy.
+His two friends were soon slain, defending him against the crowd; and
+he was forced to take refuge, with his slave, in a grove beyond
+the Ti'ber, which had long been dedicated to the Furies. 14. Here,
+finding himself surrounded on every side, and no way left of escaping,
+he prevailed upon his slave to despatch him. The slave immediately
+after killed himself, and fell down upon the body of his beloved
+master. The pursuers coming up, cut off the head of Gracchus, and
+placed it for a while as a trophy on a spear. 15. Soon after, one
+Septimule'ius carried it home, and taking out the brain artfully
+filled it with lead, in order to increase its weight, and then
+received of the consul seventeen pounds of gold as his recompence.
+
+16. Thus died Cai'us Gracchus. He is usually impeached by historians,
+as guilty of sedition; but from what we see of his character, the
+disturbance of public tranquillity was rather owing to his opposers
+than to him; so that, instead of calling the tumults of that time the
+sedition of the Gracchi, we should rather call them the sedition of
+the senate against the Gracchi; since the efforts of the latter were
+made in vindication of a law to which the senate had assented; and the
+designs of the former were supported by an extraneous armed power from
+the country, that had never before meddled in the business of
+legislation, and whose introduction gave a most irrecoverable blow to
+the constitution. 17. Whether the Gracchi were actuated by motives of
+ambition or of patriotism, in the promulgation of the law, it is
+impossible to determine; but from what appears, justice was on their
+side, and all injury on that of the senate. 18. In fact, this body was
+now changed from that venerable assembly, which we have seen
+overthrowing Pyr'rhus and Hannibal, as much by their virtues as their
+arms. They were now only to be distinguished from the rest of the
+people by their superior luxuries; and ruled the commonwealth by the
+weight of an authority gained from riches and mercenary dependents.
+19. The venal and the base were attached to them from motives of
+self-interest; and they who still ventured to be independent, were
+borne down, and entirely lost in an infamous majority. 20. In short,
+the empire at this period came under the government of a hateful
+aristocracy; the tribunes, who were formerly accounted protectors of
+the people, becoming rich themselves, and having no longer opposite
+interests from those of the senate, concurred in their oppressions;
+for the struggle was not now between patricians and plebeians, who
+only nominally differed, but between the rich and the poor. 21.
+The lower orders of the state being by these means reduced to a degree
+of hopeless subjection, instead of looking after liberty, only sought
+for a leader; while the rich, with all the suspicion of tyrants,
+terrified at the slightest appearance of opposition, entrusted men
+with uncontrollable power, from whom they had not strength to withdraw
+it when the danger was over. 22. Thus both parties of the state
+concurred in giving up their freedom; the fears of the senate first
+made the dictator, and the hatred of the people kept him in his
+office. Nothing can be more dreadful to a thinking mind than the
+government of Rome from this period, till it found refuge under the
+protection of Augus'tus.[1]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What appearances now threatened the life of Gracchus?
+
+2. How did he commence hostilities?
+
+3. How did Gracchus attempt to divert the storm?
+
+4. Were his friends equally prudent?
+
+5. What unhappy incident increased the animosity?
+
+6. How was this insult revenged?
+
+7. What was the consequence of this outrage?
+
+8. What news did he hear on his arrival?
+
+9. Did he attempt to conciliate his enemies, and were his attempts
+successful?
+
+10. Was this offer accepted?
+
+11. What was the conduct of the consul?
+
+12. What was the fate of the chiefs?
+
+13. Did Gracchus effect his escape?
+
+14. Did he fall into the hands of his enemies?
+
+15. What artifice did avarice contrive?
+
+16.' Was the conduct of Gracchus deserving of praise or blame?
+
+17. By what motives were the Gracchi supposed to be actuated?
+
+18. What was the character of the senate at this period?
+
+19. What was the character of their adherents?
+
+20. What was the nature of their government?
+
+31. What concurred to perpetuate this tyranny?
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] From the death of Gracchus until the first consulship of Marius,
+Rome was governed by a venal and profligate oligarchy, formed from a
+coalition of the most powerful families. Shame was unknown to this
+body; the offices of state were openly sold to the highest bidder,
+redress of grievances was to be obtained only by paying a heavier sum
+for vengeance than the oppressor would give for impunity: advocacy of
+popular rights was punished as treason, and complaints were treated as
+criminal acts of sedition. The young patricians, under such a system,
+became the scourge of the state, for nothing remained safe from their
+violence or their lust, when the monopoly of judicial office by their
+friends and relatives insured them impunity for every excess, however
+flagrant or disgraceful.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE SEDITION OF GRACCHUS TO THE PERPETUAL DICTATORSHIP OF SYLLA,
+WHICH WAS THE FIRST STEP TOWARDS THE RUIN OF THE COMMONWEALTH.--U.C.
+634.
+
+  By brutal Marius, and keen Sylla, first
+  Effused the deluge dire of civil blood,
+  Unceasing woes began.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. While the Romans were in this state of deplorable corruption at
+home, they nevertheless were very successful in their transactions
+with foreign powers.
+
+2. Among other victories, a signal one was gained over Jugur'tha, king
+of Numid'ia. He was grandson to Massinis'sa, who sided with Rome
+against Hannibal, and educated with the two young princes, who were
+left to inherit the kingdom. 3. Being superior in abilities to both,
+and greatly in favour with the people, he murdered Hiemp'sal, the
+eldest son, but Adher'bal, the younger, escaped, and fled to the
+Romans for succour. 4. Jugur'tha, sensible how much avarice and
+injustice had crept into the senate, sent his ambassadors to Rome with
+large presents, which so successfully prevailed, that the senate
+decreed him half the kingdom thus acquired by murder and usurpation,
+and sent ten commissioners to divide it between him and Adher'bal. 5.
+The commissioners, of whom Opim'ius, the enemy of Gracchus, was one,
+willing to follow the example which the senate had set them, were also
+bribed to bestow the richest and most populous parts of that kingdom
+upon the usurper. 6. But Jugur'tha resolved to possess himself of the
+whole: and willing to give a colour to his ambition, he only made, in
+the beginning, incursions in order to provoke reprisals, which he knew
+how to convert into seeming aggression. 7. This scheme failing, he
+resolved to throw off the mask, and besieging Adher'bal in Cirta, his
+capital, he at length got him into his power, and murdered him. 8. The
+Roman people, who had still some generosity remaining, unanimously
+complained of this treachery, and procured a decree that Jugur'tha
+should be summoned in person before them, to give an account of all
+such as had accepted bribes. 9. Jugur'tha made no difficulty of
+throwing himself upon the clemency of Rome; but not giving the
+people satisfaction, he had orders to depart the city.[1] 10. In the
+meantime, Alba'nus, the consul, was sent with an army to follow him,
+who giving up the direction of it to Au'lus, his brother; a person who
+was every way unqualified for the command, the Romans were compelled
+to hazard a battle upon disadvantageous terms; and the whole army, to
+avoid being cut to pieces, was obliged to pass under the yoke.
+
+11. In this condition Metel'lus, the succeeding consul, found affairs
+upon his arrival in Numid'ia; officers in whom the soldiers had no
+confidence, an army without discipline, and an enemy ever watchful and
+intriguing. 12. However, by his great attention to business, and by
+integrity that shuddered at corruption, he soon began to retrieve the
+affairs of Rome, and the credit of the army. In the space of two
+years, Jugur'tha was overthrown in several battles, forced out of his
+own dominions, and constrained to beg a peace. 13. Thus all things
+promised Metel'lus a happy termination of the war; but he was
+frustrated in his expectations by the intrigues of Ca'ius Ma'rius, his
+lieutenant, who came in to reap that harvest of glory which the
+other's industry had sown. 14. Ca'ius Ma'rius was born in a village
+near Apin'ium, of poor parents, who gained their living by their
+labour. As he had been bred up in a participation of their toils, his
+manners were as rude as his countenance was frightful. He was a man of
+extraordinary stature, incomparable strength, and undaunted bravery.
+
+15. When Metel'lus was obliged to solicit at Rome for a continuance of
+his command, Ma'rius, whose ambition knew no bounds, was resolved to
+obtain it for himself, and thus gain all the glory of putting an end
+to the war. 16. To that end he privately inveighed against Metel'lus
+by his emissaries at Rome, and having excited a spirit of discontent
+against him, he had leave granted him to go there to stand for the
+consulship, which he obtained, contrary to the expectation and
+interest of the nobles.
+
+17. Marius, being thus invested with the supreme power of managing the
+war, showed himself every way fit for the commission. His vigilance
+was equal to his valour, and he quickly made himself master of the
+cities which Jugur'tha had yet remaining in Numid'ia.[2] 18. This
+unfortunate prince, finding himself unable to make opposition singly
+was obliged to have recourse for assistance to Bocchus, king of
+Maurita'nia, to whose daughter he was married. A battle soon after
+ensued, in which the Numid'ians surprised the Roman camp by night, and
+gained a temporary advantage. However, it was but of short
+continuance, for Ma'rius soon after overthrew them in two signal
+engagements, in one of which not less than ninety thousand of the
+African army were slain. 19. Bocchus now finding the Romans too
+powerful to be resisted, did not think it expedient to hazard his own
+crown, to protect that of his ally; he, therefore, determined to make
+peace, upon whatever conditions he might obtain it; and accordingly
+sent to Rome, imploring protection. 20. The senate received the
+ambassadors with their usual haughtiness, and without complying with
+their request, granted the suppliant, not their friendship, but their
+pardon. Notwithstanding, after some time, he was given to understand,
+that the delivering up of Jugur'tha to the Romans would, in some
+measure, conciliate their favour, and soften their resentment. 21. At
+first the pride of Bocchus struggled against such a proposal; but a
+few interviews with Sylla reconciled him to this treacherous measure,
+and Jugur'tha was given up, being drawn into an ambuscade by the
+specious pretences of his ally, who deluded him by desiring a
+conference; and being made a prisoner, he was loaded with chains, and
+carried by Ma'rius to Rome, a deplorable instance of blighted
+ambition. 22. He did not long survive his overthrow, being condemned
+by the senate to be starved to death in prison, a short time after he
+had been made to adorn the triumph of the conqueror.[3]
+
+23. Ma'rius, by this and two succeeding victories over the Gauls,
+having become very formidable to distant nations in war, became soon
+after much more dangerous to his fellow-citizens in peace. 24. The
+strength which he had given to the popular party every day grew more
+conspicuous, and the Italians, being frustrated by the intrigues of
+the senate in their aims of gaining the freedom of Rome, resolved upon
+obtaining by force, what was refused them as a favour. This gave rise
+to the Social War, in which most of the states of Italy entered into a
+confederacy against Rome, in order to obtain a redress of their
+grievances.
+
+25. After a lapse of two years, this war having continued to rage with
+doubtful success, the senate began to reflect that, whether conquered
+or conquerors, the power of the Romans was in danger of being
+destroyed. 26. To soften, therefore, their compliance by degrees, they
+began by giving the freedom of the city to such of the Italian states
+as had not revolted. They then offered it to such as would lay down
+their arms. 27. This unexpected bounty had its effect; the allies,
+with mutual distrust, offered each a separate treaty; the senate took
+them one by one into favour, but gave the freedom of the city in such
+a manner, that, not being empowered to vote until all the other tribes
+had given their suffrages, they had very little weight in the
+constitution.
+
+28. This destructive war being concluded, the senate began to think of
+turning their arms against Mithrida'tes, the most powerful and warlike
+monarch of the east.[4] 29. For this expedition Ma'rius had long been
+preparing, but Sylla had interest enough to get himself appointed to
+the expedition. Ma'rius, however, tried all his arts with the people
+to get his appointment reversed; and the command of the army, intended
+to oppose Mithrida'tes, was ordered to be transferred from Sylla to
+Ma'rius. 30. In consequence of this, Ma'rius immediately sent officers
+from Rome, to take the command in his name. But instead of being
+obeyed, the officers were slain, and Sylla was entreated by the army
+to lead them directly to take signal vengeance upon all his enemies at
+Rome.
+
+31. Accordingly, his soldiers entered the city sword in hand, as
+a place taken by storm. Ma'rius and Sulpi'cius, at the head of a
+tumultuary body of their partisans, attempted to oppose their
+entrance; and the citizens themselves, who feared the sackage of the
+place, threw down stones and tiles from the houses upon the intruders.
+32. So unequal a conflict lasted longer than could have been expected;
+at length Ma'rius and his party were obliged to seek safety by flight,
+after having vainly offered liberty to the slaves who would assist
+them.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. Was this internal degeneracy of the Roman people accompanied by ill
+success abroad?
+
+2. What signal victory did they obtain, and who was Jugurtha?
+
+3. By what means did he obtain the crown?
+
+4. How did he propitiate the Romans?
+
+5. How did these commissoners? discharge their trust?
+
+6. Was Jugurtha satisfied with this allotment?
+
+7. Did this answer his purpose?
+
+8. Did the Romans suffer this treachery to pass unpunished?
+
+9. Did Jugurtha obey this summons?
+
+10. Were hostilities commenced against him, and what was the result?
+
+11. What was the condition of the army when Metellus assumed the
+command?
+
+12. Did this deplorable state continue?
+
+13. Did Metellus enjoy the fruits of his victories?
+
+14. Who was Caius Marius?
+
+15. What resolution did he adopt?
+
+16. By what artifices did he succeed in his design?
+
+17. What was the conduct of Marius in his new command?
+
+18. To whom did Jugurtha have recourse in his extremity?
+
+19. Did Bocchus continue to befriend Jugurtha?
+
+20. Was his request complied with?
+
+21. Did Bocchus submit to this condition?
+
+22. What became of Jugurtha after this?
+
+23. How did Marius conduct himself after his victories?
+
+24. What was the consequence of his attempts at popularity?
+
+25. Was this war of long continuance?
+
+26. What measure did the senate adopt to end it?
+
+27. What was the consequence of this measure?
+
+28. Against whom did the senate next turn their arms?
+
+29. Who was appointed to command this expedition?
+
+30. What was the consequence of this order?
+
+31. Did Sylla comply with their request?
+
+32. What was the issue of the contest?
+
+[Illustration: Marius sitting among the Ruins of Carthage.]
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+                      It is a vain attempt
+  To bind th' ambitious and unjust by treaties.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. Sylla, now finding himself master of the city, began by modelling
+the laws so as to favour his outrages; while Ma'rius, driven out of
+Rome and declared a public enemy at the age of seventy, was obliged to
+save himself, unattended and on foot, from the pursuit of those who
+sought his life. 2. After having wandered for some time in this
+deplorable condition, he found every day his dangers increase, and his
+pursuers making nearer advances. In this distress he concealed himself
+in the marshes of Mintur'næ, where he continued a night up to the chin
+in a quagmire. 3. At break of day he left this dismal place, and made
+towards the seaside, in hopes of finding a ship to facilitate his
+escape; but being known and discovered by some of the inhabitants, he
+was conducted to a neighbouring town, with a halter round his neck,
+without clothes, and covered with mud; and in this condition was sent
+to prison. 4. The governor of the place, willing to conform to the
+orders of the senate, soon after sent a Cim'brian slave to despatch
+him; but the barbarian no sooner entered the dungeon for this purpose
+than he stopped short, intimidated by the dreadful visage and awful
+voice of the fallen general, who sternly demanded if he had the
+presumption to kill Ca'ius Ma'rius? The slave, unable to reply, threw
+down his sword, and rushing back from the prison, cried
+out, that he found it impossible to kill him! 5. The governor,
+considering the fear of the slave as an omen in the unhappy exile's
+favour, gave him his freedom; and, commending him to his fortune,
+provided him with a ship to convey him from Italy. 6. He was forced by
+a tempest on the coast of Sicily. A Roman quæstor, who happened to be
+there, resolved to seize him; and he lost sixteen of his crew, who
+were killed in their endeavours to cover his retreat to the ship. He
+afterwards landed in Africa, near Carthage, and, overwhelmed with
+melancholy, sat himself down amongst the ruins of that desolate place.
+He soon, however had orders from the prætor to retire. 7. Marius, who
+remembered his having once served this very man in necessity, could
+not suppress his indignation at finding ingratitude every where: and,
+preparing to obey, bid the messenger tell his master, that he had seen
+Ma'rius sitting among the ruins of Carthage; intimating the greatness
+of his fall, by the desolation that was around him. 8. He once more
+embarked, and not knowing where to land without encountering an enemy,
+he spent the winter at sea, expecting every hour the return of a
+messenger from his son, whom he had sent to solicit protection from
+the African prince, Mandras'tal. 9. After long expectation, instead of
+the messenger, his son himself arrived, having escaped from the
+inhospitable court of that monarch, where he had been kept, not as a
+friend, but as a prisoner, and had returned just time enough to
+prevent his father from sharing the same fate. 10. In this situation
+they were informed that Cinna, one of their party who had remained at
+Rome, had put himself at the head of a large army, collected out of
+the Italian states, who had espoused his cause. Nor was it long before
+they joined their forces at the gates of Rome. Sylla was at that time
+absent in his command against Mithri'dates. 11. Cinna marched into the
+city; but Ma'rius stopped, and refused to enter, alleging, that having
+been banished by a public decree, it was necessary to have another to
+authorise his return. It was thus that he desired to give his
+meditated cruelties the appearance of justice; and while he was about
+to destroy thousands, to pretend an implicit veneration for the laws.
+12. An assembly of the people being called, they began to reverse his
+banishment; but they had scarcely gone through three of the tribes,
+when, incapable of restraining his desire of revenge, he entered the
+city at the head of his guards, and massacred all who had been
+obnoxious to him, without remorse or pity. 13. Several who sought to
+propitiate the tyrant's rage, were murdered by his command in his
+presence; many even of those who had never offended him were put to
+death; and, at last, even his own officers never approached him but
+with terror. 14. Having in this manner satiated his revenge, he next
+abrogated all the laws which were enacted by his rival, and then made
+himself consul with Cinna. 15. Thus gratified in his two favourite
+passions, vengeance and ambition, having once saved his country, and
+now deluged it with blood, at last, as if willing to crown the pile of
+slaughter which he had made, with his own body, he died the month
+after, not without suspicion of having hastened his end. 16. In the
+mean time these accounts were brought to Sylla, who had been sent
+against Mithrida'tes, and who was performing many signal exploits
+against him; hastily concluding a peace, therefore, he returned home
+to take vengeance on his enemies at Rome. 17. Nothing could intimidate
+Cinna from attempting to repel his opponent. Being joined by Car'bo,
+(now elected in the room of Vale'rius, who had been slain) together
+with young Ma'rius, who inherited all the abilities and the ambition
+of his father, he determined to send over part of the forces he had
+raised in Dalma'tia to oppose Sylla before he entered Italy. Some
+troops were accordingly embarked; but being dispersed by a storm, the
+others that had not yet put to sea, absolutely refused to go. 18. Upon
+this, Cinna, quite furious at their disobedience, rushed forward to
+persuade them to their duty. In the mean time one of the most mutinous
+of the soldiers being struck by an officer, returned the blow, and was
+apprehended for his crime. This ill-timed severity produced a tumult
+and a mutiny through the whole army; and, while Cinna did all he could
+to appease it, he was run through the body by one of the crowd. 19.
+Scip'io, the consul, who commanded against Sylla, was soon after
+allured by proposals for a treaty; but a suspension of arms being
+agreed upon, Sylla's soldiers went into the opposite camp, displaying
+those riches which they had acquired in their expeditions, and
+offering to participate with their fellow-citizens, in case they
+changed their party. 20. In consequence of this the whole army
+declared unanimously for Sylla; and Scip'io scarcely knew that he was
+forsaken and deposed, till he was informed of it by a party of the
+enemy, who, entering his tent, made him and his son prisoners.
+
+21. In this manner both factions, exasperated to the highest
+degree, and expecting no mercy on either part, gave vent to their fury
+in several engagements. The forces on the side of young Ma'rius, who
+now succeeded his father in command, were the most numerous, but those
+of Sylla better united, and more under subordination. 22. Carbo, who
+commanded for Ma'rius in the field, sent eight legions to Prænes'te,
+to relieve his colleague, but they were met by Pompey, afterwards
+surnamed the Great, in a defile, who slew many of them, and dispersed
+the rest. Carbo soon after engaged Metel'lus, but was overcome, with
+the loss of ten thousand slain, and six thousand taken prisoners. 23.
+In consequence, Urba'nus, one of the consuls, killed himself, and
+Carbo fled to Africa, where, after wandering a long time, he was at
+last delivered up to Pompey, who, to please Sylla, ordered him to be
+beheaded. 24. Sylla, now become undisputed master of his country,
+entered Rome at the head of his army. Happy, had he supported in peace
+the glory which he had acquired in war; or, had he ceased to live when
+he ceased to conquer!
+
+25. Eight thousand men, who had escaped the general carnage,
+surrendered themselves to the conqueror; he ordered them to be put
+into the Villa Pub'lica, a large house in the Campus Mar'tius; and, at
+the same time, convoked the senate: there, without discovering the
+least emotion, he spoke with great fluency of his own exploits, and,
+in the mean time, gave private directions that all those wretches whom
+he had confined, should be slain. 26. The senate, amazed at the horrid
+outcries of the sufferers, at first thought that the city was given up
+to plunder; but Sylla, with an unembarrassed air, informed them, that
+it was only some criminals who were punished by his order, and that
+the senate ought not to make themselves uneasy at their fate. 27. The
+day after he proscribed forty senators, and sixteen hundred knights;
+and after an intermission of two days, forty senators more, with an
+infinite number of the richest citizens. 28. He next resolved to
+invest himself with the dictatorship, and that for a perpetuity; and
+thus uniting all civil as well as military power in his own person, he
+thought he might thence give an air of justice to every oppression.
+29. Thus he continued to govern with capricious tyranny, none daring
+to resist his power, until, contrary to the expectation of all
+mankind, he laid down the dictatorship, after having held it not quite
+three years.
+
+[Illustration: Sylla reproaching the little image of Apollo with his
+defeat.]
+
+30 After this, he retired into the country, and abandoned himself to
+debauchery; but he did not long survive his abdication; he was seized
+with a horrible distemper, and died a loathsome and mortifying object,
+and a melancholy proof of the futility of human ambition.[5]
+
+The character of Sylla exhibits a singular compound of great and mean
+qualities. Superstition was one of its features. It is said that
+having suffered a defeat in the course of the Social War, in Italy, he
+drew from his bosom a little image of Apollo, which he had stolen from
+the temple of Delphi, and had ever since carried about him when
+engaged in war. Kissing it with great devotion, he expostulated with
+the god, for having brought him to perish dishonourably, with his
+countrymen, at the gates of his native city, after having raised him
+by many victories to such a height of glory and greatness.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the first acts of Sylla?
+
+2. What became of Marius?
+
+3. To what dangers was he exposed?
+
+4. Was an attempt made on his life?
+
+5. How did the governor treat the fugitive general?
+
+6. What ingratitude was shown to Marius?
+
+7. What was his reply?
+
+8. From what African prince did he ask aid?
+
+9. Was it granted?
+
+10. What opportunity was taken by the Marian party to renew the
+struggle?
+
+11. To what scruple did Marius pretend?
+
+12. What proves it a pretence?
+
+13. What cruelties were practised by Marius?
+
+14. What laws did he change? 15. How did Marius die?
+
+16. How did Sylla act when he learned the news of the change?
+
+17. What caused a tumult in Cinna's army?
+
+18. How did it end?
+
+19. What artifice was practised on Scipio?
+
+20. What was the result?
+
+21. Describe the relative condition of the rival forces?
+
+22. Did Pompey obtain any victory?
+
+23. What was the consequence?
+
+24. Which faction finally prevailed?
+
+25. What massacre was perpetrated by Sylla?
+
+26. How did he excuse it? 27. Were these his only cruelties?
+
+28. What magistracy did Sylla usurp?
+
+29. How did he govern?
+
+30. In what manner did the tyranny of Sylla terminate?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] So astonished was Jugur'tha at the mercenary disposition
+discovered by the Romans, that he is said to have exclaimed, on
+leaving the city, "Oh, Rome! thou wouldst thyself be sold, could a
+chapman be found to purchase thee."
+
+[2] It has been said with great truth, that "the wicked have no
+friends." Jugur'tha experienced this. Bomil'car, who professed the
+warmest attachment to Jugur'tha, was gained over by the proconsul
+Metel'lus to persuade his master, that submission to the Romans was
+absolutely necessary. Jugur'tha accordingly sent an embassy to the
+proconsul, professing his readiness to submit to any terms. Upon this
+he was required to send to the Romans 200,000 pounds weight of silver,
+all his elephants, a certain number of horses and arms, and all
+deserters. The king complied exactly with these hard conditions; but
+after thus weakening his resources, he found himself still obliged to
+continue the war, or submit to such farther impositions as would have
+endangered, not only his crown, but his life.
+
+[3] Never did any one more deservedly suffer than this treacherous and
+cruel man.
+
+[4] This king incurred the resentment of the Romans by making war on
+some of their allies, and by putting Op'pius and Aquil'ius to death.
+Upbraiding the Romans with their avarice and corruption, he caused
+melted gold to be poured down the throat of the latter.
+
+[5] Two events, important in the history of Rome, occurred about this
+time. Serto'rius, a Roman general, in Spain, had rebelled against the
+government of Syl'la, and defeated every army sent against him, till
+Pompey took the command; and even then the result appeared doubtful,
+till Serto'rius, being assassinated by his own officers put an end to
+the war. Spar'tacus, a gladiator, having escaped from confinement, and
+assembled a number of his followers, commenced what is called the
+second Servile War. His army gradually increasing, he became a
+formidable enemy to the Roman state; overthrew the prætors and consuls
+sent against him; but was at length defeated by Crassus, and the
+remains of his army cut in pieces by Pompey, who met them on his
+return from Spain.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+FROM THE PERPETUAL DICTATORSHIP OF SYLLA TO THE TRIUMVIRATE OF CÆSAR,
+POMPEY, AND CRASSUS.--U.C. 680.
+
+
+  With Tully she her wide reviving light
+  To senates holds, a Catiline confounds.
+  And saves awhile from Cæsar sinking Rome.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. Upon the death of Sylla, the jealousies of Pompey and Crassus, the
+two most powerful men in the empire, began to excite fresh
+dissensions. Pompey was the most beloved general, but Crassus the
+richest man in Rome.
+
+2. The first opportunity that was offered of discovering their mutual
+jealousy, was upon disbanding their troops. Neither chose to begin; so
+that the most fatal consequences were likely to arise from their
+dissension. At length Crassus, stifling his resentment, laid down his
+command; and the other followed his example immediately after. 3.
+The next trial between them was, who should be foremost in obtaining
+the favour of the people. Crassus entertained the populace at a
+thousand tables, distributed corn to the families of the poor, and fed
+the greatest part of the citizens for nearly three months. Pompey, on
+the other hand, laboured to abrogate the laws made against the
+authority of the people by Sylla; restored to the knights the power of
+judging, which had been formerly granted them by Gracchus; and gave
+back to the tribunes all their former privileges. 4. Thus each gave
+his private aims an appearance of zeal for the public good; so that
+what was in reality ambition in both, took with one the name of
+liberality; with the other, that of a love of freedom.
+
+5. An expedition, in which Pompey cleared the Mediterranean, which was
+infested by pirates, having added greatly to his reputation, the
+tribunes of the people hoped it would be easy to advance their
+favourite still higher. 6. Man'lius, therefore, one of the number,
+preferred a law, that all the armies of the empire, the government of
+Asia, and the management of the war which was renewed against
+Mithrida'tes, should be committed to Pompey alone. The law passed,
+with little opposition, and the decree was confirmed.
+
+7. Being thus appointed to the command of that important war, he
+departed for Asia. 8. Mithrida'tes had been obliged by Lucul'lus to
+take refuge in Lesser Armenia, and thither that general was preparing
+to follow him, when his whole army abandoned him; so that it remained
+for Pompey to terminate the war, which he effected with great ease and
+expedition, adding a large extent of dominion to the Roman empire, and
+returning to Rome in triumph at the head of his conquering army.
+
+9. But the victories of Pompey rather served to heighten the glory
+than to increase the power of Rome; they made it more a glaring object
+of ambition, and exposed its liberties to greater danger. Those
+liberties, indeed, seemed devoted to ruin on every side; for, even
+while he was pursuing his conquests abroad, Rome was at the verge of
+ruin from a conspiracy at home. 10. This conspiracy was projected and
+carried on by Ser'gius Cat'iline, a patrician by birth, who resolved
+to build his own power on the downfall of his country. 11. He was
+singularly formed, both by art and nature, to conduct a conspiracy: he
+was possessed of courage equal to the most desperate attempts, and of
+eloquence to give a colour to his ambition: ruined in his
+fortunes, profligate in his manners, vigilant in pursuing his aims, he
+was insatiable after wealth, only with a view to lavish it on his
+guilty pleasures. 12. Cat'iline having contracted debts in consequence
+of such an ill-spent life, was resolved to extricate himself from them
+by any means, however unlawful. Accordingly, he assembled about thirty
+of his debauched associates, and informed them of his aims, his hopes,
+and his settled plans of operations. 13. It was resolved among them,
+that a general insurrection should be raised throughout Italy, the
+different parts of which he assigned to different leaders. Rome was to
+be fired at several places at once; and Cat'iline, at the head of an
+army raised in Etru'ria, was, in the general confusion, to possess
+himself of the city, and massacre all the senators. Len'tulus, one of
+his profligate assistants, who had been prætor, or judge in the city,
+was to preside in their general councils; Cethe'gus, a man who
+sacrificed the possession of great present power to the hopes of
+gratifying his revenge against Cicero,[1] was to direct the massacre
+through the city; and Cas'sius was to conduct those who fired it.
+
+14. But the vigilance of Ci'cero being the chief obstacle to their
+designs, Catiline was very desirous to see him taken off before he
+left Rome; upon which two knights of the company undertook to kill him
+the next morning in his bed, in an early visit, on pretence of
+business. 15. But the meeting was no sooner over, than Ci'cero had
+information of all that passed in it; for, by the intrigues of a woman
+named Ful'via, he had gained over Cu'rius, her lover, one of the
+conspirators, to send him a punctual account of all their
+deliberations. 16. Having taken proper precautions to guard himself
+against the designs of his morning visitors, who were punctual to the
+appointment, he next took care to provide for the defence of the city;
+when, assembling the senate, he consulted what was best to be done in
+such a time of danger.
+
+[Illustration: Curius, disclosing Catiline's conspiracy to Fulvia.]
+
+17. The first step taken was to offer considerable rewards for farther
+discoveries, and then to prepare for the defence of the state.
+18. Cat'iline, to show how well he could dissemble, or justify any
+crime, went boldly to the senate, declaring his innocence;[2] but,
+when confronted by the eloquence of Ci'cero, he hastily withdrew,
+declaring aloud, that since he was denied a vindication of himself,
+and driven headlong into rebellion by his enemies, he would extinguish
+the flame which was raised about him in universal ruin. 19. After a
+short conference with Len'tulus and Cethe'gus, he left Rome by night,
+with a small retinue, to hasten towards Etru'ria, where Man'lius, one
+of the conspirators, was raising an army to support him.[3]
+
+20. In the mean time Ci'cero took proper precautions to secure all
+those of the conspiracy who remained in Rome. Len'tulus, Cethe'gus,
+Cas'sius, and several others, were put into confinement; and soon
+after strangled in prison.
+
+21. While his associates were put to death in the city, Cat'iline had
+raised an army of twelve thousand men, of which a fourth part only
+were completely armed, the rest being furnished with such weapons as
+chance afforded; darts, lances, and clubs. 22. He refused, at first,
+to enlist slaves, who flocked to him in great numbers, trusting to the
+strength of the conspiracy; but upon the approach of the consul, who
+was sent against him, and upon the arrival of the news that his
+confederates were put to death, the face of affairs altered. 23.
+His first attempt, therefore, was, by long marches, to make his escape
+over the Appenines into Gaul; but in this his hopes were disappointed;
+all the passes being guarded by an army superior to his own. 24. Being
+thus hemmed in on every side, and seeing all things desperate, with
+nothing left him but either to die or conquer, he resolved to make one
+vigorous effort against that army which pursued him. Anto'nius, the
+consul, being sick, the command devolved upon Petrei'us, who, after a
+fierce and bloody action in which he lost a considerable part of his
+best troops, put Cat'iline's forces to the rout, and destroyed his
+whole army.[4]
+
+25. The extinction of this conspiracy seemed only to leave an open
+theatre for the ambition of the great men to display itself in. Pompey
+was now returned in triumph from conquering the east, as he had before
+been victorious in Europe and Africa.
+
+26. Crassus was the richest man in Rome, and next to Pompey, possessed
+the greatest authority; his party in the senate was even greater than
+that of his rival, and the envy raised against him was less. He and
+Pompey had long been disunited by an opposition of interests and of
+characters; however, it was from a continuance of their mutual
+jealousies that the state was in some measure to expect its future
+safety. 27. It was in this situation of things that Julius Cæsar, who
+had lately gone, as prætor, into Spain, and had returned with great
+riches and glory, resolved to convert their mutual jealousy to his own
+advantage. 28. This celebrated man was descended from popular and
+illustrious ancestors. He warmly espoused the side of the people, and
+shortly after the death of Sylla, procured the recall of those whom
+Sylla had banished. He had all along declared for the populace against
+the senate, and became their most favourite magistrate. 29. This
+consummate statesman began by offering his services to Pompey,
+promising to assist him in getting all his acts passed,
+notwithstanding the senate's opposition. Pompey, pleased at the
+acquisition of a person of so much merit, readily granted him his
+confidence and protection. 30. He next applied to Crassus, who, from
+former connections, was disposed to become still more nearly his
+friend. 31. At length, finding them not averse to an union of
+interests, he took an opportunity of bringing them together; and,
+remonstrating with them on the advantages as well as the necessity of
+a reconciliation, he had art enough to persuade them to forget former
+animosities. 32. A combination was thus formed, by which they agreed
+that nothing should be done in the commonwealth without their mutual
+concurrence and approbation. This was called the first Trium'virate,
+by which we find the constitution weakened by a new interest which had
+not hitherto taken place, very different from that of the senate or
+the people, and yet dependent on both.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What followed on the death of Sylla?
+
+2. What first discovered their mutual jealousy?
+
+3. What was the next trial between them?
+
+4. Under what pretences did they hide their real views?
+
+5. What farther raised the reputation of Pompey?
+
+6. What means were had recourse to for this purpose?
+
+7, 8. What was the state of the war in Asia?
+
+9. What were the consequences of Pompey's victories?
+
+10. Who was the author, and what was the object of this conspiracy?
+
+11. What was the character of Catiline?
+
+12. What occasioned this conspiracy?
+
+13. How was it to be carried into execution?
+
+14. What was the chief obstacle to its accomplishment, and how was
+this obstacle to be removed?
+
+15. Was Cicero informed of their proceedings?
+
+16. What precautions did he take in consequence?
+
+17. What was the first step taken?
+
+18. What was the conduct of Catiline on this occasion?
+
+19. Did he continue in Rome?
+
+20. Did the other conspirators escape?
+
+21. How was Catiline employed in the mean time?
+
+22. Had he a fair prospect of success?
+
+23. Did he boldly face his opponents?
+
+24. What followed?
+
+25. Did the extinction of this conspiracy give peace to Rome?
+
+26. Who were the contending parties, and what was the consequence of
+this dissension?
+
+27. Who profited by these jealousies?
+
+28. Who was Julius Cæsar, and by what means did he acquire popularity?
+
+29. What was his first step towards power?
+
+30. To whom did he next apply?
+
+31. What consequence resulted from his application?
+
+32. What agreement was entered into by them, and what were they
+called?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Ci'cero, the first of Roman orators, as Demos'thenes was of the
+Greek, was born at Arpin'um, a town of the Volsci, and studied under
+the most celebrated orators and philosophers of Greece. His style of
+eloquence was copious, highly ornamented, and addressed more to the
+passions than to the judgment of his hearers. He was consul at the
+time of Cat'iline's conspiracy; and, for his eminent services in
+detecting and frustrating it, was honoured with the title of Pater
+Patriæ.
+
+[2] On his entrance, the senators near whom he attempted to seal
+himself, quitting their places, left him quite alone.
+
+[3] On his arrival, he assumed all the insignia of a supreme
+magistrate being preceded by lictors carrying the axes and fasces.
+
+[4] Cataline himself, finding his affairs desperate, threw himself
+into the midst of the enemy, and there found the death he sought.
+(Sallust.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE, TO THE DEATH OF
+POMPEY.--U.C. 694.
+
+  How happy was I, in my lawful wars
+  In Germany, in Gaul, and Brittany!
+  When every night with pleasure I set down
+  What the day ministered; then sleep came sweetly.
+                    _Beaumont and Fletcher_.
+
+1. The first thing that Cæsar did, upon forming the Trium'virate, was
+to avail himself of the interest of his confederates to obtain the
+consulship. 2. The senate had still some influence left; and though
+they were obliged to concur in choosing him, yet they gave him for a
+colleague one Bib'ulus, whom they supposed would be a check upon his
+power. 3. But the opposition was too strong for even superior
+abilities to resist; so that Bib'ulus, after a slight attempt in
+favour of the senate, remained inactive. 4. Cæsar began his schemes
+for empire by ingratiating himself with the people; he procured a law
+for dividing certain lands in Campa'nia among such of the poor
+citizens as had at least three children. This proposal was just enough
+in itself, and it was criminal only from the views of the proposer.
+
+5. Having thus strengthened himself at home, he deliberated with his
+confederates about sharing the foreign provinces of the empire. 6. The
+partition was soon made: Pompey chose Spain; for, being fatigued with
+conquest, and satiated with military fame, he was willing to take his
+pleasures at Rome. Crassus chose Syria; which province, as it had
+hitherto enriched the generals who had subdued it, would, he hoped,
+gratify him in this his favourite pursuit. To Cæsar were left the
+provinces of Gaul, composed of fierce and powerful nations, most of
+them unsubdued, and the rest only professing a nominal subjection. 7.
+As this was appointing him rather to conquer than command, the
+government was granted him for five years, as if by its continuance to
+compensate for its danger.
+
+8. It would be impossible, in this narrow compass, to enumerate the
+battles Cæsar fought, and the states he subdued, in his expeditions
+into Gaul and Britain, which continued eight years.
+
+[Illustration: Cæsar landing in Britain.]
+
+9. The Helvetians[1] were the first that were brought into subjection,
+with the loss of nearly two hundred thousand men; those who
+remained after the carnage were sent by Cæsar in safety to the forests
+whence they had issued.[2] 10. The Germans, with Ariovis'tus at their
+head, were next cut off, to the number of eighty thousand, their
+monarch himself narrowly escaping in a little boat across the Rhine.
+The Belgæ[3] suffered such a terrible overthrow, that marshes and
+rivers were rendered impassable from the heaps of slain. 11. The
+Ner'vians,[4] who were the most warlike of those barbarous nations,
+made head for a short time, and fell upon the Romans with such fury,
+that their army was in danger of being utterly routed; but Cæsar
+himself, hastily catching up a buckler, rushed through his troops into
+the midst of the enemy; by which means he so turned the fate of the
+day, that the barbarians were all cut off to a man. 12. The Celtic
+Gauls were next brought under subjection. After them, the Sue'vi, the
+Mena'pii, and all the nations from the Mediterranean to the British
+sea. 13. Thence, stimulated by the desire of conquest, he crossed over
+into Britain, upon pretence that the natives had furnished his enemies
+with continual supplies. 14. Upon approaching the shores, he found
+them covered with men to oppose his landing, and his forces were in
+danger of being driven back, till the standard-bearer of the
+tenth legion boldly leapt ashore, and being well assisted by Cæsar,
+the natives were put to flight. 15. The Britons being terrified at
+Cæsar's power, sent to desire a peace, which was granted them, and
+some hostages delivered. A storm, however, soon after destroying great
+part of his fleet, they resolved to take advantage of the disaster,
+and marched against him with a powerful army. But what could naked
+undisciplined troops do against forces that had been exercised under
+the greatest generals, and hardened by the conquest of the greatest
+part of the world? Being overthrown, they were obliged once more to
+sue for peace. Cæsar granted it, and returned to the continent.
+
+16. While Cæsar was thus increasing his reputation and riches abroad,
+Pompey, who remained in Rome, steadily co-operated with his ambition,
+and advanced his interests, while he vainly supposed he was forwarding
+his own. By this means Cæsar was continued five years longer in Gaul.
+17. Nor was Pompey roused from his lethargy till the fame of that
+great commander's valour, riches, and humanity, began to make him
+suspect they would soon eclipse his own. 18. He now therefore did all
+in his power to diminish Cæsar's reputation; obliging the magistrates
+not to publish any letters they received till he had diminished the
+credit of them, by spreading disadvantageous reports. 19. One or two
+accidents, also, helped to widen the separation; namely, the death of
+Julia,[5] Pompey's wife, who had not a little contributed to improve
+the harmony that subsisted between them; and the destruction of
+Crassus, who had conducted the war against the Parthians with so
+little prudence, that he suffered them to get the advantage of him in
+almost every skirmish; when, incapable of extricating himself, he fell
+a sacrifice to his own rashness in trusting himself to a perfidious
+enemy.[6]
+
+It was at this period that T. Maurius Milo, being a candidate for the
+office of consul, during the heat of the canvassing happened, when
+riding into the country, to meet Clodius, a turbulent man, who
+favoured his opponent.
+
+[Illustration: Exposure of Clodius's body in the Forum.]
+
+The meeting was accidental, but a skirmish between their
+attendants drew on a contest which terminated in the death of
+Clodius. The body was brought into Rome where it was exposed, all
+covered with blood and wounds, to the view of the populace, who
+flocked around it in crowds to lament the miserable fate of their
+leader. The next day the mob, headed by a kinsman of the deceased,
+carried the body, with the wounds exposed, into the forum; and the
+enemies of Milo, addressing the crowd with inflammatory speeches,
+wrought them up to such a frenzy that they carried the body into the
+senate-house, and, tearing up the benches and tables, made a funeral
+pile, and, together with the body, burnt the house itself, and then
+stormed the house of Milo, but were repulsed. This violence, and the
+eloquence of Cicero in his defence, saved Milo from the punishment
+which he had good reason to fear for the assassination of Clodius.
+
+20. Cæsar, who now began to be sensible of the jealousies of Pompey,
+took occasion to solicit for the consulship, together with a
+prolongation of his government in Gaul, desirous of trying whether
+Pompey would thwart or promote his pretensions. 21. In this Pompey
+seemed to be quite inactive; but, at the same time, privately employed
+two of his creatures, who alleged in the senate that the laws did not
+permit a person who was absent to offer himself as a candidate for
+that high office. 22. Pompey's view in this was to allure Cæsar from
+his government, in order to stand for the consulship in person. 23.
+Cæsar, however, perceiving his artifice, chose to remain in his
+province, convinced that while he headed an army devoted to him, he
+could give law as well as magistrates to the state.
+
+24. The senate, which was devoted to Pompey, because he had for some
+time attempted to defend them from the encroachments of the people,
+ordered home the two legions which were in Cæsar's army belonging to
+Pompey, as it was pretended, to oppose the Parthians, but in reality
+to diminish Cæsar's power. 25. Cæsar saw their motive: but as his
+plans were not yet ripe for execution, he sent them home in pursuance
+of the orders of the senate, having previously attached the officers
+to him by benefits, and the soldiers by bounties. 26. The next step
+the senate took, was to recall Cæsar from his government, as his time
+was very near expiring. But Cu'rio, his friend in the senate, proposed
+that Cæsar should not leave his army till Pompey had set him the
+example. 27. This for a while perplexed Pompey; however, during the
+debate, one of the senate declaring that Cæsar had passed the Alps,
+and was marching with his whole army directly towards Rome, the
+consul, immediately quitting the senate, went with his colleagues to a
+house where Pompey at that time resided. He there presented him with a
+sword, commanding him to march against Cæsar, and fight in defence of
+the commonwealth. 28. Pompey declared he was ready to obey, but with
+an air of pretended moderation added, that it was only in case more
+gentle expedients could not be employed. 29. Cæsar, who was instructed
+in all that passed, though he was still in Gaul, was willing to give
+his aims all the appearance of justice. He agreed to lay down his
+employment when Pompey should do the same. But the senate rejected his
+propositions, blindly confident of their power, and relying on the
+assurances of Pompey. Cæsar, still unwilling to come to an open
+rupture with the state, at last was content to ask the government of
+Illyr'ia, with two legions; but this also was refused him. 30. Finding
+all attempts at an accommodation fruitless, and conscious, if not of
+the goodness of his cause, at least of the goodness of his troops, he
+began to draw them down towards the confines of Italy; and passing the
+Alps with his third legion, stopped at Raven'na, whence he once more
+wrote to the consuls, declaring that he was ready to resign all
+command in case Pompey would do so. 31. On the other hand, the senate
+decreed, that Cæsar should lay down his government, and disband
+his forces within a limited time; and, if he refused obedience, that
+he should be declared an enemy to the commonwealth.
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was Cæsar's first act after the Triumvirate had been formed?
+
+2. Whom did the senate appoint as Cæsar's colleague, and why?
+
+3. Had Bibulus any controul over Cæsar?
+
+4. How did Cæsar commence his schemes?
+
+5. How did he farther promote his views?
+
+6. How were the provinces allotted?
+
+7, 8. Was Cæsar's a desirable allotment?
+
+9. Who were the first that submitted to Cæsar's arms?
+
+10. Who were the next?
+
+11. Who made the most formidable resistance?
+
+12. What other nations were subdued by Cæsar?
+
+13. Did these conquests content him?
+
+14. What opposition did he experience on the British coast?
+
+15. What followed this defeat?
+
+16. In what way were Cæsar's views promoted?
+
+17. Did not Pompey suspect his intentions?
+
+18. When undeceived, what measures did he pursue?
+
+19. What contributed to widen the breach?
+
+20. How did Cæsar ascertain the disposition of Pompey towards him?
+
+21. Did Pompey take an active part?
+
+22. What was Pompey's view in this?
+
+23. Did Cæsar fall into the snare?
+
+24. Which side did the senate favour?
+
+25. Did Cæsar give up the legions?
+
+26. What was the next step they took?
+
+27. What was the consequence of this proposal?
+
+28. Did Pompey obey this command?
+
+29. What was Cæsar's conduct on this occasion?
+
+30. How did he next proceed?
+
+31. What measure did the senate adopt?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  On him thy hate, on him thy curse bestow.
+  Who would persuade thee Cæsar is thy foe;
+  And since to thee I consecrate my toil,
+  Oh! favour thou my cause, and on thy soldier smile.--_Lucan._
+
+1. Cæsar, however, seemed no way disturbed at these violent
+proceedings; the night before his intended expedition into Italy, he
+sat down to table cheerfully, conversing with his friends on subjects
+of literature and philosophy; and apparently disengaged from every
+ambitious concern. After some time, rising up, he desired the
+company to make themselves joyous in his absence, and that he would be
+with them in a moment: in the mean time, having ordered his chariot to
+be prepared, he immediately set out, attended by a few friends, for
+Arim'inum, a city upon the confines of Italy, whither he had
+despatched a part of his army the morning before. 2. This journey by
+night, which was very fatiguing, he performed with great diligence,
+sometimes walking, and sometimes on horseback; till at the break of
+day, he came up with his army, which consisted of about five thousand
+men, near the Ru'bicon, a little river which separates Italy from
+Gaul, and which marked the limits of his command. 3. The Romans had
+ever been taught to consider this river as the sacred boundary of
+their domestic empire. 4. Cæsar, therefore, when he advanced at the
+head of his army to the side of it, stopped short upon the bank, as if
+impressed with terror at the greatness of his enterprise. He could not
+pass it without transgressing the laws; he therefore pondered for some
+time in fixed melancholy, looking and debating with himself whether he
+should venture in. "If I pass this river," said he to one of his
+generals, "what miseries shall I bring upon my country! and if I now
+stop short I am undone." 5. After a pause he exclaimed, "Let us go
+where the gods and the injustice of our enemies call us." Thus saying,
+and renewing all his former alacrity, he plunged in, crying out, "The
+die is cast." His soldiers followed him with equal promptitude, and
+having passed the Ru'bicon, quickly arrived at Arim'inum, and made
+themselves masters of the place without any resistance.
+
+6. This unexpected enterprise excited the utmost terror in Rome; every
+one imagining that Cæsar was leading his army to lay the city in
+ruins. At the same time were to be seen the citizens flying into the
+country for safety, and the inhabitants of the country coming to seek
+shelter in the city. 7. In this universal confusion, Pompey felt all
+that repentance and self-condemnation, which must necessarily arise
+from the remembrance of having advanced his rival to his present pitch
+of power: wherever he appeared, many of his former friends were ready
+to tax him with his supineness, and sarcastically to reproach his
+ill-grounded presumption. 8. "Where is now," cried Favo'nius, a
+ridiculous senator of this party, "the army that is to rise at your
+command? let us see if it will appear by stamping."[7] Cato
+reminded him of the many warnings he had given him; which, however, as
+he was continually boding nothing but calamities, Pompey might very
+justly be excused from attending to. 9. Being at length wearied with
+these reproaches, which were offered under colour of advice, he did
+all that lay in his power to encourage and confirm his followers: he
+told them that they should not want an army, for that he would be
+their leader. He confessed, indeed, that he had all along mistaken
+Cæsar's aims, judging only from what they ought to have been; however,
+if his friends were still inspired with the love of freedom, they
+might yet enjoy it in whatever place their necessities should happen
+to conduct them. 16. He let them know that their affairs were in a
+very promising situation: that his two lieutenants were at the head of
+a very considerable army in Spain, composed of veteran troops that had
+made a conquest of the east: besides these, there were infinite
+resources, both in Asia and Africa, together with the succours they
+were sure to receive from all the kingdoms that were in alliance with
+Rome. 11. This speech served in some measure to revive the hopes of
+the confederacy. The greatest part of the senate, his private friends
+and dependents, with all those who expected to make their fortunes by
+espousing his cause, agreed to follow him. But being in no capacity to
+resist Cæsar at Rome, he resolved to lead his forces to Cap'ua, where
+the two legions that served under Cæsar in Gaul were stationed.
+
+12. Cæsar in the mean time, after having vainly attempted to bring
+Pompey to an accommodation, resolved to pursue him into Cap'ua before
+he could collect his forces. Accordingly, he marched on to take
+possession of the cities that lay between him and his rival, not
+regarding Rome, which he knew would fall of course to the conqueror.
+
+13. Corfin'ium was the first city that attempted to stop the rapidity
+of his march. It was defended by Domi'tius, who had been appointed by
+the senate to succeed him in Gaul. Cæsar quickly invested it; and
+though Domi'tius sent frequently to Pompey, exhorting him to come and
+raise the siege, he was at length obliged to endeavour to escape
+privately. 14. His intentions being divulged, the garrison resolved to
+consult their own safety by delivering him up to the besiegers. Cæsar
+readily accepted their offers, but kept his men from immediately
+entering the town. 15. After some time, Len'tulus the consul, who was
+one of the besieged, came out to implore forgiveness for himself and
+the rest of his confederates, putting Cæsar in mind of their ancient
+friendship, and acknowledging the many favours he had received at his
+hands. 16. To this Cæsar, who would not wait the conclusion of his
+speech, generously replied, that he came into Italy not to injure the
+liberties of Rome and its citizens, but to restore them. 17. This
+humane reply being quickly carried into the city, the senators and the
+knights, with their children, and some officers of the garrison, came
+out to claim the conqueror's protection, who, just glancing at their
+ingratitude, gave them their liberty, with permission to go
+wheresoever they should think proper. 18. But while he dismissed the
+leaders, he took care upon this, as upon all other occasions, to
+attach the common soldiers to his interest, sensible that he might
+stand in need of the army; but that while he lived, the army could
+never stand in need of a commander.
+
+19. Pompey, who was unable to continue in Rome, having intelligence of
+what had passed upon this occasion, retreated to Brundu'sium, where he
+resolved to stand a siege, in order to retard the enemy, until the
+forces of the empire should be united to oppose him. 20. His aim in
+this succeeded to his wish; and after having employed Cæsar for some
+time in a fruitless siege, he privately carried his forces over to
+Dyrrach'ium, where the consul had levied a body of troops for his
+assistance. 21. However, though he made good his escape, he was
+compelled to leave all Italy at the mercy of his rival, without a town
+or an army that had strength to oppose his progress.
+
+22. Cæsar, who could not follow Pompey for want of shipping, went back
+to Rome, to take possession of the public treasures, which his
+opponent, by a most unaccountable oversight, had neglected to take
+with him. 23. Upon his coming up to the door of the treasury,
+Metel'lus, the tribune, who guarded it, refused to let him pass; but
+Cæsar, with emotion, laying his hand upon his sword, threatened to
+strike him dead. "Know, young man," cried he, "it is easier to do this
+than say it." This menace had its effect; Metel'lus retired, and
+Cæsar took out of the treasury three hundred thousand pounds weight of
+gold, and an immense quantity of silver.
+
+24. Having thus provided for continuing the war, he departed from
+Rome, resolved to subdue Pompey's lieutenants, Afra'nius and
+Petrei'us, who had been long in Spain at the head of a veteran army,
+which had ever been victorious. 25. Cæsar, however, who knew the
+abilities of its present commanders, jocosely said, as he was
+preparing to march, "I am going to fight an army without a general,
+and return to fight a general without an army."
+
+26. The first conflict which he had with Afra'nius and Petrei'us was
+rather unfavourable. It was fought near the city of Ilerda,[8] and
+both sides claimed the honour of the victory. But, by various
+stratagems, he reduced them at last to such extremity of hunger and
+drought, that they were obliged to yield at discretion. 27. Clemency
+was his favourite virtue; he dismissed them all with the kindest
+professions, and then sent them home to Rome loaded with shame, and
+with obligations to publish his virtues, and confirm the affections of
+his adherents. 28. Thus, in the space of about forty days, he became
+master of Spain, and returned again victorious to Rome. The citizens
+on this occasion received him with fresh demonstrations of joy, and
+created him dictator and consul. But the first of these offices he
+laid down when he had held it eleven days.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. How did Cæsar conduct himself on the night previous to his intended
+journey to Italy?
+
+2. Did he accomplish his journey in safety?
+
+3. What rendered this little river of consequence?
+
+4. Did Cæsar pass it without hesitation?
+
+5. How did he determine?
+
+6. What effect was produced at Rome by this enterprise?
+
+7. How was Pompey affected by it?
+
+8. What taunting expressions were used on this occasion?
+
+9. What was Pompey's conduct in reply?
+
+10. How did he represent the state of affairs?
+
+11. What was the consequence of this statement?
+
+12. How was Cæsar employed in the mean while?
+
+13. What city first arrested his progress?
+
+14. Did he succeed in his endeavour?
+
+15. What attempt was made to incline Cæsar to mercy?
+
+16. What was Cæsar's reply?
+
+17. What was the consequence of this reply?
+
+18. Did he dismiss the soldiers likewise?
+
+19. Whither did Pompey retreat, and with what view?
+
+20. Did he succeed in his aims?
+
+21. What was the consequence of his retreat?
+
+22. Did Cæsar follow Pompey?
+
+23. Was he opposed in his attempt?
+
+24. What was his next enterprise?
+
+25. What was Cæsar's opinion of these commanders?
+
+26. Were they easily conquered?
+
+27. What use did he make of his victory?
+
+28. What was the duration of this campaign, and what were its
+consequences?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+                      O war! what art thou?
+  At once the proof and scourge of man's fall'n state!
+  After the brightest conquest, what appears
+  Of all thy glories? for the vanquish'd, chains!
+  For the proud victors, what? Alas! to reign
+  O'er desolated nations.--_H. More_.
+
+1. While Cæsar was thus employed, Pompey was active in making
+preparations in Epi'rus and Greece to oppose him. 2. All the monarchs
+of the East had declared in his favour, and sent very large supplies.
+He was master of nine effective Italian legions, and had a fleet of
+five hundred large ships, under the conduct of Bib'ulus, an active and
+experienced commander. Added to these, he was supplied with large sums
+of money, and all the necessaries for an army, from the tributary
+provinces round him. 3. He had attacked Antony and Dolabel'la, who
+commanded for Cæsar in that part of the empire, with such success,
+that the former was obliged to fly, and the latter was taken prisoner.
+Crowds of the most distinguished citizens and nobles from Rome came
+every day to join him. He had at one time above two hundred senators
+in his camp, among whom were Ci'cero and Ca'to, whose approbation of
+his cause was equivalent to an army.
+
+4. Notwithstanding these preparations, Cæsar shipped off five of his
+twelve legions at Brundu'sium, and fortunately steered through the
+midst of his enemies, timing it so well that he made his passage in
+one day.
+
+[Illustration: Cæsar embarking in a fishing boat.]
+
+5. Still, however, convinced that the proper time for making proposals
+for a peace was after gaining advantage, he sent one Ru'fus, whom he
+had taken prisoner, to effect an accommodation with Pompey,
+offering to refer all to the senate and people of Rome; but Pompey
+once more rejected the overture, considering the people of Rome too
+much in Cæsar's interest to be relied on.
+
+6. Pompey had been raising supplies in Macedo'nia when he was first
+informed of Cæsar's landing upon the coast of Epi'rus: he now resolved
+immediately to march to Dyrrach'ium, in order to cover that place from
+Cæsar's attempts, as all his ammunition and provisions were deposited
+there. 7. The first place where both armies came in sight of each
+other was on the opposite banks of the river Ap'sus; and as both were
+commanded by the two greatest generals then in the world; the one
+renowned for his conquests in the East, and the other celebrated for
+his victories over the western parts of the empire, a battle was
+eagerly desired by the soldiers on either side. 8. But neither of the
+generals was willing to hazard it upon this occasion: Pompey could not
+rely upon his new levies; and Cæsar would not venture an engagement
+till he was joined by the rest of his forces.
+
+9. Cæsar had waited some time with extreme impatience for the coming
+up of the remainder of his army, and even ventured alone in an open
+fishing-boat to hasten its arrival; but he was driven back by a
+storm.[9] 10. However, his disappointment was soon relieved by an
+information of the landing of the troops at Apollo'nia; he,
+therefore, decamped in order to meet them; and to prevent Pompey, with
+his army, from engaging them on their march, as he lay on that side of
+the river where the succours had been obliged to come on shore.
+
+11. Pompey, being compelled to retreat, led his forces to Aspara'gium,
+where he was sure of being supplied with every thing necessary for his
+army, by the numerous fleets which he employed along the coasts of
+Epi'rus: there he pitched his camp upon a tongue of land (as mariner's
+express it) that jutted into the sea, where also was a small shelter
+for his ships. 12. In this place, being most advantageously situated,
+he began immediately to intrench his camp; which Cæsar perceiving, and
+finding that he was not likely soon to quit so advantageous a post,
+began also to intrench behind him. 13. As all beyond Pompey's camp
+towards the land side was hilly and steep, Cæsar built redoubts upon
+the hills, stretching from shore to shore, and then caused lines of
+communication to be drawn from hill to hill, by which he blocked up
+the camp of the enemy. 14. He hoped by this blockade to force his
+opponent to a battle, which he ardently desired, and which the other
+with equal industry declined. Thus both sides continued for some time
+employed in designs and stratagems, the one to annoy and the other to
+defend. 15. Cæsar's men daily carried on their works to straiten the
+enemy; those of Pompey, having the advantage of numbers, did the same
+to enlarge themselves, and severely galled the enemy by their slingers
+and archers. 16. Cæsar, however, was indefatigable; he caused blinds
+or mantalets to be made of the skins of beasts, to cover his men while
+at work; he cut off all the water that supplied the enemy's camp, and
+the forage from the horses, so that there remained no more subsistence
+for them. 17. But Pompey at last resolved to break through his lines,
+and gain some other part of the country more convenient for
+encampment. Accordingly, having informed himself of the condition of
+Cæsar's fortifications from some deserters who came over to him, he
+ordered the light infantry and archers on board his ships to attack
+Cæsar's entrenchments by sea, where they were least defended. 18. This
+was done with such effect, that though Cæsar and his officers used
+their utmost endeavours to hinder Pompey's designs, yet by means of
+reiterated attempts, he at last effected his purpose of extricating
+his army from its present camp, and of encamping in another place
+by the sea, where he had the convenience both of forage and shipping.
+19. Cæsar being thus frustrated in his views of blocking up the enemy,
+and perceiving the loss he had sustained, resolved at last to force
+Pompey to a battle, though upon disadvantageous terms. 20. The
+engagement began by attempting to cut off a legion which was posted in
+a wood; and this brought on a general battle. The conflict was for
+some time carried on with great ardour, and with equal fortune; but
+Cæsar's army being entangled in the entrenchments of the old camps
+lately abandoned, began to fall into disorder; upon which Pompey
+pressing his advantage, they at last fled with precipitation. Great
+numbers perished in the trenches and on the banks of the river, or
+were pressed to death by their fellows. 21. Pompey pursued his success
+to the very camp of Cæsar; but either from surprise, under the
+suddenness of his victory, or fearful of an ambuscade, he with drew
+his troops into his own camp, and thus lost an opportunity of
+completing his victory.
+
+22. After this defeat, which was by no means decisive, Cæsar marched,
+with all his forces united in one body, directly to Gom'phi, a town in
+the province of Thes'saly. But the news of his defeat at Dyr'rachium
+had reached this place before him; the inhabitants, therefore, who had
+before promised him obedience, now changed their minds, and, with a
+degree of baseness equal to their imprudence, shut their gates against
+him. 23. Cæsar was not to be injured with impunity. Having represented
+to his soldiers the great advantage of forcing a place so very rich,
+he ordered the scaling ladders to be got ready, and causing an assault
+to be made, proceeded with such vigour that, notwithstanding the
+height of the walls, the town was taken in a few hours. 24. Cæsar left
+it to be plundered, and, without delaying his march, went forward to
+Metrop'olis, another town of the same province, which yielded at his
+approach. By this means he soon became possessed of all Thes'saly,
+except Laris'sa, which was garrisoned by Scip'io, with his legion who
+commanded for Pompey. 25. During this interval, Pompey's officers
+continually soliciting their commander to come to a battle, he, at
+length, resolved to renounce his own judgment in compliance with those
+about him, and gave up all schemes of prudence for those dictated by
+avarice and passion. 26. Advancing, therefore, into Thes'saly, within
+a few days after the taking of Gom'phi, he drew down upon the
+plains of Pharsa'lia, where he was joined by Scip'io, his lieutenant,
+and the troops under his command. There, waiting the coming of Cæsar,
+he resolved to engage, and, by a single battle, decide the fate of
+kingdoms.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. How was Pompey engaged at this time?
+
+2. What advantages did he possess?
+
+3. What farther contributed to give him hopes of success?
+
+4. Was Cæsar discouraged by these formidable preparations?
+
+5. Was he resolutely bent on hostilities?
+
+6. What was Pompey's first measure?
+
+7. Where did the armies first come in sight of each other?
+
+8. Was an immediate engagement the consequence?
+
+9. Was this junction soon effected?
+
+10. What was the consequence?
+
+11. What was Pompey's next measure?
+
+12. Did he remain long in this place?
+
+13. What means did Cæsar adopt to distress the enemy?
+
+14. What did he promise himself from the adoption of this plan?
+
+15. How were both armies employed?
+
+16. What was the conduct of Cæsar on this occasion?
+
+17. How did Pompey frustrate his designs?
+
+18. Was he successful in his attempts?
+
+19. What was Cæsar's resolution on this occasion?
+
+20. By what means did he effect this?
+
+21. Did Pompey make the most of his victory?
+
+22. Whither did Cæsar betake himself, and what was the consequence of
+his defeat?
+
+23. Did he quietly submit to this insult?
+
+24. What revenge did he take?
+
+25. How did Pompey act on this occasion?
+
+26. Where was this great contest about to be decided?
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+  Each had proposed an empire to be won;
+  Had each once known a Pompey for his son,
+  Had Cæsar's soul informed each private breast.
+  A fiercer fury could not be expressed.--_Lucan_.
+
+1. Cæsar had employed all his art for some time in sounding the
+inclinations of his men; and finding his army once more resolute and
+vigorous, he advanced towards the plains of Pharsa'lia, where Pompey
+was encamped.
+
+2. The approach of two armies, composed of the best and bravest troops
+in the world, together with the greatness of the prize for which they
+contended, filled every mind with anxiety, though with different
+expectations. 3. Pompey's army, being most numerous, turned all their
+thoughts to the enjoyment of the victory; Cæsar's considered only the
+means of obtaining it; Pompey's army depended upon their numbers, and
+their many generals; Cæsar's upon their discipline, and the conduct of
+their single commander. 4. Pompey's partisans hoped much from the
+justice of their cause; Cæsar's alleged the frequent proposals which
+they had made for peace without effect. Thus the views, hopes and
+motives of both seemed different, whilst their hatred and ambition
+were the same. 5. Cæsar, who was ever foremost in offering battle, led
+out his army to meet the enemy; but Pompey, either suspecting his
+troops, or dreading the event, kept his advantageous situation at the
+foot of the hill near which he was posted. 6. Cæsar, unwilling to
+attack him at a disadvantage, resolved to decamp the next day, hoping
+to weary out his antagonist, who was not a match for him in sustaining
+the fatigues of duty. 7. Accordingly the order for marching was given,
+and the tents were struck, when word was brought him that Pompey's
+army had now quitted their intrenchments, and advanced farther into
+the plain than usual; so that he might engage them at less
+disadvantage. 8. Upon this he caused his troops to halt, and, with a
+countenance of joy, informed them that the happy time was at last
+come, which they had so long wished for, and which was to crown their
+glory, and terminate their fatigues. He then drew up his troops in
+order, and advanced towards the place of battle. 9. His forces did not
+amount to above half those of Pompey; the army of the one was about
+forty-five thousand foot, and seven thousand horse: that of the other
+not exceeding twenty-two thousand foot, and about a thousand horse.
+10. This disproportion, particularly in the cavalry, had filled Cæsar
+with apprehensions; he therefore had some days before picked out the
+strongest and nimblest of his foot soldiers, and accustomed them to
+fight between the ranks of his cavalry. By their assistance, his
+thousand horse was a match for Pompey's seven thousand, and had
+actually got the better in a skirmish that happened between them some
+days before.
+
+11. Pompey, on the other hand, had a strong expectation of success; he
+boasted that he could put Cæsar's legions to flight without striking a
+single blow; presuming that as soon as the armies formed, his cavalry,
+on which he placed his greatest expectations, would out-flank and
+surround the enemy. In this disposition Pompey led his troops to
+battle. 12. As the armies approached, the two generals went from rank
+to rank, encouraging their men, exciting their hopes, and lessening
+their apprehensions. 13. Pompey represented to his men that the
+glorious occasion which they had long besought him to grant was now
+before them. "What advantages," said he, "could you wish, that you are
+not now possessed of. Your numbers, your vigour, a late victory, all
+assure us of a speedy and an easy conquest of those harassed and
+broken troops, composed of men worn out with age, and impressed with
+the terrors of a recent defeat; but there is still a stronger bulwark
+for our protection than the superiority of our strength; and that is,
+the justice of our cause. You are engaged in the defence of liberty
+and of your country; you are supported by its laws, and followed by
+its magistrates; the world are spectators of your conduct, and wish
+you success: on the contrary, he whom you oppose is a robber, an
+oppressor of his country, already nearly sunk with the consciousness
+of his crimes, as well as the ill success of his arms. Show then, on
+this occasion, all that ardour and detestation of tyranny which should
+animate Romans, and do justice to mankind."
+
+14. Cæsar, on his part, went among his men with that steady serenity
+for which he was so much admired in the midst of danger. He insisted
+on nothing so strongly, as his frequent and unsuccessful endeavours
+for peace. He spoke with terror of the blood he was about to shed, and
+pleaded the necessity that urged him to it. He deplored the many brave
+men that were to fall on both sides, and the wounds of his country,
+whoever might be victorious. 15. His soldiers answered only with looks
+of ardour and impatience. He gave the signal to begin. The word on
+Pompey's side was, "Her'cules the Invincible:" that on Cæsar's,
+"Ve'nus the Victorious." 16. There was no more space between both
+armies than to give room for the charge: Pompey therefore ordered his
+men to receive the first shock without moving from their places,
+expecting the enemy's ranks to be put into disorder. Cæsar's soldiers
+were now rushing on with their usual impetuosity, when, perceiving the
+enemy motionless, they all stopt short, as if by general consent, and
+halted in the midst of their career. 17. A terrible pause ensued, in
+which both armies continued to gaze upon each other with mutual terror
+and dreadful serenity. At length, Cæsar's men having taken breath, ran
+furiously upon the enemy, first discharging their javelins, and
+then drawing their swords. The same method was observed by Pompey's
+troops, who as firmly sustained the attack. His cavalry also were
+ordered to charge at the very onset, which, with the multitude of
+archers and slingers, soon obliged Cæsar's men to give ground. 18.
+Cæsar instantly ordered the six cohorts, that were placed as a
+reinforcement, to advance, and to strike at the enemy's faces. 19.
+This had its desired effect: Pompey's cavalry, that were just before
+sure of the victory, received an immediate check. The unusual method
+of fighting pursued by the cohorts, their aiming entirely at the
+visages of the assailants, and the horrible disfiguring wounds they
+made, all contributed to intimidate them so much, that instead of
+defending their persons, they endeavoured only to save their
+faces.[10] 20. A total rout ensued; they fled to the neighbouring
+mountains, while the archers and slingers, who were thus abandoned,
+were cut to pieces. 21. Cæsar now commanded the cohorts to pursue
+their success, and charge Pompey's troops upon the flank: this charge
+the enemy withstood for some time with great bravery, till Cæsar
+brought up his third line, which had not yet engaged. 22. Pompey's
+infantry being thus doubly attacked, in front by fresh troops, and in
+the rear by the victorious cohorts, could no longer resist, but fled
+to their camp. The flight began among the strangers. Pompey's right
+wing still valiantly maintained their ground. 23. Cæsar, however,
+convinced that the victory was certain, with his usual clemency cried
+out to pursue the strangers, but to spare the Romans; upon which they
+all laid down their arms and received quarter. The greatest slaughter
+was among the auxiliaries, who fled on all sides. 24. The battle had
+now lasted from break of day till noon, and the weather was extremely
+hot; nevertheless, the conquerors remitted not their ardour, being
+encouraged by the example of a general, who thought his victory
+incomplete till he should become master of the enemy's camp.
+Accordingly, marching on foot at their head, he called upon them to
+follow and strike the decisive blow. 25. The cohorts which were left
+to defend the camp, for some time made a formidable resistance;
+particularly a great number of Thra'cians and other barbarians, who
+were appointed for that purpose; but nothing could resist the
+ardour of Cæsar's victorious army; the enemy were at last driven from
+the trenches, and compelled to fly to the mountains.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was the state of Cæsar's army immediately before the battle of
+Pharsalia?
+
+2. What effect had the approaching event on the minds of men?
+
+3. What were the respective advantages of each army?
+
+4. On what did they principally build their hopes?
+
+5. Who was the first to offer battle?
+
+6. How did Cæsar act on this occasion?
+
+7. What followed?
+
+8. What effect had this intelligence on Cæsar's plan?
+
+9. Of what number of troops were each of the armies composed?
+
+10. What did Cæsar consider necessary to be done to remedy this
+dis-proportion?
+
+11. What were Pompey's expectations and boasts?
+
+12. What was the conduct of the generals?
+
+13. Repeat Pompey's address to his troops?
+
+14. How did Cæsar encourage his men?
+
+15. What effect had this speech, and what was the word on both sides?
+
+16. In what manner did the attack commence?
+
+17. Describe the progress of the battle?
+
+18. What means did Cæsar adopt to prevent a defeat?
+
+19. Was this measure successful?
+
+20. What was the consequence?
+
+21. What were Cæsar's farther commands?
+
+22. What followed?
+
+23. What use did Cæsar make of his victory?
+
+24. Did not fatigue abate the ardour of Cæsar's troops?
+
+25. Did they attempt to defend the camp?
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+  Sad Pompey's soul uneasy thoughts infest,
+  And his Cornelia pains his anxious breast,
+  To distant Lesbos fain he would remove.
+  Far from the war, the partner of his love.--_Lucan._
+
+1. Cæsar, seeing the field and camp strewed with his fallen
+countrymen, was strongly affected at the melancholy prospect, and
+cried out to one that stood near him, "They would have it so." 2. In
+the camp, every object presented fresh instances of the blind
+presumption and madness of his adversaries. On all sides were to be
+seen tents adorned with ivy and myrtle, couches covered with purple,
+and sideboards loaded with plate. Every thing gave proof of the
+highest luxury, and seemed rather the preparatives for a banquet, or
+the rejoicings for a victory, than dispositions for a battle. 3. A
+camp so richly furnished would have engaged the attention of any
+troops but Cæsar's; but there was still something to be done, and he
+permitted them not to pursue any other object than their enemies. 4. A
+considerable body having retired to the adjacent mountains, he
+prevailed on his soldiers to join him in the pursuit, in order to
+oblige these to surrender. He began by inclosing them with a line
+drawn at the foot of the mountain; but they quickly abandoned a post
+which was untenable for want of water, and endeavoured to reach the
+city of Laris'sa. 5. Cæsar, leading a part of his army by a shorter
+way, intercepted their retreat. However, these unhappy fugitives again
+found protection from a mountain, at the foot of which ran a rivulet
+that supplied them with water. 6. Night approaching, Cæsar's men were
+almost spent, and fainting with their incessant toil since morning;
+yet still he prevailed upon them to renew their labours, and cut off
+the rivulet that supplied the defendants. 7. The fugitives, thus
+deprived of all hopes of succour or subsistence, sent deputies to the
+conqueror, offering to surrender at discretion. During this interval
+of negociation, a few senators that were among them, took the
+advantage of the night to escape, and the rest, next morning, gave up
+their arms, and experienced the conqueror's clemency. In fact, he
+addressed them with great gentleness, and forbade the soldiers to
+offer violence, or to take any thing from them. 8. Thus Cæsar gained
+the most complete victory that had ever been obtained; and by his
+great clemency after the battle, seemed to have deserved it. His loss
+amounted only to two hundred men; that of Pompey to fifteen thousand;
+twenty-four thousand men surrendered themselves prisoners of war, and
+the greatest part of these entered into Cæsar's army, and were
+incorporated with the rest of his forces. 9. To the senators and Roman
+knights, who fell into his hands, he generously gave liberty to retire
+wherever they thought proper; and as for the letters which Pompey had
+received from those who wished to be thought neutral, Cæsar burnt them
+all without reading, as Pompey had done on a former occasion. 10. Thus
+having performed all the duties of a general and a statesman, he sent
+for the legions which had passed the night in camp, to relieve those
+which had accompanied him in the pursuit, and arrived the same day at
+Laris'sa.
+
+11. As for Pompey, who had formerly shown such instances of courage
+and conduct, when he saw his cavalry routed, on which he had placed
+his sole dependence, he absolutely lost his reason. 12. Instead of
+thinking how to remedy this disorder by rallying such troops as fled,
+or by opposing fresh forces to stop the progress of the conqueror,
+being totally amazed by this first blow, he returned to the camp, and
+in his tent waited the issue of an event which it was his duty to have
+directed, not to follow. There he remained for some moments
+speechless, till being told that the camp was attacked--"What!" says
+he, "are we pursued to our very intrenchments?" when, immediately
+quitting his armour for a habit more suited to his circumstances, he
+fled on horseback to Laris'sa: thence, perceiving that he was not
+pursued, he slackened his pace, giving way to all the agonizing
+reflections which his deplorable situation must naturally suggest. 13.
+In this melancholy manner he passed along the vale of Tempe, and
+pursuing the course of the river Pe'neus, at last arrived at a
+fisherman's hut; here he passed the night, and then went on board a
+little bark, keeping along the sea-shore, till he descried a ship of
+some burden, which seemed preparing to sail. In this he embarked; the
+master of the vessel still paying him that homage which was due to his
+former station.
+
+14. From the mouth of the river Pe'neus he sailed to Amphip'olis,
+where, finding his affairs desperate, he steered to Les'bos, to take
+with him his wife Corne'lia, whom he had left there, at a distance
+from the dangers and distresses of war. 15. She, who had long
+flattered herself with the hopes of victory, now felt the agonizing
+reverse of fortune: she was desired by the messenger, whose tears more
+than his words proclaimed her unspeakable misfortunes, to hasten away
+if she expected to see Pompey, who had but one ship, and even that not
+his own. 16. Her grief, which before was violent, became now
+insupportable: she fainted, and lay without signs of life. At length
+recovering, and reflecting that it was no time for vain lamentations,
+she fled through the city to the seaside.
+
+17. Pompey received and embraced her, and in silent despair supported
+her in his arms. "Alas!" said Corne'lia, "you who, before our
+marriage, appeared in these seas as the commander of five hundred
+sail, are now reduced to make your escape in a single vessel. Why come
+you in search of an unfortunate woman? Why was I not left to a
+fate which now you are under the necessity of sharing with me? Happy
+for me had I executed, long since, my design of quitting this life!
+But fatally have I been reserved to add to Pompey's sorrows."
+
+[Illustration: Death of Pompey.]
+
+18. Pompey instanced the uncertainty of all human affairs, and
+endeavoured by every argument to give her comfort; then, taking her
+under his protection, he continued his course, stopping no longer than
+was necessary for a supply of provisions at the ports which occurred
+in his passage. 19. He now determined upon applying to Ptol'emy, king
+of Egypt, to whose father he had been a considerable benefactor.
+Ptol'emy was yet a minor, and had not the government in his own hands,
+but was under the direction of an administration. 20. His council
+insidiously contrived that Pompey should be invited on shore, and
+murdered before he should come into the king's presence. Achil'las,
+commander of the forces, and Septim'ius, a Roman, who had formerly
+been a centurion in Pompey's army, undertook to carry the treacherous
+design into execution. Attended by three or four more, they put off in
+a little bark, and rowed to Pompey's ship, that lay about a mile from
+the shore.
+
+21. Pompey now took leave of Corne'lia, repeating to her a verse of
+Soph'ocles, signifying, that "he who trusts his freedom to a tyrant,
+from that moment becomes a slave." He then gave his hand to Achil'las,
+and, with only two of his own attendants, stepped into the bark. 22.
+The frantic Corne'lia hung over the side of the deck, weeping and
+exclaiming against his separation from her. "Alas!" said she,
+"whither art thou going?"
+
+  He spoke; but she, unmoved at his commands,
+  Thus loud exclaiming, stretch'd her eager hands;
+  "Whither, inhuman! whither art thou gone?
+  Still must I weep our common griefs alone?"
+                                        ROWE'S LUCAN.
+
+In wild astonishment she followed him with her eyes, and uttering to
+the winds her fruitless lamentations.
+
+23. The mariners, regardless of her sorrows, rowed towards land,
+without a word passing among them, till Pompey, by way of breaking
+silence, looking at Septim'ius, whose face he recollected. "Methinks,
+friend," said he, "you once served under me." Septim'ius noticing
+these words only by a contemptuous nod of the head, Pompey betook
+himself to a paper, on which he had minuted a speech intended to be
+made to the king, and began reading it. In this manner they approached
+the shore; whilst Corne'lia, whose insufferable sorrow had never let
+her lose sight of her husband, began to conceive hopes, perceiving
+that the people on the strand crowded down along the coast as if eager
+to receive him. 24. Alas! these hopes were soon destroyed. At the
+instant that Pompey rose, supporting himself upon his freedman's arm,
+Septim'ius stabbed him in the back, and Achil'las instantly seconded
+the blow. 25. Pompey, perceiving his death inevitable, calmly disposed
+himself to meet it with decency; and covering his face with his robe,
+without a word resigned himself to his fate. 26. At this horrid sight,
+Corne'lia and her attendants shrieked, so as to be heard to the very
+shore. But the danger they were in allowing no time to look on, they
+immediately set sail, and, the wind proving favourable, fortunately
+escaped the pursuit of the Egyptian galleys. 27. In the mean time,
+Pompey's murderers, having taken off his head, embalmed it for a
+present to Cæsar, whilst the body was thrown naked on the strand, and
+exposed to the view of those whose curiosity was to be satisfied. 28.
+But his faithful freedman, Philip, still kept near it; and when the
+crowd dispersed, he washed it in the sea, and looking round for
+materials to burn it, perceived the wrecks of a fishing-boat, of which
+he composed a pile. 29. While he was thus piously employed, he was
+accosted by an old Roman soldier, who had served under Pompey in his
+youth. "Who art thou?" said he  "that art making these humble
+preparations for Pompey's funeral?"--"One of his freedmen," answered
+Philip.--"Alas," replied the soldier, "permit me to share with you the
+honour of this sacred action. Among all the miseries of my exile, it
+will be my last sad comfort, that I have been able to assist at the
+funeral of my old commander, and to touch the body of the bravest
+general that ever Rome produced."
+
+30. Thus were the last rites performed to Pompey. But his ashes
+(according to Plutarch) were carefully collected, and carried to
+Corne'lia, who deposited them at his villa near Alba, in Italy. 31. We
+are told, too, that the Egyptians afterwards erected a monument to
+him, on the spot on which his funeral pile had been raised, with an
+inscription to this purpose:--"How poor a tomb covers the man who once
+had temples erected to his honour!"
+
+32. From Pompey's death we may date the extinction of the republic.
+From this period the senate was dispossessed of its power; and Rome
+henceforward was never without master.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. How was Cæsar affected by the result of the battle?
+
+2. What appearance did Pompey's camp present?
+
+3. Did Cæsar's troops immediately begin to plunder?
+
+4. What became of the fugitives?
+
+5. Did they succeed in the attempt?
+
+6. Were the labours of Cæsar's soldiers now at an end?
+
+7. What effect had this on the fugitives?
+
+8. Was this victory of importance, and what was the loss on both
+sides?
+
+9. In what manner did Cæsar behave to the vanquished?
+
+10. What followed?
+
+11. What was the conduct of Pompey on this occasion?
+
+12. Mention your reasons for this assertion?
+
+13. Proceed in relating farther particulars?
+
+14. Whither did he next steer his course?
+
+15, 16. What effect had the tidings on Cornelia?
+
+17. Relate what passed at their interview?
+
+18. How did Pompey attempt to comfort her?
+
+19. What determination did he now form? 20. What was his intended
+reception?
+
+21. Did Pompey fall into the snare?
+
+22. Was his separation from his wife a painful one?
+
+23. What passed in the boat?
+
+24. Were Cornelia's hopes well founded?
+
+25. Did Pompey resist this treacherous attack?
+
+26. Was Cornelia a witness to this horrid transaction?
+
+27. How was the body of Pompey treated?
+
+28. Had he no friend to perform the last offices for him?
+
+29. By whom was he assisted?
+
+30. What became of his remains?
+
+31. What respect did the Egyptians afterwards pay to his memory?
+
+32. What was the face of affairs after Pompey's death?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The inhabitants of the country now called Switzerland.
+
+[2] The Helvetians, finding their country too narrow for their
+increased population, had determined on emigration. Being denied by
+Cæsar a passage through his province, hostilities commenced, which
+terminated us above. (Cæsar de Bel. Gal.)
+
+[3] Inhabitants of the country between the Rhine and the Loire.
+
+[4] Inhabitants of the modern province of Hainault.
+
+[5] She was the daughter of Cæsar.
+
+[6] Crassus was inveigled into the power of Surena, the Parthian
+general, under the pretence of treating for peace. His head was cut
+off and sent to Orodes, the king of Parthia, who poured molten gold
+down his throat.
+
+[7] This alludes to a boasting speech made some time before by Pompey,
+when he told the senate not to be alarmed at the news of Cæsar's
+approach, for that he had only to stamp, and an army would rise at his
+command.
+
+[8] Now Lerida in Catalonia.
+
+[9] It was on this occasion that he encouraged the master of the
+vessel, to whom he had not before made himself known, with these
+memorable words--"Fear nothing, for thou carriest Cæsar and all his
+fortunes."
+
+[10] Cæsar calls the young patricians that composed Pompey's cavalry
+"pretty young dancers."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF THE COMMONWEALTH TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE
+FIRST EMPEROR, AUGUSTUS.--U.C. 706.
+
+                    When our ear is pierced
+  With the sad notes which mournful beauty yields,
+  Our manhood melts in sympathizing tears.--_Fenton_.
+
+1. Cæsar has been much celebrated for his good fortune, but his
+abilities seem equal to the highest success. He possessed shining
+qualities, tarnished by ambition only. His talents were such as would
+have rendered him victorious at the head of any army; and he would
+have governed in any republic that had given him birth. 2. Having now
+gained a most complete victory, his success seemed only to increase
+his activity, and inspire him with fresh resolution to face new
+dangers. He determined, therefore, to pursue his last advantage, and
+follow Pompey to whatever country he had retired; convinced that,
+though he might gain new triumphs, he should never enjoy security
+until his rival was in his power.
+
+3. Accordingly, losing no time, he set sail for Egypt, and arrived at
+Alexandria with about four thousand men: a very inconsiderable force
+to keep so powerful a kingdom under subjection. 4. The first accounts
+he received were of Pompey's miserable end; and soon after, one of the
+murderers came with his head and his ring, as a most grateful present
+to the conqueror. 5. But Cæsar had too much humanity to be pleased
+with so horrid a spectacle--with the sad remains of the man he once
+loved; his partner in power. He turned from it with disgust; and,
+after a short pause, gave vent to his pity in a flood of tears. He
+ordered the head to be burned with the most costly perfumes, and
+placed the ashes in a temple, which he built and dedicated to the
+goddess Nem'esis, the avenger of cruel and inhuman deeds.
+
+6. It should seem that the Egyptians, by this time, had some hopes of
+breaking off all alliance with the Romans, which they considered, as
+in fact it was, only another name for subjection. They first took
+offence at Cæsar's carrying the ensigns of Roman power before him as
+he entered the city. Photi'nus also treated him with great disrespect,
+and even attempted his life. 7. Cæsar, however, concealed his
+resentment till he had a force sufficient to punish his treachery;
+sending, therefore, privately, for the legions which he had formerly
+enrolled for Pompey's service, as being the nearest to Egypt, he, in
+the mean time, pretended to repose an entire confidence in the king's
+ministers, making great entertainments, and assisting at the
+conferences of the philosophers, who were numerous at Alexandria. 8.
+However, he soon changed his manner, when he found himself in no
+danger from the ministers' attempts: and declared, that, being a Roman
+consul, it was his duty to settle the succession of the Egyptian
+crown.
+
+9. There were at that time two pretenders to the crown of Egypt;
+Ptol'emy, the acknowledged king, and the celebrated Cleopa'tra, his
+sister, to whom, by the custom of the country, he was married; and
+who, by his father's will, shared jointly in the succession. 10. Not
+contented with the participation of power, Cleopa'tra aimed at
+governing alone; but being opposed in her views by the Roman senate,
+who confirmed her brother's title to the crown, she was banished into
+Sy'ria, with Arsin'oe, her younger sister. 11. Cæsar gave her new
+hopes of aspiring to the kingdom, and sent both to her and her brother
+to plead their cause before him. But Photi'nus, the young king's
+guardian, disdaining to accept this proposal, backed his refusal by
+sending an army of twenty thousand men to besiege him in Alexandria.
+12. Cæsar bravely repulsed the enemy; but finding the city of too
+great extent to be defended by so small an army as his, he retired to
+the palace, which commanded the harbour, and there purposed to make
+his stand. 13. Achil'las, who commanded the Egyptians, attacked him
+with great vigour, and aimed at making himself master of the fleet
+that lay before the palace. 14. Cæsar, however, too well knew the
+importance of those ships in the hands of an enemy; and therefore
+burnt them all, in spite of every effort to prevent him. He next
+possessed himself of the isle of Pha'ros, by which he was enabled to
+receive supplies; and, in this situation, determined to withstand the
+united force of the Egyptians.[1]
+
+15. In the mean time, Cleopa'tra, having heard of the present turn in
+her favour, resolved to depend on Cæsar's patronage for gaining the
+government, rather than on her own forces. But no arts, as she justly
+conceived, were so likely to influence Cæsar as the charms of her
+person, which were irresistible. 16. She was now in the bloom of youth
+and beauty, while every feature borrowed grace from the lively turn of
+her temper. To the most enchanting address she joined the most
+harmonious voice. With all these accomplishments, she possessed a
+great share of the learning of the times, and could give audience to
+the ambassadors of seven different nations without an interpreter. 17.
+The difficulty was, how to gain admission to Cæsar, as her enemies
+were in possession of all the avenues that led to the palace. For this
+purpose she went on board a small vessel, and, in the evening, landed
+near the palace; where, being wrapt up in a coverlet, she was carried
+as a bundle of clothes into the very presence of Cæsar. 18. Her
+address instantly struck him; her wit and understanding fanned the
+flame; but her affability entirely brought him over to second her
+claims.
+
+19. While Cleopa'tra was thus employed in forwarding her own views,
+her sister, Arsin'oe was also strenuously engaged in the camp, in
+pursuing a separate interest. She had found means, by the assistance
+of one Gan'ymede, her confidant, to make a large division in the
+Egyptian army in her favour; and, soon after, by one of those sudden
+revolutions which are common in barbarian camps to this day, she
+caused Achil'las to be murdered, and Gan'ymede to take the command in
+his stead, and to carry on the siege with greater vigour than before.
+20. Gan'ymede's principal effort was by letting in the sea upon those
+canals which supplied the palace with fresh water; but this
+inconvenience Cæsar remedied by digging a great number of wells. His
+next endeavour was to prevent the junction of Cæsar's twenty-fourth
+legion, which he twice attempted in vain. He soon after made himself
+master of a bridge which joined the isle of Pha'ros to the
+continent, from which post Cæsar was resolved to dislodge him. 21. In
+the heat of the action, some mariners, partly through curiosity, and
+partly through ambition, came and joined the combatants; but, being
+seized with a panic, instantly fled, and spread a general terror
+through the army. All Cæesar's endeavours to rally his forces were in
+vain, the confusion was past remedy, and numbers were drowned or put
+to the sword in attempting to escape. 22. Now, therefore, seeing the
+irremediable disorder of his troops, he fled to a ship, in order to
+get to the palace that was just opposite; but he was no sooner on
+board, than such crowds entered after him, that being apprehensive of
+the ship's sinking, he jumped into the sea, and swam two hundred paces
+to the fleet which lay before the palace, all the time holding his
+Commentaries in his left hand above the water, and his coat of mail in
+his teeth.
+
+23. The Alexandrians, finding their efforts to take the palace
+ineffectual, endeavoured at least to get their king out of Cæsar's
+power, as he had seized upon his person in the beginning of their
+disputes. For this purpose they made use of their customary arts of
+dissimulation, professing the utmost desire of peace, and only wanting
+the presence of their lawful prince to give a sanction to the treaty.
+24. Cæsar was sensible of their perfidy, but concealed his suspicions,
+and gave them their king, as he was under no apprehensions from the
+abilities of a boy. Ptol'emy, however, the instant he was set at
+liberty, instead of promoting the peace, made every effort to give
+vigour to his hostilities.
+
+25. In this manner was Cæsar hemmed in for some time by an artful and
+insidious enemy, and surrounded with almost insurmountable
+difficulties; but he was at last relieved from this mortifying
+situation by Mithrida'tes Pergame'nus, one of his most faithful
+partizans, who came with an army to his assistance. This general
+marched into Egypt, took the city of Pelu'sium, repulsed the Egyptian
+army with loss, and, at last, joining with Cæsar, attacked their camp
+with a great slaughter of the Egyptians. Ptol'emy himself, attempting
+to escape on board a vessel, was drowned by the ship's sinking. 26.
+Cæsar thus became master of all Egypt, without any farther opposition.
+He appointed Cleopa'tra, with her younger brother, who was then an
+infant, joint governors, according to the intent of their father's
+will, and drove out Arsin'oe, with Gan'ymede, to banishment.
+
+27. Having thus given away kingdoms, he now, for a while, seemed
+to relax from the usual activity of his conduct, being captivated with
+the charms of Cleopa'tra. Instead of quitting Egypt to go and quell
+the remains of Pompey's party, he abandoned himself to his pleasures,
+passing whole nights in feasting with the young queen. He even
+resolved on attending her up the Nile, into Ethiopia; but the brave
+veterans, who had long followed his fortune, boldly reprehended his
+conduct, and refused to be partners in so infamous an expedition. 23.
+Thus at length roused from his lethargy, he resolved to prefer the
+call of ambition to that of love; and to leave Cleopa'tra, in order to
+oppose Pharna'ces, the king of Bosphorus, who had made some inroads
+upon the dominions of Rome in the East.
+
+29. This prince, who had cruelly deposed his father, the great
+Mithrida'tes, being ambitious of conquering those dominions, seized
+upon Arme'nia and Col'chis, and overcame Domit'ius, who had been sent
+against him. 30. Upon Cæsar's march to oppose him, Pharna'ces, who was
+as much terrified at the name of the general as at the strength of his
+army, laboured, by all the arts of negociation, to avert the impending
+danger. 31. Cæsar, exasperated at his crimes and ingratitude, at first
+dissembled with the ambassadors; and using all expedition, fell upon
+the enemy unexpectedly, and, in a few hours, obtained an easy and
+complete victory. Pharna'ces attempting to take refuge in his capital,
+was slain by one of his own commanders--a just punishment for his
+former parricide. Cæsar achieved this conquest with so much ease, that
+in writing to a friend at Rome, he expressed the rapidity of his
+victory in three words, "VENI, VIDI, VICI."[2] A man so accustomed to
+conquest might, perhaps, think a slight battle scarcely worth a long
+letter; though it is more probable that these memorable words were
+dictated rather by vanity than indifference.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the abilities and character of Cæsar?
+
+2. Did he rest satisfied with his present successes?
+
+3. Whither did he steer his course?
+
+4. What occurred on his arrival?
+
+5. Was Cæsar pleased with this spectacle?
+
+6. What was the conduct of the Egyptians towards Cæsar?
+
+7. Did Cæsar resent this conduct?
+
+8. Did he continue this appearance of confidence?
+
+9. Who were at this time the sovereigns of Egypt?
+
+10. What rendered Cæsar's interference necessary?
+
+11. Was this interference agreeable to the Egyptians?
+
+12. How did Cæsar conduct himself on this occasion?
+
+13. Was the attack formidable?
+
+14. How did Cæsar prevent the designs of the enemy?
+
+15. What was the conduct of Cleopatra?
+
+16. What attractions did she possess?
+
+17. What obstacles presented themselves, and how were they overcome?
+
+18. Was Cæsar captivated by her charms?
+
+19. What measures did Arsinoe pursue?
+
+20. What attempts did the enemy make to annoy Cæsar, and how were they
+frustrated?
+
+21. What unlucky accident occasioned the miscarriage of Cæsar's
+design?
+
+22. How did Cæsar escape?
+
+23. What did the Alexandrians next attempt?
+
+24. Did Cæsar comply with their wishes?
+
+25. How was Cæsar delivered from this dangerous situation?
+
+26. What was the consequence of this victory?
+
+27. Did Cæsar pursue his career of victory?
+
+28. What was the consequence of this boldness?
+
+29. What farther cause of offence had Pharnaces given?
+
+30. Did Pharnaces boldly oppose the invader?
+
+31. Did he succeed?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  Oh, my friends,
+  How is the toil of fate, the work of ages,
+  The Roman empire fallen! Oh, cursed ambition!
+  Fallen into Cæsar's hand: our great forefathers
+  Had left him nought to conquer but his country.--_Addison's Cato._
+
+1. Cæsar, having settled affairs in this part of the empire, embarked
+for Italy, where he arrived sooner than his enemies could expect, but
+not before his presence there was absolutely required. 2. During his
+absence, he had been created consul for five years, dictator for one
+year, and tribune of the people for life. 3. But Antony, who in the
+mean time governed for him in Rome, had filled the city with riot and
+debauchery, and many commotions ensued, which nothing but the arrival
+of Cæsar could appease. 4. By his moderation and humanity he soon
+restored tranquillity to the city, scarcely making any distinction
+between those of his own and the opposite party. 5. Having, by gentle
+means, restored his authority at home, he prepared to march into
+Africa, where Pompey's party had found time to rally under Scipio
+and Cato, assisted by Juba, king of Maurita'nia; and, with his usual
+diligence, landed with a small party in Africa, while the rest of his
+army followed him. 6. Scipio coming to a battle soon after, received a
+complete and final overthrow, with little, or no loss on the side of
+the victor. Juba, and Petrei'us his general, killed each other in
+despair. Scipio, attempting to escape by sea into Spain, fell in among
+the enemy, and was slain; so that of all the generals of that undone
+party, Cato was now the only one that remained.
+
+7. This extraordinary man, whom prosperity could not elate, nor
+misfortunes depress, having retired into Africa, after the battle of
+Pharsa'lia, had led the wretched remains of Pompey's army through
+burning deserts, and tracts infested with serpents of various
+malignity, and was now in the city of Utica, which he had been left to
+defend. 8. In love, however, with the show of Roman government, Cato
+had formed the principal citizens into a senate, and conceived a
+resolution of holding out the town. But the enthusiasm for liberty
+subsiding among his followers, he was resolved no longer to force men
+to be free, who seemed naturally prone to slavery. 9. He now,
+therefore, desired some of his friends to save themselves by sea, and
+bade others submit to Cæsar's clemency; observing, that, as to
+himself, he was at last victorious. After this, supping cheerfully
+among his friends, he retired to his apartment, where he behaved with
+unusual tenderness to his son, and to all his friends. When he came
+into his bed-chamber, laying himself down, he took up Plato's Dialogue
+on the Immortality of the Soul, and read for some time. Casting his
+eyes to the head of his bed, he wondered much not to see his sword
+there, which had been conveyed away by his son's order while they were
+at supper. Calling to one of his domestics to know what was become of
+it, and receiving no answer, he resumed his studies; and some time
+after asked again for his sword. When he had done reading, and
+perceived that nobody obeyed him, he called for his domestics one
+after the other, and with a peremptory air again demanded his sword.
+10. His son, with tears, besought him to change his resolution; but,
+receiving a stern reprimand, desisted from his persuasions. His sword
+being at length brought to him, he seemed satisfied, and cried out,
+"Now, again, I am master of myself." He took up the book again, which
+having pursued, he fell into a sound sleep. Upon awaking, he
+called to one of his freedmen to know if his friends were embarked, or
+if any thing yet remained that could be done to serve them. The
+freedman, assuring him that all was quiet, was ordered to leave the
+room. Cato no sooner found himself alone, than, seizing his sword, he
+stabbed himself below his chest. The blow not despatching him, he fell
+from his bed and overturned a table, on which he had been drawing some
+geometrical figures. At the noise of the fall, his servants shrieked,
+and his son and friends immediately flew to the room. They found him
+weltering in his blood, with his bowels appearing through the wound.
+11. The surgeon, perceiving that his intestines were not wounded, was
+replacing them; but Cato recovering himself, and understanding their
+intention was to preserve his life, forced the surgeon from him, and,
+with a fierce resolution, tore out his bowels and expired.
+
+12. Upon the death of Cato, the war in Africa being completed, Cæsar
+returned in such triumph to Rome, as if he had abridged all his former
+triumphs only to increase the splendour of this. The citizens were
+astonished at the magnificence of the procession, and at the number of
+the countries he had subdued. 13. It lasted four days: the first was
+for Gaul, the second for Egypt, the third for his victories in Asia,
+and the fourth for that over Juba in Africa. His veteran soldiers,
+scarred with wounds, and now laid up for life, followed their
+triumphant general, crowned with laurels, and conducted him to the
+Capitol. 14. To every one of those he gave a sum equivalent to about a
+hundred and fifty pounds sterling, double that sum to the centurions,
+and four times as much to the superior officers. The citizens also
+shared his bounty: to every one he distributed ten bushels of corn,
+ten pounds of oil, and a sum of money equal to about two pounds
+sterling. After this he entertained the people at above twenty
+thousand tables, treated them with combats of gladiators, and filled
+Rome with a concourse of spectators from every part of Italy.
+
+15. The people, intoxicated with pleasure, thought their freedom too
+small a return for such benefits. They seemed eager only to find out
+new modes of homage, and unusual epithets of adulation for their great
+enslaver. He was created, by a new title, _Magis'ter Mo'rum_, or
+Master of the Morals of the People. He received the title of Emperor
+and father of his country. His person was declared sacred; and, in
+short, upon him alone were devolved for life all the great
+dignities of the state. 16. It must be owned, that so much power could
+never have been entrusted to better keeping. He immediately began his
+empire by repressing vice and encouraging virtue. He committed the
+power of judicature to the senators and knights alone; and by many
+sumptuary laws restrained the scandalous luxuries of the rich. He
+proposed rewards to all such as had many children, and took the most
+prudent method of re-peopling the city, which had been exhausted in
+the late commotions.
+
+17. Having thus restored prosperity once more to Rome, he again found
+himself under a necessity of going into Spain to oppose an army which
+had been raised there under the two sons of Pompey, and Labie'nus his
+former general. 18. He proceeded in this expedition with his usual
+celerity, and arrived in Spain before the enemy thought him yet
+departed from Rome. Cne'ius Pompey, and Sextus, Pompey's sons,
+profiting by their unhappy father's example, resolved, as much as
+possible, to protract the war; so that the first operations of the two
+armies were spent in sieges and fruitless attempts to surprise each
+other. 19. However, Cæsar, after taking many cities from the enemy,
+and pursuing his adversary with unwearied perseverance, at last
+compelled him to come to a battle upon the plain of Munda. 20. Pompey
+drew up his men, by break of day, upon the declivity of a hill, with
+great exactness and order. Cæsar drew up likewise in the plains below;
+and after advancing a little way from his trenches, ordered his men to
+make a halt, expecting the enemy to come down from the hill. This
+delay made Cæsar's soldiers begin to murmur; while Pompey's with full
+vigour poured down upon them, and a dreadful conflict ensued. 21. The
+first shock was so dreadful, that Cæsar's men, who had hitherto been
+used to conquer, now began to waver. Cæsar was never in so much danger
+as now; he threw himself several times into the very thickest of the
+battle. "What," cried he, "are you going to give up to a parcel of
+boys your general, who is grown grey in fighting at your head?" 22.
+Upon this, his tenth legion exerted themselves with more than usual
+bravery; and a party of horse being detached by Labie'nus from the
+camp in pursuit of a body of Numid'ian cavalry, Cæsar cried aloud that
+they were flying. This cry instantly spread itself through both
+armies, exciting the one as much as it depressed the other. 23. Now,
+therefore, the tenth legion pressed forward, and a total rout soon
+ensued. Thirty thousand men were killed on Cne'ius Pompey's side,
+and amongst them Labie'nus, whom Cæsar ordered to be buried with the
+funeral honours of a general officer. Cne'ius Pompey escaped with a
+few horsemen to the seaside; but finding his passage intercepted by
+Cæsar's lieutenant, he was obliged to seek for a retreat in an obscure
+cavern. He was quickly discovered by some of Cæsar's troops, who
+presently cut off his head, and brought it to the conqueror. His
+brother Sextus, however, concealed himself so well, that he escaped
+all pursuit; and afterwards, from his piracies, became noted and
+formidable to the people of Rome.
+
+24. Cæsar, by this last blow, subdued all his avowed enemies; and the
+rest of his life was employed for the advantage of the state. He
+adorned the city with magnificent buildings; he rebuilt Carthage and
+Corinth, sending colonies to both cities: he undertook to level
+several mountains in Italy, to drain the Pontine marshes near Rome;
+and he designed to cut through the Isthmus of Peloponne'sus. 25. Thus,
+with a mind that could never remain inactive, he pondered mighty
+projects and schemes, beyond the limits of the longest life; but the
+greatest of all was his intended expedition against the Parthians, by
+which he designed to revenge the death of Crassus, who having
+penetrated too far into their country, was overthrown, taken prisoner,
+and put to a cruel death, by having molten gold poured down his
+throat, as a punishment for his former avarice. From Parthia, Cæsar
+intended to pass through Hyrca'nia, and enter Scyth'ia, along the
+banks of the Caspian sea; then to open a way through the immeasurable
+forests of Germany into Gaul, and so to return to Rome. These were the
+aims of ambition; but the jealousy of a few individuals put an end to
+them all.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was Cæsar's next step?
+
+2. What honours were awarded him in his absence?
+
+3. What was the conduct of his deputy?
+
+4. How did he put an end to these disturbances?
+
+5. What was his next enterprise?
+
+6. What was the success of the campaign?
+
+7. How was Cato situated?
+
+8. What measure had he pursued?
+
+9. When all hope had forsaken him, what was his conduct?
+
+10. Was no effort made to change his resolution, and what
+followed?
+
+11. Was the wound mortal?
+
+12. What happened after the death of Cato?
+
+13. Describe the triumph.
+
+14. Was not Cæsar extremely liberal?
+
+15. What returns were made for this extraordinary liberality?
+
+16. Was he deserving of these honours?
+
+17. Was he destined to pass the rest of his life in tranquillity?
+
+18. Describe the opening of the campaign?
+
+19. Were the sons of Pompey successful in their attempts?
+
+20. What were the dispositions of the two armies?
+
+21. What memorable expression did the danger of the conflict draw from
+Cæsar?
+
+22. What was the consequence of this exclamation?
+
+23. What was the result of the battle?
+
+24. In what manner did Cæsar employ himself at this time?
+
+25. What were his most important resolutions?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+  O mighty Cæsar! dost thou lie so low?
+  Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils,
+  Shrunk to this little measure?--_Shakspeare._
+
+1. Cæsar having been made perpetual dictator, and received from the
+senate accumulated honours, it began to be rumoured that he intended
+to make himself king. In fact, he was possessed of the power; but the
+people, who had an aversion to the name, could not bear his assuming
+the title. 2. Whether he really designed to assume that empty honour,
+must for ever remain a secret; but certain it is, that the
+unsuspecting openness of his conduct created something like confidence
+in the innocence of his intentions. 3. When informed by those about
+him of the jealousies of many who envied his power, he was heard to
+say, that he would rather die once by treason, than live continually
+in the apprehension of it. When advised by some to beware of Brutus,
+in whom he had for some time reposed the greatest confidence, he
+opened his breast, all scarred with wounds, saying, "Do you think
+Brutus cares for such poor pillage as this?" and, being one night at
+supper, as his friends disputed among themselves what death was
+easiest, he replied, "That which is most sudden and least foreseen."
+But, to convince the world how little he apprehended from his enemies,
+he disbanded his Spanish guards, and thus facilitated the enterprise
+against his life.
+
+4. A deep conspiracy was now laid against him, into which no less than
+sixty senators entered. They were still the more formidable, as the
+generality of them were of his own party; and, having been raised
+above other citizens, felt more strongly the weight of a single
+superior.
+
+[Illustration: Brutus and Cassius conspiring against Cæsar.]
+
+At the head of this conspiracy were Brutus, whose life Cæsar had
+spared after the battle of Pharsalia, and Cassius, who was pardoned
+soon after; both prætors for the present year. 5. Brutus made it his
+chief glory to have descended from that Brutus who first gave liberty
+to Rome. The passion for freedom seemed to have been transmitted to
+him with the blood of his ancestors. But, though he detested tyranny,
+yet could he not forbear loving the tyrant from whom he had received
+the most signal benefits.
+
+6. The conspirators, to give a colour of justice to their proceedings,
+put off the execution of their design to the ides of March,[3] the day
+on which Cæsar was to be offered the crown. 7. The augurs had foretold
+that this day would be fatal to him. The night preceding he heard his
+wife, Calphur'nia, lamenting in her sleep. Being awakened, she
+confessed to him, that she dreamt of his being assassinated in her
+arms. 8. These omens, in some measure, began to change his intention
+of going to the senate; but one of the conspirators coming in,
+prevailed upon him to keep his resolution, telling him of the reproach
+that would attend his staying at home till his wife should have lucky
+dreams, and of the preparations that were made for his appearance. 9.
+As he went along to the senate, a slave who hastened to him with
+information of the conspiracy, attempted to come near him, but was
+prevented by the crowd. Artemido'rus, a Greek philosopher, who had
+discovered the whole plot, delivered him a memorial, containing the
+heads of his information; but Cæsar gave it, with other papers, to one
+of his secretaries, without reading, as was visual in matters of this
+nature. Having at length entered the senate-house, where the
+conspirators were prepared to receive him, he met one Spuri'na, an
+augur, who had foretold his danger, to whom he said smiling, "Well,
+Spuri'na, the ides of March are come."--"Yes," replied the augur, "but
+they are not yet gone." 10. No sooner had he taken his place, than the
+conspirators approached, under pretence of saluting him: Cimber, who
+was one of them, in a suppliant posture, pretended to sue for his
+brother's pardon, who had been banished by Cæsar's order. The
+conspirators seconded him with great earnestness; and Cimber, seeming
+to sue with still greater submission, took hold of the bottom of his
+robe; holding him, so as to prevent his rising. 11. This was the
+signal agreed on; when Casca, who was behind, instantly stabbed him in
+the shoulder, Cæsar sprung around, and, with the steel of his tablet,
+wounded him in the arm. The conspirators were all alarmed; when, being
+inclosed round, he received a second stab, from an unseen hand, in the
+breast; while Cassius wounded him in the face. He still defended
+himself with great vigour, rushing among them, and throwing down such
+as opposed him, till he saw Brutus among the conspirators, who, coming
+up, struck his dagger into his thigh. 12. Cæsar, from that moment,
+thought no more of defending himself; but, looking upon Brutus, cried
+out, "_Et tu Brute!_"--And you too, O Brutus! Then covering his head,
+and spreading his robe before him, in order to fall with decency, he
+sunk down at the base of Pompey's statue: after having received three
+and twenty wounds, from those whom he vainly supposed he had disarmed
+by his benefits.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 709.]
+
+13. Cæsar was killed in his fifty-sixth year, and about fourteen years
+after he had begun the conquest of the world.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Julius Cæsar.]
+
+14. If we examine his history, we shall be at a loss whether most
+to admire his great abilities, or his wonderful fortune. To pretend to
+say, that from the beginning he planned the subjection of his native
+country, is doing no great credit to his well-known penetration, as a
+thousand obstacles lay in his way, which fortune, rather than conduct,
+was to surmount; no man, therefore, of his sagacity, would have begun
+a scheme in which the chances of succeeding were so many against him.
+It is most probable that, like all very successful men, he made the
+best of every occurrence; and his ambition rising with his good
+fortune, from at first being content with humbler aims, he at last
+began to think of governing the world, when he found scarcely any
+obstacle to oppose his designs. Such is the disposition of man, whose
+cravings after power are then most insatiable when he enjoys the
+greatest share.[4]
+
+16. As soon as the conspirators had despatched Cæsar, they retired to
+the Capitol, and guarded its accesses by a body of gladiators which
+Brutus had in pay.
+
+17. The friends of the late dictator now began to find that this was
+the time for coming into greater power than before, and for satisfying
+their ambition under the pretence of promoting justice: of this number
+was Antony. 18. He was a man of moderate abilities, of excessive
+vices, ambitious of power only because it gave his pleasures a
+wider range to riot in; but skilled in war, to which he had been
+trained from his youth.[5] He was consul for this year, and resolved,
+with Lep'idus, who like himself was fond of commotions, to seize this
+opportunity of gaining a power which Cæsar had died for usurping.
+Lep'idus, therefore, took possession of the Forum,[6] with a band of
+soldiers at his devotion; and Antony, being consul, was permitted to
+command them. 19. Their first step was to possess themselves of
+Cæsar's papers and money, and the next to assemble the senate. 20.
+Never had this august assembly been convened upon so delicate an
+occasion, as to determine whether Cæsar had been a legal magistrate,
+or a tyrannical usurper; and whether those who killed him merited
+rewards or punishments. Many of them had received all their promotions
+from Cæsar, and had acquired large fortunes in consequence of his
+appointments: to vote him an usurper, therefore, would be to endanger
+their property; and yet, to vote him innocent, might endanger the
+state. In this dilemma they seemed willing to reconcile extremes; they
+approved all the acts of Cæsar, and yet granted a general pardon to
+the conspirators.
+
+21. This decree was very far from giving Antony satisfaction, as it
+granted security to a number of men who were the avowed enemies of
+tyranny, and who would be foremost in opposing his schemes of
+restoring absolute power. As, therefore, the senate had ratified all
+Cæsar's acts without distinction, he formed a plan of making him rule
+when dead as imperiously as he had done when living. 22. Being
+possessed of Cæsar's books of accounts, he so far gained over his
+secretary as to make him insert whatever he thought proper. By these
+means, great sums of money, which Cæsar would never have bestowed,
+were distributed among the people; and every man who had any seditious
+designs against the government was there sure to find a gratuity. 23.
+Things being in this situation, Antony demanded of the senate that
+Cæsar's funeral obsequies should be performed. This they could not
+decently forbid, as they had never declared him a tyrant:
+accordingly, the body was brought forth into the Forum with the utmost
+solemnity; and Antony, who charged himself with these last duties of
+friendship, began his operations upon the passions of the people by
+the prevailing motives of private interest. 24. He first read to them
+Cæsar's will, in which he made Octavius, his sister's grandson, his
+heir, permitting him to take the name of Cæsar, and bequeathed him
+three parts of his private fortune; which, in case of his death,
+Brutus was to have inherited. To the Roman people were left the
+gardens which he possessed on the other side of the Tiber; and to
+every citizen three hundred sesterces. Unfolding Cæsar's bloody robe,
+pierced by the daggers of the conspirators, he observed to them the
+number of stabs in it. He also displayed a waxen image, representing
+the body of Cæsar, all covered with wounds. 25. The people could no
+longer retain their indignation, but unanimously cried out for
+revenge, and ran, with flaming brands from the pile, to set fire to
+the houses of the conspirators. In this rage of resentment, meeting
+with one Cinna, whom they mistook for another of the same name that
+was in the conspiracy, they tore him in pieces. 26. The conspirators
+themselves, however, being well guarded, repulsed the multitude with
+no great trouble; but perceiving the general rage of the people, they
+thought it safest to retire from the city.
+
+27. In the mean time, Antony, who had excited this flame, resolved to
+make the most of the occasion. But an obstacle to his ambition seemed
+to arise from a quarter in which he least expected it, namely, from
+Octa'vius, afterwards called Augus'tus, who was the grand-nephew and
+adopted son of Cæsar. A third competitor also for power appeared in
+Lep'idus, a man of some authority and great riches. 28. At first, the
+ambition of these three seemed to threaten fatal consequences to each
+other; but, uniting in the common cause, they resolved to revenge the
+death of Cæsar, and dividing their power, they formed what is called
+the Second Triumvirate.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What design was Cæsar supposed to entertain?
+
+2. Was this rumour well founded?
+
+3. When hints of danger were given him, what was his conduct?
+
+4. What was the consequence of this imprudence?
+
+5. What was the character of Brutus?
+
+6. What time was fixed for the conspiracy to take place?
+
+7. Had Cæsar any intimations of his danger?
+
+8. Was he at all influenced by them?
+
+9. Were no other attempts made to warn him of his approaching fate?
+
+10. In what way did the conspirators commence their attempt?
+
+11. What followed?
+
+12. What was the consequence of this?
+
+13. What was Cæsar's age?
+
+14. Did Cæsar plan the conquest of his country from the first?
+
+15. By what means did he accomplish it?
+
+16. How did the conspirators escape the vengeance of the people?
+
+17. What advantage was taken of this event?
+
+18. What was the character of Antony, and what resolution did he form?
+
+19. What were his first acts?
+
+20. How were the seriate situated on this occasion?
+
+21. Was Antony satisfied with this decree?
+
+22. How did he accomplish this?
+
+23. What was his next measure?
+
+24. By what means did he effect his purpose?
+
+25. What was the consequence of this artful conduct?
+
+26. Did the conspirators fall victims to their fury?
+
+27. Had Antony no rivals in his attempts to acquire power?
+
+28. What was the result of this rivalship?
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+  Come, Antony, and young Octavius, come,
+  Revenge yourself alone on Cassius,
+  For Cassius is aweary of the world.--_Shakspeare._
+
+1. The meeting of these three usurpers of their country's freedom, was
+upon a little island of the river Rhenus.[7] Their mutual suspicions
+were the cause of their meeting in a place where they had no fear of
+treachery; for, even in their union, they could not divest themselves
+of mutual diffidence. 2. Lep'idus first entered; and, finding all
+things safe, made the signal for the other two to approach. At their
+first meeting, after saluting each other, Augustus began the
+conference, by thanking Antony for putting Dec'imus Brutus to death;
+who, being abandoned by his army, had been taken, as he was
+endeavouring to escape into Macedo'nia, and was beheaded by Antony's
+soldiers. 3. They then entered upon the business that lay before them,
+without any retrospection to the past.
+
+[Illustration: The Second Triumvirate preparing their Proscription
+List.]
+
+Their conference lasted three days; and, in this period, they
+settled a division of the government, and determined the fate of
+thousands. 4. The result of this conference was, that the supreme
+authority should be lodged in their hands, under the title of the
+Trium'virate, for the space of five years; that Antony should have
+Gaul; Lep'idus, Spain, and Augustus, Africa and the Mediterranean
+islands. As for Italy, and the eastern provinces, they were to remain
+in common, until their general enemy should be subdued; and, among
+other articles of union, it was agreed that all their enemies should
+be destroyed, of which each presented a list. 5. In these were
+comprised, not only the enemies but the friends of the Trium'virate,
+since the partisans of the one were found among the opposers of the
+other. Thus Lep'idus gave up his brother Æmil'ius Paulus to the
+vengeance of his colleague; Antony permitted the proscription of his
+uncle Lucius; and Augustus delivered up the great Ci'cero, who was
+assassinated shortly after by Antony's command.[8]
+
+6. In the mean time Brutus and Cassius, the principal of the
+conspirators against Cæsar, being compelled to quit Rome, went into
+Greece, where they persuaded the Roman students at Athens to declare
+in the cause of freedom; then parting, the former raised a powerful
+army in Macedonia, while the latter went into Syria, where he soon
+became master of twelve legions, and reduced his opponent, Dolabella,
+to such straits as to force him to lay violent hands on himself. 7.
+Both armies joined at Smyr'na: the sight of such a formidable force
+began to revive the declining spirits of the party, and to reunite the
+two generals still more closely, between whom there had been, some
+time before, a slight misunderstanding. In short, having quitted Italy
+like distressed exiles, without having one soldier or one town that
+owned their command, they now found themselves at the head of a
+flourishing army, furnished with every necessary for carrying on the
+war, and in a condition to support a contest on which the empire of
+the world depended.
+
+8. It was in this flourishing state of their affairs that the
+conspirators formed a resolution of marching against Cleopatra, who
+had made great preparations to assist their opponents. 9. However,
+they were diverted from this purpose by information that Augustus and
+Antony were now upon their march, with forty legions, to oppose them.
+Brutus, therefore, moved to have their army pass over into Greece and
+Macedonia, and there meet the enemy: but Cassius so far prevailed as
+to have the Rho'dians and Ly'cians first reduced, who had refused
+their usual contributions. 10. This expedition was immediately put in
+execution, and extraordinary contributions were thus raised, the
+Rho'dians having scarcely anything left them but their lives. The
+Ly'cians suffered still more severely; for having shut themselves up
+in their capital town Nanthus, they defended the place against Brutus
+with so much fury, that neither his arts nor entreaties could prevail
+upon them to surrender. [11]. At length, the town being set on fire by
+their attempting to burn the works of the Romans, Brutus, instead of
+laying hold of this opportunity to storm the place, made every effort
+to preserve it, entreating his soldiers to try all means of
+extinguishing the fire; but the desperate frenzy of the citizens
+was not to be mollified. 12. Far from thinking themselves obliged to
+the generous enemy for the efforts which they made to save them, they
+resolved to perish in the flames. Instead of extinguishing, therefore,
+they did all in their power to augment the fire, by throwing in wood,
+dry reeds, and all kinds of fuel. 13. Nothing could exceed the
+distress of Brutus upon seeing the townsmen thus resolutely bent on
+destroying themselves. He rode about the fortifications, stretching
+out his hands to the Xan'thians, and conjuring them to have pity on
+themselves and their city; but, insensible to his expostulations, they
+rushed into the flames with desperate obstinacy, and the whole soon
+became a heap of undistinguishable ruin. 14. At this horrid spectacle
+Brutus melted into tears, offering a reward to every soldier who
+should bring him a Ly'cian alive. The number of those whom it was
+possible to save from their own fury amounted to no more than one
+hundred and fifty. 15. Some writers, however, affirm that the town was
+burnt to the ground, and the inhabitants destroyed, by the command of
+Brutus; and that those who surrendered at discretion, he deprived of
+all their public and private property.
+
+16. Brutus and Cassius met once more at Sardis where they resolved to
+have a private conference together. They shut themselves up in the
+first convenient house, with express orders to their servants to give
+admission to no one. 17. Brutus began by reprimanding Cassius for
+having disposed of offices for money, which should ever be the reward
+of merit, and for having overtaxed the tributary states. Cassius
+repelled the imputation of avarice with the more bitterness, as he
+knew the charge to be groundless. The debate grew warm; till, from
+loud speaking, they burst into tears. 18. Their friends, who were
+standing at the door, overheard the increasing vehemence of their
+voices, and began to tremble for the consequences, till Favo'nius, who
+valued himself upon a cynical boldness, that knew no restraint,
+entering the room with a jest, calmed their mutual animosity. 19.
+Cassius was ready enough to forego his anger, being a man of great
+abilities, but of an uneven disposition; not averse to pleasure in
+private company, and, upon the whole, of morals not quite correct. But
+the conduct of Brutus was perfectly steady. An even gentleness, a
+noble elevation of sentiment, a strength of mind over which neither
+vice nor pleasure could have an influence, and an inflexible firmness
+in the cause of justice, composed the character of this great
+man. 20. After their conference night coming on, Cassius invited
+Brutus and his friends to an entertainment, where freedom and
+cheerfulness, for a while, took place of political anxiety, and
+softened the severity of wisdom. Upon retiring home it was that Brutus
+thought he saw a spectre in his tent. 21. He naturally slept but
+little, and was capable of bearing want of rest by long habit and
+great sobriety. He never allowed himself to sleep in the daytime, as
+was common in Rome; and only gave so much of the night to repose as
+could barely renew the functions of nature. But now, oppressed with
+various cares, he allowed himself a still shorter time after his
+nightly repast; and, waking about midnight, generally read or studied
+till morning. 22. It was in the dead of night, says Plutarch, when the
+whole camp was perfectly quiet, that Brutus was thus employed; reading
+by a lamp that was just expiring. On a sudden he thought he heard a
+noise, as if somebody was approaching, and looking towards the door,
+perceived it open. A gigantic figure of frightful aspect stood before
+him, and continued to gaze upon him with silent severity. 23. Brutus
+is reported to have asked, "Art thou a dæmon or a mortal? and why
+comest thou to me?" "Brutus," answered the phantom, "I am thy evil
+genius--thou shalt see me again at Philippi."[9] "Well, then," replied
+Brutus, without being discomposed, "we shall meet again." Upon this
+the phantom vanished; when Brutus, calling to his servants, asked if
+they had seen anything; to which they answering in the negative, he
+resumed his studies. 24. Struck with so strange an occurrence, he
+mentioned it to Cassius, who rightly considered it as the effect of an
+imagination disordered by vigilance and anxiety. 25. Brutus appeared
+satisfied with this solution; and as Antony and Augustus were now
+advanced into Macedonia, he and his colleague passed over into Thrace,
+and drew near to Philippi, where the forces of the Trium'viri were
+posted to receive them.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Where was the first meeting of the Triumvirate, and why was it
+chosen?
+
+2. What precautions did they take?
+
+3. What farther was done?
+
+4. What was the result of the conference?
+
+5. Who were the proscribed?
+
+6. What became of Brutus and Cassius?
+
+7. What effect had this success on the minds of their party?
+
+8. What was their first resolution?
+
+9. Did they put it in execution?
+
+10. What was the consequence to the Rhodians and Lycians?
+
+11. What unfortunate accident hastened the fate of the town?
+
+12. Did they not second the efforts of Brutus?
+
+13. By what means did Brutus attempt to divert them from their
+purpose?
+
+14, 15. By what method did he endeavour to save some of the Lycians?
+
+16. Where did Brutus and Cassius meet, and what ensued?
+
+17. Was their interview an amicable one?
+
+18. Did no one interpose?
+
+19. What were the characters of these great men?
+
+20. What happened after the conference?
+
+21. What were the peculiar habits of Brutus?
+
+22. What happened to him while thus employed?
+
+23. What conversation passed between them?
+
+24. Did he mention the circumstance to any one?
+
+25. Did Brutus assent to this opinion, and what followed?
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+  I dare assure you that no enemy
+  Shall ever take alive the noble Brutus.--_Shakspeare_.
+
+1. Mankind now began to regard the approaching armies with terror and
+suspense. The empire of the world depended upon the fate of a battle.
+From victory, on the one side, they had to expect freedom; on the
+other, a sovereign with absolute command. 2. Brutus was the only man
+who looked upon these great events with calmness and tranquillity.
+Indifferent as to success, and satisfied with having done his duty, he
+said to one of his friends, "If I am victorious, I shall restore
+liberty to my country: if not, by dying, I shall myself be delivered
+from slavery. My condition is fixed; I run no hazards." 3. The
+republican army consisted of fourscore thousand foot, and twenty
+thousand horse. The army of the Trium'viri amounted to a hundred
+thousand foot and thirteen thousand horse. 4. Thus complete on both
+sides, they met and encamped near each other upon the plains of
+Philip'pi. Near the town were two little hills, about a mile distant
+from each other; upon these hills, Brutus and Cassius fixed their
+camps, and kept up a free communication, which mutually defended each
+other. 5. In this commodious situation they could act as they thought
+proper, and give battle just when it was thought to their advantage to
+engage. Behind was the sea, which furnished them with all kinds of
+provisions; and, at twelve miles distance, the island of Thasos, which
+served them for a general magazine. 6. The Trium'viri, on the other
+hand, were encamped on the plain below, and were obliged to bring
+provisions from fifteen leagues' distance; so that their scheme and
+interest were to forward a battle as soon as possible. This they
+offered several times, drawing out their men from the camp, and
+provoking the enemy to engage. 7. On the contrary, the enemy contented
+themselves with drawing up their troops at the head of their camps,
+without descending to the plain. This resolution of postponing the
+battle, was the chance that the republican army had for victory; and
+Cassius, sensible of his advantage, resolved to harass rather than
+engage the enemy. 8. But Brutus, who began to suspect the fidelity of
+some of his officers, used all his influence to persuade Cassius to
+change his resolution. "I am impatient," said he, "to put an end to
+the miseries of mankind; and in this I hope to succeed whether I
+conquer or fall." 9. His wishes were soon gratified; for Antony's
+soldiers having, with great labour, made a road through the marsh
+which lay to the left of Cassius's camp, by that means opened a
+communication with the island of Thasos, which lay behind him. Both
+armies, after several attempts to possess themselves of this road,
+resolved at length to come to a general engagement. 10. This, however,
+was contrary to the advice of Cassius, who found himself forced, as
+Pompey had formerly been, to expose the liberty of Rome to the hazard
+of a battle. On the ensuing morning, the two generals gave the signal
+for engaging, and conferred together a little while before the battle
+began. 11. Cassius desired to be informed how Brutus intended to act
+in case they should be unsuccessful. To this Brutus replied,
+"Formerly, in my writings, I condemned the death of Cato, and
+maintained, that avoiding calamities by suicide is an insolent attempt
+against Heaven, that allotted them: but I have altered my opinion; I
+have given up my life to my country, and I think I have a right to my
+own way of ending it.[10] I am resolved, therefore, to change a
+miserable being here for a better hereafter, if fortune turn against
+me." 12. "My friend," cried Cassius, embracing him, "now may we
+venture to face the enemy; for either we shall be conquerors, or we
+shall have no cause to fear those that be so." 13. Augustus being
+sick, the forces of the Triumviri were commanded by Antony alone, who
+began the engagement by a victorious attack upon the lines of Cassius.
+Brutus, on the other side, made a dreadful irruption on the army of
+Augustus, and drove forward with so much intrepidity, that he broke
+them upon the very first charge. Upon this, he penetrated as far as
+the camp, and slaughtering those that were left for its defence, his
+troops immediately began to plunder. 14. In the mean time, however,
+the lines of Cassius were forced, and his cavalry put to flight. There
+was no effort that this unfortunate general did not exert to make his
+infantry stand; stopping those that fled, and himself seizing the
+colours to rally them. But the valour of an individual was
+insufficient to inspire a timorous army. 15. At length, despairing of
+success, Cassius retired to his tent and killed himself. Brutus was
+soon informed of the defeat of Cassius, and in a little time after, of
+his death; scarcely able to restrain the excess of his grief for a man
+whom he lamented as the last of the Romans.
+
+16. Brutus, now become sole general, assembled the dispersed troops of
+Cassius, and animated them with fresh hopes of victory. As they had
+lost their all from the plundering of their camp, he promised two
+thousand denarii to each man to make them amends. 17. Inspired with
+new ardour, they admired the liberality of their general, and, with
+loud shouts, proclaimed his intrepidity. Still, however, he wanted
+confidence to face the adversary, who offered him battle the ensuing
+day. His aim was to starve the enemy, who were in extreme want of
+provisions, from their fleet having been lately defeated. 18. But his
+single opinion was overruled by the army, who now grew every day more
+confident of their strength, and more arrogant to their general. At
+last, therefore, after a respite of twenty days, he was obliged to
+comply with their solicitations to try the fate of a battle. Both
+armies were drawn out, and they remained a long while opposite
+to each other without offering to engage. It is said, that he himself
+had lost much of his ardour by having again seen, or fancied that he
+saw, the spectre, in the night preceding. However, he encouraged his
+men, and gave the signal for battle. As usual, he had the advantage
+where he commanded in person; bearing down the enemy at the head of
+his infantry, and supported by his cavalry, making great slaughter.
+19. But the forces which had belonged to Cassius were seized with a
+panic, and communicating their terror to the rest, the whole army at
+last gave way. Brutus, surrounded by the most valiant of his officers,
+fought long with amazing valour. The son of Cato, and the brother of
+Cassius, fell fighting by his side. At last, he was obliged to yield
+to necessity, and fled. 20. In the mean time, the two Triumviri,
+assured of victory, expressly ordered that the general should by no
+means be suffered to escape. Thus the whole body of the enemy being
+intent on the person of Brutus alone, his capture seemed inevitable.
+21. In this deplorable exigence, Lucil'ius, his friend, resolved, by
+his own death, to effect his general's delivery. 22. Seeing a body of
+Thracian horse closely pursuing Brutus, and just upon the point of
+taking him, he boldly threw himself in their way, telling them that
+_he_ was Brutus. The Thra'cians overjoyed with so great a prize,
+immediately despatched some of their companions with the news of their
+success to the army. 23. Upon this, the ardour of the pursuit abating,
+Antony marched out to meet his prisoner, either to hasten his death,
+or insult his misfortunes. He was followed by a great number of
+officers and soldiers, some silently deploring the fate of so virtuous
+a man, others reproaching that mean desire of life far which he
+consented to undergo captivity. 24. Antony now seeing the Thracians
+approach, began to prepare himself for the interview; but the faithful
+Lucilius, advancing with a cheerful air--"It is _not_ Brutus," said
+he, "that is taken; fortune has not yet had the power of committing so
+great an outrage upon virtue. As for my life, it is well lost in
+preserving his honour; take it, for I have deceived you." Antony,
+struck with so much fidelity, pardoned him, loaded him with benefits,
+and honoured him with his friendship.
+
+25. In the mean time, Brutus, with a small number of friends, passed
+over a rivulet; and night coming on, sat down under a rock, which
+concealed him from the pursuit of the enemy. After taking breath, and
+casting his eyes to heaven, he repeated a line from Eurip'ides,
+containing a wish to the gods, "That guilt should not pass in this
+life without punishment." To this he added another from the same poet:
+"O unhappy virtue! I have worshipped thee as a real good; but thou art
+a vain empty name, and the slave of fortune." He then called to mind,
+with great tenderness, those whom he had seen perish in battle. 26. He
+sent out one Statil'ius to give him information of those that
+remained; but Statil'ius never returned, being killed by a party of
+the enemy's horse. Brutus, judging rightly of his fate, now resolved
+to die likewise; and entreated those who stood round him to give him
+their last sad assistance: but they all refused so melancholy a
+service. 27. He then retired aside with his friend Strato, requesting
+him to perform the last office of friendship. Upon Strato's refusal,
+he ordered one of his slaves to execute what he so ardently desired;
+but Strato crying out, "that it never should be said that Brutus, in
+his last extremity, stood in need of a slave for want of a friend,"
+turned aside his head, and presenting the sword's point, Brutus threw
+himself upon it, and immediately expired, in the forty-third year of
+his age. A.U. 711.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What great event was now depending?
+
+2. What were Brutus's feelings on this occasion?
+
+3. What was the respective strength of the armies?
+
+4. Where did they meet and encamp?
+
+5. What were the advantages of this situation?
+
+6. Were the Triumviri equally well situated?
+
+7. Were the enemy equally ready to engage?
+
+8. What induced Brutus to combat this resolution?
+
+9. Did he obtain his wish?
+
+10. Did Cassius wish to engage?
+
+11. What passed between the generals on this occasion?
+
+12. What was the reply of Cassius?
+
+13. What happened at the commencement of the battle?
+
+14. Was Cassius equally successful?
+
+15. What did he do in his extremity, and what effect had it on Brutus?
+
+16. Did Brutus attempt to recover the victory?
+
+17. What followed?
+
+18. Were his intentions agreeable to his troops, and what was the
+consequence?
+
+19. What decided the victory against him?
+
+20. What orders were issued by the Triumviri or this occasion?
+
+21. By whom was his deliverance attempted?
+
+22. How did he accomplish this?
+
+23. What was the consequence?
+
+24. Relate the circumstances of their interview?
+
+25. What happened to Brutus in the mean time?
+
+26. How did he attempt to gain intelligence, and what followed his
+disappointment?
+
+27. Relate the manner of his death?
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+  But anxious cares already seized the queen;
+  She fed within her veins a flame unseen:
+  The hero's valour, acts, and birth, inspire
+  Her soul with love, and fan the secret fire.--_Dryden_.
+
+1. From the moment of Brutus's death, the Trium'viri began to act as
+sovereigns, and to divide the Roman dominions among them as their own
+by right of conquest. 2. However, though there were apparently three
+who participated all power, yet, in fact, only two were actually
+possessed of it, since Lep'idus was admitted at first merely to curb
+the mutual jealousy of Antony and Augustus, and was possessed neither
+of interest in the army, nor authority among the people. 3. Their
+earliest care was to punish those whom they had formerly marked for
+vengeance. Horten'sius, Dru'sus, and Quintil'ius Va'rus, all men of
+the first rank in the commonwealth, either killed themselves or were
+slain. A senator and his son were ordered to cast lots for their
+lives, but both refused; the father voluntarily gave himself up to the
+executioner, and the son stabbed himself before his face. Another
+begged to have the rites of burial after his death: to which Augus'tus
+replied, "that he would soon find a grave in the vultures that would
+devour him." 4. But chiefly the people lamented to see the head of
+Brutus sent to Rome to be thrown at the foot of Cæsar's statue. His
+ashes, however, were sent to his wife Portia, Cato's daughter, who,
+following the examples of both her husband and father, killed herself,
+by swallowing coals. 5. It is observed, that of all those who had a
+hand in the death of Cæsar, not one died a natural death.
+
+6. The power of the Triumviri being thus established upon the ruin of
+the commonwealth, they now began to think of enjoying that homage to
+which they had aspired. 7. Antony went into Greece to receive the
+flattery of that refined people, and spent some time at A'thens,
+conversing with the philosophers, and assisting at their disputes in
+person.
+
+[Illustration: Antony with Cleopatra In Egypt]
+
+Thence he passed over into Asia, where all the monarchs of the
+east, who acknowledged the Roman power, came to pay him their
+obedience; while the fairest princesses strove to gain his favour by
+the greatness of their presents or the allurements of their beauty. 8.
+In this manner he proceeded from kingdom to kingdom, attended by a
+succession of sovereigns, exacting contributions, distributing
+favours, and giving away crowns with capricious insolence. He
+presented the kingdom of Cappado'cia to Sy'senes, in prejudice of
+Ariara'thes, only because he was pleased with the beauty of Glaph'yra,
+the mother of the former. He settled Herod in the kingdom of Judea,
+and supported him. But among all the sovereigns of the east, who
+depended upon Antony, Cleopatra, the celebrated queen of Egypt, was
+the most distinguished.
+
+9. It happened that Sera'pion, her governor in the isle of Cyprus, had
+formerly furnished some succours to Cassius and the conspirators; and
+it was thought proper she should answer for his conduct. Accordingly,
+having received orders from Antony to clear herself of the imputation
+of infidelity, she readily complied, equally conscious of the goodness
+of her cause and the power of her beauty. 10. She was now in her
+twenty-seventh year, and consequently had improved those allurements
+by art, which in earlier age are seldom attended to Her address and
+wit were still farther heightened; and though there were some women in
+Rome that were her equals in beauty, none could rival her in the
+powers of conversation; 11. Antony was in Tarsus, a city of Cili'cia,
+when Cleopatra resolved to attend his court in person. She sailed down
+the river Cydnus to meet him, with the most sumptuous pageantry. The
+stern of her galley was covered with gold, its sails were purple
+silk, its oars silver, and they kept time to the sound of flutes and
+cymbals. She exhibited herself reclining on a couch spangled with
+stars of gold, and such other ornaments as poets and painters had
+usually ascribed to Venus. On each side were boys like cupids, fanning
+her by turns, while beautiful nymphs, dressed like Nereids and Graces,
+were placed at proper distances around her: the sweets that were
+burning on board her galley perfumed the banks of the river as she
+passed, while an infinite number of people gazed upon the exhibition
+with delight and admiration. 12. Antony soon became captivated with
+her beauty, and found himself unable to defend his heart against that
+passion which proved the cause of his future misfortunes. When
+Cleopa'tra had thus secured her power, she set out on her return to
+Egypt. Antony, quitting every other object, presently hastened after
+her, and there gave himself up to all that case and softness to which
+his vicious heart was prone, and which that luxurious people were able
+to supply.
+
+13. While he remained thus idle in Egypt, Augustus, who took upon him
+to lead back the veteran troops, and settle them in Italy, was
+assiduously employed in providing for their subsistence. 14. He had
+promised them lands at home, as a recompense for their past services;
+but they could not receive their new grants without turning out the
+former inhabitants. 15. In consequence of this, multitudes of women,
+with their children in their arms, whose tender years and innocence
+excited compassion, daily filled the temples and the streets with
+their lamentations. Numbers of husbandmen and shepherds came to
+deprecate the conqueror's intention, or to obtain a habitation in some
+other part of the world. 16. Among this number was Virgil, the poet,
+to whom mankind owe more obligations than to a thousand conquerors,
+who, in an humble manner, begged permission to retain his patrimonial
+farm. 17. Virgil obtained his request;[11] but the rest of his
+countrymen at Mantua,[12] and Cremo'na, were turned out without mercy.
+
+18. Italy and Rome now felt the most extreme miseries.  The
+insolent soldiers plundered at will; while Sextus Pompey, being master
+of the sea, cut off all foreign communication, and prevented the
+people from receiving their usual supplies of corn. To these mischiefs
+were added the commencement of another civil war. 19. Fulvia, the wife
+of Antony, whom he had left behind at Rome, felt for some time all the
+rage of jealousy, and resolved to try every method of bringing back
+her husband from Cleopa'tra. 20. She considered a breach with Augustus
+as the only probable means of rousing him from his lethargy; and,
+accordingly, with the assistance of Lucius, her brother-in-law, she
+began to sow the seeds of dissension. The pretext was, that Antony
+should have a share in the distribution of lands as well as Augustus.
+21. This produced negotiations between them, and Augustus offered to
+make the veterans themselves umpires in this dispute. Lucius refused
+to acquiesce; and being at the head of more than six legions, mostly
+composed of such as were dispossessed of their lands, he resolved to
+compel Augustus to accept of whatever terms he should offer. Thus a
+new war was excited between Augustus and Antony; or, at least, the
+generals of Antony assumed the sanction of his name. 22. Augustus was
+victorious; Lucius was hemmed in between two armies, and constrained
+to retreat to Peru'sia, where he was closely besieged by the opposite
+party. He made many desperate sallies, and Fulvia did all in her power
+to relieve him, but without success, so that, being at last reduced to
+extremity by famine, he delivered himself up to the mercy of the
+conqueror. Augustus received him honourably, and generously pardoned
+him and all his followers.[13]
+
+23. Antony having heard of his brother's overthrow, and of his wife
+being compelled to leave Italy, was resolved to oppose Augustus. He
+accordingly sailed at the head of a considerable fleet, and had an
+interview with Fulvia at Athens. 24. He much blamed her for
+occasioning the late disorders, testified the utmost contempt for her
+person, and, leaving her upon her death-bed, hastened into Italy to
+fight Augustus. They both met at Brundu'sium, and it was now thought
+that the flames of civil war were going to blaze out once more. 25.
+The forces of Antony were numerous, but mostly newly raised;
+however, he was assisted by Sextus Pompei'us, who, in those
+oppositions of interest, was daily coming into power. Augustus was at
+the head of those veterans who had always been irresistible, but who
+seemed no way disposed to fight against Antony, their former general.
+26. A negociation was therefore proposed, and a reconciliation was
+effected: all offences and affronts were mutually forgiven; and, to
+cement the union, a marriage was concluded between Antony and Octavia,
+the sister of Augustus. 27. A new division of the Roman empire was
+made between them; Augustus was to have command of the West--Antony of
+the East; while Lepidus was obliged to content himself with the
+provinces in Africa. As for Sextus Pompei'us, he was permitted to
+retain all the islands he already possessed, together with
+Peloponnesus; he was also granted the privilege of demanding the
+consulship, though absent, and of discharging that office by a friend.
+It was stipulated to leave the sea open, and to pay the people what
+corn was due out of Sicily. Thus a general peace was concluded, to the
+great satisfaction of the people, who now expected an end to all their
+calamities.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What ensued on the death of Brutus?
+
+2. Were the triumviri possessed of equal power?
+
+3. What were their first measures?
+
+4. By what were the people most affected?
+
+5. What observation has been made on these events?
+
+6. What was the consequence of the establishment of their power?
+
+7. Whither did Antony betake himself for that purpose?
+
+8. How was he employed?
+
+9. By what means did Cleopatra incur his displeasure?
+
+10. What personal advantages did she possess?
+
+11. Did she appear before Antony as an humble suppliant?
+
+12. What was the result of the interview?
+
+13. How was Augustus employed in the mean time?
+
+14. What recompense had he promised these troops?
+
+15. What was the consequence of this tyranny?
+
+16. What remarkable person was among the sufferers?
+
+17. Was his request granted?
+
+18. What was the state of Italy at this time?
+
+19. What occasioned it?
+
+20. What did she consider as the most probable means of reclaiming
+him?
+
+21. Were terms of accommodation offered and accepted?
+
+22. What was the event of the war?
+
+23. What was Antony's conduct on the occasion?
+
+24. Did he approve of his wife's proceedings?
+
+25. Were the two armies of nearly equal strength?
+
+26. What was the consequence?
+
+27. What further measures were adopted?
+
+
+SECTION VII.
+
+  _Octavia_. --You have been his ruin.
+  Who made him cheap at Rome, but Cleopatra?
+  Who made him scorned abroad, but Cleopatra?
+  At Actium who betrayed him? Cleopatra.--_Dryden_.
+
+1. The only obstacle to the ambition of Augustus was Antony, whom he
+resolved to remove; and for that purpose rendered his character at
+Rome as contemptible as he possibly could. In fact, Antony's conduct
+did not a little contribute to promote the endeavours of his ambitious
+partner. 2. He had marched against the Parthians with a prodigious
+army, but was forced to return with the loss of the fourth part of his
+forces, and all his baggage.
+
+3. However, Antony seemed quite regardless of contempt: alive only to
+pleasure, and totally disregarding the business of the state, he spent
+his whole time in the company of Cleopatra, who studied every art to
+increase his passion and vary his entertainments. 4. Few women have
+been so much celebrated for the art of giving novelty to pleasure, and
+making trifles important. Still ingenious in filling up the time with
+some new strokes of refinement, she was at one time a queen, then a
+_bac'chanal_, and sometimes a huntress. 5. Not contented with sharing
+with her all the delights which Egypt could afford, Antony was
+resolved to enlarge his sphere of luxury, by granting her some of
+those kingdoms which belonged to the Roman empire. He gave her all
+Pheni'cia, Celo-Syria, and Cy'prus, with a great part of Cili'cia,
+Ara'bia, and Jude'a, gifts which he had no right to bestow, but which
+he pretended to grant in imitation of Hercules. 6. This complication
+of vice and folly at last totally exasperated the Romans, and
+Augus'tus, willing to take the advantage of their resentment, took
+care to exaggerate all his defects. 7. At length, when he found the
+people sufficiently irritated against him, he resolved to send
+Octa'via, who was then at Rome, to Antony, as if with a view of
+reclaiming her husband; but, in fact, to furnish a sufficient pretext
+for declaring war against him, as he knew she would be dismissed with
+contempt.
+
+8. Antony was now in the city of Leucop'olis, revelling with
+Cleopatra, when he heard that Octa'via was at Athens, upon her journey
+to visit him. This was very unwelcome news both to him and Cleopa'tra;
+the latter, fearing the charms of her rival, endeavoured to convince
+Antony of the strength of her passion, by her sighs, her looks, and
+well-feigned melancholy. He frequently caught her in tears, which she
+seemingly attempted to hide, and of which she appeared extremely
+reluctant to tell him the cause. 9. These artifices, together with the
+ceaseless flattery and importunity of her creatures, prevailed so much
+on Antony's weakness, that he commanded Octa'via to return home
+without seeing her; and still more to exasperate the people of Rome,
+he resolved to repudiate her, and take Cleopa'tra as his wife. 10. He
+accordingly assembled the people of Alexandria in the public theatre,
+where was raised an alcove of silver, under which were placed two
+thrones of gold, one for himself, and the other for Cleopa'tra. There
+he seated himself, dressed as Bacchus, while Cleopatra sat beside him,
+clothed in the ornaments and attributes of I'sis, the principal deity
+of the Egyptians. 11. On that occasion he declared her queen of all
+the countries which he had already bestowed upon her, while he
+associated Cæsa'rio, her son by Cæsar, as her partner in the
+government. To the two children of himself by her, he gave the title
+of King of Kings, with very extensive dominions; and, to crown his
+absurdities, he next sent a minute account of his proceedings to the
+two consuls at Rome.
+
+12. In the mean time, Augustus had a sufficient pretext for declaring
+war, and informed the senate of his intentions. However, he deferred
+the execution of his design for a while, being then employed in
+quelling an insurrection of the Illy'rians. 13. The following year was
+chiefly taken up in preparations against Antony, who, perceiving his
+intentions, remonstrated to the senate, that he had many causes of
+complaint against his colleague, who had seized upon Sicily without
+affording him a share; alleging that he had also dispossessed
+Lep'idus, and kept to himself the province he had commanded; and that
+he had divided all Italy among his own soldiers, leaving nothing to
+recompense those in Asia. 14. To this complaint Augustus was content
+to make a sarcastic answer, implying that it was absurd to complain of
+his distribution of a few trifling districts in Italy, when Antony,
+having conquered Par'thia might now reward his soldiers with
+cities and provinces.[14] 15. This sarcasm provoked him to send his
+army without delay into Europe, to meet Augustus, while he and
+Cleopa'tra followed to Sa'mos,[15] in order to prepare for carrying on
+the war with vigour. 16. When arrived there, it was ridiculous enough
+to behold the odd mixture of preparations for pleasure and for war. On
+one side, all the kings and princes from Egypt to the Euxine Sea had
+orders to send him supplies of men, provisions, and arms; on the
+other, comedians, dancers, buffoons, and musicians, were ordered to
+attend him.
+
+17. His delay at Sa'mos, and afterwards at A'thens, where he carried
+Cleopa'tra to receive new honours, proved extremely favourable to the
+arms of Augustus, who was at first scarcely in a situation to oppose
+him, had he gone into Italy; but he soon found time to put himself in
+a condition for carrying on the war, and shortly after declared it
+against him in form. At length both sides found themselves in
+readiness to begin, and their armies were suitable to the greatness of
+the empire for which they contended. 18. The one was followed by all
+the forces of the East; the other drew after him all the strength of
+the West. Antony's force composed a body of one hundred thousand foot,
+and twelve thousand horse, while his fleet amounted to five hundred
+ships of war. Augustus mustered but eighty thousand foot, but equalled
+his adversary in the number of cavalry; his fleet was but half as
+numerous as Antony's; however, his ships were better built, and manned
+with better soldiers.
+
+19. The great decisive engagement, which was a naval one, was fought
+near Ac'tium,[16] a city of Epi'rus, at the entrance of the gulf of
+Ambra'cia. Antony ranged his ships before the mouth of the gulf; and
+Augustus drew up his fleet in opposition. Neither general assumed any
+fixed station to command in, but went about from ship to ship,
+wherever his presence was necessary. In the mean time the two land
+armies, on the opposite sides of the gulf, were drawn up, only as
+spectators of the engagement, and couraged the fleets, by their
+shouts, to engage. 20. The battle began on both sides after a manner
+not practised upon former occasions. The prows of their vessels were
+armed with brazen beaks, with which it was usual to drive furiously
+against each other; but Antony's ships being large, unwieldy, and
+badly manned, were incapable of the necessary swiftness, while those
+of Augustus, from the lightness of their construction, were fearful of
+the rude encounter: the battle, therefore, rather resembled a land
+fight, the ships being brought alongside each other. They fought with
+great ardour, without advantage on either side, except from a small
+appearance of disorder in the centre of Antony's fleet. 21. But, all
+on a sudden, Cleopa'tra determined the fortune of the day. She was
+seen flying from the engagement with her sixty sail, struck, perhaps,
+with the terrors natural to her sex; and, to increase the general
+amazement, Antony himself precipitately followed, leaving his fleet at
+the mercy of the conquerors; while the army on land submitted, being
+thus abandoned by their general.
+
+22. When Cleopa'tra fled, Antony pursued her in a quinquireme,[17] and
+coming alongside her ship, entered it without any desire of seeing
+her. She was in the stern, and he went to the prow, where he remained
+silent and melancholy. In this manner he continued three whole days,
+during which, either through indignation or shame, he neither saw nor
+spoke to Cleopa'tra. The queen's female attendants, however,
+reconciled them, and every thing went on as before. 23. Still he had
+the consolation to suppose his army continued faithful to him, and
+accordingly despatched orders to conduct it into Asia. But he was soon
+undeceived when he arrived in Africa, where he was informed of their
+submission to his rival.[18] 24. This so transported him with rage,
+that with difficulty he was prevented from killing him self. At
+length, at the entreaty of his friends, he returned to Alexandria. 25.
+Cleopa'tra seemed to retain that fortitude in her misfortunes, which
+had utterly abandoned her admirer. Having amassed considerable riches,
+by means of confiscations and other acts of violence, she formed a
+very singular and unheard of project.
+
+[Illustration: Sea-fight, near Actium.]
+
+26. This was to convey her whole fleet over the Isthmus of Su'ez into
+the Red Sea, and thereby save herself, with all her treasures, in
+another region beyond the power of Rome. 27. Some of her vessels were
+actually transported thither, pursuant to her orders; but the Arabians
+having burnt them, and Antony dissuading her from the design, she
+abandoned it for the more improbable scheme of defending Egypt against
+the conqueror. 28. She omitted nothing in her power to put this in
+practice, and made all kinds of preparations for war, hoping, at
+least, by these means to obtain better terms from Augustus. In fact,
+she had been more in love with Antony's fortune than his person; and
+if she could have fallen upon any method of saving herself, though
+even at his expense, there is little doubt but she would have embraced
+it with gladness. 29. She had still hopes from the power of her
+charms, though she was almost arrived at the age of forty: and was
+desirous of trying upon Augustus those arts which had already been so
+successful. Thus, in three embassies which were sent from Antony to
+Augustus in Asia, the queen had always her secret agents, charged with
+proposals in her name. Antony desired no more than that his life might
+be spared, and to have the liberty of passing the remainder of his
+days in obscurity. To these requests Augustus made no reply. 30.
+Cleopa'tra also sent him public proposals in favour of her children;
+but at the same time privately resigned to him her crown, with all the
+ensigns of royalty. To the queen's public proposal no answer was
+given; to her private offer he replied by giving her assurances of his
+favour, in case she would send away Antony, or put him to death. 31.
+These private negociations were not so concealed but they came to the
+knowledge of Antony, whose jealousy and rage every occurrence now
+contributed to heighten. He built a small solitary house upon a mole
+in the sea, and shut himself up, a prey to those passions that are the
+tormentors of unsuccessful tyranny. There he passed his time; shunning
+all commerce with man kind, and professing to imitate Timon,[19] the
+man-hater. 32. However, his furious jealousy drove him from this
+retreat into society; for hearing that Cleopa'tra had secret
+conferences with one Thyrsus, an emissary from Augustus, he seized
+upon him, ordered him to be cruelly scourged, and sent him back to his
+patron. At the same time he sent letters by him importing that Thyrsus
+had been chastised for insulting a man in misfortunes; but withal he
+gave Augustus permission to revenge himself by scourging Hippar'chus,
+Antony's freedman, in the same manner. The revenge, in this case,
+would have been highly pleasing to Antony, as Hippar'chus had left
+him, to join the fortunes of his more successful rival.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What obstacle remained to the ambition of Augustus, and how did he
+attempt its removal?
+
+2. How was Antony at this time employed?
+
+3. Did he keenly feel his misfortune?
+
+4. Was she eminently skilled in the art of pleasing?
+
+5. Was not Antony lavish in his favours to her?
+
+6. What was the consequence of this folly?
+
+7. By what means did he seek a quarrel?
+
+8. How was this measure approved by Antony and Cleopatra?
+
+9. What imprudent resolutions did he adopt?
+
+10. Did he do this publicly?
+
+11. What farther favours did he bestow on her?
+
+12. Did Augustus immediately commence hostilities?
+
+13. What complaints did Antony make of Augustus?
+
+14. Did Augustus notice these accusations?
+
+15. What effect had his reply on Antony?
+
+16. Were these military preparations formidable?
+
+17. What advantages did Antony offer Augustus?
+
+18. What was the respective strength of the armies?
+
+19. Describe the preparations for this great conflict?
+
+20. Was the engagement well contested?
+
+21. What extraordinary circumstance decided its fate?
+
+22. Did he reproach Cleopatra for her timidity?
+
+23. Had Antony any resources left?
+
+24. How did he receive this news?
+
+25. How did Cleopatra act in this exigence?
+
+26. What was this project?
+
+27. Was it put in execution?
+
+28. How did she attempt this, and with what views?
+
+29. What farther hopes had she of favour?
+
+30. What proposals did she make, and how were they received?
+
+31. Was Antony aware of these negociations?
+
+32. Did he persist in thus secluding himself?
+
+
+SECTION VIII.
+
+  O sun, thy uprise I shall see no more:
+  Fortune and Antony part here.--_Shakspeare_.
+
+1. Augustus advanced with another army against Pellu'sium,[20] which,
+by its strong situation, might have retarded his progress for some
+time. But the governor of the city, either wanting courage to defend
+it, or previously instructed by Cleopa'tra to give it up, permitted
+him to take possession; so that Augus'tus had now no obstacle in his
+way to Alexan'dria, whither he marched with all expedition. 2. Antony,
+upon his arrival, sallied out to oppose him, fighting with
+desperation, and putting the enemy's cavalry to flight. 3. This slight
+advantage once more revived his declining hopes; and, being naturally
+vain, he re-entered Alexan'dria in triumph. Then going, armed as he
+was, to the palace, and embracing Cleopa'tra, he presented to her a
+soldier who had distinguished himself in the engagement. 4. The queen
+rewarded him very magnificently, presenting him with a helmet and
+breastplate of gold. With these, however, the soldier deserted in the
+night to the other army, prudently resolving to secure his riches by
+keeping on the strongest side. 5. Antony, not able to bear this
+defection without fresh indignation, resolved to make a bold expiring
+effort by sea and land; but previously offered to fight his
+adversary in single combat. Augus'tus, however, too well knew the
+inequality of their situations to comply with this forlorn proposal;
+he, therefore, coolly replied, "Antony has ways enough to die besides
+in single combat."
+
+6. The next day, he posted the few troops he had remaining upon a
+rising ground near the city, whence he sent orders to his galleys to
+engage the enemy. There he waited to be a spectator of the combat; and
+at first he had the satisfaction to see them advance in good order. 7.
+But his joy was soon turned into rage, when he beheld his ships only
+saluting those of Augus'tus, and both fleets uniting together and
+sailing back into the harbour, and at the same time his cavalry
+deserting him. He tried, however, to lead on his infantry; but these
+were easily vanquished, and he himself compelled to return into the
+town. 8. His fury was now ungovernable, crying out as he passed that
+he was betrayed by Cleopa'tra, and delivered up to those who, for her
+sake alone, were his enemies. In these suspicions he was not deceived;
+for it was by secret orders from the queen that the fleet passed over
+to the enemy.
+
+9. Cleopa'tra had for a long while dreaded the effects of Antony's
+jealousy; and had some time before prepared a method of obviating the
+effects of any sudden sallies it might produce. 10. Near the temple of
+Isis she had erected a building, which was seemingly designed for a
+sepulchre. Hither she moved her treasure and most valuable effects,
+covering them with torches, fagots, and other combustible matter. 11.
+This sepulchre she designed to answer a double purpose, as well to
+screen her from the sudden resentments of Antony, as to make Augustus
+believe that she would burn all her treasure, in case he refused
+proper terms of capitulation. Here, therefore, she retired from
+Antony's fury--shutting the fortified gates, and giving orders to have
+it reported that she was dead. 12. This news soon reached Antony, and
+it recalled all his former love and tenderness. Subject to every gust
+of passion, and each of them in the extreme, he now lamented her death
+with the same violence that he had just before seemed to desire it.
+"Miserable man!" exclaimed he, "what is there now worth living for?
+since all that could soothe or soften my cares is departed! O
+Cleopa'tra! our separation does not so much afflict me, as the
+disgrace I suffer, in permitting a woman to instruct me in the ways of
+dying."
+
+[Illustration: Death of Eros.]
+
+13. He now called to him one of his freedmen, named Eros, whom he
+had engaged, by oath, to kill him, whenever fortune should drive him
+to this last resource, and commanded him to perform his promise. This
+faithful follower drew his sword, as if going instantly to strike the
+blow, when, turning his face, he plunged it into his own bosom, and
+dropped at his master's feet. 14. Antony, for a while, hung over his
+faithful servant, charmed with his fidelity. Then snatching up the
+sword he stabbed himself in the belly, and fell backward upon a couch.
+15. The wound was mortal; yet the blood stopping, he recovered his
+spirits, and earnestly conjured those who were come into the room to
+put an end to his life; but they all fled, seized with fright and
+horror. 16. He continued in this miserable condition till he was
+informed by one of the queen's secretaries, that his mistress was
+still alive, and begged that he would suffer himself to be transported
+to the monument where she was. He was accordingly brought to the
+sepulchre; but Cleopa'tra, attended by her two women only, durst by no
+means permit the gate to be opened, but from the window threw down
+cords, with which, with great difficulty, they drew him up. 17.
+Antony, bathed in his blood, held out his hands to Cleopa'tra, and
+faintly endeavoured to raise himself from the couch on which he had
+been laid. The queen gave way to sorrow, tore her clothes, beat her
+breast, and kissing the wound of which he was dying, called him her
+husband, her lord, her emperor. 18. Antony entreated her to moderate
+the transports of her grief, and to preserve her life, if she could be
+able to do it with honour. "As for me, lament not my
+misfortunes," he said; "but congratulate me upon the happiness which I
+have enjoyed; I have lived the greatest and most powerful of men; and
+though I fall, my fate is not ignominious; _a Roman myself, I am, at
+last, by a Roman overcome_" Having thus said, he expired.
+
+19. Proculei'us now made his appearance by command of Augus'tus, who
+had been informed of Antony's desperate conduct. He was sent to try
+all means of getting Cleopa'tra into his power. 20. Augustus had a
+double motive for his solicitude on this occasion; one was--to prevent
+her destroying the treasures she had taken with her into the tomb; the
+other--to preserve her person, as an ornament to grace his triumph.
+21. Cleopa'tra, however, was upon her guard, and rejected any
+conference with Proculei'us, except through the gate, which was well
+secured. At length, having procured a ladder, he, with two of
+Augustus's soldiers, entered by the same window through which Antony
+had been drawn up. Cleopa'tra, perceiving what had happened, drew a
+poinard, that hung at her girdle, to stab herself; but Proculei'us
+forced it from her. 22. Augustus, pleased to find her in his power,
+sent Epaphrodi'tus to bring her to his palace, and to watch her with
+the utmost circumspection. He was ordered to use her, in every
+respect, with that deference and submission which were due to her
+rank, and to do every thing in his power to render her captivity
+tolerable.
+
+23. Though kings and generals made interest for Antony's body, in
+order to pay the last honours to it, this consolation was reserved for
+Cleopa'tra. She alone was permitted to have the honour of granting
+Antony the rites of burial, and was furnished with every thing
+becoming his dignity to receive, or her love to offer. 24. Yet still
+she languished under her new confinement. Her many losses, her frantic
+sorrow, the blows which she had given her bosom, produced a fever,
+which she wished to increase. She resolved, by abstaining from
+nourishment, to starve herself to death, under the pretence of a
+regimen necessary for her disorder. 25. But Augus'tus, being made
+acquainted with the real motive by her physicians, began to threaten
+her, with regard to the safety of her children, in case she should
+perish. The fear of being the cause of their death was a motive she
+could not resist. Cleopa'tra, therefore, allowed herself to be treated
+as was thought proper, and she recovered.
+
+26. In the mean time Augustus made his entry into Alexandria, taking
+care to mitigate the fears of the inhabitants,  by conversing
+familiarly with Ar'cus, a philosopher, and a native of the place. The
+citizens, however, trembled at his approach. And when he placed
+himself upon the tribunal, they prostrated themselves, with their
+faces to the ground, before him, like criminals who waited the
+sentence for their execution. 27. Augus'tus presently ordered them to
+rise, telling them that three motives induced him to pardon them: his
+respect for Alexander, who was the founder of their city; his
+admiration of its beauty; and his friendship for Ar'cus, their fellow
+citizen. 28. Two only of particular note were put to death upon this
+occasion; Antony's eldest son, Antyl'lus, and Cæsa'rio, the son of
+Julius Cæsar, both betrayed into his hands by their respective tutors,
+who themselves suffered for their perfidy shortly after. As for the
+rest of Cleopa'tra's children, he treated them with great gentleness,
+leaving them to the care of those who were intrusted with their
+education, to whom he gave orders to provide them with every thing
+suitable to their birth. 29. Cleopa'tra, being recovered, Augus'tus
+visited her in person: she received him lying on a couch; but, upon
+his entering the apartment, rose up, habited in a loose robe, and
+prostrated herself before him. Her misfortunes had given an air of
+severity to her features; her hair was dishevelled, her voice
+trembling, her complexion pale, and her eyes swollen with weeping;
+yet, still, her natural beauty seemed to gleam through the distresses
+that surrounded her; and the grace of her motions, and the alluring
+softness of her looks, still bore testimony to the former power of her
+charms. 30. Augus'tus raised her with his usual complaisance, and,
+desiring her to sit, placed himself beside her. 31. Cleopa'tra had
+been prepared for this interview, and made use of every art to
+propitiate the conqueror. She tried apologies, entreaties and
+allurements, to obtain his favour and soften his resentment. She began
+by attempting to justify her conduct; but when her skill failed
+against manifest proofs, she turned her defence into supplications.
+She reminded him of Cæsar's humanity to those in distress; she read
+some of his letters to her, full of tenderness, and expatiated upon
+the intimacy that subsisted between them. "But of what service," cried
+she, "are now all his benefits to me! Why did I not die with him! Yet,
+still he lives--methinks I see him still before me! he revives in
+you." 32. Augus'tus, who was no stranger to this method of address,
+remained firm against all attacks; answering with a cold
+indifference which obliged her to give her attempts a different
+turn. 33. She now addressed his avarice, presenting him with an
+inventory of her treasure and jewels. This gave occasion to a very
+singular scene, that may serve to show that the little decorums of
+breeding were then by no means attended to as in modern times. 34. One
+of her stewards having alleged, that the inventory was defective, and
+that she had secreted a part of her effects, she fell into the most
+extravagant passion, started from her couch, and snatching him by the
+hair, gave him repeated blows on the face. Augus'tus, smiling at her
+indignation, led her to the couch, and desired her to be pacified. To
+this she replied, that it was insufferable to be insulted in the
+presence of one whom she so highly esteemed. "And admitting," cried
+she, "that I have secreted a few ornaments, am I to blame, when they
+are reserved, not for myself, but for Liv'ia and Octa'via, whom I hope
+to make my intercessors with you?" 35. The apology, which intimated a
+desire of living, was not disagreeable to Augustus, who politely
+assured her she was at liberty to keep whatever she had reserved, and
+that in everything she should be indulged to the height of her
+expectations. He then took leave, and departed, imagining he had
+reconciled her to life, and to the indignity of being shown in the
+intended triumph, which he was preparing for his return to Rome; but
+in this he was deceived. 36. Cleopa'tra had all this time corresponded
+with Dolabel'la, a young Roman of high birth in the camp of Augustus,
+who, from compassion, or perhaps from stronger motives, was interested
+in her misfortunes. By him she was secretly informed that Augustus
+determined to send her and her children, within three days, to Rome,
+to grace his triumphant entry. 37. She, at length, therefore,
+determined upon dying; but first throwing herself upon Antony's
+coffin, bewailed her captivity, and renewed her protestations not to
+survive him. Having bathed, and ordered a sumptuous banquet, she
+attired herself in the most splendid manner. After partaking of the
+banquet, she commanded all, except her two women, to leave the
+apartment. She had contrived to have an asp secretly conveyed to her
+in a basket of fruit, and then wrote to Augustus, to inform him of her
+fatal purpose, desiring to be buried in the same tomb with Antony. 38.
+Augustus, upon receiving the letter, instantly despatched messengers
+in hopes to stop the fulfilment of her intentions; but they arrived
+too late.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Cleopatra.]
+
+Upon entering the chamber, they beheld Cleopa'tra lying dead upon
+her couch, arrayed in royal robes. Near her, I'ras, one of her
+faithful attendants, was stretched at the feet of her mistress; and
+Char'mion,[21] the other, scarcely alive, was settling the diadem upon
+Cleopa'tra's head. "Alas!" cried one of the messengers, "is this well
+done, Charmion?" "Yes," replied she, "it is well done--such a death
+become a glorious queen, descended from a race of glorious ancestors."
+Pronouncing these words, she dropped and expired with her much loved
+mistress.[22]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What new conquest was achieved by Augustus?
+
+2. What was Antony's conduct on his arrival?
+
+3. Was he elated by this slight success?
+
+4. How was he rewarded, and in what manner did he evince his
+gratitude?
+
+5. What were Antony's feelings and conduct on the occasion?
+
+6. Did he attempt farther hostilities?
+
+7. Was this satisfaction well founded?
+
+8. How was he affected by this ill success?
+
+9. Was Cleopatra prepared for these misfortunes?
+
+10. What precautions had she taken?
+
+11 What was her design in building this sepulchre?
+
+12. Was Antony affected by this news?
+
+13. What followed?
+
+14. Did Antony persist in his purpose?
+
+15. Did he immediately expire?
+
+16. Had he another interview with Cleopatra?
+
+17, 18. Relate the particulars of this interview?
+
+19. How did Augustus act on this occasion?
+
+20. Why was Augustus anxious to preserve this life of Cleopatra?
+
+21. Did he obtain ready admittance to her, and what was the
+consequence?
+
+22. How was she treated?
+
+23. By whom were the last honours paid to Antony?
+
+24. Did this kindness reconcile her to her situation?
+
+25. By what means did Augustus overcome her resolution?
+
+26. What circumstance attended the entrance of Augustus into
+Alexandria?
+
+27. Were their fears realized?
+
+28. Who fell victims on the occasion?
+
+29. Did Augustus visit Cleopatra, and how was he received?
+
+30. What was his conduct towards her?
+
+31. How did Cleopatra conduct herself at this interview?
+
+32. Was Augustus moved by her artifices?
+
+33. Mention her next attempt and its consequence.
+
+34. Relate the particulars.
+
+35. Was the apology accepted?
+
+36. With whom did Cleopatra correspond, and what did she learn?
+
+37. What resolution did she form, and how did she accomplish it?
+
+38. Did not Augustus attempt to prevent her resolution, and was he
+successful?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] In this contest the famous Alexan'drian library, consisting, it is
+said, of 700,000 volumes, was accidentally burnt.
+
+[2] I came, I saw, I conquered.
+
+[3] The Romans divided their months into three parts; namely, Calends,
+Nones, and Ides; all which they reckoned backwards. The Ides were
+always eight in number. The Nones sometimes four, at others six. The
+Calends varied according to the length of the month, and also with the
+Nones, as they were four or six. The Calends always began on the first
+of every month, and were counted backwards to the Ides, which fell on
+the 15th of March, May, July, and October; and on the 13th of other
+months; so that the Nones began on the 5th of each month when four,
+and on the 7th when six in number. The Nones, therefore, always ended
+on the 2d day of the month.
+
+[4] Though Cæsar's ambition led him to usurp a power to which the
+Romans were not willing to submit, it appears that he used it with
+unexampled moderation. He was beloved and revered by the people,
+honoured and almost adored by his friends, and esteemed and admired
+even by his enemies. Absolute power could not have been in better
+hands.
+
+[5] It was the general opinion of the conspirators that Antony should
+be cut off with Cæsar; but Brutus pleaded for and obtained his safety.
+This kindness was ill repaid.
+
+[6] The Forum was a public place at Rome, where lawyers and orators
+made their speeches in matters of property of the state, or in
+criminal cases.
+
+[7] Now the Rheno, which runs through Bologna and falls into the Po.
+
+[8] It is impossible to paint the horrors of this dreadful
+proscription. Nothing was to be seen but blood and slaughter; the
+streets were covered with dead bodies; the heads of the most
+illustrious senators were exposed on the rostra, and their bodies left
+to be devoured by dogs and birds of prey; three hundred senators, and
+above two thousand knights, besides a vast number of others of
+considerable rank, fell victims on this occasion. Many noble instances
+of fidelity were displayed by slaves at this terrible conjuncture,
+several chose rather to die on the rack, in the most exquisite
+torments, than betray the place where their masters were concealed.
+
+[9] A city on the confines of Macedonia, noted for the battle between
+Brutus and Cassius, and Mark Antony and Augustus, B.C. 42; and also
+the Epistle of Paul to the people of Philip'pi.
+
+[10] This is very erroneous reasoning: suicide is, no doubt a heinous
+crime: but Brutus appears to have been governed by his apprehension of
+danger, instead of being convinced by the sober dictates of his
+judgment.
+
+[11] On showing the order for the restoration of his property, he was
+nearly killed by the centurion who was in possession, and escaped only
+by swimming across a river. To these melancholy events he alludes in
+his first Eclogue.
+
+[12] Mantua was a very ancient town, supposed to be older than Rome.
+It is still called Mantua, and is the capital of a duchy of the same
+name.
+
+[13] He, however, displayed his usual cruelty towards the inhabitants,
+causing three hundred senators to be sacrificed at an altar erected to
+the memory of Julius Cæsar, and delivering up the city to plunder and
+the flames.
+
+[14] The severity of this sarcasm lay in its being directly contrary
+to truth, as Antony had been defeated by the Par'thians.
+
+[15] Samos, a celebrated island in the Archipel'ago. It has been
+rendered famous for the worship and a temple of Juno, with a noted
+Asylum. Its capital was of the same name, and is memorable for the
+birth of Pythag'oras.
+
+[16] Actium is famous for a temple of Apollo.
+
+[17] A galley with five banks of oars.
+
+[18] They continued unshaken in their fidelity for seven days after
+the battle of Actium, notwithstanding the advantageous offers made
+them by Augustus, in hopes Antony would return and put himself at
+their head, but finding themselves disappointed, and abandoned by
+their principal officers, they at length surrendered.
+
+[19] Ti'mon, the misanthrope, was born near Athens, B.C. 420. He
+declared himself the enemy of the human race, and had a companion
+named Apeman'tus, who possessed a similar disposition. The latter
+asking him one day why he paid such respect to Alcibi'ades, "It is,"
+said the churl, "because I foresee he will prove the ruin of the
+Athe'nians, my countrymen."(Plutarch.)
+
+[20] A strong city of Egypt.
+
+[21] Pronounced Kar'mion.
+
+[22] Cleopatra was forty years old at the time of her death, and had
+wed twelve years with Antony.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+  Happy Augustus! who so well inspired,
+  Couldst throw thy pomp and royalties aside.
+  Attentive to the wise, the great of soul.
+  And dignify thy mind. Thrice glorious days.
+  Auspicious to the muses!--_Dyer_.
+
+1. By the death of Antony, Augus'tus having become master of the Roman
+empire, returned to Rome in triumph; where, by feasts and magnificent
+shows, he began to obliterate the impressions of his former cruelty;
+and thenceforward resolved to secure, by his clemency, a throne, the
+foundations of which were laid in blood. 2. He was now at the head of
+the most extensive empire that mankind had ever beheld. The former
+spirit of the Romans, and those characteristic marks that
+distinguished them from others, were now totally lost. The city was
+inhabited by a concourse from all the countries of the world; and
+being consequently divested of all just patriotic principles, perhaps
+a monarchy is the best form of government that could be found to
+unite its members. 3. However, it was very remarkable, that during
+these long contentions among themselves, and these horrid devastations
+by civil war, the state was daily growing more formidable and
+powerful, and completed the destruction of all the kings who presumed
+to oppose it.
+
+4. The first care of Augus'tus was to assure himself of the friends of
+Antony; to which end he publickly reported that he had burnt all
+Antony's letters and papers without reading them, convinced that,
+while any thought themselves suspected, they would be fearful of even
+offering him their friendship.
+
+5. He had gained the kingdom by his army, but he resolved to govern it
+by the senate. This body, though greatly fallen from its ancient
+splendor, he knew to be the best constituted, and most remarkable for
+wisdom and justice. To the senate, therefore, he gave the chief power
+in the administration of his government, while he himself secured the
+fidelity of the people and the army by donatives, and acts of favour.
+6. By these means the odium of severity fell upon the senate, and the
+popularity of pardon was solely his own. Thus restoring splendor to
+the senate and discountenancing corruption, he pretended to reserve to
+himself a very moderate share of authority, to which none could
+object: namely, power to compel all ranks of the state to do their
+duty. 7. This was, in fact, reserving absolute dominion in his own
+hands; but the misguided people began to look upon his moderation with
+astonishment: they considered themselves as restored to their former
+freedom, except the capacity of promoting sedition; and the senate
+supposed their power re-established in all things but their tendency
+to injustice. It was even said that the Romans, by such a government,
+lost nothing of the happiness that liberty could produce, and were
+exempt from all the misfortunes it could occasion. 8. This observation
+might have some truth under such a monarch as Augustus now appeared to
+be; but they were afterwards taught to change their sentiments under
+his successors, when they found themselves afflicted with all the
+punishments that tyranny could inflict, or sedition make necessary.
+
+9. After having established this admirable order, Augustus found
+himself agitated by different passions; and considered, a long time,
+whether he should keep the empire, or restore the people to their
+ancient liberty. 10. But he adopted the advice of Mæce'nas,
+which was, to continue in power: and he was afterwards swayed by him
+on every occasion. By the advice of that minister, he became gentle,
+affable, and humane: he encouraged men of learning, and gave them much
+of his time and his friendship. These in their turn relieved his most
+anxious hours, and circulated his praise throughout the empire.
+
+11. Thus having given peace and happiness to his subjects, and being
+convinced of the attachment of all orders of the state to his person,
+he resolved upon impressing the people with an idea of his
+magnanimity, by making a show of resigning his authority. 12. To this
+end, having previously instructed his creatures in the senate how to
+act, he addressed them in a studied speech, importing the difficulty
+of governing so extensive an empire; a task to which, he said, none
+but the immortal gods were equal. He modestly urged his own inability,
+though impelled by every motive to undertake it; and then, with a
+degree of seeming generosity, freely gave up all that power which his
+arms had gained, and which the senate had confirmed, giving them to
+understand, that the true spirit of the Romans was not lost in him.
+13. This speech operated upon the senate variously, as they were more
+or less in the secret. Many believed the sincerity of his conduct as
+an act of heroism unequalled by any thing that had hitherto appeared;
+others, though ignorant of his motives, distrusted his designs. Some
+there were, who, having greatly suffered during the popular
+commotions, were fearful of their being renewed; but the majority, who
+were properly instructed by his ministers, frequently attempted to
+interrupt him while speaking, and received his proposals with
+pretended indignation. 14. These unanimously besought him not to
+resign the administration; and, upon his continuing to decline their
+request, they in a manner compelled him to comply. However, that his
+person might be in greater security, they immediately decreed that the
+pay of his guard should be doubled. 15. On the other hand, that he
+might seem to make concessions on his side, he permitted the senate to
+govern the weak, internal provinces, while the most powerful
+provinces, and those that required the greatest armies for their
+defence, were taken entirely under his own command. Over these he
+assumed the government for ten years only, leaving the people still in
+hopes of regaining their ancient freedom; at the same tune, however,
+laying his measures so well,  that his government was renewed
+every ten years, to his death.
+
+16. This show of resignation only served to confirm him in the empire,
+and in the hearts of the people. New honours were heaped upon him. He
+was now first called Augustus (a name I have hitherto used as that by
+which he is best known in history.) A laurel was ordered to be planted
+at his gates. That house was called the palace wherever he made his
+abode. He was confirmed in the title of father of his country, and his
+person declared sacred and inviolable. 17. In short, flattery seemed
+on the rack to find out new modes of pleasing him; but, though he
+despised the arts of the senate, he permitted their homage, well
+knowing that, among mankind, titles produce a respect which enforces
+authority.
+
+18. Upon entering into his tenth consulship, the senate, by oath,
+approved of all his acts, and set him wholly above the power of the
+laws. They, some time after, offered to swear not only to all the laws
+he had made, but such as he should make for the future. 19. It was
+customary with fathers, upon their death-beds, to command their
+children to carry oblations to the Capitol, with an inscription, that
+at the day of their deaths they left Augustus in health. It was
+determined that no man should be put to death on such days as the
+emperor entered the city. Upon a dearth of provisions, the people
+entreated him to accept of the dictatorship; but he would by no means
+assume the title of dictator, which had been abolished by law.
+
+20. An accumulation of titles and employments did not in the least
+diminish his assiduity in fulfilling the duties of each. Several very
+wholesome edicts were passed by his command, tending to suppress
+corruption in the senate, and licentiousness in the people. 21. He
+ordained that none should exhibit a show of gladiators without an
+order from the senate; and then not oftener than twice a year, nor
+with more than a hundred and twenty at a time. This law was extremely
+necessary at so corrupt a period of the empire, when armies of these
+unfortunate men were brought at once upon the stage, and compelled to
+fight, often, till half of them were slain. 22. It had been usual also
+with the knights, and women of the first distinction, to exhibit
+themselves as dancers upon the theatre; he ordered that not only
+these, but their children and grand-children should be restrained from
+such exercises for the future. 23. He fined many that had refused
+to marry at a certain age, and rewarded such as had many children. He
+enacted that the senators should be held in great reverence; adding to
+their dignity what he had taken from their power. 24. He made a law,
+that no man should have the freedom of the city without a previous
+examination into his merit and character. He appointed new rules and
+limits to the manumission of slaves, and was himself very strict in
+the observance of them. With regard to dramatic performers, of whom he
+was very fond, he severely examined their morals, not allowing
+licentiousness in their lives, nor indecency in their actions. Though
+he encouraged the athletic exercises, he would not permit women to be
+present at them. 25. In order to prevent bribery in suing for offices,
+he took considerable sums of money from the candidates by way of
+pledge; and if any indirect practices were proved against them, they
+were obliged to forfeit all. 26. Slaves had been hitherto disallowed
+to confess anything against their own masters; but he abolished the
+practice, and first sold the slave to another, which altering the
+property, his examination became free. 27. These and other laws, all
+tending to extirpate vice or deter from crimes, gave the manners of
+the people another complexion; and the rough character of the Roman
+soldier was now softened into that of the refined citizen.[1]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was the consequence of the death of Antony?
+
+2. What was the character of the Roman people at this time?
+
+3. Did these convulsions weaken the empire?
+
+4. What was the first care of Augustus?
+
+5. In what way did he propose to govern?
+
+6. What were the consequences of this conduct?
+
+7. What advantages did the Romans fancy they enjoyed?
+
+8. Was this observation correct?
+
+9. What conflicting passions agitated the mind of Augustus?
+
+10. Whose advice did he adopt, and what was that advice?
+
+11. What artifice did he employ to confirm his power?
+
+12. How did he make his intentions known?
+
+13. What effect was produced by this proposal?
+
+14. What was their conduct on this occasion?
+
+15. What farther artifices did he employ?
+
+16. What were the consequences of this affected moderation?
+
+17. Was he imposed upon by these arts?
+
+18. What farther instances of abject servility did the senate display?
+
+19. What else was done to his honour?
+
+20. Did these honours render him remiss?
+
+21. What salutary law did he enact?
+
+22. What next?
+
+23. What regulations concerning marriage, and respect to senators, did
+he enforce?
+
+24. How did he improve the morals of the people?
+
+25. How did he prevent bribery?
+
+26. By what means did he promote justice?
+
+27. What was the consequence of these regulations?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  The death of those distinguished by their station,
+  But by their virtue more, awakes the mind
+  To solemn dread, and strikes a saddening awe.--_Young_.
+
+1. Augustus, by his own example, tended greatly to humanize his
+fellow-citizens; for being placed above all equality, he had nothing
+to fear from condescension. He was familiar with all, and suffered
+himself to be reprimanded with the most patient humility. Though, by
+his sole authority, he could condemn or acquit whomsoever he thought
+proper, he gave the laws their proper course, and even pleaded for
+persons he desired to protect. 2. When the advocate for Pri'mus[2]
+desired to know, with an insolent air, what brought Augustus into
+court, the emperor calmly replied, "The public good." When one of his
+veteran soldiers entreated his protection, Augustus bid him apply to
+an advocate. "Ah!" replied the soldier, "it was not by proxy that I
+served you at the battle of Ac'tium." Augustus was so pleased that he
+pleaded his cause and gained it for him. One day a petition was
+presented to him with so much awe as to displease him. "Friend," cried
+he, "you seem as if you were offering something to an elephant rather
+than to a man; be bolder." 3. Once as he was sitting in judgment,
+Mæce'nas perceiving that he was inclined to be severe, and not being
+able to get to him through the crowd, he threw a paper into his lap,
+on which was written, "Arise, executioner!" Augustus read it without
+displeasure, and immediately rising, pardoned those whom he was
+disposed to condemn. 4. But what most of all showed a total
+alteration, was his treatment of Corne'lius Cinna, Pompey's grandson.
+This nobleman had entered into a conspiracy against him: Augustus sent
+for the other conspirators, reprimanded them, and dismissed them. But
+resolving to mortify Cinna by the greatness of his generosity--"I have
+twice," says he, "given you your life, as an enemy and as a
+conspirator: I now give you the consulship; let us therefore be
+friends for the future; let us contend only in showing whether my
+confidence or your fidelity shall be victorious."
+
+5. In the practice of such virtues he passed a long reign. In fact, he
+seemed the first Roman who aimed at gaining a character by the arts of
+peace, and who obtained the affections of the soldiers without any
+military talents of his own: nevertheless, the Roman arms, under his
+lieutenants, were crowned with success.
+
+6. But he had uneasiness of a domestic nature that distressed him. He
+had married Liv'ia, the wife of Tibe'rius Nero, by the consent of her
+husband, when she was six months advanced in her pregnancy. She was an
+imperious woman, and, conscious of being beloved, controlled him at
+her pleasure. 7. She had two sons, Tibe'rius the elder, and Dru'sus,
+who was born three months after she had been married to Augustus, and
+who was thought to be his own son. The elder of these, Tibe'rius, whom
+he afterwards adopted, and who succeeded him in the empire, was a good
+general, but of a suspicious and obstinate temper, and of a conduct so
+turbulent and restless, that he was at last exiled for five years to
+the island of Rhodes, where he chiefly spent his time in a retired
+manner, conversing with the Greeks, and addicting himself to
+literature, of which, however he afterwards made but a bad use.
+
+8. But the greatest affliction that Augustus experienced was from the
+conduct of his daughter Julia, whom he had by Scribo'nia, his former
+wife. Julia, whom he married to his general Agrip'pa, and afterwards
+to Tibe'rius, set no bounds to her misconduct. She was arrived at that
+excess of wickedness, that the very court where her father presided
+was not exempt from her infamies. 9. Augustus, at first, had thoughts
+of putting her to death: but, after consideration, he banished her to
+Pandata'ria.[3] He ordered that no person should come near her
+without his permission, and sent her mother Scribo'nia along with her,
+to bear her company. When any one attempted to intercede for Julia,
+his answer was, "that fire and water should sooner unite than he with
+her." 10. Augustus, having survived most of his contemporaries, at
+length, in the seventy-fourth year of his age, began to think of
+retiring from the fatigues of state, and of constituting Tibe'rius his
+partner in the throne. He desired the senate to salute him no longer
+at the palace, nor take it amiss, if, for the future, he could not
+converse with them, as formerly.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 762.]
+
+11. From that time Tibe'rius was joined in the government of the
+provinces with him, and invested with nearly the same authority.
+However, Augustus could not entirely forsake the administration, which
+habit had rendered a source of pleasure; and he still continued a
+watchful guardian, and showed himself, to the last, a lover of his
+people. 12. Finding it now, therefore, very inconvenient to come to
+the senate, by reason of his age, he desired to have twenty
+privy-counsellors assigned him for a year; and it was decreed, that
+whatever measures were resolved upon by them and the consuls, should
+have entirely the force of a law. 13. He seemed apprehensive of his
+approaching end, for he made his will, and delivered it to the vestal
+virgins. He then solemnized the census, or numbering the people, whom
+he found to amount to four millions one hundred and thirty-seven
+thousand; which shows Rome to be equal to four of the greatest cities
+of modern times. 14. While these ceremonies were performing, in the
+midst of a mighty concourse of people in the Cam'pus Mar'tius, it is
+said that an eagle flew round the emperor several times, and,
+directing its flight to a neighbouring temple, perched over the name
+of Agrippa: this omen was, by the augurs, conceived to portend the
+death of the emperor. 15. Shortly after, having accompanied Tibe'rius
+in his march into Illyr'ia, he was taken ill. Returning thence, he
+sent for Tibe'rius and his most intimate friends. A few hours before
+his death he ordered a looking-glass to be brought, and his hair to be
+adjusted with more than usual care. He then addressed his friends,
+whom he beheld surrounding his bed, and desired to know whether he had
+properly played his part in life; to which, being answered in the
+affirmative, he cried out with his last breath, "Then give me your
+applause." Thus, at the age of seventy-six, after reigning forty-four
+years, he expired in the arms of Liv'ia, bidding her remember
+their marriage and their last farewell.[4]
+
+16. The death of the emperor caused inexpressible grief throughout the
+whole empire. It was, by some, supposed that his wife Liv'ia had some
+hand in hastening it, with a view to procure the succession more
+speedily for her son. However this was, she took care, for a time, to
+keep the important event concealed, by guarding all the passages to
+the palace; sometimes giving out that he was recovered, and then
+pretending a relapse. At length, having settled the succession to her
+mind, she published the emperor's death; and at the same time, the
+adoption of Tibe'rius to the empire. 17. The emperor's funeral was
+performed with great magnificence. The senators being in their places,
+Tibe'rius, on whom that care devolved, pronounced a consolatory
+oration. After this his will was read, wherein he made Tibe'rius and
+Liv'ia his heirs. 18. He was studious of serving his country to the
+very last, and the sorrow of the people seemed equal to his assiduity.
+It was decreed, that all the women should mourn for him a whole year.
+Temples were erected to him, divine honours were allowed him, and one
+Nume'rius At'ticus, a senator, willing to convert the adulation of the
+times to his own benefit, received a large sum of money for swearing
+that he saw him ascending into heaven; so that no doubt remained among
+the people concerning his divinity.
+
+19. Such were the honours paid to Augustus, whose power began in the
+slaughter, and terminated in the happiness of his subjects; so that it
+was said of him, "that it had been good for mankind if he had never
+been born, or if he had never died." 20. It is possible that the
+cruelties exercised in his triumvirate were suggested by his
+colleagues. In the case of Cæsar's death, he might think that revenge
+was virtue. Certain it is, that severities were necessary to restore
+public tranquillity; for, until the Roman spirit should be eradicated,
+no monarchy could be secure. 21. He indulged his subjects in the
+appearance of a republic, while he made them really happy in the
+effects of a most absolute monarchy, administered with the most
+consummate prudence. In this last quality he seems to have excelled
+most monarchs; and indeed, could we separate Octavius from Augustus,
+he was one of the most faultless princes in history. 22. About this
+time our Saviour was born in Jude'a.[5]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the general conduct of Augustus?
+
+2. Mention some instances of his moderation?
+
+3. What farther instance of his moderation is on record?
+
+4. How did he most decidedly show the alteration in his disposition?
+
+5. In what was he particularly remarkable?
+
+6. Was he happy in domestic life?
+
+7. What family had she, and what was the character of her son?
+
+8. Had he no other domestic trials?
+
+9. In what way was she punished?
+
+10. Was the reign of Augustus of considerable length?
+
+11. Did he associate Tiberius with him in the government?
+
+12. By what means did he lighten the burden of government?
+
+13. By what measure did he prepare for his approaching end?
+
+14. What omen portended his death?
+
+15. How did he meet his end?
+
+16. How were the people affected by his death, and why was it for a
+time concealed?
+
+17. How was his funeral celebrated?
+
+18. What honours were decreed him?
+
+19. Were those honours deserved?
+
+20. What excuses may be made for his early cruelties?
+
+21. By what means did he secure his power?
+
+22. What remarkable event happened in his reign?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+                              Thy acts,
+  Thy fame, Germanicus, will long outlive
+  The venomed shafts of envy; and the praise
+  Of patriot tongues shall follow thee in death.--_Clarke._
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 762. A.D. 10.]
+
+1. Tibe'rius was fifty-six years old when he took upon him the
+government of the Roman empire. He had lived in a state of profound
+dissimulation under Augustus, and was not yet hardy enough to show
+himself in his real character. In the beginning of his reign nothing
+appeared but prudence, generosity, and clemency.[6] 2. But the
+successes of his nephew, German'icus, son of his late brother Dru'sus,
+over the Germans, first brought his natural disposition to light, and
+discovered the malignity of his mind without disguise. 3. He was
+hardly settled on his throne, when he received intelligence that the
+legions in Panno'nia, hearing of the death of Augustus, and desirous
+of novelty, had revolted; but these were soon quieted, and
+Percen'nius, their leader, slain. 4. A commotion in Germany was
+attended with much more important consequences. The legions in that
+part of the empire were conducted by German'icus, a youth of most
+admirable qualities, who had been at the late emperor's request,
+adopted, in order to succeed to the empire. These forces had taken the
+opportunity of his absence to revolt, and now began to affirm that the
+whole Roman empire was in their power, and that its principal grandeur
+was owing to the success of their arms; when German'icus returned,
+therefore, they unanimously resolved to choose him emperor. 5. This
+general was the darling of the soldiers, and almost idolized, so that
+he might, with very little difficulty, have raised himself to the
+highest dignity in the state; but his duty prevailed over his
+ambition; he rejected their offers with the utmost indignation, and
+used the most indefatigable endeavours to quell the sedition. This he
+effected, though with extreme hazard, by cutting off many of the
+principal revolters, and then by leading the troops against the
+Germans, who were considered as the common enemies of the empire.
+
+6. Tiberius was as much pleased with the loyalty of German'icus, as he
+was distressed at his superior popularity; his success, also,
+immediately after, against the Germans, still more excited the
+emperor's envy and private disgust. He overthrew the enemy in several
+battles, subduing many wild and extensive countries. 7. These
+victories, however, only served to inflame the emperor's jealousy: and
+every virtue in the general now became a new cause of offence. This
+dislike began to appear by Tiberius's making use of every pretence to
+draw German'icus from the legions: but he was obliged to postpone his
+purpose on account of a domestic insurrection made in Italy by one
+Cle'mens, whom he put to death by a private execution in a secret
+apartment of the palace.
+
+9. Having thus got rid of his domestic enemy, he turned his thoughts
+to the most specious means of bringing home German'icus from the
+legions in Germany. He began by procuring him a triumph for his late
+victories, and when writing to him to return in order to enjoy those
+honours which the senate had decreed; adding, that he had reaped
+enough of glory in a country to which he had been sent nine times, and
+been each time victorious; concluding, that so great a number of
+triumphs was sufficient; and the most signal vengeance which could be
+inflicted on this turbulent people was to permit them to continue
+their intestine divisions. 10. German'icus was met on his return, many
+miles from the city, by a vast multitude, who received him with marks
+of adoration rather than respect. The gracefulness of his person; his
+triumphal chariot, in which were carried his five children; and the
+recovered standards of the army of Va'rus, threw the people into a
+phrenzy of joy and admiration.[7]
+
+11. German'icus was now appointed to a new dignity. He departed from
+Rome on an expedition to the east, carrying with him his wife
+Agrippi'na, and his children. 12. But Tibe'rius, to restrain his
+power, had sent Cne'ius Pi'so governor into Syr'ia. This Pi'so was a
+person of furious and headstrong temper, and, in every respect, fit to
+execute those fatal purposes for which he was designed. 13. His
+instructions were, to oppose German'icus upon every occasion, to
+excite hatred against him, and even to procure his death if an
+opportunity should offer. He accordingly took every opportunity of
+abusing German'icus; and taxed him with diminishing the Roman glory,
+by his peculiar protection of the Athe'nians. 14. German'icus
+disregarded his invectives, being more intent on executing the
+business of his commission, than on counteracting the private designs
+of Pi'so. 15. Piso, however, and his wife Planci'na, who is recorded
+as a woman of an implacable and cruel disposition, continued to defame
+him. German'icus opposed only patience and condescension to all their
+invectives, and, with that gentleness which was peculiar to him,
+repaid their resentments by courtesy. 16. He was not ignorant of their
+motives, and was rather willing to evade than oppose their
+enmity. He, therefore, took a voyage into Egypt, under pretence of
+viewing the celebrated antiquities of that country; but, in reality,
+to avoid the machinations of Pi'so, and those of his wife, which were
+still more dangerous. 17. Upon his return he fell sick, and, whether
+from a mind previously alarmed, or from more apparent marks of
+treachery, he sent to let Pi'so know, that he broke off all further
+connections. Growing daily worse, his death appeared to be inevitable.
+18. Finding his end approaching, he addressed his friends, who stood
+around his bed, to the following effect: "Had my death been natural, I
+might have reason to complain of being thus snatched away from all the
+endearments of life, at so early an age; but my complaints are
+aggravated, in falling the victim of Pi'so's and Planci'na's
+treachery. Let the emperor, therefore, I conjure you, know the manner
+of my death, and the tortures I suffer. Those who loved me when
+living--those who even envied my fortune--will feel some regret, when
+they hear of a soldier, who had so often escaped the rage of the
+enemy, falling a sacrifice to the treachery of a woman. Plead then my
+cause before the people--you will be heard with pity--and if my
+murderers should pretend to have acted by command, they will either
+receive no credit or no pardon." 19. As he spoke these words, he
+stretched forth his hand, which his weeping friends tenderly pressing,
+most earnestly vowed that they would lose their lives rather than
+their revenge. The dying prince, then turning to his wife, conjured
+her, by her regard to his memory, and by all the bonds of nuptial
+love, to submit to the necessity of the times, and to evade the
+resentment of her more powerful enemies by not opposing it.[8] 20.
+Nothing could exceed the distress of the whole empire, upon hearing of
+the death of German'icus, and the people of Rome seemed to set no
+bounds to it. 21. In this universal confusion, Pi'so seemed marked for
+destruction. He and his wife stood charged with the death of
+German'icus, by giving him a slow poison. Indeed, even the emperor
+himself, with his mother Liv'ia, incurred a share of the general
+suspicion. 22. This was soon after greatly increased by the arrival of
+Agrippi'na, the widow of German'icus, a woman of invincible courage,
+and in high esteem for her virtue. She appeared bearing the urn
+containing the ashes of her husband, and, attended by all her
+children, went to the tomb of Augustus. 23. When she approached the
+city, she was met by the senate and people of Rome, both with
+acclamations and expressions of sorrow. The veteran soldiers, who had
+served under German'icus, gave the sincerest testimonies of their
+concern. The multitude, while the ashes were depositing, regarded the
+ceremony in profound silence; but presently broke out into loud
+lamentations, crying out, The commonwealth is now no more.
+
+24. Tibe'rius permitted the accusation of Pi'so, though he was justly
+supposed to be merely the instrument of his own vengeance. This
+general was accused before the senate of the death of German'icus, and
+of other crimes.
+
+25. He put an end to his trial, which had been drawn out to a great
+length, by committing suicide.[9] His wife Planci'na, who was
+universally believed to be most culpable, escaped punishment by the
+interest of Liv'ia.
+
+26. Tibe'rius, having now no object of jealousy to keep him in awe,
+began to pull off the mask, and appear more in his natural character
+than before. 27. In the beginning of his cruelties, he took into his
+confidence Seja'nus, a Roman knight, who found out the method of
+gaining his affection by the most refined degree of dissimulation, and
+was an overmatch for his master in his own arts.[10] It is not well
+known whether he was the adviser of all the cruelties that ensued; but
+certain it is, that from the beginning of his ministry, Tibe'rius
+seemed to become more fatally suspicious.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the age and character of Tiberius on his accession?
+
+2. What first showed him in his true colours?
+
+3. What was the first news he heard?
+
+4. Was there not a more formidable revolt?
+
+5. Did Germanicus accept this dignity?
+
+6. Did Tiberius properly appreciate this conduct?
+
+7. Was he pleased with his success?
+
+8. How did this appear?
+
+9. What followed this execution?
+
+10. How was Germanicus received?
+
+11. How was he next employed?
+
+12. What restraints were imposed on him?
+
+13. What were Piso's instructions, and how did he execute them?
+
+14. How did Germanicus act on the occasion?
+
+15. Did Piso persevere in his base attempts?
+
+16. Was Germanicus aware of their design?
+
+17. What happened on his return?
+
+18. Repeat his speech on his death-bed.
+
+19. What farther passed on this occasion?
+
+20. Was his untimely end lamented?
+
+21. Who incurred the popular hatred on this occasion?
+
+22. How was this increased?
+
+23. What honours were paid her?
+
+24. Was the tyrant's vile agent rewarded for his services?
+
+25. What was the issue?
+
+26. How did Tiberius conduct himself after this?
+
+27. Who was his prime minister?
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+  Some ask for envied power; which public hate
+  Pursues, and hurries headlong to their fate;
+  Down go the titles; and the statue crowned,
+  Is by base hands in the next river drowned.--_Juvenal_.
+
+1. Seja'nus began his administration by using all his address to
+persuade Tiberius to retire to some agreeable retreat, remote from
+Rome; from this he expected many advantages, since there could be no
+access to the emperor but through him. 2. The emperor, either
+prevailed upon by his persuasions, or pursuing the natural turn of his
+temper, left Rome and went into Campa'nia, under pretence of
+dedicating temples to Ju'piter and Augustus. Growing weary, however,
+of places where mankind might follow him with their complaints and
+distresses, he withdrew himself into the delightful island of Ca'preæ;
+and buried in this retreat, gave himself up to abandoned pleasures,
+regardless of the miseries of his subjects. 3. From this time he
+became more cruel, and Seja'nus increased his distrusts. Secret spies
+and informers were placed in all parts of the city, who converted the
+most harmless actions into subjects of offence. 4. In consequence of
+this, Ne'ro and Dru'sus, the children of German'icus, were declared
+enemies to the state, and afterwards starved to death in prison;
+while Agrippi'na, their mother, was sent into banishment. Sabi'nus,
+Asin'ius, Gal'lus, and Syria'eus, were, upon slight pretences,
+condemned and executed. 5. In this manner Seja'nus proceeded, removing
+all who stood between him and the empire; and every day increasing his
+confidence with Tibe'rius, and his power with the senate. The number
+of his statues exceeded even those of the emperor; people swore by his
+fortune, in the same manner as they would have done had he been upon
+the throne; and he was more dreaded than even the tyrant who actually
+enjoyed the empire. 6. But the rapidity of his rise seemed only
+preparatory to the greatness of his downfall. All we know of his first
+disgrace with the emperor is, that Sati'rus Secun'dus was the man who
+had the boldness to accuse him of treason; and Anto'nia, the mother of
+German'icus, seconded the accusation. 7. The senate, who had long been
+jealous of his power, and dreaded his cruelty, immediately took this
+opportunity of going beyond the orders of Tibe'rius; instead of
+sentencing him to imprisonment, they directed his execution.[11] 8.
+Whilst he was conducting to his fate, the people loaded him with
+insult and execration; pursued him with sarcastic reproaches; and
+threw down his statues. He himself was strangled by the executioner.
+
+9. His death only lighted up the emperor's rage for farther
+executions. Planci'na, the wife of Pi'so, and others, were put to
+death for being attached to Seja'nus. He began to grow weary of single
+executions, and gave orders that all the accused should be put to
+death together, without further examination. The whole city was, in
+consequence, filled with slaughter and mourning. 10. When one
+Carnu'lius killed himself, to avoid the torture, "Ah!" cried
+Tibe'rius, "how has that man been able to escape me!" When a prisoner
+had earnestly entreated that he would not defer his death: "Know,"
+said the tyrant, "I am not sufficiently your friend to shorten your
+torments."
+
+11. In this manner he lived, odious to the world, and troublesome to
+himself; an enemy to the lives of others, a tormentor of his own.[12]
+At length, in the 22d year of his reign, he began to feel the
+approaches of dissolution, and his appetite totally forsook him. 12.
+He now, therefore, found it was time to think of a successor, and
+fixed upon Calig'ula:[13] willing, perhaps, by the enormity of
+Calig'ula's conduct, with which he was well acquainted, to lessen the
+obloquy of his own.
+
+13. Still, however, he seemed desirous to avoid his end; and strove,
+by change of place, to cut off the inquietude of his own reflections.
+He left his favourite island, and went upon the continent; and at
+last, fixed at the promontory of Mise'num.[14] There he fell into
+faintings, which all believed to be fatal. 14. Calig'ula supposing him
+actually dead, caused himself to be acknowledged by the Prætorian
+soldiers,[15] and went forth from the emperor's apartment amidst the
+applauses of the multitude; when, all of a sudden, he was informed
+that the emperor was likely to recover. 15. This unexpected account
+filled the whole court with terror and alarm; every one who had before
+been earnestly testifying his joy, now reassumed his pretended sorrow,
+and forsook the new emperor, through a feigned solicitude for the fate
+of the old. 16, Calig'ula seemed thunderstruck; he preserved a gloomy
+silence, expecting nothing but death, instead of the empire at which
+he aspired. 17. Marco, however, who was hardened in crimes, ordered
+that the dying emperor should be despatched, by smothering him with
+pillows; or, as some will have it, by poison. Thus died Tibe'rius in
+the seventy-eighth year of his age, after reigning twenty-two
+years.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 780 A.D. 37.]
+
+18. It was in the eighteenth year of this emperor's reign that Christ,
+(after having spent two years in the public ministry, instructing the
+multitude in the way of salvation,) was crucified; as if the universal
+depravity of mankind wanted no less a sacrifice than this to reclaim
+them. Pi'late sent to Tibe'rius an account of Christ's passion,
+resurrection, and miracles, and the emperor made a report of the whole
+to the senate, desiring that Christ might be accounted a god by the
+Romans. 19. But the senate, displeased that the proposal had not come
+first from themselves, refused to allow of his apotheosis; alleging an
+ancient law, which gave them the superintendence in all matters of
+religion. They even went so far as to command, by an edict, that all
+Christians should leave the city; but Tibe'rius, by another edict,
+threatened death to such as should accuse them; by which means they
+continued unmolested during the rest of his reign.
+
+20. The vices of Calig'ula were concealed under the appearance of
+virtue in the beginning of his reign. In less than eight months,
+however, every trace of moderation and clemency vanished; while
+furious passions, unexampled avarice, and capricious cruelty, reigned
+uncontrolled; and pride, impiety, lust, and avarice, appeared in all
+their native deformity.
+
+21. Calig'ula's pride first appeared in his assuming to himself the
+title of ruler; which was usually granted only to kings. He would also
+have taken the crown and diadem, had he not been advised, that he was
+already superior to all the monarchs of the world. 22. Not long after
+he assumed divine honours, and gave himself the names of such
+divinities as he thought most agreeable to his nature. For this
+purpose he caused the heads of the statues of Jupiter, and some other
+gods, to be struck off, and his own to be put in their places. He
+frequently seated himself between Castor and Pollux, and ordered that
+all who came to this temple to worship should pay their adorations
+only to himself. 23. However, such was the extravagant inconsistency
+of this unaccountable idiot, that he changed his divinity as often as
+he changed his clothes; being at one time a male deity, at another a
+female; sometimes Jupiter or Mars; and not unfrequently Venus or
+Diana. 24. He even built and dedicated a temple to his own divinity,
+in which his statue of gold was every day dressed in robes similar to
+those which he himself wore, and worshipped by crowds of adorers.
+His priests were numerous; the sacrifices made to him were of the most
+exquisite delicacies that could be procured; and the dignity of the
+priesthood was sought by the most opulent men of the city. However, he
+admitted his wife and his horse to that honour; and to give a
+finishing stroke to his absurdities, became a priest to himself. 25.
+His method of assuming the manners of a deity was not less ridiculous;
+he often went out at full moon, and courted it in the style of a
+lover. He employed many inventions to imitate thunder, and would
+frequently defy Jupiter, crying out with a speech of Homer, "Do you
+conquer me, or I will conquer you." He frequently pretended to
+converse in whispers with the statue of Jupiter, and usually seemed
+angry at its replies, threatening to send it back into Greece, whence
+it came. Sometimes, however, he would assume a better temper, and seem
+contented that Jupiter and he should dwell together in amity.
+
+26. Of all his vices, prodigality was the most remarkable, and that
+which in some measure gave rise to the rest. The luxuries of former
+emperors were simplicity itself when compared to those which he
+practised. He contrived new ways of bathing, when the richest oils and
+most precious perfumes were lavished with the utmost profusion. His
+luxuries of the table were of immense value, and even jewels, as we
+are told, were dissolved in his sauces. He sometimes had services of
+pure gold presented before his guests, instead of meat, observing that
+a man should be an economist or an emperor.
+
+27. The manner in which he maintained his horse will give some idea of
+his domestic extravagance. He built a stable of marble, and a manger
+of ivory; and whenever the animal, which he called Incita'tus, was to
+run in the race, he placed sentinels near its stable, the night
+preceding, to prevent its slumbers from being broken.[16]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was the first measure of Sejanus?
+
+2. Did the emperor yield to his persuasions?
+
+3. What consequences ensued from this measure?
+
+4. Who were the first sufferers?
+
+5. Did Sejanus increase his influence?
+
+6. Was this elevation permanent?
+
+7. To what punishment was he condemned?
+
+8. What occurred at his execution?
+
+9. Was this the only victim to the cruelty of Tiberius?
+
+10. How did Tiberius aggravate his cruelties?
+
+11. Did these cruelties long continue?
+
+12. How did he act on this?
+
+13. Was he resigned to his fate?
+
+14. What followed on this?
+
+15. How was this news received?
+
+16. Did Caligula boldly meet the consequences?
+
+17. How was this averted?
+
+18. What highly remarkable event happened in this reign?
+
+19. Was his desire gratified?
+
+20. What was the conduct of Caligula on this occasion?
+
+21. By what acts did he display his pride?
+
+22. Did his arrogance carry him farther than this?
+
+23. Under what name did he assume divine honours?
+
+24. Of what farther absurdities was he guilty?
+
+25. Relate other follies of his?
+
+26. What was his principal vice?
+
+27. Give an instance of his domestic extravagance?
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+  For him no prayers are poured, no pæans sung,
+  No blessings chanted from a nation's tongue.--_Brereton._
+
+1. The impiety, however, of Calig'ula was but subordinate to his
+cruelties. He slew many of the senate, and afterwards cited them to
+appear. He cast great numbers of old and infirm men to the wild
+beasts, to free the state from such unserviceable citizens. He usually
+fed his wild beasts with the bodies of those wretches whom he
+condemned; and every tenth day sent off numbers of them to be thus
+devoured, which he jocosely called clearing his accounts. One of those
+who was thus exposed, crying out that he was innocent,[17] Calig'ula
+ordered him to be taken up, his tongue to be cut out, and then
+thrown into the amphitheatre as before. 2. He took delight in killing
+men with slow tortures, that, as he expressed it, they might feel
+themselves dying, being always present at such executions himself,
+directing the duration of the punishment, and mitigating the tortures
+merely to prolong them. 3. In fact, he valued himself for no quality
+more than his unrelenting temper, and inflexible severity, when he
+presided at an execution. 4. Upon one occasion, being incensed with
+the citizens, he wished that the Roman people had but one neck, that
+he might dispatch them at one blow.
+
+5. Such insupportable and capricious cruelties produced many secret
+conspiracies against him; but they were for a while deferred upon
+account of his intended expedition against the Germans and Britons.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 793. A.D. 41]
+
+6. For this purpose he caused numerous levies to be made, and talked
+with so much resolution, that it was universally believed he would
+conquer all before him. 7. His march perfectly indicated the
+inequality of his temper; sometimes it was so rapid that the cohorts
+were obliged to leave their standards behind them; at other times it
+was so slow, that it more resembled a pompous procession than a
+military expedition. 8. In this disposition he would cause himself to
+be carried on a litter, on eight men's shoulders, and ordered all the
+neighbouring cities to have their streets well swept and watered, that
+he might not be annoyed with dust. 9 However, all these mighty
+preparations ended in nothing. Instead of conquering Britain, he
+merely gave refuge to one of its banished princes; and this he
+described, in his letter to the senate, as taking possession of the
+whole island. 10. Instead of conquering Germany, he only led his army
+to the seashore in Gaul: there, disposing his engines and warlike
+machines with great solemnity, and drawing up his men in order of
+battle, he went on board his galley, with which coasting along, he
+commanded his trumpets to sound, and the signal to be given as if for
+an engagement. 11. His men, who had previous orders, immediately fell
+to gathering the shells that lay upon the shore into their helmets, as
+their spoils of the conquered ocean, worthy of the palace and the
+capitol. 12. After this doughty expedition, calling his army together,
+like a general after victory, he harangued them in a pompous manner,
+and highly extolled their achievements; then, distributing money among
+them, and congratulating them upon their riches, he dismissed them,
+with orders to be joyful: and, that such exploits should not pass
+without a memorial, he ordered a lofty tower to be erected by the
+seaside.[18]
+
+13. Cassius Cher'ea, a tribune of the Prætorian bands, was the person
+who at last freed the world from this tyrant. Besides the motives
+which he had in common with other men, he had received repeated
+insults from Calig'ula, who took all occasions of turning him into
+ridicule, and impeaching him with cowardice, merely because he
+happened to have an effeminate voice. Whenever Cher'ea came to demand
+the watch-word from the emperor, according to custom, he always gave
+him either Venus, Adonis, or some such, implying softness and
+effeminacy.
+
+14. Cher'ea secretly imparted his design to several senators and
+knights, whom he knew to have received personal injuries from
+Calig'ula. While these were deliberating upon the most certain and
+speedy method of destroying the tyrant, an unexpected incident gave
+new strength to the conspiracy. 15. Pempe'dius, a senator of
+distinction, being accused before the emperor of having spoken of him
+with disrespect, the informer cited one Quintil'ia, an actress, to
+confirm the accusation. 16. Quintil'ia, however, was possessed of a
+degree of fortitude not frequently found even in the other sex. She
+denied the fact with obstinacy; and, being put to the torture, bore
+the severest tortures of the rack with unshaken constancy. 17. Indeed,
+so remarkable was her resolution, that though acquainted with all the
+particulars of the conspiracy, and although Cher'ea was the person
+appointed to preside at her torture, she revealed nothing; on the
+contrary, when she was led to the rack, she trod upon the toe of one
+of the conspirators, intimating at once her knowledge of their
+conspiracy, and her resolution not to divulge it. 18. Thus she
+suffered, until all her limbs were dislocated; and, in that deplorable
+state, was presented to the emperor, who ordered her a gratuity for
+what she had endured.
+
+19. Cher'ea could no longer contain his indignation, at being thus
+made the instrument of a tyrant's cruelty. After several deliberations
+of the conspirators, it was at last resolved to attack him during the
+Palatine games, which lasted four days,[19] and to strike the
+blow when his guards should not have the opportunity to defend him.
+20. The first three days of the games passed. Cher'ea began to
+apprehend that deferring the completion of the conspiracy might be the
+means of divulging it; he even dreaded that the honour of killing the
+tyrant might fall to the lot of some other person bolder than himself.
+At last he resolved to defer the execution of his plot only to the day
+following, when Calig'ula should pass through a private gallery, to
+some baths near the palace.
+
+21. The last day of the games was more splendid than the rest; and
+Calig'ula seemed more sprightly and condescending than usual. He
+enjoyed the amusement of seeing the people scramble for the fruits and
+other rarities by his order thrown among them, being no way
+apprehensive of the plot formed for his destruction. 22. In the mean
+time the conspiracy began to transpire: and, had he any friends
+remaining, it could not have failed of being discovered. A senator who
+was present, asking one of his acquaintance if he had heard any thing
+new, and the other replying in the negative, said "you must know, that
+this day will be represented the death of a tyrant." The other
+immediately understood him, but desired him to be cautious. 23. The
+conspirators waited many hours with extreme anxiety; and Calig'ula
+seemed resolved to spend the whole day without any refreshment. So
+unexpected a delay exasperated Cher'ea; and, had he not been
+restrained, he would suddenly have perpetrated his design in the midst
+of all the people. 24. At that instant, while he was hesitating,
+Aspore'nus,[20] one of the conspirators, persuaded Calig'ula to go to
+the bath, and take some slight refreshment, that he might the better
+enjoy the rest of the entertainment. 25. The emperor, rising up, the
+conspirators used every precaution to keep off the throng, and to
+surround him themselves, under pretence of great assiduity. Upon his
+entering a little vaulted gallery that led to the bath, Cher'ea struck
+him to the ground with his dagger, crying out, "Tyrant, think
+upon this." The other conspirators closed in upon him; and while
+the emperor was resisting, and crying out that he was not yet dead,
+they dispatched him with thirty wounds.
+
+26. Such was the merited death of Calig'ula, in the 29th year of his
+age, after a short reign of not four years. His character may be
+summed up in the words of Sen'eca; namely, "Nature seemed to have
+brought him forth, to show what mischief could be effected by the
+greatest vices supported by the greatest authority."
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Of what enormities was Caligula guilty?
+
+2. How did he heighten his cruelties?
+
+3. On what did he chiefly value himself?
+
+4. What monstrous wish did he express?
+
+5. What was the consequence of such atrocities?
+
+6. What preparations did he make?
+
+7. How did his disposition display itself on this occasion?
+
+8. How did he sometimes travel?
+
+9. What exploits did he perform?
+
+10. Did he not make a show of some great enterprise?
+
+11. How did it end?
+
+12. Of what farther follies was he guilty?
+
+13. By whom was he assassinated, and by what provocations was his fate
+hastened?
+
+14. Were others made privy to the design?
+
+15. Relate this incident.
+
+16. Did Quintilia confirm the accusation?
+
+17. What rendered this resolution more remarkable?
+
+18. What was the result?
+
+19. Was the _crisis_ much longer deferred?
+
+20. Was this resolution put in practice?
+
+21. Was Caligula at all apprehensive of what was in agitation?
+
+22. Was the secret inviolably kept?
+
+23. How was the design nearly frustrated?
+
+24. What induced Caligula to alter his intention?
+
+25. Relate the manner of his death.
+
+26. Repeat the summary of his character as given by Seneca.
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+U.C. 794.--A.D. 42.
+
+                                 Old as I am,
+  And withered as you see these war-worn limbs,
+  Trust me, they shall support the mightiest load
+  Injustice dares impose.--_Mason's Caractacus_.
+
+1. As soon as the death of Calig'ula was made public it produced the
+greatest confusion. The conspirators, who only aimed at destroying a
+tyrant, without attending to the appointment of a successor, had
+all sought safety by retiring to private places. 2. Some soldiers
+happening to wander about the palace, discovered Clau'dius,
+Calig'ula's uncle, lurking in a secret place where he had hid himself.
+Of this person, who had hitherto been despised for his imbecility,
+they resolved to make an emperor: and accordingly they carried him
+upon their shoulders to the camp, where they proclaimed him at a time
+when he expected nothing but death.
+
+3. Clau'dius was now fifty years old. The complicated diseases of his
+infancy had, in some measure, affected all the faculties of his mind
+as well as body, and he seemed, both in public and domestic life,
+incapable of conducting himself with propriety.[21]
+
+4. The commencement of his reign, however, as had been the case with
+all the bad emperors, gave the most promising hopes. It began by an
+act of oblivion for all former words and actions, and by disannulling
+all the cruel edicts of Calig'ula. 5. He showed himself more moderate
+than his predecessors with regard to titles and honours. He forbade
+all persons, under severe penalties, to sacrifice to him, as they had
+done to Calig'ula. He was assiduous in hearing and examining
+complaints; and frequently administered justice in person with great
+mildness. To his solicitude for the internal advantages of the state,
+he added that of a watchful guardianship over the provinces. He
+restored Jude'a to Her'od Agrip'pa,[22] which Calig'ula had taken from
+Her'od Antipas, his uncle, the man who had put John the Baptist to
+death, and who was banished by order of the present emperor.[23]
+
+[Illustration: Triumph of Claudius.]
+
+6. He even undertook to gratify the people by foreign conquest.
+The Britons, who had for nearly a hundred years been left in quiet
+possession of their own island, began to seek the mediation of Rome,
+to quell their intestine commotions. 7. The principal man who desired
+to subject his native country to the Roman dominion, was one Ber'icus,
+who persuaded the emperor to make a descent upon the island,
+magnifying the advantages that would attend the conquest of it. 8. In
+pursuance of his advice, therefore, Plau'tius, the prætor, was ordered
+to go into Gaul, and make preparations for this great expedition. At
+first, indeed, his soldiers seemed backward to embark, declaring that
+they were unwilling to make war beyond the limits of the world; for so
+they judged Britain to be. However, they were at last persuaded to go,
+and the Britons were several times overthrown.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 46.]
+
+9. These successes soon after induced Claud'ius to go into Britain in
+person, under pretence that the natives were still seditious, and had
+not delivered up some Roman fugitives, who had taken shelter among
+them. 10. However, this exhibition seemed rather calculated for show
+than service: the time he continued in Britain, which was in all but
+sixteen days, was more taken up in receiving homage than extending his
+conquests. 11. Great rejoicings were made upon his return to Rome: the
+senate decreed him a splendid triumph; triumphal arches were erected
+to his honour, and annual games instituted to commemorate his
+victories. 12. In the mean time the war was vigorously prosecuted by
+Plau'tius, and his lieutenant Vespasian, who, according to
+Sueto'nius, fought thirty battles, and reduced a part of the island
+into the form of a Roman province.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 51]
+
+13. However, this war broke out afresh under the government of
+Osto'rius, who succeeded Plau'tius. The Britons, either despising him
+for want of experience, or hoping to gain advantages over a person
+newly come to command, rose up in arms, and disclaimed the Roman
+power. 14. The Ice'ni, who inhabited Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and
+Huntingdonshire; the Can'gi, in Wiltshire and Somersetshire; and the
+Brigan'tes, in Yorkshire, &c. made a powerful resistance, though they
+were at length overcome; but the Silu'res, or inhabitants of South
+Wales, under their king Carac'tacus, were the most formidable
+opponents the Roman generals had ever yet encountered. 15. This brave
+barbarian not only made a gallant defence, but often claimed a
+doubtful victory. He, with great conduct, removed the seat of war into
+the most inaccessible parts of the country, and for nine years kept
+the Romans in continued alarm.
+
+16. Upon the approach of Osto'rius, however, Carac'tacus, finding
+himself obliged to come to a decisive engagement, addressed his
+countrymen with calm resolution, telling them that this battle would
+either establish their liberty, or confirm their servitude; that they
+ought to remember the bravery of their ancestors, by whose valour they
+were delivered from taxes and tribute; and that this was the time to
+show themselves equal to their progenitors. 17. But nothing that
+undisciplined valour could perform availed against the conduct of the
+Roman legions. After an obstinate fight, the Britons were entirely
+routed: the wife and daughter of Carac'tacus were taken prisoners; and
+he himself, seeking refuge from Cartisman'dua, queen of the
+Brigan'tes, was treacherously delivered up to the conquerors. 18. When
+he was brought to Rome, nothing could exceed the curiosity of the
+people to behold a man who had, for so many years, braved the power of
+the empire. Carac'tacus testified no marks of base dejection. When he
+was led through the streets, and observed the splendor of every object
+around him--"Alas!" cried he, "how is it possible that people
+possessed of such magnificence at home, could think of envying
+Carac'tacus a humble cottage in Britain!" 19. When he was brought
+before the emperor, while the other prisoners sued for pity with the
+most abject lamentations, Carac'tacus stood before the tribunal with
+an intrepid air, and though he was willing to accept of pardon,
+was not mean enough to sue for it. "If," said he, "I had yielded
+immediately, and without opposing you, neither would my fortune have
+been remarkable, nor your glory memorable; you could not have been
+victorious, and I had been forgotten. If now, therefore, you spare my
+life, I shall continue a perpetual example of your clemency."
+Clau'dius generously pardoned him, and Osto'rius was decreed a
+triumph.
+
+20. In the beginning of his reign Clau'dius gave the highest hopes of
+a happy continuance; but he soon began to lessen his care for the
+public, and to commit to his favourites all the concerns of the
+empire. This prince, weak from his infancy, was little able, when
+called to govern, to act but under the direction of others. 21. One of
+his chief instructors was his wife Messa'lina: whose name is become a
+common appellation for women of abandoned character. By her was
+Clau'dius urged on to commit cruelties, which he considered only as
+wholesome severities; while her crimes became every day more
+notorious, and exceeded what had ever been in Rome. For her crimes and
+enormities, however, she, together with her accomplice Cai'us Sil'ius,
+suffered that death they both had so justly deserved.
+
+22. Clau'dius afterwards married Agrippi'na, the daughter of his
+brother German'icus, a woman of a cruel and ambitious spirit, whose
+only aim being to procure the succession of Nero, her son by a former
+marriage, she treated Claudius with such haughtiness, that he was
+heard to declare, when heated with wine, that it was his fate to smart
+under the disorders of his wives, and to be their executioner. 23.
+This expression sunk deep in her mind, and engaged all her faculties
+to prevent the blow; she therefore resolved not to defer a deed which
+she had meditated long before, which was to poison him. She for some
+time debated within herself in what quantity the poison should be
+administered, as she feared that too strong a dose would discover the
+treachery, while one too weak would fail of its effect. 24. At length
+she determined upon a poison of singular efficacy to destroy his
+intellects, and yet not suddenly to terminate his life; it was given
+among mushrooms, a dish the emperor was particularly fond of. 25.
+Shortly after he had eaten, he dropped down insensible; but this
+caused no alarm, as it was usual with him to eat till he had stupified
+his facilities, and been obliged to be carried from the table to his
+bed. 26. His constitution, however, seemed to overcome the
+effects of the potion; but Agrippi'na resolving to make sure of him,
+directed a wretch of a physician, her creature, to introduce a
+poisoned feather into his throat, under pretence of making him vomit,
+and thus to dispatch him, which had its intended effect. Thus died
+Clau'dius the First, the complicated diseases of whose infancy seemed
+to have affected and perverted all the faculties of his mind. He was
+succeeded by Nero, the son of Agrippi'na by her first husband. Nero
+had been adopted by Clau'dius.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What happened on the death of Caligula?
+
+2. Who was appointed his successor?
+
+3. What was the character of Claudius?
+
+4. How did he conduct himself?
+
+5. By what farther acts did he distinguish his accession?
+
+6. Did he adopt any warlike measure?
+
+7. By whom was he persuaded to interfere?
+
+8. Who was sent into that country, and what occurred in consequence?
+
+9. What resolution did Claudius form?
+
+10. Did he perform any memorable exploits?
+
+11. Was his return celebrated?
+
+12. Was the war in Britain now at an end?
+
+13. Did this finish the war?
+
+14. Who were the most formidable adversaries of the Romans?
+
+15. How did he distinguish himself?
+
+16. By what means did he strengthen the courage of his troops?
+
+17. Were his efforts successful?
+
+18. What happened on his arrival in Rome?
+
+19. What was his behaviour before the emperor?
+
+20. Did Claudius continue to govern well?
+
+21. Who was the chief instigator of his cruelties?
+
+22. Who was the second wife of Claudius, and what was her conduct
+towards him?
+
+23. What was the consequence of this unguarded expression?
+
+24. On what did she at length resolve?
+
+25. What effect did it produce?
+
+26. Did he recover?
+
+[Illustration: Rome set on fire, by order of Nero.]
+
+
+SECTION VII.
+
+U.C. 793--A.D. 55.
+
+  That so, obstructing those that quenched the fire,
+  He might at once destroy rebellious Rome.--_Lee_.
+
+1. Nero, though but seventeen years old, began his reign with the
+general approbation of mankind. He appeared just, liberal, and humane.
+When a warrant for the execution of a criminal was brought to be
+signed, he would cry out with compassion, "Would to heaven that I had
+never learned to write!"
+
+2. But as he increased in years, his native disposition began to show
+itself. The execution of his mother Agrippi'na was the first alarming
+instance he gave of his cruelty. After attempting to get her drowned
+at sea, he ordered her to be put to death in her palace; and coming to
+gaze upon the dead body, was heard to say, that he had never thought
+his mother so handsome a woman.
+
+The manner of his attempt to drown her was extremely singular. He
+caused a vessel to be constructed that, by withdrawing some bolts,
+would separate in the open sea, and thus give her death the appearance
+of a shipwreck. Agrippi'na, naturally suspicious, at first refused to
+go on board; but, lulled into security by the artful blandishments of
+her son, she embarked. The attempt was made; but Agrippi'na was taken
+up by some fisher-boats, and conveyed to her own villa. The very great
+calmness of the sea prevented the possibility of its being
+considered as an accident. Agrippi'na, however, dissembled her
+suspicions, and informed the emperor of her wonderful escape. Three
+years after the death of his mother, he murdered his tutor Burrhus,
+and also his wife Octavia, a young princess of admirable virtue and
+beauty that he might marry the infamous Poppæ'a.
+
+3. The mounds of virtue being thus broken down, Nero gave a loose to
+appetites that were not only sordid, but inhuman. There was a sort of
+odd contrast in his disposition: for while he practised cruelties
+sufficient to make the mind shudder with horror, he was fond of those
+amusing arts which soften and refine the heart. He was particularly
+addicted, even from childhood, to music, and not totally ignorant of
+poetry; chariot-driving was his favourite pursuit; and all these he
+frequently exhibited in public.
+
+4. Happy had it been for mankind, had he confined himself to these;
+and contented with being contemptible, sought not to become formidable
+also. His cruelties exceeded all his other extravagancies. 5. A great
+part of the city of Rome was consumed by fire in his time, and to him
+most historians ascribe the conflagration. It is said that he stood
+upon a high tower, during the continuance of the flames, enjoying the
+sight, and singing, in a theatrical manner to his harp, verses upon
+the burning of Troy. Of the fourteen quarters into which Rome was
+divided, only four remained entire. None were permitted to lend
+assistance towards extinguishing the flames; and several persons were
+seen setting fire to the houses, alleging that they had orders for so
+doing. 6. However this be, the emperor used every art to throw the
+odium of so detestable an action from himself, and fix it upon the
+Christians, who were at that time gaining ground in Rome.
+
+7. Nothing could be more dreadful than the persecution raised against
+them upon this false accusation. Some were covered with the skins of
+wild beasts, and, in that disguise, devoured by the dogs; some were
+crucified, and others burnt alive. "When the day was not sufficient
+for their tortures, the flames in which, they perished," says
+Ta'citus, "served to illuminate the night:" while Nero, dressed in the
+habit of a charioteer, regaled himself with a view of their tortures
+from his gardens, and entertained the people at one time with their
+sufferings, at another with the games of the circus. 8. In this
+persecution St. Paul was beheaded, and St. Peter crucified, with his
+head downwards; a mode of death he chose, as being more dishonourable
+than that of his divine master. Upon the ruins of the demolished
+city, Nero founded a palace, which he called his Golden House. It
+contained within its inclosure, artificial lakes, large wildernesses,
+spacious parks, gardens, orchards, vineyards, &c. &c. The entrance of
+the stately edifice was sufficiently lofty to admit a colossal statue
+of Nero, 120 feet high. The galleries, erected on three rows of tall
+pillars, were each a mile in length. The palace itself was tiled with
+gold (probably gilding), the walls covered with the same metal, and
+richly adorned with precious stones and mother-of-pearl: and the
+ceiling of one of the banqueting rooms represented the firmament beset
+with, stars, turning about incessantly night and day, and showering
+sweet waters on the guests.
+
+9. A conspiracy formed against Nero, by Piso, a man of great power and
+integrity, which was prematurely discovered, opened a train of
+suspicions that destroyed many of the principal families in Rome. 10.
+The two most remarkable personages who fell on this occasion, were
+Sen'eca[24], the philosopher, and Lucan the poet, his nephew.
+
+Epicha'ris, a woman of infamous character, who by some means was
+implicated in the conspiracy, deserves to be mentioned as an instance
+of female fortitude. She was condemned to the torture, but the united
+force of racks, stripes and fire, could not extort a word from her.
+The next day she was conducted in a chair to be tortured afresh, (for
+her limbs were so mangled and disjointed, that she could not stand,)
+she hung herself with her girdle to the top of the chair, voluntarily
+suspending the whole weight of her body to the noose: thus a woman
+once a slave, cheerfully endured the most exquisite torture, and even
+death, to save persons she scarcely knew, and from whom she had never
+received any favours.
+
+Nero, either having real testimony, or else hating him for his
+virtues, sent a tribune to Sen'eca[24], informing him that he was
+suspected as an accomplice. The tribune found the philosopher at table
+with Pauli'na, his wife; and informing him of his business, Sen'eca
+replied without emotion, that his welfare depended upon no man; that
+he had never beenaccustomed to indulge the errors of the emperor,
+and would not do it now. 11. When this answer was brought to Nero, he
+demanded whether Sen'eca seemed afraid to die; the tribune replying
+that he did not appear in the least terrified; "Then go to him again,"
+cried the emperor, "and give him my orders to die." Accordingly he
+sent a centurion to Sen'eca, signifying that it was the emperor's plea
+sure that he should die. Sen'eca seemed no way discomposed, but
+displayed the fortitude of conscious integrity. He endeavoured to
+console his wife, and exhorted her to a life of persevering virtue.
+12. She seemed resolved, however, not to survive him, and pressed her
+request to die with him so earnestly, that Sen'eca, who had long
+looked upon death as a benefit, at last gave his consent; and the
+veins of both their arms were opened at the same time. 13. As Sen'eca
+was old, and much enfeebled by the austerities of his life, the blood
+flowed but slowly; so that he caused the veins of his legs and thighs
+to be opened also. His pains were long and violent, but they were not
+capable of repressing his fortitude or his eloquence. He dictated a
+discourse to two secretaries, which was read with great avidity after
+his death, but which has since perished in the lapse of time. 14. His
+agonies being now drawn out to a great length, he at last demanded
+poison from his physician; but this also failed of its effect, his
+body being already exhausted, and incapable of exciting its operation.
+He was from this carried into a warm bath, which only served to
+prolong his sufferings; at length, therefore, he was put in a stove,
+the vapour of which quickly dispatched him. 15. In the mean time his
+wife, Pauli'na, having fallen into a swoon with the loss of blood, had
+her arms bound up by her domestics, and by this means survived her
+husband for some years; but by her conduct during the rest of her
+life, she seemed never to forget her affection and his example.
+
+16. The death of Lucan was not less remarkable. After he had lost a
+great quantity of blood from the veins of his arms, perceiving his
+hands and legs already dead, while the vital parts still continued
+warm and vigorous, he called to mind the description of his own poem
+of the Pharsa'lia, of a person dying in similar circumstances, and
+expired while he was repeating the passage.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 817. A.D. 66.]
+
+17. The death of C. Petro'nius, about this time, is too remarkable to
+be passed over in silence. This person, whom some historians suppose
+to be the author of the piece entitled T. Petro'nii Arbi'tri
+Saty'ricon, was an Epicu'rean, both in principle and practice. In a
+court like that of Nero, he was esteemed for his refinements in
+luxury, and became the emperor's tutor in this exquisite art. 18.
+Accused of being privy to Piso's conspiracy, he was committed to
+prison. Petro'nius, who could not endure the anxiety of suspense,
+resolved upon putting himself to death, by causing his veins to be
+opened. 19. In the mean time, he conversed with his friends, not upon
+maxims of philosophy, or grave subjects, but upon such topics as had
+amused his gayest revels. He listened while they recited the lightest
+poems; and by no action, no word, no circumstance, showed the
+perplexity of a dying person. 20. Shortly after him, Numi'cius
+Thermus, Bare'a Sora'nus, and Pe'tus Thra'sea, were put to death. The
+valiant Cor'bulo, who had gained Nero so many victories over the
+Parthians, followed next. Nor did the empress Poppæ'a herself escape.
+21. At length human nature grew weary of bearing her persecutor; and
+the whole world seemed to rouse, as if by common consent, to rid the
+earth of a monster.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was Nero's conduct at the commencement of his reign?
+
+2. Did this disposition continue?
+
+3. What was there peculiar in his disposition?
+
+4. Were these his greatest faults?
+
+5. Of what heinous crime is he accused?
+
+6. On whom was the odium of this barbarous action cast?
+
+7. What was the consequence to these unhappy men?
+
+8. What eminent persons suffered on this occasion?
+
+9. Did not these cruelties give birth to conspiracies?
+
+10. What persons of note suffered in consequence?
+
+11. Did this defence save his life?
+
+12. Were his exhortations effectual?
+
+13. Relate the circumstances of Seneca's death?
+
+14. Were not other means resorted to?
+
+15. Did not Paulina survive him?
+
+16. Describe the death of Lucan.
+
+17. What other victim of Nero's cruelty deserves mention?
+
+18. What brought him into danger?
+
+19. How did he meet death?
+
+20. Were not other illustrious persons sacrificed?
+
+21. Were these cruelties committed with impunity?
+
+
+SECTION VIII.
+
+  O breath of public praise,
+  Short-lived and vain; oft gained without desert,
+  As often lost unmerited: composed
+  But of extremes---_Havard._
+
+1. Ser'vius Galba, at that time governor of Spain, was remarkable for
+his wisdom in peace, and his courage in war; but as a display of
+talents under corrupt princes is dangerous, he, for some years, had
+seemed to court obscurity and an inactive life. 2. Willing, however,
+to rid his country of the monster that now occupied the throne, he
+accepted the invitation of Vindex, to march with an army towards Rome.
+3. From the moment he declared against Nero, the tyrant considered
+himself as fallen. He received the account as he was at supper, and
+instantly struck with terror, overturned the table with his foot,
+breaking two crystal vases of immense value. He fell into a swoon, and
+on his recovery tore his clothes and struck his head, crying out,
+"that he was utterly undone." 4. He now called for the assistance of
+Locus'ta, a woman famous in the art of poisoning, to furnish him with
+the means of death; but being prevented in this, and the revolt
+becoming general, he went in person from house to house; but the doors
+were shut against him. Being reduced to a state of desperation, he
+desired that one of his favourite gladiators might dispatch him; but
+even in this request not one would obey. "Alas," cried he, "have I
+neither friend nor enemy?" then running desperately forth, he seemed
+resolved to plunge headlong into the Ti'ber. 5. But his courage failed
+him; he made a sudden stop, as if willing to re-collect his reason,
+and asked for some sacred place where he might reassume his courage,
+and meet death with becoming fortitude. 6. In this distress, Pha'on,
+one of his freedmen, offered him his country-house, about four miles
+distant, where he might for some time remain concealed. Nero accepted
+the offer; and, with his head covered, hiding his face with his
+handkerchief, he mounted on horseback, attended by four of his
+domestics, of whom the wretched Sporus was one. 7. His journey, though
+short, was crowded with adventures. An earthquake gave him the first
+alarm. The lightning from heaven next flashed in his face. Round him
+he heard nothing but confused noises from the camp, the cries of the
+soldiers imprecating a thousand evils upon his head. 8. A traveller,
+meeting him on the way, cried, "Those men are in pursuit of Nero."
+Another asked him if there was any news of Nero in the city. His horse
+taking fright at a dead body that lay near the road, he dropped
+his handkerchief, when a soldier addressing him by name, he quitted
+his horse, and forsaking the highway, entered a thicket that led
+towards the back part of Pha'ron's house, making the best of his way
+among the reeds and brambles with which the place was overgrown. 9.
+During this interval, the senate, finding the Præto'rian guards had
+taken part with Galba, declared him emperor, and condemned Nero to
+die, _mo're majo'rum;_ that is, according to the rigour of the ancient
+laws. 10. When he was told of the resolution of the senate, he asked
+what was meant by being punished according to the rigour of the
+ancient laws? To this it was answered, that the criminal was to be
+stripped naked, his head fixed in a pillory, and in that posture he
+was to be scourged to death. 11. Nero was so terrified at this, that
+he seized two poniards, which he had brought with him: after examining
+their points, he returned them, however, to their sheaths, pretending
+that the fatal moment was not yet arrived. 12. He then desired Sporus
+to begin the lamentations which were used at funerals; he next
+entreated that one of his attendants would die, to give him courage by
+his example, and afterwards began to reproach his own cowardice,
+crying out, "Does this become Nero? Is this trifling well-timed?
+No!--let me be courageous!" In fact, he had no time to spare; for the
+soldiers who had been sent in pursuit of him, were just then
+approaching the house. 13. Upon hearing, therefore, the sound of the
+horses' feet, he set a dagger to his throat, with which, by the
+assistance of Epaphrod'itus, his freedman and secretary, he gave
+himself a mortal wound. 14. However, he was not yet dead when one of
+the centurions, entering the room and pretending that he came to his
+relief, attempted to stop the blood with his cloak. But Nero,
+regarding him with a stern countenance, said, "It is now too late! Is
+this your fidelity?" Upon which, with his eyes fixed and frightfully
+staring, he expired; exhibiting, even after death, a ghastly spectacle
+of innoxious tyranny. 15. He reigned thirteen years, seven months, and
+twenty-eight days, and died in the thirty-second year of his age.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 820, A.D. 69]
+
+16. Galba was seventy-two years old when he was declared emperor, and
+was then in Spain with his legions. He soon found that his being
+raised to the throne was but an inlet to new disquietudes. 17. He
+seemed to have three objects in view: to curb the insolence of the
+soldiers; to punish those vices which had risen to an enormous
+height in the last reign; and to replenish the exchequer, which had
+been drained by the prodigality of his predecessors. 18. However,
+permitting himself to be governed by favourites, he at one time showed
+himself severe and frugal; at another remiss and prodigal; condemning
+some illustrious persons without any hearing, and pardoning others,
+though guilty. In consequence of this, seditions were kindled, and
+factions promoted. 19. Galba was sensible that, besides his age, his
+want of an heir rendered him less respected: he resolved, therefore,
+to adopt a person whose virtues might deserve such advancement, and
+protect his declining age from danger; but his favourites wished to
+give him an heir of their own choosing; so that there arose a great
+contention among them upon this occasion. 20. Otho made earnest
+application for himself, alleging the great services he had done the
+emperor, as being the first man of note who came to his assistance
+when he declared against Nero. 21. However, Galba, being fully
+resolved to consult the public good alone, rejected his suit; and, on
+a day appointed, ordered Piso Lucia'nus to attend him. The character
+given by historians of Piso is, that he was every way worthy of the
+honour designed him. 22. Taking this youth by the hand, Galba adopted
+him to succeed in the empire, giving him the most wholesome lessons
+for guiding his future conduct. Piso showed that he was highly
+deserving this distinction, in all his deportment there appeared such
+modesty, firmness, and equality of mind as bespoke him rather capable
+of discharging than ambitious of obtaining his present dignity. 23.
+But the army and the senate did not seem equally disinterested upon
+this occasion; they had been so long used to bribery and corruption,
+that they could now bear no emperor who was not in a capacity of
+satisfying their avarice. The adoption, therefore, of Piso, was coldly
+received; for his virtues were no recommendation in a time of
+universal depravity. 24. Otho, who had long been a favourite of Galba,
+and hoped to be adopted a successor in the empire, finding himself
+disappointed, and stimulated by the immense load of debt which he had
+contracted by his riotous way of living, resolved upon obtaining the
+empire by force, since he could not do it by peaceable succession.
+Having corrupted the fidelity of the army, he stole secretly from the
+emperor while he was sacrificing, and, assembling the soldiers,
+he, in a short speech, urged the cruelties and the avarice of
+Galba. 25. Finding his invectives received with universal shouts by
+the army, he entirely threw off the mask, and avowed his intention of
+dethroning him. The soldiers being ripe for sedition, immediately
+seconded his views, and taking Otho upon their shoulders, declared him
+emperor; and to strike the citizens with terror, carried him, with
+their swords drawn, into the camp.
+
+26. Soon after, finding Galba in some measure deserted by his
+adherents, the soldiers rushed in upon him, trampling under foot the
+crowds of people that then filled the forum. 27. Galba seeing them
+approach, seemed to recollect all his former fortitude; and bending
+his head forward, bid the assassins strike it off, if it were for the
+good of the people. 28. The command was quickly obeyed. The soldier
+who struck it off stuck it upon the point of a lance, and
+contemptuously carried it round the camp; his body remaining unburied
+in the streets till it was interred by one of his slaves. His short
+reign of seven months was as illustrious by his own virtues as it was
+contaminated by the vices of his favourites, who shared in his
+downfall.
+
+29. Otho, who was now elected emperor, began his reign by a signal
+instance of clemency, in pardoning Marius Celsus, who had been highly
+favoured by Galba; and not content with barely forgiving, he advanced
+him to the highest honours, asserting that "fidelity deserved every
+reward."
+
+30. In the mean time, the legions in Lower Germany having been
+purchased by the large gifts and specious promises of Vitel'lius their
+general, were at length induced to proclaim him emperor; and,
+regardless of the senate, they declared that they had an equal right
+to appoint to that high station, with the cohorts at Rome.
+
+31. Otho departed from Rome with all haste to give Vitel'lius battle.
+The army of Vitel'lius, which consisted of seventy thousand men, was
+commanded by his generals Va'lens and Cecin'na, he himself remaining
+in Gaul, in order to bring up the rest of his forces. Both sides
+hastened to meet each other with so much animosity and precipitation,
+that three considerable battles were fought in the space of three
+days, in all of which Otho and the Romans had the advantage. 32. These
+successes, however, were but of short continuance, for Va'lens and
+Cecin'na, who had hitherto acted separately, joining their forces, and
+strengthening their armies with fresh supplies, resolved to come
+to a general engagement. Otho's forces were partially over thrown
+at Bedria'cum, a village near Cremo'na, in Lombardy, in Italy; and
+though he had still numerous armies at his devotion, he killed himself
+shortly after, having reigned three months and five days, and was
+succeeded by Vitel'lius.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the character of Sergius Galba?
+
+2. Did he at length emerge from his obscurity?
+
+3. Was he formidable to Nero?
+
+4. What was the conduct of Nero on this emergency?
+
+5. Did he actually do so?
+
+6. Was his request complied with?
+
+7. What befell him by the way?
+
+8. What farther happened?
+
+9. What occurred in the interval?
+
+10. How did Nero receive this intelligence?
+
+11. Did he resolve to await this terrible punishment?
+
+12. How did he contrive to put off the fatal moment?
+
+13. What at length put an end to this irresolution?
+
+14. Was he dead when the soldiers arrived?
+
+15. How long did he reign?
+
+16. What was the age of Galba on his accession?
+
+17. What were his principal views?
+
+18. Was his conduct regular and consistent?
+
+19. What important measure did he adopt?
+
+20. Who was the chief candidate on the occasion?
+
+21. Was he chosen?
+
+22. Was Piso the chosen successor, and what was his character?
+
+23. Was this adoption generally approved?
+
+24. Did not Otho attempt to set him aside?
+
+25. Was he favourably received?
+
+26. Did Galba suppress this rebellion?
+
+27. What was his behaviour on the occasion?
+
+28. Was this command obeyed, and what treatment did Galba experience?
+
+29. How did Otho commence his reign?
+
+30. Did he reign without a rival?
+
+31. What was the consequence of this rivalship?
+
+32. Was Otho finally successful?
+
+
+SECTION IX.
+
+A.D. 70.
+
+  Afflicted Israel shall sit weeping down,
+  Fast by the stream where Babel's waters run;
+  Their harps upon the neighbouring willows hung.
+  Nor joyous hymn encouraging their tongue.
+  Nor cheerful dance their feet; with toil oppressed,
+  Their wearied limbs aspiring but to rest.--_Prior._
+
+1. Vitel'lius was declared emperor by the senate, and received the
+marks of distinction which were now accustomed to follow the
+appointments of the strongest side.
+
+2. He had been accustomed from his youth to dissipation and applause.
+Caligula was pleased with his skill in driving a chariot; Claudius
+loved him because he was a great gamester; and he gained the favour of
+Nero by wishing him to sing publicly in the theatre. Upon his arrival
+at Rome, he entered the city, not as a place he came to govern with
+justice, but as a town that was become his own by the laws of
+conquest.
+
+3. Vitel'lius soon gave himself up to all kinds of luxury and
+profuseness; but gluttony was his favourite vice. His entertainments,
+seldom indeed at his own cost, were prodigiously expensive. He
+frequently invited himself to the tables of his subjects; in the same
+day breakfasting with one, dining with another, and supping with a
+third. 4. By such vices and by enormous cruelties, he became a burthen
+to himself, and odious to all mankind. Having become insupportable to
+the inhabitants of Rome, the legions of the east unanimously resolved
+to make Vespa'sian emperor.
+
+Vespa'sian was by no means of an illustrious family, his father being
+only a collector of the tax called quadragesima. Nor was his conduct,
+previous to his accession to the imperial throne, calculated to do him
+honour, as he was guilty of the meanest flattery and servility to
+ingratiate himself with men in power. Yet, as a general, he was
+indefatigable in his duties, and of unquestionable valour; abstemious
+in his diet, and plain in his dress. On attaining to the imperial
+dignity he appears to have laid aside every vice except avarice. His
+elevation neither induced him to assume arrogant and lofty airs, nor
+to neglect those friends who had shown themselves deserving of
+his favour.
+
+[Illustration: Coliseum.]
+
+Desirous of convincing the world that he owed his good fortune to
+merit alone, he disdained to court the soldiers by largesses; in
+short, he displayed a nobleness of disposition worthy of the most
+illustrious birth, and befitting the exalted station to which he had
+arrived. This prince was the founder of the noble amphitheatre, called
+the Coliseum, which remains to this day. Twelve thousand Jewish
+captives were employed in its erection, and it was capable of
+containing 80,000 spectators seated, and 30,000 standing. It is now in
+ruins.
+
+5. During the preparations against him, Vitel'lius, though buried in
+sloth and luxury, resolved to make an effort to defend the empire; and
+his chief commanders, Va'lens and Cecin'na, were ordered to make all
+possible preparations to resist the invaders. 6. The first army that
+entered Italy with a hostile intention was under the command of
+Anto'nius Pri'mus, who was met by Cecin'na, near Cremo'na. A battle
+was expected to ensue; but a negociation taking place, Cecin'na was
+prevailed upon to change sides, and declared for Vespa'sian.[25] His
+army, however, quickly repented of what they had done, and,
+imprisoning their general, attacked Anto'nius, though without a
+leader. 7. The engagement continued the whole night; and in the
+morning, after a short repast, both armies engaged a second time; when
+the soldiers of Anto'nius saluting the rising sun, according to
+custom, the Vitel'lians supposed that they had received new
+reinforcements, and betook themselves to flight, with the loss of
+thirty thousand men.
+
+8. In the mean time, Vitel'lius made offers to Vespa'sian of resigning
+the empire in his favour, provided his life were spared, and a
+sufficient revenue allotted for his support. In order to enforce this
+proposal, he issued from his palace in deep mourning, with all his
+domestics weeping round him. 9. He then went to offer the sword of
+justice to Cecil'ius, the consul, which he refusing, the abject
+emperor prepared to lay down the ensigns of empire in the Temple of
+Concord; but being interrupted by some who cried out, that he himself
+was Concord, he resolved, upon so weak an encouragement, still to
+maintain his power, and immediately prepared for his defence.
+
+10. During this fluctuation of counsels, one Sabi'nus, who had advised
+Vitel'lius to resign, perceiving his desperate situation, resolved, by
+a bold step, to favour Vespa'sian; and accordingly seized upon the
+capitol. But he was premature in his attempt; for the soldiers of
+Vitel'lius attacked him with great fury; and prevailing by their
+numbers, soon laid that beautiful building in ashes. 11. During this
+dreadful conflagration, Vitel'lius was feasting in the palace of
+Tibe'rius, and beheld all the horrors of the assault with
+satisfaction. 12. Sabi'nus was taken prisoner, and shortly after
+executed by the emperor's command. Young Domi'tian, his nephew, who
+was afterwards emperor, escaped by flight, in the habit of a priest;
+and the rest, who survived the fire, were put to the sword.
+
+13. But Anto'nius, Vespa'sian's commander, being arrived before the
+walls of the city, the forces of Vitel'lius resolved upon defending it
+to the utmost extremity. It was attacked with fury; while the army
+within, sallying out upon the besiegers, defended it with equal
+obstinacy. The battle lasted the whole day; the besieged were driven
+back into the city, and a dreadful slaughter made of them in the
+streets which they vainly attempted to defend.
+
+14. Vitel'lius was soon found hidden in an obscure corner, whence he
+was taken by a party of the conquering soldiers. Still, however,
+desirous of adding a few hours to his miserable life, he begged to be
+kept in prison till the arrival of Vespa'sian at Rome, pretending that
+he had secrets of importance to discover. 15. But his entreaties were
+vain; the soldiers binding his hands behind him, and throwing a halter
+round his neck, led him along, half naked, into the public forum,
+loading him with all the bitter reproaches their malice could suggest,
+or his cruelty might deserve. At length, being come to the place of
+punishment, they put him to death with blows: and then dragging the
+dead body through the streets with a hook, they threw it, with
+all possible ignominy, into the river Tiber.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 70.]
+
+16. Vespa'sian was now declared emperor by the unanimous consent both
+of the senate and the army; and dignified with all those titles which
+now followed rather the power than the merit of those who were
+appointed to govern. 17. Having continued some months at Alexan'dria,
+in Egypt, where it is said he cured a blind man and a cripple by
+touching them, he set out for Rome. Giving his son, Ti'tus, the
+command of the army that was to lay siege to Jerusalem, he himself
+went forward, and was met many miles from Rome by all the senate, and
+the inhabitants, who gave the sincerest testimony of their joy, in
+having an emperor of such great and experienced virtue. 18. Nor did he
+in the least disappoint their expectations; as he showed himself
+equally assiduous in rewarding merit and pardoning his adversaries; in
+reforming the manners of the citizens, and setting them the best
+example in his own.
+
+19. In the mean time Titus carried on the war against the Jews with
+vigour. This obstinate and infatuated people had long resolved to
+resist the Roman power, vainly hoping to find protection from heaven,
+which their impieties had utterly offended. 20. Their own historian
+represents them as arrived at the highest pitch of iniquity; while
+famines, earthquakes, and prodigies, all conspired to forebode their
+approaching ruin. 21. Nor was it sufficient that heaven and earth
+seemed combined against them; they had the most bitter dissensions
+among themselves, and were divided into two parties, who robbed and
+destroyed each other with impunity: constantly pillaging, yet boasting
+their zeal for the religion of their ancestors.
+
+22. At the head of one of these parties was an incendiary, whose name
+was John. This fanatic affected sovereign power, and filled the whole
+city of Jeru'salem, and all the towns around, with tumult and pillage.
+In a short time a new faction arose, headed by one Si'mon, who,
+gathering together multitudes of robbers and murderers who had fled to
+the mountains, attacked many cities and towns, and reduced all Idume'a
+under his power. 23. Jeru'salem, at length, became the theatre in
+which these two demagogues exercised their mutual animosity: John was
+possessed of the temple, while Si'mon was admitted into the city; both
+equally enraged against each other; while slaughter and devastation
+were the consequence of their pretensions. Thus did a city
+formerly celebrated for peace and unity, become the seat of tumult and
+confusion.
+
+24. In this miserable situation, Ti'tus began his operations within
+six furlongs of Jeru'salem, during the feast of the passover, when the
+place was filled with an infinite multitude of people, who had come
+from all parts to celebrate that great solemnity. 25. The approach of
+the Romans produced a temporary reconciliation between the contending
+factions within the city; so that they unanimously resolved to oppose
+the common enemy, and decide their domestic quarrels at a more
+convenient season. 26. Their first sally, which was made with much
+fury and resolution, put the besiegers into great disorder, and
+obliged them to abandon their camp, and fly to the mountains; however,
+rallying immediately after, the Jews were forced back into the city,
+while Ti'tus, in person, showed surprising instances of valour and
+conduct.
+
+27. The city was strongly fortified with three walls on every side,
+except where it was fenced by precipices. Ti'tus began by battering
+down the outward wall, which, after much fatigue and danger, he
+effected; in the mean time showing the greatest clemency to the Jews,
+and offering them repeated assurances of pardon. Five days after the
+commencement of the siege, Ti'tus broke through the second wall; and
+though driven back by the besieged, he recovered his ground, and made
+preparations for battering the third wall, which was their last
+defence. 28. But first he sent Jose'phus, their countryman, into the
+city, to exhort them to yield; who using all his eloquence to persuade
+them, was answered only with scoffs and reproaches. 29. The siege was
+now therefore carried on with greater vigour than before; formidable
+engines for throwing darts and stones were constructed, and as quickly
+destroyed by the enemy. At length it was resolved in council to
+surround the whole city with a trench, and thus prevent all relief and
+all succours from abroad. 30. This, which was quickly executed, seemed
+no way to intimidate the Jews. Though famine, and pestilence its
+necessary attendant, began now to make the most horrid ravages among
+them, yet this desperate people still resolved to hold out. 31. Ti'tus
+now cut down all the woods within a considerable distance of the city;
+and causing more batteries to be raised, he at length beat down the
+wall, and in five days entered the citadel by force. 32. The Jews,
+however, continued to deceive themselves with absurd expectations,
+while many false prophets deluded the multitude, by declaring that
+they should soon have assistance from God. The heat of the battle was
+now gathered round the inner wall of the temple, while the defendants
+desperately combatted from the top. 33. Ti'tus was desirous of saving
+this beautiful structure; but a soldier casting a brand into some
+adjacent buildings, the fire communicated to the temple; and
+notwithstanding the utmost endeavours on both sides, the whole edifice
+was quickly consumed. 34. The sight of the temple in ruins effectually
+served to damp the ardour of the Jews. They now began to suppose that
+heaven had forsaken them, while their cries and lamentations echoed
+from the adjacent mountains. Even those who were almost expiring,
+lifted up their dying eyes to bewail the loss of their temple, which
+they valued more than life itself. 35. The most resolute, however,
+still endeavoured to defend the upper and stronger part of the city,
+named Sion; but Ti'tus, with his battering engines, soon made himself
+entire master of the place. 36. John and Simon were taken from the
+vaults where they had concealed themselves; the former was condemned
+to perpetual imprisonment, and the latter reserved to grace the
+conqueror's triumph. The greatest part of the populace were put to
+the sword; and the city was, after a six month's siege, entirely
+razed, and its site ploughed up; so that according to our Saviour's
+prophecy, not one stone remained upon another. Those who perished in
+this siege amounted to about a million; the captives to almost a
+hundred thousand.[26]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Who succeeded Otho?
+
+2. In what way did he assume the sovereignty?
+
+3. How did he conduct himself in his new station?
+
+4. What were the consequences of this conduct?
+
+5. Did Vitellius tamely submit to his rival?
+
+6. Who first commenced hostilities?
+
+7. What followed?
+
+8. What was the conduct of Vitellius on this occasion?
+
+9. What farther measures did he adopt?
+
+10. Were the friends of Vespasian idle at this juncture?
+
+11. How was Vitellius engaged at the time of this disaster?
+
+12. What became of Sabinus?
+
+13. What was the consequence of this success on the part of Vitellius?
+
+14. What became of the fallen emperor?
+
+15. Was his request granted?
+
+16. Did Vespasian quietly succeed?
+
+17. What were his first measures?
+
+18. Were they disappointed in their expectations?
+
+19. What was the state of the Jewish war?
+
+20. What was the state of the Jewish nation?
+
+21. Were they united among themselves?
+
+22. Who were at the head of these factions?
+
+23. What was the chief theatre of their enormities?
+
+24. At what remarkable season did Titus commence his attack?
+
+25. What effect did this attack produce?
+
+26. Did the Jews bravely defend their city?
+
+27. What progress did Titus make in the siege?
+
+28. Did he make no attempt to persuade the Jews to surrender?
+
+29. What measures were then adopted?
+
+30. Did these formidable measures terrify the Jews?
+
+31. By what means did Titus gain the city?
+
+32. Was all opposition now at an end?
+
+33. Was the temple destroyed?
+
+34. What effect did this sad event produce?
+
+35. Were there none who attempted farther resistance?
+
+36. What became of the inhabitants and their chiefs?
+
+
+SECTION X.
+
+  This world, 'tis true.
+  Was made for Cæsar--but for Titus too;
+  And which more blest? who chain'd his country, say,
+  Or, he whose virtue sigh'd to lose a day!--_Pope_.
+
+1. Upon the taking of Jerusalem, the soldiers would have crowned Titus
+as conqueror; but he modestly refused the honour, alleging, that he
+was only an instrument in the hand of heaven, that manifestly declared
+its wrath against the Jews. 2. At Rome, however, all men's mouths were
+filled with the praises of the conqueror, who had not only showed
+himself an excellent general, but a courageous combatant. His return,
+therefore, in triumph, with Vespa'sian his father, was marked with all
+the magnificence and joy in the power of men to express. All things
+that were esteemed valuable or beautiful were brought to adorn this
+great occasion. 3. Among the rich spoils were exposed vast quantities
+of gold, taken out of the temple; but the Book of the Holy Law was not
+the least remarkable among the magnificent profusion. 4. This was the
+first time that ever Rome saw the father and the son triumphant
+together. A triumphal arch was erected upon this occasion, on which
+were described the victories of Titus over the Jews; and it remains
+almost entire to this day.
+
+5. Few emperors have received a better character from historians than
+Vespasian; yet his numerous acts of generosity and magnificence could
+not preserve his character from the imputation of rapacity and
+avarice; for it is well known that he descended to some very unusual
+and dishonourable imposts.
+
+6. Having reigned ten years, beloved by his subjects, and deserving
+their affection, he was seized with an indisposition at Campa'nia,
+which he perceived would be fatal. 7. Finding his end approaching, he
+exerted himself, and cried out, "An emperor ought to die standing;"
+whereupon, raising himself upon his feet, he expired in the arms of
+those who sustained him.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 79.]
+
+8. Titus was joyfully received as emperor, and began his reign with
+the practice of every virtue that became a sovereign and a man. During
+the life of his father, there had been many imputations against him
+both for cruelty, lust, and prodigality; but upon his exaltation to
+the throne, he seemed to have entirely taken leave of his former
+vices, and became an example of the greatest moderation and humanity.
+9. His first step towards gaining the affections of his subjects, was
+the moderating of his passions, and bridling his inclinations. 10. He
+discarded those who had been the ministers of his pleasures, though he
+had formerly taken great pains in the selection. 11. This moderation,
+added to his justice and generosity, procured him the love of all good
+men, and the appellation of the _Delight of Mankind_; which all his
+actions seemed calculated to insure.
+
+12. Ti'tus took particular care to punish all informers, false
+witnesses, and promoters of dissension. Wretches who had their rise in
+the licentiousness and impunity of former reigns, were now become so
+numerous, that their crimes called loud for punishment. 13. Of these
+he daily made public example, condemning them to be scourged in the
+public streets, dragged through the theatre, and then banished into
+the uninhabited parts of the empire, or sold as slaves. 14. His
+courtesy and readiness to do good have been celebrated even by
+Christian writers; his principal rule being, not to send away a
+petitioner dissatisfied. One night, recollecting that he had done
+nothing beneficial to mankind during the day, he cried out, "I have
+lost a day!" A sentence too remarkable not to be had in remembrance.
+
+15. In the first year of his reign, an eruption of Mount
+Vesu'vius overwhelmed many towns,[27] throwing its ashes into
+countries more than a hundred miles distant. Upon this memorable
+occasion, Pliny, the naturalist, lost his life; being impelled by too
+eager a curiosity to observe the eruption, he was suffocated in the
+flames. 16. This and other disasters were, in some measure,
+counterbalanced by the successes in Britain, under Agrico'la. This
+excellent general, having been sent into Britain towards the latter
+end of Vespasian's reign, showed himself equally expert in quelling
+the refractory, and civilizing those who had formerly submitted to the
+Roman power. 17. The Ordovi'ces, or inhabitants of North Wales, were
+the first that were subdued. He then made a descent upon the isle of
+An'glesey, which surrendered at discretion. 18. Having thus rendered
+himself master of the whole country, he took every method to restore
+discipline to his whole army, and to introduce politeness among those
+whom he had conquered. He exhorted them, both by advice and example,
+to build temples, theatres, and stately houses. He caused the sons of
+their nobility to be instructed in the liberal arts, and to be taught
+the Latin language; and induced them to imitate the Roman modes of
+dress and living. 19. Thus, by degrees, this barbarous people began to
+assume the luxurious manners of their conquerors, and even to
+outdo them in all the refinements of sensual pleasure. 20. Upon
+account of the successes in Britain, Titus was saluted Impera'tor[28]
+for the fifteenth time; but he did not long survive this honour, being
+seized with a violent fever at a little distance from Rome. He expired
+shortly after, but not without suspicion of treachery from his brother
+Domi'tian, who had long wished to govern. He died in the forty-first
+year of his age, having reigned two years, two months, and twenty
+days.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 81.]
+
+21. The beginning of Domi'tian's reign was universally acceptable to
+the people, as he appeared equally remarkable for his clemency,
+liberality and justice.[29] 22. But he soon began to show the natural
+deformity of his mind. Instead of cultivating literature, as his
+father and brother had done, he neglected all kinds of study,
+addicting himself wholly to meaner pursuits, particularly archery and
+gaming. 23. He was so very expert an archer, that he would frequently
+cause one of his slaves to stand at a great distance, with his hand
+spread as a mark, and would shoot his arrows with such exactness, as
+to stick them all between his fingers. 24. He instituted three sorts
+of contests to be observed every five years, in music, horsemanship
+and wrestling; but at the same time he banished all philosophers and
+mathematicians from Rome. 25. No emperor before him entertained the
+people with such various and expensive shows. During these diversions
+he distributed great rewards, sitting as president himself, adorned
+with a purple robe and crown, with the priests of Ju'piter, and the
+college of Fla'vian priests about him. 26. The meanness of his
+occupations in solitude, was a just contrast to his exhibitions of
+public ostentation. He usually spent his hours of retirement in
+catching flies, and sticking them through with a bodkin; so that one
+of his servants, being asked if the emperor were alone, answered, that
+he had not so much as a fly to bear him company. 27. His vices seemed
+every day to increase, and his ungrateful treatment of Agrico'la
+afforded a convincing proof of his natural malevolence. 28.
+Domi'tian was always particularly fond of obtaining a military
+reputation, and therefore felt jealous of it in others. He had marched
+some time before into Gaul, upon a pretended expedition against the
+Catti, a people of Germany, and without even seeing the enemy,
+resolved to have the honour of a triumph upon his return to Rome. For
+that purpose he purchased a number of slaves, whom he dressed in
+German habits, and at the head of this miserable procession he entered
+the city, amid the apparent acclamations and concealed contempt of all
+his subjects.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. How did Titus conduct himself after this important conquest?
+
+2. How was he received at Rome?
+
+3. What were the most remarkable among the spoils?
+
+4. What peculiarity attended this triumph?
+
+5. What was the character of Vespasian?
+
+6. How many years did Vespasian reign?
+
+7. Did he not display great resolution at the hour of death?
+
+8. How did Titus commence his reign?
+
+9. By what means did he gain the love of his subjects?
+
+10. What sacrifices did he make for this purpose?
+
+11. Did he succeed in his views?
+
+12. What class of delinquents met his most decided disapprobation?
+
+13. What punishment was inflicted on them?
+
+14. What were his chief virtues?
+
+15. What remarkable event occurred in this reign, and what eminent
+personage became its victim?
+
+16. By what successes was this disaster counterbalanced?
+
+17. What were his first enterprizes?
+
+18. What methods did he take to civilize the conquered countries?
+
+19. Were his measures successful?
+
+20. Did Titus long enjoy the glory of this conquest?
+
+21. How did Domitian commence his reign?
+
+22. Did he persevere in his meritorious conduct?
+
+23. In what exercise did he excel?
+
+24. Did he encourage the arts and sciences?
+
+25. Was he magnificent in his exhibitions?
+
+26. How did he employ himself in private?
+
+27. Did time render him less vicious?
+
+28. By what means did he attempt to acquire military fame?
+
+
+SECTION XI.
+
+                 What wretch would groan
+  Beneath the galling load of power, or walk
+  Upon the slippery pavements of the great!--_Somerville._
+
+1. The success of Agric'ola in Britain affected Domit'ian, with an
+extreme degree of envy. This excellent general pursued the advantages
+which he had already obtained; he subdued the Caledo'nians, and
+overcame Gal'gacus, the British chief, who commanded an army of thirty
+thousand men; afterwards sending out a fleet to scour the coast, he
+discovered Great Britain to be an island. He likewise discovered and
+subdued the Orkneys; and thus reduced the whole into a civilized
+province of the Roman empire. 2. When the account of these successes
+was brought to Domitian, he received it with a seeming pleasure, but
+real uneasiness. He thought Agric'ola's rising reputation a tacit
+reproach upon his own inactivity; and instead of attempting to
+emulate, he resolved to suppress the merits of his services. 3. He
+ordered him, therefore, external marks of approbation, and took care
+that triumphal ornaments, statues, and other honours should be decreed
+him; but at the same time he removed him from his command, under a
+pretence of appointing him to the government of Syria. 4. By these
+means Agric'ola surrendered up his province to Sallus'tius Lucul'lus,
+but soon found that Syria was otherwise disposed of. Upon his return
+to Rome, which was privately and by night, he was coolly received by
+the emperor; and dying some time after in retirement, it was generally
+supposed that his end was hastened by Domi'tian's direction.
+
+5. Domi'tian soon found the want of so experienced a commander, in the
+many irruptions of the barbarous nations that surrounded the empire.
+The Sarma'tians in Europe, joined with those of Asia, made a
+formidable invasion, at once destroying a whole legion, and a general
+of the Romans. The Da'cians, under the conduct of Dece'balus, their
+king, made an irruption, and overthrew the Romans in several
+engagements. 6. At last, however, the barbarians were repelled, partly
+by force, and partly by the assistance of money, which only served to
+enable them to make future invasions with greater advantage. 7. But in
+whatever manner the enemy might have been repelled, Domi'tian was
+resolved not to lose the honours of a triumph. He returned in great
+splendour to Rome; and, not contented with thus triumphing twice
+without a victory, he resolved to take the surname of German'icus,
+for his conquests over a people with whom he never contended.
+
+8. In proportion as the ridicule increased against him, his pride
+seemed every day to demand greater homage. He would permit his statues
+to be made only of gold and silver; he assumed to himself divine
+honours; and ordered that all men should address him by the same
+appellations which they gave to the Divinity. 9. His cruelty was not
+inferior to his arrogance; he caused numbers of the most illustrious
+senators and others to be put to death, upon the most trifling
+pretences. One Æ'lius La'ma was condemned and executed only for
+jesting, though there was neither novelty nor poignancy in his humour.
+Occea'nus was murdered only for celebrating the nativity of O'tho.
+Pomposia'nus shared the same fate, because it was foretold by an
+astrologer that he should be emperor. Sallus'tius Lucul'lus his
+lieutenant in Britain, was destroyed only for having given his name to
+a new sort of lances of his own invention. Ju'nius Rus'ticus died for
+publishing a book, in which he commended Thra'sea and Pris'cus, two
+philosophers, who opposed Vespa'sian's coming to the throne.
+
+10. Lu'cius Anto'nius, governor of Upper Germany, knowing how much the
+emperor was detested at home, resolved upon striking for the throne;
+and accordingly assumed the ensigns of imperial dignity. 11. As he was
+at the head of a formidable army, his success remained a long time
+doubtful; but a sudden overflow of the Rhine dividing his army, he was
+set upon at that juncture by Norman'dus, the emperor's general, and
+totally routed. The news of this victory, we are told, was brought to
+Rome by supernatural means, on the same day that the battle was
+fought. 12. Domi'tian's severity was greatly increased by this
+short-lived success. In order to discover the accomplices of the
+adverse party, he invented new tortures: sometimes cutting off the
+hands--at other times thrusting fire into the bodies of those whom he
+suspected of being his enemies. 13. In the midst of these severities,
+he aggravated his guilt by hypocrisy--never pronouncing sentence
+without a preamble full of gentleness and mercy. The night before he
+crucified the comptroller of his household, he treated him with the
+most flattering marks of friendship, and ordered him a dish of meat
+from his own table. He carried Areti'nus Cle'mens with him in his own
+litter the day he resolved upon his death. 14. He was particularly
+terrible to the senate and nobility, the whole body of whom he
+frequently threatened to extirpate entirely. At one time he surrounded
+the senate-house with his troops, to the great consternation of the
+senators. At another, he resolved to amuse himself with their terrors
+in a different manner. 15. Having invited them to a public
+entertainment, he received them all very formally at the entrance of
+his palace, and conducted them into a spacious hall, hung round with
+black, and illuminated by a few melancholy lamps, that diffused no
+more light than was just sufficient to show the horrors of the place.
+All around were to be seen coffins, with the names of each of the
+senators written upon them, together with other objects of terror, and
+instruments of execution. 16. While the company beheld all these
+preparations with silent agony, several men having their bodies
+blackened, each with a drawn sword in one hand, and a flaming torch in
+the other, entered the hall, and danced round them. 17. After some
+time, when, from the knowledge of Domi'tian's capricious cruelty, the
+guests expected nothing less than instant death, the doors were set
+open, and one of the servants came to inform them, that the emperor
+gave all the company leave to withdraw.
+
+18. His cruelties were rendered still more odious by his avarice. 19.
+The last part of the tyrant's reign was more insupportable than any of
+the preceding. Ne'ro exercised his cruelties without being a
+spectator; but a principal part of the Roman miseries, during his
+reign, was to behold the stern air and fiery visage of the tyrant,
+which he had armed against sensibility by continued intemperance,
+directing the tortures, and maliciously pleased with adding poignance
+to every agony.
+
+20. But a period was soon to be put to this monster's cruelties. Among
+the number of those whom he at once caressed and suspected, was his
+wife, Domi'tia, whom he had taken from Æ'lius La'ma, her former
+husband. 21. It was the tyrant's method to put down the names of all
+such as he intended to destroy, in his tablets, which he kept about
+him with great circumspection. Domi'tia fortunately happening to get a
+sight of them, was struck at finding her own name in the catalogue of
+those destined to destruction. 22. She showed the fatal list to
+Norba'nus and Petro'nius, præfects of the prætorian bands, who found
+themselves among the number of devoted victims; as likewise to
+Steph'anus, the comptroller of the household, who came into the
+conspiracy with alacrity. They fixed upon the eighteenth day of
+September for the completion of their great attempt. 23. Upon the
+emperor's preparing to go to the bath on the morning of that day,
+Petro'nius his chamberlain came to inform him that Steph'anus desired
+to speak upon an affair of the utmost importance. The emperor having
+given orders that his attendants should retire, Steph'anus entered
+with his hand in a scarf, which he had worn thus for some days, the
+better to conceal a dagger, as none were permitted to approach the
+emperor with arms. 24. He began by giving information of a pretended
+conspiracy, and exhibited a paper, in which the particulars were
+specified. While Domi'tian was reading the contents with eager
+curiosity, Steph'anus drew his dagger and struck him with much
+violence; but the wound not being mortal, Domi'tian caught hold of the
+assassin and threw him upon the ground, calling out for assistance.
+But Parthe'nius, with his freedman, a gladiator, and two subaltern
+officers, now coming in, they ran furiously upon the emperor and
+dispatched him: Steph'anus, however, was slain by the guards, but the
+other conspirators escaped in the tumult.
+
+25. It is rather incredible, what some writers relate concerning
+Apollo'nius Tyane'us, who was then at Ephesus. This person, whom some
+call a magician, and some a philosopher, but who more probably was
+only an impostor, was, just at the minute in which Domi'tian was
+slain, lecturing in one of the public gardens of the city; but
+stopping short, on a sudden he cried out, "Courage, Steph'anus, strike
+the tyrant!" then, after a pause, "Rejoice, my friends, the tyrant
+dies this day;--this day do I say?--the very moment in which I kept
+silence he suffered for his crimes! He dies!"
+
+26. Many prodigies are said to have portended his death; and if the
+Roman historians are to be credited, more preternatural appearances
+and predictions announced this event, than its importance
+deserved.[30] The truth seems to be, that a belief in omens and
+prodigies was again become prevalent, as the people were evidently
+relapsing into pristine barbarity, ignorance being ever the proper
+soil for a harvest of imposture.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What advantages did Agricola gain in Britain?
+
+2. How did Domitian receive the account of Agricola's success?
+
+3. In what way did the emperor treat him?
+
+4. To whom did Agricola surrender up his province?
+
+5. What nations afterwards made irruptions into the Roman provinces?
+
+6. By what means were the barbarians at length repelled?
+
+7. What surname did Domitian assume?
+
+8. To what extravagance did his pride lead him?
+
+9. What trifling pretexts were made use of by Domitian to put to death
+some of the most illustrious Romans?
+
+10. Who now assumed the ensigns of the imperial dignity?
+
+11. By what general was Lucius Antonius defeated?
+
+12. What new cruelties were resorted to by the emperor?
+
+13. By what hypocritical conduct was he distinguished?
+
+14. To whom was he particularly terrible?
+
+15, 16, 17. What terrific ceremonies did he invent on one occasion?
+
+18. Was the result fatal to them?
+
+19. Did not his cruelties become still more insupportable at the
+latter part of his reign?
+
+20. Who was among the number that he at the same time caressed and
+suspected?
+
+21. Whose name did Domitia discover among his list of victims?
+
+22. To whom did she show the fatal list, and what was resolved on?
+
+23. What means were used by Stephanus to assassinate the emperor?
+
+24. Relate the particulars of the assassination.
+
+25. What exclamation is Apollonius Tyaneus said to have made at
+Ephesus, at the time of Domitian's death?
+
+26. Did not the Romans relapse into their pristine state of barbarity
+about this period?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] In his sixth consulship Augustus commanded a census to be made,
+when there was found the astonishing number of 4,060,000 inhabitants
+in Rome, which was fifty miles in circumference.
+
+[2] M. Primus, while governor of Macedon, had made an irruption into
+the country of the Odrysians; for this he was prosecuted, and pleaded
+that it was by the emperor's orders. Augustus denying this, L. Murena
+put the impudent question to him mentioned in the text.
+
+[3] An island on the coast of Lucania, in Italy; now called Santa
+Maria.
+
+[4] The date of Augustus's reign is here reckoned from the death of
+Antony, when he became sole monarch; but if it be reckoned from his
+first coming into power, soon after the death of Julius Cæsar, it is
+nearly 56 years. Augustus carried on his wars principally by his
+lieutenants, but he went personally into Spain and Gaul. His bravery,
+however, has been greatly called in question, and many flagrant
+instances of his cowardice recorded. How true they may be is not easy
+to determine.
+
+[5] The temple of Janus was now shut for the third time since the
+foundation of the city.
+
+[6] He began his reign, however, with the murder of Agrippa Posthumus,
+the grandson of Augustus.
+
+[7] Varus had been surprised by the Germans, defeated, and his whole
+army cut to pieces. Augustus was so grieved at this disgrace and loss,
+that, for a long time, he wore mourning, and frequently was heard to
+cry out, in the agony of his grief, "Restore me my legions, Varus."
+
+[8] Germanicus died in the 34th year of his age, and was universally
+mourned for, not only by the Roman people, but by the princes in
+alliance with Rome, and even by the proud monarch of Parthia. (Suet.
+l. 4. c. 5.)
+
+[9] He was found in the morning with his throat cut, and his sword
+lying by him; but whether this was done by his own hand, or by the
+orders of Tiberius, is not known. (Tacitus.)
+
+[10] Sejanus, though simply a Roman knight, was descended from an
+illustrious family, and was, in the very beginning of Tiberius's
+reign, associated with his father in the command of the prætorian
+guards. By removing these from their usual quarters in the city, and
+uniting them in one body in a camp, he laid the foundation of that
+power, which they afterwards usurped, of disposing of the empire at
+their pleasure.
+
+[11] To such a pitch of meanness were the Roman senators arrived, that
+when the emperor's letter arrived, the senators, thinking it contained
+orders for bestowing on Sejanus the tribunitial power, crowded around
+him, each striving to be foremost in congratulating him on his new
+dignity; but they no sooner learned the real contents of the fatal
+letter than all forsook him; even those who sat near him removed to
+another part of the house, lest they should be accounted his friends.
+(Dio.) The populace likewise broke in pieces those very statues which,
+a few hours before, they had adored.
+
+[12] It has been well said of Tiberius, "This great prince--this
+sovereign of Rome--with his numerous armies, his prætorian bands, and
+his unlimited power, was in hourly fear of secret assassins,
+incessantly prompted by his own apprehensions; with all the eclat of
+empire, the most miserable being in his dominions. His power, indeed,
+was unlimited, but so was his misery; the more he made others suffer,
+the faster he supplied his own torments. Such was his situation and
+life, and such were the natural consequences of the abuse of power."
+
+[13] He was so named from _caliga_, a sort of military boot which he
+usually wore.
+
+[14] A promontory, port, and town in Italy, near Naples.
+
+[15] The Prætorian bands were instituted by Augustus, to guard his
+person, and maintain his authority. Under bold and warlike emperors,
+they were kept in tolerable subjection: but when the reins of
+government were held by feeble hands, they became the disturbers,
+instead of preservers, of the public peace; and, at length, deposed
+and set up emperors at their pleasure.
+
+[16] Some still more extraordinary accounts are given of this horse:
+it is said that he appointed it a house, furniture, and kitchen, in
+order to treat all its visitors with proper respect. Sometimes he
+invited Incita'tus to his own table, and presented it with gilt oats,
+and wine in a golden cup. He would often swear, "by the safety of his
+horse!" and it is even said that it was his intention to have
+appointed it to the consul-ship, had not his death prevented it.
+
+[17] One day on visiting the amphitheatre, finding there were no
+criminals condemned to fight with wild beasts, he ordered numbers of
+the spectators to be thrown to them, previously causing their tongues
+to be cut out, that they might not, by their cries, disturb his
+inhuman diversions.
+
+[18] It is said that the tower which stands at the entry of the port
+of Bologne, called La tour d'ordre, is that built by Calig'ula on this
+occasion.
+
+[19] Palatine games were so called from their being celebrated on the
+Palatine Hill, which was the most considerable of the seven hills on
+which Rome was built. This was the first hill occupied by Rom'ulus,
+and where he fixed his residence, and kept his court; as also did
+Tul'lus, Hostil'ius, Augus'tus, and all the succeeding emperors; and
+hence it is that the residence of princes is called Palatium or
+Palace.
+
+[20] He is by some called Am'pronus.
+
+[21] His mother Anto'nia, used to call him a human monster; and his
+nephew, Calig'ula, when he had butchered many of his kindred, saved
+him merely for a laughing-stock. The kindest word Agustus gave him was
+that of Misel'lus, (poor wretch.) This example was followed by others.
+If he happened to come to table when the guests had taken their
+places, no one showed him the least civility; and when he slept, as he
+sometimes did, after meals, they would divert themselves by throwing
+the stones of fruit at him, or by wakening him with a blow of a rod or
+whip.
+
+[22] Her'od Agrip'pa was the grandson of Herod the Great; who, at the
+birth of our Saviour, caused all the infants of Bethlehem to be
+massacred, in hopes that he would fall in the number. Her'od Agrip'pa
+to please the Jews, also persecuted the Christians; and put to death
+St. James the Great.
+
+[23] He put to death Cher'ea and some others of the murderers of his
+nephew.
+
+[24] Sen'eca, a celebrated philosopher, and a son of Sen'eca the
+orator, was born at Corduba, in Spain, A.D. 8. This town was also the
+birthplace of his father. (Strabo and Lucan.) Corduba was founded by
+the Romans, B.C. 150, and in process of time it became the residence
+of the Moorish kings, and where they continued till their expulsion
+into Africa. It was in the vicinity of this city that Cæsar fought his
+last battle with the sons of Pompey.
+
+[25] Vespasian was at that time conducting the war in Jude'a, in Asia.
+
+[26] The destruction of Jerusalem happened in the year of our Lord 70.
+
+[27] Hercula'neum, Pompe'ii, &c. This eruption happened August 24,
+A.D. 79. These towns, after having been buried under the lava for more
+than 1600 years, were discovered in the beginning of the last century:
+Hercula'neum, in 1713, about 24 feet under ground, by labourers
+digging a well, and Pompe'ii 40 years after, about 12 feet below the
+surface; and from the houses and streets which, in a great measure,
+remain perfect, have been drawn busts, statues, manuscripts,
+paintings, &c. which contribute much to enlarge our notions concerning
+the ancients, and develope many classical obscurities. (Mala.) In the
+year following this dreadful eruption, a fire happened at Rome, which
+consumed the capitol, the pantheon, the library of Augustus, the
+theatre of Pompey, and a great many other buildings. In the ruins of
+Hercula'neum there have lately been found loaves which were baked
+under the reign of Titus, and which still bear the baker's mark,
+indicating the quality of the flour, which was probably prescribed by
+the regulation of the police. There have also been found utensils of
+bronze, which, instead of being tinned, like ours, are all silvered;
+the ancients doubtless preferred this method, as more wholesome and
+more durable. The excavations at Pompe'ii continue to furnish the
+royal museum at Naples with all kinds of valuable objects: some
+buildings have lately been discovered at Pompe'ii, remarkable for the
+richness of their architecture. At Paggo'ia, another town buried by
+the lava from Vesuvius, some sepulchres have been found, which are
+stated to be magnificently adorned with sculpture of the finest kind.
+
+[28] Impera'tor, a title of honour among the Romans, conferred on
+victorious generals by their armies, and afterwards by the senate.
+
+[29] It is a remarkable fact, that the most odious tyrants that ever
+sat on the Roman throne, commenced their reigns with a display of all
+the virtues that adorn humanity: on the contrary, Augustus, who was
+truly the father of his people, began his reign with cruelties that
+afforded but a melancholy presage of his future administration.
+
+[30] In the reign of Domi'tian, a violent persecution raged against
+the Christians. During this persecution St. John was confined to the
+Isle of Patmos, in the Archipelago, where he wrote the Apoc'alypse, or
+Revelation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS OF ROME.
+
+  These slaves, whom I have nurtur'd, pamper'd, fed.
+  And swoln with peace, and gorg'd with plenty, till
+  They reign themselves--all monarchs in their mansions.
+  Now swarm forth in rebellion, and demand
+  His death, who made their lives a jubilee.--_Byron_.
+
+1. When it was publicly known that Domi'tian[1] was slain, the senate
+began to load his memory with every reproach. His statues were
+commanded to be taken down, and a decree was made, that all his
+inscriptions should be erased, his name struck out of the registers of
+fame, and his funeral obsequies omitted. 2. The people, who now
+took but little part in the affairs of government, looked on his death
+with indifference; the soldiers alone, whom he had loaded with
+favours, and enriched by largesses, sincerely regretted their
+benefactor.
+
+3. The senate, therefore, resolved to provide a successor before the
+army could have an opportunity of taking the appointment upon itself,
+and Cocce'ius Ner'va was chosen to the empire the same day on which
+the tyrant was slain. 4. He is said to have been of an illustrious
+family in Spain, and above sixty-five years old when he was called to
+the throne, an elevation which he owed solely to his virtues,
+moderation, respect to the laws, and the blameless tenor of his life.
+
+5. The people, long accustomed to tyranny, regarded Nerva's gentle
+reign with rapture, and even gave to his imbecility (for his humanity
+was carried too far for justice) the name of benevolence. 6. Upon
+coming to the throne he solemnly swore, that no senator of Rome should
+be put to death by his command during his reign, though guilty of the
+most heinous crimes. 7. This oath he so religiously observed, that
+when two senators had conspired his death, he used no kind of severity
+against them; but, sending for them to let them see he was not
+ignorant of their designs, he carried them with him to the public
+theatre; there presenting each a dagger, he desired them to strike,
+assuring them that he should make no resistance. 8. He had so little
+regard for money, that when one of his subjects found a large
+treasure, and wrote to the emperor for instructions how to dispose of
+it, he received for answer, that he might use it; the finder however
+replying, that it was a fortune too large for a private person to use,
+Nerva, admiring his honesty, wrote him word that then he might abuse
+it.[2]
+
+9. A sovereign of such generosity and mildness was not, however,
+without his enemies. Vigil'ius Ru'fus, who had opposed his accession,
+was not only pardoned, but made his colleague in the consulship.
+Calpur'nius Cras'sus also, with some others, formed a conspiracy to
+destroy him; but Nerva was satisfied with banishing those who were
+culpable, though the senate were for inflicting more rigorous
+punishments. 10. But the most dangerous insurrection was that of
+the prætorian bands, who, headed by Caspa'rius Olia'nus, insisted upon
+revenging the late emperor's death, whose memory was still dear to
+them, from his frequent liberalities. 11. Nerva, whose kindness to
+good men rendered him more obnoxious to the vicious, did all in his
+power to stop the progress of this insurrection; he presented himself
+to the mutinous soldiers, and laying bare his bosom, desired them to
+strike there rather than be guilty of so much injustice. 12. The
+soldiers, however, paid no regard to his remonstrances; but seizing
+upon Petro'nius and Parthe'nius, slew them in the most ignominious
+manner. Not content with this, they even compelled the emperor to
+approve of their sedition, and to make a speech to the people, in
+which he thanked the cohorts for their fidelity.
+
+13. So disagreeable a constraint upon the emperor's inclinations was
+in the end attended with the most happy effects, as it caused the
+adoption of Trajan[3] to succeed him; for, perceiving that in the
+present turbulent disposition of the times, he stood in need of an
+assistant in the empire, setting aside all his own relations, he fixed
+upon Ul'pius Tra'jan, an utter stranger to his family, who was then
+governor in Upper Germany, as his successor. 14. About three months
+after this, having put himself into a violent passion with one
+Reg'ulus, a senator, he was seized with a fever of which he died,
+after a reign of one year, four months, and nine days.
+
+15. He was the first foreigner that ever reigned in Rome, and justly
+reputed a prince of great generosity and moderation. He is also
+celebrated for his wisdom, though with less reason; the greatest
+instance given of it during his reign, being the choice of his
+successor.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 851. A.D. 98.]
+
+16. On hearing of the death of Nerva, Trajan prepared to come to Rome
+from Germany, where he was governor. He received upon his arrival a
+letter from Plu'tarch, the philosopher, who had the honour of being
+his master, to the following purport:--"Since your merits and not your
+importunities, have advanced you to the empire, permit me to
+congratulate you on your virtues, and my own good fortune. If your
+future government proves answerable to your former worth, I shall
+be happy; but if you become worse for power, yours will be the danger,
+and mine the ignominy of your conduct. The errors of the pupil will be
+charged upon his instructor. Sen'eca is reproached for the enormities
+of Nero; and Soc'rates and Quintil'ian have not escaped censure for
+the misconduct of their respective scholars. But you have it in your
+power to make me the most honoured of men, by continuing what you are.
+Retain the command of your passions; and make virtue the rule of all
+your actions. If you follow these instructions, then will I glory in
+having presumed to give them: if you neglect what I advise, then will
+this letter be my testimony that you have not erred through the
+counsel and authority of Plu'tarch." I insert this letter, because it
+is a striking picture of this great philosopher's manner of addressing
+the best of princes.
+
+17. This good monarch's application to business, his moderation
+towards his enemies, his modesty in exaltation, his liberality to the
+deserving, and his frugal management of the resources of the state,
+were the subjects of panegyric among his contemporaries, and continue
+to be the admiration of posterity.
+
+18. The first war he was engaged in after his coming to the throne was
+with the Da'cians, who, during the reign of Domi'tian, had committed
+numberless ravages upon the provinces of the empire. To revenge these,
+he raised a powerful army, and with great expedition marched into
+those barbarous countries, where he was vigorously opposed by
+Deceb'alus, the Da'cian king, who for some time withstood his boldest
+efforts. 19. At length, however, this monarch being constrained to
+come to a general battle, and no longer able to protract the war, was
+routed with great slaughter. The Roman soldiers upon this occasion
+wanting linen to bind up their wounds, the emperor tore his own robes
+to supply them. 20. This victory compelled the enemy to sue for peace,
+which they obtained upon very disadvantageous terms; their king coming
+into the Roman camp, and acknowledging himself a vassal of the Roman
+empire.
+
+21. Upon Trajan's return, after the usual triumphs and rejoicings, he
+was surprised with an account that the Da'cians had renewed
+hostilities. Deceb'alus, their king, was a second time adjudged an
+enemy to the Roman state, and Tra'jan again entered his dominions. 22.
+In order to be enabled to invade the enemy's territories at pleasure,
+he undertook a most stupendous work, which was no less than
+building a bridge across the Dan'ube. 23. This amazing structure,
+which was built over a deep, broad, and rapid river, consisted of more
+than twenty-two arches; the ruins, which remain to this day, show
+modern architects how far they were surpassed by the ancients, both in
+the greatness and boldness of their designs. 24. Upon finishing this
+work, Tra'jan continued the war with great vigour, sharing with the
+meanest of his soldiers the fatigues of the campaign, and continually
+encouraging them to their duty by his own example. 25. By these means,
+notwithstanding the country was spacious and uncultivated, and the
+inhabitants brave and hardy, he subdued the whole, and added the
+kingdom of Da'cia as a province to the Roman empire. Deceb'alus made
+some attempts to escape; but being surrounded, he slew himself. 26.
+These successes seemed to advance the empire to a greater degree of
+splendor than it had hitherto acquired. Ambassadors came from the
+interior parts of India, to congratulate Trajan on his successes, and
+solicit his friendship. On his return, he entered Rome in triumph, and
+the rejoicings for his victories lasted a hundred and twenty days.
+
+27. Having given peace and prosperity to the empire, he was loved,
+honoured, and almost adored. He adorned the city with public
+buildings; he freed it from such men as lived by their vices; he
+entertained persons of merit with familiarity; and so little did he
+fear his enemies, that he could scarcely be induced to suppose he had
+any.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. How was the account of Domitian's death received?
+
+2. Was he regretted by any description of his subjects?
+
+3. What consequences ensued from this regret?
+
+4. Who was Cocceius Nerva?
+
+5. Was his government acceptable to the people?
+
+6. What afforded a presage of his future mild administration?
+
+7. Did he keep this oath inviolate?
+
+8. Was Nerva avaricious?
+
+9. Was his reign free from disturbances?
+
+10. Were all conspiracies repressed from this time?
+
+11. Did Nerva exert himself to quell it?
+
+12. Were his endeavours successful?
+
+13. What important consequences ensued from these commotions?
+
+14. What occasioned his death?
+
+15. What was his character?
+
+16. How did Trajan act on his accession, and what advice did he
+receive?
+
+17. What sentiments did his subjects entertain of their new emperor?
+
+18. With whom did he commence hostilities?
+
+19. What was the event of the campaign?
+
+20. What was the consequence of this victory?
+
+21. Did peace continue long?
+
+22. What great undertaking did he accomplish in this expedition?
+
+23. Was it a difficult work?
+
+24. What followed the building of the bridge?
+
+25. What was the event of this second campaign?
+
+26. What advantages arose from this conquest?
+
+27. Did Trajan suffer prosperity to make him neglectful of his duties?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  With fatal heat impetuous courage glows.--_Johnson_.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 860. A.D. 107.]
+
+1. It had been happy for Trajan's memory, had he shown equal clemency
+to all his subjects; but about the ninth year of his reign, he was
+persuaded to look upon the Christians with a suspicious eye, and great
+numbers of them were put to death by popular tumults and judicial
+proceedings. 2. However, the persecution ceased after some time; for
+the emperor, finding that the Christians were an innocent and
+inoffensive people, suspended their punishments.
+
+3. During this emperor's reign there was a dreadful insurrection of
+the Jews in all parts of the empire. This wretched people, still
+infatuated, and ever expecting some signal deliverance, took the
+advantage of Tra'jan's expedition to the east, to massacre all the
+Greeks and Romans whom they could get into their power. 4. This
+rebellion first began in Cyre'ne, a Roman province in Africa; from
+thence the flame extended to Egypt, and next to the island of Cyprus.
+Dreadful were the devastations committed by these infatuated people,
+and shocking the barbarities exercised on the unoffending inhabitants.
+5. Some were sawn asunder, others cast to wild beasts, or made to kill
+each other, while the most unheard-of torments were invented and
+exercised on the unhappy victims of their fury. Nay, to such a pitch
+was their animosity carried, that they actually ate the flesh of their
+enemies, and even wore their skins. 6. However, these cruelties were
+of no long duration: the governors of the respective provinces making
+head against their tumultuous fury, caused them to experience the
+horrors of retaliation, and put them to death, not as human beings,
+but as outrageous pests of society. In Cy'prus it was made capital for
+any Jew to set foot on the island.
+
+7. During these bloody transactions, Tra'jan was prosecuting his
+successes in the east, where he carried the Roman arms farther than
+they had ever before penetrated; but resolving to visit Rome once
+more, he found himself too weak to proceed in his usual manner. He
+therefore determined to return by sea; but on reaching the city of
+Seleu'cia, he died of an apoplexy, in the sixty-third year of his age,
+after a reign of nineteen years, six months, and fifteen days.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 117.]
+
+8. A'drian, the nephew of Trajan, was chosen to succeed him. He began
+his reign by pursuing a course opposite to that of his predecessor,
+taking every method of declining war, and promoting the arts of peace.
+His first care was to make peace with the Par'thians, and to restore
+Chos'roes, for he was satisfied with preserving the ancient limits of
+the empire, and seemed no way ambitious of extensive conquest.
+
+9. A'drian was one of the most remarkable of the Roman emperors for
+the variety of his endowments. He was highly skilled in all the
+accomplishments both of body and mind. He composed with great beauty,
+both in prose and verse, he pleaded at the bar, and was one of the
+best orators of his time. 10. Nor were his virtues fewer than his
+accomplishments. His moderation and clemency appeared by pardoning the
+injuries which he had received when he was yet but a private man. One
+day meeting a person who had formerly been his most inveterate
+enemy--"My good friend," said he, "you have escaped; for I am made
+emperor." He was affable to his friends, and gentle to persons of
+meaner stations; he relieved their wants, and visited them in
+sickness; it being his constant maxim, that he had been elected
+emperor, not for his own good, but for the benefit of mankind at
+large.
+
+11. These virtues were, however, contrasted by vices of considerable
+magnitude; or rather, he wanted strength of mind to preserve his
+rectitude of character without deviation.
+
+12. He was scarcely settled on the throne, when several of the
+northern barbarians began to devastate the frontier provinces of the
+empire. These hardy nations, who now found the way to conquer by
+issuing from their forests, and then retiring on the approach of
+a superior force, began to be truly formidable to Rome. 13. A'drian
+had thoughts of contracting the limits of the empire, by giving up
+some of the most remote and least defensible provinces; in this,
+however, he was overruled by friends, who wrongly imagined that an
+extensive frontier would intimidate an invading enemy. 14. But though
+he complied with their remonstrances, he broke down the bridge over
+the Dan'ube, which his predecessor had built, sensible that the same
+passage which was open to him, was equally convenient to the
+incursions of his barbarous neighbours.
+
+15. Having staid a long time at Rome, to see that all things were
+regulated and established for the safety of the public, he prepared to
+make a progress through his whole empire. 16. It was one of his
+maxims, that an emperor ought to imitate the sun, which diffuses
+warmth and vigour over all parts of the earth. He, therefore, took
+with him a splendid court, and a considerable force, and entered the
+province of Gaul, where he caused the inhabitants to be numbered. 17.
+From Gaul he went into Germany, thence to Holland, and afterwards
+passed over into Britain; where, reforming many abuses, and
+reconciling the natives to the Romans, he, for the better security of
+the southern parts of the kingdom, built a wall of wood and earth,
+extending from the river E'den, in Cumberland, to the Tyne, in
+Northumberland, to prevent the incursions of the Picts, and other
+barbarous nations of the north. 18. From Britain, returning through
+Gaul, he directed his journey to Spain, his native country, where he
+was received with great joy. 19. Returning to Rome, he continued there
+for some time, in order to prepare for his journey into the east,
+which was hastened by a new invasion of the Par'thians. His approach
+compelling the enemy to peace, he pursued his travels without
+molestation. He visited the famous city of Athens; there making a
+considerable stay, he was initiated into the Eleusin'ian mysteries,
+which were accounted the most sacred in the Pagan mythology, and took
+upon him the office of archon or chief magistrate. 20. In this place,
+also, he remitted the severity of the Christian persecution. He was
+even so far reconciled to their sect, as to think of introducing
+Christ among the number of the gods. 21. From thence he crossed over
+into Africa, and spent much time in reforming abuses, regulating the
+government, deciding controversies, and erecting magnificent
+buildings. Among the rest, he ordered Carthage[4] to be rebuilt,
+calling it after his own name, Adrian'ople.[5] 22. Again he returned
+to Rome; travelled a second time into Greece; passed over into Asia
+Minor; from thence into Syr'ia; gave laws and instructions to all the
+neighbouring kings; entered Pal'estine, Arabia, and Egypt, where he
+caused Pompey's tomb, that had been long neglected, and almost covered
+with sand, to be repaired and beautified. 23. He gave orders for the
+rebuilding of Jerusalem; which was performed with great expedition by
+the assistance of the Jews, who now began to conceive hopes of being
+restored to their long lost kingdom. 24. But these expectations only
+served to aggravate their calamities: for, being incensed at the
+privileges which were granted the Pagan worshippers in their new city,
+they fell upon the Romans and Christians that were dispersed
+throughout Jude'a, and unmercifully put them all to the sword. 25.
+A'drian, sending a powerful body of men against them, obtained many
+signal, though bloody victories, over the insurgents. The war was
+concluded in two years, by the demolition of above one thousand of
+their best towns, and the destruction of nearly six hundred thousand
+men in battle.
+
+26. Having thus effectually quelled this dangerous insurrection, he
+banished all those who remained in Judea; and by a public decree
+forbade them to come within view of their native soil. But he was soon
+after alarmed by a dangerous irruption of the barbarous nations to the
+northward of the empire; who, entering Me'dia with great fury and
+passing through Arme'nia, carried their devastations as far as
+Cappado'cia. Preferring peace, however, upon any terms, to an
+unprofitable war, A'drian bought them off by large sums of money; so
+that they returned peaceably into their native wilds, to enjoy their
+plunder, and to meditate fresh invasions.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Was Trajan uniformly merciful?
+
+2. Was the persecution of long duration?
+
+3. What remarkable event happened in this reign?
+
+4. Where did the rebellion principally rage?
+
+5. What were these barbarities?
+
+6. Were no steps taken to repress this insurrection?
+
+7. How was Trajan employed at this time, and what was his end?
+
+8. Who succeeded him?
+
+9. What was the character of Adrian?
+
+10. Was he a virtuous character?
+
+11. Were not his virtues counterbalanced?
+
+12. By whom was the empire now invaded?
+
+13. What wise measure did Adrian contemplate?
+
+14. What remarkable edifice did he destroy?
+
+15. Was he attentive to the concerns of the empire?
+
+16. Why did he do this?
+
+17. What places did he next visit?
+
+18. Whither did he next proceed?
+
+19. Mention his further progress, and the incidents that occurred.
+
+20. Was he merciful to the Christians?
+
+21. Whither did he next repair, and how did he employ himself?
+
+22. Proceed in the description of his route.
+
+23. Did he not favour the Jews?
+
+24. Did they profit by this favourable disposition in the emperor?
+
+25. Was this cruelty punished?
+
+26. What followed this dangerous insurrection?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+  Trajan and he,[6] with the mild sire and son
+  His son of virtue; eased awhile mankind;
+  And arts revived beneath their gentle beam.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. Having spent thirteen years in travelling and reforming the abuses
+of the empire, A'drian at last resolved to end his fatigues at Rome.
+2. Nothing could be more grateful to the people than his resolution of
+coming to reside for the rest of his days among them; they received
+him with the loudest demonstrations of joy; and though he now began to
+grow old and unwieldy, he remitted not the least of his former
+assiduity and attention to the public welfare. 3. His chief amusement
+was in conversing with the most celebrated men in every art and
+science, frequently asserting, that he thought no kind of knowledge
+inconsiderable, or to be neglected, either in his private or public
+capacity. 4. He ordered the knights and senators never to appear in
+public, but in the proper habits of their orders. He forbade
+masters to kill their slaves, as had been before allowed; but
+ordained that they should be tried by the laws. 5. He still further
+extended the lenity of the laws to those unhappy men, who had long
+been thought too mean for justice: if a master was found killed in his
+house, he would not allow all his slaves to be put to the torture as
+formerly, but only such as might have perceived and prevented the
+murder.
+
+6. In such employments he spent the greatest part of his time; but at
+last finding the duties of his station daily increasing, and his own
+strength proportionally upon the decline, he resolved on adopting a
+successor, and accordingly chose Antoni'nus to that important station.
+
+7. While he was thus careful in providing for the future welfare of
+the state, his bodily infirmities became so insupportable, that he
+vehemently desired some of his attendants to dispatch him. 8.
+Antoni'nus, however, would by no means permit any of the domestics to
+be guilty of so great an impiety, but used all the arts in his power
+to reconcile the emperor to sustain life. 9. His pain daily
+increasing, he was frequently heard to cry out, "How miserable a thing
+it is to seek death, and not to find it!" After enduring some time
+these excruciating tortures, he at last resolved to observe no
+regimen, saying, that kings sometimes died merely by the multitude of
+their physicians. 10. This conduct served to hasten that death he
+seemed so ardently to desire; and it was probably joy upon its
+approach which dictated the celebrated stanzas that are so well
+known;[7] and while repeating which he expired, in the sixty-second
+year of his age, after a prosperous reign of twenty-one years and
+eleven months.
+
+11. Titus Antoni'nus, his successor, was born at Lavin'ium, near Rome,
+but his ancestors came originally from Nismes, in Gaul. His father was
+a nobleman, who had enjoyed the highest honours of the empire.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 891]
+
+At the time of his succeeding to the throne he was above fifty years
+old, and had passed through many of the most important offices of the
+state with great integrity and application. 12. His virtues in private
+life were no way impaired by his exaltation, as he showed himself one
+of the most excellent princes for justice, clemency, and moderation;
+his morals were so pure, that he was usually compared to Numa, and was
+surnamed the Pious, both for his tenderness to his predecessor
+A'drian, when dying, and his particular attachment to the religion of
+his country.
+
+13. He was an eminent rewarder of learned men, to whom he gave large
+pensions and great honours, collecting them around him from all parts
+of the world. 14. Among the rest, he sent for Apollo'nius, the famous
+stoic philosopher, to instruct his adopted son, Mar'cus Aure'lius.
+Apollo'nius being arrived, the emperor desired his attendance; but the
+other arrogantly answered, that it was the scholar's duty to wait upon
+the master, not the master upon the scholar. 15. To this reply,
+Antoni'nus only returned with a smile, "That it was surprising how
+Apollo'nius, who made no difficulty of coming from Greece to Rome,
+should think it hard to walk from one part of Rome to another;" and
+immediately sent Mar'cus Aure'lius to him.[8] 16. While the good
+emperor was thus employed in making mankind happy, in directing their
+conduct by his own example, or reproving their follies by the keenness
+of rebuke, he was seized with a violent fever, and ordered his friends
+and principal officers to attend him. 17. In their presence he
+confirmed the adoption of Mar'cus Aure'lius; then commanding the
+golden statue of Fortune, which was always in the chamber of the
+emperors, to be removed to that of his successor, he expired in the
+seventy-fourth year of his age, after a prosperous reign of
+twenty-two years and almost eight months.[9]
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 914.]
+
+18. Mar'cus Aure'lius, though left sole successor to the throne, took
+Lu'cius Ve'rus as his associate and equal, in governing the state. 19.
+Aure'lius was the son of An'nius Ve'rus, of an ancient and illustrious
+family, which claimed its origin from Nu'ma. Lu'cius Ve'rus was the
+son of Com'modus, who had been adopted by A'drian, but died before he
+succeeded to the throne. 20. Aure'lius was as remarkable for his
+virtues and accomplishments, as his partner in the empire was for his
+ungovernable passions and debauched morals. The one was an example of
+the greatest goodness and wisdom; the other of ignorance, sloth, and
+extravagance.
+
+21. The two emperors were scarcely settled on the throne, when the
+empire was attacked on every side, from the barbarous nations by which
+it was surrounded. The Cat'ti invaded Germany and Rhoe'tia, ravaging
+all with fire and sword; but were repelled by Victori'nus. The Britons
+likewise revolted, but were repressed by Capur'nius. 22. But the
+Parthians, under their king Volog'esus, made an irruption still more
+dreadful than either of the former; destroying the Roman legions in
+Arme'nia; then entering Syria, they drove out the Roman governor, and
+filled the whole country with terror and confusion. To repel this
+barbarous eruption, Ve'rus went in person, being accompanied by
+Aure'lius part of the way.
+
+23. Ve'rus, however, proceeded no farther than An'tioch, and there
+gave an indulgence to every appetite, rioting in excesses unknown even
+to the voluptuous Greeks; leaving all the glory of the field to his
+lieutenants, who were sent to repress the enemy. 24. These, however,
+fought with great success; for in the four years that the war lasted,
+the Romans entered far into the Parthian country, and entirely subdued
+it; but upon their return their army was wasted to less than half its
+original number by pestilence and famine. 25. This, however, was no
+impediment to the vanity of Ve'rus, who resolved to enjoy the honours
+of a triumph, so hardly earned by others. Having appointed a king over
+the Arme'nians, and finding the Parthians entirely subdued, he assumed
+the titles of Arme'nius and Parthi'cus; and on his return to Rome, he
+partook of a triumph with Aure'lius, which was solemnized with great
+pomp and splendour.
+
+26. While Ve'rus was engaged in this expedition, Aure'lius was
+sedulously intent upon distributing justice and happiness to his
+subjects at home. He first applied himself to the regulation of
+public affairs, and to the correcting of such faults as he found in
+the laws and policy of the state. 27. In this endeavour he showed a
+singular respect for the senate, often permitting them to determine
+without appeal; so that the commonwealth seemed in a manner once more
+revived under his equitable administration. 28. Besides, such was his
+application to business, that he often employed ten days together on
+the same subject, maturely considering it on all sides, and seldom
+departing from the senate-house till the assembly was dismissed by the
+consul. 29. But he was daily mortified with accounts of the enormities
+of his colleague; being repeatedly assured of his vanity and
+extravagance. 30. However, feigning himself ignorant of these
+excesses, he judged marriage to be the best method of reclaiming him;
+and, therefore, sent him his daughter Lucil'la, a woman of great
+beauty, whom Ve'rus married at Antioch. 31. But even this was found
+ineffectual, for Lucil'la proved of a disposition very unlike her
+father; and, instead of correcting her husband's extravagances only
+contributed to inflame them. 32. Aure'lius still hoped that, upon the
+return of Ve'rus to Rome, his presence would keep him in awe, and that
+happiness would at length be restored to the state. In this he was
+also disappointed. His return seemed fatal to the empire; for his army
+carried back the plague from Par'thia, and disseminated the infection
+into the provinces through which it passed.
+
+33. Nothing could exceed the miserable state of things upon the return
+of Ve'rus. In this horrid picture were represented an emperor, unawed
+by example or the calamities surrounding him, giving way to unheard-of
+crimes; a raging pestilence spreading terror and desolation through
+all parts of the western world; earthquakes, famines, inundations,
+almost unexampled in history; the products of the earth through all
+Italy devoured by locusts; the barbarous nations around the empire
+taking advantage of its various calamities, and making their
+irruptions even into Italy itself. 34. The priests doing all they
+could to put a stop to the miseries of the state, by attempting to
+appease the gods, vowing and offering numberless sacrifices;
+celebrating all the sacred rites that had ever been known in Rome. 35.
+To crown the whole, these enthusiasts, as if the impending calamities
+had not been sufficient, ascribed the distresses of the state to the
+impieties of the Christians. A violent persecution ensued in all
+parts of the empire; and Justin Martyr, Polycarp'us, and a prodigious
+number of less note, suffered martyrdom.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Did Adrian enjoy repose from this time?
+
+2. Was this resolution agreeable to the people?
+
+3. How did he amuse himself?
+
+4. What new edicts did he issue?
+
+5. Did he not ameliorate the condition of slaves?
+
+6. Was he still equal to the fatigues of the empire?
+
+7. Were not his sufferings great?
+
+8. Were his wishes complied with?
+
+9. Were these arts successful?
+
+10. What was the consequence of this conduct?
+
+11. Who was his successor?
+
+12. Did he preserve his virtue on his exaltation?
+
+13. Was he a favourer of learning?
+
+14. What anecdote is related of one of these?
+
+15. What was the emperor's reply?
+
+16. Did he experience a long and prosperous reign?
+
+17. Whom did he appoint as his successor?
+
+18. Was Marcus Aurelius sole emperor?
+
+19. Who were Aurelius and Lucius Verus?
+
+20. Were their characters similar?
+
+21. Was their reign peaceable?
+
+22. Was there not a more formidable invasion still?
+
+23. Did Verus show himself worthy of the trust?
+
+24. Were they successful?
+
+25. Did Verus appear to feel this misfortune?
+
+26. How was Aurelius employed in the mean time?
+
+27. Did he do this solely by his own authority?
+
+28. Was he hasty in his decisions?
+
+29. Was he acquainted with the follies of his colleague?
+
+30. How did he attempt his reformation?
+
+31. Was this effectual?
+
+32. What farther hopes did Aurelius entertain?
+
+33. What was the state of the empire at this period?
+
+34. What were the means made use of to avert these calamities?
+
+35. To whom were they imputed?
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+  And wise Aurelius, in whose well-taught mind,
+  With boundless power unbounded virtue join'd.
+  His own strict judge, and patron of mankind.--_Pope._
+
+1. In this scene of universal tumult, desolation and distress, there
+was nothing left but the virtues and the wisdom of one man to restore
+tranquillity and happiness to the empire. 2. Aure'lius began his
+endeavours by marching against the Marcoman'ni and Qua'di, taking
+Ve'rus with him, who reluctantly left the sensual delights of Rome for
+the fatigues of a camp. 3. They came up with the Marcoman'ni near the
+city of Aquile'ia, and after a furious engagement, routed their whole
+army; then pursuing them across the Alps, overcame them in several
+contests; and, at last, entirely defeating them, returned into Italy
+without any considerable loss.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 022 A.D. 169.]
+
+4. As the winter was far advanced, Ve'rus was determined on going to
+Rome, in which journey he was seized with an apoplexy that put an end
+to his life, at the age of thirty-nine, having reigned in conjunction
+with Aure'lius nine years.
+
+5. Aure'lius, who had hitherto sustained the fatigues of governing,
+not only an empire, but his colleague, began to act with greater
+diligence, and more vigour than ever. After thus subduing the
+Marcoman'ni, he returned to Rome, where he resumed his attempts to
+benefit mankind by a farther reformation.
+
+6. But his good endeavours were soon interrupted by a renewal of the
+former wars. In one of the engagements that ensued, he is said to have
+been miraculously relieved when his army was perishing with thirst, by
+the prayers of a Christian legion[10] which had been levied in his
+service; for we are told, that there fell such a shower of rain, as
+instantly refreshed the fainting army. The soldiers were seen holding
+their mouths and their helmets towards heaven, to catch the water
+which came so wonderfully to their relief. 7. The same clouds which
+served for their rescue, discharged so terrible a storm of hail,
+accompanied with thunder, against the enemy, as astonished and
+confused them. By this unlooked-for aid, the Romans, recovering
+strength and courage, renewed the engagement with fresh vigour, and
+cut the enemy to pieces. 8. Such are the circumstances of an event,
+acknowledged by Pagan as well as Christian writers; only with this
+difference, that the latter ascribe the miracle to their own, the
+former to the prayers of their emperor. However this be, Aure'lius
+seemed so sensible of miraculous assistance, that he immediately
+relaxed the persecution against the Christians, and wrote to the
+senate in their favour.
+
+9. Soon after this event, Avid'ius Cas'sius, one of the generals
+who had fought with such success against the Parthians, assumed the
+imperial purple, but was shortly after killed in an engagement. When
+his head was brought to Aure'lius, he expressed great sorrow, turned
+his eyes away, and caused it to be honourably interred, complaining
+that he had been robbed of an opportunity of showing mercy. On being
+blamed for his too great lenity to the relatives and friends of
+Cas'sius, he sublimely replied, "We have not lived nor served the gods
+so ill, as to think that they would favour Cas'sius."
+
+10. He usually called philosophy his mother, in opposition to the
+court, which he considered as his step-mother. He also frequently
+said, "the people are happy whose kings are philosophers." He was,
+independent of his dignity, one of the most considerable men then
+existing; and, though he had been born in the meanest station, his
+merits as a writer (for his works remain to this day) would have
+insured him immortality.
+
+11. Having thus restored prosperity to his subjects, and peace to
+mankind, news was brought him that the Scyth'ians, and other barbarous
+nations of the north, were up in arms, and invading the empire. 12. He
+once more, therefore, resolved to expose his aged person in the
+defence of his country, and made speedy preparations to oppose
+them.--He went to the senate, and desired to have money out of the
+public treasury. He then spent three days in giving the people
+lectures on the regulation of their lives; and, having finished,
+departed upon his expedition, amidst the prayers and lamentations of
+his subjects. Upon going to open his third campaign, he was seized at
+Vienna with the plague, which stopped his farther progress. Nothing,
+however, could abate his desire of being beneficial to mankind. 14.
+His fears for the youth and unpromising disposition of Com'modus, his
+son and successor, seemed to give him great uneasiness. He therefore
+addressed his friends and the principal officers that were gathered
+round his bed, expressing his hope, that as his son was now losing his
+father, he would find many in them. 15. While thus speaking, he was
+seized with a weakness which stopped his utterance, and brought on
+death. He died in the fifty-ninth year of his age, having reigned
+nineteen years. It seemed as if the glory and prosperity of the empire
+died with this greatest of the Roman emperors.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. To whom did the Romans look for a restoration of the tranquillity
+of the empire?
+
+2. Against whom did Aurelius march, and who accompanied him?
+
+3. Where did they come up with the Marcomanni, and what was the result
+of the engagement?
+
+4. What was the fate of Verus?
+
+5. How did Aurelius act on his return to Rome?
+
+6. What miraculous event was ascribed to the prayers of a Christian
+legion?
+
+7. How did it operate on the enemy?
+
+8. Did not Aurelius, in consequence, interest himself in favour of the
+Christians?
+
+9. What reply did Aurelius make to these who blamed him for his lenity
+to the friends of Cassius?
+
+10. What sayings are recorded of him, and what was his character?
+
+11. What news was brought to Aurelius soon after peace had been
+restored?
+
+12. In what way did he occupy himself previous to his departure to
+oppose the enemy?
+
+13. At what place was he seized with the plague?
+
+14. What seemed to give him great uneasiness?
+
+15. How old was Aurelius when he died, and how many years had he
+reigned?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Domi'tian was the last of those emperors commonly called the
+Twelve Cæsars.
+
+[2] Nerva, the most remarkable man in Rome for his virtues, recalled
+all the Christians who had been banished or had emigrated under the
+persecution of Domi'tian.
+
+[3] It was customary among the Romans, for a person destitute of a son
+to adopt one from another family; and the son thus adopted became
+immediately invested with the same rights and privileges as if he had
+been born to that station; but he had no longer any claim on the
+family to which he originally belonged.
+
+[4] Car'thage, the celebrated capital of Africa Pro'pria, was built by
+the Tyr'ians, under Dido. This city, the mistress of Spain, Si'cily,
+and Sardin'ia, was long the rival of Rome, till it was totally
+destroyed by Scip'io the Second, surnamed Africa'nus, B.C. 147. In its
+height of prosperity, it contained upwards of 700,000 inhabitants.
+
+[5] This must be distinguished from Adrian'ople, the second city of
+European Turkey, which was founded about A.M. 2782, and repaired by
+the emperor Adrian, A.D. 122. Hence, its name.
+
+[6] The poet here alludes to Titus, whom he has before been
+commending; his actions are described in Chap. XXII. Sect X.
+
+[7] These stanzas are--
+
+  Animula, vagula, blandula,
+  Hospes, comesque corporis
+  Quæ nonc abibis in loca,
+  Pallidula, rigida, nudula?
+  Nec, ut soles, dabis jocos.
+
+Thus imitated by Prior:
+
+    Poor little pretty fluttering thing,
+      Must we no longer live together?
+    And dost thou prune thy trembling wing
+      To take thy flight thou know'st not whither?
+    Thy hum'rous vein, thy pleasing folly,
+      Lie all neglected, all forgot;
+  And pensive, wav'ring, melancholy,
+      Thou dread'st and hop'st thou know'st not what
+
+[8] Antoni'nus being made a model of wisdom and virtue, he was as much
+respected by foreigners as by his own people?
+
+[9] This emperor was remarkably favourable to the Christians, and
+wrote thus to his governors in Asia:--"If any one shall, for the
+future, molest the Christians, and accuse them merely on account of
+their religion, let the person who is arraigned be discharged, though
+he is found to be a Christian, and the accuser be punished according
+to the rigour of the law."
+
+[10] Legion, a body of soldiers in the Roman army, consisting of 300
+horse and 4000 foot. Figuratively, an army, a military force, or a
+great number.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM COMMODUS TO THE TRANSFERRING OF THE SEAT OF EMPIRE UNDER
+CONSTANTINE, FROM ROME TO CONSTANTINOPLE.--U.C. 933. A.D. 180.
+
+  O name of country, once how sacred deem'd!
+  O sad reverse of manners, once esteem'd!
+  While Rome her ancient majesty maintain'd,
+  And in his capitol while Jove imperial reign'd.--_Horace_.
+
+1. The merits of Aurelius procured Commodus an easy accession to the
+throne.[1] He was acknowledged emperor by the army, by the senate and
+people, and afterwards by all the provinces.
+
+2. But his whole reign was a tissue of wantonness and folly, cruelty
+and injustice, rapacity and corruption. So strong a similitude was
+there between his conduct and that of Domi'tian, that a reader might
+imagine he was going over the history of the same reign. 3. He spent
+the day in feasting, and the night in the most abominable
+wickedness. He would sometimes go about the markets in a frolic, with
+small wares, as a petty chapman; sometimes he affected to be a
+horse-courser; at other times he drove his own chariot, in a slave's
+habit. Those he promoted resembled himself, being the companions of
+his pleasures, or the ministers of his cruelties.
+
+4. If any person desired to be revenged on an enemy, by bargaining
+with Com'modus for a sum of money, he was permitted to destroy him in
+any manner he thought proper. He commanded a person to be cast to the
+wild beasts for reading the life of Calig'ula in Sueto'nius. He
+ordered another to be thrown into a burning furnace, for accidentally
+overheating his bath. He would sometimes, when he was in a pleasant
+humour, cut off men's noses, under pretence of shaving their beards;
+and yet he was himself so jealous of all mankind, that he thought it
+necessary to be his own barber.
+
+5. At length, upon the feast of Janus, resolving to fence before the
+people, as a common gladiator, three of his friends remonstrated with
+him upon the indecency of such behaviour: these were Læ'tus, his
+general; Elec'tus, his chamberlain; and Mar'cia, of whom he always
+appeared excessively fond. 6. Their advice was attended with no other
+effect than that of exciting him to resolve upon their destruction. 7.
+It was his method, like that of Domi'tian, to set down the names of
+all such as he intended to put to death in a roll, which he carefully
+kept by him. However, at this time, happening to lay the roll on his
+bed, while he was bathing a another room, it was taken up by a little
+boy whom he passionately loved. The child, after playing with it some
+time brought it to Mar'cia, who was instantly alarmed at the contents.
+8. She immediately discovered her terror to Læ'tus and Elec'tus, who,
+perceiving their dangerous situation, instantly resolved upon the
+tyrant's death. 9. After some deliberation, it was agreed to dispatch
+him by poison; but this not succeeding, Mar'cia hastily introduced a
+young man, called Narcis'sus, whom she prevailed upon to assist in
+strangling the tyrant. Com'modus died in the thirty-first year of his
+age, after an impious reign of twelve years and nine months.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 945. A.D. 192.]
+
+10. Such were the secrecy and expedition with which Com'modus was
+assassinated, that few were acquainted with the real circumstances of
+his death. His body was wrapt up as a bale of useless furniture,
+and carried through the guards, most of whom were either drunk or
+asleep.
+
+11. Hel'vius Per'tinax, whose virtues and courage rendered him worthy
+of the most exalted station, and who had passed through many changes
+of fortune, had been previously fixed upon to succeed him. When,
+therefore, the conspirators repaired to his house, to salute him
+emperor, he considered it as a command from the emperor Com'modus for
+his death. 12. Upon Læ'tus entering his apartment, Per'tinax, without
+any show of fear, cried out, that for many days he had expected to end
+his life in that manner, wondering that the emperor had deferred it so
+long. He was not a little surprised when informed of the real cause of
+their visit; and being strongly urged to accept of the empire, he at
+last complied. 13. Being carried to the camp, Per'tinax was proclaimed
+emperor, and soon after was acknowledged by the senate and citizens.
+They then pronounced Com'modus a parricide, an enemy to the gods, his
+country, and all mankind; and commanded that his corpse should rot
+upon a heap of dirt. 14. In the mean time they saluted Per'tinax as
+emperor and Cæsar, with numerous acclamations, and cheerfully took the
+oaths of obedience. The provinces soon after followed the example of
+Rome; so that he began his reign with universal satisfaction to the
+whole empire, in the sixty-eighth year of his age.
+
+15. Nothing could exceed the justice and wisdom of this monarch's
+reign, during the short time it continued. But the prætorian soldiers,
+whose manners he attempted to reform, having been long corrupted by
+the indulgence and profusion of their former monarch, began to hate
+him for his parsimony, and the discipline he had introduced among
+them. 16. They therefore resolved to dethrone him; and accordingly, in
+a tumultuous manner, marched through the streets of Rome, entered his
+palace without opposition, where a Tungrian soldier struck him dead
+with a blow of his lance. 17. From the number of his adventures he was
+called the tennis-ball of fortune; and certainly no man ever went
+through such a variety of situations with so blameless a character. He
+reigned but three months.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 954. A.D. 201]
+
+18. The soldiers having committed this outrage, made proclamation,
+that they would sell the empire to whoever would purchase it at the
+highest price. 19. In consequence of this proclamation, two
+bidders were found, namely, Sulpicia'nus and Did'ius. The former
+a consular person, prefect of the city, and son-in-law to the late
+emperor Per'tinax. The latter a consular person likewise, a great
+lawyer, and the wealthiest man in the city. 20. Sulpicia'nus had
+rather promises than treasure to bestow. The offers of Did'ius, who
+produced immense sums of ready money, prevailed. He was received into
+the camp, and the soldiers instantly swore to obey him as emperor. 21.
+Upon being conducted to the senate-house, he addressed the few that
+were present in a laconic speech, "Fathers, you want an emperor, and I
+am the fittest person you can choose." The choice of the soldiers was
+confirmed by the senate, and Did'ius was acknowledged emperor, in the
+fifty-seventh year of his age. 22. It should seem, by this weak
+monarch's conduct when seated on the throne, that he thought the
+government of an empire rather a pleasure than a toil. Instead of
+attempting to gain the hearts of his subjects, he gave himself up to
+ease and inactivity, utterly regardless of the duties of his station.
+He was mild and gentle indeed, neither injuring any, nor expecting to
+be injured. 23. But that avarice by which he became opulent, still
+followed him in his exaltation; so that the very soldiers who elected
+him soon began to detest him, for qualities so opposite to a military
+character. 24. The people also, against whose consent he was chosen,
+were not less his enemies. Whenever he issued from his palace, they
+openly poured forth their imprecations against him, crying out, that
+he was a thief, and had stolen the empire. 25. Did'ius, however,
+patiently bore all their reproach, and testified his regard by every
+kind of submission. 26. Soon after Seve'rus, an African by birth,
+being proclaimed by his army, began his reign by promising to revenge
+the death of Per'tinax.
+
+27. Did'ius upon being informed of his approach towards Rome, obtained
+the consent of the senate to send him ambassadors, offering to make
+him a partner in the empire. 28. But Seve'rus rejected this offer,
+conscious of his own strength, and of the weakness of the proposer.
+The senate appeared to be of the same sentiment; and perceiving the
+timidity and weakness of their present master, abandoned him. 29.
+Being called together, as was formerly practised in the times of the
+commonwealth, by the consuls, they unanimously decreed, that Did'ius
+should be deprived of the empire, and that Severus should be
+proclaimed in his stead. They then commanded Did'ius to be slain, and
+sent messengers for this purpose to the palace, who, having found
+him, with a few friends that still adhered to his interest, they
+struck off his head.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Did Commodus succeed peaceably?
+
+2. Did he imitate his father's virtues?
+
+3. Mention some of his follies?
+
+4. Mention some of his wanton cruelties?
+
+5. Who remonstrated with him on this conduct?
+
+6. What effect did this remonstrance produce?
+
+7. How was this discovered?
+
+8. What was the consequence?
+
+9. How was it affected?
+
+10. Were the circumstances of his death generally known?
+
+11. Who succeeded him?
+
+12. Did Pertinax discover any signs of fear?
+
+13. What ensued on his compliance?
+
+14. Was he acceptable to the Roman people?
+
+15. How did he govern?
+
+16. What was the consequence?
+
+17. By what appellation was he distinguished, and why?
+
+18. How was the imperial purple next disposed of?
+
+19. Who were the candidates?
+
+20. Who was the successful candidate?
+
+21. Was he acknowledged by the senate?
+
+22. What was his conduct as emperor?
+
+23. What gained him the hatred of the soldiers?
+
+24. Was he a favourite of the people?
+
+25. How did Didius bear this?
+
+26. What new competitor for the throne appeared?
+
+27. How did Didius act on this occasion?
+
+28. Was his offer accepted?
+
+29. What was the event?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  There's nought so monstrous but the mind of man,
+  In some conditions, may be brought to approve;
+  Theft, sacrilege, treason, and parricide,
+  When flattering opportunity enticed,
+  And desperation drove, have been committed
+  By those who once would start to hear them named.--_Lillo_.
+
+1. Seve'rus having overcome Niger, A.D. 194, and Albinus, A.D. 198,
+who were his competitors for the empire, assumed the reins of
+government, uniting great vigour with the most refined policy; yet his
+African cunning was considered as a singular defect in him. 2. He is
+celebrated for his wit, learning, and prudence; but execrated for
+his perfidy and cruelty. In short, he seemed equally capable of
+the greatest acts of virtue, and the most bloody severities. 3. He
+loaded his soldiers with rewards and honours, giving them such
+privileges as strengthened his own power, while they destroyed that of
+the senate; for the soldiers, who had hitherto showed the strongest
+inclination to an abuse of power, were now made arbiters of the fate
+of emperors. 4. Being thus secure of his army he resolved to give way
+to his natural desire of conquest, and to turn his arms against the
+Parthians, who were then invading the frontiers of the empire. 5.
+Having, therefore, previously given the government of domestic policy
+to one Plau'tian, a favourite, to whose daughter he married his son
+Caracal'la, he set out for the east, and prosecuted the war with his
+usual expedition and success. 6. He compelled submission from the king
+of Arme'nia, destroyed several cities of Ara'bia Felix, landed on the
+Parthian coast, took and plundered the famous city of Ctes'iphon,
+marched back through Pal'estine and Egypt, and at length returned to
+Rome in triumph. 7. During this interval, Plau'tian, who was left to
+direct the affairs of Rome, began to think of aspiring to the empire
+himself. Upon the emperor's return, he employed a tribune of the
+prætorian cohorts, of which he was commander, to assassinate him, and
+his son Caracal'la. 8. The tribune informed Seve'rus of his
+favourite's treachery. He at first received the intelligence as an
+improbable story, and as the artifices of one who envied his
+favourite's fortune. However, he was at last persuaded to permit the
+tribune to conduct Plau'tian to the emperor's apartments to be a
+testimony against himself. 9. With this intent the tribune went and
+amused him with a pretended account of his killing the emperor and his
+son; desiring him, if he thought fit to see them dead, to go with him
+to the palace. 10. As Plau'tian ardently desired their death, he
+readily gave credit to the relation, and, following the tribune, was
+conducted at midnight into the innermost apartments of the palace. But
+what must have been his surprise and disappointment, when, instead of
+finding the emperor lying dead, as he expected, he beheld the room
+lighted up with torches, and Seve'rus surrounded by his friends,
+prepared in array to receive him. 11. Being asked by the emperor, with
+a stern countenance, what had brought him there at that unseasonable
+time, he ingenuously confessed the whole, entreating forgiveness
+for what he had intended. 12. The emperor seemed inclined to pardon;
+but Caracal'la, his son, who from the earliest age showed a
+disposition to cruelty, ran him through the body with his sword. 13.
+After this, Seve'rus spent a considerable time in visiting some cities
+in Italy, permitting none of his officers to sell places of trust or
+dignity, and distributing justice with the strictest impartiality. He
+then undertook an expedition into Britain, where the Romans were in
+danger of being destroyed, or compelled to fly the province. After
+appointing his two sons, Caracal'la and Ge'ta, joint successors in the
+empire, and taking them with him, he landed in Britain, A.D. 208, to
+the great terror of such as had drawn down his resentment. 14. Upon
+his progress into the country, he left his son Ge'ta in the southern
+part of the province, which had continued in obedience, and marched,
+with his son Caracal'la, against the Caledo'nians. 15. In this
+expedition, his army suffered prodigious hardships in pursuing the
+enemy; they were obliged to hew their way through intricate forests,
+to drain extensive marshes, and form bridges over rapid rivers; so
+that he lost fifty thousand men by fatigue and sickness. 16. However,
+he surmounted these inconveniences with unremitting bravery, and
+prosecuted his successes with such vigour, that he compelled the enemy
+to beg for peace; which they did not obtain without the surrender of a
+considerable part of their country. 17. It was then that, for its
+better security, he built the famous wall, which still goes by his
+name, extending from Solway Frith on the west, to the German Ocean on
+the east. He did not long survive his successes here, but died at
+York, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, after an active, though
+cruel reign of about eighteen years.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C.964 A.D.211]
+
+18. Caracal'la and Ge'ta, his sons, being acknowledged as emperors by
+the army, began to show a mutual hatred to each other, even before
+their arrival at Rome. But this opposition was of no long continuance;
+for Caracal'la, being resolved to govern alone, furiously entered
+Ge'ta's apartment, and, followed by ruffians, slew him in his mother's
+arms. 19. Being thus sole emperor, he went on to mark his course with
+blood. Whatever was done by Domi'tian or Ne'ro, fell short of this
+monster's barbarities.[2]
+
+[Illustration: Massacre of the Alexandrians.]
+
+20. His tyrannies at length excited the resentment of Macri'nus, the
+commander of the forces in Mesopota'mia who employed one Mar'tial, a
+man of great strength, and a centurion of the guards, to dispatch him.
+21. Accordingly, as the emperor was riding out one day, near a little
+city called Carræ, he happened to withdraw himself privately, upon a
+natural occasion, with only one page to hold his horse. This was the
+opportunity Mar'tial had so long and ardently desired: when, running
+to him hastily, as if he had been called, he stabbed the emperor in
+the back, and killed him instantly. 22. Having performed this hardy
+attempt, he, with apparent unconcern, returned to his troop; but,
+retiring by insensible degrees, he endeavoured to secure himself by
+flight. His companions, however, soon missing him, and the page giving
+information of what had been done, he was pursued by the German horse,
+and cut in pieces.
+
+23. During the reign of this execrable tyrant, which continued six
+years, the empire was every day declining; the soldiers were entirely
+masters of every election; and as there were various armies in
+different parts, so there were as many interests opposed to each
+other.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C.970 A.D.217]
+
+24. The soldiers, after remaining without an emperor two days, fixed
+upon Macri'nus, who took all possible methods to conceal his being
+privy to Caracal'la's murder. The senate confirmed their choice
+shortly after; and likewise that of his son, Diadumenia'nus, whom he
+took as partner in the empire. 25. Macri'nus was fifty-three
+years old when he entered upon the government. He was of obscure
+parentage; some say by birth a Moor, who, by the mere gradation of
+office, being made first prefect of the prætorian bands, was now, by
+treason and accident, called to fill the throne.
+
+26. He was opposed by the intrigues of Mosa, and her grandson
+Heliogaba'lus; and being conquered by some seditious legions of his
+own army, he fled to Chalcedon,[3] where those who were sent in
+pursuit overtook him, and put him to death, together with his son
+Diadumenia'nus, after a short reign of one year and two months.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C.971 A.D.218]
+
+27. The senate and citizens of Rome being obliged to submit, as usual,
+to the appointment of the army, Heliogaba'lus ascended the throne at
+the age of fourteen. His short life was a mixture of effeminacy, lust,
+and extravagance. 28. He married six wives in the short space of four
+years, and divorced them all. He was so fond of the sex, that he
+carried his mother with him to the senate-house, and demanded that she
+should always be present when matters of importance were debated. He
+even went so far as to build a senate-house for women, appointing them
+suitable orders, habits and distinctions, of which his mother was made
+president. 29. They met several times; all their debates turned upon
+the fashions of the day, and the different formalities to be used at
+giving and receiving visits. To these follies he added cruelty and
+boundless prodigality; he used to say, that such dishes as were
+cheaply obtained were scarcely worth eating.
+
+30. However, his soldiers mutinying, as was now usual with them, they
+followed him to his palace, pursuing him from apartment to apartment,
+till at last he was found concealed in a closet. Having dragged him
+from thence through the streets, with the most bitter invectives, and
+dispatched him, they attempted once more to squeeze his pampered body
+into a closet; but not easily effecting this, they threw it into the
+Tiber, with heavy weights, that none might afterwards find it, or give
+it burial. This was the ignominious death of Heliogaba'lus, in the
+eighteenth year of his age, after a detestable reign of four
+years.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Who succeeded Didius Julianus?
+
+2. What was the character of Severus?
+
+3. By what means did he strengthen his power?
+
+4. What were his first acts?
+
+5. To whom did he commit the government in his absence?
+
+6. What were his exploits?
+
+7. How did Plautian conduct himself in this important post?
+
+8. How was this treachery discovered?
+
+9. How was this effected?
+
+10. Did Plautian fall into the snare?
+
+11. How did he act on the occasion?
+
+12. Was he pardoned?
+
+13. How did Severus next employ himself?
+
+14. What were his first measures in Britain?
+
+15. Was it a difficult campaign?
+
+16. Did he overcome these difficulties?
+
+17. What famous work did he execute, and where did he die?
+
+18. Who succeeded him, and how did the two emperors regard each
+other?
+
+19. What was the conduct of Caracalla on thus becoming sole
+emperor?
+
+20. Were these cruelties tamely suffered?
+
+21. How was this effected?
+
+22. Did the assassin escape?
+
+23. What was the state of the empire during this reign?
+
+24. Who succeeded Caracalla?
+
+25. Who was Macrinus?
+
+26. By whom was he opposed, and what was his fate?
+
+27. How did Heliogabalus govern?
+
+28. Give a few instances of his folly?
+
+29. Did they enter into his views, and of what farther follies and vices
+was he guilty?
+
+30. What was his end?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+  I know that there are angry spirits
+  And turbulent mutterers of stifled treason,
+  Who lurk in narrow places, and walk out
+  Muffled, to whisper curses in the night;
+  Disbanded soldiers, discontented ruffians,
+  And desperate libertines who brawl in taverns.--_Byron_.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 975 A.D. 222]
+
+1. Heliogaba'lus was succeeded by Alexander, his cousin-german,[4]
+who, being declared emperor without opposition, the senate, with their
+usual adulation, were for conferring new titles upon him; but he
+modestly declined them all. 2. To the most rigid justice he added the
+greatest humanity. He loved the good, and was a severe reprover of the
+lewd and infamous. His accomplishments were equal to his virtues. He
+was an excellent mathematician, geometrician, and musician; he
+was equally skilful in painting and sculpture; and in poetry few of
+his time could equal him. In short, such were his talents, and such
+the solidity of his judgment, that though but sixteen years of age, he
+was considered equal in wisdom to a sage old man.
+
+3. About the thirteenth year of his reign the Upper Germans, and other
+northern nations, began to pour down in immense swarms upon the more
+southern parts of the empire. They passed the Rhine and the Danube
+with such fury, that all Italy was thrown into the most extreme
+consternation. 4. The emperor, ever ready to expose his person for the
+safety of his people, made what levies he could, and went in person to
+stem the torrent, which he speedily effected. It was in the course of
+his successes against the enemy that he was cut off by a mutiny among
+his own soldiers. He died in the twenty-ninth year of his age, after a
+prosperous reign of thirteen years and nine days.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C.988 A.D.235]
+
+5. The tumults occasioned by the death of Alexander being appeased,
+Max'imin, who had been the chief promoter of the sedition, was chosen
+emperor. 6. This extraordinary man, whose character deserves a
+particular attention, was born of very obscure parentage, being the
+son of a poor herdsman of Thrace. He followed his father's humble
+profession, and had exercised his personal courage against the robbers
+who infested that part of the country in which he lived. Soon after,
+his ambition increasing, he left his poor employment and enlisted in
+the Roman army, where he soon became remarkable for his great
+strength, discipline, and courage. 7. This gigantic man, we are told,
+was eight feet and a half high; he had strength corresponding to his
+size, being not more remarkable for the magnitude than the symmetry of
+his person. His wife's bracelet usually served him for a thumb ring,
+and his strength was so great that he was able to draw a carriage
+which two oxen could not move. He could strike out the teeth of a
+horse with a blow of his fist, and break its thigh with a kick. 8. His
+diet was as extraordinary as his endowments: he generally ate forty
+pounds weight of flesh every day, and drank six gallons of wine,
+without committing any debauch in either. 9. With a frame so athletic,
+he was possessed of a mind undaunted in danger, neither fearing nor
+regarding any man. 10. The first time he was made known to the emperor
+Seve'rus, was while he was celebrating games on the birth day of
+his son Ge'ta. He overcame sixteen in running, one after the other; he
+then kept up with the emperor on horseback, and having fatigued him in
+the course, he was opposed to seven of the most active soldiers, and
+overcame them with the greatest ease. 11. These extraordinary exploits
+caused him to be particularly noticed; he had been taken into the
+emperor's body guard, and by the usual gradation of preferment came to
+be chief commander. In this situation he had been equally remarkable
+for his simplicity, discipline, and virtue; but, upon coming to the
+empire, he was found to be one of the greatest monsters of cruelty
+that had ever disgraced power; fearful of nothing himself, he seemed
+to sport with the terrors of all mankind.
+
+12. However, his cruelties did not retard his military operations,
+which were carried on with a spirit becoming a better monarch. He
+overthrew the Germans in several battles, wasted all their country
+with fire and sword for four hundred miles together, and formed a
+resolution of subduing all the northern nations, as far as the ocean.
+13. In these expeditions, in order to attach the soldiers more firmly
+to him, he increased their pay; and in every duty of the camp he
+himself took as much pains as the meanest sentinel in his army,
+showing incredible courage and assiduity. In every engagement, where
+the conflict was hottest, Max'imin was seen fighting in person, and
+destroying all before him; for, being bred a barbarian, he considered
+it his duty to combat as a common soldier, while he commanded as a
+general.
+
+14. In the mean time his cruelties had so alienated the minds of his
+subjects, that secret conspiracies were secretly aimed against him.
+None of them, however, succeeded, till at last his own soldiers, long
+harassed by famine and fatigue, and hearing of revolts on every side,
+resolved to terminate their calamities by the tyrant's death. 15. His
+great strength, and his being always armed, at first deterred them
+from assassinating him; but at length the soldiers, having made his
+guards accomplices in their designs, set upon him while he slept at
+noon in his tent, and without opposition slew both him and his son,
+whom he had made his partner in the empire. 16. Thus died this most
+remarkable man, after an usurpation of about three years, in the
+sixty-fifth year of his age. His assiduity when in a humble station,
+and his cruelty when in power, serve to evince, that there are some
+men whose virtues are fitted for obscurity, as there are others
+who only show themselves great when placed in an exalted station.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 991. A.D. 238.]
+
+17. The tyrant being dead, and his body thrown to dogs and birds of
+prey, Pupie'nus and Balbie'nus, who had usurped the imperial purple,
+continued for some time emperors, without opposition. 18. But,
+differing between themselves, the prætorian soldiers, who were the
+enemies of both, set upon them in their palace, at a time when their
+guards were amused with seeing the Capit'oline games; and dragging
+them from the palace towards the camp, slew them both, leaving their
+dead bodies in the street, as a dreadful instance of unsuccessful
+ambition.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 991. A.D. 238.]
+
+19. In the midst of this sedition, as the mutineers were proceeding
+along, they by accident met Gor'dian, the grandson of him who was
+slain in Africa: him they declared emperor on the spot. 20. This
+prince was but sixteen years old when he began to reign, but his
+virtues seemed to compensate for his want of experience. His principal
+aims were to unite the opposing members of government, and to
+reconcile the soldiers and citizens to each other. 21. The army,
+however, began as usual to murmur; and their complaints were artfully
+fomented by Philip, an Arabian, who was prætorian prefect, and aspired
+to the sovereignty. Things thus proceeded from bad to worse. 22.
+Philip was at first made equal to Gor'dian in the command of the
+empire; shortly after he was invested with the sole power; and at
+length, finding himself capable of perpetrating his long meditated
+cruelty, Gor'dian was by his order slain, in the twenty-second year of
+his age, after a successful reign of nearly six years.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Who succeeded Heliogabalus?
+
+2. What was his character?
+
+3. Was his reign peaceable?
+
+4. How did Alexander act on the occasion?
+
+5. Who succeeded Alexander?
+
+6. Who was Maximin?
+
+7. Describe his person.
+
+8. What farther distinguished him?
+
+9. Was his mind proportioned to his body?
+
+10. How did he attract the notice of Severus?
+
+11. By what means did he attain rank in the army?
+
+12. Was he equally a terror to his foreign enemies?
+
+13. By what means did he gain the confidence of his soldiers?
+
+14. What effect had his cruelties on the minds of his subjects?
+
+15. How did they accomplish their purpose?
+
+16. How long did he reign, and what inference may be drawn from his
+conduct?
+
+17. Who next mounted the imperial throne?
+
+18. What was their end?
+
+19. Who succeeded Pupienus and Balbienus?
+
+20. What were the character and views of this prince?
+
+21. Was his administration approved of by all?
+
+22. Did Philip accomplish his ambitious design?
+
+
+SECTION IV. U.C. 996.--A.D. 243.
+
+  What rein can hold licentious wickedness,
+  When down the hill he holds his fierce career--_Shakspeare_.
+
+1. Philip having thus murdered his benefactor, was so fortunate as to
+be immediately acknowledged emperor by the army. Upon his exaltation
+he associated his son, a boy of six years of age, as his partner in
+the empire; and, in order to secure his power at home, made peace with
+the Persians, and marched his army towards Rome. 2. However, the army
+revolting in favour of De'cius, his general, and setting violently
+upon him, one of his sentinels at a blow cut off his head, or rather
+cleft it asunder, separating the under jaw from the upper. He died in
+the forty-fifth year of his age, after a short reign of about five
+years.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1001. A.D. 248.]
+
+3. De'cius was universally acknowledged as his successor. His activity
+and wisdom seemed, in some measure, to stop the hastening decline of
+the Roman empire. The senate seemed to think so highly of his merits,
+that they voted him not inferior to Tra'jan; and indeed he appeared in
+every instance to consult their dignity, and the welfare of all the
+inferior ranks of people. 4. But no virtues could now prevent the
+approaching downfall of the state; the obstinate disputes between the
+Pagans and the Christians within the empire, and the unceasing
+irruptions of barbarous nations from without, enfeebled it beyond the
+power of remedy. 5. He was killed in an ambuscade of the enemy, in the
+fiftieth year of his age, after a short reign of two years and six
+months.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1004. A.D. 251.]
+
+6. Gal'lus, who had betrayed the Roman army, had address enough to get
+himself declared emperor by that part of it which survived the
+defeat; he was forty-five years old when he began to reign, and
+was descended from an honourable family in Rome. 7. He was the first
+who bought a dishonourable peace from the enemies of the state,
+agreeing to pay a considerable annual tribute to the Goths, whom it
+was his duty to repress. He was regardless of every national calamity,
+and was lost in debauchery and sensuality. The Pagans were allowed a
+power of persecuting the Christians through all parts of the state. 8.
+These calamities were succeeded by a pestilence from heaven, that
+seemed to have spread over every part of the earth, and continued
+raging for several years, in an unheard-of manner; as well as by a
+civil war, which followed shortly after between Gallus and his general
+Æmilia'nus, who, having gained a victory over the Goths, was
+proclaimed emperor by his conquering army. 9. Gallus hearing this,
+soon roused from the intoxications of pleasure, and prepared to oppose
+his dangerous rival: but both he and his son were slain by Æmilia'nus,
+in a battle fought in Mossia. His death was merited, and his vices
+were such as to deserve the detestation of posterity. He died in the
+forty-seventh year of his age, after an unhappy reign of two years and
+four months, in which the empire suffered inexpressible calamities.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1006. A.D. 253.]
+
+10. The senate refused to acknowledge the claims of Æmilia'nus; and an
+army that was stationed near the Alps chose Vale'rian, who was their
+commander, to succeed to the throne. 11. He set about reforming the
+state with a spirit that seemed to mark a good and vigorous mind. But
+reformation was now grown almost impracticable. 12. The Persians under
+their king Sapor, invading Syr'ia, took the unfortunate Vale'rian
+prisoner, as he was making preparations to oppose them; and the
+indignities as well as the cruelties, which were practised upon this
+unhappy monarch, thus fallen into the hands of his enemies, are almost
+incredible. 13. Sapor, we are told, used him as a footstool for
+mounting his horse; he added the bitterness of ridicule to his
+insults, and usually observed, that an attitude like that to which
+Vale'rian was reduced, was the best statue that could be erected in
+honour of his victory. 14. This horrid life of insult and sufferance
+continued for seven years; and was at length terminated by the cruel
+Persian commanding his prisoner's eyes to be plucked out, and
+afterwards causing him to be flayed alive.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1012. A.D. 259.]
+
+15. When Vale'rian was taken prisoner, Galie'nus, his son, promising
+to revenge the insult, was chosen emperor, being then about
+forty-one years old. However, it was soon discovered that he sought
+rather the splendours than the toils of empire; for, after having
+overthrown Ingen'uus, who had assumed the title of emperor, he sat
+down, as if fatigued with conquest, and gave himself up to ease and
+luxury. 16. At this time, no less than thirty pretenders were seen
+contending with each other for the dominion of the state, and adding
+the calamities of civil war to the rest of the misfortunes of this
+devoted empire. These are usually mentioned in history by the name of
+the thirty tyrants. 17. In this general calamity, Galie'nus, though at
+first seemingly insensible, was at length obliged for his own security
+to take the field, and led an army to besiege the city of Milan, which
+had been taken by one of the thirty usurping tyrants. In this
+expedition he was slain by his own soldiers: Mar'tian, one of his
+generals, having conspired against him.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1021. A.D. 268.]
+
+18. Fla'vius Clau'dius being nominated to succeed, was joyfully
+accepted by all orders of the state, and his title confirmed by the
+senate and the people. 19. He was a man of great valour and conduct,
+having performed the most excellent services against the Goths, who
+had long continued to make irruptions into the empire; but, after a
+great victory over that barbarous people, he was seized with a
+pestilential fever at Ser'mium in Panno'nia, of which he died, to the
+great regret of his subjects, and the irreparable loss of the Roman
+empire.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1023. A.D. 270.]
+
+20. Upon the death of Clau'dius, Aure'lian was acknowledged by all the
+states of the empire, and assumed the command with a greater share of
+power than his predecessors had enjoyed for a long time before. 21.
+This active monarch was of mean and obscure parentage in Da'cia, and
+about fifty-five years old at the time of his coming to the throne. He
+had spent the early part of his life in the army, and had risen
+through all the gradations of military rank. He was of unshaken
+courage and amazing strength. He, in one engagement, killed forty of
+the enemy with his own hand; and at different times above nine
+hundred. In short, his valour and expedition were such, that he was
+compared to Julius Cæsar; and, in fact, only wanted mildness and
+clemency to be every way his equal. 22. Among those who were compelled
+to submit to his power, was the famous Zeno'bia, queen of Palmy'ra. He
+subdued her country, destroyed her city, and took her prisoner.
+Longi'nus, the celebrated critic, who was secretary to the queen, was
+by Aure'lian's order put to death. Zeno'bia was reserved to grace his
+triumph; and afterwards was allotted such lands, and such an income,
+as served to maintain her in almost her former splendour. 23. But the
+emperor's severities were at last the cause of his own destruction.
+Mnes'theus, his principal secretary, having been threatened by him for
+some fault which he had committed, formed a conspiracy against him,
+and as the emperor passed, with a small guard, from Ura'clea, in
+Thrace, towards Byzan'tium, the conspirators set upon him at once and
+slew him, in the sixtieth year of his age, after a very active reign
+of almost five years.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1028. A.D. 275.]
+
+24. After some time the senate made choice of Ta'citus, a man of great
+merit, and no way ambitious of the honours that were offered him,
+being at that time seventy-five years old. 25. A reign begun with much
+moderation and justice, only wanted continuance to have made his
+subjects happy: but after enjoying the empire about six months, he
+died of a fever in his march to oppose the Persians and Scyth'ians,
+who had invaded the eastern parts of the empire. 26. During this short
+period the senate seemed to have possessed a large share of authority,
+and the histories of the times are liberal of their praises to such
+emperors as were thus willing to divide their power.
+
+27. Upon the death of Ta'citus, his half-brother took upon himself the
+title of emperor, in Cile'sia: but being twice defeated by Pro'bus, he
+killed himself in despair, when the whole army, as if by common
+consent, cried out that Pro'bus should be emperor. 28. He was then
+forty-four years old; was born of noble parentage, and bred a soldier.
+He began early to distinguish himself for his discipline and valour:
+being frequently the first man that scaled the walls, or that burst
+into the enemy's camp. He was equally remarkable for single combat,
+and for having saved the lives of many eminent citizens. Nor were his
+activity and courage when elected to the empire less apparent than in
+his private station. 29. Every year now produced new calamities to the
+state; and fresh irruptions on every side threatened universal
+desolation. Perhaps at this time no abilities, except those of
+Pro'bus, were capable of opposing such united invasions. 30. However,
+in the end, his own mutinous soldiers, taking their opportunity, as he
+was marching into Greece, seized and slew him, after he had reigned
+six years and four months with general approbation. He was
+succeeded by Ca'rus.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Did Philip succeed without opposition?
+
+2. Was his reign of long duration?
+
+3. What was the character of Decius?
+
+4. Did he restore the empire to its former grandeur?
+
+5. What was his end?
+
+6. Who succeeded him?
+
+7. What was his character?
+
+8. What farther calamities distinguished this reign?
+
+9. What effect had this news on Gallus?
+
+10. Who succeeded Gallus?
+
+11. What were his first acts and their effects?
+
+12. What disaster befel him?
+
+13. How was he treated in captivity?
+
+14. Did he long survive this cruelty?
+
+15. Who succeeded him?
+
+16. Was Galienus the only pretender to the throne?
+
+17. What measures did Galienus adopt on this?
+
+18. Who succeeded Galienus?
+
+19. What were his character and end?
+
+20. Who succeeded Claudius?
+
+21. Who was Aurelian?
+
+22. Over whom did he triumph?
+
+23. What occasioned his destruction?
+
+24. Who succeeded Aurelian?
+
+25. Did he govern well?
+
+26. What distinguished his reign?
+
+27. Who succeeded Tacitus?
+
+28. What were the qualifications of Probus?
+
+29. What was the state of the empire at this time?
+
+30. What was the end of Probus?
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+U.C. 1035.--A.D. 282.
+
+  Forbid it, gods! when barbarous Scythians come
+  From their cold north to prop declining Rome.
+  That I should see her fall, and sit secure at home.--_Lucan_.
+
+1. Ca'rus, who was prætorian prefect to the deceased emperor, was
+chosen by the army to succeed him; and he, to strengthen his
+authority, united his two sons, Cari'nus and Nume'rian, with him in
+command; the elder of whom was as much sullied by his vices, as the
+younger was remarkable for his virtues, his modesty, and courage.
+
+2. The next object of Ca'rus was to punish the murderers of
+Pro'bus, and procure public tranquillity. Several nations of the west
+having revolted, he sent his son Cari'nus against them, and advanced
+himself against the Sarma'tians, whom he defeated, with the loss of
+sixteen thousand men killed, and twenty thousand prisoners. Soon after
+this he entered Persia, and removed to Mesopota'mia. Vera'nes the
+second, king of Persia, advancing against him, was defeated, and lost
+Ctes'iphon, his capital. This conquest gained Ca'rus the surname of
+Per'sieus; but he had not enjoyed it long, when he was struck dead, by
+lightning, in his tent, with many of his attendants, after a reign of
+about sixteen months. Upon the death of Ca'rus, the imperial power
+devolved on his sons Cari'nus and Nume'rian, who reigned jointly. In
+the first year of their accession, having made peace with the
+Persians, Cari'nus advanced against Ju'lian, who had caused himself to
+be proclaimed in Vene'tia,[5] and whom he defeated; when he returned
+again into Gaul.
+
+3. Cari'nus was at this time in Gaul, but Nume'rian, the younger son,
+who accompanied his father in his expedition was inconsolable for his
+death, and brought such a disorder upon his eyes, with weeping, that
+he was obliged to be carried along with the army, shut up in a close
+litter. 4. The peculiarity of his situation, after some time, excited
+the ambition of A'per, his father-in-law, who supposed that he could
+now, without any great danger, aim at the empire himself. He therefore
+hired a mercenary villain to murder the emperor in his litter; and,
+the better to conceal the fact, gave out that he was still alive, but
+unable to endure the light. 5. The offensive smell, however, of the
+body, at length discovered the treachery, and excited an universal
+uproar throughout the whole army. 6. In the midst of this tumult,
+Diocle'sian, one of the most noted commanders of his time, was chosen
+emperor, and with his own hand slew A'per, having thus, as it is said,
+fulfilled a prophecy, that Diocle'sian should be emperor after he had
+slain a boar.[6]
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1057. A.D. 284.]
+
+7. Diocle'sian was a person of mean birth; he received his name from
+Dio'clea, the town in which he was born, and was about forty years old
+when he was elected to the empire. He owed his exaltation entirely to
+his merit; having passed through all the gradations of office with
+sagacity, courage, and success.
+
+8. In his time, the northern hive, as it was called poured down
+its swarms of barbarians upon the Roman empire. Ever at war with the
+Romans, they issued forth whenever that army that was to repress their
+invasions was called away; and upon its return, they as suddenly
+withdrew into their cold, barren, and inaccessible retreats, which
+themselves alone could endure. 9. In this manner the Scyth'ians,
+Goths, Sarma'tians, Ala'ni, Car'sii, and Qua'di, came down in
+incredible numbers, while every defeat seemed but to increase their
+strength and perseverance. 10. After gaining many victories over
+these, and in the midst of his triumphs, Diocle'sian and Maxim'ian,
+his partners in the empire, surprised the world by resigning their
+dignities on the same day, and both retiring into private stations.
+11. In this manner Diocle'sian lived some time, and at length died
+either by poison or madness, but by which of them is uncertain. His
+reign of twenty years was active and useful; and his authority, which
+was tinctured with severity, was adapted to the depraved state of
+morals at that time.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1057. A.D. 304.]
+
+12. Upon the resignation of the two emperors, the two Cæsars, whom
+they had before chosen, were universally acknowledged as their
+successors, namely, Constan'tius Chlo'rus, so called from the paleness
+of his complexion, a man virtuous, valiant, and merciful; and
+Gele'rius, who was brave, but brutal, incontinent and cruel. 13. As
+there was such a disparity in their tempers, they readily agreed, upon
+coming into full power, to divide the empire. Constan'tius was
+appointed to govern the western parts, and died at York, in Britain,
+A.D. 396, appointing Con'stantine, his son, as his successor.
+Gale'rius was seized with a very extraordinary disorder, which baffled
+the skill of his physicians, and carried him off.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1064. A.D. 311.]
+
+14. Con'stantine, afterwards surnamed the Great, had some competitors
+at first for the throne.--Among the rest was Maxen'tius, who was at
+that time in possession of Rome, and a stedfast assertor of Paganism.
+15. It was in Constantine's march against that usurper, we are told,
+that he was converted to Christianity, by a very extraordinary
+appearance. 16. One evening, the army being on its march towards Rome,
+Constantine was intent on various considerations upon the fate of
+sublunary things, and the dangers of his approaching expedition.
+Sensible of his own incapacity to succeed without divine assistance,
+he employed his meditations upon the opinions that were then
+agitated among mankind, and sent up his ejaculations to heaven to
+inspire him with wisdom to choose the path he should pursue. As the
+sun was declining, there suddenly appeared a pillar of light in the
+heavens, in the fashion of a cross, with this inscription, EN TOTTO
+NIKA, IN THIS OVERCOME. 17. So extraordinary an appearance did not
+fail to create astonishment, both in the emperor and his whole army,
+who reflected on it as their various dispositions led them to believe.
+Those who were attached to Paganism, prompted by their aruspices,
+pronounced it to be a most inauspicious omen, portending the most
+unfortunate events; but it made a different impression on the
+emperor's mind; who, as the account goes, was farther encouraged by
+visions the same night. 18. He, therefore, the day following, caused a
+royal standard to be made, like that which he had seen in the heavens,
+and commanded it to be carried before him in his wars, as an ensign of
+victory and celestial protection. After this he consulted with the
+principal teachers of Christianity, and made a public avowal of that
+holy religion.
+
+19. Con'stantine having thus attached his soldiers to his interest,
+who were mostly of the Christian persuasion, lost no time in entering
+Italy, with ninety thousand foot and eight thousand horse, and soon
+advanced almost to the very gates of Rome. Maxen'tius advanced from
+the city with an army of a hundred and seventy thousand foot, and
+eighteen thousand horse. 20. The engagement was fierce and bloody,
+till the cavalry of the latter being routed, victory declared upon the
+side of his opponent, and he himself was drowned in his flight by the
+breaking down of a bridge, as he attempted to cross the Tiber.
+
+21. In consequence of this victory, Con'stantine entered the city, but
+disclaimed all the praises which the senate and people were ready to
+offer; and ascribed his successes to a superior power. He even caused
+the cross, which he was said to have seen in the heavens, to be placed
+at the right hand of all his statues, with this inscription: "That
+under the influence of that Victorious Cross, Con'stantine had
+delivered the city from the yoke of tyrannical power, and had restored
+the senate, and people of Rome to their ancient authority." He
+afterwards ordained that no criminal should, for the future, suffer
+death upon the cross, which had formerly been the most usual way of
+punishing slaves convicted of capital offences. 22. Edicts were soon
+after issued, declaring that the Christians should be eased of
+all their grievances, and received into places of trust and authority.
+
+23. Things continued in this state for some time. Con'tantine
+contributing every thing in his power to the interest of religion, and
+the revival of learning, which had long been upon the decline, and was
+almost wholly extinct in his dominions. 24. But, in the midst of these
+assiduities, the peace of the empire was again disturbed by the
+preparations of Maxim'ian, who governed in the east; and who, desirous
+of a full participation of power, marched against Licin'ius with a
+very numerous army. 25. In consequence of this step, after many
+conflicts, a general engagement ensued, in which Maxim'ian suffered a
+total defeat; many of his troops were cut to pieces, and those that
+survived submitted to the conqueror. Having, however, escaped the
+general carnage, he put himself at the head of another army, resolving
+to try the fortune of the field; but his death prevented the design.
+26. As he died by a very extraordinary kind of madness, the
+Christians, of whom he was the declared enemy, did not fail to ascribe
+his end to a judgment from heaven. But this was the age in which false
+opinions and false miracles made up the bulk of every history.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Who succeeded Probus?
+
+2. Mention the actions of Carus, and the manner of his death.
+
+3. How were his sons affected by this catastrophe?
+
+4. What was the consequence?
+
+5. How was this atrocious act discovered?
+
+6. Did Aper reap the reward of his treachery?
+
+7. Who was Dioclesian?
+
+8. By whom was the empire now invaded?
+
+9. Were they effectually repelled?
+
+10. What remarkable event now occurred?
+
+11. What was the end of Dioclesian?
+
+12. Who succeeded Dioclesian and Maximian?
+
+13. How did they conduct the administration?
+
+14. Did Constantine succeed without any opposition?
+
+15. Did not a remarkable occurrence happen about this time?
+
+16. Repeat the particulars.
+
+17. What effect had this appearance on the emperor and his men?
+
+18. What orders did he issue in consequence?
+
+19. What was the respective strength of the hostile armies?
+
+20. What was the result of the engagement?
+
+21. What use did Constantine make of his victory?
+
+22. What edicts did he publish on the occasion?
+
+23. How was Constantine employed after this?
+
+24. Did the peace long continue?
+
+25. What was the consequence?
+
+26. To what was his death ascribed?
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+                     A crown? what is it?
+  It is to bear the miseries of a people!
+  To hear their murmurs, feel their discontents,
+  And sink beneath a load of splendid care!
+  To have your best success ascribed to Fortune.
+  And Fortune's failures all ascribed to you!
+  It is to sit upon a joyless height,
+  To every blast of changing fate exposed!
+  Too high for hope! too great for happiness!--_H. More_.
+
+1. Con'stantine and Licin'ius thus remaining undisputed possessors of,
+and partners in the empire, all things promised a peaceable
+continuance of friendship and power. 2. However, it was soon found
+that the same ambition that aimed after a part, would be content with
+nothing less than the whole. Pagan writers ascribe the rupture between
+these two potentates to Con'stantine; while the Christians, on the
+other hand, impute it wholly to Licin'ius. 3. Both sides exerted all
+their power to gain the ascendancy; and at the head of very formidable
+armies came to an engagement near Cy'balis, in Panno'nia. 4.
+Con'stantine, previous to the battle, in the midst of his Christian
+bishops, begged the assistance of heaven; while Licin'ius, with equal
+zeal, called upon the Pagan priests to intercede with the gods in
+their favour. 5. The success was on the side of truth. Con'stantine,
+after experiencing an obstinate resistance, became victorious, took
+the enemy's camp, and after some time compelled Licin'ius to sue for a
+truce, which was agreed upon. 6. But this was of no long continuance;
+for, soon after, the war breaking out afresh, the rivals came once
+more to a general engagement, and it proved decisive. Licin'ius was
+entirely defeated, and pursued by Con'stantine into Nicome'dia, where
+he surrendered himself up to the victor; having first obtained an oath
+that his life should be spared, and that he should be permitted to
+pass the remainder of his days in retirement. 7. This, however,
+Con'stantine shortly after broke; for either fearing his designs, or
+finding him actually engaged in fresh conspiracies, he commanded him
+to be put to death, together with Mar'tian, his general, who some time
+before had been created Cæsar.
+
+8. Con'stantine being thus become sole monarch, resolved to establish
+Christianity on so sure a basis that no new revolution should shake
+it. He commanded that, in all the provinces of the empire, the orders
+of the bishops should he implicitly obeyed. He called also a general
+council, in order to repress the heresies that had already crept
+into the church, particularly that of A'rius. 9. To this council, at
+which he presided in person, repaired about three hundred and eighteen
+bishops, besides a multitude of presbyters and deacons; who all,
+except about seventeen, concurred in condemning the tenets of A'rius,
+who, with his associates, was banished into a remote part of the
+empire.
+
+10. Thus he restored universal tranquillity to his dominions, but was
+not able to ward off calamities of a more domestic nature. As the
+wretched historians of this period are entirely at variance with each
+other, it is not easy to explain the motives which induced him to put
+his wife Faus'ta, and his son Cris'pus, to death.
+
+11. But it is supposed, that all the good he did was not equal to the
+evil the empire sustained by his transferring the imperial seat from
+Rome to Byzan'tium, or Constantino'ple, as it was afterwards called.
+12. Whatever might have been the reasons which induced him to this
+undertaking; whether it was because he was offended at some affronts
+he had received at Rome, or that he supposed Constantino'ple more in
+the centre of the empire, or that he thought the eastern parts more
+required his presence, experience has shown that they were all weak
+and groundless. 13. The empire had long before been in a most
+declining state: but this, in a great measure, gave precipitation to
+its downfall. After this, it never resumed its former splendour, but,
+like a flower transplanted into a foreign clime, languished by
+degrees, and at length sunk into nothing.
+
+14. At first, his design was to build a city, which he might make the
+capital of the world: and for this purpose he made choice of a
+situation at Chal'cedon, in Asia Minor; but we are told that, in
+laying out the ground plan, an eagle caught up the line, and flew with
+it over to Byzan'tium, a city which lay on the opposite side of the
+Bosphorus. 15. Here, therefore, it was thought expedient to fix the
+seat of empire; and, indeed, nature seemed to have formed it with all
+the conveniences, and all the beauties which might induce power to
+make it the seat of residence.
+
+16. It was situated on a plain, that rose gently from the water: it
+commanded that strait which unites the Mediterranean with the Euxine
+sea, and was furnished with all the advantages which the most
+indulgent climate could bestow.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1084. A.D. 330.]
+
+17. The city, therefore, he beautified with the most magnificent
+edifices; he divided it into fourteen regions; built a capitol,
+an amphitheatre, many churches, and other public works; and having
+thus rendered it equal to the magnificence of his first idea, he
+dedicated it in a very solemn manner to the God of martyrs; and in
+about two years after repaired thither with his whole court.
+
+18. This removal produced no immediate alteration in the government of
+the empire. The inhabitants of Rome, though with reluctance, submitted
+to the change; nor was there, for two or three years, any disturbance
+in the state, until at length the Goths, finding that the Romans had
+withdrawn all their garrisons along the Danube, renewed their inroads,
+and ravaged the country with unheard-of cruelty. 19. Con'stantine,
+however, soon repressed their incursions, and so straitened them, that
+nearly a hundred thousand of their number perished by cold and hunger.
+
+20. Another great error ascribed to him is, the dividing the empire
+among his sons. Con'stantine, the emperor's eldest son, commanded in
+Gaul and the western provinces; Constan'tius, the second, governed
+Africa and Illyr'icum; and Con'stans, the youngest, ruled in Italy.
+21. This division of the empire still further contributed to its
+downfall; for the united strength of the state being no longer brought
+to repress invasion, the barbarians fought with superior numbers, and
+conquered at last, though often defeated. When Con'stantine was above
+sixty years old, and had reigned about thirty, he found his health
+decline.
+
+22. His disorder, which was an ague, increasing, he went to
+Nicome'dia, where, finding himself without hopes of a recovery, he
+caused himself to be baptised. He soon after received the sacrament,
+and expired.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the state of the empire at this period?
+
+2. Was this peace lasting, and by whom was it broken?
+
+3. Was the contest likely to be vigorous?
+
+4. In what way did the two emperors prepare for the conflict?
+
+5. What was the result?
+
+6. Was this truce religiously observed?
+
+7. Did Constantine fulfil his engagement?
+
+8. What was Constantine's resolution on becoming sole monarch, and
+what steps did he take?
+
+9. By whom was it attended, and what was the result?
+
+10. Was he happy in his domestic relations? 11. Was the removal
+of the seat of the empire beneficial to the state?
+
+12. Were his reasons for doing so well grounded?
+
+13. What was the consequence?
+
+14. What was his original intention, and what induced him to alter it?
+
+15. Was it a Convenient spot?
+
+16. Describe its situation.
+
+17. What alteration did he make, and to whom was it dedicated?
+
+18. What was the immediate effect of this transfer?
+
+19. Were they vigorously opposed?
+
+20. Of what error is Constantine accused besides?
+
+21. What was the consequence of this division?
+
+22. Relate the particulars of his death.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Com'modus was the first emperor that was born in his father's
+reign, and the second that succeeded his father in the empire.
+
+[2] Being offended by the Alexan'drians, he commanded them to be put
+to the sword without distinction of sex, age, or condition; every
+house was filled with carcases, and the streets were obstructed with
+dead bodies; this was merely in revenge for some lampoons they had
+published against him.
+
+[3] A city of Bithyn'ia, in Asia Minor, opposite to Constantinople.
+
+[4] A Term generally applied to the children of brothers or sisters.
+
+[5] Now called Venice.
+
+[6] A'per signifies a boar.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Dr. Goldsmith having concluded his History too abruptly, it has been
+thought advisable to cancel his last Chapter, and substitute the
+following brief notice of the events which occurred from the death of
+Constantine to the final extinction of the Empire of the West._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE TO THE RE-UNION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+UNDER THEODOSIUS THE GREAT.
+
+                        Talents, angel bright.
+  If wanting worth, are shining instruments
+  In false ambition's hands, to finish faults
+  Illustrious, and give infamy renown.--_Young_.
+
+1. The character of the prince who removed the seat of empire and made
+a complete revolution in the civil and religious institutions of his
+country, is naturally one on which the opinions of historians are
+divided, according to their sentiments respecting the great changes
+that he effected. The heathen writers describe him as a monster of
+tyranny; the Christian fathers are anxious to conceal his faults and
+exaggerate his virtues, as if the nature of Christianity was in some
+degree affected by the character of its first and greatest patron. The
+truth is, that the character of Constantine, like that of other great
+conquerors, varied with the circumstances of his life. While engaged
+in the contest for empire, while employed in making unparalleled
+political changes, he displayed the fortitude of a hero, and wisdom of
+a legislator; but when complete success reduced him to inactivity,
+when his vigorous mind was no longer stimulated by fear or hope,
+prosperity roused all his bad passions by affording an opportunity for
+their indulgence; and the virtues which had insured victory
+disappeared when there was no longer any stimulus to rouse them into
+action. The fourteen years of profound peace that preceded the
+emperor's death, form a period of great external splendour, but of
+real and rapid decay; the court was distinguished at once by avarice
+and prodigality; the money raised by heavy taxes, unknown in former
+ages, was lavished on unworthy favourites or wasted in idle
+exhibitions of magnificence. 2. A mind relaxed by prosperity is
+peculiarly open to suspicion; the ears of the monarch were greedily
+lent to every tale brought to him by malignant spies and informers;
+such encouragement increased the number of those wretches; every
+street and almost every house in the capital, contained some one ever
+on the watch to pick up any unguarded expression which might be
+distorted into treason or sedition. It was not likely that a monarch
+who had consented to the murder of his own son, on the most groundless
+charges, would be more merciful to those who had no natural claims
+upon his forbearance; execution followed execution with fearful
+rapidity, until the bonds of society were broken, and every man
+dreaded his neighbour, lest by misinterpreting a word or look, he
+should expose him to the indiscriminate cruelty of the sovereign.
+
+3. The example of their father's tyranny produced an effect on the
+minds of his sons, which no education, however excellent or judicious,
+could remove. Pious Christian pastors, learned philosophers, and
+venerable sages of the law, were employed to instruct the three
+princes, Constanti'ne, Constan'tius, and Con'stans; but the effects of
+their labours never appeared in the lives of their pupils.
+
+4. For some reasons which it is now impossible to discover, the great
+Constantine had raised two of his nephews to the rank of princes, and
+placed them on an equality with his own children. Before the emperor's
+body was consigned to the tomb, this impolitic arrangement brought
+destruction on the entire Flavian family. A forged scroll was produced
+by the bishop of Nicome'dia, purporting to be Constantine's last will,
+in which he accused his brothers of having given him poison, and
+besought his sons to avenge his death. 5. Constan'tius eagerly
+embraced such an opportunity of destroying the objects of his
+jealousy; his two uncles, seven of his cousins, the patrician
+Opta'lus, who married the late emperor's sister, and the prefect
+Abla'vius, whose chief crime was enormous wealth, were subjected to a
+mock trial, and delivered to the executioner. Of so numerous a
+family Gal'lus and Julian alone were spared; they owed their
+safety to their concealment, until the rage of the assassins had
+abated. 6. After this massacre, the three brothers, similar in name,
+and more alike in crime, proceeded to divide their father's dominions:
+Constantine took for his share the new capital and the central
+provinces; Thrace and the East were assigned to Constan'tius;
+Con'stans received Italy, Africa, and the western Illy'ricum.
+
+7. The weakness produced by this division encouraged the enemies of
+the Romans, whom the dread of Constantine's power had hitherto kept
+quiet, to take up arms. Of these the most formidable was Sa'por king
+of Persia. 8. The abilities of Sapor showed that he merited a throne;
+he had scarcely arrived at maturity when he led an army against Tha'ir
+king of Arabia, who had harassed Persia during his minority; the
+expedition was completely successful. Tha'ir was slain, and the
+kingdom subdued. The young conqueror did not abuse his victory; he
+treated the vanquished with such clemency, that the Arabs gave him the
+title of _Doulacnaf_ or protector of the nation.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 338.]
+
+9. On the death of Constantine, Sa'por invaded the eastern provinces
+of the Roman empire; he was vigorously opposed by Constan'tius, and
+the war was protracted during several years with varying fortune. At
+the battle of Sin'gara, the Romans surprised the Persian camp, but
+were in their turn driven from it with great slaughter by the troops
+which Sapor had rallied. The eldest son of the Persian king was,
+however, brought off as a prisoner by the Romans, and the barbarous
+Constan'tius ordered him to be scourged, tortured, and publicly
+executed. 10. Though Sa'por had been victorious in the field, he
+failed in his chief design of seizing the Roman fortresses in
+Mesopota'mia; during twelve years he repeatedly besieged Ni'sibis,
+which had been long the great eastern bulwark of the empire, but was
+invariably baffled by the strength of the place, and the valour of the
+garrison. At length both parties became wearied of a struggle which
+exhausted their resources, and new enemies appearing, they resolved to
+conclude a peace. Sa'por returned home to repel an invasion of the
+Scythians; Constan'tius, by the death of his two brothers, found
+himself involved in a civil war which required his undivided
+attention.
+
+11. Constan'tine had scarcely been seated on his throne, when he
+attempted to wrest from Con'stans some of the provinces which had
+been assigned as his portion. He rashly led his army over the Julian
+Alps, and devastated the country round Aquile'ia where, falling into
+an ambuscade, he perished ingloriously. Con'stans seized on the
+inheritance of the deceased prince, and retained it during ten years,
+obstinately refusing to give any share to his brother Constan'tius.
+12. But the tyranny of Con'stans at last became insupportable.
+Magnen'tius, an enterprising general, proclaimed himself emperor, and
+his cause was zealously embraced by the army. Con'stans was totally
+unprepared for this insurrection; deserted by all except a few
+favourites, whom dread of the popular hatred they had justly incurred
+prevented from desertion, he attempted to escape into Spain, but was
+overtaken at the foot of the Pyrenees, and murdered. 13. The
+prefectures of Gaul and Italy cheerfully submitted to the usurpation
+of Magnen'tius; but the legions of Illyr'icum elected their general,
+Vetra'nio, emperor, and his usurpation was sanctioned by the princess
+Constanti'na, who, regardless of her brother's rights, placed the
+diadem upon his head with her own hands. 14. The news of these events
+hastened the return of Constan'tius to Europe; on his arrival at the
+capital, he received embassies from the two usurpers, offering terms
+of accommodation; he rejected the terms of Magnen'tius with disdain,
+but entered into a negociation with Vetra'nio. The Illyrian leader,
+though a good general, was a bad politician; he allowed himself to be
+duped by long discussions, until the greater part of his army had been
+gained over by Constan'tius; he then consented to a personal
+interview, and had the mortification to see his soldiers, with one
+accord, range themselves under the banners of their lawful sovereign.
+Vetra'nio immediately fell at the feet of Constan'tius, and tendered
+his homage, which was cheerfully accepted; he was not only pardoned,
+but rewarded; the city of Pru'sa, in Bythnia, was allotted to him as a
+residence, and a pension assigned for his support. 15. The war against
+Magnen'tius was maintained with great obstinacy, but at first with
+little success; the emperor was confined in his fortified camp, while
+the troops of the usurper swept the surrounding country, and captured
+several important posts. Constan'tius was so humbled, that he even
+proposed a treaty, but the terms on which Magnen'tius insisted were so
+insulting, that the emperor determined to encounter the hazard of a
+battle. Scarcely had he formed this resolution, when his army was
+strengthened by the accession of Sylva'nus, a general of some
+reputation, who, with a large body of cavalry, deserted from the
+enemy.
+
+16. The decisive battle between the competitors for the empire, was
+fought under the walls of Mur'sa, a city on the river Drave.
+Magnen'tius attempted to take the place by storm, but was repulsed;
+and almost at the same moment, the imperial legions were seen
+advancing to raise the siege. The army of Magnen'tius consisted of the
+western legions that had already acquired fame in the wars of Gaul;
+with battalions of Germans and other barbarous tribes, that had of
+late years been incorporated with the regular forces. In addition to
+the imperial guards, Constan'tius had several troops of those oriental
+archers, whose skill with the bow was so justly celebrated; but far
+the most formidable part of his army were his mail-clad cuirassiers,
+whose scaly armour, and ponderous lances, made their charge almost
+irresistible. The cavalry on the emperor's left wing commenced the
+engagement, and broke through the Gallic legions in the first charge;
+the hardy veterans again rallied, were again charged, and again
+broken; at length, before they could form their lines, the light
+cavalry of the second rank rode, sword in hand, through the gaps made
+by the cuirassiers, and completed their destruction. Meantime, the
+Germans and barbarians stood exposed, with almost naked bodies, to the
+destructive shafts of the oriental archers; whole troops, stung with
+anguish and despair, threw themselves into the rapid stream of the
+Drave, and perished. Ere the sun had set, the army of Magnen'tius was
+irretrievably ruined; fifty-four thousand of the vanquished were
+slain, and the loss of the conquerors is said to have been even
+greater.
+
+17. From this battle the ruin of the Roman empire may be dated; the
+loss of one hundred thousand of its best and bravest soldiers could
+not be repaired, and never again did any emperor possess a veteran
+army equal to that which fell on the fatal plains of Mur'sa. The
+defeat of Magnen'tius induced the Italian and African provinces to
+return to their allegiance; the Gauls, wearied out by the exactions
+which distress forced the usurper to levy, refused to acknowledge his
+authority, and at length his own soldiers raised the cry of "God save
+Constan'tius." To avoid the disgrace of a public execution,
+Magnen'tius committed suicide, and several members of his family
+imitated his example. The victor punished with relentless severity all
+who had shared in the guilt of this rebellion; and several who had
+been compelled to join in it by force shared the fate of those by
+whom it had been planned.
+
+18. The Roman, empire was now once more united under a single monarch;
+but as that prince was wholly destitute of merit, his victory served
+only to establish the reign of worthless favourites. Of these the most
+distinguished was the chamberlain, Euse'bius, whose influence was so
+great that he was considered the master of the emperor; and to whose
+instigation many of the crimes committed by Constan'tius must be
+attributed.
+
+19 Gal'lus and Ju'lian, who had escaped in the general massacre of the
+Flavian family, were detained as prisoners of state in a strong
+castle, which had once been the residence of the kings of Cappado'cia.
+Their education had not been neglected, and they had been assigned a
+household proportionate to the dignity of their birth. At length the
+emergencies of the state compelled Constan'tius to nominate an
+associate in the government of the empire; and Gal'lus now in the
+twenty-fifth year of his age, was summoned from his retirement,
+invested with the title of Cæsar, and married to the princess
+Constan'tina. 20. The latter circumstance proved his ruin; stimulated
+by the cruel ambition of his wife, he committed deeds of tyranny,
+which alienated the affections of his subjects, and acts bordering on
+treason, that roused the jealousy of Constan'tius. He was summoned to
+appear at the imperial court to explain his conduct, but was seized on
+his journey, made a close prisoner, and transmitted to Po'la a town in
+Ist'ria, where he was put to death.
+
+21. Julian, the last remnant of the Flavian family, was, through the
+powerful intercession of the empress, spared, and permitted to
+pursue his studies in Athens. In that city, where the Pagan philosophy
+was still publicly taught, the future emperor imbibed the doctrines of
+the heathens, and thus acquired the epithet of Apostate, by which he
+is unenviably known to posterity. Julian was soon recalled from his
+retirement, and elevated to the station which his unfortunate brother
+had enjoyed. His investiture with the royal purple took place at
+Milan, whither Constantius had proceeded to quell a new insurrection
+in the western provinces.
+
+22. Before the emperor returned to the east, he determined to revisit
+the ancient capital; and Rome, after an interval of more than thirty
+years, became for a brief space the residence the sovereign. He
+signalized his visit by presenting to the city an obelisk, which at a
+vast expense he procured to be transported from Egypt. 23. The
+renewed efforts of the Persians and other enemies of the empire in the
+East, recalled Constan'tius to Constantinople, while Julian was
+employed in driving from Gaul the barbarous tribes by which it had
+been invaded. The conduct of the young Cæsar, both as a soldier and a
+statesman, fully proved that literary habits do not disqualify a
+person from discharging the duties of active life; he subdued the
+enemies that devastated the country, and forced them to seek refuge in
+their native forests; he administered the affairs of state with so
+much wisdom, temperance, and equity, that he acquired the enthusiastic
+love of his subjects, and richly earned the admiration of posterity.
+24. The unexpected glory obtained by Julian, awakened the jealousy of
+Constan'tius; he sent to demand from him a large body of forces, under
+the pretence that reinforcements were wanting in the East; but the
+soldiers refused to march, and Julian, after some affected delays,
+sanctioned their disobediance. A long negociation, in which there was
+little sincerity on either side, preceded any hostile step; both at
+length began to put their armies in motion, but the horrors of civil
+war were averted by the timely death of Constan'tius, who fell a
+victim to fever, aggravated by his impatience, at a small village near
+Tar'sus in Cili'cia.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the character of Constantine the Great?
+
+2. Did any evil result from the employment of spies?
+
+3. In what manner were the sons of Constantine educated?
+
+4. What conspiracy was formed against part of the imperial family?
+
+5. Did any of the Flavian family escape from the massacre?
+
+6. How was the empire divided between the sons of Constantine?
+
+7. Who was the most formidable enemy of the empire?
+
+8. How did the king of Persia behave in the Arabian war?
+
+9. What were the chief events in the war between Sapor and
+Constantius? 10. How were Sapor and Constantius forced to make peace?
+
+11. What was the fate of the younger Constantine?
+
+12. By whom was Constans dethroned?
+
+13. What parties embraced the cause of Vetranio?
+
+14. How did Constantius treat the Illyrian general?
+
+15. Was Magnentius deserted by any of his forces?
+
+16. What were the circumstances of the battle of Mursa?
+
+17. What important results were occasioned by this great battle?
+
+18. Who was the prime minister of Constantius?
+
+19. Whom did the emperor select as an associate?
+
+20. How was Gallus brought to an untimely end?
+
+21. Where was Julian educated?
+
+22. Did Constantius visit Rome?
+
+23. How did Julian conduct himself in Gaul?
+
+24. What led to the war between Julian and Constantius?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  To him, as to the bursting levin,
+  Brief, bright, resistless course was given,
+  Till burst the bolt on yonder shore,
+  Burn'd, blaz'd, destroy'd--and was no more.--_Scott_.
+
+1. Julian was in his thirty-second year when by the death of his
+cousin he became undisputed sovereign of the Roman empire; his worst
+error was his apostacy from Christianity; he hated the religion he had
+deserted, and laboured strenuously to substitute in its place an idle
+system which combined the most rational part of the old heathen system
+with the delusive philosophy of the schools. Vanity was his besetting
+sin; he chose to be considered a philosopher rather than a sovereign,
+and to acquire that title he thought fit to reject the decencies of
+this life, and the best guide to that which is to come. A treatise is
+extant from Julian's pen, in which he expatiates with singular
+complacency on the filth of his beard, the length of his nails, and
+the inky blackness of his hands, as if cleanliness was inconsistent
+with the philosophic character! In every other respect, the conduct of
+Julian merits high praise; he was just, merciful, and tolerant; though
+frequently urged to become a persecutor, he allowed his subjects that
+freedom of opinion which he claimed for himself, unlike Constan'tius,
+who, having embraced the Arian heresy, treated his Catholic subjects
+with the utmost severity. 2. But, though Julian would not inflict
+punishment for a difference of opinion, he enacted several
+disqualifying laws, by which he laboured to deprive the Christians of
+wealth, of knowledge, and of power; he ordered their schools to be
+closed, and he jealously excluded them from all civil and military
+offices. 3. To destroy the effects of that prophecy in the Gospel to
+which Christians may appeal as a standing miracle in proof of
+revelation,--the condition of the Jews,--Julian determined to rebuild
+the temple of Jerusalem, and restore the children of Israel to the
+land of their fathers. Historians worthy of credit inform us, that his
+plan was defeated by a direct miraculous interposition, and there are
+few historical facts supported by more decisive testimony; but even if
+the miracle be denied, the prophecy must be considered as having
+received decisive confirmation, from the acknowledged fact, that the
+emperor entertained such a design, and was unable to effect its
+accomplishment.
+
+[Illustration: Julian the Apostate, ordering the Christian schools to
+be closed.]
+
+4. The mutual hatred of the Pagans and Christians would probably have
+rekindled the flames of civil war, had not Julian fallen in an
+expedition against the Persians. 5. The emperor triumphantly advanced
+through the dominions of Sa'por as far as the Ti'gris; but the
+Asiatics, though defeated in the field, adopted means of defence more
+terrible to an invader than arms. They laid waste the country,
+destroyed the villages, and burned the crops in the Roman line of
+march; a burning sun weakened the powers of the western veterans, and
+when famine was added to the severity of the climate, their sufferings
+became intolerable. 6. With a heavy heart Julian at last gave orders
+to commence a retreat, and led his exhausted soldiers back over the
+desert plains which they had already passed with so much difficulty.
+The retrograde march was terribly harassed by the light cavalry of the
+Persians, a species of troops peculiarly fitted for desultory warfare.
+The difficulties of the Romans increased at every step, and the
+harassing attacks of their pursuers became more frequent and more
+formidable; at length, in a skirmish which almost deserved the name of
+a battle, Julian was mortally wounded, and with his loss the Romans
+dearly purchased a doubtful victory.
+
+7. In the doubt and dismay which followed the death of Ju'lian, a few
+voices saluted Jo'vian, the first of the imperial domestics, with the
+title of emperor, and the army ratified the choice. The new sovereign
+successfully repelled some fresh attacks of the Persians, but
+despairing of final success, he entered into a treaty with
+Sa'por, and purchased a peace, or rather a long truce of thirty years,
+by the cession of several frontier provinces.
+
+[Illustration: Jovian issuing the edict in favour of Christianity.]
+
+8. The first care of Jo'vian was to fulfil the stipulated articles;
+the Roman garrisons and colonies so long settled in the frontier towns
+that they esteemed them as their native soil, were withdrawn; and the
+Romans beheld with regret the omen of their final destruction in the
+first dismemberment of the empire. The first edict in the new reign
+contained a repeal of Julian's disqualifying laws, and a grant of
+universal toleration. This judicious measure at once showed how
+ineffectual had been the efforts of the late emperor to revive the
+fallen spirit of paganism; the temples were immediately deserted, the
+sacrifices neglected, the priests left alone at their altars; those
+who, to gratify the former sovereign assumed the dress and title of
+philosophers, were assailed by such storms of ridicule, that they laid
+aside the designation, shaved their beards, and were soon
+undistinguished in the general mass of society. 9. Jo'vian did not
+long survive this peaceful triumph of Christianity; after a reign of
+eight months, he was found dead in his bed, having been suffocated by
+the mephitic vapours which a charcoal fire extracted from the fresh
+plaster, on the walls of his apartment.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 364.]
+
+10. During ten days the Roman empire remained without a sovereign, but
+finally the soldiers elevated to the imperial purple, Valentinian, the
+son of count Gratian, an officer of distinguished merit. He chose as
+his associate in the government his brother Valens, whose only claim
+seems to have rested on fraternal affection; to him he entrusted the
+rich prefecture of the East, while he himself assumed the
+administration of the western provinces, and fixed the seat of his
+government at Milan. 11. Though in other respects cruel, Valentinian
+was remarkable for maintaining a system of religious toleration; but
+Valens was far from pursuing such a laudable course. He had imbibed
+the errors of Arius, and bitterly persecuted all who remained faithful
+to the Catholic doctrines. By this unwise conduct he provoked a
+formidable rebellion, which was headed by Proco'pius, an able general,
+whom unjust persecution had stimulated to revolt. 12. The success of
+the usurper was at first so great, that Va'lens was ready to yield up
+his throne; but being dissuaded from this inglorious resolution, he
+entrusted the conduct of the war to the aged prefect Sallust, who had
+twice refused the imperial diadem. The followers of Proco'pius soon
+deserted to those leaders whose names were endeared to their
+recollections by the remembrance of former glories; and the
+unfortunate leader, forsaken by all, was made prisoner and delivered
+to the executioner.
+
+13. In the mean time, Valenti'nian was engaged in a desperate warfare
+with the German and other barbarous nations, who had recovered from
+the losses which they had suffered under Ju'lian. On every frontier of
+the western empire hordes of enemies appeared, eager for plunder,
+regardless of their own lives, and merciless to those of others. 14.
+The Picts and Scots rushed from the mountains of Caledo'nia upon the
+colonies of North Britain, and devastated the country with fire and
+sword, almost to the walls of London. The task of quelling these
+incursions was entrusted to the gallant Theodo'sius, and the event
+proved that Valentinian could not have made a better choice. In the
+course of two campaigns, the invaders were driven back to their
+forests, and a Roman fleet sweeping the coasts of Britain, made them
+tremble for the safety of their own retreats.
+
+15. The success of the emperor against the Saxons, the Franks, the
+Alleman'ni[1], the Qua'di, and other tribes on the Rhine and Danube,
+was not less conspicuous than that of Theodo'sius in Britain. 16. The
+Qua'di, humbled by a severe defeat, sent ambassadors to deprecate his
+displeasure; but while Valenti'nian was angrily upbraiding the
+deputies for their unprovoked hostility, he ruptured a blood-vessel
+and died almost instantaneously. He was succeeded by his sons Gra'tian
+and Valenti'nian II.
+
+17. A much more important change took place in the eastern world; the
+first admission of the barbarian tribes into the empire, which
+they finally destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: The body of Valens, found upon the field of battle.]
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 376.]
+
+The nation of the Goths had been from remote ages settled on the banks
+of the Danube, and were by that river divided into two nations, the
+Ostrogoths on the east, and the Visigoths on the west. They had for
+many years enjoyed the blessings of profound peace under the
+government of their king Herman'ric, when they were suddenly alarmed
+by the appearance of vast hordes of unknown enemies on their northern
+and eastern frontiers. These were the Huns, a branch of the great
+Mongolian race, which, from the earliest time, had possessed the vast
+and wild plains of Tartary. Terrified by the numbers, the strength,
+the strange features and implacable cruelty of such foes, the Goths
+deserted their country, almost without attempting opposition, and
+supplicated the emperor Va'lens to grant them a settlement in the
+waste lands of Thrace. This request was cheerfully granted, and the
+eastern empire was supposed to be strengthened by the accession of a
+million of valiant subjects, bound both by interest and gratitude to
+protect its frontiers.
+
+18. But the avarice of Va'lens and his ministers defeated these
+expectations; instead of relieving their new subjects, the Roman
+governors took advantage of their distress to plunder the remains of
+their shattered fortunes, and to reduce their children to slavery.
+Maddened by such oppression, the Goths rose in arms, and spread
+desolation over the fertile plains of Thrace. Va'lens summoned his
+nephew, Gratian, to his assistance; but before the emperor of the west
+arrived, he imprudently engaged the Goths near Adrianople, and with
+the greater part of his army fell on the field. 19. This was the
+most disastrous defeat which the Romans had sustained for several
+centuries; and there was reason to dread that it would encourage a
+revolt of the Gothic slaves in the eastern provinces, which must
+terminate in the ruin of the empire. To prevent such a catastrophe,
+the senate of Constantinople ordered a general massacre of these
+helpless mortals, and their atrocious edict was put into immediate
+execution. 20. The Goths attempted to besiege both Adrianople and
+Constantinople, but, ignorant of the art of attacking fortified
+places, they were easily repelled; but they however succeeded in
+forcing their way through the Thracian mountains, and spread
+themselves over the provinces to the west, as far as the Adriatic sea
+and the confines of Italy. The march of the emperor Gratian had been
+delayed by the hostility of the Alleman'ni, whom he subdued in two
+bloody engagements; but as he advanced towards Adrianople, fame
+brought the news of his uncle's defeat and death, which he found
+himself unable to revenge.
+
+21. Feeling that the affairs of the East required the direction of a
+mind more energetic than his own, he determined to invest with the
+imperial purple, Theodo'sius, the son of that general who had rescued
+Britain from the barbarians. How great must have been his confidence
+in the fidelity of his new associate, who had a father's death to
+revenge; for the elder Theodo'sius, notwithstanding his splendid
+services, had fallen a victim to the jealous suspicions of the
+emperor!
+
+22. The reign of Theodo'sius in the East lasted nearly sixteen years,
+and was marked by a display of unusual vigour and ability. He broke
+the power of the Goths by many severe defeats, and disunited their
+leading tribes by crafty negociations. But the continued drain on the
+population, caused by the late destructive wars, compelled him to
+recruit his forces among the tribes of the barbarians, and a change
+was thus made in the character and discipline of the Roman army, which
+in a later age produced the most calamitous consequences. The
+exuberant zeal, which led him to persecute the Arians and the pagans,
+occasioned some terrible convulsions, which distracted the empire, and
+were not quelled without bloodshed. He, however, preserved the
+integrity of the empire, and not a province was lost during his
+administration.
+
+23. The valour which Gratian had displayed in the early part of his
+life, rendered the indolence and luxury to which he abandoned himself,
+after the appointment of Theodo'sius, more glaring. The general
+discontent of the army induced Max'imus, the governor of Britain, to
+raise the standard of revolt, and, passing over to the continent, he
+was joined by the greater part of the Gallic legions. When this
+rebellion broke out Gratian was enjoying the sports of the field in
+the neighbourhood of Paris, and did not discover his danger until it
+was too late to escape. He attempted to save his life by flight, but
+was overtaken by the emissaries of the usurper, near Lyons, and
+assassinated. 24. Theodo'sius was induced to make peace with Max'imus,
+on condition that the latter should content himself with the
+prefecture of Gaul, and should not invade the territories of the
+younger Valentin'ian. 25. Ambition hurried the faithless usurper to
+his ruin; having by perfidy obtained possession of the passes of the
+Alps, he led an overwhelming army into Italy, and Valenti'nian, with
+his mother Justi'na, were scarcely able, by a hasty flight, to escape
+to the friendly court of Theodo'sius.
+
+26. The emperor of the East readily embraced the cause of the
+fugitives; the numerous troops of barbarian cavalry which he had taken
+into pay, enabled him to proceed with a celerity which baffled all
+calculation. 27. Before Maximus could make any preparations for his
+reception, Theodosius had completely routed his army, and was already
+at the gates of Aquilei'a, where the usurper had taken refuge. The
+garrison, secretly disinclined to the cause of Maximus, made but a
+faint resistance, the town was taken, and the unfortunate ruler led as
+a captive into the presence of his conqueror, by whom he was delivered
+to the executioner.
+
+Theodo'sius, having re-established the authority of the youthful
+Valentin'ian, returned home. But the emperor of the West did not long
+enjoy his restored throne; he was murdered by Arbogas'tes, his prime
+minister, who dreaded that the abilities displayed by the young prince
+would enable him, when arrived to maturity, to shake off the authority
+of an unprincipled servant. 28. The assassin was afraid himself to
+assume the purple, but he procured the election of Euge'nius, a man
+not wholly unworthy of empire. Theodo'sius was called by these events
+a second time to Italy; he passed the Alps, but found his further
+progress impeded by the judicious disposition which Arbogas'tes had
+made of his forces. Defeated in his first attack, Theodo'sius renewed
+the engagement on the following day, and being aided by the seasonable
+revolt of some Italian legions, obtained a complete victory.
+Euge'nius was taken prisoner, and put to death by the soldiers.
+Arbogas'tes, after wandering some time in the mountains, lost all hope
+of escape, and terminated his life by suicide.
+
+29. The empire was thus once more reunited under the government of a
+single sovereign; but he was already stricken by the hand of death.
+The fatigues of the late campaign proved too much for a constitution
+already broken by the alternate pleasures of the palace and the toils
+of the camp; four months after the defeat of Euge'nius, he died at
+Milan, universally lamented.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the character of Julian?
+
+2. To what disqualifications did he subject the Christians?
+
+3. How was Julian frustrated in his attempt to weaken the prophetic
+evidence of Christianity?
+
+4. How was a civil contest between the Pagans and Christians averted?
+
+5. What success had Julian in the Persian invasion?
+
+6. How did Julian die?
+
+7. Who succeeded Julian?
+
+8. What were the most important occurrences in the reign of Jovian?
+
+9. What caused Jovian's death?
+
+10. Who were the successors of Jovian?
+
+11. How did Valens provoke a revolt?
+
+12. By what means was the rebellion of Procopius suppressed?
+
+13. What barbarous nations attacked the Roman empire?
+
+14. In what state was Britain at this period?
+
+15. Over what enemies did the emperor triumph?
+
+16. What occasioned the death of Valentinian?
+
+17. What caused the introduction of the Goths into the Roman empire?
+
+18. How did the imprudence of Valens cause his destruction?
+
+19. What atrocious edict was issued by the senate of Constantinople?
+
+20. How was Gratian prevented from avenging his uncle's death?
+
+21. To whom did Gratian entrust the eastern provinces?
+
+22. How did Theodosius administer the government of the East?
+
+23. By whom was Gratian deposed and slain?
+
+24. On what conditions did Theodosius make peace with Maximus?
+
+25. Were these conditions observed?
+
+26. How did the war between Theodosius and Maximus terminate?
+
+27. Did Valentinian long survive his restoration?
+
+28. How did Theodosius act on the news of Valentinian's murder?
+
+29. What caused the death of Theodosius?
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] From this powerful tribe Germany is still called, by the French,
+_Allemagne_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF THEODOSIUS TO THE SUBVERSION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE.
+
+  With eye of flame, and voice of fear,
+  He comes, the breaker of the spear,
+  The scorner of the shield!--_Anon._
+
+1. The memory of their father's virtues protected the feeble youth of
+Arca'dius and Hono'rius, the sons of Theodo'sius; by the unanimous
+consent of mankind, they were saluted emperors of the East and West,
+and between them was made the final and permanent division of the
+Roman empire. Though both parts were never re-united under a single
+ruler, they continued for several centuries to be considered as one
+empire, and this opinion produced important consequences even in a
+late period of the middle ages. The dominions of Arca'dius extended
+from the lower Danube to the confines of Ethiopia and Persia;
+including Thrace, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. Hono'rius, a
+youth in his eleventh year, received the nominal sovereignty of Italy,
+Africa, Gaul, Spain, and Britain, with the provinces of No'ricum,
+Panno'nia, and Dalma'tia. The great and martial prefecture of
+Illyr'icum was divided equally between the two princes, the boundary
+line of whose dominions consequently nearly coincided with that which
+separates the Austrian states from the Turkish provinces. 2. The
+Western empire, to the history of which we must now confine ourselves,
+though equal to the Eastern in extent, wealth, and population, was
+incomparably weaker, and already appeared rapidly tending to decay.
+The Caledonians in Britain, and the German tribes on the northern
+frontiers, harassed the imperial troops by frequent incursions; on the
+east, the Goths were hourly becoming more formidable, and the African
+provinces were threatened by the Moors. 3. The internal state of the
+empire furnished little ground for hope that these various enemies
+could be subdued; the principle of union no longer existed; the proud
+title of Roman citizen was an empty name, Rome itself had ceased to be
+the metropolis, and was now only protected by the memory of her former
+greatness.
+
+4. Stil'icho, a general of superior abilities, and a statesman of
+profound wisdom, acted as the guardian of Hono'rius. He was descended
+from the perfidious race of the Vandals, and unfortunately possessed,
+in an eminent degree, the cunning, treachery, and cruelty that
+characterised his nation. The administration of the Eastern empire was
+entrusted by Arca'dius, to Rufi'nus, who possessed all the bad
+qualities of Stil'icho without his redeeming virtues. The ministers of
+the two empires hated each other most cordially, and each secretly
+sought to remove his powerful rival; but the superior craft of
+Stil'icho, and his great influence over the soldiers, made him
+conqueror. 5. He was ordered to lead into the East a fair proportion
+of the army which Theodo'sius had assembled, and in obedience to the
+requisition, he marched towards Constantinople, at the head of the
+Gothic legions. The approach of his great rival with a powerful army
+alarmed the timid Rufi'nus; he obtained a peremptory edict from
+Arca'dius, commanding Stil'icho to return to Italy, and the
+promptitude with which the order was obeyed lulled the Eastern
+minister into fatal negligence. The troops arrived near
+Constantinople, under the guidance of Gai'nas a Gothic leader, and the
+emperor, accompanied by his minister, came out to welcome and review
+the soldiers. As Rufi'nus rode along the ranks, endeavouring to
+conciliate favour by studied courtesy, the wings gradually advanced,
+and enclosed the devoted victim within the fatal circle of their arms.
+Before he was aware of his danger, Gai'nas gave the signal of death; a
+soldier rushing forward plunged his sword into his breast, and the
+bleeding corpse fell at the very feet of the alarmed emperor. 6. His
+mangled body was treated with shocking indignity, and his wife and
+daughter would have shared his fate, had they not placed themselves
+under the protection of religion, and sought refuge in the sanctuary.
+
+7. Stil'icho derived no advantage from this crime which he had
+planned, but not executed; Arca'dius chose for his new minister,
+Eutro'pius, one of his servants, and Gai'nas declared himself the
+determined enemy of his former general.
+
+8. The national hatred between the Greeks and the Romans was excited
+by the rival ministers, and thus at a moment when union alone would
+delay ruin, the subjects of Arca'dius and Hono'rius were induced to
+regard each other not only as foreigners, but as enemies. 9. The
+revolt of Gil'do, in Africa, under the pretence of transferring his
+allegiance from the Western to the Eastern empire, was sanctioned by
+the court of Constantinople. Such an event was peculiarly alarming, as
+Italy at the time imported most of the corn necessary to the
+subsistence of the people, from the African provinces. The vigour of
+Stil'icho warded off the danger; he sent a small but veteran army
+into Africa, before which Gildo's hosts of unarmed and undisciplined
+barbarians fled almost without a blow. The usurper was taken and
+executed; his partizans were persecuted with merciless impolicy.
+
+10. The Goths, who had remained quiet during the reign of the great
+Theodo'sius, disdained submission to his unwarlike successors; under
+the pretence that the subsidy prudently paid them by the late emperor
+was withheld, they raised the standard of revolt, and chose for their
+leader Al'aric, the most formidable enemy that the Romans had hitherto
+encountered. Instead of confining his depredations to the northern
+provinces, already wasted by frequent incursions, Alaric resolved to
+invade Greece, where the din of arms had not been heard for centuries.
+11. The barbarian encountered little or no resistance, the memorable
+pass of Thermop'ylæ was abandoned by its garrison; Athens purchased
+inglorious safety by the sacrifice of the greater part of its wealth;
+the Corinthian isthmus was undefended, and the Goths ravaged without
+opposition the entire Peloponne'sus. Unable to protect themselves, the
+Greeks sought the aid of Stilicho, and that great leader soon sailed
+to their assistance; he inflicted a severe defeat on the Goths, but
+neglected to improve his advantages; and before he could retrieve his
+error, news arrived that the faithless court of Constantinople had
+concluded a treaty of peace with Al'aric. Stilicho, of course,
+returned to Italy; while the eastern emperor, with incomprehensible
+folly, nominated the Gothic leader, master-general of eastern
+Illyr'icum.
+
+12. Italy soon excited the ambition and cupidity of Alaric; he
+determined to invade that country, and, after surmounting all
+impediments, appeared with his forces before the imperial city of
+Milan. The feeble Hono'rius would have fled with his effeminate court
+into some remote corner of Gaul, had not the indignant remonstrances
+of Stil'icho induced him to remain, until he could assemble forces
+sufficient to protect the empire. For this purpose the brave general
+hurried into Gaul, assembled the garrisons from the frontier towns,
+recalled a legion from Britain, and strengthened his forces by taking
+several German tribes into pay. 13. But before Stil'icho could return,
+the empire had been brought to the very brink of ruin; Hono'rius,
+affrighted by the approach of the Goths, fled from Milan to As'ta, and
+was there closely besieged. When the town was on the point of
+capitulating, the emperor was saved by the opportune arrival of
+Stil'icho, before whom Alaric retired. He was closely pursued, and the
+armies of the Romans and barbarians came to an engagement nearly on
+the same ground where Marius had so many years before defeated the
+Cimbri. 14. The Goths were completely beaten, and a second victory
+obtained over them near Vero'na seemed to insure the deliverance of
+Italy; but Al'aric was still formidable, and the favourable terms
+granted him by Stil'icho, proved, that in the opinion of that general,
+the Gothic king, though defeated, was unconquered.
+
+15. The late invasion so alarmed the timid Hono'rius, that he resolved
+to fix his residence in some remote and strong fortress; and for this
+purpose he selected Raven'na, an ancient city, but which had not
+previously obtained notoriety. 16. Before Italy had recovered from the
+terrors of the Gothic invasion, a new host of barbarians rushed from
+the shores of the Baltic, bore down before them all opposition in
+Germany and Gaul; and had passed the Alps, the Po, and the Apennines,
+ere an army could be assembled to resist them. 17. Radagai'sus, the
+leader of these hordes, was a more formidable enemy even than Alaric;
+the Goths had embraced Christianity, and their fierce passions were in
+some degree moderated by the mild precepts of the gospel; but
+Radagai'sus was a stranger to any religion but the cruel creed of his
+fathers, which taught that the favour of the gods could only be
+propitiated by human sacrifices. 18. The wealthy city of Florence was
+besieged by the barbarians, but its bishop, St. Ambrose, by his
+zealous exhortations, and by holding out the hope of divine
+assistance, prevented the garrison from yielding to despair. Stil'icho
+a second time earned the title of the deliverer of Italy; Radagai'sus
+was defeated and slain; but the remains of his forces escaped into
+Gaul, and spread desolation over that entire province, from which the
+garrisons had been withdrawn for the defence of Italy. 19. An usurper,
+named Constantine, about this time appeared in Britain, and soon
+established his minority both in Gaul and Spain, which had been
+virtually deserted by the emperor. Al'aric offered his services to
+repress the rebellion, and to purchase either his assistance or his
+forbearance, a large subsidy was voted to him by the senate, through
+the influence of Stil'icho. 20. But the reign of this great man was
+drawing fast to a close; Olym'pius, a miserable favourite, who owed
+his first elevation to Stil'icho, filled the emperor's mind with
+suspicion, and a secret resolution to destroy the minister was
+adopted. 21. By exciting the jealousy of the legions against the
+auxiliary forces that Stil'icho employed, Olym'pius was enabled to
+gain the army to his side, and the last great supporter of the Roman
+name fell by the swords of those soldiers whom he had so often led to
+victory. His friends, including the best and bravest generals of the
+army, shared his fate; many of them were racked, to extort from them a
+confession of a conspiracy which never existed; and their silence
+under the tortures at once proved their own innocence and that of
+their leader.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What division was made of the Roman empire between the sons of
+Theodosius?
+
+2. By what enemies was the Western empire assailed?
+
+3. What was the internal condition of the state?
+
+4. To what ministers did the emperors trust the administration?
+
+5. How did Stilicho prevail over Rufinus?
+
+6. What instances of savage cruelty were exhibited by the murderers of
+Rufinus?
+
+7. Did Stilicho derive any advantage from the death of his rival?
+
+8. What rivalry broke out between the subjects of the eastern and
+western empire?
+
+9. How did the revolt of Gildo in Africa end?
+
+10. Why did the Goths attack the eastern empire?
+
+11. How did the Gothic invasion of Greece end?
+
+12. Did the western emperor display any courage when Italy was
+invaded?
+
+13. How was Honorius saved from ruin?
+
+14. Was this defeat destructive of the Gothic power?
+
+15. Where did Honorius fix the seat of his government?
+
+16. What new hordes invaded Italy?
+
+17. Why were the northern barbarians more formidable than the Goths?
+
+18. How was Florence saved?
+
+19. On what occasion was a subsidy voted to Alaric?
+
+20. Who conspired against Stilicho?
+
+21. In what manner was Stilicho slain?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+      Time's immortal garlands twine
+  O'er desolation's mournful shrine.
+  Like youth's embrace around decline.--_Malcolm_.
+
+1. Al'aric, posted on the confines of Italy, watched the distractions
+of the peninsula with secret joy; he had been unwisely irritated by
+the delay of the subsidy which had formerly been promised him,
+and when payment was finally refused, he once more led his followers
+into Italy.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 408.]
+
+2. The feeble successors of Stil'icho had made no preparations for
+resistance; they retired with their master into the fortress of
+Raven'na, while the Goths, spreading ruin in their march, advanced to
+the very walls of Rome. Six hundred years had now elapsed since an
+enemy had appeared to threaten THE ETERNAL CITY; a worse foe than
+Hannibal was now at their gates, and the citizens were more disabled
+by luxury from attempting a defence, than their ancestors had been by
+the carnage of Can'næ.[1] 3. The strength of the walls deterred the
+Goth from attempting a regular siege, but he subjected the city to a
+strict blockade. Famine, and its usual attendant, pestilence, soon
+began to waste the miserable Romans; but even the extreme of misery
+could not induce them to sally forth, and try their fortune in the
+field. They purchased the retreat of Al'aric by the sacrifice of their
+wealth; and the victorious Goth formed his winter quarters in Tuscany,
+where his army was reinforced by more than forty thousand of his
+countrymen who had been enslaved by the Romans.
+
+4. The presence of a victorious leader, with one hundred thousand men,
+in the very centre of Italy, ought to have taught the imperial court
+at Raven'na prudence and moderation; but such was their incredible
+folly that they not only violated their engagements with Al'aric, but
+added personal insult to injury. Rome was once more besieged, and as
+Al'aric had seized the provisions at Os'tia, on which the citizens
+depended for subsistence, the Romans were forced to surrender at
+discretion. 5. At the instigation of the Gothic king, At'talus, the
+prefect of the city, was invested with the imperial purple, and
+measures were taken to compel Hono'rius to resign in his favour. But
+At'talus proved utterly unworthy of a throne, and after a brief reign
+was publicly degraded; the rest of his life was passed in obscurity
+under the protection of the Goths. 6. A favourable opportunity of
+effecting a peace was now offered, but it was again insolently
+rejected by the wretched Hono'rius, and a herald publicly proclaimed
+that in consequence of the guilt of Al'aric, he was for ever excluded
+from the friendship and alliance of the emperor.
+
+7. For the third time Al'aric proceeded to revenge the insults of
+the emperor on the unfortunate city of Rome. The trembling senate made
+some preparations for defence but they were rendered ineffectual by
+the treachery of a slave, who betrayed one of the gates to the Gothic
+legions. That city which had been for ages the mistress of the world,
+became the prey of ruthless barbarians, who spared, indeed, the
+churches and sanctuaries, but placed no other bound to their savage
+passions. For six successive days the Goths revelled in the sack of
+the city; at the end of that period they followed Al'aric to new
+conquests and new devastations. 8. The entire south of Italy rapidly
+followed the fate of the capital, and Al'aric determined to add Sicily
+to the list of his triumphs. Before, however, his army could pass the
+Strait, he was seized with an incurable disease, and his premature
+death protracted for a season the existence of the Western empire.[2]
+9. Al'aric was succeeded by his brother Adol'phus, who immediately
+commenced negociations for a treaty; the peace was cemented by a
+marriage between the Gothic king and Placid'ia, the sister of the
+emperor. The army of the invaders evacuated Italy, and Adol'phus,
+leading his soldiers into Spain, founded the kingdom of the Visigoths.
+10. Adolphus did not long survive his triumphs; Placid'ia returned to
+her brother's court, and was persuaded to bestow her hand on
+Constan'tius, the general who had suppressed the rebellion of
+Constan'tine. Britain, Spain, and part of Gaul had been now
+irrecoverably lost; Constan'tius, whose abilities might have checked
+the progress of ruin, died, after the birth of his second child;
+Placid'ia retired to the court of Constantinople, and at length
+Hono'rius, after a disgraceful reign of twenty-eight years, terminated
+his wretched life.
+
+11. The next heir to the throne was Valenti'nian, the son of
+Placid'ia; but John, the late emperor's secretary, took advantage of
+Placid'ia's absence in the east, to seize on the government. The
+court of Constantinople promptly sent a body of troops against the
+usurper, and John was surprised and taken prisoner at Raven'na. 12.
+Valenti'nian III., then in the sixth year of his age, was proclaimed
+emperor, and the regency entrusted to his mother, Placid'ia. The two
+best generals of the age, Æ'tius and Bon'iface, were at the head of
+the army, but, unfortunately, their mutual jealousies led them to
+involve the empire in civil war.
+
+13. Bon'iface was recalled from the government of Africa through the
+intrigues of his rival, and when he hesitated to comply, was
+proclaimed a traitor. Unfortunately the African prefect, unable to
+depend on his own forces, invited the Vandals to his assistance.
+Gen'seric, the king of that nation, passed over from Spain, which his
+barbarous forces had already wasted, and the African provinces were
+now subjected to the same calamities that afflicted the rest of the
+empire. 14. Bon'iface became too late sensible of his error; he
+attempted to check the progress of the Vandals, but was defeated, and
+Africa finally wrested from the empire. He returned to Italy, and was
+pardoned by Placid'ia; but the jealous Æ'tius led an army to drive
+his rival from the court; a battle ensued, in which Æ'tius was
+defeated; but Bon'iface died in the arms of victory. Placid'ia was at
+first determined to punish Æ'tius as a rebel; but his power was too
+formidable, and his abilities too necessary in the new dangers that
+threatened the empire; he was not only pardoned, but invested with
+more than his former authority.
+
+15. The hordes of Huns that had seized on the ancient territory of the
+Goths, had now become united under the ferocious At'tila, whose
+devastations procured him the formidable name of "The Scourge of God."
+The Eastern empire, unable to protect itself from his ravages,
+purchased peace by the payment of a yearly tribute, and he directed
+his forces against the western provinces, which promised richer
+plunder. He was instigated also by secret letters from the princess
+Hono'ria, the sister of the emperor, who solicited a matrimonial
+alliance with the barbarous chieftain. Æ'tius being supported by the
+king of the Goths, and some other auxiliary forces, attacked the Huns
+in the Catalaunian plains, near the modern city of Chalons in France.
+16. After a fierce engagement the Huns were routed, and it was not
+without great difficulty that At'tila effected his retreat. The
+following year he invaded Italy with more success; peace, however, was
+purchased by bestowing on him the hand of the princess Hono'ria,
+with an immense dowry. Before the marriage could be consummated,
+At'tila was found, dead in his bed, having burst a blood-vessel during
+the night.
+
+17. The brave Æ'tius was badly rewarded by the wretched emperor for
+his eminent services; Valentinian, yielding to his cowardly
+suspicions, assassinated the general with his own hand. 18. This crime
+was followed by an injury to Max'imus, an eminent senator, who, eager
+for revenge, joined in a conspiracy with the friends of Æ'tius; they
+attacked the emperor publicly, in the midst of his guards, and slew
+him.
+
+19. The twenty years which intervened between the assassination of
+Valentinian, and the final destruction of the Western empire, were
+nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. 20. Even in the
+age of Cicero, when the empire of Rome, seemed likely to last for
+ever, it was stated by the augurs that the _twelve vultures_ seen by
+Romulus,[3] represented the _twelve centuries_ assigned for the fatal
+period of the city. This strange prediction, forgotten in ages of
+peace and prosperity, was recalled to the minds of men when events, at
+the close of the twelfth century, showed that the prophecy was about
+to be accomplished. It is not, of course, our meaning, that the
+ominous flight of birds, the prophetic interpretation, and its almost
+literal fulfilment, were any thing more than an accidental
+coincidence; but, it must be confessed, that it was one of the most
+remarkable on record.
+
+21. Maximus succeeded to the imperial throne, and found that the first
+day of his reign was the last of his happiness. On the death of his
+wife, whose wrongs he had so severely revenged, he endeavoured to
+compel Eudox'ia, the widow of the murdered emperor, to become his
+spouse. In her indignation at this insulting proposal, Eudox'ia did
+not hesitate to apply for aid to Gen'seric, king of those Vandals that
+had seized Africa; and the barbarian king, glad of such a fair
+pretence, soon appeared with a powerful fleet in the Tiber. 22.
+Max'imus was murdered in an insurrection, occasioned by these tidings;
+and Gen'seric, advancing to Rome, became master of the city, which
+was, for fourteen days pillaged by the Moors and Vandals. Eudox'ia had
+reason to lament her imprudent conduct; she was carried off a captive
+by the ferocious Vandal, along with her two daughters, the last
+of the family of the great Theo'dosius and many thousand Romans were
+at the same time dragged into slavery.
+
+23. The army in Gaul saluted their general, Avi'tus, emperor, and the
+Roman senate and people at first acquiesced in the choice. Rut Avi'tus
+was soon found unfit to hold the reins of power at a time of so much
+danger and difficulty; the senate, influenced by Ri'cimer, the
+commander of the barbarian auxiliaries, voted his deposition. He died
+shortly after, whether by disease or violence is uncertain.
+
+24. The powerful Ri'cimer now placed upon the throne Ju'lian
+Majo'rian, who united in an eminent degree the qualities of a brave
+soldier and a wise statesman. The coasts of Italy had long been wasted
+by Gen'seric, king of the Vandals, and in order to put an end to their
+incursions, the emperor determined to attack the pirates in Africa,
+the seat of their power. The judicious preparations which he made were
+disconcerted by treason; Ri'cimer, who had hoped to rule the empire
+while Majo'rian enjoyed the empty title of monarch, was disappointed
+by the abilities which the new emperor displayed. Some of his
+creatures betrayed the Roman fleet to the torches of the Vandals; and
+Ri'cimer took advantage of the popular discontent occasioned by this
+disaster, to procure the dethronement of his former friend. Majo'rian
+died five years after his deposition, and the humble tomb which
+covered his remains was consecrated by the respect and gratitude of
+succeeding generations.
+
+25. Ri'cimer's next choice was more prudent; at his instigation the
+obsequious senate raised to the throne Lib'ius Sev'erus, of whom
+history records little more than his elevation, and his death, which
+occurred in the fifth year after his election. During the nominal
+reign of Sev'erus and the interregnum that followed, the entire power
+of the state was possessed by Ri'cimer, whom barbarian descent alone
+prevented from being acknowledged emperor. He was unable, however, to
+protect Italy from the devastations of the Vandals; and to obtain the
+aid of Le'o, the Eastern emperor, he was forced to acknowledge
+Anthe'mius, who was nominated to the throne of the West by the court
+of Constantinople.
+
+[Illustration: Fall of Constantinople.]
+
+26. The perfidious Ricimer soon became dissatisfied with Anthe'mius,
+and raised the standard of revolt. Marching to Rome he easily became
+master of the city, and Anthe'mius was slain in the tumult. The
+unhappy Romans were again subjected to all the miseries that military
+licentiousness could inflict; for forty days Ricimer exulted in the
+havoc and ruin of the imperial city; but a disease, occasioned by
+excessive intemperance, seized on his vitals, and death freed Rome
+from the tyrant.
+
+27. Olyb'ius, the successor of Anthe'mius, dying after a short reign
+of three months, Glyce'rius, an obscure soldier, assumed the purple at
+Raven'na, but was soon dethroned by Ju'lius Ne'pos, whom the court of
+Constantinople supported. A treaty by which the most faithful
+provinces of Gaul were yielded to the Visigoths, produced so much
+popular discontent, that Ores'tes, a general of barbarian auxiliaries,
+was encouraged to revolt, and Ne'pos, unable to defend the throne,
+abdicated, and spent the remainder of his unhonoured life in
+obscurity.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 476.]
+
+28. Ores'tes placed the crown on the head of his son Rom'ulus
+Momyl'lus, better known in history by the name of Augus'tulus. He was
+the last of the emperors; before he had enjoyed his elevation many
+months, he was dethroned by Odoa'cer, a leader, of the barbarian
+troops, and banished to a villa that once belonged to the wealthy
+Lucul'lus, where he was supported by a pension allowed him by the
+conqueror[4]. 29. Odoa'cer assumed the title of king of Italy, but
+after a reign of fourteen years, he was forced to yield to the
+superior genius of Theod'oric, king of the Ostrogoths, under whose
+prudent government Italy enjoyed the blessings of peace and
+prosperity, to which the country had been long a stranger.
+
+30. Thus finally fell the Roman empire of the west, while that of the
+east survived a thousand years, notwithstanding its fierce internal
+dissensions, which alone would have sufficed to destroy any other; and
+the hosts of barbarians by which it was assailed. The almost
+impregnable situation of its capital, whose fate usually decides that
+of such empires, joined to its despotism, which gave unity to the
+little strength it retained, can alone explain a phenomenon
+unparalleled in the annals of history. At length, on the 29th of May,
+1453, Constantinople was taken by Mohammed the Second, and the
+government and religion established by the great Constantine, trampled
+in the dust by the Moslem conquerors.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What induced Alaric to invade Italy a second time?
+
+2. Did the emperor and his ministers make adequate preparations for
+resistance?
+
+3. How was Alaric induced to raise the siege of Rome?
+
+4. Why did Alaric besiege Rome a second time?
+
+5. Whom did the Goths make emperor?
+
+6. What favourable opportunity of making peace did Honorius lose?
+
+7. By what means did the Goths become masters of Rome?
+
+8. Where did Alaric die?
+
+9. What events marked the reign of Adolphus?
+
+10. What remarkable persons died nearly at the same time?
+
+11. What was the fate of the usurper John?
+
+12. To whom was the government entrusted during Valentinian's
+minority?
+
+13. By whom were the Vandals invited to Africa?
+
+14. What was the fate of Boniface?
+
+15. How were the Huns instigated to invade Italy?
+
+16. Under what circumstances did Attila die?
+
+17. Of what great crimes was Valentinian III. guilty?
+
+18. How was Valentinian slain?
+
+19. 20. What strange prophecy was now about to be fulfilled?
+
+21. What terminated the brief reign of Maximus?
+
+22. Had Eudoxia reason to lament her invitation to the Vandals?
+
+23. Why was the emperor Avitus dethroned?
+
+24. How did Ricimer procure the deposition of Majorian?
+
+25. What changes followed on the death of Majorian?
+
+26. How did Ricimer terminate his destructive career?
+
+27. What changes took place after the death of Arthemius?
+
+28. Who was the last Roman emperor?
+
+29. What kingdoms were founded on the ruins of the western empire?
+
+20. How was the existence of the eastern empire prolonged?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] See Chapter xv. Sect. ii.
+
+[2] The ferocious character of the barbarians was displayed in the
+funeral of their chief. The unhappy captives were compelled to divert
+the stream of the river Busenti'nus, which washed the walls of
+Consen'tia, (now Cosenza, in farther Cala'bria, Italy,) in the bed of
+which the royal sepulchre was formed: with the body were deposited
+much of the wealth, and many of the trophies obtained at Rome. The
+river was then permitted to return to its accustomed channel, and the
+prisoners employed in the work were inhumanly massacred, to conceal
+the spot in which the deceased hero was entombed. A beautiful poem on
+this subject, entitled, The Dirge of Alaric the Visigoth, has
+appeared, which is attributed to the honourable Edward Everett.
+
+[3] See Chapter i.
+
+[4] See Chapter xxvii.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+HISTORICAL NOTICES OF THE DIFFERENT BARBAROUS TRIBES THAT AIDED IN
+DESTROYING THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
+
+  Lo! from the frozen forests of the north,
+  The sons of slaughter pour in myriads forth!
+  Who shall awake the mighty? Will thy woe,
+  City of thrones, disturb the world below?
+  Call on the dead to hear thee! let thy cries
+  Summon their shadowy legions to arise,
+  Array the ghosts of conquerors on thy walls
+  Barbarians revel in their ancient halls!
+  And their lost children bend the subject knee,
+  Amidst the proud tombs and trophies of the free!--_Anon._
+
+1. We have already mentioned that the barbarous nations which joined
+in the destruction of the Roman empire, were invited to come within
+its precincts through the weakness or folly of successive sovereigns
+who recruited their armies from those hardy tribes, in preference to
+their own subjects, enervated by luxury and indolence. The grants of
+land, and the rich donations by which the emperors endeavoured to
+secure the fidelity of these dangerous auxiliaries, encouraged them to
+regard the Roman territories as their prey; and being alternately the
+objects of lavish extravagance and wanton insult, their power was
+increased at the same time that their resentment was provoked. 2.
+Towards the close of the year 406, the Vandals, the Suevi, and the
+Alans, first sounded the tocsin of invasion, and their example was
+followed by the Goths, the Burgundians, the Alleman'ni, the Franks,
+the Huns, the Angli, the Saxons, the Heruli, and the Longobar'di, or
+Lombards. The chief of these nations, with the exception of the Huns
+were of German origin. It is not easy in every instance to discover
+the original seat of these several tribes, and trace their successive
+migrations, because, being ignorant of letters, they only retained
+some vague traditions of their wanderings.
+
+THE VANDALS AND ALANS
+
+3. This tribe was, like the Burgundians and Lombards, a branch of the
+ancient Sue'vi, and inhabited that part of Germany which lies between
+the Elbe and the Vis'tula. Being joined by some warriors from
+Scandinavia, they advanced towards the south, and established
+themselves in that part of Da'cia which included the modern province
+of Transylva'nia, and part of Hungary. Being oppressed in their
+new settlement by the Goths, they sought the protection of Constantine
+the Great, and obtained from him a grant of lands in Pannonia, on
+condition of their rendering military service to the Romans. 4. About
+the commencement of the fifth century, they were joined by the ALANS,
+a people originally from mount Cau'casus, and the ancient Scythia: a
+branch of which having settled in Sarma'tia, near the source of the
+Borysthenes _(Dnieper)_, had advanced as far as the Danube, and there
+made a formidable stand against the Romans. In their passage through
+Germany, the Vandals and Alans were joined by a portion of the Suevi,
+and the confederate tribes entering Gaul, spread desolation over the
+entire country.
+
+5. From thence the barbarians passed into Spain and settled in the
+province, from them named Vandalu'sia, since corrupted to Andalusia.
+On the invitation of Count Boniface, the Vandals proceeded from Spain
+to Africa, where they founded a formidable empire. After remaining
+masters of the western Mediterranean for nearly a century, the eastern
+emperor Justinian sent a formidable force against them under the
+command of the celebrated Belisa'rius. This great leader not only
+destroyed the power of these pirates, but erased the very name of
+Vandals from the list of nations.
+
+THE GOTHS.
+
+6. The Goths, the most powerful of these destructive nations, are said
+to have come originally from Scandina'via; but when they first began
+to attract the notice of historians, we find them settled on the banks
+of the Danube. Those who inhabited the districts towards the east, and
+the Euxine sea, between the Ty'ras _(Dniester)_ the Borys'thenes
+_(Dnieper)_ and the Tan'ais _(Don)_ were called Ostrogoths; the
+Visigoths extended westwards over ancient Dacia, and the regions
+between the Ty'ras, the Danube, and the Vistula.
+
+7. Attacked in these vast countries by the Huns, as has been mentioned
+in a preceding chapter, some were subjugated, and others compelled to
+abandon their habitations. They obtained settlements from the
+emperors, but being unwisely provoked to revolt, they became the most
+formidable enemies of the Romans. After having twice ravaged Italy and
+plundered Rome, they ended their conquests by establishing themselves
+in Gaul and Spain.
+
+8. The Spanish monarchy of the Visigoths, which in its flourishing
+state comprised, besides the entire peninsula, the province of
+Septima'nia (_Langucaoc_) in Gaul, and Mauritania, Tingeta'na,
+(_north-western Africa_) on the opposite coasts of the Mediterranean,
+lasted from the middle of the fifth to the commencement of the eighth
+century, when it was overthrown by the Moors. 9. The Thuringians, whom
+we find established in the heart of Germany, in the middle of the
+fifth century, appear to have been a branch of the Visigoths.
+
+THE FRANKS.
+
+10. A number of petty German tribes having entered into a confederacy
+to maintain their mutual independence, took the name of Franks, or
+Freemen. The tribes which thus associated, principally inhabited the
+districts lying between the Rhine and the Weser, including the greater
+part of Holland and Westphalia. 11. In the middle of the third
+century, they invaded Gaul, but were defeated by Aurelian, who
+afterwards became emperor. In the fourth, and towards the beginning of
+the fifth century, they permanently established themselves as a
+nation, and gave the name of _Francia_, or _France_, to the provinces
+lying between the Rhine, the Weser, the Maine, and the Elbe; but about
+the sixth century that name was transferred to ancient Gaul, when it
+was conquered by the Franks.
+
+THE ALLEMANNI.
+
+12. The Alleman'ni were another confederation of German tribes, which
+took its name from including a great variety of nations. It is
+scarcely necessary to remark, that the name is compounded of the words
+_all_ and _man_ which still continue unchanged in our language. Their
+territories extended between the Danube, the Rhine, and the Maine, and
+they rendered themselves formidable to the Romans by their frequent
+inroads into Gaul and Italy during the third and fourth centuries.
+
+THE SAXONS AND ANGLES.
+
+13. The Saxons began to be conspicuous about the close of the second
+century. They were then settled beyond the Elbe, in modern Holstein;
+having for their neighbours the ANGLI, or ANGLES, inhabiting Sleswick.
+These nations were early distinguished as pirates, and their
+plundering expeditions kept the shores of western Europe in constant
+alarm. Being invited by the Britons to assist in repelling the
+invasions of the Picts, they subdued the southern part of the island,
+which has ever since retained the name of England, from its conquerors
+the An'gli. When the Franks penetrated into Gaul, the Saxons passed
+the Elbe, and seizing on the vacated territory, gave the name of
+Saxony to ancient France.
+
+THE HUNS.
+
+14. The Huns were the most ferocious and sanguinary of the barbarians.
+They seem to have been originally Kalmuck or Mongolian Tartars, and,
+during the period of their supremacy, seem never to have laid aside
+the savage customs which they brought from their native deserts. 15.
+After having expelled the Goths from the banks of the Danube, they
+fell upon the eastern empire, and compelled the court of
+Constantinople to pay them tribute. They then, under the guidance of
+Attila, invaded Italy, and after devastating the peninsula, captured
+and plundered Rome. After the death of Attila, the Huns were broken up
+into a number of petty states, which maintained their independence
+until the close of the eighth century, when they were subdued by
+Charlemagne.
+
+THE BURGUNDIANS.
+
+16. The Burgundians were originally inhabitants of the countries
+situated between the Oder and the Vistula. They followed nearly the
+track of the Visigoths, and at the beginning of the fifth century had
+established themselves on the Upper Rhine and in Switzerland. On the
+dissolution of the empire, they seized on that part of Gaul, which
+from them retains the name of Burgundy.
+
+THE LOMBARDS, THE GEPIDÆ, AND THE AVARS.
+
+17. The Lombards, more properly called Longo-bardi, from the length of
+their beards, are supposed by some to have been a branch of the
+Sue'vi, and by others to have migrated from Scandina'via. They joined
+with the Avars, a fierce Asiatic people, in attacking the Gep'idæ,
+then in possession of that part of Dacia lying on the left bank of the
+Danube, but who are supposed to have come thither from some more
+northern country. The Avars and Lombards triumphed, but the former
+soon turned their arms against their allies, and compelled them to
+seek new habitations. 18. About the middle of the sixth century they
+invaded Italy, which the Eastern emperors had just before wrested
+from the Turks, and made themselves masters of the northern part;
+which has since borne the name of Lombardy.
+
+THE SLA'VI.
+
+19. These were the last of the barbarian hordes, and are not mentioned
+by any author before the sixth century. They first appeared in the
+east of Europe, and spreading themselves over the central provinces,
+occupied the greater part of the countries that now constitute the
+dominions of Austria. The Sla'vi warred chiefly against the Eastern
+empire, and their contest with the Grecian forces on the Danube, in
+the sixth and seventh centuries, shook the throne of Constantinople.
+The VENE'DI and the AN'TES were tribes of the Slavi.
+
+THE NORMANS.
+
+20. The piratical inhabitants of Norway and Denmark were called by the
+Franks, Normans, or, Men of the North; in Ireland they were named
+Ostmen, or, Men of the East. Their depredations began to attract
+notice early in the seventh century, but did not become formidable
+before the ninth: when they obtained possession of that part of France
+now called Normandy. In the two following centuries they wrested
+England from the Saxons, and established kingdoms in Sicily and
+southern Italy.
+
+THE BULGARIANS.
+
+21. The Bulgarians were of Scythian or Tartar origin, and became
+formidable to the Eastern empire in the latter part of the seventh
+century. In the beginning of the ninth, Cruni'nus, their king,
+advanced to the gates of Constantinople; but the city proving too
+strong, he seized Adrianople, and returned home loaded with booty. The
+successors of Cruni'nus did not inherit his abilities, and the
+Bulgarians soon sunk into comparative insignificance.
+
+THE SARACENS MOORS AND TURKS.
+
+22. In concluding this chapter, it may be proper to give some account
+of the subverters of the Eastern empire, and of their irruption into
+Europe. The Arabs, called in the middle ages Saracens, are supposed to
+be descended from Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar. During all
+the changes of dynasties and empires in the eastern and western
+world, they retained their independence, though almost constantly at
+war with the surrounding states. "Their hand was against every man,
+and every man's hand was against them." In the beginning of the
+seventh century, Mohammed, a native of Mecca, descended from a noble
+family, laid claim to the title of a prophet, and being aided by a
+renegade Christian, formed a religious system, which, after
+encountering great opposition, was finally adopted by the principal
+tribes of Arabia. The successors of Mohammed, called Caliphs, resolved
+to propagate the new religion by the sword, and conquered an empire,
+more extensive than that of the Romans had been. The entire of central
+and southern Asia, including Persia, India, and the provinces of the
+Eastern empire owned their sway; northern Africa was soon after
+subdued, and in the beginning of the eighth century, the Saracenic
+Moors established their dominion in Spain. 23. It is probable, even,
+that all Europe would have submitted to their yoke, if the French
+hero, Charles Martel,[1] had not arrested their victorious career, and
+defeated their numerous armies on the plains of _Poitiers_, A.D.
+732.[2]
+
+24. The empire of the Caliphs soon declined from its original
+splendour, and its ruin finally proceeded from the same cause that
+produced the downfall of Rome, the employment of barbarian
+mercenaries. The soldiers levied by the Caliphs, were selected from
+the Tartar tribes that had embraced the religion of Mohammed; they
+were called Turcomans or Turks, from Turkistan, the proper name of
+western Tartary. These brave, but ferocious warriors, soon wrested the
+sceptre from the feeble caliphs, and completed the conquest of western
+Asia. The crusades for a time delayed the fate of the Greek empire,
+but finally the Turks crossed the Hellespont, and having taken
+Constantinople, (A.D. 1453,) established their cruel despotism over
+the fairest portion of Europe.
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. How were the barbarians first brought into the Roman empire?
+
+2. When did the first great movement of the Northern tribes take
+place?
+
+3. Where did the Vandals first settle?
+
+4. From whence did the Alans come?
+
+5. In what countries did the Vandals establish their power?
+
+6. Where did we first find the Goths settled?
+
+7. To what countries did the Goths remove?
+
+8. How long did the kingdom of the Visigoths continue?
+
+9. What branch of the Goths settled in Germany?
+
+10. From what did the Franks derive their name?
+
+11. Which was the ancient, and which the modern France?
+
+12. What is the history of the Allemanni?
+
+13. In what countries did the Saxons and Angles settle?
+
+14. Whence did the Huns come?
+
+15. How far did their ravages extend?
+
+16. What territory did the Burgundians seize?
+
+17. How did the alliance between the Lombards and Avars injure the
+former people?
+
+18. Where was the kingdom of the Lombards established?
+
+19. What is told respecting the Slavi?
+
+20. Who were the Normans?
+
+21. What is the history of the Bulgarians?
+
+22. What great conquests were achieved by the Arabs under Mohammed and
+his successors?
+
+23. By whom was the Saracenic career of victory checked?
+
+24. How was the empire of the Turks established?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] See Taylor's History of France.
+
+[2] Here also the heroic Black Prince took John, king of France,
+prisoner. See Taylor's France.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+THE PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+  Waft, waft, ye winds, his story,
+    And you, ye oceans, roll,
+  Till, like a sea of glory,
+    It spreads from pole to pole.--_Heber_.
+
+1. Judea became a Roman province some years before the birth of Jesus
+Christ, and the Jews, who had hitherto been conspicuous for their
+attachment to their native land, were induced, by the spirit of trade,
+to spread themselves over the empire. 2. The exclusive nature of their
+religion kept them in a marked state of separation from their fellow
+subjects; the worshipper of Osi'ris scrupled not to offer sacrifices
+to Jupiter; the Persian, the Indian, and the German, bowed before the
+Roman altars; but the sons of Abraham refused to give the glory of
+their God to graven images, and were regarded by their idolatrous
+neighbours at first with surprise, and afterwards with contempt. 3.
+The appearance of the Messiah in Palestine, and the miraculous
+circumstances of his life, death, and resurrection, did not fill the
+world with their fame, because his preaching was principally addressed
+to his countrymen, the first object of his mission being "the lost
+sheep of the house of Israel."
+
+4. The disciples, after their Divine Master was taken from them,
+proceeded to fulfil his last commandments, by preaching the gospel "to
+every nation," and an opportunity of spreading its blessings was
+afforded by Jewish synagogues having been previously established in
+most of the great cities through the empire. Independent of the
+sustaining providence of its Almighty Author, there were many
+circumstances that facilitated the progress and prepared the way for
+the final triumph of Christianity. 5. In the first place, Paganism had
+lost its influence; men secretly laughed at the fabulous legends about
+Jupiter and Rom'ulus, the sacrifices had become idle forms, and the
+processions a useless mockery. Philosophers had not scrupled to cover
+with ridicule the whole system of Heathenism, and there were not a few
+who professed themselves Atheists. 6. Without some system of religion
+society cannot exist; for a sanction stronger than human laws is
+necessary to restrain the violence of passion and ardent desires. The
+innate feeling that our existence is not dependent on our mortal
+frame, disposes men to search for some information respecting a future
+state; the heathen system was at once obscure and absurd; the
+philosophers avowedly spoke from conjecture; but by the Gospel, "life
+and immortality were brought to light." 7. The influence of a purer
+faith was discernible in the lives and actions of the first
+Christians; they lived in an age of unparalleled iniquity and
+debauchery, yet they kept themselves "unspotted from the world;" those
+who were once conspicuous for violence, licentiousness, and crime,
+became, when they joined the new sect, humble, temperate, chaste, and
+virtuous; the persons who witnessed such instances of reformation were
+naturally anxious to learn something of the means by which so great a
+change had been effected. 8. A fourth cause was, that Christianity
+offered the blessings of salvation to men of every class; it was its
+most marked feature, that "to the poor the gospel was preached," and
+the wretch who dared not come into the pagan temple, because he had no
+rich offering to lay upon the altar, was ready to obey the call of him
+who offered pardon and love "without money and without price."
+
+9. In the course of the first century of the Christian era churches
+were established in the principal cities of the empire, but more
+especially in Asia Minor; and the progress of Christianity, which had
+been at first disregarded, began to attract the notice of the ruling
+powers. Too indolent to investigate the claims of Christianity,
+and by no means pleased with a system which condemned their vices, the
+Roman rulers viewed the rapid progress of the new religion with
+undisguised alarm. The union of the sacerdotal and magisterial
+character in the Roman policy, added personal interest to the motives
+that urged them to crush this rising sect; and the relentless Ne'ro at
+length kindled the torch of persecution. 10. But "the blood of the
+martyrs proved the seed of the Church;" the constancy with which they
+supported the most inhuman tortures, their devotion and firm reliance
+on their God in the moments of mortal agony, increased the number of
+converts to a religion which could work such a moral miracle.
+Persecution also united the Christians more closely together, and when
+the reign of terror ended with the death of Nero, it was found that
+Christianity had derived additional strength from the means taken to
+insure its destruction.
+
+11. The successive persecutions inflicted by the policy or the bigotry
+of the following emperors had precisely the same results; and at
+length the Christians had acquired such strength, that their aid, as a
+body, became a matter of importance in contests for the empire.
+
+12. The mild administration of Constantino, while he was only prefect
+of Gaul, the protection which he afforded to the Christians, and the
+favour that he showed to their religion, induced them to aid him with
+all their might in his struggle for the throne. Brought thus into
+contact with the professors of the new doctrine, Constantine was
+induced to examine the foundations of its high claims--perfect
+conviction was the result, and on his accession to the imperial
+purple, the Christian church was legally established. 13. During the
+reign of the apostate Julian, Christianity was discouraged, but not
+persecuted; his premature death, however, removed the last impediment
+to its final triumph, which was consummated in the reign of the great
+Theodo'sius. 14. Under that emperor the last vestiges of the pagan
+worship were destroyed, its idols overthrown, its altars demolished,
+and its temples closed. The world had become ripe for such a
+revolution, as the temples had been long before almost universally
+abandoned.
+
+15. Since that period Christianity has prevailed in Europe, and formed
+the great bond of the social happiness and the great source of the
+intellectual eminence enjoyed in that quarter of the globe. Let us
+hope that the exertions now made to diffuse its blessings over
+the benighted portions of the earth will prove successful, and that
+"peace and happiness, truth and justice, religion and piety" will
+prevail from pole to pole.
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was the state of the Jews at the coming of Christ?
+
+2. How were the Jews preserved separate from other nations?
+
+3. What probable cause may be assigned for the neglect of the
+Christian miracles?
+
+4. How did the dispersion of the Jews afford an opportunity for the
+propagation of Christianity?
+
+5. What was the state of paganism when Christianity was first
+preached?
+
+6. What great mystery is brought to light by the gospel?
+
+7. How did the lives of the first Christians contribute to the rapid
+progress of Christianity?
+
+8. To what class of people was the gospel more particularly addressed?
+
+9. What induced the rulers of the Roman empire to persecute
+Christianity?
+
+10. Was Christianity crushed by persecution?
+
+11. What proves the great strength early acquired by Christians?
+
+12. By whom was Christianity legally established?
+
+13. Under whose government did it receive a slight check?
+
+14. When were the last vestiges of paganism abolished?
+
+15. What have been the political effects of the establishment of
+Christianity?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+  CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX.
+
+  B.C.
+
+  1230 (Supposed) Pelasgic migration to Italy.
+
+  1184 (Supposed) Arrival of Æneas in Latium.
+
+  753  (Supposed) foundation of the city of Rome.
+
+  750  Union of the Romans and Sabines.
+
+  716  Death of Romulus.
+
+  714  Virtuous Administration of Numa.
+
+  671  Accession of Tullus Hostilius.
+
+  665  Duel between the Horatii and Curiatii--Destruction of Alba.
+
+  639  Accession of Ancus Martius.
+
+  616  {---- ---- Tarquinius Priscus.
+       {The Augurs acquire importance in the state.
+
+  578  {Death of Tarquinius Priscus.
+       {Accession of Servius Tullius.
+       {The establishment of the Centuries.
+
+  534  {Murder of Servius Tullius.
+       {Accession of Tarquinius Superbus.
+       {Gabii taken by stratagem.
+
+  509  {Expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus.
+       {Establishment of Consuls.
+
+  508  {Conspiracy for the restoration of the Tarquinii.
+       {Death of Brutus.
+
+  507  War with Porsenna.
+
+  498  Lartius the first Dictator created.
+
+  493  {The Roman populace retire to Mons Sacer.
+       {Tribunes of the people appointed.
+
+  487  {Exile of Coriolanus.
+       {Rome besieged by Coriolanus.
+       {His retreat and death.
+
+  484  Condemnation and death of Cassius.
+
+  459  First Dictatorship of Cincinnatus.
+
+  457  Second ditto.
+
+  454  The Romans send to Athens for Solon's laws.
+
+  451  The laws of the Twelve Tables--The Decemviri.
+
+  449  The expulsion of the Decemviri.
+
+  443  Military Tribunes chosen instead of Consuls.
+
+  442  The Censorship instituted.
+
+  439  Mælius murdered by Ahala.
+
+  406  The siege of Veii begun.
+
+  396  Veii taken by Camillus.
+
+  391  The Gauls invade Italy.
+
+  390  {The battle of Allia. Rome sacked by the Gauls.
+       {The Gauls defeated by Camillus.
+
+  383  Manlius put to death on a charge of treason.
+
+  361  Curtius devotes himself in the Forum.
+
+  342  Beginning of the Samnite war.
+
+  339  {Manlius puts his son to death for disobedience.
+       {Decius devotes himself for his country.
+
+  320  A Roman army forced to surrender to the Samnites in the
+         Caudine Forks.
+
+  280  Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, invades Italy.
+
+  272  ---- finally defeated by Curius Dentatus.
+
+  270  Tarentum surrendered to the Romans.
+
+  264  Commencement of the first Punic war.
+
+  260  The Carthaginian fleet defeated by Duilius.
+
+  256  Regulus defeated by Xantippus.
+
+  252  Regulus sent to negociate peace. His death.
+
+  241  End of the first Punic war.
+
+  234  {The temple of Janus shut, and Rome at peace, for
+          the first time since the death of Numa.
+       {Literature cultivated at Rome.
+
+  229  War with the Illyrians.
+
+  225  {The Gauls invade Italy a second time.
+       {---- ---- are defeated by Marcellus, who
+       gains the spolia opima.
+
+  218  {The second Punic war begins.
+       {Hanniball invades Italy.
+       {Battle of the Ticenus.
+       { ----  of the Trebia.
+
+  217  ---- of the lake Thrasymene.
+
+  216  ---- of Cannæ.
+
+  214  The Romans begin an auxiliary war against Philip of Macedon.
+
+  212  Syracuse taken by Marcellus.
+
+  207  Asdrubal defeated and slain.
+
+  202  Battle of Zama and end of the second Punic war.
+
+  197  Philip conquered by the Romans.
+
+  192  The Romans wage war against Antiochus.
+
+  189  Death of Hannibal.
+
+  171  Commencement of the second Macedonian war.
+
+  168  Macedon became a Roman province.
+
+  149  The third Punic war begins.
+
+  147  Carthage destroyed by Scipio, and Corinth by Munimius.
+
+  132  Sedition of Trius Gracchus.
+
+  126  Revolt of the slaves in Sicily.
+
+  122  Seditions of Caius Gracchus.
+
+  121  Murder of Caius Gracchus. Persecution of the popular party.
+
+  111  The Jugurthine war begins, and lasts five years.
+
+  91   The social war begins, and lasts three years.
+
+  89   The Mithridatic war begins, and lasts twenty-six years.
+
+  88   The civil war between Marius and Sylla.
+
+  86   {Cruelties of Marius.
+       {Death of Marius.
+
+  82   Sylla created dictator.
+
+  78   Death of Sylla.
+
+  73   The insurrection of the slaves under Spartacus  _note_.
+
+  66   Mithridates conquered by Pompey.
+
+  63   Catiline's conspiracy detected.
+
+  60   The first Triumvirate. Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus.
+
+  55   Cæsar invades Britain.
+
+  53   Crassus slain in Parthia.
+
+  50   Civil war between Cæsar and Pompey.
+
+  48   {The battle of Pharsalia.
+       {Death of Pompey.
+
+  47   Alexandria taken by Cæsar.
+
+  46   {The war in Africa.
+       {Death of Cato.
+
+  45   {The war in Spain.
+       {The battle of Munda.
+
+  44   Cæsar murdered in the senate house.
+
+  43   {Formation of the second Triumvirate--Antony.
+          Octavius (Augustus) and Lepidus.
+       {The Proscription.  The murder of Cicero.
+
+  42   The battle of Philippi.
+
+  32   Octavius (Augustus) and Antony prepare for war.
+
+  31   The battle of Actium.
+
+  30   {The death of Antony.
+       {Alexandria surrendered.
+       {Death of Cleopatra.
+
+  27   The title of Augustus given to Octavius.
+
+  A.D.
+
+  4    Birth of JESUS CHRIST (four years before the vulgar era).
+
+  14   Death of Augustus.
+
+  19   Death of Germanicus by poison.
+
+  26   The retreat of Trius to Capreæ.
+
+  31   Disgrace and downfall of Sejanus.
+
+  33   The Crucifixion.
+
+  37   The Accession of Caligula.
+
+  41   Caligula murdered by Cherea.
+
+  43   Claudius invades Britain.
+
+  51   Caractacus carried captive to Rome.
+
+  54   Nero succeeds Claudius.
+
+  59   Nero murders his mother.
+
+  64   First general persecution of the Christians.
+
+  65   Seneca, Lucan, and others, executed for conspiracy.
+
+  68   Suicide of Nero. Accession of Galba.
+
+  69   {Death of Galba.
+       {Defeat and death of Otho.
+       {Defeat and death of Vitellius. Accession of Vespasian.
+
+  70   Siege and capture of Jerusalem.
+
+  79   {Death of Vespasian. Accession of Titus.
+       {Eruption of Vesuvius: destruction of Herculaneum.
+
+  81   Death of Titus. Accession of Domitian.
+
+  88   The Dacian war.
+
+  96   {Assassination of Domitian.
+       {Accession of Nerva.
+
+  98   Death of Nerva. Accession of Trajan.
+
+  107  Third general persecution of the Christians.
+
+  117  Death of Trajan. Accession of Adrian.
+
+  121  A wall to restrain the incursions of the Picts
+        and Scots erected in Britain by Adrian.
+
+  131  Great rebellion of the Jews.
+
+  136  Death of Adrian. Accession of Antoninus Pius.
+
+  161  Accession of Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus.
+
+  162  The Parthian war.
+
+  169  The war with the Marcomanni.
+
+  180  {Death of Marcus Aurelius.
+       {Accession of Commodus.
+
+  192  {Commodus murdered by Marcia and Lætus.
+       {Assassination of Pertinax.
+
+  200  {Roman empire offered for sale.
+       {Severus subdues the Parthians.
+
+  211  Death of Severus at York. Accession of Caracalla and Geta.
+
+  217  Assassination of Caracalla.
+
+  218  Accession of Heliogabalus.
+
+  222  {His miserable death.
+       {Accession of Alexander Severus.
+
+  235  Death of Alexander. Maximin elected emperor.
+
+  236  Assassination of Maximin.
+
+  238  Accession of Gordian.
+
+  244  His murder by Philip.
+
+  248  Philip killed by his soldiers: succeeded by Decius.
+
+  251  Decius slain in an ambuscade: succeeded by Gallus.
+
+  254  Death of Gallus: a disputed succession.
+
+  270  Accession of Aurelian.
+
+  275  Brief reign of Tacitus.
+
+  282  Assassination of the emperor Probus.
+
+  284  Accession of Dioclesian.
+
+  304  The reign of Constantius and Galerius.
+
+  312  Victory of Constantino over Maxentius.
+
+  319  Favour showed to the Christians.
+
+  324  Defeat of Licinius.
+
+  325  Legal establishment of Christianity.
+
+  328  The seat of government removed from Rome to
+        Byzantium, which city from thenceforward takes
+        the name of Constantinople, from the
+        emperor Constantine.
+
+  337  {Death of Constantine, and division of
+         the empire among his sons.
+       {Destruction of the Flavian Family.
+
+  338  War between Constantius and Sapor.
+
+  340  Constantine the younger defeated and slain by his
+        brother Constans.
+
+  350  Constans killed by Magnentius.
+
+  351  Magnentius totally defeated at the fatal battle of Mursa.
+
+  354  Gallas put to death by Constantius.
+
+  360  The civil war between Constantius and Julian
+         prevented by the death of the former.
+
+  362  Julian's attempt to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem defeated.
+
+  363  Death of Julian in the Persian war. Brief reign of Jovian.
+
+  364  The empire divided between Valenlinian and Valens.
+
+  376  {The Goths permitted to settle in Thrace.
+       {First appearance of the Huns in Europe.
+
+  378  The emperor Valens defeated by the Goths at Adrianople.
+
+  379  Theodosius becomes emperor of the East.
+
+  388  The usurper Maximus defeated and slain.
+
+  392  Reunion of the Eastern and Western empires, under Theodosius.
+
+  395  Death of Theodosius, and final separation of the
+        Eastern and Western empires.
+
+  398  Revolt of Gildo in Africa.
+
+  405  Stilicho obtains two victories over the Goths.
+
+  406  The Vandals and Alans settle in Gaul.
+
+  408  Alaric, king of the Goths, besieges Rome.
+
+  410  Rome taken and plundered by the Goths.
+
+  412  Beginning of the Vandal kingdom in Spain.
+
+  415  Commencement of the kingdom of the Visigoths.
+
+  423  Death of Honorius. Accession of Valentinian.
+
+  430  The Vandals invited to Africa by count Boniface.
+
+  447  The Huns under the guidance of Attila, ravage Europe.
+
+  449  The Britons, deserted by the Romans, invite the Sarons and Angles
+         to their assistance.
+
+  455  Rome taken and plundered by Genseric, the king of the African
+         Vandals.
+
+  476  Augustulus, the last emperor of the West deposed, Odoacer takes
+         the title of king of Italy.
+
+  453  Subversion of the Eastern empire.
+
+
+  THE END
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO.,
+
+PUBLISH
+
+MITCHELL'S AMERICAN SYSTEM
+
+OF
+
+STANDARD SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY,
+
+IN A SERIES,
+
+ADAPTED TO THE PROGRESSIVELY DEVELOPING CAPACITIES OF YOUTH.
+
+The series comprise the following works, viz.
+
+MITCHELL'S PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY. MITCHELL'S INTERMEDIATE GEOGRAPHY.
+MITCHELL'S SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS. MITCHELL'S ATLAS OF OUTLINE MAPS.
+MITCHELL'S KEY TO THE STUDY OF THE MAPS. MITCHELL'S ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY
+AND ATLAS. MITCHELL'S ANCIENT ATLAS. MITCHELL'S BIBLICAL AND
+SABBATH-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. MITCHELL'S HIGH-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.
+_(Preparing.)_ MITCHELL'S VIEW OF THE HEAVENS.
+
+ONE VOLUME QUARTO, HANDSOMELY ILLUSTRATED. _(Preparing.)_
+
+MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.
+
+There are no works published in this country that are more in demand, or
+that have a wider circulation than those of Mr. Mitchell. There are
+upwards of 350,000 copies of his geographical works sold annually, and
+more than 250 workmen are constantly employed upon them. The
+arrangements of the publishers are such, that they are enabled to give
+the most correct and latest geographical discoveries and improvements of
+any firm in the United States. They publish the only full series of
+geographics in the country, and having in constant employ a strong
+geographical force of map engravers, &c., and being very largely engaged
+in the publication of the various State and other maps, they are enabled
+to present the school series correct, both in maps and matter, up to the
+date of publication.
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE SERIES
+
+MITCHELL'S PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY.
+
+SECOND REVISED EDITION.
+
+AN EASY INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY.
+
+DESIGNED FOR THE INSTRUCTION OF CHILDREN IN SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.
+
+Illustrated by 120 Engravings and 14 coloured Maps.
+
+BY S. AUGUSTUS MITCHELL.
+
+The publishers have embraced the opportunity of a new revision of the
+work to augment its size, so that the book is now a third larger than
+any of the preceding editions.
+
+The Maps for the present edition have all been redrawn and re-engraved.
+They are on a much larger scale, more distinct, and fuller in
+information than those of the previous editions, or any similar work
+extant. The true boundaries of all the Western States and Territories
+are exhibited, California, Utah, &c., and proper attention given to all
+political changes up to the present time.
+
+MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+MITCHELL'S INTERMEDIATE OR SECONDARY GEOGRAPHY.
+
+A SYSTEM OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY;
+
+Comprising a Description of the present state of the World, and its five
+great Divisions,
+
+AMERICA, EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA, AND OCEANICA,
+
+WITH THEIR SEVERAL EMPIRES, KINGDOMS, STATES, TERRITORIES, ETC.
+
+ILLUSTRATED BY FORTY MAPS AND NUMEROUS WOOD-CUT ENGRAVINGS.
+
+Designed for the instruction of Youth in Schools and Families.
+
+BY S. AUGUSTUS MITCHELL.
+
+Mitchell's Intermediate Geography, the last published book of the
+series, has been before the public but a short time, yet it has been
+extensively introduced and is now largely used in public and private
+schools throughout the Union. It has been adopted independently, or in
+connection with other numbers of the series, by the Public School
+Directors of the cities of
+
+  New York,    Philadelphia,   Baltimore,
+  Washington,  St. Louis,      Albany,
+  Rochester,   Cleveland,      Syracuse,
+  Utica,       Schenectady,    Oswego, &c. &c.
+
+By numerous county boards in the various States, and a great number of
+the towns and villages of the whole country.
+
+MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.
+
+This work is designed to occupy a medium place between the Author's
+Primary, and the well known School Geography and Atlas, of which last
+book it contains about two-thirds of the amount of matter.
+
+Like the Primary Geography, the Map Questions are upon the same or
+opposite page to the map itself, so that in no case have the leaves to
+be turned to find an answer to the question.
+
+Superior excellence is claimed for this book, on account of the natural
+and progressive order of the lessons,--of the conciseness and
+truthfulnes of the descriptive matter,--of the number, correctness, and
+uniform excellence of the Maps,--from the fact that the book is
+faithfully revised as often as political changes in our own or other
+countries require it,--that the pronunciations of the difficult
+geographical names are given,--and finally, on account of the superior
+mechanical execution of the work.
+
+As a specimen of numerous recommendations the publishers have received,
+they submit the following:
+
+_Copy of a petition of the Public School Teachers of the City of Troy,
+New York, addressed to the Board of Education of said city._
+
+GENTLEMEN,--Having examined Mitchell's Intermediate and Primary
+Geographies, and faithfully compared them with Smith's, in regard to
+accuracy of definitions, reliability of topography, and faithfulness of
+the descriptive part, we, the undersigned, teachers, are respectively of
+opinion that the interests of your public schools require that the
+former geographies be substituted, to be used in our schools in the room
+of the latter, and we respectfully request that this change may be made.
+
+_Signed,_
+
+    EDWARD WILSON, JR.
+    HENRY ROBBINS,
+    HORACE BACON,
+    P.W. ROBERTSON,
+    N.H. BENSON,
+    P.S. CRANDALL,
+    JNO. PRENTICE,
+    J.A. PETERS,
+    ROXANA CARMICHAEL,
+    RICHARD DAVIDSON.
+
+  _Principals of the Public Schools of the City of Troy._
+
+
+
+HISTORICAL SERIES.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+PINNOCK'S HISTORICAL SERIES.
+
+PINNOCK'S ENGLAND.
+
+REVISED EDITION.
+
+PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND,
+
+FROM THE INVASION OF JULIUS CÆSAR
+
+TO THE DEATH OF GEORGE THE II.
+
+WITH A CONTINUATION TO THE YEAR 1845:
+
+WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION;
+
+BESIDES A VARIETY OF VALUABLE INFORMATION ADDED THROUGHOUT THE WORK,
+
+Consisting of Tables of Contemporary Sovereigns and eminent Persons,
+copious Explanatory Notes, Remarks on the Politics, Manners and
+Literature of the Age, and an Outline of the Constitution.
+
+ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
+
+FORTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, CORRECTED AND REVISED FROM THE THIRTY-FIFTH
+ENGLISH EDITION.
+
+BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D., OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN,
+
+Author of a Manual of Ancient and Modern History, &c. &c.
+
+HISTORICAL SERIES.
+
+PINNOCK'S FRANCE,
+
+HISTORY OF FRANCE AND NORMANDY, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE
+REVOLUTION OF 1848,
+
+WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION,
+
+BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D., OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN,
+
+Author of a Manual of Ancient and Modern History, &c. &c., and Editor of
+Pinnock's Improved editions of Goldsmith's Greece, Rome, and England.
+
+ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
+
+FIRST AMERICAN FROM THE THIRD ENGLISH EDITION.
+
+PINNOCK'S ROME,
+
+REVISED EDITION,
+
+PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ROME,
+
+TO WHICH IS PREFIXED
+
+AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF ROMAN HISTORY,
+
+AND A GREAT VARIETY OF INFORMATION THROUGHOUT THE WORK,
+
+ON THE MANNERS, INSTITUTIONS, AND ANTIQUITIES OF THE ROMANS;
+
+WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION.
+
+TWENTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, FROM THE NINETEENTH LONDON EDITION, IMPROVED
+
+BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D.,
+
+WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS BY ATHERTON AND OTHERS.
+
+PINNOCK'S GREECE,
+
+REVISED EDITION,
+
+PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE,
+REVISED, CORRECTED, AND VERY CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED, BY THE ADDITION OF
+SEVERAL NEW CHAPTERS, AND NUMEROUS USEFUL NOTES.
+
+WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION.
+
+TWENTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, FROM THE NINETEENTH LONDON EDITION, IMPROVED
+
+BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D.,
+
+WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY ATHERTON AND OTHERS.
+
+HISTORICAL SERIES.
+
+Pinnock's England, Greece, Rome, and France, have become school
+classics. In order to make this series more complete, the volumes have
+been revised by that well-known historian, W.C. Taylor, LL.D., of
+Trinity College, Dublin.
+
+The popularity of these books is almost without a parallel. Teachers
+unacquainted with them, will on examination give them a decided
+preference to any other historical series published.
+
+_From the Pennsylvania Inquirer, Philadelphia_.
+
+PINNOCK'S GOLDSMITH'S GREECE, ROME, AND ENGLAND.--The popularity of
+these histories is almost without a parallel among our school books.
+Their use is co-extensive with the English language, and their names are
+familiar to all who have received an English education. But if permitted
+to remain as they came from the hands of the author, they would soon be
+antiquated; for not only is the stream of modern history flowing onward,
+but numerous scholars are constantly making researches into that of
+ancient times. These works are therefore frequently revised, and thus
+the labours of successive individuals are added to those of the gifted
+man who wrote them. The present edition is quite an improvement on the
+former ones. Several important matters which had before been omitted,
+have been introduced into the text, numerous notes and several new cuts
+have been added, and every chapter commences with one or more well
+selected poetical lines, which express the subject of the chapter, and
+will assist the memory as well as improve the taste of the student. We
+feel assured that these additions will increase the reputation which
+these works have hitherto so deservedly sustained.
+
+_From_ JOHN M. KEAGY, _Friends' Academy, Philadelphia._
+
+I consider Pinnock's edition of Goldsmith's History of England as the
+best edition of that work which has as yet been published for the use of
+schools. The tables of contemporary sovereigns and eminent persons, at
+the end of each chapter, afford the means of many useful remarks and
+comparisons with the history of other nations. With these views, I
+cheerfully recommend it as a book well adapted to school purposes.
+
+_From_ MR. J.F. GOULD, _Teacher, Baltimore._
+
+Having examined Pinnock's improved edition of Dr. Goldsmith's History of
+Rome, I unhesitatingly say, that the style and elegance of the language,
+the arrangement of the chapters, and the questions for examination,
+render it, in my estimation, a most valuable school book:--I therefore
+most cheerfully recommend it to teachers, and do confidently trust that
+it will find an extensive introduction into the schools of our country.
+
+HISTORICAL SERIES.
+
+_From the New York Evening Post._
+
+A well written and authentic History of France possesses unusual
+interest at the present time. It becomes especially valuable when, as in
+the present case, it has been prepared with questions as a text-book for
+common schools and seminaries, by a scholar so accomplished as Dr.
+Taylor. The work has passed through three editions in England. The
+American editor has added one chapter on the late revolutions, bringing
+the history down to 1848, and has added to its value by illustrations
+throughout, portraying the costume and the principal events of the
+reigns of which it treats.
+
+This treatise goes back to the origin of the Celtic race, or the
+Cimbrians, as the offspring of Gomer, peopling the north and east of
+Europe on the one hand, and to the descendants of Cush--under the names
+of Scythians, Tartars, Goths, and Scots, warlike, wandering tribes, on
+the other, tracing the migrations of the latter till they drove the
+Celts westward, and the Rhine forms the boundary between the two
+nations. From the Gauls it goes on to the reign of the Franks,
+Charlemagne, the Carlovingian race, the history of Normandy, and the
+history of France from the first crusade through its lines of monarchies
+and its revolutions, to 1848. The style is clear and forcible, and from
+the compactness of the work, forming, as it does, a complete chain of
+events in a most important part of the history of Europe, it will be
+found interesting and valuable for general readers, or as a text-book in
+our schools. It is comprised in 444 pages, 12mo., and contains a
+chronological index and genealogy of the kings of France.
+
+Want of space prevents us from inserting all the recommendations
+received: we however present the names of the following gentlemen, who
+have given their recommendations to the Histories:
+
+  SIMEON HART, Jr., _Farmington, Conn._
+  REV. D.R. AUSTIN, _Principal of Monmouth Academy, Monson, Mass._
+  T.L. WRIGHT, A.M., _Prin. E. Hartford Classical and English School._
+  REV. N.W. FISKE, A.M., _Professor Amherst College, Mass._
+  E.S. SNELL, A.M., _Professor Amherst College, Mass._
+  REV. S. NORTH, _Professor Languages, Hamilton College, N.Y._
+  W.H. SCRAM, A.M., _Prin. Classical and English Academy, Troy, N.Y._
+  JAMES F. GOULD, _Principal of Classical School, Baltimore._
+  A.B. MYERS, _Principal of Whitehall, Academy, New York._
+  HORACE WEBSTER, _Professor Geneva College, N.Y._
+  W.C. FOWLER, _Professor Middlebury College, Vermont._
+  B.S. NOBLE, _Bridgeport, Conn._
+  REV. S.B. HOWE, _Late President of Dickenson College._
+  B.F. JOSLIN, _Professor Union College, N.Y._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Pinnock's Improved Edition of Dr.
+Goldsmith's History of Rome, by Oliver Goldsmith
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME ***
+
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of History of Rome</title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pinnock's Improved Edition of Dr.
+Goldsmith's History of Rome, by Oliver Goldsmith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Pinnock's Improved Edition of Dr. Goldsmith's History of Rome
+
+Author: Oliver Goldsmith
+
+Editor: William C. Taylor
+
+Release Date: July 29, 2005 [EBook #16387]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Alicia Williams, Jayam Subramanian and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<h4>  PINNOCK'S<br />IMPROVED EDITION OF</h4>
+<br /> <h2>DR. GOLDSMITH'S</h2>
+<br /> <br /> <br />
+<hr class="major" />
+<hr />
+<h1>  HISTORY OF ROME: </h1>
+<hr />
+<hr class="major" />
+<br /> <br /> <br />
+  <p class="smcap">TO WHICH IS PREFIXED AN</p>
+  <h4>INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF ROMAN HISTORY,</h4>
+ <p class="smcap">AND</p>
+ <p class="smcap">A GREAT VARIETY OF VALUABLE INFORMATION ADDED<br /> THROUGHOUT THE WORK, ON THE</p>
+
+  <h4>MANNERS, INSTITUTIONS, AND ANTIQUITIES<br /> OF THE ROMANS;</h4>
+   <p class="smcap">WITH</p>
+   <h5>NUMEROUS BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL NOTES;</h5>
+<p class="smcap">AND</p>
+   <h4>QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION</h4>
+<p class="smcap">AT THE END OF EACH SECTION.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image36.jpg"
+alt="Coliseum"
+title="Coliseum" width="423" height="245" />
+</div>
+   <p class="smcap">ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.</p>
+  <hr class="minor" />
+<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+   <h3>BY WM. C. TAYLOR, LL.D.,</h3>
+   <p class="smcap">OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN.</p>
+   <p class="smcap">AUTHOR OF MANUAL OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY, ETC. ETC.</p>
+<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">THIRTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, FROM THE TWENTY-THIRD ENGLISH EDITION</p> <br /> <br />
+<h4>PHILADELPHIA:<br />
+THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT &amp; CO.<br />
+1851.</h4>
+<br /> <br /> <br /> <hr />
+<h6>Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in
+the year 1848, by</h6>
+  <h4>THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT &amp; CO.</h4>
+<h6>In the clerk's office of the District Court of
+the United States for<br />
+the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.</h6>
+<hr /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+<h3>PRINTED BY SMITH &amp; PETERS,</h3>
+<p class="smcap">Franklin Buildings, Sixth Street below Arch, Philadelphia.</p>
+<br /> <br /> <br /><hr />
+<h3><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</a></h3>
+<hr /><br />
+<p>
+The researches of Niebuhr and several other distinguished German
+scholars have thrown a new light on Roman History, and enabled us to
+discover the true constitution of that republic which once ruled the
+destinies of the known world, and the influence of whose literature
+and laws is still powerful in every civilized state, and will probably
+continue to be felt to the remotest posterity. These discoveries have,
+however, been hitherto useless to junior students in this country; the
+works of the German critics being unsuited to the purposes of schools,
+not only from their price, but also from the extensive learning
+requisite to follow them through their laborious disquisitions. The
+editor has, therefore, thought that it would be no unacceptable
+service, to prefix a few Introductory Chapters, detailing such results
+from their inquiries as best elucidate the character and condition of
+the Roman people, and explain the most important portion of the
+history. The struggles between the patricians and plebeians,
+respecting the agrarian laws have been so strangely misrepresented,
+even by some of the best historians, that the nature of the contest
+may, with truth, be said to have been wholly misunderstood before the
+publication of Niebuhr's work: a perfect explanation of these
+important matters cannot be expected in a work of this kind; the
+Editors trust that the brief account given here of the Roman tenure of
+land, and the nature of the agrarian laws, will be found sufficient
+for all practical purposes. After all the researches that have been
+made, the true origin of the Latin people, and even of the Roman city,
+is involved in impenetrable obscurity; the legendary traditions
+collected by the historians are, however, the best guides that we can
+now follow; but it would be absurd to bestow implicit credit on all
+the accounts they have given, and the editor has, therefore, pointed
+out the uncertain nature of the early history, not to encourage
+scepticism, but to accustom students to consider the nature of
+historical evidence, and thus early form the useful habit of
+criticising and weighing testimony.
+</p> <p>
+The authorities followed in the geographical chapters, are principally
+Heeren and Cramer; the treatise of the latter on ancient Italy is one
+of the most valuable aids acquired by historical students within the
+present century. Much important information respecting the peculiar
+character of the Roman religion has been derived from Mr. Keightley's
+excellent Treatise on Mythology; the only writer who has, in our
+language, hitherto, explained the difference between the religious
+systems of Greece and Rome. The account of the barbarians in the
+conclusion of the volume, is, for the most part, extracted from
+"Koch's Revolutions of Europe;" the sources of the notes, scattered
+through the volume, are too varied for a distinct acknowledgment of
+each.</p>
+<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+
+
+
+<h3><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</a></h3>
+ <p class="smcap"><b>INTRODUCTION.</b></p>
+<table summary="Introduction" width="100%">
+
+<tr><td width="15%" class="tocch">CHAPTER</td><td></td><td class="tocch">PAGE</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">I.</td><td>
+
+  Geographical Outline of Italy</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_011">11</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">II.</td><td>
+
+  The Latin Language and People&mdash;Credibility of
+  the Early History   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_018">18</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">III.</td><td>
+
+  Topography of Rome</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_023">23</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">IV.</td><td>
+
+  The Roman Constitution</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_030">30</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">V.</td><td>
+
+  The Roman Tenure of Land&mdash;Colonial Government </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_037">37</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">VI.</td><td>
+
+  The Roman Religion</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_039">39</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">VII.</td><td>
+
+  The Roman Army and Navy </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_043">43</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">VIII.</td><td>
+
+  Roman Law.&mdash;Finance   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_051">51</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">IX.</td><td>
+
+  The public Amusements and private Life of the
+  Romans  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_055">55</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">X.</td><td>
+
+  Geography of the empire at the time of its greatest
+  extent  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_059">59</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+<br /><p class="smcap"><b>HISTORY.</b></p><br />
+<table summary="history" width="100%">
+
+<tr><td width="15%" class="tocch">I.</td><td>
+Of the Origin of the Romans</td><td class="tocpg">
+<a href="#Page_063">63</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">II.</td><td>
+
+  From the building of Rome to the death of Romulus</td><td class="tocpg">
+<a href="#Page_066">66</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">III.</td><td>
+
+  From the death of Romulus to the death of Numa  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_071">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">IV.</td><td>
+
+  From the death of Numa to the death of Tullus
+  Hostilius   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_073">73</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">V.</td><td>
+
+  From the death of Tullus Hostilius to the death of
+  Ancus Martius </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_075">75</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">VI.</td><td>
+
+  From the death of Ancus Martius to the death of
+  Taiquinius Priscus</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_077">77</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">VII.</td><td>
+
+  From the death of Tarquinius Priscus to the
+  death of Servius Tullius</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_080">80</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">VIII.</td><td>
+
+  From the death of Servius Tullius to the banishment
+  of Tarquinius Superbus</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_083">83</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">IX.</td><td>
+
+  From the banishment of Tarquinius Superbus to
+  the appointment of the first Dictator </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_088">88</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">X.</td><td>
+
+  From the Creation of the Dictator to the election
+  of the Tribunes   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_093">93</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XI.</td><td>
+
+  From the Creation of the Tribunes to the appointment
+  of the Decemviri, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;The great Volscian war </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_096">96</a></td></tr>
+
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;Civil commotions on account of the
+  Agrarian law </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XII.</td><td>
+
+  From the creation of the Decemviri to the destruction
+  of the city by the Gauls, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+
+  <tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;Tyranny of the Decemviri</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;Crimes of Appius&mdash;Revolt of the army  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 3.&mdash;Election of Military Tribunes&mdash;  Creation of the Censorship </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+ <tr><td></td><td> &mdash;&mdash; 4.&mdash;Siege and capture of Veii&mdash;Invasion
+    of the Gauls   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 5.&mdash;Deliverance of Rome from the Gauls</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XIII.</td><td>
+
+  From the wars with the Samnites to the First
+  Punic war, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+ <tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;The Latin war </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;Invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus, king
+    of Epirus  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 3.&mdash;Defeat and departure of Pyrrhus   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XIV.</td><td>
+
+  From the beginning of the First Punic war to
+  the beginning of the Second, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;Causes and commencement of the
+    war&mdash;Invasion of Africa by Regulus </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;Death of Regulus&mdash;Final Triumph
+    of the Romans  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XV.</td><td>
+
+  The Second Punic war, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;Commencement of the war&mdash;Hannibal's
+    invasion of Italy</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;Victorious career of Hannibal </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 3.&mdash;Retrieval of the Roman affairs&mdash;Invasion
+    of Africa by Scipio&mdash;Conclusion of
+    the war</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XVI.</td><td>
+
+  Macedonian, Syrian, Third Punic, and Spanish wars  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XVII.</td><td>
+
+  From the Destruction of Carthage to the end of
+  the Sedition of the Gracchi, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;Murder of Tiberius Gracchus </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;Slaughter of Caius Gracchus and
+    his adherents  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XVIII.</td><td>
+
+  From the Sedition of Gracchus to the perpetual
+  Dictatorship of Sylla, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;The Jugurthine and Social wars</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;The cruel massacres perpetrated by
+    Marius and Sylla </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XIX.</td><td>
+
+  From the perpetual Dictatorship of Sylla to the
+  first Triumvirate</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XX.</td><td>
+
+  From the First Triumvirate to the death of Pompey, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;C&aelig;sar's wars in Gaul&mdash;Commencement
+    of the Civil war </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;C&aelig;sar's victorious career   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 3.&mdash;The campaign in Thessaly and Epirus   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 4.&mdash;The battle of Pharsalia </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 5.&mdash;Death of Pompey   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XXI.</td><td>
+
+  From the Destruction of the Commonwealth to
+  the establishment of the first Emperor, Augustus, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;C&aelig;sar's Egyptian campaign   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;The African campaign</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 3.&mdash;Death of C&aelig;sar</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 4.&mdash;The Second Triumvirate</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 5.&mdash;The Battle of Philippi</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 6.&mdash;Dissensions of Antony and Augustus  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 7.&mdash;The Battle of Actium</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 8.&mdash;The Conquest of Egypt </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XXII.</td><td>
+
+  From the accession of Augustus to the death
+  of Domitian, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;The beneficent Administration of
+  Augustus </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;Death of Augustus   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 3.&mdash;The reign of Tiberius&mdash;Death of
+  Germanicus   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 4.&mdash;Death of Sejanus and Tiberius&mdash;Accession
+  of Caligula  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 5.&mdash;Extravagant cruelties of Caligula&mdash;His
+  death  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 6.&mdash;The Reign of Claudius </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 7.&mdash;The reign of Nero   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 8.&mdash;Death of Nero&mdash;Reigns of Galba
+  and Otho </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td></tr>
+   <tr><td></td><td> &mdash;&mdash; 9.&mdash;The reigns of Vitellius and Vespasian&mdash;The
+  siege of Jerusalem by Titus</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 10.&mdash;The Reigns of Titus and Domitian   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 11.&mdash;The assassination of Domitian</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XXIII.</td><td>
+
+  The Five good emperors of Rome, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+   <tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;The Reigns of Nerva and Trajan</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;The Reign of Adrian </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+   <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 3.&mdash;The Reign of Antoninus Pius   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 4.&mdash;The reign of Marcus Aurelius  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XXIV.</td><td>
+
+  From the accession of Commodus to the change
+  of the seat of Government, from Rome to
+  Constantinople, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;The Reigns of Commodus, Pertinax,
+  and Didius   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;The Reigns of Severus, Caracalla,
+  Maximus, and Heliogabalus  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td></tr>
+   <tr><td></td><td> &mdash;&mdash; 3.&mdash;The reigns of Alexander, Maximin,
+  and Gordian  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_342">342</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 4.&mdash;The Reigns of Philip, Decius,
+  Gallus, Valerian, Claudius, Aurelian, Tacitus,
+  and Probus   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_346">346</a></td></tr>
+    <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 5.&mdash;The reigns of Carus, Carinus,
+  Dioclesian, and Constantius&mdash;Accession of
+  Constantine  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_350">350</a></td></tr>
+   <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 6.&mdash;The reign of Constantine  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_355">355</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">XXV.</td><td>
+
+  From the death of Constantine, to the reunion
+  of the Roman empire under Theodosius the
+  Great, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;The Reign of Constantius  </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_358">358</a></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;The Reigns of Julian Jovian, the
+  Valentinians, and Theodosius   </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XXVI.</td><td>
+
+  From the death of Theodosius to the subversion
+  of the Western Empire, viz.</td><td></td></tr>
+ <tr><td></td><td> <i>Section</i> 1.&mdash;The division of the Roman dominions
+    into the Eastern and Western empires </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_373">373</a></td></tr>
+  <tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; 2.&mdash;Decline and fall of the Western
+    empire </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_377">377</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XXVII.</td><td>
+
+  Historical notices of the different barbarous
+  tribes that aided in overthrowing the Roman
+  empire </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_385">385</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tocch">XXVIII.</td><td> The progress of Christianity </td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_391">391</a></td></tr>
+
+  <tr><td></td><td>Chronological Index</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_395">395</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+<h1>HISTORY OF ROME</h1>
+<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+
+<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_011" id="Page_011">[Pg. 11]</a></span>
+<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3>
+<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /><hr />
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+<hr /> <br />
+
+<p class="smcap">
+GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF ITALY.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Italia! oh, Italia! thou who hast</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The fatal gift of beauty, which became</span><br />
+<span class="i2">A funeral dower of present woes and past,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">On thy sweet brow is sorrow plough'd by shame,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And annals traced in characters of flame.&mdash;<i>Byron</i>.</span><br /></p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+1. The outline of Italy presents a geographical unity and completeness
+which naturally would lead us to believe that it was regarded as a
+whole, and named as a single country, from the earliest ages. This
+opinion would, however, be erroneous; while the country was possessed
+by various independent tribes of varied origin and different customs,
+the districts inhabited by each were reckoned separate states, and it
+was not until these several nations had fallen under the power of one
+predominant people that the physical unity which the peninsula
+possesses was expressed by a single name. Italy was the name
+originally given to a small peninsula in Brut'tium, between the
+Scylacean and Napetine gulfs; the name was gradually made to
+comprehend new districts, until at length it included the entire
+country lying south of the Alps, between the Adriatic and Tuscan seas.
+2. The names Hesp&eacute;ria, Sat&uacute;rnia, and &OElig;not'ria have also been given
+to this country by the poets; but these designations are not properly
+applicable; for Hesp&eacute;ria was a general name for all the countries
+lying to the west of Greece, and the other two names really belonged
+to particular districts.</p>
+<p>
+3. The northern boundary of Italy, in its full extent, is the chain of
+the Alps, which forms a kind of crescent, with the convex side towards
+Gaul. The various branches of these mountains had distinct names; the
+most remarkable were, the Maritime Alps, extending from the Ligurian
+sea to Mount V&eacute;sulus, <i>Veso</i>; the Collian, Graian, Penine, Rh&oelig;tian,
+Tridentine, Carnic, and Julian Alps, which nearly complete the
+crescent; the Euganean, Venetian, and Pannonian Alps, that extend the
+chain to the east.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_012" id="Page_012">[Pg. 12]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+4. The political divisions of Italy have been frequently altered, but
+it may be considered as naturally divided into Northern, Central, and
+Southern Italy.</p>
+<p>
+The principal divisions of Northern Italy were Ligu'ria and Cisalpine
+Gaul.</p>
+<p>
+5. Only one half of Liguria was accounted part of Italy; the remainder
+was included in Gaul. The Ligurians originally possessed the entire
+line of sea-coast from the Pyrennees to the Tiber, and the mountainous
+district now called <i>Piedmont</i>; but before the historic age a great
+part of their territory was wrested from them by the Iberians, the
+Celts, and the Tuscans, until their limits were contracted nearly to
+those of the present district attached to Genoa. Their chief cities
+were Gen&uacute;a, <i>Genoa</i>; Nic&oelig;'a, <i>Nice</i>, founded by a colony from
+Marseilles; and As'ta, <i>Asti</i>. The Ligurians were one of the last
+Italian states conquered by the Romans; on account of their inveterate
+hostility, they are grossly maligned by the historians of the
+victorious people, and described as ignorant, treacherous, and
+deceitful; but the Greek writers have given a different and more
+impartial account; they assure us that the Ligurians were eminent for
+boldness and dexterity, and at the same time patient and contented.</p>
+<p>
+6. Cisalpine Gaul extended from Liguria to the Adriatic or Upper Sea,
+and nearly coincides with the modern district of Lombardy. The country
+is a continuous plain divided by the Pa'dus, <i>Po</i>, into two parts; the
+northern, Gallia Transpada'na, was inhabited by the tribes of the
+Tauri'ni, In'subres, and Cenoma'nni; the southern, Gallia Cispada'na,
+was possessed by the Boi'i, Leno'nes, and Lingo'nes. 7. These plains
+were originally inhabited by a portion of the Etrurian or Tuscan
+nation, once the most powerful in Italy; but at an uncertain period a
+vast horde of Celtic Gauls forced the passage of the Alps and spread
+themselves over the country, which thence received their name.</p>
+<p>
+8. It was sometimes called Gallia Toga'ta, because the invaders
+conformed to Italian customs, and wore the toga. Cisalpine Gaul was
+not accounted part of Italy in the republican age; its southern
+boundary, the river Rubicon, being esteemed by the Romans the limit of
+their domestic empire.</p>
+<p>
+9. The river Pa'dus and its tributary streams fertilized these rich
+plains. The principal rivers falling into the Padus were, from the
+north, the Du'ria, <i>Durance</i>; the Tici'nus, <i>Tessino</i>; the Ad'dua,
+<i>Adda</i>; the Ol'lius, <i>Oglio</i>;<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_013" id="Page_013">[Pg. 13]</a></span> and the Min'tius, <i>Minzio</i>: from
+the south, the Ta'narus, <i>Tanaro</i>, and the Tre'bia. The Ath'esis,
+<i>Adige</i>; the Pla'vis, <i>Paive</i>; fall directly into the Adriatic.</p>
+<p>
+10. The principal cities in Cisalpine Gaul were Roman colonies with
+municipal rights; many of them have preserved their names unchanged to
+the present day. The most remarkable were; north of the Pa'dus,
+Terge'ste, <i>Trieste</i>; Aquilei'a; Pata'vium, <i>Padua</i>; Vincen'tia,
+Vero'na, all east of the Athe'sis: Mantua; Cremo'na; Brix'ia,
+<i>Brescia</i>; Mediola'num, <i>Milan</i>; Tici'num, <i>Pavia</i>; and Augusta
+Turino'rum, <i>Turin</i>; all west of the Athe'sis. South of the Po we find
+Raven'na; Bono'nia, <i>Bologna</i>; Muti'na, <i>Modena</i>; Par'ma, and
+Placen'tia. 11. From the time that Rome was burned by the Gauls (B.C.
+390), the Romans were harassed by the hostilities of this warlike
+people; and it was not until after the first Punic war, that any
+vigorous efforts were made for their subjugation. The Cisalpine Gauls,
+after a fierce resistance, were overthrown by Marcell'us (B.C. 223)
+and compelled to submit, and immediately afterwards military colonies
+were sent out as garrisons to the most favourable situations in their
+country. The Gauls zealously supported An'nibal when he invaded Italy,
+and were severely punished when the Romans finally became victorious.</p>
+<p>
+12. North-east of Cisalpine Gaul, at the upper extremity of the
+Adriatic, lay the territory of the Venetians; they were a rich and
+unwarlike people, and submitted to the Romans without a struggle, long
+before northern Italy had been annexed to the dominions of the
+republic.</p>
+<p>
+13. Central Italy comprises six countries, Etru'ria, La'tium, and
+Campa'nia on the west; Um'bria, Pice'num, and Sam'nium, on the east.</p>
+<p>
+14. Etru'ria, called also Tus'cia (whence the modern name <i>Tuscany</i>)
+and Tyrrhe'nia, was an extensive mountainous district, bounded on the
+north by the river Mac'ra, and on the south and east by the Tiber. The
+chain of the Apennines, which intersects middle and Lower Italy,
+commences in the north of Etru'ria. The chief river is the Ar'nus,
+<i>Arno</i>. 15. The names Etruscan and Tyrrhenian, indifferently applied
+to the inhabitants of this country, originally belonged to different
+tribes, which, before the historic age, coalesced into one people. The
+Etruscans appear to have been Celts who descended from the Alps; the
+Tyrrhenians were undoubtedly a part of the Pelas'gi who originally
+possessed the south-east of Europe. The<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_014" id="Page_014">[Pg. 14]</a></span> circumstances of the
+Pelasgic migration are differently related by the several historians,
+but the fact is asserted by all.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> These Tyrrhenians brought with
+them the knowledge of letters and the arts, and the united people
+attained a high degree of power and civilization, long before the name
+of Rome was known beyond the precincts of Latium. They possessed a
+strong naval force, which was chiefly employed in piratical
+expeditions, and they claimed the sovereignty of the western seas. The
+first sea-fight recorded in history was fought between the fugitive
+Phocians,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and the allied fleets of the Tyrrhenians and the
+Carthaginians (B.C. 539.)</p>
+<p>
+16. To commerce and navigation the Etruscans were indebted for their
+opulence and consequent magnificence; their destruction was owing to
+the defects of their political system. There were twelve Tuscan cities
+united in a federative alliance. Between the Mac'ra and Arnus were,
+Pi's&aelig;, <i>Pisa</i>; Floren'tia, <i>Florence</i>; and F&aelig;'sul&aelig;: between the Arnus
+and the Tiber, Volate'rr&aelig;, <i>Volterra</i>; Volsin'ii, <i>Bolsena</i>; Clu'sium,
+<i>Chiusi</i>; Arre'tium, <i>Arrezzo</i>; Corto'na; Peru'sia, <i>Perugia</i>, (near
+which is the Thrasamene lake); Fale'rii, and Ve'ii.</p>
+<p>
+17. Each of these cities was ruled by a chief magistrate called
+<i>lu'cumo</i>, chosen for life; he possessed regal power, and is
+frequently called a king by the Roman historians. In enterprises
+undertaken by the whole body, the supreme command was committed to one
+of the twelve <i>lucumones</i>, and he received a lictor from each city.
+But from the time that Roman history begins to assume a regular form,
+the Tuscan cities stand isolated, uniting only transiently and
+casually; we do not, however, find any traces of intestine wars
+between the several states.</p>
+<p>
+18. The Etrurian form of government was aristocratical, and the
+condition of the people appears to have been miserable in the extreme;
+they were treated as slaves destitute of political rights, and
+compelled to labour solely for the benefit of their taskmasters. A
+revolution at a late period took place at Volsin'ii, and the exclusive
+privileges of the nobility abolished after a fierce and bloody
+struggle; it is remarkable that this town, in which the people had
+obtained their rights, alone made an obstinate resistance to the
+Romans.</p>
+<p>
+19. The progress of the Tuscans in the fine arts is attested by the
+monuments that still remain; but of their literature<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_015" id="Page_015">[Pg. 15]</a></span> we know
+nothing; their language is unknown, and their books have perished. In
+the first ages of the Roman republic, the children of the nobility
+were sent to Etru'ria for education, especially in divination and the
+art of soothsaying, in which the Tuscans were supposed to excel. The
+form of the Roman constitution, the religious ceremonies, and the
+ensigns of civil government, were borrowed from the Etrurians.</p>
+<p>
+20. La'tium originally extended along the coast from the Tiber to the
+promontory of Circe'ii; hence that district was called, old La'tium;
+the part subsequently added, called new La'tium, extended from Circeii
+to the Li'ris, <i>Garigliano</i>. The people were called Latins; but
+eastward, towards the Apennines, were the tribes of the Her'nici, the
+&AElig;'qui, the Mar'si, and the Sabines; and on the south were the Vols'ci,
+Ru'tuli, and Aurun'ci. The chief rivers in this country were the
+A'nio, <i>Teverone</i>; and Al'lia, which fall into the Tiber; and the
+Liris, <i>Garigliano</i>; which flows directly into the Mediterranean.</p>
+<p>
+21. The chief cities in old Latium were ROME; Ti'bur, <i>Tivoli</i>;
+Tus'culum, <i>Frescati</i>; Al'ba Lon'ga, of which no trace remains;
+Lavin'ium; An'tium; Ga'bii; and Os'tia, <i>Civita Vecchia</i>; the chief
+towns in new Latium were Fun'di, Anx'ur or Terraci'na, Ar'pinum,
+Mintur'n&aelig;, and For'mi&aelig;.</p>
+<p>
+22. CAMPA'NIA included the fertile volcanic plains that lie between
+the Liris on the north, and the Si'lanus, <i>Selo</i>, on the south; the
+other most remarkable river was the Voltur'nus, <i>Volturno</i>. The chief
+cities were, Ca'pua the capital, Linter'num, Cu'm&aelig;, Neapo'lis,
+<i>Naples</i>; Hercula'neum, Pompe'ii, Surren'tum, Saler'num, &amp;c. The
+original inhabitants of Campa'nia, were the Auso'nes and Op'ici or
+Osci, the most ancient of the native Italian tribes. The Tyrrhenian
+Pelas'gi made several settlements on the coast, and are supposed to
+have founded Cap'ua. The Etruscans were afterwards masters of the
+country, but their dominion was of brief duration, and left no trace
+behind. Campa'nia was subdued by the Romans after the Volscian war.</p>
+<p>
+23. The soil of Campa'nia is the most fruitful, perhaps, in the world,
+but it is subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Mount
+Vesu'vius in the early ages of Italy was not a volcano; its first
+eruption took place A.D. 79.</p>
+<p>
+24. UM'BRIA extended along the middle and east of Italy, from the
+river Rubicon in the north, to the &AElig;'sis, <i>Gesano</i>,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_016" id="Page_016">[Pg. 16]</a></span> dividing it
+from Pise'num, and the Nar, <i>Nera</i>, separating it from Sam'nium in the
+south. The Umbrians were esteemed one of the most ancient races in
+Italy, and were said to have possessed the greater part of the
+northern and central provinces. They were divided into several tribes,
+which seem to have been semi-barbarous, and they were subject to the
+Gauls before they were conquered by the Romans. Their chief towns were
+Arimi'nium, <i>Rimini</i>; Spole'tium, <i>Spoleto</i>; Nar'nia, <i>Narni</i>; and
+Ocricu'lum, <i>Otriculi</i>.</p>
+<p>
+25. PICE'NUM was the name given to the fertile plain that skirts the
+Adriatic, between the &AElig;'sis, <i>Gesano</i>, and the Atar'nus, <i>Pescara</i>.
+The chief cities were Anco'na and Asc'ulum Pice'num, <i>Ascoli</i>. The
+Picentines were descended from the Sabines, and observed the strict
+and severe discipline of that warlike race, but they were destitute of
+courage or vigour.</p>
+<p>
+26. SAM'NIUM included the mountainous tract which stretches from the
+Atar'nus in the north, to the Fren'to in the south. It was inhabited
+by several tribes descended from the Sabines<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and Ma'rsi, of which
+the Samnites were the most distinguished; the other most remarkable
+septs were the Marruci'ni and Pelig'ni in the north, the Frenta'ni in
+the east, and the Hirpi'ni in the south.</p>
+<p>
+27. The Samnites were distinguished by their love of war, and their
+unconquerable attachment to liberty; their sway at one time extended
+over Campa'nia, and the greater part of central Italy; and the Romans
+found them the fiercest and most dangerous of their early enemies. The
+chief towns in the Samnite territory were Alli'f&aelig;, Beneventum, and
+Cau'dium.</p>
+<p>
+28. Lower Italy was also called Magna Gr&aelig;'cia, from the number of
+Greek<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> colonies that settled on the coast; it comprised four
+countries; Luca'nia and Brut'tium on the west, and Apu'lia and
+Cala'bria on the east.</p>
+<p>
+29. LUCA'NIA was a mountainous country between the Sil'arus, <i>Selo</i>,
+on the north, and the L&auml;'us, <i>Lavo</i>, on the south. The Lucanians were
+of Sabine origin, and conquered<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_017" id="Page_017">[Pg. 17]</a></span> the &OElig;notrians, who first
+possessed the country: they also subdued several Greek cities on the
+coast. The chief cities were Posido'nia or P&aelig;stum, He'lia or Ve'lia,
+Sib'aris and Thu'rii.</p>
+<p>
+30. Brut'tium is the modern Cala'bria, and received that name when the
+ancient province was wrested from the empire. It included the tongue
+of land from the river L&auml;us to the southern extremity of Italy at
+Rhe'gium. The mountains of the interior were inhabited by the
+Bruta'tes or Brut'tii, a semi-barbarous tribe, at first subject to the
+Sibarites, and afterwards to the Lucanians. In a late age they
+asserted their independence, and maintained a vigorous resistance to
+the Romans. As the Brut'tii used the Oscan language, they must have
+been of the Ausonian race. The chief towns were the Greek settlements
+on the coast, Consen'tia, <i>Cosenza</i>; Pando'sia, <i>Cirenza</i>; Croto'na,
+Mame'rtum, Petil'ia, and Rhe'gium, <i>Reggio</i>.</p>
+<p>
+31. Apu'lia extended along the eastern coast from the river Fren'to,
+to the eastern tongue of land which forms the foot of the boot, to
+which Italy has been compared. It was a very fruitful plain, without
+fortresses or harbours, and was particularly adapted to grazing
+cattle. It was divided by the river Au'fidus, <i>Ofanto</i>, into Apu'lia
+Dau'nia, and Apu'lia Peuce'tia, or pine-bearing Apu'lia. The chief
+towns were, in Dau'nia, Sipon'tum and Luce'ria: in Peuce'tia, Ba'rium,
+Can'n&aelig;, and Venu'sia.</p>
+<p>
+32. Cala'bria, or Messa'pia, is the eastern tongue of land which
+terminates at Cape Japy'gium, <i>Santa Maria</i>; it was almost wholly
+occupied by Grecian colonies. The chief towns were Brundu'sium,
+<i>Brindisi</i>: Callipolis, <i>Gallipoli</i>: and Taren'tum.</p>
+<p>
+33. The islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia, which are now
+reckoned as appertaining to Italy, were by the Romans considered
+separate provinces.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. How is Italy situated?</p>
+<p>
+2. By what names was the country known to the ancients?</p>
+<p>
+3. How is Italy bounded on the north?</p>
+<p>
+4. What districts were in northern Italy?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the extent of Liguria, and the character of its
+inhabitants?</p>
+<p>
+6. How was Cisalpine Gaul divided?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_018" id="Page_018">[Pg. 18]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+7. By whom was Cisalpine Gaul inhabited?</p>
+<p>
+8. Why was it called Togata?</p>
+<p>
+9. What are the principal rivers in northern Italy?</p>
+<p>
+10. What are the chief cities in Cisalpine Gaul?</p>
+<p>
+11. When did the Romans subdue this district?</p>
+<p>
+12. Did the Venetians resist the Roman power?</p>
+<p>
+13. What are the chief divisions of central Italy?</p>
+<p>
+14. How is Etruria situated?</p>
+<p>
+15. By what people was Etruria colonized?</p>
+<p>
+16. What were the Tuscan cities?</p>
+<p>
+17. How were the cities ruled?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the general form of Tuscan government?</p>
+<p>
+19. For what were the Tuscans remarkable?</p>
+<p>
+20. What was the geographical situation of Latium?</p>
+<p>
+21. What were the chief towns in Latium?</p>
+<p>
+22. What towns and people were in Campania?</p>
+<p>
+23. For what is the soil of Campania remarkable?</p>
+<p>
+24. What description is given of Umbria?</p>
+<p>
+25. What towns and people were in Picenum?</p>
+<p>
+26. From whom were the Samnites descended?</p>
+<p>
+27. What was the character of this people?</p>
+<p>
+28. How was southern Italy divided?</p>
+<p>
+29. What description is given of Lucania?</p>
+<p>
+30. By what people was Bruttium inhabited?</p>
+<p>
+31. What is the geographical situation of Apulia?</p>
+<p>
+32. What description is given of Calabria?</p>
+<p>
+33. What islands belong to Italy?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_1" id="Fnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See Pinnock's History of Greece, Chap. I.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_2" id="Fnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See Historical Miscellany, Part II. Chap. I.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_3" id="Fnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ These colonies, sent out by the Sabines, are said to have
+originated from the observance of the Ver sacrum (<i>sacred spring</i>.)
+During certain years, every thing was vowed to the gods that was born
+between the calends (first day) of March and May, whether men or
+animals. At first they were sacrificed; but in later ages this cruel
+custom was laid aside, and they were sent out as colonists.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_4" id="Fnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The history of these colonies is contained in the
+Historical Miscellany, Part II. Chap. ii.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER II.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+THE LATIN LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE&mdash;CREDIBILITY OF THE EARLY HISTORY.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Succeeding times did equal folly call.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Believing nothing, or believing all.&mdash;<i>Dryden.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+The Latin language contains two primary elements, the first intimately
+connected with the Grecian, and the second with the Oscan tongue; to
+the former, for the most part, belong all words expressing the arts
+and relations of civilized life; to the latter, such terms as express
+the wants of men before society has been organized. We are therefore
+warranted in conjecturing that the Latin people was a mixed race; that
+one of its component parts came from some Grecian stock, and
+introduced the first elements of civilization, and that the other was
+indigenous, and borrowed refinement from the strangers. The traditions
+recorded by the historians sufficiently confirm this opinion; they
+unanimously<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_019" id="Page_019">[Pg. 19]</a></span> assert that certain bodies of Pelasgi came into the
+country before the historic age, and coalesced with the ancient
+inhabitants. The traditions respecting these immigrations are so
+varied, that it is impossible to discover any of the circumstances;
+but there is one so connected with the early history of Rome, that it
+cannot be passed over without notice. All the Roman historians
+declare, that after the destruction of Troy, &AElig;neas, with a body of the
+fugitives, arrived in Latium, and having married the daughter of king
+Lati'nus, succeeded him on the throne. It would be easy to show that
+this narrative is so very improbable, as to be wholly unworthy of
+credit; but how are we to account for the universal credence which it
+received? To decide this question we must discuss the credibility of
+the early Roman history, a subject which has of late years attracted
+more than ordinary attention.</p>
+<p>
+The first Roman historian of any authority, was Fa'bius Pic'tor, who
+flourished at the close of the second Punic war; that is, about five
+centuries and a half after the foundation of the city, and nearly a
+thousand years after the destruction of Troy. The materials from which
+his narrative was compiled, were the legendary ballads, which are in
+every country the first record of warlike exploits; the calendars and
+annals kept by the priests, and the documents kept by noble families
+to establish their genealogy. Imperfect as these materials must
+necessarily have been under any circumstances, we must remember that
+the city of Rome was twice captured; once by Porsenna, and a second
+time by the Gauls, about a century and a half before Fabius was born.
+On the latter occasion the city was burned to the ground, and the
+capital saved only by the payment of an immense ransom. By such a
+calamity it is manifest that the most valuable documents must have
+been dispersed or destroyed, and the part that escaped thrown into
+great disorder. The heroic songs might indeed have been preserved in
+the memory of the public reciters; but there is little necessity for
+proving that poetic historians would naturally mingle so much fiction
+with truth, that few of their assertions could be deemed authentic.
+The history of the four first centuries of the Roman state is
+accordingly full of the greatest inconsistences and improbabilities;
+so much so, that many respectable writers have rejected the whole as
+unworthy of credit; but this is as great an excess in scepticism, as
+the reception of the whole would be of credulity.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_020" id="Page_020">[Pg. 20]</a></span> But if the
+founders of the city, the date of its erection, and the circumstances
+under which its citizens were assembled be altogether doubtful, as
+will subsequently be shown, assuredly the history of events that
+occurred four centuries previous must be involved in still greater
+obscurity. The legend of &AElig;neas, when he first appears noticed as a
+progenitor of the Romans, differs materially from that which
+afterwards prevailed. Romulus, in the earlier version of the story, is
+invariably described as the son or grandson of &AElig;neas. He is the
+grandson in the poems of N&aelig;vius and Ennius, who were both nearly
+contemporary with Fabius Pictor. This gave rise to an insuperable
+chronological difficulty; for Troy was destroyed B.C. 1184, and Rome
+was not founded until B.C. 753. To remedy this incongruity, a list of
+Latin kings intervening between &AElig;ne'as and Rom'ulus, was invented; but
+the forgery was so clumsily executed, that its falsehood is apparent
+on the slightest inspection. It may also be remarked, that the actions
+attributed to &AElig;neas are, in other traditions of the same age and
+country, ascribed to other adventurers; to Evander, a Pelasgic leader
+from Arcadia, who is said to have founded a city on the site
+afterwards occupied by Rome; or to Uly'sses, whose son Tele'gonus is
+reported to have built Tus'culum.</p>
+<p>
+If then we deny the historical truth of a legend which seems to have
+been universally credited by the Romans, how are we to account for the
+origin of the tale? Was the tradition of native growth, or was it
+imported from Greece when the literature of that country was
+introduced into Latium? These are questions that can only be answered
+by guess; but perhaps the following theory may in some degree be found
+satisfactory. We have shown that tradition, from the earliest age,
+invariably asserted that Pelasgic colonies had formed settlements in
+central Italy; nothing is more notorious than the custom of the
+Pelasgic tribes to take the name of their general, or of some town in
+which they had taken up their temporary residence; now &AElig;ne'a and &AElig;'nus
+were common names of the Pelasgic towns; the city of Thessaloni'ca was
+erected on the site of the ancient &AElig;ne'a; there was an &AElig;'nus in
+Thrace,<a name="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> another in Thessaly,<a href="#Fnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> another among the Locrians, and
+another in Epi'rus:<a href="#Fnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> hence it is not very improbable but that some
+of<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_021" id="Page_021">[Pg. 21]</a></span> the Pelasgic tribes which entered Latium may have been called
+the &AElig;ne'ad&aelig;; and the name, as in a thousand instances, preserved after
+the cause was forgotten. This conjecture is confirmed by the fact,
+that temples traditionally said to have been erected by a people
+called the &AElig;ne'ad&aelig;, are found in the Macedonian peninsula of
+Pall'ene,<a name="FNanchor_2_6" id="FNanchor_2_6"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_6" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> in the islands of De'los, Cythe'ra, Zacy'nthus,
+Leuca'dia, and Sicily, on the western coasts of Ambra'cia and Epi'rus,
+and on the southern coast of Sicily.</p>
+<p>
+The account of several Trojans, and especially &AElig;ne'as, having survived
+the destruction of the city, is as old as the earliest narrative of
+that famous siege; Homer distinctly asserts it when he makes Neptune
+declare,</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">&mdash;&mdash; Nor thus can Jove resign</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The future father of the Dardan line:</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The first great ancestor obtain'd his grace,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And still his love descends on all the race.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">For Priam now, and Priam's faithless kind,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">At length are odious, to the all-seeing mind;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">On great &AElig;neas shall devolve the reign,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And sons succeeding sons the lasting line sustain.</span><br />
+</p>
+<p class="citation">ILIAD, xx.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+But long before the historic age, Phrygia and the greater part of the
+western shores of Asia Minor were occupied by Grecian colonies, and
+all remembrance of &AElig;ne'as and his followers lost. When the narrative
+of the Trojan war, with other Greek legends, began to be circulated in
+Lati'um, it was natural that the identity of name should have led to
+the confounding of the &AElig;ne'ad&aelig; who had survived the destruction of
+Troy, with those who had come to La'tium from the Pelasgic &AElig;'nus. The
+cities which were said to be founded by the &AElig;ne'ad&aelig; were, Latin Troy,
+which possessed empire for three years; Lavinium, whose sway lasted
+thirty; Alba, which was supreme for three hundred years; and Rome,
+whose dominion was to be interminable, though some assign a limit of
+three thousand years. These numbers bear evident traces of
+superstitious invention; and the legends by which these cities are
+successively deduced from the first encampment of &AElig;ne'as, are at
+variance with these fanciful periods. The account that Alba was built
+by a son of &AElig;ne'as, who had been guided to the spot by a white sow,
+which had farrowed thirty young, is clearly a story<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_022" id="Page_022">[Pg. 22]</a></span> framed from
+the similarity of the name to Albus (<i>white</i>,) and the circumstance of
+the city having been the capital of the thirty Latin tribes. The city
+derived its name from its position on the Alban mountain; for <i>Alb</i>,
+or <i>Alp</i>, signifies lofty in the ancient language of Italy, and the
+emblem of a sow with thirty young, may have been a significant emblem
+of the dominion which it unquestionably possessed over the other Latin
+states. The only thing that we can establish as certain in the early
+history of La'tium is, that its inhabitants were of a mixed race, and
+the sources from whence they sprung Pelasgic and Oscan; that is, one
+connected with the Greeks, and the other with some ancient Italian
+tribe. We have seen that this fact is the basis of all their
+traditions, that it is confirmed by the structure of their language,
+and, we may add, that it is further proved by their political
+institutions. In all the Latin cities, as well as Rome, we find the
+people divided into an aristocracy and democracy, or, as they are more
+properly called, Patricians and Plebeians. The experience of all ages
+warrants the inference, which may be best stated in the words of Dr.
+Faber: "In the progress of the human mind there is an invariable
+tendency not to introduce into an undisturbed community a palpable
+difference between lords and serfs, instead of a legal equality of
+rights; but to abolish such difference by enfranchising the serfs.
+Hence, from the universal experience of history, we may be sure that
+whenever this distinction is found to exist, the society must be
+composed of two races differing from each other in point of origin."</p>
+<p>
+The traditions respecting the origin of Rome are innumerable; some
+historians assert that its founder was a Greek; others, &AElig;neas and his
+Trojans; and others give the honour to the Tyrrhenians: all, however,
+agree, that the first inhabitants were a Latin colony from Alba. Even
+those who adopted the most current story, which is followed by Dr.
+Goldsmith, believed that the city existed before the time of Rom'ulus,
+and that he was called the founder from being the first who gave it
+strength and stability. It seems probable that several villages might
+have been formed at an early age on the different hills, which were
+afterwards included in the circuit of Rome; and that the first of them
+which obtained a decided superiority, the village on the Palatine
+hill, finally absorbed the rest, and gave its name to "the eternal
+city".</p>
+<p>
+There seems to be some uncertainty whether Romulus<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_023" id="Page_023">[Pg. 23]</a></span> gave his name
+to the city, or derived his own from it; the latter is asserted by
+several historians, but those who ascribe to the city a Grecian
+origin, with some show of probability assert that Romus (another form
+of Romulus) and Roma are both derived from the Greek &#8165;&#969;&#956;&#951;,
+<i>strength</i>. The city, we are assured, had another name, which the
+priests were forbidden to divulge; but what that was, it is now
+impossible to discover.</p>
+<p>
+We have thus traced the history of the Latins down to the period when
+Rome was founded, or at least when it became a city, and shown how
+little reliance can be placed on the accounts given of these periods
+by the early historians. We shall hereafter see that great uncertainty
+rests on the history of Rome itself during the first four centuries of
+its existence.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_5" id="Fnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ It is scarcely necessary to remark that the Pelas'gi were
+the original settlers in these countries.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_6" id="Fnote_2_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_6">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ In all these places we find also the Tyrrhenian
+Pelas'gi.</p>
+</div>
+
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER III.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Full in the centre of these wondrous works</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The pride of earth! Rome in her glory see.&mdash;<i>Thomson.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The city of Rome, according to <i>Varro</i>, was founded in the fourth
+year of the sixth <i>Olympiad</i>, B.C. 753; but Cato, the censor, places
+the event four years later, in the second year of the seventh
+Olympiad. The day of its foundation was the 21st of April, which was
+sacred to the rural goddess Pa'les, when the rustics were accustomed
+to solicit the increase of their flocks from the deity, and to purify
+themselves for involuntary violation of the consecrated places. The
+account preserved by tradition of the ceremonies used on this
+occasion, confirms the opinion of those who contend that Rome had a
+previous existence as a village, and that what is called its
+foundation was really an enlargement of its boundaries, by taking in
+the ground at the foot of the Palatine hill. The first care of
+Ro'mulus was to mark out the Pom&oelig;'rium; a space round the walls of
+the city, on which it was unlawful to erect buildings.</p>
+<p>
+2. The person who determined the Pom&oelig;'rium yoked a bullock and
+heifer to a plough, having a copper-share, and drew a furrow to mark
+the course of the future wall; he guided the plough so that all the
+sods might fall inwards, and was <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_024" id="Page_024">[Pg. 24]</a></span> followed by others, who took
+care that none should lie the other way. 3. When he came to the place
+where it was designed to erect a gate, the plough was taken up,<a name="FNanchor_1_7" id="FNanchor_1_7"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_7" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and
+carried to where the wall recommenced. The next ceremony was the
+consecration of the commit'ium, or place of public assembly. A vault
+was built under ground, and filled with the firstlings of all the
+natural productions that sustain human life, and with earth which each
+foreign settler had brought from his own home. This place was called
+<i>Mun'dus</i>, and was supposed to become the gate of the lower world; it
+was opened on three several days of the year, for the spirits of the
+dead.</p>
+<p>
+4. The next addition made to the city was the Sabine town,<a name="FNanchor_2_8" id="FNanchor_2_8"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_8" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> which
+occupied the Quirinal and part of the Capitoline hills. The name of
+this town most probably was Qui'rium, and from it the Roman people
+received the name Quirites. The two cities were united on terms of
+equality, and the double-faced Ja'nus stamped on the earliest Roman
+coins was probably a symbol of the double state. They were at first so
+disunited, that even the rights of intermarriage did not exist between
+them, and it was probably from Qui'rium that the Roman youths obtained
+the wives<a name="FNanchor_3_9" id="FNanchor_3_9"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_9" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> by force, which were refused to their entreaties. 5. The
+next addition was the C&oelig;lian hill,<a name="FNanchor_4_10" id="FNanchor_4_10"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_10" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> on which a Tuscan colony
+settled; from these three colonies the three tribes of Ram'nes,
+Ti'ties, and Lu'ceres were formed. 6. The Ram'nes, or Ram'nenses,
+derived their name from Rom'ulus; the Tities, or Titien'ses, from
+Titus Tatius, the king of the <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_025" id="Page_025">[Pg. 25]</a></span> Sabines; and the Lu'ceres, from
+Lu'cumo, the Tuscan title of a general or leader.<a name="FNanchor_5_11" id="FNanchor_5_11"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_11" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> From this it
+appears that the three tribes<a name="FNanchor_6_12" id="FNanchor_6_12"></a><a href="#Fnote_6_12" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> were really three distinct nations,
+differing in their origin, and dwelling apart.</p>
+<p>
+7. The city was enlarged by Tullus Hostilius,<a name="FNanchor_7_13" id="FNanchor_7_13"></a><a href="#Fnote_7_13" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> after the destruction
+of Alba, and the Viminal hill included within the walls; Ancus Martius
+added mount Aventine, and the Esquiline and Capitoline<a name="FNanchor_8_14" id="FNanchor_8_14"></a><a href="#Fnote_8_14" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> being
+enclosed in the next reign, completed the number of the seven hills on
+which the ancient city stood.</p>
+<p>
+8. The hill called Jani'culum, on the north bank of the Tiber, was
+fortified as an outwork by Ancus Martius, and joined to the city by
+the bridge; he also dug a trench round the newly erected buildings,
+for their greater security, and called it the ditch of the Quirites.
+9. The public works erected by the kings were of stupendous magnitude,
+but the private buildings were wretched, the streets narrow, and the
+houses mean. It was not until after the burning of the city by the
+Gauls that the city was laid out on a better plan; after the Punic
+wars wealth flowed in abundantly, and private persons began to erect
+magnificent mansions. From the period of the conquest of Asia until
+the reign of Augustus, the city daily augmented its splendour, but so
+much was added by that emperor, that he boasted that "he found Rome a
+city of brick, and left it a city of marble."</p>
+<p>
+10. The circumference of the city has been variously estimated, some
+writers including in their computation a part of the suburbs;
+according to Pliny it was near twenty miles round the walls. In
+consequence of this great extent the city had more than thirty gates,
+of which the most remarkable were the Carmental, the Esquiline, the
+Triumphal, the Naval, and those called Tergem'ina and Cape'na.</p>
+<p>
+11. The division of the city into four tribes continued until the
+reign of Augustus; a new arrangement was made by the emperor, who
+divided Rome into fourteen wards, or <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_026" id="Page_026">[Pg. 26]</a></span> regions.<a name="FNanchor_9_15" id="FNanchor_9_15"></a><a href="#Fnote_9_15" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> The magnificent
+public and private buildings in a city so extensive and wealthy were
+very numerous, and a bare catalogue of them would fill a volume;<a name="FNanchor_10_16" id="FNanchor_10_16"></a><a href="#Fnote_10_16" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>
+our attention must be confined to those which possessed some
+historical importance.</p>
+<p>
+12. The most celebrated and conspicuous buildings were in the eighth
+division of the city, which contained the Capitol and its temples, the
+Senate House, and the Forum. The Capitoline-hill was anciently called
+Saturnius, from the ancient city of Satur'nia, of which it was the
+citadel; it was afterwards called the Tarpeian mount, and finally
+received the name of Capitoline from a human head<a name="FNanchor_11_17" id="FNanchor_11_17"></a><a href="#Fnote_11_17" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> being found on
+its summit when the foundations of the temple of Jupiter were laid. It
+had two summits; that on the south retained the name Tarpeian;<a name="FNanchor_12_18" id="FNanchor_12_18"></a><a href="#Fnote_12_18" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> the
+northern was properly the Capitol. 13. On this part of the hill
+Romulus first established his asylum, in a sacred grove, dedicated to
+some unknown divinity; and erected a fort or citadel<a name="FNanchor_13_19" id="FNanchor_13_19"></a><a href="#Fnote_13_19" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> on the
+Tarpeian summit. The celebrated temple of Jupiter Capitoli'nus,
+erected on this hill, was begun by the elder Tarquin, and finished by
+Tarquin the Proud. It was burned down in the civil wars between
+Ma'rius and Syl'la, <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_027" id="Page_027">[Pg. 27]</a></span> but restored by the latter, who adorned it
+with pillars taken from the temple of Jupiter at Olympia. It was
+rebuilt after similar accidents by Vespa'sian and Domitian, and on
+each occasion with additional splendour. The rich ornaments and gifts
+presented to this temple by different princes and generals amounted to
+a scarcely credible sum. The gold and jewels given by Augustus alone
+are said to have exceeded in value four thousand pounds sterling. A
+nail was annually driven into the wall of the temple to mark the
+course of time; besides this chronological record, it contained the
+Sibylline books, and other oracles supposed to be pregnant with the
+fate of the city. There were several other temples on this hill, of
+which the most remarkable was that of Jupiter Feretrius, erected by
+Romulus, where the spolia opima were deposited.</p>
+<p>
+14. The Forum, or place of public assembly, was situated between the
+Palatine and Capitoline hills. It was surrounded with temples,
+basilicks,<a name="FNanchor_14_20" id="FNanchor_14_20"></a><a href="#Fnote_14_20" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> and public offices, and adorned with innumerable
+statues.<a name="FNanchor_15_21" id="FNanchor_15_21"></a><a href="#Fnote_15_21" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> On one side of this space were the elevated seats from
+which the Roman magistrates and orators addressed the people; they
+were called Rostra, because they were ornamented with the beaks of
+some galleys taken from the city of Antium. In the centre of the forum
+was a place called the Curtian Lake, either from a Sabine general
+called Curtius, said to have been smothered in the marsh which was
+once there; or from<a name="FNanchor_16_22" id="FNanchor_16_22"></a><a href="#Fnote_16_22" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> the Roman knight who plunged into a gulf that
+opened suddenly on the spot. The celebrated temple of Ja'nus, built
+entirely of bronze, stood in the Forum; it is supposed to have been
+erected by Numa. The gates of this temple were opened in time of war,
+and shut during peace. So continuous we're the wars of the Romans,
+that the gates were only closed three times during the space of eight
+centuries. In the vicinity stood the temple of Concord, where the
+senate frequently assembled, and the temple of Vesta, where the
+palla'dium was said to be deposited.</p>
+<p>
+15. Above the rostra was the Senate-house, said to have <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_028" id="Page_028">[Pg. 28]</a></span> been
+first erected by Tullus Hostilius; and near the Comitium, or place of
+meeting for the patrician Curi&aelig;.<a name="FNanchor_17_23" id="FNanchor_17_23"></a><a href="#Fnote_17_23" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> This area was at first uncovered,
+but a roof was erected at the close of the second Pu'nic war.</p>
+<p>
+16. The Cam'pus Mar'tius, or field of Mars, was originally the estate
+of Tarquin the Proud, and was, with his other property, confiscated
+after the expulsion of that monarch. It was a large space, where
+armies were mustered, general assemblies of the people held, and the
+young nobility trained in martial exercises. In the later ages, it was
+surrounded by several magnificent structures, and porticos were
+erected, under which the citizens might take their accustomed exercise
+in rainy weather. These improvements were principally made by Marcus
+Agrippa, in the reign of Augustus. 17. He erected in the
+neighbourhood, the Panthe'on, or temple of all the gods, one of the
+most splendid buildings in ancient Rome. It is of a circular form, and
+its roof is in the form of a cupola or dome; it is used at present as
+a Christian church. Near the Panthe'on were the baths and gardens
+which Agrippa, at his death, bequeathed to the Roman people.</p>
+<p>
+18. The theatres and circi for the exhibition of public spectacles
+were very numerous. The first theatre was erected by Pompey the Great;
+but the Circus Maximus, where gladiatorial combats were displayed, was
+erected by Tarquinus Priscus; this enormous building was frequently
+enlarged, and in the age of Pliny could accommodate two hundred
+thousand spectators. A still more remarkable edifice was the
+amphitheatre erected by Vespasian, called, from its enormous size, the
+Colosse'um.</p>
+<p>
+19. Public baths were early erected for the use of the people, and in
+the later ages were among the most remarkable displays of Roman luxury
+and splendour. Lofty arches, stately pillars, vaulted ceilings, seats
+of solid silver, costly marbles inlaid with precious stones, were
+exhibited in these buildings with the most lavish profusion.</p>
+<p>
+20. The aqueducts for supplying the city with water, were still more
+worthy of admiration; they were supported by arches, many of them a
+hundred feet high, and carried over mountains and morasses that might
+have appeared insuperable. The first aqueduct was erected by Ap'pius
+Clo'dius, the censor, four hundred years after the foundation<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_029" id="Page_029">[Pg. 29]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+of the city; but under the emperors there were not less than twenty of
+these useful structures, and such was the supply of water, that rivers
+seemed to flow through the streets and sewers. Even now, though only
+three of the aqueducts remain, such are their dimensions that no city
+in Europe has a greater abundance of wholesome water than Rome.</p>
+<p>
+21. The Cloa'c&aelig;, or common sewers, attracted the wonder of the
+ancients themselves; the largest was completed by Tarquin the Proud.
+The innermost vault of this astonishing structure forms a semicircle
+eighteen Roman palms wide, and as many high: this is inclosed in a
+second vault, and that again in a third, all formed of hewn blocks of
+pepenno, fixed together without cement. So extensive were these
+channels, that in the reign of Augustus the city was subterraneously
+navigable.</p>
+<p>
+22. The public roads were little inferior to the aqueducts and Cloa'c&aelig;
+in utility and costliness; the chief was the Appian road from Rome to
+Brundu'sium; it extended three hundred and fifty miles, and was paved
+with huge squares through its entire length. After the lapse of
+nineteen centuries many parts of it are still as perfect as when it
+was first made.</p>
+<p>
+23. The Appian road passed through the following towns; Ari'cia,
+Fo'rum Ap'pii, An'xur or Terraci'na, Fun'di, Mintur'n&aelig;, Sinue'ssa,
+Cap'ua, Can'dium, Beneven'tum, Equotu'ticum, Herdo'nia, Canu'sium,
+Ba'rium, and Brundu'sium. Between Fo'rum Ap'pii and Terraci'na lie the
+celebrated Pomptine marshes, formed by the overflowing of some small
+streams. In the flourishing ages of Roman history these pestilential
+marshes did not exist, or were confined to a very limited space; but
+from the decline of the Roman empire, the waters gradually encroached,
+until the successful exertions made by the Pontiffs in modern times to
+arrest their baleful progress. Before the drainage of Pope Sixtus, the
+marshes covered at least thirteen thousand acres of ground, which in
+the earlier ages was the most fruitful portion of the Italian soil.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. When was Rome founded?</p>
+<p>
+2. What ceremonies were used in determining the pomcerium?</p>
+<p>
+3. How was the comitium consecrated?</p>
+<p>
+4. What was the first addition made to Rome?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_030" id="Page_030">[Pg. 30]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+5. What was the next addition?</p>
+<p>
+6. Into what tribes were the Romans divided?</p>
+<p>
+7. What were the hills added in later times to Rome?</p>
+<p>
+8. Had the Romans any buildings north of the Tiber?</p>
+<p>
+9. When did Rome become a magnificent city?</p>
+<p>
+10. What was the extent of the city?</p>
+<p>
+11. How was the city divided?</p>
+<p>
+12. Which was the most remarkable of the seven hills?</p>
+<p>
+13. What buildings were on the Capitoline hill?</p>
+<p>
+14. What description is given of the forum?</p>
+<p>
+15. Where was the senate-house and comitium?</p>
+<p>
+16. What use was made of the Campus Martius?</p>
+<p>
+17. What was the Pantheon?</p>
+<p>
+18. Were the theatres and circii remarkable?</p>
+<p>
+19. Had the Romans public baths?</p>
+<p>
+20. How was the city supplied with water?</p>
+<p>
+21. Were the cloac&aelig; remarkable for their size?</p>
+<p>
+22. Which was the chief Italian road?</p>
+<p>
+23. What were the most remarkable places on the Appian road?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_7" id="Fnote_1_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_7">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Hence a gate was called <i>porta</i>, from <i>porta're</i>, to
+carry. The reason of this part of the ceremony was, that the plough
+being deemed holy, it was unlawful that any thing unclean should
+pollute the place which it had touched; but it was obviously necessary
+that things clean and unclean should pass through the gates of the
+city. It is remarkable that all the ceremonies here mentioned were
+imitated from the Tuscans.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_8" id="Fnote_2_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_8">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This, though apparently a mere conjecture, has been so
+fully proved by Niebuhr, (vol. i. p. 251,) that it may safely be
+assumed as an historical fact.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_9" id="Fnote_3_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_9">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See <a href="#Page_066">Chapter II.</a> of the following history.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_10" id="Fnote_4_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_10">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ All authors are agreed that the C&oelig;lian hill was named
+from C&oelig;les Viben'na, a Tuscan chief; but there is a great variety
+in the date assigned to his settlement at Rome. Some make him
+cotemporary with Rom'ulus, others with the elder Tarquin, or Servius
+Tullius. In this uncertainty all that can be satisfactorily determined
+is, that at some early period a Tuscan colony settled in Rome.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_11" id="Fnote_5_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_11">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Others say that they were named so in honour of Lu'ceres,
+king of Ardea, according to which theory the third would have been a
+Pelasgo-Tyrrhenian colony.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_6_12" id="Fnote_6_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_12">[6]</a></p>
+<p>
+ We shall hereafter have occasion to remark, that the
+Lu'ceres were subject to the other tribes.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_7_13" id="Fnote_7_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_13">[7]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See History, <a href="#Page_073">Chapter IV</a>.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_8_14" id="Fnote_8_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_14">[8]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The Pincian and Vatican hills were added at a much later
+period and these, with Janiculum, made the number ten.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_9_15" id="Fnote_9_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_15">[9]</a></p>
+<p>
+ They were named as follow:</p>
+
+
+<p>1. Porta Cape'na</p>
+<p>2. C&oelig;limon'tium</p>
+<p>3. I'sis and Sera'pis</p>
+<p>4. Via Sa'cra</p>
+<p>5. Esquili'na</p>
+<p>6. Acta Se'mita</p>
+<p>7. Vita Lata</p>
+<p>8. Forum Roma'num</p>
+<p>9. Circus Flamin'ius</p>
+<p>10. Pala'tium</p>
+<p>11. Circus Max'imus</p>
+<p>12. Pici'na Pub'lica</p>
+<p>13. Aventinus</p>
+<p>14. Transtiberi'na.</p>
+
+<p>
+The divisions made by Servius were named: the Suburan, which comprised
+chiefly the C&oelig;lian mount; the Colline, which included the Viminal
+and Quirinal hills; the Esquiline and Palatine, which evidently
+coincided with the hills of the same name.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_10_16" id="Fnote_10_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_16">[10]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Among the public buildings of ancient Rome, when in her
+zenith, are numbered 420 temples, five regular theatres, two
+amphitheatres, and seven circusses of vast extent; sixteen public
+baths, fourteen aqueducts, from which a prodigious number of fountains
+were constantly supplied; innumerable palaces and public halls,
+stately columns, splendid porticos, and lofty obelisks.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_11_17" id="Fnote_11_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_17">[11]</a></p>
+<p>
+ From <i>caput</i>, "a head."</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_12_18" id="Fnote_12_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_18">[12]</a></p>
+<p>
+ State criminals were punished by being precipitated from
+the Tarpeian rock; the soil has been since so much raised by the
+accumulation of ruins, that a fall from it is no longer dangerous.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_13_19" id="Fnote_13_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_19">[13]</a></p>
+<p>
+ In the reign of Numa, the Quirinal hill was deemed the
+citadel of Rome; an additional confirmation of Niebuhr's theory, that
+Quirium was a Sabine town, which, being early absorbed in Rome, was
+mistaken by subsequent, writers for Cu'res.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_14_20" id="Fnote_14_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_20">[14]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Basilicks were spacious halls for the administration of
+justice.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_15_21" id="Fnote_15_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_21">[15]</a></p>
+<p>
+ It is called <i>Templum</i> by Livy; but the word templum
+with the Romans does not mean an edifice, but a consecrated inclosure.
+From its position, we may conjecture that the forum was originally a
+place of meeting common to the inhabitants of the Sabine town on the
+Quirinal, and the Latin town on the Palatine hill.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_16_22" id="Fnote_16_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_22">[16]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See <a href="#Page_125">Chap. XII. Sect. V.</a> of the following History.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_17_23" id="Fnote_17_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_23">[17]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See the following chapter.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">As once in virtue, so in vice extreme,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">This universal fabric yielded loose,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Before ambition still; and thundering down,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">At last beneath its ruins crush'd a world.&mdash;<i>Thomson</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+I. The most remarkable feature in the Roman constitution is the
+division of the people into Patricians and Plebeians, and our first
+inquiry must be the origin of this separation. It is clearly
+impossible that such a distinction could have existed from the very
+beginning, because no persons would have consented in a new community
+to the investing of any class with peculiar privileges. We find that
+all the Roman kings, after they had subdued a city, drafted a portion
+of its inhabitants to Rome; and if they did not destroy the subjugated
+place, garrisoned it with a Roman colony. The strangers thus brought
+to Rome were not admitted to a participation of civic rights; they
+were like the inhabitants of a corporate town who are excluded from
+the elective franchise: by successive immigrations, the number of
+persons thus disqualified became more numerous than that of the first
+inhabitants or old freemen, and they naturally sought a share in the
+government, as a means of protecting their persons and properties. On
+the other hand, the men who possessed the exclusive power of
+legislation, struggled hard to retain their hereditary privileges, and
+when forced<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_031" id="Page_031">[Pg. 31]</a></span> to make concessions, yielded as little as they
+possibly could to the popular demands. Modern history furnishes us
+with numerous instances of similar struggles between classes, and of a
+separation in interests and feelings between inhabitants of the same
+country, fully as strong as that between the patricians and plebeians
+at Rome.</p>
+<p>
+2. The first tribes were divided by Ro'mulus into thirty <i>cu'ri&aelig;,</i> and
+each cu'ria contained ten <i>gentes</i> or associations. The individuals of
+each gens were not in all cases, and probably not in the majority of
+instances, connected by birth;<a name="FNanchor_1_24" id="FNanchor_1_24"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_24" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> the attributes of the members of a
+<i>gens</i>, according to Cicero, were, a common name and participation in
+private religious rites; descent from free ancestors; the absence of
+legal disqualification. 3. The members of these associations were
+united by certain laws, which conferred peculiar privileges, called
+jura gentium; of these the most remarkable were, the succession to the
+property of every member who died without kin and intestate, and the
+obligation imposed on all to assist their indigent fellows under any
+extraordinary burthen.<a name="FNanchor_2_25" id="FNanchor_2_25"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_25" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> 4. The head of each gens was regarded as a
+kind of father, and possessed a paternal authority over the members;
+the chieftancy was both elective and hereditary;<a name="FNanchor_3_26" id="FNanchor_3_26"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_26" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> that is, the
+individual was always selected from some particular family.</p>
+<p>
+5. Besides the members of the gens, there were attached to it a number
+of dependents called clients, who owed submission to the chief as
+their patron, and received from him assistance and protection. The
+clients were generally foreigners who came to settle at Rome, and not
+possessing municipal rights, were forced to appear in the courts of
+law, &amp;c. by proxy. In process of time this relation assumed a feudal
+form, and the clients were bound to the same duties as vassals<a name="FNanchor_4_27" id="FNanchor_4_27"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_27" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> in
+the middle ages.</p>
+<p>
+6. The chiefs of the gentes composed the senate, and were called
+"fathers," (patres.) In the time of Romulus,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_032" id="Page_032">[Pg. 32]</a></span> the senate at first
+consisted only of one hundred members, who of course represented the
+Latin tribe Ramne'nses; the number was doubled after the union with
+the Sabines, and the new members were chosen from the Titienses. The
+Tuscan tribe of the Lu'ceres remained unrepresented in the senate
+until the reign of the first Tarquin, when the legislative body
+received another hundred<a name="FNanchor_5_28" id="FNanchor_5_28"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_28" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> from that tribe. Tarquin the elder was,
+according to history, a Tuscan Iticumo, and seems to have owed his
+elevation principally to the efforts of his compatriots settled at
+Rome. It is to this event we must refer, in a great degree, the number
+of Tuscan ceremonies which are to be found in the political
+institutions of the Romans.</p>
+<p>
+7. The gentes were not only represented in the senate, but met also in
+a public assembly called "comitia curiata." In these comitia the kings
+were elected and invested with royal authority. After the complete
+change of the constitution in later ages, the "comitia curiata"<a name="FNanchor_6_29" id="FNanchor_6_29"></a><a href="#Fnote_6_29" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
+rarely assembled, and their power was limited to religious matters;
+but during the earlier period of the republic, they claimed and
+frequently exercised the supreme powers of the state, and were named
+emphatically, The People.</p>
+<p>
+8. The power and prerogatives of the kings at Rome, were similar to
+those of the Grecian sovereigns in the heroic ages. The monarch was
+general of the army, a high priest,<a name="FNanchor_7_30" id="FNanchor_7_30"></a><a href="#Fnote_7_30" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> and first magistrate of the
+realm; he administered justice in person every ninth day, but an
+appeal lay from his sentence, in criminal cases, to the general
+assemblies of the people.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_033" id="Page_033">[Pg. 33]</a></span> The pontiffs and augurs, however, were
+in some measure independent of the sovereign, and assumed the
+uncontrolled direction of the religion of the state.</p>
+<p>
+9. The entire constitution was remodelled by Ser'vius Tul'lius, and a
+more liberal form of government introduced. His first and greatest
+achievement was the formation of the plebeians into an organized order
+of the state, invested with political rights. He divided them into
+four cities and twenty-six rustic tribes, and thus made the number of
+tribes the same as that of the curi&aelig;. This was strictly a geographical
+division, analagous to our parishes, and had no connection with
+families, like that of the Jewish tribes.</p>
+<p>
+10. Still more remarkable was the institution of the census, and the
+distribution of the people into classes and centuries proportionate to
+their wealth. The census was a periodical valuation of all the
+property possessed by the citizens, and an enumeration of all the
+subjects of the state: there were five classes, ranged according to
+the estimated value of their possessions, and the taxes they
+consequently paid. The first class contained eighty centuries out of
+the hundred and seventy; the sixth class, in which those were included
+who were too poor to be taxed, counted but for one. We shall,
+hereafter have occasion to see that this arrangement was also used for
+military purposes; it is only necessary to say here, that the sixth
+class were deprived of the use of arms, and exempt from serving in
+war.</p>
+<p>
+11. The people voted in the comitia centuriata by centuries; that is,
+the vote of each century was taken separately and counted only as one.
+By this arrangement a just influence was secured to property; and the
+clients of the patricians in the sixth class prevented from
+out-numbering the free citizens.</p>
+<p>
+12. Ser'vius Tul'lius undoubtedly intended that the comitia centuriata
+should form the third estate of the realm, and during his reign they
+probably held that rank; but when, by an aristocratic insurrection he
+was slain in the senate-house, the power conceded to the people was
+again usurped by the patricians, and the comitio centuriata did not
+recover the right<a name="FNanchor_8_31" id="FNanchor_8_31"></a><a href="#Fnote_8_31" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> of legislation before the laws<a name="FNanchor_9_32" id="FNanchor_9_32"></a><a href="#Fnote_9_32" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> of the twelve
+tables were established.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_034" id="Page_034">[Pg. 34]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+13. The law which made the debtor a slave to his creditor was repealed
+by Ser'vius, and re-enacted by his successor; the patricians preserved
+this abominable custom during several ages, and did not resign it
+until the state had been brought to the very brink of ruin.</p>
+<p>
+14. During the reign of Ser'vius, Rome was placed at the head of the
+Latin confederacy, and acknowledged to be the metropolitan city. It
+was deprived of this supremacy after the war with Porsen'na, but soon
+recovered its former greatness.</p>
+<p>
+15. The equestrian rank was an order in the Roman state from the very
+beginning. It was at first confined to the nobility, and none but the
+patricians had the privilege of serving on horseback. But in the later
+ages, it became a political dignity, and persons were raised to the
+equestrian rank by the amount of their possessions.</p>
+<p>
+16. The next great change took place after the expulsion of the kings;
+annual magistrates, called consuls, were elected in the comitia
+centuriata, but none but patricians could hold this office. 17. The
+liberties of the people were soon after extended and secured by
+certain laws, traditionally attributed to Vale'rius Public'ola, of
+which the most important was that which allowed<a name="FNanchor_10_33" id="FNanchor_10_33"></a><a href="#Fnote_10_33" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> an appeal to a
+general assembly of the people from the sentence of a magistrate. 18.
+To deprive the plebeians of this privilege was the darling object of
+the patricians, and it was for this purpose alone that they instituted
+the dictatorship. From the sentence of this magistrate there was no
+appeal to the tribes or centuries, but the patricians kept their own
+privilege of being tried before the tribunal of the curi&aelig;. 19. The
+power of the state was now usurped by a factious oligarchy, whose
+oppressions were more grievous than those of the worst tyrant; they at
+last became so intolerable, that the commonalty had recourse to arms,
+and fortified that part of the city which was exclusively inhabited by
+the plebeians, while others formed a camp on the Sacred Mount at some
+distance from Rome. A tumult of this kind was called a secession; it
+threatened to terminate in a civil war, which would have been both
+long and doubtful; for the patricians and their clients were probably
+as numerous as the people. A <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_035" id="Page_035">[Pg. 35]</a></span>reconciliation was effected, and the
+plebeians placed under the protection of magistrates chosen from their
+own body, called tribunes of the people.</p>
+<p>
+20. The plebeians, having now authorised leaders, began to struggle
+for an equalization of rights, and the patricians resisted them with
+the most determined energy. In this protracted contest the popular
+cause prevailed, though the patricians made use of the most violent
+means to secure their usurped powers. The first triumph obtained by
+the people was the right to summon patricians before the comitia
+tributa, or assemblies of people in tribes; soon after they obtained
+the privilege of electing their tribunes at these comitia, instead of
+the centuria'ta; and finally, after a fierce opposition, the
+patricians were forced to consent that the state should be governed by
+a written code.</p>
+<p>
+21. The laws of the twelve tables did not alter the legal relations
+between the citizens; the struggle was renewed with greater violence
+than ever after the expulsion of the decem'viri, but finally
+terminated in the complete triumph of the people. The Roman
+constitution became essentially democratical; the offices of the state
+were open to all the citizens; and although the difference between the
+patrician and plebeian families still subsisted, they soon ceased of
+themselves to be political parties. From the time that equal rights
+were granted to all the citizens, Rome advanced rapidly in wealth and
+power; the subjugation of Italy was effected within the succeeding
+century, and that was soon followed by foreign conquests.</p>
+<p>
+22. In the early part of the struggle between the patricians and
+plebeians, the magistracy, named the censorship, was instituted. The
+censors were designed at first merely to preside over the taking of
+the census, but they afterwards obtained the power of punishing, by a
+deprivation of civil rights, those who were guilty of any flagrant
+immorality. The patricians retained exclusive possession of the
+censorship, long after the consulship had been opened to the
+plebeians.</p>
+<p>
+23. The senate,<a name="FNanchor_11_34" id="FNanchor_11_34"></a><a href="#Fnote_11_34" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> which had been originally a patrician<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_036" id="Page_036">[Pg. 36]</a></span>
+council, was gradually opened to the plebeians; when the free
+constitution was perfected, every person possessing a competent
+fortune that had held a superior magistracy, was enrolled as a senator
+at the census immediately succeeding the termination of his office.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What is the most probable account given of the origin of the
+distinction between the patricians and the plebeians at Rome?</p>
+<p>
+2. How did Romulus subdivide the Roman tribes?</p>
+<p>
+3. By what regulations were the gentes governed?</p>
+<p>
+4. Who were the chiefs of the gentes?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the condition of the clients?</p>
+<p>
+6. By whom were alterations made in the number and constitution of the
+senate?</p>
+<p>
+7. What assembly was peculiar to the patricians?</p>
+<p>
+8. What were the powers of the Roman kings?</p>
+<p>
+9. What great change was made in the Roman constitution by Servius
+Tullius?</p>
+<p>
+10. For what purpose was the census instituted?</p>
+<p>
+11. How were votes taken in the comitia centuriata?</p>
+<p>
+12. Were the designs of Servius frustrated?</p>
+<p>
+13. What was the Roman law respecting debtors?</p>
+<p>
+14. When did the Roman power decline?</p>
+<p>
+15. What changes were made in the constitution of the equestrian rank?</p>
+<p>
+16. What change was made after the abolition of royalty?</p>
+<p>
+17. How were the liberties of the people secured?</p>
+<p>
+18. Why was the office of dictator appointed?</p>
+<p>
+19. How did the plebeians obtain the protection of magistrates chosen
+from their own order?</p>
+<p>
+20. What additional triumphs were obtained by the plebeians?</p>
+<p>
+21. What was the consequence of the establishment of freedom?</p>
+<p>
+22. For what purpose was the censorship instituted?</p>
+<p>
+23. What change took place in the constitution of the senate?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_037" id="Page_037">[Pg. 37]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_24" id="Fnote_1_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_24">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The same remark may be applied to the Scottish clans and
+the ancient Irish septs, which were very similar to the Roman
+<i>gentes</i>.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_25" id="Fnote_2_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_25">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ When the plebeians endeavoured to procure the repeal of
+the laws which prohibited the intermarriage of the patricians and
+plebeians, the principal objection made by the former was, that these
+rights and obligations of the gentes (jura gentium) would be thrown
+into confusion.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_26" id="Fnote_3_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_26">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This was also the case with the Irish tanists, or chiefs
+of septs; the people elected a tanist, but their choice was confined
+to the members of the ruling family.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_27" id="Fnote_4_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_27">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See Historical Miscellany Part III. Chap. i.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_28" id="Fnote_5_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_28">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ They were called "patres nunorum gentium," the senators
+of the inferior gentes.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_6_29" id="Fnote_6_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_29">[6]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The "comitia curiata," assembled in the comi'tium, the
+general assemblies of the people were held in the forum. The patrician
+curi&aelig; were called, emphatically, the council of the people; (concilium
+populi;) the third estate was called plebeian, (plebs.) This
+distinction between <i>populus</i> and <i>plebs</i> was disregarded after the
+plebeians had established their claim to equal rights. The English
+reader will easily understand the difference, if he considers that the
+patricians were precisely similar to the members of a close
+corporation, and the plebeians to the other inhabitants of a city. In
+London, for example, the common council may represent the senate, the
+livery answer for the populus, patricians, or comitia curiata, and the
+general body of other inhabitants will correspond with the plebs.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_7_30" id="Fnote_7_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_30">[7]</a></p>
+<p>
+ There were certain sacrifices which the Romans believed
+could only be offered by a king; after the abolition of royalty, a
+priest, named the petty sacrificing king, (rex sacrificulus,) was
+elected to perform this duty.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_8_31" id="Fnote_8_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_31">[8]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Perhaps it would be more accurate to say the <i>exclusive</i>
+right of legislation; for it appears that the comitia centuriata were
+sometimes summoned to give their sanction to laws which had been
+previously enacted by the curi&aelig;.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_9_32" id="Fnote_9_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_32">[9]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See <a href="#Page_106">Chap. XII.</a></p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_10_33" id="Fnote_10_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_33">[10]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The Romans were previously acquainted with that great
+principle of justice, the right of trial by a person's peers. In the
+earliest ages the patricians had a right of appeal to the curi&aelig;; the
+Valerian laws extended the same right to the plebeians.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_11_34" id="Fnote_11_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_34">[11]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The senators were called conscript fathers, (patres
+conscripti,) either from their being enrolled on the censor's list, or
+more probably from the addition made to their numbers after the
+expulsion of the kings, in order to supply the places of those who had
+been murdered by Tarquin. The new senators were at first called
+conscript, and in the process of time the name was extended to the
+entire body.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER V.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">THE ROMAN TENURE OF LAND&mdash;COLONIAL GOVERNMENT.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Each rules his race, his neighbour not his care,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Heedless of others, to his own severe.&mdash;<i>Homer</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+[As this chapter is principally designed for advanced students, it has
+not been thought necessary to add questions for examination.</p>
+<p>
+The contests respecting agrarian laws occupy so large a space in Roman
+history, and are so liable to be misunderstood, that it is necessary
+to explain their origin at some length. According to an almost
+universal custom, the right of conquest was supposed to involve the
+property of the land. Thus the Normans who assisted William I. were
+supposed to have obtained a right to the possessions of the Saxons;
+and in a later age, the Irish princes, whose estates were not
+confirmed by a direct grant from the English crown, were exposed to
+forfeiture when legally summoned to prove their titles. The extensive
+acquisitions made by the Romans, were either formed into extensive
+national domains, or divided into small lots among the poorer classes.
+The usufruct of the domains was monopolized by the patricians who
+rented them from the state; the smaller lots were assigned to the
+plebeians, subject to a tax called tribute, but not to rent. An
+agrarian law was a proposal to make an assignment of portions of the
+public lands to the people, and to limit the quantity of national land
+that could be farmed by any particular patrician.<a name="FNanchor_1_35" id="FNanchor_1_35"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_35" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Such a law may
+have been frequently impolitic, because it may have disturbed ancient
+possessions, but it could never have been unjust; for the property of
+the land was absolutely fixed in the state. The lands held by the
+patricians, being divided into extensive tracts, were principally used
+for pasturage; the small lots assigned to the plebeians were, of
+necessity, devoted to agriculture. Hence arose the first great cause
+of hostility between the two orders; the patricians were naturally
+eager to extend their possessions in the public domains, which enabled
+them to provide for their numerous clients, and in remote districts
+they frequently wrested the estates from the free proprietors in their
+neighbourhood; the plebeians, on<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_038" id="Page_038">[Pg. 38]</a></span> the other hand, deemed that they
+had the best right to the land purchased by their blood, and saw with
+just indignation, the fruits of victory monopolized by a single order
+in the state. The tribute paid by the plebeians increased this
+hardship, for it was a land-tax levied on estates, and consequently
+fell most heavily on the smaller proprietors; indeed, in many cases,
+the possessors of the national domains paid nothing.</p>
+<p>
+From all this it is evident that an agrarian law only removed tenants
+who held from the state at will, and did not in any case interfere
+with the sacred right of property; but it is also plain that such a
+change must have been frequently inconvenient to the individual in
+possession. It also appears, that had not agrarian laws been
+introduced, the great body of the plebeians would have become the
+clients of the patricians, and the form of government would have been
+a complete oligarchy.</p>
+<p>
+The chief means to which the Romans, even from the earliest ages, had
+recourse for securing their conquests, and at the same time relieving
+the poorer classes of citizens, was the establishment of colonies in
+the conquered states. The new citizens formed a kind of garrison, and
+were held together by a constitution formed on the model of the parent
+state. From what has been said above, it is evident that a law for
+sending out a colony was virtually an agrarian law, since lands were
+invariably assigned to those who were thus induced to abandon their
+homes.</p>
+<p>
+The relations between Rome and the subject cities in Italy were very
+various. Some, called <i>municipia</i>, were placed in full possession of
+the rights of Roman citizens, but could not in all cases vote in the
+comitia. The privileges of the colonies were more restricted, for they
+were absolutely excluded from the Roman comitia and magistracies. The
+federative<a name="FNanchor_2_36" id="FNanchor_2_36"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_36" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> states enjoyed their own constitutions, but were bound
+to supply the Romans with tribute and auxiliary forces. Finally, the
+subject states were deprived of their internal constitutions, and were
+governed by annual prefects chosen in Rome.</p>
+<p>
+Before discussing the subject of the Roman constitution, we must
+observe that it was, like our own, gradually formed by practice; there
+was no single written code like those of<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_039" id="Page_039">[Pg. 39]</a></span> Athens and Sparta, but
+changes were made whenever they were required by circumstances; before
+the plebeians obtained an equality of civil rights, the state neither
+commanded respect abroad, nor enjoyed tranquillity at home. The
+patricians sacrificed their own real advantages, as well as the
+interests of their country, to maintain an ascendancy as injurious to
+themselves, as it was unjust to the other citizens. But no sooner had
+the agrarian laws established a more equitable distribution of
+property, and other popular laws opened the magistracy to merit
+without distinction of rank, than the city rose to empire with
+unexampled rapidity.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_35" id="Fnote_1_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_35">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The Licinian law provided that no one should rent at a
+time more than 500 acres of public land.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_36" id="Fnote_2_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_36">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The league by which the Latin states were bound (jus
+Latii) was more favourable than that granted to the other Italians
+(jus Italicum.)</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+THE ROMAN RELIGION.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">First to the gods 'tis fitting to prepare</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The due libation, and the solemn prayer;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">For all mankind alike require their grace,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">All born to want; a miserable race.&mdash;<i>Homer</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. We have shown that the Romans were, most probably, a people
+compounded of the Latins, the Sabines, and the Tuscans; and that the
+first and last of these component parts were themselves formed from
+Pelasgic and native tribes. The original deities<a name="FNanchor_1_37" id="FNanchor_1_37"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_37" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> worshipped by the
+Romans were derived from the joint traditions of all these tribes; but
+the religious institutions and ceremonies were almost wholly borrowed
+from the Tuscans. Unlike the Grecian mythology, with which, in later
+ages, it was united, the Roman system of religion had all the gloom
+and mystery of the eastern superstitions; their gods were objects of
+fear rather than love, and were worshipped more to avert the
+consequences of their anger than to conciliate their favour. A
+consequence of this system was, the institution of human sacrifices,
+which were not quite disused in Rome until a late period of the
+republic.</p>
+<p>
+2. The religious institutions of the Romans form an essential part of
+their civil government; every public act, whether of legislation or
+election, was connected with certain determined forms, and thus
+received the sanction of a higher power. Every public assembly was
+opened by the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_040" id="Page_040">[Pg. 40]</a></span> magistrate and augurs taking the auspices, or signs
+by which they believed that the will of the gods could be determined;
+and if any unfavourable omen was discovered, either then or at any
+subsequent time, the assembly was at once dismissed. 3. The right of
+taking auspices was long the peculiar privilege of the patricians, and
+frequently afforded them pretexts for evading the demands of the
+plebeians; when a popular law was to be proposed, it was easy to
+discover some unfavourable omen which prohibited discussion; when it
+was evident that the centuries were about to annul some patrician
+privilege, the augurs readily saw or heard some signal of divine
+wrath, which prevented the vote from being completed. It was on this
+account that the plebeians would not consent to place the comitia
+tributa under the sanction of the auspices.</p>
+<p>
+4. The augurs were at first only three in number, but they were in
+later ages increased to fifteen, and formed into a college. Nothing of
+importance was transacted without their concurrence in the earlier
+ages of the republic, but after the second punic war, their influence
+was considerably diminished.<a name="FNanchor_2_38" id="FNanchor_2_38"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_38" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> 5. They derived omens from five
+sources: 1, from celestial phenomena, such as thunder, lightning,
+comets, &amp;c.; 2, from the flight of birds; 3, from the feeding of the
+sacred chickens; 4, from the appearance of a beast in any unusual
+place; 5, from any accident that occurred unexpectedly.</p>
+<p>
+6. The usual form of taking an augury was very solemn; the augur
+ascended a tower, bearing in his hand a curved stick called a lituus.
+He turned his face to the east, and marked out some distant objects as
+the limits within which<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_041" id="Page_041">[Pg. 41]</a></span> he would make his observations, and
+divided mentally the enclosed space into four divisions. He next, with
+covered head, offered sacrifices to the gods, and prayed that they
+would vouchsafe some manifestation of their will. After these
+preliminaries he made his observations in silence, and then announced
+the result to the expecting people.</p>
+<p>
+7. The Arusp'ices were a Tuscan order of priests, who attempted to
+predict futurity by observing the beasts offered in sacrifice. They
+formed their opinions most commonly from inspecting the entrails, but
+there was no circumstance too trivial to escape their notice, and
+which they did not believe in some degree portentous. The arusp'ices
+were most commonly consulted by individuals; but their opinions, as
+well as those of the augurs, were taken on all important affairs of
+state. The arusp'ices seem not to have been appointed officially, nor
+are they recognised as a regular order of priesthood.</p>
+<p>
+8. The pontiffs and fla'mens, as the superior priests were designated,
+enjoyed great privileges, and were generally men of rank. When the
+republic was abolished, the emperors assumed the office of pontifex
+maximus, or chief pontiff, deeming its powers too extensive to be
+entrusted to a subject.</p>
+<p>
+9. The institution of vestal virgins was older than the city itself,
+and was regarded by the Romans as the most sacred part of their
+religious system. In the time of Numa there were but four, but two
+more were added by Tarquin; probably the addition made by Tarquin was
+to give the tribe of the Lu'ceres a share in this important
+priesthood. The duty of the vestal virgins was to keep the sacred fire
+that burned on the altar of Vesta from being extinguished; and to
+preserve a certain sacred pledge on which the very existence of Rome
+was supposed to depend. What this pledge was we have no means of
+discovering; some suppose that it was the Trojan Palla'dium, others,
+with more probability, some traditional mystery brought by the
+Pelas'gi from Samothrace.</p>
+<p>
+10. The privileges conceded to the vestals were very great; they had
+the most honourable seats at public games and festivals; they were
+attended by a lictor with fasces like the magistrates; they were
+provided with chariots when they required them; and they possessed the
+power of pardoning any criminal whom they met on the way to execution,
+if they declared that the meeting was accidental. The magistrates<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_042" id="Page_042">[Pg. 42]</a></span>
+were obliged to salute them as they passed, and the fasces of the
+consul were lowered to do them reverence. To withhold from them marks
+of respect subjected the offender to public odium; a personal insult
+was capitally punished. They possessed the exclusive privilege of
+being buried within the city; an honour which the Romans rarely
+extended to others.</p>
+<p>
+11. The vestals were bound by a vow of perpetual virginity, and a
+violation of this oath was cruelly punished. The unfortunate offender
+was buried alive in a vault constructed beneath the Fo'rum by the
+elder Tarquin. The terror of such a dreadful fate had the desired
+effect; there were only eighteen instances of incontinence among the
+vestals, during the space of a thousand years.</p>
+<p>
+12. The mixture of religion with civil polity, gave permanence and
+stability to the Roman institutions; notwithstanding all the changes
+and revolutions in the government the old forms were preserved; and
+thus, though the city was taken by Porsenna, and burned by the Gauls,
+the Roman constitution survived the ruin, and was again restored to
+its pristine vigour.</p>
+<p>
+13. The Romans always adopted the gods of the conquered nations, and,
+consequently, when their empire became very extensive, the number of
+deities was absurdly excessive, and the variety of religious worship
+perfectly ridiculous. The rulers of the world wanted the taste and
+ingenuity of the lively Greeks, who accommodated every religious
+system to their own, and from some real or fancied resemblance,
+identified the gods of Olym'pus with other nations. The Romans never
+used this process of assimilation, and, consequently, introduced so
+much confusion into their mythology, that philosophers rejected the
+entire system. This circumstance greatly facilitated the progress of
+Christianity, whose beautiful simplicity furnished a powerful contrast
+to the confused and cumbrous mass of divinities, worshipped in the
+time of the emperors.</p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. How did the religion of the Romans differ from that of the Greeks?</p>
+<p>
+2. Was the Roman religion connected with the government?</p>
+<p>
+3. How was the right of taking the Auspices abused?</p>
+<p>
+4. Who were the augurs?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_043" id="Page_043">[Pg. 43]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+5. From what did the augurs take omens?</p>
+<p>
+6. What were the forms used in taking the auspices?</p>
+<p>
+7. Who were the aruspices?</p>
+<p>
+8. What other priests had the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+9. What was the duty of the vestal virgins?</p>
+<p>
+10. Did the vestals enjoy great privileges?</p>
+<p>
+11. How were the vestals punished for a breach of their vows?</p>
+<p>
+12. Why was the Roman constitution very permanent?</p>
+<p>
+13. Whence arose the confusion in the religious system of the Romans?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_37" id="Fnote_1_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_37">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The reader will find an exceedingly interesting account
+of the deities peculiar to the Romans, in Mr. Keightley's very
+valuable work on Mythology.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_38" id="Fnote_2_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_38">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The poet Ennius, who was of Grecian descent, ridiculed
+very successfully the Roman superstitions; the following fragment,
+translated by Dunlop, would, probably, have been punished as
+blasphemous in the first ages of the republic:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">For no Marsian augur (whom fools view with awe,)</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Nor diviner, nor star-gazer, care I a straw;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The Isis-taught quack, an expounder of dreams,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Is neither in science nor art what he seems;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Superstitious and shameless they prowl through our streets,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Some hungry, some crazy, but all of them cheats.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Impostors, who vaunt that to others they'll show</span><br />
+<span class="i2">A path which themselves neither travel nor know:</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Since they promise us wealth if we pay for their pains,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Let them take from that wealth and bestow what remains</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">THE ROMAN ARMY AND NAVY.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">Is the soldier found</span><br />
+<span class="i2">In the riot and waste which he spreads around?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The sharpness makes him&mdash;the dash, the tact,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The cunning to plan, and the spirit to act.&mdash;<i>Lord L. Gower</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. It has been frequently remarked by ancient writers that the
+strength of a free state consists in its infantry; and, on the other
+hand, that when the infantry in a state become more valuable than the
+cavalry, the power of the aristocracy is diminished, and equal rights
+can no longer be withheld from the people. The employment of mercenary
+soldiers in modern times renders these observations no longer
+applicable; but in the military states of antiquity, where the
+citizens themselves served as soldiers, there are innumerable examples
+of this mutual connection between political and military systems. It
+is further illustrated in the history of the middle ages; for we can
+unquestionably trace the origin of free institutions in Europe to the
+time when the hardy infantry of the commons were first found able to
+resist the charges of the brilliant chivalry of the nobles. 2. Rome
+was, from the very commencement, a military state; as with the
+Spartans, all their civil institutions had a direct reference to
+warlike affairs; their public assemblies were marshalled like armies;
+the order of their line of battle was regulated by the distinction of
+classes in the state. It is, therefore, natural to conclude, that the
+tactics of the Roman armies underwent important changes when the
+revolutions mentioned in the preceding chapters were effected, though
+we cannot trace the alterations with precision, because no historians
+appeared until the military system of the Romans had been brought to
+perfection.</p>
+<p>
+3. The strength of the Tuscans consisted principally in their cavalry;
+and if we judge from the importance attributed to the equestrian rank
+in the earliest ages, we may<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_044" id="Page_044">[Pg. 44]</a></span> suppose that the early Romans
+esteemed this force equally valuable. It was to Ser'vius Tul'lius, the
+great patron of the commonalty, that the Romans were indebted for the
+formation of a body of infantry, which, after the lapse of centuries,
+received so many improvements that it became invincible.</p>
+<p>
+4. The ancient battle array of the Greeks was the phalanx; the troops
+were drawn up in close column, the best armed being in front. The
+improvements made in this system of tactics by Philip, are recorded in
+Grecian history; they chiefly consisted in making the evolutions of
+the entire body more manageable, and counteracting the difficulties
+which attended the motions of this cumbrous mass.</p>
+<p>
+5. The Romans originally used the phalanx; and the lines were formed
+according to the classes determined by the centuries. Those who were
+sufficiently wealthy to purchase a full suit of armour, formed the
+front ranks; those who could only purchase a portion of the defensive
+weapons, filled the centre; and the rear was formed by the poorer
+classes, who scarcely required any armour, being protected by the
+lines in front. From this explanation, it is easy to see why, in the
+constitution of the centuries by Servius Tullius, the first class were
+perfectly covered with mail, the second had helmets and breast-plates
+but no protection for the body, the third, neither a coat of mail, nor
+greaves. 6. The defects of this system are sufficiently obvious; an
+unexpected attack on the flanks, the breaking of the line by rugged
+and uneven ground, and a thousand similar accidents exposed the
+unprotected portions of the army to destruction besides, a line with
+files ten deep was necessarily slow in its movements and evolutions.
+Another and not less important defect was, that the whole should act
+together; and consequently, there were few opportunities for the
+display of individual bravery.</p>
+<p>
+7. It is not certainly known who was the great commander that
+substituted the living body of the Roman legion for this inanimate
+mass; but there is some reason to believe that this wondrous
+improvement was effected by Camil'lus. Every legion was in itself an
+army, combining the advantages of every variety of weapon, with the
+absolute perfection of a military division.</p>
+<p>
+8. The legion consisted of three lines or battalions; the <i>Hasta'ti</i>,
+the <i>Prin'cipes</i>, and the <i>Tria'rii</i>; there were besides two classes,
+which we may likewise call battalions,
+<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_045" id="Page_045">[Pg. 45]</a></span> the <i>Rora'rii</i>, or <i>Velites</i>, consisting of light armed troops,
+and the <i>Accen'si</i> or supernumeraries, who were ready to supply
+the place of those that fell. Each of the two first battalions
+contained fifteen manip'uli, consisting of sixty privates, commanded
+by two centurions, and having each a separate standard (<i>vexil'lum</i>)
+borne by one of the privates called Vexilla'rius; the manip'uli in the
+other battalions were fewer in number, but contained a greater portion
+of men; so that, in round numbers, nine hundred men may be allowed to
+each battalion, exclusive of officers. If the officers and the troop
+of three hundred cavalry be taken into account, we shall find that the
+legion, as originally constituted, contained about five thousand men.
+The Romans, however, did not always observe these exact proportions,
+and the number of soldiers in a legion varied at different times of
+their history.<a name="FNanchor_1_39" id="FNanchor_1_39"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_39" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+9. A cohort was formed by taking a manipulus from each of the
+battalions; more frequently two manipuli were taken, and the cohort
+then contained six hundred men. The cavalry were divided into tur'm&aelig;,
+consisting each of thirty men.</p>
+<p>
+10. A battle was usually commenced by the light troops, who skirmished
+with missile weapons; the hasta'ti then advanced to the charge, and if
+defeated, fell back on the prin'cipes; if the enemy proved still
+superior, the two front lines retired to the ranks of the tria'rii,
+which being composed of veteran troops, generally turned the scale.
+But this order was not always observed; the number of divisions in the
+legion made it extremely flexible, and the commander-in-chief could
+always adapt the form of his line to circumstances.</p>
+<p>
+11. The levies of troops were made in the Cam'pus Mar'tius, by the
+tribunes appointed to command the legions. The tribes which were to
+supply soldiers were determined by lot, and as each came forward, the
+tribunes, in their turn, selected such as seemed best fitted for war.
+Four legions was most commonly the number in an army. When the
+selected individuals had been enrolled as soldiers, one was chosen
+from each legion to take the military oath of obedience to the
+generals; the other soldiers swore in succession, to observe the oath
+taken by their foreman. <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_046" id="Page_046">[Pg. 46]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+12. Such was the sacredness of this obligation, that even in the midst
+of the political contests by which the city was distracted, the
+soldiers, though eager to secure the freedom of their country, would
+not attempt to gain it by mutiny against their commanders. On this
+account the senate frequently declared war, and ordered a levy as an
+expedient to prevent the enactment of a popular law, and were of
+course opposed by the tribunes of the people.</p>
+<p>
+13. There was no part of the Roman discipline more admirable than
+their form of encampment. No matter how fatigued the soldiers might be
+by a long march, or how harassed by a tedious battle, the camp was
+regularly measured out and fortified by a rampart and ditch, before
+any one sought sleep or refreshment. Careful watch was kept during the
+night, and frequent picquets sent out to guard against a surprise, and
+to see that the sentinels were vigilant. As the arrangement in every
+camp was the same, every soldier knew his exact position, and if an
+alarm occurred, could easily find the rallying point of his division.
+To this excellent system Polyb'ius attributes the superiority of the
+Romans over the Greeks; for the latter scarcely ever fortified their
+camp, but chose some place naturally strong, and did not keep their
+ranks distinct.</p>
+<p>
+14. The military age extended from the sixteenth to the forty-sixth
+year; and under the old constitution no one could hold a civic office
+who had not served ten campaigns. The horsemen were considered free
+after serving through ten campaigns, but the foot had to remain during
+twenty. Those who had served out their required time were free for the
+rest of their lives, unless the city was attacked, when all under the
+age of sixty were obliged to arm in its defence.</p>
+<p>
+15. In the early ages, when wars were begun and ended in a few days,
+the soldiers received no pay; but when the conquest of distant
+countries became the object of Roman ambition, it became necessary to
+provide for the pay and support of the army. This office was given to
+the qu&aelig;stors, who were generally chosen from the younger nobility, and
+were thus prepared for the higher magistracies by acquiring a
+practical acquaintance with finance.</p>
+<p>
+16. The soldiers were subject to penalties of life and limb at the
+discretion of the commander-in-chief, without the intervention of a
+court-martial; but it deserves to be recorded that this power was
+rarely abused. 17. There were several species of rewards to excite
+emulation; the most honourable<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_047" id="Page_047">[Pg. 47]</a></span> were, the civic crown of gold to
+him who had saved the life of a citizen; the mural crown to him who
+had first scaled the wall of a besieged town; a gilt spear to him who
+had severely wounded an enemy; but he who had slain and spoiled his
+foe, received, if a horseman, an ornamental trapping; if a foot
+soldier, a goblet.</p>
+<p>
+18. The lower classes of the centuries were excused from serving in
+the army, except on dangerous emergencies; but they supplied sailors
+to the navy. We learn, from a document preserved by Polyb'ius, that
+the Romans were a naval power at a very early age. 19. This
+interesting record is the copy of a treaty concluded with the
+Carthaginians, in the year after the expulsion of the kings. It is not
+mentioned by the Roman historians, because it decisively establishes a
+fact which they studiously labour to conceal, that is, the weakness
+and decline of the Roman power during the two centuries that followed
+the abolition of royalty, when the power of the state was monopolized
+by a vile aristocracy. In this treaty Rome negociates for the cities
+of La'tium, as her dependencies, just as Carthage does for her subject
+colonies. But in the course of the following century, Rome lost her
+supremacy over the Latin cities, and being thus nearly excluded from
+the coast, her navy was ruined.</p>
+<p>
+20. At the commencement of the first Punic war, the Romans once more
+began to prepare a fleet, and luckily obtained an excellent model in a
+Carthaginian ship that had been driven ashore in a storm. 21. The
+vessels used for war, were either long ships or banked galleys; the
+former were not much used in the Punic wars, the latter being found
+more convenient. The rowers of these sat on banks or benches, rising
+one above the other, like stairs; and from the number of these
+benches, the galleys derived their names; that which had three rows of
+benches was called a <i>trireme</i>; that which had four, a <i>quadrireme</i>;
+and that which had five, a <i>quinquireme</i>. Some vessels had turrets
+erected in them for soldiers and warlike engines; others had sharp
+prows covered with brass, for the purpose of dashing against and
+sinking their enemies.</p>
+<p>
+22. The naval tactics of the ancients were very simple; the ships
+closed very early, and the battle became a contest between single
+vessels. It was on this account that the personal valour of the Romans
+proved more than a match<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_048" id="Page_048">[Pg. 48]</a></span> for the naval skill of the
+Carthaginians, and enabled them to, add the empire of the sea to that
+of the land.</p>
+<p>
+23. Before concluding this chapter, we must notice the triumphal
+processions granted to victorious commanders. Of these there are two
+kinds; the lesser triumph, called an ovation,<a name="FNanchor_2_40" id="FNanchor_2_40"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_40" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and the greater,
+called, emphatically, the triumph. In the former, the victorious
+general entered the city on foot, wearing a crown of myrtle; in the
+latter, he was borne in a chariot, and wore a crown of laurel. The
+ovation was granted to such generals as had averted a threatened war,
+or gained some great advantage without inflicting great loss on the
+enemy. The triumph was allowed only to those who had gained some
+signal victory, which decided the fate of a protracted war. The
+following description, extracted from Plutarch, of the great triumph
+granted to Paulus &AElig;milius, for his glorious termination of the
+Macedonian war, will give the reader an adequate idea of the splendour
+displayed by the Romans on these festive occasions.</p>
+<p>
+The people erected scaffolds in the forum and circus, and all other
+parts of the city where they could best behold the pomp. The
+spectators were clad in white garments; all the temples were open, and
+full of garlands and perfumes; and the ways cleared and cleansed by a
+great many officers, who drove away such as thronged the passage, or
+straggled up and down.</p>
+<p>
+The triumph lasted three days; on the first, which was scarce long
+enough for the sight, were to be seen the statues, pictures, and
+images of an extraordinary size, which were taken from the enemy,
+drawn upon seven hundred and fifty chariots. On the second was
+carried, in a great many <i>wains</i>, the fairest and richest armour of
+the Macedonians, both of brass and steel, all newly furbished and
+glittering: which, although piled up with the greatest art and order,
+yet seemed to be tumbled on heaps carelessly and by chance; helmets
+were thrown on shields, coats of mail upon greaves; Cretan targets and
+Thracian bucklers, and quivers of arrows, lay huddled among the
+horses' bits; and through these appeared the points of naked swords,
+intermixed with long spears. All these arms were tied together with
+such a just liberty, that they knocked against one another as they
+were drawn<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_049" id="Page_049">[Pg. 49]</a></span> along, and made a harsh and terrible noise, so that
+the very spoils of the conquered could not be beheld without dread.
+After these wagons loaded with armour, there followed three thousand
+men, who carried the silver that was coined, in seven hundred and
+fifty vessels, each of which weighed three talents, and was carried by
+four men. Others brought silver bowls, and goblets, and cups, all
+disposed in such order as to make the best show, and all valuable, as
+well for their magnitude as the thickness of their engraved work. On
+the third day, early in the morning, first came the trumpeters, who
+did not sound as they were wont in a procession or solemn entry, but
+such a charge as the Romans use when they encourage their soldiers to
+fight. Next followed young men, girt about with girdles curiously
+wrought, who led to the sacrifice one hundred and twenty stalled oxen,
+with their horns gilded, and their heads adorned with ribbons and
+garlands, and with these were boys that carried dishes of silver and
+gold. After these was brought the gold coin, which was divided into
+vessels that weighed three talents each, similar to those that
+contained the silver; they were in number fourscore, wanting three.
+These were followed by those that brought the consecrated bowl which
+Emil'ius caused to be made, that weighed ten talents, and was adorned
+with precious stones. Then were exposed to view the cups of Antig'onus
+and Seleu'cus, and such as were made after the fashion invented by
+The'ricles, and all the gold plate that was used at Per'seus's table.
+Next to these came Per'seus's chariot, in which his armour was placed,
+and on that his diadem. After a little intermission the king's
+children were led captives, and with them a train of nurses, masters,
+and governors, who all wept, and stretched forth their hands to the
+spectators, and taught the little infants to beg and intreat their
+compassion. There were two sons and a daughter, who, by reason of
+their tender age, were altogether insensible of the greatness of their
+misery; which insensibility of their condition rendered it much more
+deplorable, insomuch that Per'seus himself was scarce regarded as he
+went along, whilst pity had fixed the eyes of the Romans upon the
+infants, and many of them could not forbear tears; all beheld the
+sight with a mixture of sorrow and joy until the children were past.
+After his children and attendants came Per'seus himself, clad in
+black, and wearing slippers after the fashion of his country; he
+looked like one altogether astonished, and deprived of reason, through
+the <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_050" id="Page_050">[Pg. 50]</a></span> greatness of his misfortune. Next followed a great company
+of his friends and familiars, whose countenances were disfigured with
+grief, and who testified, to all that beheld them, by their tears and
+their continual looking upon Per'seus, that it was his hard fortune
+they so much lamented, and that they were regardless of their own.
+After these were carried four hundred crowns of gold, sent from the
+cities by their respective ambassadors to Emil'ius, as a reward due to
+his valour. Then he himself came, seated on a chariot magnificently,
+adorned, (a man worthy to be beheld even without these ensigns of
+power) clad in a garland of purple interwoven with gold, and with a
+laurel branch in his right hand. All the army in like manner, with
+boughs of laurel in their hands, and divided into bands and companies,
+followed the chariot of their commander; some singing odes according
+to the usual custom, mingled with raillery; others songs of triumph
+and the praises of Emil'ius's deeds, who was admired and accounted
+happy by all men, yet unenvied by every one that was good.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What political change has frequently resulted from improved
+military tactics?</p>
+<p>
+2. Was Rome a military state?</p>
+<p>
+3. Why are we led to conclude that the Romans considered cavalry an
+important force?</p>
+<p>
+4. By whom was the phalanx instituted?</p>
+<p>
+5. How was the phalanx formed?</p>
+<p>
+6. What were the defects of the phalanx?</p>
+<p>
+7. By whom was the legion substituted for the phalanx?</p>
+<p>
+8. Of what troops was a legion composed?</p>
+<p>
+9. What was a cohort?</p>
+<p>
+10. What was the Roman form of battle?</p>
+<p>
+11. In what manner was an army levied?</p>
+<p>
+12. How was the sanctity of the military oath proved?</p>
+<p>
+13. What advantages resulted from the Roman form of encampment?</p>
+<p>
+14. How long was the citizens liable to be called upon as soldiers?</p>
+<p>
+15. How was the army paid?</p>
+<p>
+16. What power had the general?</p>
+<p>
+17. On what occasion did the soldiers receive rewards?</p>
+<p>
+18. How was the navy supplied with sailors?</p>
+<p>
+19. What fact concealed by the Roman historians is established by
+Polybius?</p>
+<p>
+20. How did the Romans form a fleet?</p>
+<p>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_051" id="Page_051">[Pg. 51]</a></span> 21. What were the several kinds of ships?</p>
+<p>
+22. What naval tactics did the Romans use?</p>
+<p>
+23. How did an ovation differ from a triumph?</p>
+<p>
+24. Can you give a general description of a triumph?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_39" id="Fnote_1_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_39">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This is virtually the same account as that given by
+Niebuhr, but he excludes the accensi and cavalry from his computation,
+which brings down the amount to 3600 soldiers.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_40" id="Fnote_2_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_40">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ From <i>ovis</i>, a sheep, the animal on this occasion offered
+in sacrifice; in the greater triumph the victim was a milk-white bull
+hung over with garlands, and having his horns tipped with gold.</p>
+
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+ROMAN LAW&mdash;FINANCE.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Then equal laws were planted in the state,</span>
+<span class="i2">To shield alike the humble and the great.&mdash;<i>Cooke</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. In the early stages of society, little difficulty is felt in
+providing for the administration of justice, because the subjects of
+controversy are plain and simple, such as any man of common sense may
+determine; but as civilization advances, the relations between men
+become more complicated, property assumes innumerable forms, and the
+determination of questions resulting from these changes, becomes a
+matter of no ordinary difficulty. In the first ages of the republic,
+the consuls were the judges in civil and criminal matters, as the
+kings had previously been;<a name="FNanchor_1_41" id="FNanchor_1_41"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_41" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> but as the state increased, a new class
+of magistrates, called pr&aelig;tors, was appointed to preside in the courts
+of law. Until the age of the decemvirs, there was no written code to
+regulate their decisions; and even after the laws of the twelve tables
+had been established, there was no perfect system of law, for the
+enactments in that code were brief, and only asserted a few leading
+principles. 2. The Roman judges did not, however, decide altogether
+according to their own caprice; they were bound to regard the
+principles that had been established by the decisions of former
+judges; and consequently, a system of law was formed similar to the
+common law of England, founded on precedent and analogy. In the later
+ages of the empire, the number of law-books and records became so
+enormous, that it was no longer possible to determine the law with
+accuracy, and the contradictory decisions made at different periods,
+greatly increased the uncertainty. To remedy this evil, the emperor
+Justinian caused the entire to be digested into a uniform system, and
+his code still forms the basis of the civil law in Europe.</p>
+<p>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_052" id="Page_052">[Pg. 52]</a></span> 3. The trials in courts refer either to the affairs of the
+state, or to the persons or properties of individuals, and are called
+state, criminal, or civil trials. The two former are the most
+important in regard to history.</p>
+<p>
+4. The division of the Roman people into two nations, made the
+classification of state offences very difficult. In general, the
+council of the patricians judged any plebeian who was accused of
+conspiring against their order; and the plebeians on the other hand,
+brought a patrician accused of having violated their privileges before
+their own tribunal. 5. Disobedience to the commands of the chief
+magistrate was punished by fine and imprisonment, and from his
+sentence there was no appeal; but if the consul wished to punish any
+person by stripes or death, the condemned man had the right of
+appealing to the general assembly of his peers.<a name="FNanchor_2_42" id="FNanchor_2_42"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_42" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> 6. To prevent
+usurpation, it was established that every person who exercised an
+authority not conferred on him by the people, should be devoted as a
+victim to the gods.<a name="FNanchor_3_43" id="FNanchor_3_43"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_43" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> This, was at once a sentence of outlawry and
+excommunication; the Criminal might be slain by any person-with
+impunity, and all connection with him was shunned as pollution. 7. No
+magistrate could legally be brought to trial during the continuance of
+his office, but when his time was expired, he could be accused before
+the general assembly of the people, if he had transgressed the legal
+limits of his authority. The punishment in this case was banishment;
+the form of the sentence declared that the criminal "should be
+deprived of fire and water;" that is, the citizens, were prohibited
+from supplying him with the ordinary necessaries of life.</p>
+<p>
+8. In all criminal trials, and in all cases where damages were sought
+to be recovered for wrongs or injuries, the prætor impanelled a jury,
+but the number of which it was<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_053" id="Page_053">[Pg. 53]</a></span> to consist seems to have been left
+to his discretion. The jurors were called ju'dices, and the opinion of
+the majority decided the verdict. Where the votes were equal, the
+traverser or defendant escaped; and when half the jury assessed
+damages at one amount, and half at another, the defendant paid only
+the lesser sum. In disputes about property, the pr&aelig;tor seldom called
+for the assistance of a jury.</p>
+<p>
+9. The general form of all trials was the same; the prosecutor or
+plaintiff made his complaint, and the defendant was compelled either
+to find sufficient bail, or to go into prison until the day of trial.
+On the appointed day, the plaintiff, or his advocate, stated his case,
+and proceeded to establish it by evidence; the defendant replied; and
+the jury then gave their verdict by ballot.</p>
+<p>
+10. In cases tried before the general assembly of the people, it was
+allowed to make use of artifices in order to conciliate the popular
+favour. The accused and his friends put on mourning robes to excite
+pity; they went into the most public places and took every opportunity
+of showing their respect for popular power. When Cicero was accused by
+Clo'dius for having illegally put to death the associates of Cataline,
+the entire senatorian rank changed their robes to show the deep
+interest they felt in his fate. At these great trials, the noblest
+specimens of forensic eloquence were displayed by the advocates of the
+accuser and the accused; but the decisions were usually more in
+accordance with the spirit of party than strict justice.</p>
+<p>
+11. The accused, however, might escape, if he could prevail on any of
+the tribunes to interpose in his behalf, or the accuser to relinquish
+his charge; if unfavourable omens appeared during the trial, it was
+usually adjourned, or sometimes the accusation withdrawn; and up to
+the very moment of the commencement of the trial, the criminal had the
+option of escaping a heavier penalty by going into voluntary exile.</p>
+<p>
+12. The punishments to which state criminals were sentenced, were
+usually, in capital cases, precipitation from the Tarpeian rock,
+beheading, or strangulation in prison; when life was spared, the
+penalties were either exile or fine. Under the emperors severer
+punishments were introduced, such as exposure to wild beasts, or
+burning alive; and torture, which, under the republic, could not be
+inflicted on free citizens, was exercised unsparingly.</p>
+<p>
+13. The punishment of parricides was curious; the criminal<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_054" id="Page_054">[Pg. 54]</a></span> having
+been beaten with rods, was sown up in a sack together with a serpent,
+an ape and a cock, and thrown either into the sea or a river, as if
+even the inanimate carcase of such a wretch would pollute the earth.</p>
+<p>
+14. Masters had an absolute, authority over their slaves, extending to
+life or limb; and in the earlier ages patrons had similar power over
+their clients. The condition of slaves in Rome was most miserable,
+especially in the later ages; they were subject to the most
+excruciating tortures, and when capitally punished, were generally
+crucified. Except in this single particular, the Roman criminal code,
+was very lenient and sparing of human life. This was chiefly owing to
+the exertions of the plebeians, for the patricians always patronized a
+more sanguinary policy; and could do so the more easily, as the
+aristocracy retained their monopoly of the administration of justice
+much longer than that of civil government.</p>
+<p>
+15. The Roman system of finance was at first very simple, the public
+revenue being derived from a land-tax on Quiritary property,<a name="FNanchor_4_44" id="FNanchor_4_44"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_44" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and
+the tithes of the public lands; but after the conquest of Macedon, the
+revenues from other sources were so abundant, that tribute was no
+longer demanded from Roman citizens. These sources were:&mdash;</p>
+<p>
+1. The tribute of the allies, which was a property tax, differing in
+different places according to the terms of their league.</p>
+<p>
+2. The tribute of the provinces, which was both a property and
+poll-tax.</p>
+<p>
+3. Revenue of the national domains leased out by the censors.</p>
+<p>
+4. Revenue from the mines, especially from the Spanish silver-mines.</p>
+<p>
+5. Duties on imports and exports. And,</p>
+<p>
+6. A duty on enfranchised slaves.</p>
+<p>
+The receipts were all paid into the national treasury, and the senate
+had the uncontrolled direction of the general expenditure, as well as
+the regulation of the amount of imposts. The officers employed to
+manage the affairs of the revenue, were the qu&aelig;stors, chosen annually,
+and under them the scribes, who held their situations for life. Those
+who<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_055" id="Page_055">[Pg. 55]</a></span> farmed the public revenue were called-publicans, and were
+generally persons of equestrian dignity; but in the remote provinces
+they frequently sublet to other collectors, who were guilty of great
+extortion. The latter are the publicans mentioned in the New
+Testament.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. When did the Romans first appoint judges?</p>
+<p>
+2. How were the decisions of the pr&aelig;tors regulated?</p>
+<p>
+3. How are trials divided?</p>
+<p>
+4. In what manner were offences against the classes of patricians and
+plebeians tried?</p>
+<p>
+5. How was disobedience to the chief magistrate punished?</p>
+<p>
+6. What was the penalty for usurpation?</p>
+<p>
+7. How was mal-administration punished?</p>
+<p>
+8. When did the pr&aelig;tors impannel a jury?</p>
+<p>
+9. What was the form of a trial?</p>
+<p>
+10. Were there any other forms used, in trials before the people?</p>
+<p>
+11. Had the criminal any chances of escape?</p>
+<p>
+12. What were the usual punishments?</p>
+<p>
+13. How was parricide punished?</p>
+<p>
+14. In what respect alone was the criminal law of the Romans severe?</p>
+<p>
+15. What were the sources of the Roman revenue?</p>
+<p>
+16. To whom was the management of the finances entrusted?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_41" id="Fnote_1_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_41">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Niebuhr, however, is of opinion, that judicial officers
+were elected by the "comitia curiata," from the earliest ages.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_42" id="Fnote_2_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_42">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This privilege was conceded to the plebeians by the
+Valerian law, but must have been possessed by the patricians from the
+earliest times; for Horatius, when condemned for the murder of his
+sister, in the reign of Tullus Hostilius, escaped by appealing to the
+comitia curiata. The Valerian law had no sanction, that is, no penalty
+was annexed to its transgression; and during the two centuries of
+patrician usurpation and tyranny, was frequently and flagrantly
+violated. On this account the law, though never repealed, was
+frequently re-enacted.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_43" id="Fnote_3_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_43">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The formula "to devote his head to the gods," used to
+express the sentence of capital punishment, was derived from the human
+sacrifices anciently used in Rome; probably, because criminals were
+usually selected for these sanguinary offerings.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_44" id="Fnote_4_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_44">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The lands absolutely assigned to the plebeians free from
+rent, were the most remarkable species of Quiritary property. It was
+so called from the Quirites, who formed a constituent part of the
+Roman people, and whose name was subsequently given to the entire.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+THE PUBLIC AMUSEMENTS AND PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS.</p>
+<p>
+Butchered to make a Roman holiday.&mdash;<i>Byron</i>.</p>
+<p>
+The inferiority of the Romans to the Greeks in intellectual
+acquirements, was no where more conspicuous than in their public
+amusements. While the refined Grecians sought to gratify their taste
+by music, the fine arts, and dramatic entertainments, the Romans
+derived their chief pleasure from contemplating the brutal and bloody
+fights of gladiators; or at best, such rich shows and processions as
+gratify the uneducated vulgar. The games in the circus, with which the
+Romans were so delighted, that they considered them of equal
+importance, with the necessaries of life, consisted of athletic
+exercises, such as boxing, racing, <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_056" id="Page_056">[Pg. 56]</a></span>wrestling, and gladiatorial
+combats. To these, chariot-racing was added under the emperors, and
+exhibitions of combats between wild beasts, and, in numerous
+instances, between men and beasts.</p>
+<p>
+2. After the establishment of the naval power of Rome, naumachi&aelig;, or
+naval combats, were frequently exhibited in circi built for the
+purpose. These were not always sham fights; the contests were, in many
+instances, real engagements displaying all the horrors of a sanguinary
+battle.</p>
+<p>
+3. The custom of exhibiting shows of gladiators, originated in the
+barbarous sacrifices of human beings, which prevailed in remote ages.
+In the gloomy superstition of the Romans, it was believed that the
+manes, or shades of the dead, derived pleasure from human blood, and
+they therefore sacrificed, at the tombs of their ancestors, captives
+taken in war, or wretched slaves. It was soon found that sport to the
+living might be combined with this horrible offering to the dead; and
+instead of giving up the miserable victims to the executioner, they
+were compelled to fight with each other, until the greater part was
+exterminated.</p>
+<p>
+4. The pleasure that the people derived from this execrable amusement,
+induced the candidates for office to gratify, them frequently with
+this spectacle. The exhibitions were no longer confined to funerals;
+they formed an integrant part of every election, and were found more
+powerful than merit in opening a way to office. The utter
+demoralization of the Roman people, and the facility with which the
+tyranny of the emperors was established, unquestionably was owing, in
+a great degree to the pernicious prevalence of these scandalous
+exhibitions.</p>
+<p>
+5. To supply the people with gladiators, schools were, established in
+various parts of Italy, each under the controul of a <i>lanis'ta</i>, or
+fencing-master, who instructed them in martial exercises. The victims
+were either prisoners of war, or refractory slaves, sold by their
+masters; but in the degenerate ages of the empire, freemen, and even
+senators, ventured their lives on the stage along with the regular
+gladiators. Under the mild and merciful influence of Christianity
+these combats were abolished, and human blood was no longer shed to
+gratify a cruel and sanguinary populace.</p>
+<p>
+6. So numerous were the gladiators, that Spar'tacus, one of their
+number, having escaped from a school, raised an army of his
+fellow-sufferers, amounting to seventy thousand men; he was finally
+subdued by Cras'sus, the colleague of<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_057" id="Page_057">[Pg. 57]</a></span> Pompey. Ju'lius C&aelig;sar,
+during his &aelig;dileship, exhibited at one time three hundred and twenty
+pairs of gladiators; but even this was surpassed by the emperor
+Trajan, who displayed no less than one thousand.</p>
+<p>
+7. The gladiators were named from their peculiar arms; the most common
+were the <i>retiarius</i>, who endeavoured to hamper his antagonist with a
+net; and his opponent the <i>secutor</i>.</p>
+<p>
+8. When a gladiator was wounded, or in any way disabled, he fled to
+the extremity of the stage, and implored the pity of the spectators;
+if he had shown good sport, they took him under their protection by
+pressing down their thumbs; but if he had been found deficient in
+courage or activity, they held the thumb back, and he was instantly
+murdered by his adversary.</p>
+<p>
+9. The Roman theatre was formed after the model of the Greeks, but
+never attained equal eminence. The populace always paid more regard to
+the dresses of the actors, and the richness of the decoration, than to
+ingenious structure of plot, or elegance of language. Scenic
+representations do not appear to have been very popular at Rome,
+certainly never so much as the sports of the circus. Besides comedies
+and tragedies, the Romans had a species of drama peculiar to their
+country, called the Atellane farces, which were, in general, low
+pieces of gross indecency and vulgar buffoonery, but sometimes
+contained spirited satires on the character and conduct of public men.</p>
+<p>
+10. We should be greatly mistaken if we supposed that the theatres in
+ancient Rome at all resembled those of modern times; they were
+stupendous edifices, some of which could accommodate thirty thousand
+spectators, and an army could perform its evolutions on the stage. To
+remedy the defects of distance, the tragic actors wore a buskin with
+very thick soles, to raise them above their natural size, and covered
+their faces with a mask so contrived as to render the voice more clear
+and full.<a name="FNanchor_1_45" id="FNanchor_1_45"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_45" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Instead of the buskin, comic actors wore a sort of
+slipper called a sock.</p>
+<p>
+11. The periodical festivals of the Romans were celebrated with
+theatrical entertainments and sports in the circus at the public
+expense. The most remarkable of these<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_058" id="Page_058">[Pg. 58]</a></span> festivals was the secular,
+which occurred only at periods of one hundred and ten years. The
+others occurred annually, and were named from the gods to whose honour
+they were dedicated.</p>
+<p>
+12. The Romans were a more grave and domestic people than the lively
+Greeks; their favourite dress, the toga or gown, was more formal and
+stately than the Grecian short cloak; their demeanour was more stern,
+and their manners more imposing. The great object of the old Roman
+was, to maintain his dignity under all circumstances, and to show that
+he could controul the emotions to which ordinary men too readily
+yield. Excessive joy or grief, unqualified admiration, or intense
+surprise, were deemed disgraceful; and even at a funeral, the duty of
+lamenting the deceased was entrusted to hired mourners. Temperance at
+meals was a leading feature in the character of the Romans during the
+early ages of the republic; but after the conquest of Asia, their
+luxuries were more extravagant than those of any nation recorded in
+history. But there was more extravagance than refinement in the Roman
+luxury; and though immense sums were lavished on entertainments, they
+were destitute of that taste and elegance more delightful than the
+most costly delicacies.</p>
+<p>
+13. The Roman ladies, enjoyed more freedom than those in any other,
+ancient nation. They visited all places of public amusement
+uncontrolled, and mingled in general society. The power of the
+husband, however, was absolute, and he could divorce his wife at
+pleasure without assigning any cause. In the early ages of the
+republic this privilege was rarely exercised, and the Roman ladies
+were strictly virtuous; but at a later period divorces were
+multiplied, and the most shocking depravity was the consequence.</p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What were the national amusements of the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+2. What were the naumachi&aelig;?</p>
+<p>
+3. Whence arose the custom of gladiatorial combats?</p>
+<p>
+4. Why were these exhibitions of frequent occurrence?</p>
+<p>
+5. How was the supply of gladiators kept up?</p>
+<p>
+6. From what circumstances do we learn the great numbers of the
+gladiators?</p>
+<p>
+7. What names were given to the gladiators?</p>
+<p>
+8. How were these combats terminated?</p>
+<p>
+9. What pieces were exhibited on the Roman stage?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_059" id="Page_059">[Pg. 59]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+10. How did the dramatic entertainments in Rome differ from those of
+modern times?</p>
+<p>
+11. Which were the most remarkable Roman festivals?</p>
+<p>
+12. What was the general character of the Roman people?</p>
+<p>
+13. How were women treated in Rome?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_45" id="Fnote_1_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_45">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Hence the mask was called <i>persona</i>, from <i>personare</i>, to
+sound through. From <i>persona</i> the English word <i>person</i> is derived,
+which properly signifies not so much an individual, as the aspect of
+that individual in relation to civil society.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER X.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+GEOGRAPHY OF THE EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF ITS GREATEST EXTENT.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">The Roman eagle seized</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The double prey, and proudly perch'd on high</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And here a thousand years he plumed his wing</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Till from his lofty eyry, tempest-tost,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And impotent through age, headlong he plunged,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">While nations shuddered as they saw him fall.&mdash;<i>Anon.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, over which, however,
+it sometimes passed, were, in Europe, the two great rivers of the
+Rhine and Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the Syrian deserts; in
+Africa, the tracts of arid sand which fence the interior of that
+continent. It thus contained those fertile and rich countries which
+surround the Mediterranean sea, and constitute the fairest portion of
+the earth.</p>
+<p>
+2. Beginning at the west of Europe,<a name="FNanchor_1_46" id="FNanchor_1_46"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_46" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> we find, first, Hispa'nia,
+<i>Spain</i>. Its boundaries are, on the east, the chain of the Pyrenees;
+on every other side, the sea. It was divided into three provinces: 1.
+Lusita'nia, <i>Portugal</i>, bounded on the north by the Du'rius, <i>Douro</i>,
+and on the south by the Anas; <i>Guadiana</i>: 2. Bo'etica, bounded on the
+north and west by the A'nas, and on the east by the mountains of
+Orospe'da, <i>Sierra Moreno</i>: 3. Tarracone'nsis, which includes the
+remainder of the Spanish peninsula. 3. Spain was annexed to the Roman
+empire after the conclusion of the second <i>Punic</i> war; Lusitania,
+after a desperate resistance, was added at a later period.</p>
+<p>
+4. Transalpine Gaul was the name given to the entire country between
+the Pyrenees and the Rhine; it consequently included France,
+Switzerland, and Belgium.</p>
+<p>
+5. Gaul was divided in four provinces: 1. Narbonen'sis or Bracca'ta,
+bounded on the west by the Pyrenees; on the north by the Cevennian
+mountains, and on the east by the Va'rus, <i>Var</i>: 2. Lugdunen'sis or
+Cel'tica, bounded on the south and west by the Li'ger, <i>Loire</i>; on the
+north by the Sequa'na, <i>Seine</i>, and on the east by the A'rar,
+<i>Saone</i>:<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_060" id="Page_060">[Pg. 60]</a></span> 3. Aquita'nica, bounded by the Pyrenees on the south,
+and the Li'ger on the north and east: 4. Bel'gica, bounded on the
+north and east by the Rhe'nus, <i>Rhine;</i> on the west by the Arar, and
+on the south by the Rhoda'nus, <i>Rhone</i>, as far as the city Lugdu'num,
+<i>Lyons</i>. Helve'tia, the modern Switzerland, was included in Belgic
+Gaul. This extensive country was not totally subdued before the time
+of Julius C&aelig;sar.</p>
+<p>
+6. Italy has been already mentioned in the first chapter; we shall
+therefore pass it over and come to the islands in the Mediterranean.</p>
+<p>
+Sici'lia or Trinac'ria, <i>Sicily</i>, was the first province that the
+Romans gained beyond the confines of Italy. The cities on its coast
+were founded by Phoenician and Grecian colonies, but the native
+inhabitants retained possession of the interior; one tribe, named the
+Sic'uli, are said to have migrated from Italy, and to have given their
+name to the island. The Greeks and Carthaginians long contended for
+supremacy in this island, but it was wrested from both by the Romans
+towards the close of the second <i>Punic</i> war. Nearly at the same time,
+the islands of Corsica and Sardinia were annexed to the empire.</p>
+<p>
+7. Britan'nia, divided into Britan'nia Roma'na, which contained
+England and the south of Scotland; and Britannia Bar'bara or
+Caledo'nia, the northern part of Scotland, into which the Romans never
+penetrated. Britain was first invaded by Julius C&aelig;sar, but was not
+wholly subdued before the time of Nero. As for Hiber'nia or Ier'ne,
+<i>Ireland</i>, it was visited by Roman merchants, but never by Roman
+legions.</p>
+<p>
+8. The countries south of the Danube, were subdued and divided into
+provinces during the reign of Augustus. The number of these provinces
+was seven: 1. Vindeli'cia, bounded on the north by the Danube; on the
+east by the &AElig;'nus, <i>Inn</i>; on the west by Helve'tia, and on the south
+by Rh&aelig;'tia: 2. Rh&aelig;tia, lying between Helve'tia, Vindeli'cia, and the
+eastern chain of the Alps: 3. Novi'cum, bounded on the north by the
+Danube, on the west by the &AElig;'nus, <i>Inn</i>, on the east by mount Ce'tius
+<i>Kahlenberg</i>, and on the south by the Julian Alps and the Sa'vus,
+<i>Save</i>: 4. Panno'nia Superior, having as boundaries, the Danube on the
+north and east; the Ar'rabo, <i>Raab</i>, on the south; and the Cetian
+mountains on the west: 5. Panno'nia Inferior, having the Ar'rabo on
+the north; the Ar'rabo on the east; and the Sa'vus on the south: 6.
+M&oelig;'sia Superior, bounded on the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_061" id="Page_061">[Pg. 61]</a></span> north by the Danube, on the
+south by Mount Scar'dus. <i>Tihar-dag</i>; on the west by the Pan'nonia,
+and on the east by the river Ce'brus, <i>Isker</i>: 7. M&oelig;'sia Inferior,
+having the Danube on the north; the Ce'brus on the west; the chain of
+mount H&aelig;'mus on the south, and the Pon'tus Eux'imus, <i>Black Sea</i>, on
+the east.</p>
+<p>
+9. Illyricum included the districts along the eastern coast of the
+Adriatic, from Rh&aelig;'tia to the river Dri'nus, <i>Drino Brianco</i>, in the
+south, and the Sa'vus, <i>Save</i>, on the east. It was subdued by the
+Romans about the time of the Macedonian war.</p>
+<p>
+10. Macedon and Greece were subdued after the conquest of Carthage;
+for the particulars of their geography, the student is referred to the
+introduction prefixed to the last edition of the Grecian History.
+Thrace was governed by its own kings, who were tributary to the Romans
+until the reign of the emperor Claudian, when it was made a province.</p>
+<p>
+11. Da'cia was first subdued by the emperor Trajan, and was the only
+province north of the Danube; its boundaries were, the Carpathian
+mountains on the north, the Tibis'eus, <i>Theiss</i>, on the west, the
+Hiera'sus, <i>Pruth</i>, on the east, and the Danube on the south.</p>
+<p>
+12. The principal Asiatic provinces were, Asia Minor, Syria, and
+Ph&oelig;ni'cia. Beyond the Euphra'tes, Arme'nia and Mesopota'mia were
+reduced to provinces by Trajan, but abandoned by his successor Adrian.</p>
+<p>
+13. The African provinces were, Egypt, Cyrena'ica, Namidia, and
+Maurita'nia.</p>
+<p>
+14. The principal states on the borders of the empire were, Germa'nia
+and Sarma'tia in Europe, Arme'nia and Par'thia in Asia, and &AElig;thio'pia
+in Africa.</p>
+<p>
+15. Eastern Asia, or India, was only known to the Romans by a
+commercial intercourse, which was opened with that country soon after
+the conquest of Egypt.</p>
+<p>
+It was divided into India on this side the Ganges, and India beyond
+the Ganges, which included Se'rica, a country of which the Romans
+possessed but little knowledge. India at the western side of the
+Ganges contained, 1. The territory between the In'dus and Gan'ges: 2.
+The western coast, now called Malabar, which was the part best known,
+and, 3. The island of Taproba'ne, <i>Ceylon</i>.</p>
+<p>
+16. The commerce between Europe and southern Asia became important in
+the reign of Alexan'der the Great;<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_062" id="Page_062">[Pg. 62]</a></span> the greater part of the towns
+founded by that mighty conqueror were intended to facilitate this
+lucrative trade.<a name="FNanchor_2_47" id="FNanchor_2_47"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_47" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> After his death, the Ptol'emys of Egypt became the
+patrons of Indian traffic, which was unwisely neglected by the kings
+of Syria. When Egypt was conquered by the Romans, the commerce with
+India was not interrupted, and the principal mart for Indian commerce
+under the Roman emperors, was always Alexandria. The jealousy of the
+Parthians excluded strangers from their territories, and put an end to
+the trade that was carried on between northern India, the shores of
+the Caspian sea, and thence to the &AElig;gean. In consequence of this
+interruption, Palmy'ra and Alexandri'a became the great depots of
+eastern commerce, and to this circumstance they owed their enormous
+wealth and magnificence.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What were the boundaries of the Roman empire?</p>
+<p>
+2. How was Spain divided?</p>
+<p>
+3. When was Spain annexed to the Roman empire?</p>
+<p>
+4. What countries were included in Transalpine Gaul?</p>
+<p>
+5. How was Gaul divided?</p>
+<p>
+6. What islands in the Mediterranean were included in the Roman
+empire?</p>
+<p>
+7. When was Britain invaded by the Romans, and how much of the country
+did they subdue?</p>
+<p>
+8. Into what provinces were the countries south of the Danube divided?</p>
+<p>
+9. What was the extent of Illyricum?</p>
+<p>
+10. What were the Roman provinces in the east of Europe?</p>
+<p>
+11. By whom was Dacia conquered?</p>
+<p>
+12. What were the Asiatic provinces?</p>
+<p>
+13. What were the African provinces?</p>
+<p>
+14. What were the principal states bordering on the empire?</p>
+<p>
+15. Was India known to the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+16. What cities under the Romans enjoyed the greatest commerce with
+India?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_46" id="Fnote_1_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_46">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The student will find the particulars of the ancient
+state of these countries detailed more fully in Mitchell's Ancient
+Geography.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_47" id="Fnote_2_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_47">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See Pinnock's Grecian History.</p>
+</div>
+<p class="smcap">
+END OF THE INTRODUCTION.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_063" id="Page_063">[Pg. 63]</a></span></p>
+<br /><br />
+<h2>
+<b>HISTORY OF ROME</b></h2>
+
+
+<br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER I.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+OF THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANS.</p>
+
+<p>
+In Alba he shall fix his royal seat.&mdash;<i>Dryden</i>.</p>
+<p>
+1. The Romans were particularly desirous of being thought descendants
+of the gods, as if to hide the meanness of their real ancestry.
+<i>&AElig;ne'as</i>, the son of <i>Venus</i> and <i>Anchi'ses</i>, having escaped from the
+destruction of Troy, after many adventures and dangers, arrived in
+Italy, A.M. 2294, where he was kindly received by Lati'nus, king of
+the Latins, who promised him his daughter Lavin'ia in marriage.</p>
+<p>
+2. Turnus, king of the <i>Ru'tuli</i>, was the first who opposed &AElig;ne'as, he
+having long made pretensions to her himself. A war ensued, in which
+the Trojan hero was victorious, and Turnus slain. In consequence of
+this, Lavin'ia became the wife of &AElig;ne'as, who built a city to her
+honour, and called it Lavin'ium. Some time after, engaging in a war
+against <i>Mezen'tius</i>, one of the petty kings of the country, he was
+vanquished in turn, and died in battle, after a reign of four years.
+3. Asca'nius his son, succeeded to the kingdom; and to him Sil'vius, a
+second son, whom he had by Lavin'ia. It would be tedious and
+uninteresting to recite a dry catalogue of the kings that followed, of
+whom we know little more than the names; it will be sufficient to say,
+that the succession continued for nearly four hundred years in the
+same family, and that Nu'mitor, the fifteenth from &AElig;ne'as, was the
+last king of Alba.</p>
+<p>
+Nu'mitor, who took possession of the kingdom in consequence of his
+father's will, had a brother named Amu'lius, to whom were left the
+treasures which had been brought from Troy. 4. As riches too generally
+prevail against right, Amu'lius made use of his wealth to supplant his
+brother, and soon found means to possess himself of the kingdom. Not
+contented with the crime of usurpation, he added that of murder also.
+Nu'mitor's sons first fell a sacrifice to his suspicions; and to
+remove all apprehensions of being one<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_064" id="Page_064">[Pg. 64]</a></span> day disturbed in his
+ill-gotten power, he caused Rhe'a Sil'via, his brother's only
+daughter, to become a vestal.</p>
+<p>
+5. His precautions, however, were all frusrtrated in the event. Rhe'a
+Sil'via, and, according to tradition, Mars the god of war, were the
+parents of two boys, who were no sooner born, than devoted by the
+usurper to destruction. 7. The mother was condemned to be buried
+alive, the usual punishment for vestals who had violated their vows,
+and the twins were ordered to be flung into the river Tiber. 8. It
+happened, however, at the time this rigorous sentence was put into
+execution, that the river had, more than usual, overflowed its banks,
+so that the place where the children were thrown being distant from
+the main current, the water was too shallow to drown them. It is said
+by some, that they were exposed in a cradle, which, after floating for
+a time, was, by the water's retiring, left on dry ground; that a wolf,
+descending from the mountains to drink, ran, at the cry of the
+children, and fed them under a fig-tree, caressing and licking them as
+if they had been her own young, the infants hanging on to her as if
+she had been their mother, until Faus'tulus, the king's shepherd,
+struck with so surprising a sight, conveyed them home, and delivered
+them to his wife, Ac'ca Lauren'tia, to nurse, who brought them up as
+her own. 9. Others, however, assert, that from the vicious life of
+this woman, the shepherds had given her the nickname of Lupa, or wolf,
+which they suppose might possibly be the occasion of this marvellous
+story.</p>
+<p>
+10. Romu'lus and Re'mus, the twins, in whatever manner preserved,
+seemed early to discover abilities and desires above the meanness of
+their supposed origin. From their very infancy, an air of superiority
+and grandeur seemed to discover their rank. They led, however, the
+shepherd's life like the rest; worked for their livelihood, and built
+their own huts. But pastoral idleness displeased them, and, from
+tending their flocks, they betook themselves to the chase. Then, no
+longer content with hunting wild beasts, they turned their strength
+against the robbers of their country, whom they often stripped of
+their plunder, and divided it among the shepherds. 11. The youths who
+continually joined them so increased in number, as to enable them to
+hold assemblies, and celebrate games. In one of their excursions, the
+two brothers were surprised. Re'mus was taken prisoner, carried before
+the king, and accused of being a plunderer and robber on Nu'mitor's
+lands.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_065" id="Page_065">[Pg. 65]</a></span> Rom'ulus had escaped; but Re'mus, the king sent to
+Nu'mitor, that he might do himself justice.</p>
+<p>
+12. From many circumstances, Faus'tulus suspected the twins under his
+care to be the same that Amu'lius had exposed on the Ti'ber, and at
+length divulged his suspicions to Rom'ulus. Nu'mitor made the same
+discovery to Re'mus. From that time nothing was thought of but the
+tyrant's destruction. He was beset on all sides; and, during the
+amazement and distraction that ensued, was taken and slain; while
+Nu'mitor, who had been deposed for forty years, recognised his
+grandsons, and was once more placed on the throne.</p>
+<p>
+13. The two brothers, leaving Nu'mitor the kingdom of Alba, determined
+to build a city upon the spot where they had been exposed and
+preserved. But a fatal desire of reigning seized them both, and
+created a difference between these noble youths, which terminated
+tragically. Birth right in the case of twins could claim no
+precedence; they therefore were advised by the king to take an omen
+from the flight of birds, to know to which of them the tutelar gods
+would decree the honour of governing the rising city, and,
+consequently, of being the director of the other. 14. In compliance
+with this advice, each took his station on a different hill. To Re'mus
+appeared six vultures; in the moment after, Rom'ulus saw twelve. Two
+parties had been formed for this purpose; the one declared for Re'mus,
+who first saw the vultures; the other for Rom'ulus, who saw the
+greater number. Each party called itself victorious; the one having
+the first omen, the other that which was most complete. This produced
+a contest which ended in a battle, wherein Re'mus was slain. It is
+even said, that he was killed by his brother, who, being provoked at
+his leaping contemptuously over the city wall, struck him dead upon
+the spot.</p>
+<p>
+15. Rom'ulus being now sole commander and eighteen years of age, began
+the foundation of a city that was one day to give laws to the world.
+It was called Rome, after the name of the founder, and built upon the
+Palatine hill, on which he had taken his successful omen, A.M. 3252;
+ANTE c. 752. The city was at first nearly square, containing about a
+thousand houses. It was almost a mile in circumference, and commanded
+a small territory round it of eight miles over. 16. However, small as
+it appears, it was yet worse inhabited; and the first method made use
+of to<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_066" id="Page_066">[Pg. 66]</a></span> increase its numbers, was the opening of a sanctuary for
+all malefactors and slaves, and such as were desirous of novelty;
+these came in great multitudes, and contributed to increase the number
+of our legislator's new subjects.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the origin of the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+2. Who first opposed &AElig;neas, and what was the result?</p>
+<p>
+3. Who were the successors of &AElig;neas?</p>
+<p>
+4. What was the conduct of Amulius?</p>
+<p>
+5. What event frustrated his precautions?</p>
+<p>
+6. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+7. What was the sentence on Rhea Silvia and her children?</p>
+<p>
+8. How were the children preserved?</p>
+<p>
+9. What is supposed to have occasioned this marvellous story?</p>
+<p>
+10. What was the character and conduct of Romulus and Remus?</p>
+<p>
+11. In what manner were they surprised?</p>
+<p>
+12. How was the birth of Romulus and Remus discovered, and what
+consequences followed?</p>
+<p>
+13. What caused a difference between the brothers?</p>
+<p>
+14. Relate the circumstances which followed?</p>
+<p>
+15. By whom was Rome built, and what was then its situation?</p>
+<p>
+16. By what means was the new city peopled?</p>
+
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER II.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE BUILDING OF ROME TO THE DEATH OF ROMULUS.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">See Romulus the great, born to restore</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The crown that once his injured grandsire wore.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">This prince a priestess of our blood shall bear;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And like his sire in arms he shall appear.&mdash;<i>Dryden</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Scarcely was the city raised above its foundation, when its rude
+inhabitants began to think of giving some form to their constitution.
+Rom'ulus, by an act of great generosity, left them at liberty to
+choose whom they would for their king; and they, in gratitude,
+concurred to elect him for their founder. He, accordingly, was
+acknowledged as chief of their religion, sovereign magistrate of Rome,
+and general of the army. Beside a guard to attend his person, it was
+agreed, that he should be preceded wherever he went, by twelve
+lictors, each armed with an axe tied up in a bundle of rods;<a name="FNanchor_1_48" id="FNanchor_1_48"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_48" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> these
+were to serve as executioners of<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_067" id="Page_067">[Pg. 67]</a></span> the law, and to impress his new
+subjects with an idea of his authority.</p>
+<p>
+2. The senate, who were to act as counsellors to the king, was
+composed of a hundred of the principal citizens of Rome, consisting of
+men whose age, wisdom, or valour, gave them a natural authority over
+their fellow-subjects. The king named the first senator, who was
+called prince of the senate, and appointed him to the government of
+the city, whenever war required his own absence.</p>
+<p>
+3. The patricians, who composed the third part of the legislature,
+assumed to themselves the power of authorising those laws which were
+passed by the king, or the senate. All things relative to peace or
+war, to the election of magistrates, and even to the choosing a king,
+were confirmed by suffrages in their assemblies.</p>
+<p>
+4. The plebeians were to till the fields, feed cattle, and follow
+trades; but not to have any share in the government, to avoid the
+inconveniences of a popular power.</p>
+<p>
+5. The first care of the new-created king was, to attend to the
+interests of religion. The precise form of their worship is unknown;
+but the greatest part of the religion of that age consisted in a firm
+reliance upon the credit of their soothsayers, who pretended, from
+observation on the flight of birds, and the entrails of beasts, to
+direct the present, and to dive into futurity. Rom'ulus, by an express
+law, commanded that no election should be made, nor enterprise
+undertaken, without first consulting them.</p>
+<p>
+6. Wives were forbidden, upon any pretext whatsoever, to separate from
+their husbands; while, on the contrary, the husband was empowered to
+repudiate the wife, and even, in some cases, to put her to death. The
+laws between children and their parents were still more severe; the
+father had entire power over his offspring, both of fortune and life;
+he could imprison and sell them at any time of their lives, or in any
+stations to which they were arrived.</p>
+<p>
+7. After endeavouring to regulate his subjects by law, Rom'ulus next
+gave orders to ascertain their numbers. The whole amounted to no more
+than three thousand foot, and about as many hundred horsemen, capable
+of bearing arms. These, therefore, were divided equally into three
+tribes, and to each he assigned a different part of the city. Each of
+these tribes was subdivided into ten curi&aelig;, or companies, consisting
+of a hundred men each, with a centurion to command it; a priest called
+curio, to perform the sacrifices,</p>
+<p>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_068" id="Page_068">[Pg. 68]</a></span> and two of the principal inhabitants, called duumviri, to
+distribute justice.</p>
+<p>
+8. By these judicious regulations, each day added strength to the new
+city; multitudes of people flocked in from all the adjacent towns, and
+it only seemed to want women to insure its duration. In this exigence,
+Rom'ulus, by the advice of the senate, sent deputies among the
+Sab'ines, his neighbours, entreating their alliance; and, upon these
+terms, offering to cement the strictest confederacy with them. The
+Sab'ines, who were at that time considered as the most warlike people
+of Italy, rejected the proposal with disdain. 9. Rom'ulus, therefore,
+proclaimed a feast, in honour of Neptune,<a name="FNanchor_2_49" id="FNanchor_2_49"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_49" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> throughout all the
+neighbouring villages, and made the most magnificent preparations for
+celebrating it. These feasts were generally preceded by sacrifices,
+and ended in shows of wrestlers, gladiators, and chariot-courses. The
+Sab'ines, as he had expected, were among the foremost who came to be
+spectators, bringing their wives and daughters with them, to share the
+pleasures of the sight. 10. In the mean time the games began, and
+while the strangers were most intent upon the spectacle, a number of
+the Roman youth rushed in among them with drawn swords, seized the
+youngest and most beautiful women, and carried them off by violence.
+In vain the parents protested against this breach of hospitality; the
+virgins were carried away and became the wives of the Romans.</p>
+<p>
+11. A bloody war ensued. The cities of C&aelig;'nina,<a name="FNanchor_3_50" id="FNanchor_3_50"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_50" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Antem'n&aelig;,<a name="FNanchor_4_51" id="FNanchor_4_51"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_51" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and
+Crustumi'num,<a name="FNanchor_5_52" id="FNanchor_5_52"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_52" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> were the first who resolved to avenge the common
+cause, which the Sab'ines seemed too dilatory in pursuing. But all
+these, by making separate inroads, became an easy conquest to
+Rom'ulus, who made the most merciful use of his victories; instead of
+destroying their towns, or lessening their numbers, he only placed
+colonies of Romans in them, to serve as a frontier to repress more
+distant invasions.</p>
+<p>
+12. Ta'tius, king of Cures, a Sabine city, was the last, although the
+most formidable, who undertook to revenge the <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_069" id="Page_069">[Pg. 69]</a></span> disgrace his
+country had suffered. He entered the Roman territories at the head of
+twenty-five thousand men, and not content with a superiority of
+forces, he added stratagem also. 13. Tarpe'ia, who was daughter to the
+commander of the Capit'oline hill, happened to fall into his hands, as
+she went without the walls of the city to fetch water. Upon her he
+prevailed, by means of large promises, to betray one of the gates to
+his army. The reward she engaged for, was what the soldiers wore on
+their arms, by which she meant their bracelets. They, however, either
+mistaking her meaning, or willing to punish her perfidy, threw their
+bucklers upon her as they entered, and crushed her to death. 14. The
+Sab'ines being thus possessed of the Capit'oline, after some time a
+general engagement ensued, which was renewed for several days, with
+almost equal success, and neither army could think of submitting; it
+was in the valley between the Capit'oline and Quiri'nal hills that the
+last engagement was fought between the Romans and the Sab'ines. 15.
+The battle was now become general, and the slaughter prodigious; when
+the attention of both sides was suddenly turned from the scene of
+horror before them to another. The Sab'ine women, who had been carried
+off by the Romans, flew in between the combatants, with their hair
+loose, and their ornaments neglected, regardless of their own danger;
+and, with loud outcries, implored their husbands and their fathers to
+desist. Upon this the combatants, as if by natural impulse, let fall
+their weapons. 16. An accommodation ensued, by which it was agreed,
+that Rom'ulus and Ta'tius should reign jointly in Rome, with equal
+power and prerogative; that a hundred Sab'ines should be admitted into
+the senate; that the city should retain its former name, but the
+citizens, should be called Qui'rites, after Cu'res, the principal town
+of the Sab'ines; and that both nations being thus united, such of the
+Sab'ines as chose it, should be admitted to live in and enjoy all the
+privileges of citizens of Rome. 17. The conquest of Came'ria was the
+only military achievement under the two kings, and Ta'tius was killed
+about five years after by the Lavin'ians, for having protected some of
+his servants who had plundered them and slain their ambassadors; so
+that, by this accident, Rom'ulus once more saw himself sole monarch of
+Rome. 18. Soon after the death of Ta'tius, a cruel plague and famine
+having broken out at Rome, the Camerini embraced the opportunity to
+lay waste the Roman territory. But Rom'ulus gave them <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_070" id="Page_070">[Pg. 70]</a></span> battle,
+killed six thousand on the spot, and returned in triumph to Rome. He
+took likewise Fiden&aelig;, a city about forty furlongs distant from his
+capital, and reduced the Veien'tes to submission.</p>
+<p>
+19. Successes like these produced an equal share of pride in the
+conqueror. From being contented with those limits which had been
+wisely assigned to his power, he began to affect absolute sway, and to
+controul those laws to which he had himself formerly professed
+implicit obedience. The senate was particularly displeased at his
+conduct, as they found themselves used only as instruments to ratify
+the rigour of his commands. 20. We are not told the precise manner
+which they employed to get rid of the tyrant. Some say that he was
+torn in pieces in the senate-house; others, that he disappeared while
+reviewing his army; certain it is, that, from the secrecy of the fact,
+and the concealment of the body, they took occasion to persuade the
+multitude that he was taken up into heaven; thus, him whom they could
+not bear as a king, they were contented to worship as a god. Rom'ulus
+reigned thirty-seven years; and, after his death, had a temple built
+to him, under the name of Quiri'nus.</p>
+
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What were the first proceedings of the rude inhabitants of Rome?</p>
+<p>
+2. Of whom was the senate composed?</p>
+<p>
+3. Who were the patricians?</p>
+<p>
+4. Who were the plebeians?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the first care of the new king? In what did the Religion
+of Rome consist?</p>
+<p>
+6. What were the laws between husband and wife, and between parents
+and children?</p>
+<p>
+7. What were the regulations directed by Romulus?</p>
+<p>
+8. What was the result of these regulations?</p>
+<p>
+9. What conduct did Romulus adopt in consequence?</p>
+<p>
+10. What treatment did the Sabines experience?</p>
+<p>
+11. Did they tamely acquiesce in this outrage?</p>
+<p>
+12. Who undertook to revenge the disgrace of the Sabines?</p>
+<p>
+13. What was this stratagem, and how was its perpetrator rewarded?</p>
+<p>
+14. Did the possession of the Capitoline put an end to the war?</p>
+<p>
+15. What put a stop to this sanguinary conflict?</p>
+<p>
+16. What were the terms of accommodation?</p>
+<p>
+17. Was this joint sovereignty of long continuance?</p>
+<p>
+18. Was Romulus successful in military affairs?</p>
+<p>
+19. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+20. What was the manner of his death?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_071" id="Page_071">[Pg. 71]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_48" id="Fnote_1_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_48">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This symbol of authority was borrowed from his
+neighbours, the Istrurians.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_49" id="Fnote_2_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_49">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ More properly in honour of Con'sus, a deity of Sabine
+origin, whom the Romans, in a later age, confounded with Neptune. (See
+Keightley's Mythology.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_50" id="Fnote_3_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_50">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A town of Latium, near Rome. (Livy.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_51" id="Fnote_4_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_51">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A city of the Sabines, between Rome and the Anio, from
+whence its name,&mdash;Ante Amnem. (Dionys. Hal.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_52" id="Fnote_5_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_52">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A town of Etruria, near Veii. (Virg.)</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER III.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE DEATH OF ROMULUS TO THE DEATH OF NUMA POMPILIUS, THE SECOND
+KING OF ROME.&mdash;U.C. 38.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">When pious Numa reigned, Bellona's voice</span><br />
+<span class="i2">No longer called the Roman youth to arms;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">In peaceful arts he bid her sons rejoice,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And tranquil live, secure from war's alarms.&mdash;<i>Brooke.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Upon the death of Rom'ulus, the city seemed greatly divided in the
+choice of a successor. The Sab'ines were for having a king chosen from
+their body; but the Romans could not endure the thoughts of advancing
+a stranger to the throne. In this perplexity, the senators undertook
+to supply the place of the king, by taking the government each of them
+in turn, for five days, and during that time enjoying all the honours
+and all the privileges of royalty. 2. This new form of government
+continued for a year; but the plebeians, who saw this method of
+transferring power was only multiplying their masters, insisted upon
+altering that mode of government. The senate being thus driven to an
+election, at length pitched upon Nu'ma Pompil'ius, a Sab'ine, and
+their choice was received with universal approbation by the people.<a name="FNanchor_1_53" id="FNanchor_1_53"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_53" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+3. Nu'ma Pompil'ius, who was now about forty, had long been eminent
+for his piety, his justice, his moderation, and exemplary life. He was
+skilled in all the learning and philosophy of the Sab'ines, and lived
+at home at Cu'res,<a name="FNanchor_2_54" id="FNanchor_2_54"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_54" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> contented with a private fortune; unambitious of
+higher honours. It was not, therefore, without reluctance, that he
+accepted the dignity; which, when he did so, produced such joy, that
+the people seemed not so much to receive a king as a kingdom.</p>
+<p>
+4. No monarch could be more proper for them than Nu'ma, at a
+conjuncture when the government was composed of various petty states
+lately subdued, and but ill united to each other: they wanted a master
+who could, by his laws and precepts, soften their fierce dispositions;
+and, by his example, induce them to a love of religion, and every
+milder virtue. 5. Numa's whole time, therefore, was<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_072" id="Page_072">[Pg. 72]</a></span> spent in
+inspiring his subjects with a love of piety, and a veneration for the
+gods. He built many new temples, instituted sacred offices and feasts;
+and the sanctity of his life gave strength to his assertion&mdash;that he
+had a particular correspondence with the goddess <i>Ege'ria</i>. By her
+advice he built the temple of <i>Janus</i>, which was to be shut in time of
+peace, and open in war. He regulated the appointment of the vestal
+virgins, and added considerably to the privileges which they had
+previously enjoyed.</p>
+<p>
+6. For the encouragement of agriculture, he divided those lands, which
+Romulus had gained in war, among the poorer part of the people; he
+regulated the calendar, and abolished the distinction between Romans
+and Sabines, by dividing the people according to their several trades,
+and compelling them to live together. Thus having arrived at the age
+of fourscore years, and having reigned forty-three in profound peace,
+he died, ordering his body, contrary to the custom of the times, to be
+buried in a stone coffin; and his books of ceremonies, which consisted
+of twelve in Latin, and as many in Greek, to be buried by his side in
+another.<a name="FNanchor_3_55" id="FNanchor_3_55"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_55" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. Upon the death of Romulus, what took place in regard to his
+successor?</p>
+<p>
+2. How long did this order of things continue?</p>
+<p>
+3. What was the character of Numa Pompilius?</p>
+<p>
+4. Was Numa a monarch suited to this peculiar conjuncture?</p>
+<p>
+5. Relate the acts of Numa?</p>
+<p>
+6. What were the further acts of Numa?</p>
+<p>
+7. What orders did he leave at his death?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_073" id="Page_073">[Pg. 73]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_53" id="Fnote_1_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_53">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Nu'ma Pompil'ius was the fourth son of Pompil'ius Pom'po,
+an illustrious Sab'ine. He had married Ta'tia, the daughter of
+Ta'tius, the colleague of Rom'ulus, and on the death of his wife, gave
+himself up entirely to solitude and study. (Plutarch&mdash;Livy.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_54" id="Fnote_2_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_54">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ More probably at Quirium, the Sabine town which was
+united with Rome. (See Introduction, Chap. II.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_55" id="Fnote_3_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_55">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The age of Nu'ma is scarcely more historical than that of
+Rom'ulus, but the legends respecting it are fewer and partake less of
+extravagance. Indeed, he had himself discouraged the songs of the
+bards, by ordering the highest honours to be paid to Tac'ita, the
+Came'na or Muse of Silence. His memory was best preserved by the
+religious ceremonies ascribed to him by universal tradition. The later
+poets loved to dwell on his peaceful virtues, and on the pure
+affection that existed between him and the nymph Egeria. They tell us
+that when the king served up a moderate repast to his guests on
+earthen-ware, she suddenly changed the dishes into gold, and the plain
+food into the most sumptuous viands. They also add, that when he died,
+Egeria melted away in tears for his loss, and was changed into a
+fountain.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE DEATH OF NUMA TO THE DEATH OF TULLUS HOSTILIUS THE THIRD KING
+OF ROME.&mdash;U.C. 82.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">From either army shall be chose three champions,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">To fight the cause alone.&mdash;<i>Whitehead.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. At the death of Nu'ma, the government once more devolved upon the
+senate, and so continued, till the people elected Tullus Hostil'ius
+for their king, which choice had also the concurrence of the other
+part of the constitution. This monarch, the grandson of a noble
+Roman,<a name="FNanchor_1_56" id="FNanchor_1_56"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_56" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> who had formerly signalized himself against the Sab'ines,
+was every way unlike his predecessor, being entirely devoted to war,
+and more fond of enterprise than even the founder of the empire
+himself had been; so that he only sought a pretext for leading his
+forces to the field.</p>
+<p>
+2. The <i>Albans</i>, by committing some depredations on the Roman
+territory, were the first people that gave him an opportunity of
+indulging his favourite inclinations. The forces of the two states met
+about five miles from Rome, prepared to decide the fate of their
+respective kingdoms; for, in these times, a single battle was
+generally decisive. The two armies were for some time drawn out in
+array, awaiting the signal to begin, both chiding the length of that
+dreadful suspense, when an unexpected proposal from the Alban general
+put a stop to the onset. 3. Stepping in between both armies, he
+offered the Romans to decide the dispute by single combat; adding,
+that the side whose champion was overcome, should submit to the
+conqueror. A proposal like this, suited the impetuous temper of the
+Roman king, and was embraced with joy by his subjects, each of whom
+hoped that he himself should be chosen to fight the cause of his
+country. 4. There were, at that time, three twin brothers in each
+army; those of the Romans were called Hora'tii, and those of the
+Albans Curia'tii; all six remarkable for their courage, strength, and
+activity, and to these it was resolved to commit the management of the
+combat.<a name="FNanchor_2_57" id="FNanchor_2_57"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_57" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> At length the champions met, and each, totally<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_074" id="Page_074">[Pg. 74]</a></span>
+regardless of his own safety, only sought the destruction of his
+opponent. The spectators, in horrid silence, trembled at every blow,
+and wished to share the danger, till fortune seemed to decide the
+glory of the field. 5. Victory, that had hitherto been doubtful,
+appeared to declare against the Romans: they beheld two of their
+champions lying dead upon the plain, and the three Curia'tii, who were
+wounded, slowly endeavouring to pursue the survivor, who seemed by
+flight to beg for mercy. Too soon, however, they perceived that his
+flight was only pretended, in order to separate his three antagonists,
+whom he was unable to oppose united; for quickly after, stopping his
+course, and turning upon the first, who followed closely behind, he
+laid him dead at his feet: the second brother, who was coming up to
+assist him that had already fallen, shared the same fate. 6. There now
+remained but the last Curia'tius to conquer, who, fatigued and
+disabled by his wounds, slowly advanced to offer an easy victory. He
+was killed, almost unresisting, while the conqueror, exclaiming, "Two
+have I already sacrificed to the manes of my brothers, the third I
+will offer up to my country," despatched him as a victim to the
+superiority of the Romans, whom now the Alban army consented to
+obey.<a name="FNanchor_3_58" id="FNanchor_3_58"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_58" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+7. But the virtues of that age were not without alloy; that very hand
+that in the morning was exerted to save his country, was, before
+night, imbrued in the blood of a sister: for, returning triumphant
+from the field, it raised his indignation to behold her bathed in
+tears, and lamenting the loss of her lover, one of the Curia'tii, to
+whom she had been betrothed. This so provoked him beyond the powers of
+sufferance, that in a rage he slew her: but the action displeased the
+senate, and drew after it the condemnation of the magistrate. He was,
+however, pardoned, by making his appeal to the people, but obliged to
+pass under the yoke; an ignominious punishment, usually inflicted on
+prisoners of war.<a name="FNanchor_4_59" id="FNanchor_4_59"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_59" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+8. Tullus having greatly increased the power and wealth of Rome by
+repeated victories, now thought proper to demand satisfaction of the
+Sab'ines for the insults which had been formerly offered to some Roman
+citizens at the temple<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_075" id="Page_075">[Pg. 75]</a></span> of the goddess Fero'nia, which was common
+to both nations A war ensued, which lasted some years, and ended in
+the total overthrow of the Sab'ines.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image01.jpg"
+alt="The victorious Horatius killing his sister."
+title="The victorious Horatius killing his sister." width="423" height="321" />
+</div>
+<p>
+Hostil'ius died after a reign of thirty-two years; some say by
+lightning; others, with more probability, by treason.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. On whom devolved the government on the death of Numa, and what is
+the character of his successor?</p>
+<p>
+2. What opportunity first offered of indulging the new king's
+inclinations?</p>
+<p>
+3. What proposal was offered, and accepted for deciding the dispute?</p>
+<p>
+4-6. Relate the circumstances which attended the combat, and the
+result of it.</p>
+<p>
+7. What act followed the victory?</p>
+<p>
+8. What conquest was next achieved?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_56" id="Fnote_1_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_56">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ It seems to have been part of the compact between the
+Romans and Sabines, that a king of each people should reign
+alternately.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_57" id="Fnote_2_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_57">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The Hora'tii and Curia'tii were, according to Diony'sius
+of Halicarnas'sus, the sons of two sisters, daughters of Sequin'ius,
+an illustrious citizen of Alba. One married to Curia'tius, a citizen
+of Alba, and the other to Hora'tius, a Roman: so that the champions
+were near relatives.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_58" id="Fnote_3_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_58">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This obedience of the Albans was of short duration; they
+soon rebelled and were defeated by Tullus, who razed the city of Alba
+to the ground, and transplanted the inhabitants to Rome, where he
+conferred on them the privileges of citizens.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_59" id="Fnote_4_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_59">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Livy, lib. i. cap. 26. Dion. Hal. l. 3.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER V.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE DEATH OF TULLUS HOSTILIUS TO THE DEATH OF ANCUS MARTIUS THE
+FOURTH KING OF ROME.&mdash;U.C. 115.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">                 Where what remains</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Of Alba, still her ancient rights retains,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Still worships Vesta, though an humbler way,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Nor lets the hallow'd Trojan fire decay.&mdash;<i>Juvenal</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. After an interregnum, as in the former case, Ancus Mar'tius, the
+grandson of Numa, was elected king by the people, and their choice was
+afterwards confirmed by the senate. As this monarch was a lineal
+descendant from<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_076" id="Page_076">[Pg. 76]</a></span> Numa, so he seemed to make him the great object
+of his imitation. He instituted the sacred ceremonies, which were to
+precede a declaration of war;<a name="FNanchor_1_60" id="FNanchor_1_60"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_60" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> but he took every occasion to advise
+his subjects to return to the arts of agriculture, and to lay aside
+the less useful stratagems of war.</p>
+<p>
+2. These institutions and precepts were considered by the neighbouring
+powers rather as marks of cowardice than of wisdom. The Latins
+therefore began to make incursions upon his territories, but their
+success was equal to their justice. An'cus conquered the Latins,
+destroyed their cities, removed their inhabitants to Rome, and
+increased his dominions by the addition of part of theirs. He quelled
+also an insurrection of the <i>Ve'ii</i>, the <i>Fiden'ates</i>, and the
+<i>Vol'sci</i>; and over the Sab'ines he obtained a second triumph.</p>
+<p>
+3. But his victories over the enemy were by no means comparable to his
+works at home, in raising temples, fortifying the city, making a
+prison for malefactors, and building a sea-port at the mouth of the
+Ti'ber, called Os'tia, by which he secured to his subjects the trade
+of that river, and that of the salt-pits adjacent. Thus having
+enriched his subjects, and beautified the city, he died, after a reign
+of twenty-four years.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Who was elected by the people after the interregnum, and what
+measures did he pursue?</p>
+<p>
+2. In what light did his enemies consider his institutions? With what
+success did they oppose him?</p>
+<p>
+3. What were the other acts of Ancus? How many years did he reign?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_60" id="Fnote_1_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_60">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ First an ambassador was sent to demand satisfaction for
+the alleged injury; if this were not granted within thirty-three days,
+heralds were appointed to proclaim the war in the name of the gods and
+people of Rome. At the conclusion of their speech, they threw their
+javelins into the enemy's confines, and departed.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_077" id="Page_077">[Pg. 77]</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE DEATH OF ANCUS MARTIUS, TO THE DEATH OF TARQUINIUS PRISCUS
+THE FIFTH KING OF ROME.&mdash;U.C. 130.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">The first of Tarquin's hapless race was he,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Who odium tried to cast on augury;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">But N&aelig;vius Accius, with an augur's skill.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Preserved its fame, and raised it higher still.&mdash;<i>Robertson</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Lu'cius TARQUIN'IUS PRIS'CUS was appointed guardian to the sons of
+the late king, and took the surname of Tarquin'ius from the city of
+<i>Tarquin'ia</i>, whence he last came. His father was a merchant of
+Corinth,<a name="FNanchor_1_61" id="FNanchor_1_61"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_61" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> who had acquired considerable wealth by trade, and had
+settled in Italy, upon account of some troubles at home. His son, who
+inherited his fortune, married a woman of family in the city of
+Tarquin'ia.</p>
+<p>
+2. His birth, profession, and country, being contemptible to the
+nobles of the place, he, by his wife's persuasion, came to settle at
+Rome, where merit also gave a title to distinction. On his way
+thither, say the historians, as he approached the city gate, an eagle,
+stooping from above, took off his hat, and flying round his chariot
+for some time, with much noise, put it on again. This his wife
+Tan'aquil, who it seems was skilled in augury, interpreted as a
+presage that he should one day wear the crown. Perhaps it was this
+which first fired his ambition to pursue it.</p>
+<p>
+3. Ancus being dead, and the kingdom, as usual, devolving upon the
+senate, Tarquin used all his power and arts to set aside the children
+of the late king, and to get himself elected in their stead. For this
+purpose, upon the day appointed for election, he contrived to have
+them sent out of the city; and in a set speech, in which he urged his
+friendship for the people, the fortune he had spent among them, and
+his knowledge of their government, he offered himself for their king.
+As there was nothing in this harangue that could be contested, it had
+the desired effect, and the people, with one consent, elected him as
+their sovereign.</p>
+<p>
+4. A kingdom thus obtained by <i>intrigue</i>, was, notwithstanding,
+governed with equity. In the beginning of his reign, in order to
+recompense his friends, he added a hundred members more to the senate,
+which made them, in all, three hundred.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_078" id="Page_078">[Pg. 78]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+5. But his peaceful endeavours were soon interrupted by the inroads of
+his restless neighbours, particularly the Latins, over whom he
+triumphed, and whom he forced to beg for peace. He then turned his
+arms against the Sabines, who had risen once more, and had passed the
+river Ti'ber; but attacking them with vigour, Tarquin routed their
+army; so that many who escaped the sword, were drowned in attempting
+to cross over, while their bodies and armour, floating down to Rome,
+brought news of the victory, even before the messengers could arrive
+that were sent with the tidings. These conquests were followed by
+several advantages over the Latins, from whom he took many towns,
+though without gaining any decisive victory.</p>
+<p>
+6. Tarquin, having thus forced his enemies into submission, was
+resolved not to let his subjects grow corrupt through indolence. He
+therefore undertook and perfected several public works for the
+convenience and embellishment of the city.<a name="FNanchor_2_62" id="FNanchor_2_62"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_62" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+7. In his time it was, that the augurs came into a great increase of
+reputation. He found it his interest to promote the superstition of
+the people; for this was, in fact, but to increase their obedience.
+Tan'aquil, his wife, was a great pretender to this art; but Ac'cius
+N&aelig;'vius was the most celebrated adept of the kind ever known in Rome.
+8. Upon a certain occasion, Tarquin, being resolved to try the augur's
+skill, asked him, whether what he was then pondering in his mind could
+be effected? N&aelig;'vius, having consulted his auguries, boldly affirmed
+that it might: "Why, then," cries the king, with an insulting smile,
+"I had thoughts of cutting this whetstone with a razor." "Cut boldly,"
+replied the augur; and the king cut it through accordingly.
+Thenceforward nothing was undertaken in Rome without consulting the
+augurs, and obtaining their advice and approbation.</p>
+<p>
+9. Tarquin was not content with a kingdom, without having also the
+ensigns of royalty. In imitation of the Lyd'ian kings, he assumed a
+crown of gold, an ivory throne, a sceptre with an eagle on the top,
+and robes of purple. It was, perhaps, the splendour of these royalties
+that first raised the envy of the late king's sons, who had<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_079" id="Page_079">[Pg. 79]</a></span> now,
+for above thirty-seven years, quietly submitted to his government. His
+design also of adopting Ser'vius Tul'lius, his son-in-law, for his
+successor, might have contributed to inflame their resentment. 10.
+Whatever was the cause of their tardy vengeance, they resolved to
+destroy him; and, at last, found means to effect their purpose, by
+hiring two ruffians, who, demanding to speak with the king, pretending
+that they came for justice, struck him dead in his palace with the
+blow of an axe. The lictors, however, who waited upon the person of
+the king, seized the murderers as they were attempting to escape, and
+put them to death: but the sons of Ancus, who were the instigators,
+found safety in flight.</p>
+<p>
+11. Thus fell Lu'cius Tarquin'ius, surnamed Pris'cus, to distinguish
+him from one of his successors of the same name. He was eighty years
+of age, and had reigned thirty-eight years.<a name="FNanchor_3_63" id="FNanchor_3_63"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_63" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Who was Lucius Tarquinius Priscus?</p>
+<p>
+2. What occasioned his removal to Rome, and what circumstances
+attended it?</p>
+<p>
+3. Was this presage fulfilled, and by what means?</p>
+<p>
+4. In what manner did he govern?</p>
+<p>
+5. Was Tarquin a warlike prince?</p>
+<p>
+6. How did he improve his victories?</p>
+<p>
+7. By what act did he insure the obedience of his subjects?</p>
+<p>
+8. What contributed to increase the reputation of the augurs?</p>
+<p>
+9. What part of his conduct is supposed, to have raised the envy of
+the late king's sons?</p>
+<p>
+10. What was the consequence of this envy and resentment?</p>
+<p>
+11. What was his age, and how long did he reign?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_080" id="Page_080">[Pg. 80]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_61" id="Fnote_1_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_61">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Corinth (now Corito) was a celebrated city of ancient
+Greece, situated on the isthmus of that name, about sixty stadia or
+furlongs from the sea. Its original name was Ephy're.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_62" id="Fnote_2_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_62">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Preparations for building the Capitol were made in this
+reign. The city was likewise fortified with stone walls, and the
+cloac&aelig;, or common sewers, constructed by the munificence of this
+prince. (See Introd.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_63" id="Fnote_3_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_63">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The history of the elder Tarquin presents insuperable
+difficulties. We are told that his original name was Lu'cumo; but
+that, as has been mentioned in the Introduction, was the Etrurian
+designation of a chief magistrate. One circumstance, however, is
+unquestionable, that with him began the greatness and the splendour of
+the Roman city. He commenced those vaulted sewers which still attract
+the admiration of posterity; he erected the first circus for the
+exhibition of public spectacles; he planned the Capitol, and
+commenced, if he did not complete, the first city wall. The tradition
+that he was a Tuscan prince, appears to be well founded; but the
+Corinthian origin of his family is very improbable.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE DEATH OF TARQUINIUS PRISCUS TO THE DEATH OF SERVIUS TULLIUS
+THE SIXTH KING OF ROME.&mdash;U.C. 176.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Servius, the king, who laid the solid base</span><br />
+<span class="i2">On which o'er earth the vast republic spread.&mdash;<i>Thomson</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The report of the murder of Tarquin filled all his subjects with
+complaint and indignation; while the citizens ran from every quarter
+to the palace, to learn the truth of the account, or to take vengeance
+on the assassins. 2. In this tumult, Tan'aquil, widow of the late
+king, considering the danger she must incur, in case the conspirators
+should succeed to the crown, and desirous of seeing her son-in-law his
+successor, with great art dissembled her sorrow, as well as the king's
+death. She assured the people, from one of the windows of the palace,
+that he was not killed, but only stunned by the blow; that he would
+shortly recover; and that in the meantime he had deputed his power to
+Ser'vius Tul'lius, his son-in-law. Ser'vius, accordingly, as it had
+been agreed upon between them, issued from the palace, adorned with
+the ensigns of royalty, and, preceded by his lictors, went to despatch
+some affairs that related to the public safety, still pretending that
+he took all his instructions from the king. This scene of
+dissimulation continued for some days, till he had made his party good
+among the nobles; when, the death of Tarquin being publicly
+ascertained, Ser'vius came to the crown, solely at the senate's
+appointment, and without attempting to gain the suffrages of the
+people.</p>
+<p>
+3. Ser'vius was the son of a bondwoman, who had been taken at the
+sacking of a town belonging to the Latins, and was born whilst his
+mother was a slave. While yet an infant in his cradle, a lambent
+flame<a name="FNanchor_1_64" id="FNanchor_1_64"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_64" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> is said to have played round his head, which Tan'aquil
+converted into an omen of future greatness.</p>
+<p>
+4. Upon being acknowledged king, he determined to make a great change
+in the Roman constitution by admitting the plebeians to a
+participation in the civil government. The senate was too weak to
+resist the change when it was proposed, but it submitted with great
+reluctance. 5. Ser'vius divided all the Romans into classes and
+centuries<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_081" id="Page_081">[Pg. 81]</a></span> according to their wealth and the amount of taxes paid
+to the state. The number of centuries in the first class nearly
+equalled that of all the others; a great advantage to the plebeians;
+for the lower classes being chiefly clients of the patricians, were
+always inclined to vote according to the prejudices or interests of
+their patrons.</p>
+<p>
+6. The classification by centuries was also used for military
+purposes; the heavy armed infantry being selected from the richer
+classes; the light troops, whose arms and armour could be obtained at
+less expense, were levied among the lower centuries.</p>
+<p>
+7. In order to ascertain the increase or decay of his subjects, and
+their fortunes, he instituted another regulation, which he called a
+<i>lustrum</i>. By this, all the citizens were to assemble in the Cam'pus
+Mar'tius,<a name="FNanchor_2_65" id="FNanchor_2_65"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_65" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> in complete armour, and in their respective classes, once
+in five years, and there to give an exact account of their families
+and fortune.</p>
+<p>
+8. Having enjoyed a long reign, spent in settling the domestic policy
+of the state, and also not inattentive to foreign concerns, he
+conceived reasonable hopes of concluding it with tranquillity and
+ease. He even had thoughts of laying down his power; and, having
+formed the kingdom into a republic, to retire into obscurity; but so
+generous a design was frustrated ere it could be put into execution.</p>
+<p>
+9. In the beginning of his reign, to secure the throne by every
+precaution, he had married his two daughters to the two grandsons of
+Tarquin; and as he knew that the women, as well as their intended
+husbands, were of opposite dispositions, he resolved to cross their
+tempers, by giving each to him of a contrary turn of mind; her that
+was meek and gentle to him that was bold and furious; her that was
+ungovernable and proud, to him that was remarkable for a contrary
+character; by this he supposed that each would correct the failings of
+the other, and that the mixture would be productive of concord. 10.
+The event, however, proved otherwise. Lu'cius, the haughty son-in-law,
+soon grew displeased with the meekness of his consort, and placed his
+whole affections upon his brother's wife, Tul'lia, who answered his
+passion with sympathetic ardour. As their wishes were ungovernable,
+they soon resolved to break<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_082" id="Page_082">[Pg. 82]</a></span> through every restraint that
+prevented their union; they both undertook to murder their respective
+consorts; they succeeded, and were soon after married together. 11. A
+first crime ever produces a second; from the destruction of their
+consorts, they proceeded to conspiring that of the king. They began by
+raising factions against him, alleging his illegal title to the crown,
+and Lu'cius claiming it as his own, as heir to Tarquin. At length,
+when he found the senate ripe for seconding his views, he entered the
+senate-house, adorned with all the ensigns of royalty, and, placing
+himself upon the throne, began to harangue them on the obscurity of
+the king's birth, and the injustice of his title. 12. While he was yet
+speaking, Ser'vius entered, attended by a few followers, and seeing
+his throne thus rudely invaded, offered to push the usurper from his
+seat; but Tarquin, being in the vigour of youth, threw the old king
+down the steps which led to the throne; some of his adherents, who
+were instructed for that purpose, followed him, as he was feebly
+attempting to get to the palace, dispatched him by the way, and threw
+his body, all mangled and bleeding, as a public spectacle, into the
+street. 13. In the mean time, Tul'lia, burning with impatience for the
+event, was informed of what her husband had done, and, resolving to be
+among the first who should salute him as monarch, ordered her chariot
+to the senate-house. But as her charioteer approached the place where
+the body of the old king, her father, lay exposed and bloody; the man,
+amazed at the inhuman spectacle, and not willing to trample upon it
+with his horses, offered to turn another way; this serving only to
+increase the fierceness of her anger, she threw the foot-stool at his
+head, and ordered him to drive over the body without hesitation.<a name="FNanchor_3_66" id="FNanchor_3_66"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_66" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+14. This was the end of Ser'vius Tul'lius, a prince of eminent justice
+and moderation, after an useful and prosperous reign of forty-four
+years.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What effect had the murder of Tarquin on his subjects?</p>
+<p>
+2. By what means was the succession assured to Servius Tullius?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_083" id="Page_083">[Pg. 83]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+3. Who was Servius?</p>
+<p>
+4. What was the chief object of his reign?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the nature of the change made by Servius in the Roman
+constitution?</p>
+<p>
+6. Was the classification by centuries used for civil purposes only?</p>
+<p>
+7. What other important measure did he adopt?</p>
+<p>
+8. What hopes did he entertain in his old age?</p>
+<p>
+9. By what means did he hope to secure tranquil possession of the
+throne?</p>
+<p>
+10. How was it that the event failed to answer his expectations?</p>
+<p>
+11. To what farther crimes did the commencement lead?</p>
+<p>
+12. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+13. What was the conduct of his daughter on this melancholy occasion?</p>
+<p>
+14. What was the character of Servius, and how long did he reign?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_64" id="Fnote_1_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_64">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A flame of fire gliding about without doing any harm.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_65" id="Fnote_2_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_65">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A large plain at Rome, without the walls of the city,
+where the Roman youth performed their exercises. Cam'pus is the Latin
+word for field; and this field or plain was called Mar'tius, because
+it was dedicated to Mars, the god of war.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_66" id="Fnote_3_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_66">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The blood of the good old king is said to have dyed the
+chariot wheels, and even the clothes of the inhuman daughter; from
+that time the street where it happened was called <i>vicus sceleratus</i>,
+the wicked or accursed street.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE DEATH OF SERVIUS TULLIUS TO THE BANISHMENT OF TARQUINIUS
+SUPERBUS THE SEVENTH AND LAST KING OF ROME U.C. 220.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">A nobler spirit warm'd</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Her sons; and roused by tyrants, nobler still</span><br />
+<span class="i2">It burn'd in Brutus.&mdash;<i>Thomson</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. LU'CIUS TARQUIN'IUS, afterwards called Super'bus, or the Proud,
+having placed himself upon the throne, in consequence of this horrid
+deed, was resolved to support his dignity with the same violence with
+which it was acquired. Regardless of the senate or the people's
+approbation, he seemed to claim the crown by an hereditary right, and
+refused burial to the late king's' body, under pretence of his being
+an usurper. 2. All the good part of mankind, however, looked upon his
+accession with detestation and horror: and this act of inefficient
+cruelty only served to confirm their hatred. 3. Conscious of this, he
+ordered all such as he suspected to have been attached to Ser'vius, to
+be put to death; and fearing the natural consequences of his tyranny,
+he increased the guard round his person.</p>
+<p>
+4. His chief policy seems to have been to keep the people always
+employed either in wars or public works, by which means he diverted
+their attention from his unlawful method of coming to the crown. He
+first marched against the Sab'ines, who refused to pay him obedience;
+and he soon reduced them to submission. 5. In the meantime, many of
+the discontented patricians, abandoning their native country, took
+refuge in Ga'bii, a city of Latium, about<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_084" id="Page_084">[Pg. 84]</a></span> twelve miles from Rome,
+waiting an opportunity to take up arms, and drive Tarquin from his
+throne. To escape this danger. Tarquin had recourse to the following
+stratagem. 6. He caused his son Sextus to counterfeit desertion, upon
+pretence of barbarous usage, and to seek refuge among the inhabitants
+of the place. There, by artful complaints and studied lamentations,
+Sextus so prevailed upon the pity of the people, as to be chosen their
+governor, and, soon after, general of their army. 7. At first, in
+every engagement, he appeared successful; till, at length, finding
+himself entirely possessed of the confidence of the state, he sent a
+trusty messenger to his father for instructions. Tarquin made no
+answer; but taking the messenger to the garden, he cut down before him
+the tallest poppies. Sextus readily understood the meaning of this
+reply, and found means to destroy or remove, one by one, the principal
+men of the city; taking care to confiscate their effects among the
+people. 8. The charms of this dividend kept the giddy populace blind
+to their approaching ruin, till they found themselves at last without
+counsellors or head; and, in the end, fell under the power of Tarquin,
+without even striking a blow.<a name="FNanchor_1_67" id="FNanchor_1_67"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_67" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+9. But, while he was engaged in wars abroad, he took care not to
+suffer the people to continue in idleness at home. He undertook to
+build the Capitol, the foundation of which had been laid in a former
+reign; and an extraordinary event contributed to hasten the execution
+of his design. A woman, in strange attire, made her appearance at
+Rome, and came to the king, offering to sell nine books, which, she
+said, were of her own composing. 10. Not knowing the abilities of the
+seller, or that she was, in fact, one of the celebrated <i>Sybils</i>,
+whose prophecies were never found to fail, Tarquin refused to buy
+them. Upon this she departed, and burning three of her books, returned
+again, demanding the same price for the six remaining. 11. Being once
+more despised as an impostor, she again departed, and burning three
+more, she returned with the remaining three, still asking the same
+price as at first. Tarquin, surprised at the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_085" id="Page_085">[Pg. 85]</a></span> inconsistency of her
+behaviour, consulted the augurs, to be advised what to do. These much
+blamed him for not buying the nine, and commanded him to take the
+three remaining, at whatsoever price they were to be had. 12. The
+woman, says the historian, after thus selling and delivering the three
+prophetic volumes, and advising him to have a special attention to
+what they contained, vanished from before him, and was never seen
+after. A trick this, invented probably by Tarquin himself, to impose
+upon the people; and to find in the Sybil's leaves whatever the
+government might require. However this was, he chose proper persons to
+keep them, who, though but two at first, were afterwards increased to
+fifteen, under the name of <i>Quindecemviri</i>. The important volumes were
+put into a stone chest, and a vault in the newly designed building was
+thought the properest place to secure them.<a name="FNanchor_2_68" id="FNanchor_2_68"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_68" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+13. The people, having been now for four years together employed in
+building the Capitol, began, at last, to wish for something new to
+engage them; Tarquin, therefore, to satisfy their wishes, proclaimed
+war against the Ru'tuli, upon a frivolous pretence of their having
+entertained some malefactors, whom he had banished; and invested their
+chief city, Ar'dea, which lay about sixteen miles from Rome. 14. While
+the army was encamped before this place, the king's son Sextus
+Tarquinius, Collati'nus a noble Roman, and some others, sitting in a
+tent drinking together, the discourse turned upon wives, each man
+preferring the beauty and virtue of his own. Collati'nus offered to
+decide the dispute by putting it to an immediate trial, whose wife
+should be found possessed of the greatest beauty, and most sedulously
+employed at that very hour: being heated with wine, the proposal was
+relished by the whole company; and, taking horse without delay, they
+posted to Rome, though the night was already pretty far advanced.</p>
+<p>
+15. There they found Lucre'tia, the wife of Collati'nus, not like the
+other women of her age, spending the time in ease and luxury, but
+spinning in the midst of her maids, and cheerfully portioning out
+their tasks. Her modest beauty, and the easy reception she gave her
+husband and his friends, so charmed them all, that they unanimously
+gave her the preference, but kindled, in the breast of Sextus
+Tarquin'ius, a detestable passion, which occasioned the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_086" id="Page_086">[Pg. 86]</a></span> grossest
+insult and injury to Lucre'tia, who, detesting the light, and
+resolving to destroy herself for the crime of another, demanded her
+husband Collati'nus, and Spu'rius, her father, to come to her; an
+indelible disgrace having befallen the family. 16. They instantly
+obeyed the summons, bringing with them Valerius, a kinsman of her
+father, and Junius Bru'tus, a reputed idiot, whose father Tarquin had
+murdered, and who had accidentally met the messenger by the way. 17.
+Their arrival only served to increase Lucre'tia's poignant anguish;
+they found her in a state of the deepest desperation, and vainly
+attempted to give her relief. After passionately charging Sextus
+Tarquin'ius with the basest perfidy towards her husband and injury to
+herself, she drew a poinard from beneath her robe, and instantly
+plunging it into her bosom, expired without a groan. 18. Struck with
+sorrow, pity, and indignation, Spu'rius and Collati'nus gave vent to
+their grief; but Bru'tus, drawing the poinard, reeking, from
+Lucre'tia's wound, and lifting it up towards heaven, "Be witness, ye
+gods," he cried, "that, from this moment, I proclaim myself the
+avenger of the chaste Lucretia's cause; from this moment I profess
+myself the enemy of Tarquin and his wicked house; from henceforth this
+life, while life continues, shall be employed in opposition to
+tyranny, and for the happiness and freedom of my much-loved country."
+19. A new amazement seized the hearers: he, whom they had hitherto
+considered as an idiot, now appearing, in his real character, the
+friend of justice, and of Rome. He told them, that tears and
+lamentations were unmanly, when vengeance called so loudly; and,
+delivering the poinard to the rest, imposed the same oath upon them
+which he himself had just taken.</p>
+<p>
+20. Ju'nius Brutus was the son of Marcus Ju'nius, who was put to death
+by Tarquin the Proud, and the grandson of Tarquin the elder. He had
+received an excellent education from his father, and had, from nature,
+strong sense and an inflexible attachment to virtue; but knowing that
+Tarquin had murdered his father and his eldest brother, he
+counterfeited a fool, in order to escape the same danger, and thence
+obtained the surname of Bru'tus. Tarquin, thinking his folly real,
+despised the man; and having possessed himself of his estate, kept him
+as an idiot in his house, merely with a view of making sport for his
+children.</p>
+<p>
+21. Brutus, however, only waited this opportunity to avenge the cause
+of his family. He ordered Lucre'tia's<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_087" id="Page_087">[Pg. 87]</a></span> dead body to be brought out
+to view, and exposing it in the public forum, inflamed the ardour of
+the citizens by a display of the horrid transaction. He obtained a
+decree of the senate, that Tarquin and his family should be for ever
+banished from Rome, and that it should be capital for any to plead
+for, or to attempt his future return. 22. Thus this monarch, who had
+now reigned twenty-five years, being expelled his kingdom, went to
+take refuge with his family at Ci'ra, a little city of <i>Etru'ria</i>. In
+the mean time the Roman army made a truce with the enemy, and Bru'tus
+was proclaimed deliverer of the people.</p>
+<p>
+Thus ended with Tarquin, after a continuance of two hundred and
+forty-five years, the regal state of Rome.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the conduct of Lucius Tarquinius at the commencement of
+his reign?</p>
+<p>
+2. Was his claim quietly acquiesced in?</p>
+<p>
+3. What means did he adopt for his security?</p>
+<p>
+4. By what means did he divert the people's attention from the
+unlawful manner in which he acquired the crown?</p>
+<p>
+5. What happened in the mean time?</p>
+<p>
+6. To what mean artifice did he have recourse?</p>
+<p>
+7. How did Sextus accomplish his father's design?</p>
+<p>
+8. What were the effects of this measure?</p>
+<p>
+9. In what way did he employ his subjects at home during his absence,
+and what extraordinary event occurred?</p>
+<p>
+10. Did he accept her offer?</p>
+<p>
+11. Was her second application successful, and what followed?</p>
+<p>
+12. What became of the Sybil, and what is the general opinion
+respecting this transaction?</p>
+<p>
+13. Upon what pretence did Tarquin proclaim war against the Rutuli?</p>
+<p>
+14. What remarkable event took place at the siege of Ardea?</p>
+<p>
+15. What was the consequence of this intemperate frolic?</p>
+<p>
+16. How did Lucretia support the loss of her honour?</p>
+<p>
+17. Did they obey her summons, and who did they bring with them?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the consequence of their arrival?</p>
+<p>
+19. What effect had this dreadful catastrophe on those present?</p>
+<p>
+20. How was this unexpected resolution received?</p>
+<p>
+21. Give some account of Brutus.</p>
+<p>
+22. For what reason, and by what means, did Brutus endeavour the
+abolition of royalty?</p>
+<p>
+23. What became of Tarquin after his expulsion?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_088" id="Page_088">[Pg. 88]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_67" id="Fnote_1_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_67">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This story is manifestly a fiction formed from the Greek
+traditions respecting Zopy'nus and Thrasybu'lus. It is decisively
+contradicted by the fact, that a treaty for the union of the Romans
+and Gabians, on equitable terms, was preserved in the Capitol. It was
+painted on a shield covered with the hide of the bull which had been
+sacrificed at the ratification of the league.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_68" id="Fnote_2_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_68">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The Capitol, or temple of Jupiter Capitoli'nus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+THE COMMONWEALTH.</p><br /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE BANISHMENT OF TARQUIN TO THE APPOINTMENT OF THE
+DICTATOR&mdash;U.C. 245.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">The great republic seek that glowed, sublime,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">With the mixt freedom of a thousand states.&mdash;<i>Thomson</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The regal power being overthrown, a republican form of government
+was substituted in its room. The senate, however, reserved by far the
+greatest share of the authority to themselves, and decorated their own
+body with all the spoils of deposed monarchy. The centuries of the
+people chose from among the senators, instead of a king, two annual
+magistrates, whom they called CONSULS,<a name="FNanchor_1_69" id="FNanchor_1_69"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_69" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> with power equal to that of
+the regal, and with the same privileges and the same ensigns of
+authority.</p>
+<p>
+2. Brutus, the deliverer of his country, and Collati'nus, the husband
+of Lucre'tia, were chosen the first consuls in Rome.</p>
+<p>
+3. But this new republic, however, which seemed so grateful to the
+people, had like to have been destroyed in its very commencement. A
+party was formed in favour of Tarquin. Some young men of the principal
+families in the state, who had been educated about the king, and had
+shared in all the luxuries and pleasures of the court, undertook to
+re-establish monarchy. 4. This party secretly increased every day; and
+what may create surprise, the sons of Bru'tus himself, and the
+Aqui'lii, the nephews of Collati'nus, were among the number, 5.
+Tarquin, who was informed of these intrigues in his favour, sent
+ambassadors from Etru'ria to Rome, under a pretence of reclaiming the
+estates of the exiles; but, in reality, with a design to give spirit
+to his faction. 6. The conspiracy was discovered by a slave who had
+accidentally hid himself in the room where the conspirators used to
+assemble. 7. Few situations could have been more terribly affecting
+than that of Bru'tus: a father placed as a judge upon the life and
+death of his own<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_089" id="Page_089">[Pg. 89]</a></span> children, impelled by justice to condemn, and by
+nature to spare them. 8. The young men pleaded nothing for themselves;
+but, with conscious guilt, awaited their sentence in silence and
+agony. 9. The other judges who were present felt all the pangs of
+nature; Collati'nus wept, and Vale'rius could not repress his
+sentiments of pity. Brutus, alone, seemed to have lost all the
+softness of humanity; and, with a stern countenance and a tone of
+voice that marked his gloomy resolution, demanded of his sons if they
+could make any defence, to the crimes with which they had been
+charged. This demand he made three several times; but receiving no
+answer, he at length turned himself to the executioner: "Now," cried
+he, "it is your part to perform the rest." 10. Thus saying, he again
+resumed his seat with an air of determined majesty; nor could all the
+sentiments of paternal pity, the imploring looks of the people, nor
+yet the tears of his sons, who were preparing for execution, alter the
+tenor of his resolution. Bru'tus, unmoved by any motive but the public
+good, pronounced upon them the sentence of death, and by his office
+was obliged to see it put in execution. The prisoners were scourged
+and then beheaded, and Bru'tus beheld the cruel spectacle; but, in
+spite of his stoic firmness, could not stifle the sentiments of nature
+which he sacrificed to the necessity of his office.</p>
+<p>
+11. Tarquin's hopes of an insurrection in his favour being thus
+overset, he now resolved to force himself upon his former throne by
+foreign assistance. He prevailed upon the <i>Veians</i> to assist him, and,
+with a considerable army, advanced towards Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 246.</div>
+<p>
+12. The consuls were not remiss in preparations to oppose him.
+Vale'rius commanded the foot, and Bru'tus being appointed to head the
+cavalry, went out to meet him on the Roman border. 13. A'runs, the son
+of Tarquin, who commanded the cavalry for his father, seeing Bru'tus
+at a distance, resolved, by one great attempt, to decide the fate of
+the day before the engaging of the armies, when, spurring his horse he
+flew to him with fury. Bru'tus perceived his approach, and singled out
+from the ranks, they met with such ungoverned rage, that, eager only
+to assail, and thoughtless of defending, they both fell dead upon the
+field together. 14. A bloody battle ensued, with equal slaughter on
+both sides: but the Romans, remaining in possession of the field of
+battle, claimed the victory. In consequence, Vale'rius returned in
+triumph to Rome. <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_090" id="Page_090">[Pg. 90]</a></span> 15. In the mean time Tarquin, no way
+intimidated by his misfortunes, prevailed upon Porsen'na, one of the
+kings of Etruria, to espouse his cause, and in person to undertake his
+quarrel. 16. This prince, equally noted for courage and conduct
+marched directly to Rome, with a numerous army, and laid siege to the
+city; while the terror of his name and arms filled all ranks of the
+people with dismay The siege was carried on with vigour; a furious
+attack was made upon the place; the consuls opposed in vain, and were
+carried off wounded from the field; while the Romans, flying in great
+consternation, were pursued by the enemy to the bridge, over which
+both victors and vanquished were about to enter the city in the
+confusion. 17. All now appeared lost, when Hora'tius Co'cles, who had
+been placed there as sentinel to defend it, opposed himself to the
+torrent of the enemy, and, assisted only by two more, for some time
+sustained the whole fury of the assault, till the bridge was broken
+down behind him. When he found the communication thus cut off,
+plunging with his arms into the torrent of the Tiber, he swam back
+victorious to his fellow-soldiers, and was received with just
+applause.<a name="FNanchor_2_70" id="FNanchor_2_70"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_70" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+18. Still, however, Porsen'na was determined upon taking the city; and
+though five hundred of his men were slain in a sally of the Romans, he
+reduced it to the greatest straits, and turning the siege into a
+blockade, resolved to take it by famine. 19. The distress of the
+besieged soon began to be insufferable, and all things seemed to
+threaten a speedy surrender, when another act of fierce bravery, still
+superior to that which had saved the city before again brought about
+its safety and freedom.</p>
+<p>
+20. Mu'tius, a youth of undaunted courage, was resolved to rid his
+country of an enemy that so continued to oppress it; and, for this
+purpose, disguised in the habit of an Etru'rian peasant, entered the
+camp of the enemy, resolving to die or to kill the king. 21. With this
+resolution he made up to the place where Porsen'na was paying his
+troops, with a secretary by his side; but mistaking the latter for the
+king, he stabbed him to the heart, and was immediately apprehended and
+brought into the royal presence. 22. Upon<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_091" id="Page_091">[Pg. 91]</a></span> Porsen'na's demanding
+who he was, and the cause of so heinous an action, Mu'tius, without
+reserve, informed him of his country and his design, and at the same
+time thrusting his right hand into a fire that was burning upon the
+altar before him, "You see," cried he, "how little I regard the
+severest punishment your cruelty can inflict. A Roman knows not only
+how to act, but how to suffer; I am not the only person you have to
+fear; three hundred Roman youths, like me, have conspired your
+destruction; therefore prepare for their attempts." 23. Porsen'na,
+amazed at so much intrepidity, had too noble a mind not to acknowledge
+merit, though found in an enemy; he therefore ordered him to be safely
+conducted back to Rome, and offered the besieged conditions of
+peace.<a name="FNanchor_3_71" id="FNanchor_3_71"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_71" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> 24. These were readily accepted on their side, being neither
+hard nor disgraceful, except that twenty hostages were demanded; ten
+young men, and as many virgins, of the best families in Rome. 25. But
+even in this instance also, as if the gentler sex were resolved to be
+sharers in the desperate valour of the times, Cle'lia, one of the
+hostages, escaping from her guards, and pointing out the way to the
+rest of her female companions, swam over the Tiber on horseback,
+amidst showers of darts from the enemy, and presented herself to the
+consul. 26. This magistrate, fearing the consequences of detaining
+her, sent her back; upon which Porsen'na, not to be outdone in
+generosity, not only gave her liberty, but permitted her to choose
+such of the hostages of the opposite sex as she should think fit, to
+attend her. 27. On her part, she, with all the modesty of a Roman
+virgin, chose only such as were under fourteen, alleging, that their
+tender age was least capable of sustaining the rigours of slavery.<a name="FNanchor_4_72" id="FNanchor_4_72"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_72" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+28. The year after the departure of Porsen'na, the Sab'ines invading
+the Roman territories, committed great devastations. The war that
+ensued was long and bloody; but at length the Sab'ines<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_092" id="Page_092">[Pg. 92]</a></span> were
+compelled to purchase a peace, with corn, money, and the cession of
+part of their territory.</p>
+<p>
+29. Tarquin, by means of his son-in-law, Man'lius, once more stirred
+up the Latins to espouse his interest, and took the most convenient
+opportunity when the plebeians were at variance with the senators
+concerning the payment of their debts.<a name="FNanchor_5_73" id="FNanchor_5_73"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_73" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> These refused to go to war,
+unless their debts were remitted upon their return: so that the
+consuls, finding their authority insufficient, offered the people to
+elect a temporary magistrate, who should have absolute power, not only
+over all ranks of the state, but even over the laws themselves. To
+this the plebeians readily consented, willing to give up their own
+power for the sake of abridging that of their superiors. 30. In
+consequence of this, Lar'tius was created the first dictator of Rome,
+for so was this high office called, being nominated to it by his
+colleague in the consulship. 31. Thus the people, who could not bear
+the very name of king, readily submitted to a magistrate possessed of
+much greater power; so much do the names of things mislead us, and so
+little is any form of government irksome to the people, when it
+coincides with their prejudices.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What form of government was substituted for the regal?</p>
+<p>
+2. Who were the first consuls?</p>
+<p>
+3. Did this new government appear stable at its commencement?</p>
+<p>
+4. Was this party formidable, and who were the most remarkable of its
+members?</p>
+<p>
+5. What share had Tarquin in this conspiracy?</p>
+<p>
+6. By what means was it discovered?</p>
+<p>
+7. In what unhappy situation was Brutus placed?</p>
+<p>
+8. What had the criminals to say in extenuation of their offences?</p>
+<p>
+9. What effect had this scene on the judges?</p>
+<p>
+10. Did not paternal affection cause him to relent?</p>
+<p>
+11. What measures did Tarquin next pursue?</p>
+<p>
+12. What steps were taken to resist him?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_093" id="Page_093">[Pg. 93]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+13. What remarkable event attended the meeting of the armies?</p>
+<p>
+14. Did this decide the fate of the day?</p>
+<p>
+15. Did Tarquin relinquish his hopes?</p>
+<p>
+16. In what manner did Porsenna attempt the restoration of Tarquin?</p>
+<p>
+17. By what heroic action was the city saved?</p>
+<p>
+18. Did Porsenna persevere in his attempt?</p>
+<p>
+19. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+20. What was this act of heroism?</p>
+<p>
+21. Did he succeed?</p>
+<p>
+22. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+23. How did Porsenna act on the occasion?</p>
+<p>
+24. Were these conditions accepted?</p>
+<p>
+25. What remarkable circumstance attended the delivery of the
+hostages?</p>
+<p>
+26. How did the consul act on the occasion?</p>
+<p>
+27. Whom did she choose?</p>
+<p>
+28. What happened after the departure of Porsenna?</p>
+<p>
+29. What measures did Tarquin next resort to?</p>
+<p>
+30. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+31. What inference may be drawn from this?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_69" id="Fnote_1_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_69">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ These were first called Pr&aelig;tors, next Judices, and
+afterwards Consuls: a Consulendo, from their consulting the good of
+the Common wealth. They had the royal ornaments, as the golden crown,
+sceptre, purple robes, lictors, and the ivory and curule chairs. The
+crowns and sceptres were, however, used only on extraordinary days of
+triumph.&mdash;See Introduction.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_70" id="Fnote_2_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_70">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ For this heroic act, Hora'tius was crowned on his return;
+his status was erected in the temple of Vulcan; as much land was given
+him as a plough could surround with a furrow in one day, and a tax was
+voluntarily imposed to make him a present in some degree suitable to
+the service he had performed.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_71" id="Fnote_3_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_71">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ From this time he obtained the additional name of
+Sc&aelig;vola, or left-handed, from his having lost the use of his right
+hand by the fire.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_72" id="Fnote_4_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_72">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ National pride induced the Romans to conceal the fact
+that the city was surrendered to Porsenna; Tacitus, however, expressly
+declares that it was, and Pliny informs us of the severe conditions
+imposed by the conqueror; one of the articles prohibited them from
+using iron except for the purposes of agriculture. Plutarch, in his
+Roman Questions, declares that there was a time when the Romans paid a
+tenth of their produce to the Etrurians, but that they were freed from
+the disgraceful tribute by Hercules; this tradition appears to refer
+to the conquest of the city by Porsenna.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_73" id="Fnote_5_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_73">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Besides this, by his emissaries, he engaged the meaner
+sort of citizens and the slaves in a conspiracy. The former were, at
+an appointed time, to seize the ramparts, and the latter to murder
+their masters at the same instant. The gates were then to be opened to
+the Tar'quins, who were to enter Rome while it was yet reeking with
+the blood of the senators. This conspiracy was discovered to the
+consul by two of Tarquin's principal agents.</p>
+</div>
+
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER X.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE CREATION OF THE DICTATOR TO THE ELECTION OF THE
+TRIBUNES.&mdash;U.C. 255.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">And add the Tribunes, image of the people&mdash;<i>Anon</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. LAR'TIUS, being created dictator,<a name="FNanchor_1_74" id="FNanchor_1_74"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_74" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> entered upon his office,
+surrounded with lictors and all the ensigns of ancient royalty; and,
+seated upon a throne in the midst of the people, ordered the levies to
+be made, in the manner of the kings of Rome. 2. The populace looked
+with terror upon a magistrate whom they had invested with
+uncontrollable power, and each went peaceably to range himself under
+his respective standard. 3. Thus going forth to oppose the enemy, he,
+after concluding a truce for a year, returned with his army, and, in
+six months, laid down the dictatorship, with the reputation of having
+exercised it with blameless lenity.</p>
+<p>
+4. But, though for this time the people submitted to be led forth,
+they yet resolved to free themselves from the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_094" id="Page_094">[Pg. 94]</a></span> yoke; and, though
+they could not get their grievances redressed, yet they determined to
+fly from those whom they could not move to compassion. The grievances,
+therefore, continuing, they resolved to quit a city which gave them no
+shelter, and to form a new establishment without its limits. They,
+therefore, under the conduct of a plebe'ian, named Sicin'ius
+Bellu'tus, retired to a mountain, hence called the Mons Sacer, within
+three miles of Rome.</p>
+<p>
+5. Upon the news of this defection, the city was filled with tumult
+and consternation: those who wished well to the people made every
+attempt to scale the walls, in order to join it.<a name="FNanchor_2_75" id="FNanchor_2_75"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_75" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> 6. The senate was
+not less agitated than the rest; some were for violent measures, and
+repelling force by force; others were of opinion that gentler arts
+were to be used, and that even a victory over such enemies would be
+worse than a defeat. At length, it was resolved to send a messenger,
+entreating the people to return home, and declare their grievances;
+promising, at the same time, an oblivion of all that had passed.</p>
+<p>
+7. This message not succeeding, Mene'nias Agrip'pa, one of the wisest
+and best of the senators, was of opinion, that the demands of the
+people were to be complied with. It was resolved, therefore, to enter
+into a treaty, and to make them such offers as should induce them to
+return. 8. Ten commissioners were deputed. The dignity and popularity
+of the ambassadors procured them a very respectful reception among the
+soldiers, and a conference began. They employed all their oratory;
+while Sicin'ius and Lu'cius Ju'nius, who were speakers for the
+soldiery, aggravated their distresses with all that masculine
+eloquence which is the child of nature.</p>
+<p>
+9. The conference had now continued for a long time, when Mene'nius
+Agrip'pa, who had been originally a plebe'ian himself, a shrewd man,
+and who, consequently, knew what kind of eloquence was most likely to
+please the people, addressed them with that celebrated fable of the
+body and the members, which is so finely told by Livy.<a name="FNanchor_3_76" id="FNanchor_3_76"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_76" class="fnanchor">[3]</a><span class="newpage"><a name="Page_095" id="Page_095">[Pg. 95]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+10. This fable, the application of which is obvious, had an
+instantaneous effect upon the people. They unanimously cried out, that
+Agrip'pa should lead them back to Rome; and were making preparations
+to follow him, when Lu'cius Junius withheld them; alleging, that
+though they ought gratefully to acknowledge the kind offers of the
+senate, yet they had no safeguard against their future resentments;
+that therefore it was necessary, for the security of the people, to
+have certain officers created annually from among themselves, who
+should have power to give redress to such of them as should be
+injured, and plead the cause of the community. 11. The people, who are
+generally of opinion with the last speaker,<a name="FNanchor_4_77" id="FNanchor_4_77"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_77" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> highly applauded this
+proposal, with which, however, the commissioners had not power to
+comply; they, therefore, sent to Rome to take the instructions of the
+senate, who, distracted with divisions among themselves, and harassed
+by complaints from without, were resolved to have peace, at whatever
+price it should be obtained; accordingly, as if with one voice, they
+consented to the creation of these new officers, who were called
+<i>Tribunes<a name="FNanchor_5_78" id="FNanchor_5_78"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_78" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> of the People</i>.</p>
+<p>
+12. The tribunes of the people were at first five in number, though
+afterwards their body was increased by five more. They were always
+annually elected by the people, and almost always from their body.
+They at first had their seats placed before the doors of the senate
+house, and, when called in, they were to examine every decree,
+annulling it by the word <i>Veto</i>, "I forbid it;" or confirming it by
+signing the letter <i>T</i>, which gave it validity. 13. This new office
+being thus instituted, all things were adjusted both on the one side
+and the other, and the people, after having sacrificed to the gods of
+the mountain, returned back once more in triumph to Rome.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_096" id="Page_096">[Pg. 96]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What were the first acts of the dictator?</p>
+<p>
+2. Were his decrees peaceably obeyed?</p>
+<p>
+3. What were his exploits?</p>
+<p>
+4. Were the discontents of the people entirely appeased?</p>
+<p>
+5. How was the news of this defection received?</p>
+<p>
+6. What was its effect on the senate?</p>
+<p>
+7. Was this offer accepted?</p>
+<p>
+8. In what manner was this done, and how were they received?</p>
+<p>
+9. What was the result of this conference?</p>
+<p>
+10. What fable was addressed to the people?</p>
+<p>
+11. What effect did this apology produce?</p>
+<p>
+12. How was this obstacle removed?</p>
+<p>
+13. Who were the tribunes of the people, and what was their authority?</p>
+<p>
+14. Did this new regulation answer the desired end?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_74" id="Fnote_1_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_74">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The power of the dictator was absolute; he could, of his
+own will, make peace or war, levy forces, lead them forth, disband
+them, and even dispense with the existing laws, at his pleasure,
+without consulting the senate.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_75" id="Fnote_2_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_75">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The gates had been shut by order of the senate, to
+prevent further defection.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_76" id="Fnote_3_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_76">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Titus Livius was born at Pad'ua (the ancient Patavi'nus)
+in the year of Rome, 695. He wrote the Roman history, from the
+foundation of the city to the year 744, in 140 books, of which only 35
+remain and some of them are still imperfect. Though Livy was treated
+with great marks of respect by the emperor Augustus, in whose reign he
+flourished, yet he extolled Pompey so highly, that Augustus used to
+call him a Pompeian: and though he was by no means backward in
+bestowing praises on Brutus and Cassius, the enemies of Augustus, yet
+it did not interrupt their friendship. Livy died at his native city,
+in the fourth year of the reign of Tiberius, aged 76 years.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_77" id="Fnote_4_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_77">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This is a severe satire upon the judgment of the
+multitude; indeed, it seems intended to show, that when the passions
+are appealed to, the judgment is not much consulted; and therefore,
+that little reliance ought to be placed on acts resulting from popular
+acclamation.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_78" id="Fnote_5_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_78">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ They were called tribunes, because chosen by the tribes.
+The first tribunes were L. Ju'nius Bru'tus, C. Sicin'ius Mellu'tus,
+Pub'lius Licin'ius, C. Licin'ius, and Sp. Ici'lius Ruga.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.</h4><br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE CREATION OF THE TRIBUNES, TO THE APPOINTMENT OF THE
+DECEMVIRI&mdash;U.C. 260.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Welcome to Rome, renowned Coriolanus!&mdash;<i>Shakspeare</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. During the late separation, all tillage had been entirely
+neglected, and a famine was the consequence the ensuing season. 2. The
+senate did all that lay in their power to remedy the distress; but the
+people, pinched with want and willing to throw the blame on any but
+themselves, ascribed the whole of their distress to the avarice of the
+patricians, who, having purchased all the corn, as was alleged,
+intended to indemnify themselves for the abolition of debts, by
+selling it out to great advantage. 3. But plenty soon after appeased
+them for a time. A fleet of ships, laden with corn, from Sicily, once
+more raised their spirits.</p>
+<p>
+4. But Coriola'nus<a name="FNanchor_1_79" id="FNanchor_1_79"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_79" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> incurred their resentment, by insisting that the
+corn should not be distributed till the grievances of the senate were
+removed. For this, the tribunes summoned<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_097" id="Page_097">[Pg. 97]</a></span> him to a trial before
+the people.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image02.jpg"
+alt="Banishment of Coriola'nus."
+title="Banishment of Coriola'nus." width="426" height="294" />
+</div>
+<p>
+5. When the appointed day was come, all persons were filled with the
+greatest expectations, and a vast concourse from the adjacent country
+assembled and filled the forum. Coriola'nus presented himself before
+the people, with a degree of intrepidity that merited better fortune.
+His graceful person, his persuasive eloquence, and the cries of those
+whom he had saved from the enemy, inclined the auditors to relent. 6.
+But, being unable to answer what was alleged against him to the
+satisfaction of the people, and utterly confounded with a new charge,
+of having embezzled the plunder of <i>Antium</i>, the tribunes immediately
+took the votes, and Coriola'nus was condemned to perpetual exile.</p>
+<p>
+7. This sentence against their bravest defender struck the senate with
+sorrow, consternation and regret. Coriola'nus alone, in the midst of
+the tumult, seemed an unconcerned spectator. 8. He returned home,
+followed by the lamentations of the most respectable senators and
+citizens, to take leave of his wife, his children, and his mother,
+Vetu'ria. Thus, recommending all to the care of Heaven, he left the
+city, without followers or fortune, to take refuge with Tullus
+At'tius,<a name="FNanchor_2_80" id="FNanchor_2_80"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_80" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> a man of great power among the <i>Volsci</i>, who took him
+under his protection, and espoused his quarrel.</p>
+<p>
+9. Some pretence was necessary to induce the Volsci to<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_098" id="Page_098">[Pg. 98]</a></span> break the
+league which had been made with Rome; and, for this purpose, Tullus
+sent many of his citizens thither, apparently for the purpose of
+seeing some games at that time celebrating; but gave the senate
+private information, that the strangers had dangerous intentions of
+burning the city. 10. This had the desired effect; the senate issued
+an order, that all strangers, whoever they were, should depart from
+Rome before sun-set. 11. This order Tullus represented to his
+countrymen as an infraction of the treaty, and procured an embassy to
+Rome, complaining of the breach, and redemanding all the territories
+belonging to the Volsci, of which they had been violently
+dispossessed; declaring war in case of refusal. This message, however,
+was treated by the senate with contempt. 12. War being, in
+consequence, declared on both sides, Coriola'nus and Tullus were made
+generals of the Volsci, and accordingly invaded the Roman territories,
+ravaging and laying waste all such lands as belonged to the plebeians,
+but letting those of the senators remain untouched. 13. In the mean
+time, the levies went on but slowly at Rome; the two consuls, who were
+re-elected by the people, seemed but little skilled in war, and even
+feared to encounter a general whom they knew to be their superior in
+the field. The allies also showed their fears, and slowly brought in
+their succours: so that Coriola'nus continued to take their towns one
+after the other. 14. Fortune followed him in every expedition, and he
+was now so famous for his victories, that the Volsci left their towns
+defenceless to follow him into the field. The very soldiers of his
+colleague's army came over to him, and would acknowledge no other
+general. 15. Thus finding himself unopposed in the field, and at the
+head of a numerous army, he at length invested the city of Rome
+itself, fully resolved to besiege it. 16. It was then the senate and
+the people unanimously agreed to send deputies to him, with proposals
+for his restoration, in case he would draw off his army. 17.
+Coriola'nus received these proposals at the head of his principal
+officers, and, with the sternness of a general that was to give the
+law, refused their offers.</p>
+<p>
+18. Another embassy was now sent, conjuring him not to exact from his
+native city aught but what became Romans to grant. Coriola'nus,
+however, naturally severe, still persisted in his former demands, and
+granted them only three days for deliberation. 19. In this exigence,
+all that was left to be done was another deputation, still more
+solemn<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_099" id="Page_099">[Pg. 99]</a></span> than either of the former, composed of the pontiffs,
+priests, and augurs. These, clothed in their habits of ceremony, and
+with a grave and mournful deportment, issued from the city, and
+entered the camp of the conqueror: but all in vain, they found him
+severe and inflexible.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image03.jpg"
+alt="Coriolanus yielding to the entreaties of his Mother."
+title="Coriolanus yielding to the entreaties of his Mother." width="372" height="310" />
+</div>
+<p>
+20. When the people saw them return without success, they began to
+give up the commonwealth as lost. Their temples were filled with old
+men, with women and children, who, prostrate at the altars, put up
+their ardent prayers for the preservation of their country. Nothing
+was to be heard but anguish and lamentation; nothing to be seen but
+scenes of affright and distress. 21. At length it was suggested to
+them, that what could not be effected by the intercession of the
+senate, or the adjuration of the priests, might be brought about by
+the tears of a wife, or the commands of a mother. 22. This deputation
+seemed to be approved by all, and even the senate themselves gave it
+the sanction of their authority. Vetu'ria, the mother of Coriola'nus,
+at first hesitated to undertake so pious a work; knowing the
+inflexible temper of her son, and fearing only to show his
+disobedience in a new point of light, by his rejecting the commands of
+a parent; however, she at last undertook the embassy, and set forward
+from the city, accompanied by many of the principal matrons of Rome,
+with Volum'nia his wife, and his two children. 23. Coriola'nus, who at
+a distance discovered this mournful train of females, was resolved to
+give them a denial, and called his officers round him to be witnesses
+of his resolution; but, when told that his mother and his wife were
+among the number, he instantly<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg. 100]</a></span> came down from his tribunal to
+meet and embrace them. 24. At first, the women's tears and embraces
+took away the power of words, and the rough soldier himself, hardy as
+he was, could not refrain, from sharing their distress. Coriola'nus
+now seemed much agitated by contending passions; while his mother, who
+saw him moved, seconded her words by the most persuasive eloquence,
+that of tears: his wife and children hung around him, entreating for
+protection and pity: while the female train, her companions, added
+their lamentations, and deplored their own and their country's
+distress. 25. Coriola'nus for a moment was silent, feeling the strong
+conflict between honour and inclination; at length, as if roused from
+a dream, he flew to raise his mother, who had fallen at his feet,
+crying out, "O, my mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son!" He
+accordingly gave orders to draw off the army, pretending to the
+officers that the city was too strong to be taken. 26. Tullus, who had
+long envied Coriola'nus, was not remiss in aggravating the lenity of
+his conduct to his countrymen. Upon their return, Coriola'nus is said
+to have been slain by an insurrection of the people, and honourably
+buried, after a late and ineffectual repentance.</p>
+<p>
+27. Great and many were the public rejoicings at Rome upon the retreat
+of the Volscian army;<a name="FNanchor_3_81" id="FNanchor_3_81"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_81" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> but they were clouded soon after by the
+intrigues of Spu'rius Cas'sius, who, wanting to make himself despotic
+by means of the people, was found guilty of a number of crimes, all
+tending towards altering the constitution; and was thrown headlong
+from the Tarpei'an rock,<a name="FNanchor_4_82" id="FNanchor_4_82"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_82" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> by those very people whose interests he
+had endeavoured to extend.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What were the consequences of the late separation?</p>
+<p>
+2. What measures were taken to remedy these misfortunes, and to whom
+was the blame of them attributed?</p>
+<p>
+3. What happened to remove the popular discontent?</p>
+<p>
+4. What circumstances raised a fresh commotion?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg. 101]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+5. Did Coriolanus obey the summons?</p>
+<p>
+6. What was the issue of the trial?</p>
+<p>
+7. To what sensations did this sentence give rise?</p>
+<p>
+8. What circumstance attended his departure?</p>
+<p>
+9. In what manner did he commence his revenge?</p>
+<p>
+10. Was this information believed?</p>
+<p>
+11. What use did Tullus make of this order?</p>
+<p>
+12. To whom was the conduct of the war committed?</p>
+<p>
+13. Was this invasion vigorously opposed?</p>
+<p>
+14. Was Coriolanus uniformly successful?</p>
+<p>
+15. What did this good fortune induce him to undertake?</p>
+<p>
+16. What measures did the senate adopt on this emergency?</p>
+<p>
+17. How were these proposals received?</p>
+<p>
+18. Were they repeated?</p>
+<p>
+19. What was the next step adopted?</p>
+<p>
+20. Did the Romans boldly resolve to oppose force by force?</p>
+<p>
+21. What new expedient was proposed?</p>
+<p>
+22. Was this proposal adopted?</p>
+<p>
+23. What was the conduct of Coriola'nus on the occasion?</p>
+<p>
+24. Describe this interview.</p>
+<p>
+25. What was the result?</p>
+<p>
+26. Did the Volscians approve of this measure?</p>
+<p>
+27. What followed this happy deliverance?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+<p>
+Like rigid Cincinnatus, nobly poor.&mdash;<i>Thomson</i>.</p>
+<p>
+1. The year following, the two consuls of the former year, Man'lius
+and Fa'bius, were cited by the tribunes to appear before the people.
+The Agra'rian law, which had been proposed some time before, for
+equally dividing the lands of the commonwealth among the people, was
+the object invariably pursued, and they were accused of having made
+unjustifiable delays in putting it off.</p>
+<p>
+2. The Agra'rian law was a grant the senate could not think of making
+to the people. The consuls, therefore, made many delays and excuses,
+till at length they were once more obliged to have recourse to a
+dictator; and they fixed upon Quintus Cincinna'tus, a man who had for
+some time, given up all views of ambition, and retired to his little
+farm, where the deputies of the senate found him holding the plough,
+and dressed in the mean attire of a labouring husbandman. 3. He
+appeared but little elevated with the addresses of ceremony, and the
+pompous habits they brought him; and, upon declaring to him the
+senate's pleasure, he testified rather a concern that his aid should
+be wanted. He naturally preferred the charms of a country retirement
+to the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg. 102]</a></span> fatiguing splendors of office, and only said to his wife,
+as they were leading him away, "I fear, my Atti'lia, that for this
+year our little fields must remain unsown." 4. Then, taking a tender
+leave, he departed for the city, where both parties were strongly
+inflamed against each other. However, he resolved to side with
+neither; but, by a strict attention to the interests of his country,
+instead of gaining the confidence of faction, to seize the esteem of
+all. 5. Thus, by threats and well-timed submission, he prevailed upon
+the tribunes to put off their law for a time, and conducted himself so
+as to be a terror to the multitude whenever they refused to enlist,
+and their greatest encourager whenever their submission deserved it.
+6. Having, by these means, restored that tranquillity to the people
+which he so much loved himself, he again gave up the splendors of
+ambition, to enjoy it with a greater relish on his little farm.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 295.</div>
+<p>
+7. Cincinna'tus had not long retired from his
+office, when a fresh exigence of the state once more required his
+assistance; and the &AElig;'qui and the Vol'sci, who, although always
+worsted, were still for renewing the war, made new inroads into the
+territories of Rome. 8. Minu'tius, one of the consuls who succeeded
+Cincinna'tus, was sent to oppose them; but being naturally timid, and
+rather more afraid of being conquered than desirous of victory, his
+army was driven into a defile between two mountains, from which,
+except through the enemy, there was no egress. 9. This, however, the
+&AElig;'qui had the precaution to fortify, by which the Roman army was so
+hemmed in on every side, that nothing remained but submission to the
+enemy, famine, or immediate death. 10. Some knights who found means of
+getting away privately through the enemy's camp, were the first that
+brought the account of this disaster to Rome. 11. Nothing could exceed
+the consternation of all ranks of people when informed of it: the
+senate at first thought of the other consul; but not having sufficient
+experience of his abilities, they unanimously turned their eyes upon
+Cincinna'tus, and resolved to make him dictator. 12. Cincinna'tus, the
+only person on whom Rome could now place her whole dependence, was
+found, as before, by the messengers of the senate, labouring in his
+field with cheerful industry. 13. He was at first astonished at the
+ensigns of unbounded power, with which the deputies came to invest
+him; but still more at the approach of the principal of the senate,
+who came out to attend him.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image04.jpg"
+alt="Cincinnatus called to the Dictatorship."
+title="Cincinnatus called to the Dictatorship." width="462" height="322" />
+</div>
+<p>
+14. A dignity so<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg. 103]</a></span> unlooked for, however, had no effect upon the
+simplicity or integrity of his manners; and being now possessed of
+absolute power, and called upon to nominate his master of the horse,
+he chose a poor man named Tarqui'tius, one who, like himself, despised
+riches when they led to dishonour. Thus the saving a great nation was
+devolved upon a husbandman taken from the plough, and an obscure
+sentinel found among the dregs of the army. 15. Upon entering the
+city, the dictator put on a serene look, and entreated all those who
+were able to bear arms, to repair, before sunset, to the Cam'pus
+Mar'tius (the place where the levies were made) with necessary arms,
+and provisions for five days. 16. He put himself at the head of these,
+and, marching all night with great expedition, arrived early the next
+day within sight of the enemy. Upon his approach, he ordered his
+soldiers to raise a loud shout, to apprise the consul's army of the
+relief that was at hand. 17. The &AElig;'qui were not a little amazed when
+they saw themselves between two enemies; but still more when they
+perceived Cincinna'tus making the strongest entrenchments beyond them,
+to prevent their escape, and enclosing them as they had enclosed the
+consul. 18. To prevent this, a furious combat ensued; but the &AElig;'qui,
+being attacked on both sides, and unable longer to resist or fly,
+begged a cessation of arms. 19. They offered the dictator his own
+terms: he gave them their lives, and obliged them, in token of
+servitude, to pass under the yoke, which was two spears set upright,
+and another across, in the form of a gallows, beneath which the
+vanquished were to march. Their captains and generals he made
+prisoners <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg. 104]</a></span> of war, being reserved to adorn his triumph. 20. As
+for the plunder of the enemy's camp, that he gave entirely up to his
+own soldiers, without reserving any part for himself, or permitting
+those of the delivered army to have a share. 21. Thus having rescued a
+Roman army from inevitable destruction, having defeated a powerful
+enemy, having taken and fortified their city, and still more, having
+refused any part of the spoil, he resigned his dictatorship, after
+having enjoyed it but fourteen days. The senate would have enriched
+him, but he declined their proffers, choosing to retire once more to
+his farm and his cottage, content with competency and fame.</p>
+<p>
+22. But this repose from foreign invasion did not lessen the tumults
+of the city within. The clamours for the Agra'rian law still
+continued, and still more fiercely, when Sic'cius Denta'tus, a
+plebeian advanced in years, but of an admirable person and military
+deportment, came forward to enumerate his hardships and his merits.
+This old soldier made no scruple of extolling the various achievements
+of his youth; indeed, his merits more than supported his ostentation.
+23. He had served his country in the wars forty years: he had been an
+officer thirty, first a centurion, and then a tribune; he had fought
+one hundred and twenty battles, in which, by the force of his single
+arm, he had saved a multitude of lives; he had gained fourteen
+civic,<a name="FNanchor_5_83" id="FNanchor_5_83"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_83" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> three mural,<a name="FNanchor_6_84" id="FNanchor_6_84"></a><a href="#Fnote_6_84" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and eight golden crowns; besides
+eighty-three chains, sixty bracelets, eighteen gilt spears, and
+twenty-three horse-trappings, whereof nine were for killing the enemy
+in single combat; moreover, he had received forty-five wounds in
+front, and none behind. 24. These were his honours; yet,
+notwithstanding all these, he had never received any share of those
+lands which were won from the enemy, but continued to drag on a life
+of poverty and contempt, while others were possessed of those very
+territories which his valour had won, without any merit to deserve
+them, or ever having contributed to the conquest.<a name="FNanchor_7_85" id="FNanchor_7_85"></a><a href="#Fnote_7_85" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> 25. A<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg. 105]</a></span> case
+of so much hardship had a strong effect upon the multitude; they
+unanimously demanded that the law might be passed, and that such merit
+should not go unrewarded. It was in vain that some of the senators
+rose up to speak against it, their voices were drowned by the cries of
+the people. 26. When reason, therefore, could no longer be heard,
+passion, as usual, succeeded; and the young patricians, running
+furiously into the throng, broke the balloting urns, and dispersed the
+multitude that offered to oppose them. 27. For this they were, some
+time after, fined by the tribunes; their resolution, however, for the
+present, put off the Agra'rian law.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. On what accusation were Manlius and Fabius cited to appear before,
+the people?</p>
+<p>
+2. What measure did the consuls adopt? Where, and in what employment
+was Cincinnatus found?</p>
+<p>
+3. What effect had this dignity on Cincinnatus?</p>
+<p>
+4. How did he conduct himself?</p>
+<p>
+5. Were his measures successful?</p>
+<p>
+6. Did Cincinnatus continue in office?</p>
+<p>
+7. Was he permitted to continue in retirement?</p>
+<p>
+8. What was the exigence that required his return to office?</p>
+<p>
+9. What prevented the Romans from forcing their way through?</p>
+<p>
+10. How was this news received at Rome?</p>
+<p>
+11. Whom did they resolve to appoint dictator?</p>
+<p>
+12. How was Cincinnatus now employed when the messengers arrived?</p>
+<p>
+13. What was his behaviour on the occasion?</p>
+<p>
+14. How was he affected by this exaltation?</p>
+<p>
+15. What were his first measures?</p>
+<p>
+16. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+17. How were the enemy affected by his approach?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+19. What were the terms of peace?</p>
+<p>
+20. What became of the plunder?</p>
+<p>
+21. What were his rewards for this important service?</p>
+<p>
+22. Was domestic tranquillity the consequence of foreign conquest?</p>
+<p>
+23. What were these achievements?</p>
+<p>
+24. How was he rewarded?</p>
+<p>
+25. What was the consequence of his appeal to the people?</p>
+<p>
+26. Did the people obtain their demand?</p>
+<p>
+27. How was this outrage punished?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg. 106]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_79" id="Fnote_1_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_79">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This man's name was originally Ca'ius Mar'cius. He
+received the surname of Coriola'nus as a reward for having, by his
+valour, occasioned the taking of Cori'oli, the capital of the Vol'sci.
+Previous to the occurrence mentioned in the text, he had been
+condemned to death by the tribunes, but saved by the interference of
+his friends.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_80" id="Fnote_2_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_80">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Tullus At'tius was a most determined enemy to the Romans,
+and to Coriola'nus in particular, for the share he had in humbling the
+power of the Vol'sci. It was probably more from a hope of revenge, by
+means of this valiant soldier, than any noble principle, that he
+offered him his countenance and protection.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_81" id="Fnote_3_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_81">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The senate commanded a temple to be erected on the spot
+where the interview between Coriola'nus and his mother took place,
+which saved Rome, and dedicated it to maternal influence?</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_82" id="Fnote_4_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_82">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Tarpe'ian Rock, or Tarpei'us Mons, a hill at Rome, about
+eighty feet in perpendicular height, whence the Romans threw down
+their condemned criminals.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_83" id="Fnote_5_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_83">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A civic crown among the Romans, was made of oaken leaves,
+and given to those who had saved the life of a citizen.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_6_84" id="Fnote_6_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_84">[6]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A mural crown was an honorary reward, given by the
+ancient Romans to the soldiers who first scaled the walls of an
+enemy's city.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_7_85" id="Fnote_7_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_85">[7]</a></p>
+<p>
+ "These military toys," said he, "are the only rewards I
+have hitherto received. No lands, no share of the conquered countries.
+Usurpers, without any title but that of a patrician extraction,
+possess them. Is this to be endured? Shall they alone possess the
+fruits of our conquests? The purchase of our blood?"</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.</h4><br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE CREATION OF THE DECEMVIRI TO THE EXTINCTION OF THAT
+OFFICE.&mdash;U.C. 302.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">She's gone, forever gone! The king of terrors</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Lays his rude hands upon her lovely limbs.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And blasts her beauty with his icy breath.&mdash;<i>Dennis</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The commonwealth of Rome had now, for nearly sixty years, been
+fluctuating between the contending orders that composed it, till at
+length each side, as if weary, was willing to respire awhile from the
+mutual exertions of its claims. The citizens, of every rank, began to
+complain of the arbitrary decisions of their magistrates, and wished
+to be guided by a written body of laws which, being known, might
+prevent wrongs, as well as punish them. 2. In this both the senate and
+the people concurred, as hoping that such laws would put an end to the
+commotions that so long had harassed the state. 3. It was thereupon
+agreed that ambassadors should be sent to the Greek cities in Italy,
+and to Athens, to bring home such laws from thence, as, by experience,
+had been found most equitable and useful. For this purpose three
+senators, Posthu'mus, Sulpi'cius, and Man'lius, were fixed upon, and
+galleys assigned to convoy them, agreeably to the majesty of the Roman
+people. 4. While they were upon this commission abroad, a dreadful
+plague depopulated the city at home, and supplied the interval of
+their absence with other anxiety than that of wishes for their return.
+5. In about a year the plague ceased, and the ambassadors returned,
+bringing home a body of laws, collected from the most civilised states
+of Greece and Italy, which, being afterwards formed into ten tables,
+and two more being added, made that celebrated code, called, The Laws
+of the Twelve Tables.<a name="FNanchor_1_86" id="FNanchor_1_86"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_86" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+6. The ambassadors were no sooner returned, than the tribunes required
+that a body of men should be chosen to digest their new laws into
+proper form, and to give weight to the execution of them. 7. After
+long debate, whether this choice should not be made from the people,
+as well as the patricians, it was at last agreed that ten of the
+principal<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg. 107]</a></span> senators should be elected, whose power, continuing for
+a year, should be equal to that of kings and consuls, and that without
+any appeal. 8. Thus the whole constitution of the state at once took a
+new form, and a dreadful experiment was about to be tried, of
+governing one nation by laws formed from the manners and customs of
+another.</p>
+<p>
+9. These <i>Decemviri</i>, being now invested with absolute power, agreed
+to take the reins of government by turns, each to administer justice
+for a day. 10. For the first year, they wrought with extreme
+application: and their work being finished, it was expected that they
+would be content to give up their office; but, having known the charms
+of power, they were unwilling to resign: they pretended that some laws
+were yet wanting to complete their design, and entreated the senate
+for a continuance in office; which request was readily granted.</p>
+<p>
+11. But they soon threw off the mask of moderation, and, regardless of
+the approbation of the senate or the people, resolved to continue,
+against all order, in the decemvirate. 12. A conduct so tyrannical
+produced discontents, and these were as sure to produce fresh acts of
+tyranny. The city was become almost a desert, with respect to all who
+had any thing to lose, and the rapacity of the decemvirs was then only
+discontinued when they wanted fresh subjects to exercise it upon. 13.
+In this state of slavery, proscription, and mutual distrust, not one
+citizen was found to strike for his country's freedom; these tyrants
+continued to rule without controul, being constantly guarded, not by
+the lictors alone, but by a numerous crowd of dependents, clients, and
+even patricians, whom their vices had confederated round them.</p>
+<p>
+14. In this gloomy situation of the state, the &AElig;'qui and Vol'sci,
+those constant enemies of the Romans, renewed their incursions, and,
+resolving to profit by the intestine divisions of the people, advanced
+within about ten miles of Rome.</p>
+<p>
+15. The decemviri, being in possession of all the military as well as
+of the civil power, divided their army into three parts; whereof one
+continued with Ap'pius in the city, to keep it in awe; the other two
+were commanded by his colleagues, and were led, one against the &AElig;'qui,
+and the other against the Vol'sci. 16. The Roman soldiers had now
+adopted a method of punishing the generals whom they disliked, by
+suffering themselves to be vanquished in the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg. 108]</a></span> field. They put it
+in practice upon this occasion, and shamefully abandoned their camp
+upon the approach of the enemy, 17. Never was victorious news more
+joyfully received at Rome, than the tidings of this defeat; the
+generals, as is always the case, were blamed for the treachery of
+their men; some demanded that they should be deposed, others cried out
+for a dictator to lead the troops to conquest. 18. Among the rest, old
+Sic'cius Denta'tus, the tribune, spoke his sentiments with his usual
+openness; and, treating the generals with contempt, pointed out the
+faults of their discipline in the camp, and their conduct in the
+field. 19. Ap'pius, in the mean time, was not remiss in observing the
+dispositions of the people. Denta'tus, in particular, was marked out
+for vengeance; and, under pretence of doing him particular honour, he
+was appointed legate, and put at the head of the supplies which were
+sent from Rome, to reinforce the army. 20. The office of legate was
+held sacred among the Romans, as in it was united the authority of a
+general, with the reverence due to the priesthood. 21. Denta'tus, no
+way suspecting the design, went to the camp with alacrity, where he
+was received with all the external marks of respect. But the generals
+soon found means of indulging their desire of revenge. 22. He was
+appointed at the head of a hundred men to go and examine a more
+commodious place for encampment, as he had very candidly assured the
+commanders, that their present situation was wrong. 23. The soldiers,
+however, who were given as his attendants, were assassins; wretches
+who had long been ministers of the vengeance of the decemviri, and who
+had now engaged to murder him, though with all those apprehensions
+which his reputation (for he was called the Roman <i>Achilles</i>) might be
+supposed to inspire. 24. With these designs they led him into the
+hollow bosom of a retired mountain, where they began to set upon him
+behind. 25. Denta'tus too late perceived the treachery of the
+decemviri, and was resolved to sell his life as dearly as he could; he
+therefore set his back against a rock, and defended himself against
+those who pressed most closely. Though now grown old, he had still the
+remains of his former valour, and, with his own hand, killed no less
+than fifteen of the assailants, and wounded thirty. 26. The assassins
+now, therefore, terrified at his amazing bravery, showered their
+javelins upon him at a distance, all which he received in his shield
+with undaunted resolution.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image05.jpg"
+alt="Death of Dentatus."
+title="Death of Dentatus." width="436" height="334" />
+</div>
+<p>
+27. The combat,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg. 109]</a></span> though so unequal in numbers, was managed for
+some time with doubtful success, till at length the assailants
+bethought themselves of ascending the rock, against which he stood,
+and pouring down stones upon him from above. 28. This succeeded: the
+old soldier fell beneath their united efforts; after having shown, by
+his death, that he owed to his fortitude, and not his fortune, that he
+had come off so many times victorious. 29. The decemviri pretended to
+join in the general sorrow for so brave a man, and decreed him a
+funeral with the first military honours; but their pretended grief,
+compared with their known hatred, only rendered them still more
+detestable to the people.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Of what did the Roman citizens complain, and what did they wish?</p>
+<p>
+2. Was this assented to by the nation at large?</p>
+<p>
+3. What means were adopted for this purpose?</p>
+<p>
+4. What happened during their absence?</p>
+<p>
+5. How long did this calamity last?</p>
+<p>
+6. What steps were taken on the return of the ambassadors?</p>
+<p>
+7. Who were chosen for this purpose?</p>
+<p>
+8. Was this proceeding an important one?</p>
+<p>
+9. In what manner did the decemviri govern?</p>
+<p>
+10. How did they discharge the duties of their office?</p>
+<p>
+11. Did they continue in the conscientious discharge of their duties?</p>
+<p>
+12. What was the consequence of this conduct?</p>
+<p>
+13. Was no patriot to be found bold enough to be a champion in his
+country's cause?</p>
+<p>
+14. What added to the miseries of the Romans?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg. 110]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+15. What steps were taken to oppose them?</p>
+<p>
+16. What was the conduct of the Roman soldiers on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+17. How was this news received at Rome?</p>
+<p>
+18. Who appeared most conspicuous on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+19. How was this honest sincerity received?</p>
+<p>
+20. Was the office of legate a respectable one?</p>
+<p>
+21. Did Dentatus suspect treachery?</p>
+<p>
+22. What plan of revenge was adopted?</p>
+<p>
+23. What was the character of his attendants?</p>
+<p>
+24. How did they commence their base design?</p>
+<p>
+25. Was Dentatus aware of their treachery, and what resistance did he
+make?</p>
+<p>
+26. Did the assassins boldly engage the hero?</p>
+<p>
+27. What new method of attack did they attempt?</p>
+<p>
+28. Was this plan successful?</p>
+<p>
+29. What was the conduct of the decemviri on this occasion?</p>
+
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">That chastity of look which seems to hang</span><br />
+<span class="i2">A veil of purest light o'er all her beauties.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And, by forbidding, most inflames!&mdash;<i>Young</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. But a transaction still more atrocious than the former, served to
+inspire the citizens with a resolution to break all measures of
+obedience, so as at last to restore freedom.</p>
+<p>
+2. Ap'pius, sitting one day on his tribunal to dispense justice, saw a
+maiden of exquisite beauty, aged about fifteen, passing to one of the
+public schools, attended by a matron, her nurse. The charms of the
+damsel, heightened by all the innocence of virgin modesty, caught his
+attention, and fired his heart. The day following, as she passed, he
+found her still more beautiful, and his breast still more inflamed. 3.
+He now, therefore, resolved to obtain the gratification of his
+passion, whatever should be the consequence, and found means to inform
+himself of the maiden's name and family. 4. Her name was Virgin'ia;
+she was the daughter of Virgin'ius, a centurion, then with the army in
+the field, and had been contracted to Icil'ius, formerly a tribune of
+the people, who had agreed to marry her at the end of the present
+campaign.</p>
+<p>
+5. Ap'pius at first resolved to break off this match, and to espouse
+her himself; but the laws of the Twelve Tables had forbidden the
+patricians to intermarry with the plebeians, and he could not infringe
+these, as he was the enactor of them. 6. He determined, therefore, to
+make her his slave. 7. After having vainly tried to corrupt the
+fidelity of her nurse, he had recourse to another expedient, still
+more<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg. 111]</a></span> wicked. He fixed upon one Clau'dius, who had long been the
+minister of his crimes, to assert that the beautiful maid was his
+slave, and to refer the cause to Ap'pius's tribunal for decision. 8.
+Clau'dius behaved exactly according to his instructions; for, taking
+with him a band of ruffians like himself, he entered into the public
+school, where Virginia was found among her female companions, and
+seizing upon her under pretence that she was the daughter of one of
+his slaves, was dragging her away, when he was prevented by the
+people, drawn together by her cries. 9. At length, after the first
+heat of opposition was over, he led the weeping virgin to the tribunal
+of Ap'pius, and there plausibly exposed his pretensions. 10. Clau'dius
+asserted that she was born in his house, of a female slave, who sold
+her to the wife of Virgin'ius, who had been childless. That he had
+credible evidences to prove the truth of what he had advanced; but
+that, until they could come together, it was but reasonable the slave
+should be delivered into his custody, he being her proper master. 11.
+Ap'pius pretended to be struck with the justice of his claim; he
+observed, that if the reputed father himself were present, he might
+indeed be willing to delay the delivery of the maid; but that it was
+not lawful for him, in the present case, to detain her from her
+master. He, therefore, adjudged her to Clau'dius, as his slave, to be
+kept by him till Virgin'ius should arrive, and be able to prove his
+paternity. 12. This sentence was received with loud clamours and
+reproaches by the multitude, particularly by the women, who came round
+the innocent Virgin'ia, desirous to protect her from the judge's fury;
+while Icil'ius, her lover, boldly opposed the decree, and obliged
+Clau'dius to take refuge under the tribunal of the decemvir. 13. All
+things now threatened an open insurrection, when Ap'pius, fearing the
+event, thought proper to suspend his judgment, under pretence of
+waiting the arrival of Virgin'ius, who was then about eleven miles
+from Rome, with the army. 14. The day following was fixed for the
+trial. In the mean time Ap'pius privately sent letters to the general
+to confine Virgin'ius, as his arrival in town might only serve to
+kindle sedition among the people. 15. These letters, however, being
+intercepted by the centurion's friends, they sent him a full relation
+of the design laid against his liberty and the honour of his only
+daughter. 16. Virgin'ius, upon this, pretending the death of a near
+relation, got permission to leave the camp, and hastened to Rome,
+inspired with<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg. 112]</a></span> indignation and revenge. 17. Accordingly, the next
+day, to the astonishment of Ap'pius, he appeared before the tribunal,
+leading his weeping daughter by the hand, both of them habited in deep
+mourning. 18. Clau'dius, the accuser, began by making his demand.
+Virgin'ius next spoke in turn: he represented, that, if he had had
+intentions of adopting a suppositious child, he should have fixed upon
+a boy rather than a girl; that it was notorious to all, that his wife
+had herself nursed this daughter; and that it was surprising such a
+claim should be made after a fifteen years' silence; and not till
+Virginia was become marriageable, and acknowledged to be exquisitely
+beautiful. 19. While the father spoke this, with a stern air, the eyes
+of all were turned on Virgin'ia, who stood trembling, with looks of
+persuasive eloquence and excessive grief, which added weight to his
+remonstrances, and excited compassion. 20. The people, satisfied of
+the cruelty of his case, raised an outcry, expressive of their
+indignation. 21. Ap'pius, fearing that what had been said might have a
+dangerous effect upon the multitude, and under a pretence of being
+sufficiently instructed in the merits of the cause, with rage
+interrupted him. "Yes," said he, "my conscience obliges me to declare,
+that I, myself, am a witness to the truth of the deposition of
+Clau'dius. Most of this assembly know that I was left guardian to him.
+I was early apprised that he had a right to this young slave; but
+public affairs, and the dissensions of the people, have prevented my
+doing him justice. However, it is not now too late; and by the power
+vested in me for the general good, I adjudge Virgin'ia to be the
+property of Clau'dius, the plaintiff. Go, therefore, lictors, disperse
+the multitude, and make room for the master to repossess himself of
+his slave." 22. The lictors, in obedience to his command, drove off
+the throng that pressed round the tribunal; they seized upon
+Virgin'ia, and were delivering her up into the hands of Clau'dius: the
+multitude were terrified and withdrew; and Virgin'ius, who found that
+all was over, seemed to acquiesce in the sentence. 22. He, however,
+mildly entreated of Ap'pius to be permitted to take a last farewell of
+a child whom he had at least considered as his own, and so satisfied,
+he would return to his duty with fresh alacrity. 24. Ap'pius granted
+the favour, upon condition that their endearments should pass in his
+presence. But Virgin'ius was then meditating a dreadful resolution.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image06.jpg"
+alt="Death of Virginia."
+title="Death of Virginia." width="442" height="353" />
+</div>
+<p>
+25. The crowd made way, and Virgin'ius, with the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg. 113]</a></span> most poignant
+anguish, taking his almost expiring daughter in his arms, for a while
+supported her head upon his breast, and wiped away the tears that
+trickled down her cheeks. 26. He most tenderly embraced her, and
+drawing her insensibly to some shops which were on the side of the
+forum, snatched up a butcher's knife: "My dearest lost child," cried
+Virgin'ius, "thus, thus alone is it in my power to preserve your
+honour and your freedom!" So saying, he plunged the weapon into her
+heart. Then drawing it out, reeking with her blood, he held it up to
+Ap'pius: "Tyrant," cried he, "by this blood I devote thy head to the
+infernal gods!" 27. Thus saying, and covered with his daughter's
+blood, the knife remaining in his hand, threatening destruction to
+whomsoever should oppose him, he ran through the city, wildly calling
+upon the people to strike for freedom. By the favour of the multitude
+he then mounted his horse, and rode directly to the camp.</p>
+<p>
+28. He no sooner arrived, followed by a number of his friends, than he
+informed the army of all that had been done, still holding the bloody
+knife in his hand. He asked their pardon and the pardon of the gods,
+for having committed so rash an action, but ascribed it to the
+dreadful necessity of the times. 29. The army, already predisposed to
+revolt by the murder of Denta'tus, and other acts of tyranny and
+oppression, immediately with shouts echoed their approbation, and
+decamping, left the generals behind, to take their station once more
+upon mount Aven'tine, whither they had retired<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg. 114]</a></span> about, forty years
+before. The other army, which had been to oppose the Sab'ines, felt a
+like resentment, and came over in large parties to join them.</p>
+<p>
+30. Ap'pius, in the mean time, did all he could to quell the
+disturbances in the city; but finding the tumult incapable of
+controul, and perceiving that his mortal enemies, Vale'rius and
+Hora'tius, were the most active in opposition, at first attempted to
+find safety by flight; nevertheless, being encouraged by Op'pius, who
+was one of his colleagues, he ventured to assemble the senate, and
+urged the punishment of all deserters. 31. The senate, however, was
+far from giving him the relief he sought for; they foresaw the dangers
+and miseries that threatened the state, in case of opposing the
+incensed army; they therefore despatched messengers to them, offering
+to restore their former mode of government. 32. To this proposal all
+the people joyfully assented, and the army gladly obeying, now
+returned to the city, if not with the ensigns, at least with the
+pleasure of a triumphant entry. 33. Ap'pius and Op'pius both died by
+their own hands in prison. The other eight decemvirs went into exile;
+and Clau'dius, the pretended master of Virgin'ia, was ignominiously
+banished.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Did the Romans tamely submit to the tyranny of the decemviri?</p>
+<p>
+2. Relate the particulars of this transaction.</p>
+<p>
+3. What resolution did Appius form?</p>
+<p>
+4. Who was this maiden?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was Appius's first determination?</p>
+<p>
+6. On what did he next resolve?</p>
+<p>
+7. To what means did he have recourse for the accomplishment of his
+purpose?</p>
+<p>
+8. Did Claudius undertake this base?</p>
+<p>
+9. Was the opposition of the people ultimately successful?</p>
+<p>
+10. How did Claudius attempt to make good his claims?</p>
+<p>
+11. What was the conduct of Appius on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+12. How was this sentence received?</p>
+<p>
+13. What consequences were likely to ensue, and how were they averted?</p>
+<p>
+14. Was not this pretence a false one?</p>
+<p>
+15. By what means were his designs frustrated?</p>
+<p>
+16. Under what pretence did Virginius obtain leave of absence?</p>
+<p>
+17 What measures did he take on his arrival?</p>
+<p>
+18. How was the trial conducted?</p>
+<p>
+19. How did Virginia support this trying scene?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg. 115]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+20. What was the general opinion of the auditors?</p>
+<p>
+21. Did the arguments of Virginius induce Appius to forego his
+iniquitous designs?</p>
+<p>
+22. Were his commands obeyed?</p>
+<p>
+23. What was the request of Virginius?</p>
+<p>
+24. Was this favour granted?</p>
+<p>
+25. Describe this affecting scene?</p>
+<p>
+26. What was the catastrophe?</p>
+<p>
+27. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+28. What use did he make of this dreadful circumstance?</p>
+<p>
+29. What was the effect of his address on the army?</p>
+<p>
+30. How was Appius employed in the mean time?</p>
+<p>
+31. Did the senate second his designs?</p>
+<p>
+32. Did the people accede to this proposal?</p>
+<p>
+33. What was the fate of the tyrants?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION III.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">From the plough</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Rose her dictators; fought, o'ercame return'd.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Yes, to the plough returned, and nail'd their peers.&mdash;<i>Dyer</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. In the mean time, these intestine tumults produced weakness within
+the state, and confidence in the enemy abroad. The wars with the &AElig;'qui
+and the Vol'sci still continued; and, as each year some trifling
+advantage was obtained over the Romans, they, at last, advanced so
+far, as to make their incursions to the very walls of Rome.<a name="FNanchor_2_87" id="FNanchor_2_87"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_87" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 309</div>
+<p>
+2. But not the courage only of the Romans, their other virtues also,
+particularly their justice, seemed diminished by these contests.</p>
+<p>
+3. The tribunes of the people now grew more turbulent; they proposed
+two laws: one to permit plebeians to intermarry with the patricians;
+and the other, to permit them to be admitted to the consulship also.
+4. The senators received these proposals with indignation, and seemed
+resolved to undergo the utmost extremities, rather than submit to
+enact these laws. However, finding their resistance only increased the
+commotions of the state, they, at last, consented to pass that
+concerning marriages, hoping that this concession would satisfy the
+people. 5. But they were to be appeased for a very short time only;
+for, returning, to their old custom of refusing to enlist upon the
+approach of an enemy, the consuls were obliged to hold a private
+conference with the chief of the senate, where, after many debates,
+Clau'dius proposed an expedient, as the most probable means<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg. 116]</a></span> of
+satisfying the people in the present conjuncture. 6. This was to
+create six or eight governors in the room of consuls, whereof one
+half, at least, should be patricians. 7. This project, which was, in
+fact, granting what the people demanded, pleased the whole meeting,
+and it was agreed, that the consuls should, contrary to their usual
+custom, begin by asking the opinion of the youngest senator. 8. Upon
+assembling the senate, one of the tribunes accused them of holding
+secret meetings, and managing dangerous designs against the people.
+The consuls, on the other hand, averred their innocence; and to
+demonstrate their sincerity, gave leave to any of the younger members
+of the house to propound their opinions. 9. These remaining silent,
+such of the older senators, as were known to be popular, began by
+observing that the people ought to be indulged in their request; that
+none so well deserved power, as those who were most instrumental in
+gaining it; and that the city could not be free until all were reduced
+to perfect equality. Clau'dius spoke next, and broke out into bitter
+invectives against the people; asserting that it was his opinion that
+the law should not pass. 10. This produced some disturbance among the
+plebeians; at length, Genu'tius proposed, as had been preconcerted,
+that six governors should be annually chosen, with consular authority;
+three from the senate, and three from the people; and that, when the
+time of their magistracy should be expired, it would be seen whether
+they would have the same office continued, or whether the consulship
+should be established upon its former footing. 11. This project was
+eagerly embraced by the people; yet so fickle were the multitude,
+that, though many of the plebeians stood candidates, the choice wholly
+fell upon the patricians who had offered themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 310.</div>
+
+<p>
+12. These new magistrates were called Military Tribunes; they were, at
+first, but three: afterwards they were increased to four, and at
+length to six; and they had the power and ensigns of consuls: yet,
+that power being divided among a number, each singly was of less
+authority. 13. The first that were chosen continued in office only
+about three months, the augurs having found something amiss in the
+ceremonies of their election.</p>
+<p>
+14. The military tribunes being deposed, the consuls once more came
+into office; and in order to lighten the weight of business which they
+were obliged to sustain, a new office was created; namely, that of
+Censors, who were to be<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg. 117]</a></span> chosen every fifth, year.<a name="FNanchor_3_88" id="FNanchor_3_88"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_88" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> 15. Their
+business was to take an estimate of the number and estates of the
+people, and to distribute them into their proper classes: to inspect
+into the lives and manners of their fellow citizens; to degrade
+senators for misconduct; to dismount knights, and to remove plebeians
+from their tribes into an inferior class, in case of misdemeanor. 16.
+The first censors were Papir'ius and Sempro'nius, both patricians; and
+from this order censors continued to be elected for nearly a hundred
+years.</p>
+<p>
+17. This new creation served to restore peace for some time among the
+orders; and a triumph gained over the Vol'scians, by Gega'nius the
+consul, added to the universal satisfaction that reigned among the
+people.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 313.</div>
+
+<p>
+18. This calm, however, was but of short continuance; for, some time
+after, a famine pressing hard upon the poor, the usual complaints
+against the rich were renewed; and these, as before, proving
+ineffectual, produced new seditions. 19. The consuls were accused of
+neglect, in not having laid in proper quantities of corn: they,
+however, disregarded the murmurs of the populace, content with using
+every exertion to supply the pressing necessity.<a name="FNanchor_4_89" id="FNanchor_4_89"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_89" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> 20. But, though
+they did all that could be expected from active magistrates in
+procuring provisions, and distributing them to the poor: yet Spu'rius
+M&aelig;'lius, a rich knight, who had bought up all the corn of Tuscany, by
+far outshone them in liberality. 21. This demagogue, inflamed with a
+secret desire of becoming powerful by the contentions in the state,
+distributed corn in great quantities among the poorer sort each day,
+till his house became the asylum of all such as wished to exchange a
+life of labour for one of lazy dependence. 22. When he had thus gained
+a sufficient number of partisans, he procured large quantities of arms
+to be brought into his house by night, and formed a conspiracy, by
+which he was to obtain the command, while some of the tribunes, whom
+he had found means to corrupt, were to act under<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg. 118]</a></span> him, in seizing
+upon the liberties of his country. 23. Minu'tius soon discovered the
+plot, and, informing the senate, they immediately resolved to create a
+dictator, who should have the power of quelling the conspiracy without
+appealing to the people. 24. Cincinna'tus, who was now eighty years
+old, was chosen once more to rescue his country from impending danger.
+25. He began by summoning M&aelig;'lius to appear, who refused to obey. He
+next sent Aha'la, the master of the horse, to compel his attendance;
+when, meeting him in the forum, Aha'la, on his refusal, killed him
+upon the spot. The dictator applauded the resolution of his officer,
+and commanded the conspirator's goods to be sold, his house to be
+demolished, and his stores to be distributed among the people.<a name="FNanchor_5_90" id="FNanchor_5_90"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_90" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+26. The tribunes of the people were much enraged at the death of
+M&aelig;'lius. In order, therefore, to punish the senate at the next
+election, instead of consuls, they insisted upon restoring the
+military tribunes, and the senate were obliged to comply.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 315.</div>
+
+<p>
+The next year, however, the government returned to its ancient
+channel, and consuls were chosen.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the consequence of those intestine tumults related in the
+preceding section?</p>
+<p>
+2. Was it their courage only that was impaired by them?</p>
+<p>
+3. How did the tribunes conduct themselves?</p>
+<p>
+4. How were these proposals received?</p>
+<p>
+5. Did it answer the desired end?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg. 119]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+6. What expedient was resorted to?</p>
+<p>
+7. How was it received?</p>
+<p>
+8. What happened on assembling the senate?</p>
+<p>
+9. Did they avail themselves of this permission, and what farther
+passed on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+10. Was his opinion agreeable to the people? What new proposition was
+offered by Genutius?</p>
+<p>
+11. Was this plan adopted and acted upon?</p>
+<p>
+12. What were the name, number, and powers of these new magistrates?</p>
+<p>
+13. How long did they continue in office?</p>
+<p>
+14. What government was substituted?</p>
+<p>
+15. What were the duties of the censors?</p>
+<p>
+16. Who were the first censors?</p>
+<p>
+17. What was the consequence of this new creation?</p>
+<p>
+18. Was this satisfaction lasting?</p>
+<p>
+19. How were the consuls affected by it?</p>
+<p>
+20, 21. Through what means did Spurius Manlius obtain credit for being
+more liberal than the consuls? And what was his real object?</p>
+<p>
+22. How did he proceed in his designs against the liberties of his
+country?</p>
+<p>
+23. By what means was the plot frustrated?</p>
+<p>
+24. Who was appointed dictator?</p>
+<p>
+25. What steps did he take?</p>
+<p>
+26. How were these rigorous measures received?</p>
+
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION IV.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Hence every passion, e'en the proudest, stoop'd</span><br />
+<span class="i2">To common good; Camillus, thy revenge,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Thy glory, Fabius.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+<span class="i2">                                   &mdash;<i>Thomson.</i></span><br /></p>
+<p>
+1. The Ve'ians had long been the rivals of Rome: they had even taken
+the opportunity of internal distresses to ravage its territories, and
+had even threatened its ambassadors sent to complain of these
+injuries, with outrage. 2. It seemed, now, therefore, determined that
+the city of Ve'ii, whatever it might cost, should fall; and the Romans
+accordingly sat down regularly before it, and prepared for a long and
+painful resistance. 3. The strength of the place may be inferred from
+the continuance of the siege, which lasted for ten years; during which
+time, the army continued encamped round it, lying, in winter, under
+tents made of the skins of beasts, and, in summer, driving on the
+operations of the attack. 4. Various were the successes, and many were
+the commanders that directed the siege; sometimes all their works were
+destroyed, and many of their men cut off by sallies from the town;
+sometimes they were annoyed by an army of Veians, who attempted to
+bring assistance from without. 5. A siege so bloody seemed to
+threaten<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg. 120]</a></span> depopulation to Rome itself, by a continual drain of its
+forces; so that a law was obliged to be made, for all bachelors to
+marry the widows of the soldiers who were slain. 6. Fu'rius Camil'lus
+was now created dictator, and to him was entrusted the sole power of
+managing the long protracted war. 7. Camil'lus, who, without intrigue
+or solicitation, had raised himself to the first eminence in the
+state, had been made one of the censors some time before, and was
+considered as the head of that office; he was afterwards made a
+military tribune, and had, in this post, gained several advantages
+over the enemy. 8. It was his great courage and abilities in the above
+offices that made him be thought most worthy to serve his country on
+this pressing occasion. 9. Upon his appointment, numbers of the people
+flocked to his standard, confident of success under so experienced a
+commander. 10. Conscious, however, that he was unable to take the city
+by storm, he, with vast labour, opened a passage under ground, which
+led into the very midst of the citadel. 11. Certain thus of success,
+and finding the city incapable of relief, he sent to the senate
+desiring, that all who chose to share in the plunder of Ve'ii, should
+immediately repair to the army. 12. Then, giving his directions how to
+enter at the breach, the city was instantly filled with his legions,
+to the amazement and consternation of the besieged, who, but a moment
+before, had rested in perfect security. 13. Thus, like a second
+Troy,<a name="FNanchor_6_91" id="FNanchor_6_91"></a><a href="#Fnote_6_91" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> was the city of Ve'ii taken, after a ten years' siege, and,
+with its spoils, enriched the conquerors; while Camil'lus himself,
+transported with the honour of having subdued the rival of his native
+city, triumphed after the manner of the kings of Rome, having his
+chariot drawn by four milk-white horses; a distinction which did not
+fail to disgust the majority of the spectators, as they considered
+those as sacred, and more proper for doing honour to their gods than
+their generals.</p>
+<p>
+14. His usual good fortune attended Camil'lus in another expedition
+against the Falis'ci. He routed their army, and besieged their capital
+city Fale'rii, which threatened a long and vigorous resistance. 15.
+The reduction of this little place would have been scarcely worth
+mentioning in this<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg. 121]</a></span> scanty page, were it not for an action of the
+Roman general, that has done him more credit with posterity than all
+his other triumphs united. 16. A school-master, who had the care of
+the children belonging to the principal men in the city, having found
+means to decoy them into the Roman camp, offered to put them into the
+hands of Camil'lus, as the surest means of inducing the citizens to a
+speedy surrender. 17. The general, struck with the treachery of a
+wretch whose duty it was to protect innocence, and not to betray it,
+for some time regarded the traitor with a stern silence: but, at last,
+finding words, "Execrable villain!" cried the noble Roman, "offer thy
+abominable proposals to creatures like thyself, and not to me; what,
+though we are the enemies of your city, are there not natural ties
+that bind all mankind, which should never be broken? There are duties
+required from us in war, as well as in peace: we fight not against the
+age of innocence, but against men&mdash;men who have used us ill indeed;
+but yet, whose crimes are virtues, when compared to thine. Against
+such base acts, let it be my duty to use only the Roman ones&mdash;valour
+and arms." 18. So saying, he ordered him to be stript, his hands to be
+tied behind him, and, in that ignominious manner, to be whipped into
+the town by his own scholars. 19. This generous behaviour in Camil'lus
+effected more than his arms could do; the magistrates of the town
+submitted to the senate, leaving to Camil'lus the condition of their
+surrender; who only fined them a sum of money to satisfy the army, and
+received them under the protection, and into the alliance, of Rome.</p>
+<p>
+20. Notwithstanding the veneration which the virtues of Camil'lus had
+excited abroad, they seemed but little adapted to command the respect
+of the turbulent tribunes at home, who raised fresh accusations
+against him every day. 21. To the charge of being an opposer of their
+intended emigration from Rome to Ve'ii, they added that of his having
+concealed a part of the plunder of that city, particularly two brazen
+gates, for his own use; and appointed him a day on which to appear
+before the people. 22. Camil'lus, finding the multitude exasperated
+against him on many accounts, and detesting their ingratitude,
+resolved not to await the ignominy of a trial; but embracing his wife
+and children, prepared to depart from Rome. 23. He had already passed
+as far as one of the gates, unattended and unlamented. There he could
+suppress his indignation no longer, but, turning his<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg. 122]</a></span> face to the
+Capitol, and lifting up his hands to heaven, he entreated all the
+gods, that his countrymen might one day be sensible of their injustice
+and ingratitude. So saying, he passed forward to take refuge at
+Ar'dea, a town at a little distance from Rome, where he afterwards
+learned that he had been fined fifteen thousand ases<a name="FNanchor_7_92" id="FNanchor_7_92"></a><a href="#Fnote_7_92" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> by the
+tribunes at Rome.</p>
+<p>
+24. The tribunes were not a little pleased with their triumphs over
+this great man; but they soon had reason to repent their injustice,
+and to wish for the assistance of one, who alone was able to protect
+their country from ruin: for now a more terrible and redoubtable enemy
+than the Romans had ever yet encountered, began to make their
+appearance. 25. The Gauls, a barbarous nation, had, about two
+centuries before, made an irruption from beyond the Alps, and settled
+in the northern parts of Italy. They had been invited over by the
+deliciousness of the wines, and the mildness of the climate. 26.
+Wherever they came they dispossessed the original inhabitants, as they
+were men of superior courage, extraordinary stature, fierce in aspect,
+barbarous in their manners, and prone to emigration. 27. A body of
+these, wild from their original habitations, was now besieging
+Clu'sium, a city of Etru'ria, under the conduct of Brennus, their
+king. 28. The inhabitants of Clu'sium, frightened at their numbers,
+and still more at their savage appearance, entreated the assistance,
+or, at least, the mediation of the Romans. 29. The senate, who had
+long made it a maxim never to refuse succour to the distressed, were
+willing, previously, to send ambassadors to the Gauls, to dissuade
+them from their enterprise, and to show the injustice of the
+irruption. 30. Accordingly, three young senators were chosen out of
+the family of the Fabii, to manage the commission, who seemed more
+fitted for the field than the cabinet. 31. Brennus received them with
+a degree of complaisance that argued but little of the barbarian, and
+desiring to know the business of their embassy, was answered,
+according to their instructions, that it was not customary in Italy to
+make war, but on just grounds of provocation, and that they desired to
+know what offence the citizens of Clu'sium had given to the king of
+the Gauls. 32. To this Brennus sternly replied, that the rights of
+valiant men lay in their swords; that the Romans themselves had no
+right to the many cities they, had conquered; and that he had
+particular reasons of resentment<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg. 123]</a></span> against the people of Clu'sium,
+as they refused to part with those lands, which they had neither hands
+to till, nor inhabitants to occupy. 33. The Roman ambassadors, who
+were but little used to hear the language of a conqueror, for a while
+dissembled their resentment at this haughty reply; but, upon entering
+the besieged city, instead of acting as ambassadors, and forgetful of
+their sacred character, they headed the citizens in a sally against
+the besiegers. In this combat Fa'bius Ambus'tus killed a Gaul with his
+own hand, but was discovered in the act of despoiling him of his
+armour. 34. A conduct so unjust and unbecoming excited the resentment
+of Brennus, who, having made his complaint by a herald to the senate,
+and finding no redress, broke up the siege and marched away with his
+conquering army directly for Rome. 35. The countries through which the
+Gauls made their rapid progress, gave up all hopes of safety upon
+their approach; being terrified at their numbers, the fierceness of
+their natures, and their dreadful preparations for war. 36. But the
+rage and impetuosity of this wild people were directed solely against
+Rome. They went on without doing the least injury in their march,
+breathing vengeance only against the Romans. A terrible engagement
+soon after ensued, in which the Romans were defeated near the river
+Al'lia, with the loss of about forty thousand men.<a name="FNanchor_8_93" id="FNanchor_8_93"></a><a href="#Fnote_8_93" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+<p>
+37. Rome, thus deprived of succour, prepared for every extremity. The
+inhabitants endeavoured to hide themselves in the neighbouring towns,
+or resolved to await the conqueror's fury, and end their lives with
+the ruin of their native city.<a name="FNanchor_9_94" id="FNanchor_9_94"></a><a href="#Fnote_9_94" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> 38. But, more particularly, the
+ancient senators and priests, struck with a religious enthusiasm, on
+this occasion resolved to devote their lives to atone for the crimes
+of the people, and, habited in their robes of ceremony, placed
+themselves in the forum, on their ivory chairs. 39. The Gauls, in the
+mean time, were giving a loose to their triumph, in sharing and
+enjoying the plunder of the enemy's camp. Had they immediately marched
+to Rome, upon gaining the victory, the Capitol would, in all
+probability, have been taken; but they continued two days feasting
+upon<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg. 124]</a></span> the field of battle, and, with barbarous pleasure, exulting
+amidst their slaughtered enemies. 40. On the third day after this easy
+victory, Brennus appeared with all his forces before the city. He was
+at first much surprised to find the gates open to receive him, and the
+walls defenceless; so that he began to impute the unguarded situation
+of the place to a Roman stratagem. After proper precaution, he entered
+the city, and, marching into the forum, beheld there the ancient
+senators sitting in their order, observing a profound silence, unmoved
+and undaunted. 41. The splendid habits, the majestic gravity, and the
+venerable looks of these old men, who, in their time, had all borne
+the highest offices of state, awed the barbarous enemy into reverence;
+they mistook them for the tutelar deities of the place, and began to
+offer blind adoration; till one, more forward than the rest, putting
+forth his hand to stroke the beard of Papyr'ius, an insult the noble
+Roman could not endure, he lifted up his ivory sceptre, and struck the
+savage to the ground. 42. This proved to be a signal for general
+slaughter. Papyr'ius fell first, and all the rest shared his fate
+without mercy or distinction.<a name="FNanchor_10_95" id="FNanchor_10_95"></a><a href="#Fnote_10_95" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> The fierce invaders pursued their
+slaughter for three days successively, sparing neither sex nor age;
+then, setting fire to the city, burnt every house to the ground.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the conduct of the Veians?</p>
+<p>
+2. What resolution was adopted in consequence?</p>
+<p>
+3. Was Veii a strong place?</p>
+<p>
+4. Did the besieged make a vigorous resistance?</p>
+<p>
+5. What consequences were likely to ensue, and how were they obviated?</p>
+<p>
+6. To whom was the conduct of the war now committed?</p>
+<p>
+7. Who was Camillus?</p>
+<p>
+8. By what means did he attain his present dignity?</p>
+<p>
+9. What was the consequence of his appointment?</p>
+<p>
+10. What plan did he adopt to take the city?</p>
+<p>
+11. How did he next proceed?</p>
+<p>
+12. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+13. What was the consequence of this capture, and how did Camillus
+comport himself?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg. 125]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+14. What was Camillus's next exploit?</p>
+<p>
+15. Was this a conquest of importance?</p>
+<p>
+16. Relate the particulars?</p>
+<p>
+17. How was his proposal received?</p>
+<p>
+18. How was the traitor punished?</p>
+<p>
+19. What was the consequence of this conduct?</p>
+<p>
+20. Was Camillus universally respected?</p>
+<p>
+21. What charges were brought against him?</p>
+<p>
+22. Did Camillus abide the event of a trial?</p>
+<p>
+23. Was he resigned to his fate, and whither did he retire?</p>
+<p>
+24. What followed his departure?</p>
+<p>
+25. Who was the enemy?</p>
+<p>
+26. What were the conduct and character of the Gauls?</p>
+<p>
+27. How were they employed at this conjuncture?</p>
+<p>
+28. What measure did the Clusians adopt for their defence?</p>
+<p>
+29. Was their application successful?</p>
+<p>
+30. Who were appointed for this purpose?</p>
+<p>
+31. How were they received?</p>
+<p>
+32. What was the reply of Brennus?</p>
+<p>
+33. What was the conduct of the ambassadors?</p>
+<p>
+34. What was the consequence of this improper conduct?</p>
+<p>
+35. What sensations were excited in the countries through which they
+passed?</p>
+<p>
+36. Did the Gauls commit any ravages on their march?</p>
+<p>
+37. What measures were adopted at Rome?</p>
+<p>
+38. Who more particularly displayed their devotedness on this
+occasion?</p>
+<p>
+39. What use did the Gauls make of their victory?</p>
+<p>
+40. What happened on their arrival before the city?</p>
+<p>
+41. What was the effect of this spectacle?</p>
+<p>
+42. What was the consequence of this boldness?</p>
+
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION V.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">This is true courage, not the brutal force</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Of vulgar heroes, but the firm resolve</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Of virtue and of reason.&mdash;<i>Whitehead.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. All the hopes of Rome were now placed in the Capitol; every thing
+without that fortress formed an extensive scene of misery, desolation,
+and despair.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 361.</div>
+
+<p>
+2. Brennus first summoned it, with threats, to surrender, but in vain;
+then resolving to besiege it in form, hemmed it round with his army.
+The Romans, however, repelled the attempt with great bravery: despair
+had supplied them with that perseverance and vigour which they seemed
+to want when in prosperity.</p>
+<p>
+3. In the meanwhile, Brennus carried on the siege with extreme ardour.
+He hoped to starve the garrison into a capitulation; but they,
+sensible of his intent, although in actual want, caused loaves to be
+thrown into his camp, to<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg. 126]</a></span> convince him of the futility of such
+expectations. 4. His hopes were soon after revived, when some of his
+soldiers came to inform him, that they had discovered footsteps,<a name="FNanchor_11_96" id="FNanchor_11_96"></a><a href="#Fnote_11_96" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+which led up to the rock, by which they supposed the Capitol might be
+surprised. 5. Accordingly, a chosen body of his men were ordered by
+night upon this dangerous service, which, with great labour and
+difficulty, they almost effected. 6. They were got upon the very wall;
+the Roman sentinel was fast asleep; their dogs within gave no signal,
+and all promised an instant victory, when the garrison was awakened by
+the gabbling of some sacred geese, that had been kept in the temple of
+Juno. 7. The besieged soon perceived the imminence of their danger,
+and each, snatching the weapon that first presented itself, ran to
+oppose the assailants. 8. M. Man'lius, a patrician of acknowledged
+bravery, was the first who opposed the foe, and inspired courage by
+his example. He boldly mounted the rampart, and, at one effort, threw
+two Gauls headlong down the precipice; his companions soon came to his
+assistance, and the walls were cleared of the enemy with a most
+incredible celerity.<a name="FNanchor_12_97" id="FNanchor_12_97"></a><a href="#Fnote_12_97" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+<p>
+9. From this time the hopes of the barbarians began to decline, and
+Brennus wished for an opportunity of raising the siege with
+credit.<a name="FNanchor_13_98" id="FNanchor_13_98"></a><a href="#Fnote_13_98" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> His soldiers had often conferences with the besieged while
+upon duty, and proposals for an accommodation were wished for by the
+common men, before the chiefs thought of a congress. At length, the
+commanders on both sides came to an agreement, that the Gauls should
+immediately quit the city and territories, upon being paid a thousand
+pounds weight of gold.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image07.jpg"
+alt="Manlius defending the Capitol."
+title="Manlius defending the Capitol." width="449" height="339" />
+</div>
+<p>
+10. This agreement<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg. 127]</a></span> being confirmed by oath on either side, the
+gold was brought forth. But, upon weighing, the Gauls fraudulently
+attempted to kick the beam, of which the Romans complaining, Brennus
+insultingly cast his sword and belt into the scale, crying out that
+the only portion of the vanquished was to suffer. 11. By this reply,
+the Romans saw that they were at the victor's mercy, and knew it was
+in vain to expostulate against any conditions he should please to
+impose. 12. But while they were thus debating upon the payment, it was
+told them that Camil'lus, their old general, was at the head of a
+large army, hastening to their relief, and entering the gates of Rome.
+13. Camil'lus actually appeared soon after, and entering the place of
+controversy, with the air of one who was resolved not to suffer
+imposition, demanded the cause of the contest; of which being
+informed, he ordered the gold to be taken and carried back to the
+Capitol. "For it has ever been," cried he, "the manner with us Romans,
+to ransom our country, not with gold, but with iron; it is I only that
+am to make peace, as being the dictator of Rome, and my sword alone
+shall purchase it." 14. Upon this a battle ensued, the Gauls were
+entirely routed, and such a slaughter followed, that the Roman
+territories were soon cleared of the invaders. Thus, by the bravery of
+Camil'lus, was Rome delivered from its enemy.<a name="FNanchor_14_99" id="FNanchor_14_99"></a><a href="#Fnote_14_99" class="fnanchor">[14]</a><span class="newpage"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg. 128]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+15. The city being one continued heap of ruins, except the Capitol,
+and the greatest number of its former inhabitants having gone to take
+refuge in Ve'ii, the tribunes of the people urged for the removal of
+the poor remains of Rome to that city, where they might have houses to
+shelter, and walls to defend them. 16. On this occasion Camil'lus
+attempted to appease them with all the arts of persuasion; observing,
+that it was unworthy of them, both as Romans and men, to desert the
+venerable seat of their ancestors, where they had been encouraged by
+repeated marks of divine approbation, in order to inhabit a city which
+they had conquered, and which wanted even the good fortune of
+defending itself. 17. By these, and such like remonstrances, he
+prevailed upon the people to go contentedly to work; and Rome soon
+began to rise from its ashes.<a name="FNanchor_15_100" id="FNanchor_15_100"></a><a href="#Fnote_15_100" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+<p>
+18. We have already seen the bravery of Man'lius in defending the
+Capitol, and saving the last remains of Rome. For this the people were
+by no means ungrateful. They built him a house near the place where
+his valour was so conspicuous, and appointed him a public fund for his
+support. 19. But he aspired at being more than equal to Camil'lus, and
+to be sovereign of Rome. With this view he laboured to ingratiate
+himself with the populace, paid their debts, and railed at the
+patricians, whom he called their oppressors. 20. The senate was not
+ignorant of his speeches or his designs, and created Corne'lius Cossus
+dictator, with a view to curb the ambition of Man'lius. 21. The
+dictator soon called Man'lius to an account for his conduct. Man'lius,
+however, was too much the darling of the populace to be affected by
+the power of Cossus, who was obliged to lay down his office, and
+Man'lius was carried from confinement in triumph through the city. 22.
+This success only served to inflame his ambition. He now began to talk
+of a division of the lands among the people, insinuated that there
+should be no distinctions in the state; and, to give weight to his
+discourses, always appeared at the head of a large body of the dregs
+of the people, whom largesses had<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg. 129]</a></span> made his followers. 23. The
+city being thus filled with sedition and clamour, the senate had
+recourse to another expedient, which was, to oppose the power of
+Camil'lus to that of the demagogue. Camil'lus, accordingly, being made
+one of the military tribunes, appointed Man'lius a day to answer for
+his life. 24. The place in which he was tried was near the Capitol,
+whither, when he was accused of sedition, and of aspiring to
+sovereignty, he turned his eyes, and pointing to that edifice, put
+them in mind of what he had there done for his country. 25. The
+multitude, whose compassion or whose justice seldom springs from
+rational motives, refused to condemn him, so long as he pleaded in
+sight of the Capitol; but when he was brought from thence to the
+Pe'teline grove, where the Capitol was no longer in view, they
+condemned him to be thrown headlong from the Tarpe'ian rock.<a name="FNanchor_16_101" id="FNanchor_16_101"></a><a href="#Fnote_16_101" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> 26.
+Thus, the place which had been the theatre of his glory, became that
+of his punishment and infamy. His house, in which his conspiracies had
+been secretly carried on, and which had been built as the reward of
+his valour, was ordered to be razed to the ground, and his family were
+forbidden ever after to assume the name of Man'lius.</p>
+<p>
+27. Thus the Romans went gradually forward, with a mixture of
+turbulence and superstition within their walls, and successful
+enterprises without.</p>
+<p>
+28. With what implicit obedience they submitted to their pontiffs, and
+how far they might be impelled to encounter even death itself, at
+their command, will evidently appear from the behaviour of Cur'tius,
+about this time.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 392.</div>
+
+<p>
+Upon the opening of the gulf in the forum, which the augurs affirmed
+would never close till the most precious things in Rome were thrown
+into it, this heroic man, clad in complete armour, and mounted on
+horseback, boldly leaped into the midst, declaring, that nothing was
+more truly valuable than patriotism and military virtue. 29. The gulf,
+say the historians, closed immediately upon this, and Cur'tius was
+seen no more.<a name="FNanchor_17_102" id="FNanchor_17_102"></a><a href="#Fnote_17_102" class="fnanchor">[17]</a><span class="newpage"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg. 130]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 396.</div>
+
+<p>
+30. This year died the great Camil'lus, deservedly regretted by all.
+He was styled a second Romulus, the first having founded, and he
+having restored the city. He is said never to have fought a battle
+without gaining a victory; never to have besieged a city without
+taking it. He was a zealous patriot, ever ready to dismiss his just
+resentments for the affronts he received, when the necessities of his
+country required his services.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the state of Rome at this period?</p>
+<p>
+2. What was the next step taken by Brennus, and how did it succeed?</p>
+<p>
+3. In what manner was the siege carried on?</p>
+<p>
+4. Did he consider the attempt as hopeless?</p>
+<p>
+5. What advantage did he take of this information?</p>
+<p>
+6. Was the attempt successful?</p>
+<p>
+7. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+8. Was there any particular instance of valour?</p>
+<p>
+9. What effect had this failure on the mind of Brennus?</p>
+<p>
+10. In what manner was this agreement carried into execution?</p>
+<p>
+11. What inference did the Romans draw from this insolent speech?</p>
+<p>
+12. What agreeable news did they now hear?</p>
+<p>
+13. Was this information correct?</p>
+<p>
+14. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+15. What was the first measure proposed after this deliverance?</p>
+<p>
+16. Was this proposal carried into effect?</p>
+<p>
+17. Were his remonstrances successful?</p>
+<p>
+18. Was the bravery of Manlius rewarded?</p>
+<p>
+19. Was he content with these favours?</p>
+<p>
+20. What measures were taken to oppose his designs?</p>
+<p>
+21. Was this expedient attended with success?</p>
+<p>
+22. What was the conduct of Manlius after this?</p>
+<p>
+23. What farther measures were taken to punish his ambition?</p>
+<p>
+24. What defence did he set up?</p>
+<p>
+25. Was his plea successful?</p>
+<p>
+26. What is remarkable in his punishment?</p>
+<p>
+27. How did the Roman affairs proceed at this time?</p>
+<p>
+28. Relate a memorable instance of the obedience paid by the Romans to
+their pontiffs or priests?</p>
+<p>
+29. What was the consequence of this heroic act?</p>
+<p>
+30. What happened this year, and what was the character of
+Camil'lus?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg. 131]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_86" id="Fnote_1_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_86">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ These laws were engraven on brass, and hung up in the
+most conspicuous part of the Forum.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_87" id="Fnote_2_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_87">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ They were, however, defeated, first by the consul
+Vale'rius, and next still more decisively by the consuls Quinc'tius
+and Fu'rius.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_88" id="Fnote_3_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_88">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The duty of the censors, at first, was merely to perform
+the census, or numbering of the people. It was by degrees that they
+became <i>Magistri Morum</i>, or inspectors and regulators of men's lives
+and manners.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_89" id="Fnote_4_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_89">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ They appointed an extraordinary magistrate, under the
+title of <i>superintendent of provisions</i>, and the person named for this
+office, L. Minutius, an active and prudent man, immediately sent his
+agents into the neighbouring countries to buy corn; but little,
+however was procured, as M&aelig;lius had been beforehand with him. (Liv. l.
+iv. c. 13, 14.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_90" id="Fnote_5_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_90">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The guilt of M&aelig;'lius was never proved, and no arms were
+found when his house was searched. The charge of aiming at royalty is
+more than absurd; it is morally impossible. He seems to have aimed at
+opening the higher offices of state to the plebeians, and to have
+looked upon the consulship with too eager desire. He fell a sacrifice,
+to deter the plebeians from aiming at breaking up a patrician monopoly
+of power. It is painful to see Cincinna'tus, at the close of a long
+and illustrious life, countenancing, if not suggesting this wanton
+murder. But, as Niebuhr remarks, "no where have characters been more
+cruel, no where has the voice of conscience against the views of
+faction been so defied, as in the aristocratic republics, and not
+those of antiquity only. Men, otherwise of spotless conduct, have
+frequently shed the purest and noblest blood, influenced by
+fanaticism, and often without any resentment, in the service of
+party."</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_6_91" id="Fnote_6_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_91">[6]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The account of the siege of Ve'ii is full of
+improbabilities, and the story of the mine is utterly impossible, for
+without a compass and a good plan of the city, such a work could not
+have been formed. That Ve'ii, however, was besieged and taken at this
+time is very certain, but that is the only part of the legend on which
+we can rely.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_7_92" id="Fnote_7_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_92">[7]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The <i>as</i> was a brass coin, about three farthings of our
+money.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_8_93" id="Fnote_8_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_93">[8]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This day was from henceforth marked as unlucky in their
+calendar, and called Allien'sis.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_9_94" id="Fnote_9_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_94">[9]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Among others, the Vestals fled from the city, carrying
+with them the two Palladiums and the sacred fire. They took shelter at
+C&aelig;re, a town of Etru'ria, where they continued to celebrate their
+religious rites; from this circumstance religious rites acquired the
+name of ceremonies.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_10_95" id="Fnote_10_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_95">[10]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This self-devotion was in consequence of a vow made by
+these brave old men, which Fa'bius, the Pontifex Maximus, pronounced
+in their names. The Romans believed that, by thus devoting themselves
+to the internal gods, disorder and confusion were brought among the
+enemy.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_11_96" id="Fnote_11_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_96">[11]</a></p>
+<p>
+ These were the footsteps of Pon'tius Comin'ius, who,
+with great prudence and bravery, found means to carry a message from
+Camil'lus to the Romans in the Capi'tol, and to return with the
+appointment of dictator for Camil'lus.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_12_97" id="Fnote_12_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_97">[12]</a></p>
+<p>
+ As a reward for this essential service, every soldier
+gave Man'lius a small quantity of corn and a little measure of wine,
+out of his scanty allowance; a present of no mean value in their then
+distressed situation. On the other hand, the captain of the guard, who
+ought to have kept the sentinels to their duty, was thrown headlong
+from the Capitol. In memory of this event, a goose was annually
+carried in triumph on a soft litter, finely adorned; whilst dogs were
+held in abhorrence, and were impaled every year on a branch of elder.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_13_98" id="Fnote_13_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_98">[13]</a></p>
+<p>
+ As the Gauls suffered the bodies of the Romans, who were
+slain in their frequent encounters, to lie unburied, the stench of
+their putrefaction occasioned a plague to break out, which carried off
+great numbers of the army of Brennus.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_14_99" id="Fnote_14_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_99">[14]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The authenticity of this narrative is more than
+suspicious. Polyb'ius, the most accurate of the Roman historians, says
+that the Gauls carried their old home with them. Sueto'nius confirms
+this account, and adds that it was recovered at a much later period
+from the Galli Seno'nes, by Liv'ius Dru'sus; and that on this occasion
+Dru'sus first became a name in the Livian family, in consequence of
+the victorious general having killed Drau'sus, the Gallic leader.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_15_100" id="Fnote_15_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_100">[15]</a></p>
+<p>
+ So little taste, however, for order and beauty, did
+those display who had the direction of the works, that the city, when
+rebuilt, was even less regular than in the time of Romulus.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_16_101" id="Fnote_16_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_101">[16]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This account appears so absurd as to be scarcely
+credible; in fact, Manlius was first tried by the "comitia
+centuriata," and acquitted. His second trial was before the "comitia
+curiata," where his enemies, the patricians, alone had the right of
+voting. See Introduction, Chap. III.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_17_102" id="Fnote_17_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_102">[17]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Some judicious writers, however, acknowledge that the
+chasm was afterwards filled up with earth and rubbish. (Livy, l. 7. c.
+6. Val. Maximus, l. 5. c. 6. et alli.)</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.</h4><br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE WARS WITH THE SAMNITES AND THOSE WITH PYRRHUS, TO THE
+BEGINNING OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR; WHEN THE ROMANS BEGAN TO EXTEND
+THEIR CONQUESTS BEYOND ITALY.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">The brave man is not he who feels no fear</span><br />
+<span class="i2">For that were stupid and irrational;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">But he, whose noble soul his fear subdues,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And bravely dares the danger nature shrinks from.&mdash;<i>Baillie</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The Romans had triumphed over the Sab'ines, the Etru'rians, the
+Latins, the Her'nici, the &AElig;'qui, and the Volsci; and now began to look
+for greater conquests. They accordingly turned their arms against the
+Sam'nites, a people descended from the Sab'ines, and inhabiting a
+large tract of southern Italy, which at this day makes, a considerable
+part of the kingdom of Naples. 2. Vale'rius Cor'vus, and Corne'lius,
+were the two consuls to whose care it first fell to manage this
+dreadful contention between the rivals.</p>
+<p>
+3. Vale'rius was one of the greatest commanders of his time; he was
+surnamed Cor'vus, from the strange circumstance of being assisted by a
+crow in a single combat, in which he killed a Gaul of gigantic
+stature. 4. To his colleague's care it was consigned to lead an army
+to Sam'nium, the enemy's capital, while Cor'vus was sent to relieve
+Cap'ua, the capital of the Capin'ians. 5. Never was a captain more
+fitted for command than he. To a habit naturally robust and athletic,
+he joined the gentlest manners; he was the fiercest, and yet the most
+good-natured man in the army; and, while the meanest sentinel was his
+companion, no man kept them more strictly to their duty; but to
+complete his character, he constantly endeavoured to preserve his
+dignity by the same arts by which he gained it. 6. Such soldiers as
+the Romans then were, hardened by their late adversity, and led on by
+such a general, were unconquerable. The Samnites were the bravest men
+they ever yet had encountered, and the contention between the two
+nations was managed on both sides with the most determined resolution.
+7. But the fortune of Rome prevailed; the Samnites at length fled,
+averring, that they were not able to withstand the fierce looks, and
+the fire-darting eye of the Romans. 8. Corne'lius, however, was not at
+first so fortunate; for having unwarily led his army into a
+defile,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg. 132]</a></span> he was in danger of being cut off, had not De'cius
+possessed himself of a hill which commanded the enemy; so that the
+Samnites, being attacked on both sides, were defeated with great
+slaughter; not less than thirty thousand of them being left dead upon
+the field.</p>
+<p>
+9. Some time after this victory, the forces stationed at Cap'ua
+mutinying, compelled Quin'tinus, an eminent old soldier, to be their
+leader; and, conducted by their rage, more than by their general, came
+within six miles of the city. 10. So terrible an enemy, almost at the
+gates, not a little alarmed the senate, who immediately created
+Vale'rius dictator, and sent him forth with an army to oppose them.
+11. The two armies were now drawn up against each other, while fathers
+and sons beheld themselves prepared to engage in opposite causes. 12.
+Any other general than Corvus would, perhaps, have brought this civil
+war to extremity; but he, knowing his influence among the soldiery,
+instead of going forward to meet the mutineers in a hostile manner,
+went with the most cordial friendship to embrace, and expostulate with
+his old acquaintances. 13. His conduct had the desired effect.
+Quin'tius, as their speaker, solicited no more than to have their
+defection from their duty forgiven; and for himself, as he was
+innocent of their conspiracy, he had no reason to solicit pardon for
+offences. 14. Thus this defection, which threatened danger to Rome,
+was repaired by the prudence and moderation of a general, whose
+ambition it was to be gentle to his friends, and formidable only to
+his enemies.</p>
+<p>
+15. A war between the Romans and Latins followed soon after. 16. As
+their habits, arms, and language were the same, the exactest
+discipline was necessary to prevent confusion in the engagement.
+Orders, therefore, were issued, that no soldier should leave his ranks
+on pain of death. 17. With these injunctions, both armies were drawn
+out and ready, when Me'tius, the general of the enemy's cavalry,
+pushed forward from his lines, and challenged any knight in the Roman
+army to single combat. 18. For some time there was a general pause, no
+soldier daring to disobey his orders, till Ti'tus Man'lius, son of the
+consul Man'lius, burning with shame to see the whole body of the
+Romans intimidated, boldly advanced against his adversary. 19. The
+soldiers, on both sides, for a while suspended the general engagement,
+to be spectators of this fierce encounter. The two champions drove
+their horses against each other with<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg. 133]</a></span> great violence: Me'tius
+wounded his adversary's horse in the neck; but Man'lius, with better
+fortune, killed that of Me'tius. The Latin general, fallen to the
+ground, for a while attempted to support himself upon his shield; but
+the Roman followed his blows, and laid him dead as he was endeavouring
+to rise; then despoiling him of his armour, returned in triumph to his
+father's tent, where he was preparing for, and giving orders relative
+to, the engagement. 20. However he might have been applauded by his
+fellow-soldiers, being as yet doubtful what reception he should find
+with his father, he came with hesitation, to lay the enemy's spoils at
+his feet, and with a modest air insinuated, that what he had done was
+entirely from a spirit of hereditary virtue. 21. Alas! he was soon
+dreadfully made sensible of his error; when his father, turning away,
+ordered him to be led publicly forth before his army. Being brought
+forward, the consul, with a stern countenance, and yet with tears,
+spoke as follows: "Ti'tus Man'lius, as thou hast regarded neither the
+dignity of the consulship, nor the commands of a father; as thou hast
+destroyed military discipline, and set a pattern of disobedience by
+thy example, thou hast reduced me to the deplorable extremity of
+sacrificing my son or my country. But let us not hesitate in this
+dreadful alternative; a thousand lives were well lost in such a cause;
+nor do I think that thou thyself wilt refuse to die, when thy country
+is to reap the advantage of thy sufferings. Lictor, bind him, and let
+his death be our future example." 22. At this unnatural mandate the
+whole army was struck with horror; fear, for a while, kept them in
+suspense; but when they saw their young champion's head struck off,
+and his blood streaming upon the ground, they could no longer contain
+their execrations and their groans. His dead body was carried forth
+without the camp, and, being adorned with the spoils of the vanquished
+enemy, was buried with all the pomp of military solemnity.</p>
+<p>
+23. In the mean time, the battle began with mutual fury; and as the
+two armies had often fought under the same leaders, they combated with
+all the animosity of a civil war. The Latins chiefly depended on
+bodily strength; the Romans on their invincible courage and conduct.
+24. Forces so nearly matched, seemed only to want the aid of their
+deities to turn the scale of victory; and in fact the augurs had
+foretold, that whatever part of the Roman army should be distressed,
+the commander of that part should devote himself<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg. 134]</a></span> for his country,
+and die as a sacrifice to the immortal gods. Man'lius commanded the
+right wing, and De'cius the left. 25. Both sides fought with doubtful
+success, as their courage was equal; but, after a time, the left wing
+of the Roman army began to give ground. 26. It was then that De'cius
+resolved to devote himself for his country; and to offer his own life,
+as an atonement, to save his army.</p>
+<p>
+27. Thus determined, he called out to Man'lius with a loud voice, and
+demanded his instructions, as he was the chief pontiff, how to devote
+himself, and what form of words he should use. 28. By his directions,
+therefore, being clothed in a long robe, his head covered, and his
+arms stretched forward, standing upon a javelin, he devoted himself to
+the celestial and infernal gods for the safety of Rome. Then arming
+himself, and mounting his horse, he drove furiously into the midst of
+the enemy, striking terror and consternation wherever he came, till he
+fell covered with wounds. 29. In the mean time the Roman army
+considered his devoting himself in this manner, as an assurance of
+success; nor was the superstition of the Latins less powerfully
+influenced by his resolution; a total route began to ensue: the Romans
+pressed them on every side, and so great was the carnage, that
+scarcely a fourth part of the enemy survived the defeat.</p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Against whom did the Romans next turn their arms?</p>
+<p>
+2. Who were appointed commanders in this war?</p>
+<p>
+3. Who was Valerius?</p>
+<p>
+4. What separate commands were entrusted to the consuls?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the character of Valerius?</p>
+<p>
+6. What was the character of the hostile armies?</p>
+<p>
+7. To whom did the advantage belong?</p>
+<p>
+8. Was not the division under Cornelius led into a difficulty, and how
+was it extricated?</p>
+<p>
+9. What important event next occurred?</p>
+<p>
+10. How were the senate affected by their approach?</p>
+<p>
+11. What are the peculiar evils attendant on civil wars?</p>
+<p>
+12. What steps did Corvus take on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+13. What was the consequence of this mildness?</p>
+<p>
+14. What reflection may be drawn from this incident?</p>
+<p>
+15. What was the next occurrence of note?</p>
+<p>
+16. What precautions were necessary in this war?</p>
+<p>
+17. In what way was the discipline of the Romans put to the proof?</p>
+<p>
+18. Was his challenge disregarded?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg. 135]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+19. Relate the particulars of the combat?</p>
+<p>
+20. What reception did he expect from his father?</p>
+<p>
+21. What was the consequence of his rashness?</p>
+<p>
+22. How was this sentence received by the army?</p>
+<p>
+23. Did a battle ensue?</p>
+<p>
+24. What was wanting to insure the victory?</p>
+<p>
+25. To whom did success incline?</p>
+<p>
+26 What heroic resolution did Decius make?</p>
+<p>
+27. In what way did he do this?</p>
+<p>
+28. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+29. What effect had this sacrifice on the hostile armies?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+<p>
+U.C. 431.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Absurd the fumed advice to Pyrrhus given,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">More praised than pander'd, specious, but unsound;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Sooner that hero's sword the world had quell'd,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Than reason, his ambition.&mdash;<i>Young</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. But a signal disgrace which the Romans sustained about this time,
+in their contest with the Samnites, made a pause in their usual good
+fortune, and turned the scale for a while in the enemy's favour.<a name="FNanchor_1_103" id="FNanchor_1_103"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_103" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> 2.
+The senate having denied the Samnites peace, Pon'tius, their general,
+was resolved to gain by stratagem, what he had frequently lost by
+force. 3. Accordingly, leading his army into the neighbourhood of a
+defile, called Cau'dium, and taking possession of all its outlets, he
+sent ten of his soldiers, habited like shepherds, with directions to
+throw themselves into the way which the Romans were to march. 4.
+Exactly to his wishes, the Roman consul, Posthu'mius, met them, and
+taking them for what they appeared, demanded the route the Samnite
+army had taken: they, with seeming indifference, replied, that<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg. 136]</a></span>
+they were going to Luce'ria, a town in Apulia, and were then actually
+besieging it. 5 The Roman general, not suspecting the stratagem that
+was laid against him, marched directly by the shortest road, which lay
+through the defile, to relieve that city; and was not undeceived till
+he saw his army surrounded, and blocked up on every side.<a name="FNanchor_2_104" id="FNanchor_2_104"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_104" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> 6.
+Pon'tius, thus having the Romans entirely in his power, first obliged
+the army to pass under the yoke, after having stript them of all but
+their under garments. He then stipulated, that they should wholly quit
+the territories of the Samnites, and that they should continue to live
+upon the terms of their former confederacy. 7. The Romans were
+constrained to submit to this ignominious treaty, and marched into
+Cap'ua disarmed, half naked, and burning with a desire of <i>retrieving</i>
+their lost honour. 8. When the army arrived at Rome, the whole city
+was most sensibly affected at their shameful return; nothing but grief
+and resentment were to be seen, and the whole city was put into
+mourning.</p>
+<p>
+9. This was a transitory calamity; the state had suffered a diminution
+of its glory, but not of its power.<a name="FNanchor_3_105" id="FNanchor_3_105"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_105" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The war was carried on as
+usual, for many years; the power of the Samnites declining every day,
+while that of the Romans gained fresh vigour from every victory. 10.
+Under the conduct of Papir'ius Cursor, repeated triumphs were gained.
+Fa'bius Max'imus also had his share in the glory of conquering the
+Samnites; and De'cius, the son of that Decius whom we saw devoting
+himself, for his country about forty years before, followed the
+example of his noble father, and, rushing into the midst of the enemy,
+saved the lives of his countrymen with the loss of his own.<a name="FNanchor_4_106" id="FNanchor_4_106"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_106" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+11. The Samnites being driven to the most extreme distress, and unable
+to defend themselves, were obliged to call in the assistance of a
+foreign power, and have recourse to<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg. 137]</a></span> Pyr'rhus, king of Epi'rus,<a name="FNanchor_5_107" id="FNanchor_5_107"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_107" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+to save them from impending ruin. 12. Pyr'rhus, a man of great
+courage, ambition, and power, who had always kept the example of
+Alexan'der, his great predecessor, before his eyes, promised to come
+to their assistance; and, in the mean time, despatched a body of three
+thousand men, under the command of Cin'eas, an experienced soldier,
+and a scholar of the great orator Demos'thenes.<a name="FNanchor_6_108" id="FNanchor_6_108"></a><a href="#Fnote_6_108" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> 13. Nor did he
+himself remain long behind, but soon after put to sea with three
+thousand horse, twenty thousand foot, and twenty elephants, in which
+the commanders of that time began to place very great confidence. 14.
+However, only a small part of this great armament arrived in Italy
+with him; for many of his ships were dispersed, and some were totally
+lost in a storm.</p>
+<p>
+15. Upon his arrival at Taren'tum,<a name="FNanchor_7_109" id="FNanchor_7_109"></a><a href="#Fnote_7_109" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> his first care was to reform the
+people whom he came to succour. Observing a total dissoluteness of
+manners in this luxurious city, and that the inhabitants were rather
+occupied with the pleasures of bathing, feasting, and dancing, than
+the care of preparing for war, he gave orders to have all their places
+of public entertainment shut up, and that they should be restrained in
+such amusements as rendered soldiers unfit for battle. 16. In the mean
+time the Romans did all which prudence could suggest, to oppose so
+formidable an enemy; and the consul L&aelig;vi'nus was sent with a numerous
+force to interrupt his progress. 17. Pyr'rhus, though his whole army
+was not yet arrived, drew out to meet him; but previously sent an
+ambassador, desiring to be permitted to mediate between the Romans and
+the people of Tarentum. 18. To this L&aelig;vi'nus answered, that <i>he
+neither esteemed him as a mediator, nor feared him as an enemy</i>: and
+then leading the ambassador through the Roman camp, desired him to
+observe diligently what he saw, and to report the result to his
+master.</p>
+<p>
+19. In consequence of this, both armies approaching, pitched their
+tents in sight of each other, upon the opposite banks of the river
+Ly'ris. Pyr'rhus was always extremely<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg. 138]</a></span> careful in directing the
+situation of his own camp, and in observing that of the enemy. 20.
+Walking along the banks of the river, and surveying the Roman method
+of encamping, he was heard to observe, that these barbarians seemed to
+be no way barbarous, and that he should too soon find their actions
+equal to their resolution. 21. In the mean time he placed a body of
+men in readiness to oppose the Romans, in case they should attempt to
+ford the stream before his whole army was brought together. 22. Things
+turned out according to his expectations; the consul, with an
+impetuosity that marked his inexperience, gave orders for passing the
+river where it was fordable; and the advanced guard, having attempted
+to oppose him in vain, was obliged to retire to the whole body of the
+army. 23. Pyr'rhus being apprised of the enemy's attempt, at first
+hoped to cut off their cavalry, before they could be reinforced by the
+foot, which were not as yet got over; and led on in person a chosen
+body of horse against them. 24. The Roman legions having, with much
+difficulty, advanced across the river, the engagement became general;
+the Greeks fought with a consciousness of their former fame, and the
+Romans with a desire of gaining fresh glory: mankind had seldom seen
+two such differently disciplined armies opposed to each other; nor is
+it to this day determined whether the Greek phalanx, or the Roman
+legion were preferable. 25. The combat was long in suspense; the
+Romans had seven times repulsed the enemy, and were as often driven
+back themselves; but at length, while the success seemed doubtful,
+Pyr'rhus sent his elephants into the midst of the engagement, and
+these turned the scale of victory in his favour. 26. The Romans, who
+had never before encountered creatures of such magnitude, were
+terrified not only at their intrepid fierceness, but at the castles
+that were fastened on their backs, filled with armed men. 27. It was
+then that Pyr'rhus saw the day was his own; and, sending his
+Thessalian cavalry to charge the enemy in disorder, the route became
+general. A dreadful slaughter of the Romans ensued, fifteen thousand
+men being killed on the spot, and eighteen hundred taken prisoners.
+28. Nor were the conquerors in a much better state than the
+vanquished, Pyr'rhus himself being wounded, and thirteen thousand of
+his forces slain. Night coming on, put an end to the slaughter on both
+sides, and Pyr'rhus was heard to exclaim, that one such victory more
+would ruin his whole army. 29. The next day, as<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg. 139]</a></span> he walked to view
+the field of battle, he could not help regarding with admiration the
+bodies of the Romans who were slain. Upon seeing them all with their
+wounds in front, their countenances, even in death, marked with noble
+resolution, and a sternness that awed him into respect, he was heard
+to cry out, in the true spirit of a military adventurer, "Oh! with
+what ease could I conquer the world, had I the Romans for soldiers, or
+had they me for their king!"</p>
+<p>
+30. Pyr'rhus, after this victory, was still unwilling to drive them to
+an extremity, and considering that it was best to treat with an
+humbled enemy, he resolved to send his friend Cin'eas,<a name="FNanchor_8_110" id="FNanchor_8_110"></a><a href="#Fnote_8_110" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> the orator,
+to negociate a peace; of whom he often asserted, that he had won more
+towns by the eloquence of Cin'eas, than by his own arms. 31. But
+Cin'eas, with all his art, found the Romans incapable of being
+seduced, either by private bribery, or public persuasion; with a
+haughtiness little expected from a vanquished enemy, they insisted
+that Pyr'rhus should evacuate Italy, previous to a commencement of a
+treaty of peace.</p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Were the Romans uniformly successful?</p>
+<p>
+2. Who resolved to use stratagem, and why?</p>
+<p>
+3. By what means did he effect it?</p>
+<p>
+4. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+5. Was the Roman general deceived by this stratagem?</p>
+<p>
+6. What advantage did the Samnite commander take of the situation of
+the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+7. Were these terms accepted?</p>
+<p>
+8. How was this news received at Rome?</p>
+<p>
+9. Did this event put an end to the war?</p>
+<p>
+10. Who signalized themselves against the Samnites?</p>
+<p>
+11. What measure did the Samnites adopt in this extremity?</p>
+<p>
+12. What was the character of Pyrrhus, and what effort did he make for
+their relief?</p>
+<p>
+13. Did he follow in person?</p>
+<p>
+14. Did this great force arrive in safety?</p>
+<p>
+15. What was his first care?</p>
+<p>
+16. What measures did the Romans adopt?</p>
+<p>
+17. Did Pyrrhus immediately commence hostilities?</p>
+<p>
+18. What answer was returned?</p>
+<p>
+19. What followed?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg. 140]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+20. What opinion did Pyrrhus form of the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+21. What were his first measures?</p>
+<p>
+22. Were his precautions justified?</p>
+<p>
+23. In what way did Pyrrhus resist this attack?</p>
+<p>
+24. What is worthy of observation in this engagement?</p>
+<p>
+25. To whom did the victory fall?</p>
+<p>
+26. On what account were the Romans terrified by the appearance of the
+elephants?</p>
+<p>
+27. What completed the route?</p>
+<p>
+28. Was this victory cheaply purchased?</p>
+<p>
+29. What were the sensations of Pyrrhus on viewing the field of
+battle?</p>
+<p>
+30. What measures did he adopt after this victory?</p>
+<p>
+31. Were the arts of Cineas successful?</p>
+
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION III.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">In public life, severe,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">To virtue still inexorably firm;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">But when, beneath his low illustrious roof,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Sweet peace and happy wisdom smoothed his brow.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Not friendship softer was, nor love more kind.&mdash;<i>Thomson.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Being frustrated, therefore, in his expectations, Cin'eas returned
+to his master, extolling both the virtues and the grandeur of the
+Romans. The senate, he said, appeared a reverend assembly of
+demi-gods; and the city, a temple for their reception. 2. Of this
+Pyr'rhus soon after became sensible, by an embassy from Rome,
+concerning the ransom and exchange of prisoners. 3. At the head of
+this venerable deputation was Fabri'cius, an ancient senator, who had
+long been a pattern to his countrymen of the most extreme poverty,
+joined to the most cheerful content. 4. Pyr'rhus received this
+celebrated old man with great kindness; and willing to try how far
+fame had been just in his favour, offered him rich presents; but the
+Roman refused. 5. The day after, he was desirous of examining the
+equality of his temper, and ordered one of his largest elephants to be
+placed behind the tapestry, which, upon a signal given, being drawn
+aside, the huge animal raised its trunk above the ambassador's head,
+making a hideous noise, and using other arts to intimidate him. 6. But
+Fabri'cius, with an unchanged countenance, smiled upon the king, and
+told him, that he looked with an equal eye on the terrors of that day,
+as he had upon the allurements of the preceding. 7. Pyr'rhus, pleased
+to find so much virtue in one he had considered as a barbarian, was
+willing to grant him the only favour which he knew could make him
+happy; he released the Roman prisoners, entrusting them to Fabri'cius
+alone, upon his promise, that, in case the senate were determined to
+continue<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg. 141]</a></span> the war, he might reclaim them whenever he thought
+proper.</p>
+<p>
+8. By this time the Roman army was recovered from its late defeat, and
+Sulpi'cius and De'cius, the consuls for the following year, were
+placed at its head.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 474.</div>
+
+<p>
+9. The panic which had formerly seized it from the elephants, now
+began to wear off, and both armies met near the city of As'culum,
+pretty nearly equal in numbers. 10. Here again, after a long and
+obstinate fight, the Grecian discipline prevailed. The Romans, pressed
+on every side, particularly by the elephants, were obliged to retire
+to their camp, leaving six thousand men upon the field of battle. 11.
+But the enemy had no great reason to boast of their triumph, as they
+had four thousand slain. Pyr'rhus again observed, to a soldier who was
+congratulating him upon his victory, "Another such a triumph, and I
+shall be undone." This battle finished the campaign. 12. The next
+season began with equal vigour on both sides; Pyr'rhus having received
+new succours from home. 13. While the two armies were approaching, and
+yet but a small distance, from each other, a letter was brought to old
+Fabri'cius, the Roman general, from the king's physician, importing
+that, for a proper reward, he would take him off by poison, and thus
+rid the Romans of a powerful enemy, and a dangerous war. 14.
+Fabri'cius felt all the honest indignation at this base proposal that
+was consistent with his former character; he communicated it to his
+colleague, and instantly gave it as his opinion, that Pyr'rhus should
+be informed of the treachery that was plotted against him. 15.
+Accordingly, letters were despatched for that purpose, informing
+Pyr'rhus of the affair, and alleging his unfortunate choice of friends
+and enemies; that he had trusted and promoted murderers, while he
+directed his resentment against the generous and brave. 16. Pyr'rhus
+now began to find that these bold barbarians were, by degrees,
+schooled into refinement, and would not suffer him to be their
+superior, even in generosity. He received the message with as much
+amazement at their candour, as indignation at his physician's
+treachery. "Admirable Fabri'cius!" cried he, "it would be as easy to
+turn the sun from its course, as thee from the path of honour." 17.
+Then, making the proper inquiry among his servants, and having
+discovered the treason, he ordered his physician to be executed. 18.
+Not to be outdone in magnanimity, he immediately sent to Rome all his
+prisoners without ransom,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg. 142]</a></span> and again desired to negociate a peace:
+but the Romans still refused, upon any other conditions than had been
+offered before.</p>
+<p>
+19. After an interval of two years, Pyr'rhus, having increased his
+army by new levies, sent one part of it to oppose the march of
+Len'tulus, while he, with the other, went to attack Cu'rius Denta'tus,
+before his colleague could come up. 20. His principal aim was to
+surprise the enemy by night; but unfortunately, passing through woods,
+and the light failing him, his men lost their way; so that at the
+approach of morning, he saw himself in sight of the Roman camp, with
+the enemy drawn out ready to receive him. The vanguard of both armies
+soon met, in which the Romans had the advantage. 21. Soon after, a
+general engagement ensuing, Pyr'rhus, finding the balance of the
+victory turning still against him, had once more recourse to his
+elephants. 22. These, however, the Romans were now too well acquainted
+with, to feel any vain terrors from; and having found that fire was
+the most effectual means to repel them, they caused a number of balls
+to be made, composed of flax and rosin, which were lighted and thrown
+against them as they approached the ranks. 23. The elephants, rendered
+furious by the flame, and boldly opposed by the soldiers, could no
+longer be brought on; but ran back on their own army, bearing down
+their ranks, and filling all places with terror and confusion: thus
+victory, at length, declared in favour of Rome. 24. Pyr'rhus, in vain,
+attempted to stop the flight and slaughter of his troops; he lost not
+only twenty-three thousand of his best soldiers, but his camp was also
+taken. 25. This served as a new lesson to the Romans, who were ever
+open to improvement. They had formerly pitched their tents without
+order; but, by this new capture, they were taught to measure out their
+ground, and fortify the whole with a trench; so that many of their
+succeeding victories are to be ascribed to their improved method of
+encamping.</p>
+<p>
+26. Pyr'rhus, thus finding all hopes fruitless, resolved to leave
+Italy, where he found only desperate enemies, and faithless allies;
+accordingly, calling together the Taren'tines, he informed them that
+he had received assurances from Greece of speedy assistance, and
+desiring them to await the event with tranquillity, the night
+following he embarked his troops, and returned, undisturbed, into his
+native kingdom, with the remains of his shattered forces, leaving<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg. 143]</a></span>
+a garrison in Taren'tum merely to save appearances: and in this manner
+ended the war with Pyr'rhus, after six years' continuance.</p>
+<p>
+27. As for the poor luxurious Taren'tines, who were the original
+promoters of the war, they soon began to find a worse enemy in the
+garrison that was left for their defence, than in the Romans who
+attacked them from without. The hatred between them and Mi'lo, who
+commanded their citadel for Pyr'rhus, was become so great, that
+nothing but the fear of their old inveterate enemies, the Romans,
+could equal it. 28. In this distress they applied to the
+Carthaginians, who, with a large fleet, came and blocked up the port
+of Taren'tum; so that this unfortunate people, once famous through
+Italy for their refinements and pleasures, now saw themselves
+contended for by three different armies, without a choice of a
+conqueror. 29. At length, however, the Romans found means to bring
+over the garrison to their interest; after which they easily became
+masters of the city, and demolished its walls, granting the
+inhabitants liberty and protection.</p>
+
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What report did Cineas give of the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+2. By what means did Pyrrhus become convinced of its truth?</p>
+<p>
+3. Who headed this deputation?</p>
+<p>
+4. What reception did he experience?</p>
+<p>
+5. What farther trial was made of his disposition?</p>
+<p>
+6. What effect did this produce in Fabricius?</p>
+<p>
+7. In what way did Pyrrhus evince his satisfaction?</p>
+<p>
+8. In what state was the Roman army at this time?</p>
+<p>
+9. Where did the rival armies meet?</p>
+<p>
+10. What was the event of the engagement?</p>
+<p>
+11. Did it cost the enemy dear?</p>
+<p>
+12. Was the war continued?</p>
+<p>
+13. What proposal was made to Fabricius?</p>
+<p>
+14. How was this proposal received?</p>
+<p>
+15. How was this done?</p>
+<p>
+16. What effect had this conduct on Pyrrhus?</p>
+<p>
+17. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+18. What return did he make to the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+19. How was this war carried on?</p>
+<p>
+20. What views had he in this, and how did they succeed?</p>
+<p>
+21. What expedient did Pyrrhus have recourse to, to insure the
+victory?</p>
+<p>
+22. How did the Romans endeavour to counteract it?</p>
+<p>
+23. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+24. What loss did Pyrrhus sustain?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg. 144]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+25. What advantage did the Romans gain from this victory?</p>
+<p>
+26. What resolution did Pyrrhus form, and how did he effect it?</p>
+<p>
+27. What became of the Tarentines?</p>
+<p>
+28. To whom did they have recourse?</p>
+<p>
+29. How did this terminate?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_103" id="Fnote_1_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_103">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ An additional instance of the severity with which
+military discipline was maintained among the Romans, happened a short
+time previous to this: L. Papir'ius Cursor, the dictator, having
+occasion to quit the army and repair to Rome, strictly forbade Q.
+Fa'bius Rullia'nus, his master of the horse, to venture a battle in
+his absence. This order Fa'bius disobeyed, and gained a complete
+victory. Instead, however, of finding success a palliation of his
+offence, he was immediately condemned by the stern dictator to expiate
+his breach of discipline by death. In spite of the mutinous
+disposition of the army&mdash;in spite of the intercessions and threats,
+both of the senate and people, Papir'ius persisted in his resolution:
+but what menaces and powerful interposition could not obtain, was
+granted to the prayers and tears of the criminal's relatives; and
+Fa'bius lived to fill some of the highest offices of the state, with
+honour to himself and infinite advantage to his country. (Liv. l. 8.
+c. 30. 35.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_104" id="Fnote_2_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_104">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This gives but an indifferent idea of the military skill
+of those ages.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_105" id="Fnote_3_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_105">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ It appears, however, to have suffered a diminution of its
+honour on this occasion, by breaking every article of the treaty of
+peace extorted from Posthu'mius. As some atonement for this breach of
+faith, they delivered Posthu'mius, and those who signed the treaty,
+into the hands of the Samnites, to do with them as they thought fit;
+but this generous people instantly set them at liberty. Liv. l. 9. c.
+8-11.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_106" id="Fnote_4_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_106">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ U.C. 447. About this time Appius Claudius, the censor,
+constructed an aqueduct, seven miles long, for supplying Rome with
+water, and that famous road from Rome to Capua, which still remains,
+the admiration of all Europe.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_107" id="Fnote_5_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_107">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Epi'rus, a country situated between Macedonia, Achaia,
+and the Ionian sea. (Strabo.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_6_108" id="Fnote_6_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_108">[6]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Demos'thenes, famous for his bold and nervous style of
+oratory, flourished at Athens about 320 years before the Christian
+era.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_7_109" id="Fnote_7_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_109">[7]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Taren'tum, now Taren'to, was a town of Calabria, in
+Italy, situate on a bay of the same name, near the mouth of the river
+Gale'sus: it was celebrated for its fine harbour. (Strabo.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_8_110" id="Fnote_8_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_110">[8]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Cin'eas is said to have possessed so retentive a memory,
+that the day after his arrival at Rome, he could salute every senator
+and knight by name.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2><hr /> <br /> <br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.</h4><br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR, TO THE BEGINNING OF THE
+SECOND, WHEN THE ROMANS BEGAN TO GROW POWERFUL BY SEA.&mdash;U.C. 493.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">In every heart</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Are sown the sparks that kindle fiery war,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Occasion needs but fan them, and they blaze.&mdash;<i>Cowper</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The Romans having destroyed all rival pretensions at home, began to
+pant after foreign conquests. 2. The Carthagin'ians were at that time
+in possession of the greatest part of Sicily, and, like the Romans,
+only wanted an opportunity of embroiling the natives, in order to
+become masters of the whole island. 3. This opportunity at length
+offered. Hi'ero, king of Sy'racuse, one of the states of that island,
+which was as yet unconquered, entreated their aid against the
+Mam'ertines, an insignificant people of the same country, and they
+sent him supplies both by sea and land. 4. The Mam'ertines, on the
+other hand, to shield off impending ruin, put themselves under the
+protection of Rome. 5. The Romans, not thinking the Mam'ertines worthy
+of the name of allies, instead of professing to assist them, boldly
+declared war against Carthage; alleging as a reason, the assistance
+which Carthage had lately sent to the southern parts of Italy against
+the Romans. In this manner a war was declared between two powerful
+states, both too great to continue patient spectators of each other's
+increase.</p>
+<p>
+6. Carthage, a colony of the Ph&oelig;ni'cians, was built on the coast of
+Africa, near the place where Tunis now stands, about a hundred and
+thirty-seven years before the foundation of Rome. 7. As it had been
+long growing into power, so it had extended its dominions all along
+the coasts: but its chief strength lay in its fleets and commerce. 8.
+Thus circumstanced, these two great powers began what is called the
+First Punic war. The Carthagin'ians were possessed<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg. 145]</a></span> of gold and
+silver, which might be exhausted; the Romans were famous for
+perseverance, patriotism, and poverty, which gathered strength by
+every defeat.</p>
+<p>
+9. But there seemed to be an insurmountable obstacle to the ambitious
+views of Rome, as they had no fleet, or at least none that deserved
+the title; while the Carthagin'ians had the entire command at sea, and
+kept all the maritime towns in obedience.<a name="FNanchor_1_111" id="FNanchor_1_111"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_111" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> 10. In such a situation,
+under disadvantages which nature seemed to have imposed, any people
+but the Romans would have rested; but nothing could conquer or
+intimidate them. 11. A Carthagin'ian vessel happened to be driven on
+shore, in a storm, and this was sufficient to serve as a model. They
+began to apply themselves to maritime affairs; and though without
+shipwrights to build, or seamen to navigate a fleet, they resolved to
+surmount every obstacle with inflexible perseverance. 12. The consul
+Duil'ius was the first who ventured to sea with his new-constructed
+armament; he proceeded in quest of the enemy, whom he met near the
+Lipari islands; and by means of grappling-irons, he so connected the
+ships of the Carthaginians with his own, that the combat became a sort
+of land-fight. By this man&oelig;uvre, though his own force was far
+inferior to that of the enemy, he gained for Rome her first naval
+triumph, taking from the Carthaginians fifty ships, and what they
+valued still more, the undisturbed sovereignty of the sea. At Rome
+medals were struck and a column was erected in commemoration of the
+victory. This column, called Columna Rostrata, because adorned with
+the beaks of ships, was struck down by lightning in the interval
+between the second and third Punic wars. A new column was erected by
+the Emperor Claudius, and the inscription restored, though probably
+modernized. It still exists in a state of partial preservation.</p>
+<p>
+13. The Romans soon invaded Sicily, and gained some signal successes,
+principally by the aid of their ally, king Hi'ero. On one occasion the
+consul Calati'nus was entrapped by the Carthaginians in a defile, and
+would certainly have<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg. 146]</a></span> been destroyed but for the bravery of the
+military tribune Calpur'nius Flem'ma, who, with three hundred resolute
+men, possessed himself of a neighbouring eminence, and so engaged the
+attention of the Carthaginians, that the Roman army escaped with very
+little opposition. This band of heroes was slaughtered to a man, and
+Calpur'nius himself fell dreadfully wounded, but afterwards recovered,
+and was rewarded with a corona graminis, or crown made of grass. But
+notwithstanding their repeated triumphs, the Romans discovered that
+the conquest of Sicily was only to be obtained by humbling the power
+of Carthage at home. For this reason the senate resolved to carry the
+war into Africa itself, and accordingly they sent Reg'ulus and
+Man'lius, with a fleet of three hundred sail, to make the invasion.
+14. Reg'ulus was reckoned the most consummate warrior that Rome could
+then produce, and a professed example of frugal severity. His
+patriotism was still greater than his temperance: all private passions
+seemed extinguished in him; at least they were swallowed up in one
+great ruling affection, the love of his country. 15. The two generals
+set sail with their fleet, which was the greatest that had ever yet
+left an Italian port, carrying a hundred and forty thousand men. They
+were met by the Carthagin'ians with a fleet equally powerful, and men
+more used to the sea. 16. While the fight continued at a distance, the
+Carthagin'ians seemed successful; but when the Romans came to grapple
+with them, the difference between a mercenary army and one that fought
+for fame, was apparent. 17. The resolution of the Romans was crowned
+with success; the enemy's fleet was dispersed, and fifty-four of their
+vessels taken. 18. The consequence of this victory was an immediate
+descent upon the coast of Africa, and the capture of the city Clu'pea,
+together with twenty thousand men, who were made prisoners of war.
+While Reg'ulus lay encamped here, near the river Bagra'da, he is said
+to have slain a monstrous serpent by the help of his battering
+engines. Its skin, which was one hundred and twenty feet long, was
+sent to Rome and preserved for a long time with great care.</p>
+<p>
+19. The senate being informed of these great successes, and applied to
+for fresh instructions, commanded Man'lius back to Italy, in order to
+superintend the Sicilian war, and directed that Reg'ulus should
+continue in Africa to prosecute his victories there.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg. 147]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image08.jpg"
+alt="The army of Regulus destroying the serpent."
+title="The army of Regulus destroying the serpent." width="538" height="323" />
+</div>
+<p>
+20. A battle ensued, in which Carthage was once more defeated, and
+17,000 of its best troops were cut off. This fresh victory contributed
+to throw them into the utmost despair; for more than eighty of their
+towns submitted to the Romans. 21. In this distress, the
+Carthagin'ians, destitute of generals at home, were obliged to send to
+Laced&aelig;'mon, offering the command of their armies to Xantip'pus, a
+general of great experience, who undertook to conduct them.</p>
+<p>
+22. This general began by giving the magistrates proper instructions
+for levying their men; he assured them that their armies were hitherto
+overthrown, not by the strength of the enemy, but by the ignorance of
+their own commanders; he, therefore, required a ready obedience to his
+orders, and assured them of an easy victory. 23. The whole city seemed
+once more revived from despondence by the exhortations of a single
+stranger, and soon from hope grew into confidence. 24. This was the
+spirit the Grecian general wished to excite in them; so that when he
+saw them thus ripe for the engagement, he joyfully took the field. 25.
+The Laced&aelig;mo'nian made the most skilful disposition of his forces; he
+placed his cavalry in the wings; he disposed the elephants at proper
+intervals, behind the line of the heavy-armed infantry, and bringing
+up the light-armed troops before, he ordered them to retire through
+the line of infantry, after they had discharged their weapons. 26. At
+length both armies engaged; after a long and obstinate resistance the
+Romans were overthrown with dreadful slaughter, the greatest part of
+their army destroyed, and Reg'ulus himself<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg. 148]</a></span> taken prisoner. 27.
+Several other distresses of the Romans followed soon after. They lost
+their fleet in a storm, and Agrigen'tum, their principal town in
+Sicily, was taken by Karth'alo, the Carthagin'ian general. They built
+a new fleet, which shared the fate of the former; for the mariners, as
+yet unacquainted with the Mediterranean shores, drove upon quicksands,
+and soon after the greater part perished in a storm.<a name="FNanchor_2_112" id="FNanchor_2_112"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_112" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What did the Romans now desire?</p>
+<p>
+2. What state afforded them an opportunity for this purpose?</p>
+<p>
+3. Were their wishes gratified, and how?</p>
+<p>
+4. What measures did the Mamertines adopt?</p>
+<p>
+5. Did the Romans afford them the assistance they requested?</p>
+<p>
+6. Where was Carthage situated, and when was it built?</p>
+<p>
+7. Was it a powerful state?</p>
+<p>
+8. Had the Romans or the Carthaginians the means most likely to insure
+success?</p>
+<p>
+9. Were Rome and Carthage on an equal footing in other respects?</p>
+<p>
+10. Did the Romans attempt to overcome this obstacle?</p>
+<p>
+11. What assisted their endeavours?</p>
+<p>
+12. Who was their first naval commander, and what was his success?</p>
+<p>
+13. What were the means adopted to conquer Sicily?</p>
+<p>
+14. What was the character of Regulus?</p>
+<p>
+15. What was the amount of the force on both sides?</p>
+<p>
+16. On what side did the advantage lie?</p>
+<p>
+17. With whom did the victory remain?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the consequence of this victory?</p>
+<p>
+19. What were the orders of the senate?</p>
+<p>
+20. What was the next event deserving notice, and its consequences?</p>
+<p>
+21. To what expedient were the Carthaginians obliged to have recourse?</p>
+<p>
+22. What were the first acts of this general?</p>
+<p>
+23. What were the effects his arrival produced?</p>
+<p>
+24. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+25. In what way was the Carthaginian army drawn up?</p>
+<p>
+26. What was the event of the battle?</p>
+<p>
+27. What other disasters did the Romans encounter?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg. 149]</a></span></p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Who has not heard the Fulvian heroes sung</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Dentatus' scars, or Mutius' flaming hand?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">How Manlius saved the capitol? the choice</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Of steady Regulus?&mdash;<i>Dyer.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The Carthagin'ians being thus successful, were desirous of a new
+treaty for peace, hoping to have better terms than those insisted upon
+by Reg'ulus. They supposed that he, whom they had now for four years
+kept in a dungeon, confined and chained, would be a proper solicitor.
+It was expected that, being wearied with imprisonment and bondage, he
+would gladly endeavour to persuade his countrymen to a discontinuance
+of the war which prolonged his captivity. 2. He was accordingly sent
+with their ambassadors to Rome, under a promise, previously exacted
+from him, to return in case of being unsuccessful. He was even given
+to understand that his life depended upon the success of his
+negociation.</p>
+<p>
+3. When this old general, together with the ambassadors of Carthage,
+approached Rome, numbers of his friends came out to meet him, and
+congratulate him on his return. 4. Their acclamations resounded
+through the city; but Reg'ulus refused, with settled melancholy, to
+enter the gates. In vain he was entreated on every side to visit once
+more his little dwelling, and share in that joy which his return had
+inspired. He persisted in saying that he was now a slave belonging to
+the Carthagin'ians, and unfit to partake in the liberal honours of his
+country. 5. The senate assembling without the walls, as usual, to give
+audience to the ambassadors, Reg'ulus opened his commission as he had
+been directed by the Carthagin'ian council, and their ambassadors
+seconded his proposals. 6. The senate themselves, who were weary of a
+war which had been protracted above fourteen years, were no way
+disinclinable to a peace. It only remained for Reg'ulus himself to
+give his opinion. 7. When it came to his turn to speak, to the
+surprise of the whole, he gave his voice for continuing the war. 8. So
+unexpected an advice not a little disturbed the senate: they pitied as
+well as admired a man who had used such eloquence against his private
+interest, and could conclude upon<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg. 150]</a></span> a measure which was to
+terminate in his own ruin. 9. But he soon relieved their embarrassment
+by breaking off the treaty, and by rising, in order to return to his
+bonds and his confinement. 10. In vain did the senate and his dearest
+friends entreat his stay; he still repressed their solicitations.
+Marcia, his wife, with her children, vainly entreated to be permitted
+to see him: he still obstinately persisted in keeping his promise; and
+though sufficiently apprised of the tortures that awaited his return,
+without embracing his family, or taking leave of his friends, he
+departed with the ambassadors for Carthage.</p>
+<p>
+11. Nothing could equal the fury and the disappointment of the
+Carthagin'ians, when they, were informed by their ambassadors that
+Regulus, instead of hastening a peace, had given his opinion for
+continuing the war. 12. They accordingly prepared to punish his
+conduct with the most studied tortures. His eye-lids were cut off, and
+he was remanded to prison. After some days, he was again brought out
+from his dark and dismal dungeon, and exposed with, his face opposite
+the burning sun. At last, when malice was fatigued studying all the
+arts of torture, he was put into a sort of barrel, stuck full of
+spikes, and in this painful position he continued till he died.</p>
+<p>
+13. Both sides now took up arms with more than former animosity. At
+length, Roman perseverance was crowned with success; and one victory
+followed on the back of another. Fa'bius Bu'teo, the consul, once more
+showed them the way to naval victory, by defeating a large squadron of
+the enemy's ships; but Luta'tius Cat'ulus gained a victory still more
+complete, in which the power of Carthage seemed totally destroyed at
+sea, by the loss of a hundred and twenty ships. 14. This loss
+compelled the Carthagin'ians again to sue for peace, which Rome
+thought proper to grant; but still inflexible in its demands, exacted
+the same conditions which Reg'ulus had formerly offered at the gates
+of Carthage. 15. These were, that they should lay down a thousand
+talents of silver, to defray the charge of the war, and should pay two
+thousand two hundred more within ten years; that they should quit
+Sicily, with all such islands as they possessed near it; that they
+should never make war against the allies of Rome, nor come with any
+vessels of war within the Roman dominions; and lastly, that all their
+prisoners and deserters should be delivered up without ransom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 513.</div>
+
+<p>
+16. To these hard<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg. 151]</a></span> conditions, the Carthagin'ians, now exhausted,
+readily subscribed; and thus ended the first Punic war, which had
+lasted twenty-four years; and, in some measure, had drained both
+nations of their resources.</p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What were the Carthaginians now desirous of obtaining?</p>
+<p>
+2. Was Regulus employed for this purpose?</p>
+<p>
+3. How was Regulus received by the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+4. What was the conduct of Regulus on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+5. How did the negociation commence?</p>
+<p>
+6. Were the Romans inclined for peace?</p>
+<p>
+7. What was the opinion of Regulus?</p>
+<p>
+8. What was the effect of this advice?</p>
+<p>
+9. How did Regulus put an end to their embarrassment?</p>
+<p>
+10. Could he not be prevailed on to remain at Rome?</p>
+<p>
+11. How did the Carthaginians receive an account of his conduct?</p>
+<p>
+12. In what way did they punish him?</p>
+<p>
+13. With what success was the war continued?</p>
+<p>
+14. What was the consequence of this loss?</p>
+<p>
+15. What were these terms?</p>
+<p>
+16. Were they agreed to? What was the duration of the first Punic war?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_111" id="Fnote_1_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_111">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The vessels in which they had hitherto transported their
+troops, were principally hired from their neighbours the Locrians,
+Tarentines, &amp;c. It is certain that the Romans had ships of war before
+this period; but from the little attention they had hitherto paid to
+naval affairs, they were, probably, badly constructed and ill
+managed.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_112" id="Fnote_2_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_112">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The Romans considering these two disasters as indications
+of the will of the gods that they should not contend by sea, made a
+decree that no more than fifty galleys should, for the future, be
+equipped. This decree, however, did not continue long in force,</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.</h4><br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE END OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR TO THE END OF THE SECOND.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Spain first he won, the Pyrenieans pass'd,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And sleepy Alps, the mounds that nature cast;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And with corroding juices, as he went,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">A passage through the living rocks he rent,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Then, like a torrent rolling from on high,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">He pours his headlong rage on Italy.&mdash;<i>Juvenal</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The war being ended between the Carthagin'ians and Romans, a
+profound peace ensued, and in about six years after, the temple of
+Ja'nus was shut for the second time since the foundation of the
+city.<a name="FNanchor_1_113" id="FNanchor_1_113"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_113" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> 2. The Romans being thus in friendship with all nations, had
+an opportunity of turning to the arts of peace; they now began to have
+a relish for poetry, the first liberal art which rises in every
+civilized nation, and the first also that decays. 3. Hitherto they had
+been entertained only with the rude drolleries of<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg. 152]</a></span> their lowest
+buffoons, who entertained them with sports called Fescen'nine, in
+which a few debauched actors invented their own parts, while raillery
+and indecency supplied the place of humour. 4. To these a composition
+of a higher kind succeeded, called satire; a sort of dramatic poem, in
+which the characters of the great were particularly, pointed out, and
+made an object of derision to the vulgar.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 514.</div>
+
+<p>
+5. After these, came tragedy and comedy, which were borrowed from the
+Greeks: indeed, the first dramatic poet of Rome, whose name was
+Liv'ius Andronicus, was a native of one of the Greek colonies in
+southern Italy. 6. The instant these finer kinds of composition
+appeared, this great people rejected their former impurities with
+disdain. From thenceforward they laboured upon the Grecian model; and
+though they were never able to rival their masters in dramatic
+composition, they soon surpassed them in many of the more soothing
+kinds of poetry. Elegiac, pastoral, and didactic compositions began to
+assume new beauties in the Roman language; and satire, not that rude
+kind of dialogue already mentioned, but a nobler sort, was all their
+own.</p>
+<p>
+7. While they were thus cultivating the arts of peace, they were not
+unmindful of making fresh preparations for war; intervals of ease
+seemed to give fresh vigour for new designs, rather than relax their
+former intrepidity.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 527.</div>
+
+<p>
+8. The Illyr'ians were the first people upon whom they tried their
+strength. That nation happened to make depredations upon some of the
+trading subjects of Rome, which being complained of to Teuta, the
+queen of the country, she, instead of granting redress, ordered the
+ambassadors, who were sent to demand restitution, to be murdered. 9. A
+war ensued, in which the Romans were victorious; most of the Illy'ric
+towns were surrendered to the consuls, and a peace at last concluded,
+by which the greatest part of the country was ceded to Rome; a yearly
+tribute was exacted for the rest, and a prohibition added, that the
+Illyr'ians should not sail beyond the river Lissus with more than two
+barks, and those unarmed.</p>
+<p>
+10. The Gauls were the next people that incurred the displeasure of
+the Romans. 11. A time of peace, when the armies were disbanded, was
+the proper season for new irruptions; accordingly, these barbarians
+invited fresh forces from beyond the Alps, and entering Etru'ria,
+wasted all with fire and sword, till they came within about three
+days' journey<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg. 153]</a></span> of Rome. 12. A pr&aelig;tor and a consul were sent to
+oppose them, who, now instructed in the improved arts of war, were
+enabled to surround the Gauls. 13. It was in vain that those hardy
+troops, who had nothing but courage to protect them, formed two fronts
+to oppose their adversaries; their naked bodies and undisciplined
+forces were unable to withstand the shock of an enemy completely
+armed, and skilled in military evolutions. 14. A miserable slaughter
+ensued, in which forty thousand were killed, and ten thousand taken
+prisoners. 15. This victory was followed by another, gained by
+Marcel'lus, in which he killed Viridoma'rus, their king, with his own
+hand. 16. These conquests forced them to beg for peace, the conditions
+of which served greatly to enlarge the empire. Thus the Romans went on
+with success; retrieved their former losses, and only wanted an enemy
+worthy of their arms to begin a new war.</p>
+<p>
+17. The Carthagin'ians had made peace solely because they were no
+longer able to continue the war. They, therefore, took the earliest
+opportunity of breaking the treaty, and besieged Sagun'tum, a city of
+Spain, which had been in alliance with Rome; and, though desired to
+desist, prosecuted their operations with vigour. 18. Ambassadors were
+sent, in consequence, from Rome to Carthage, complaining of the
+infraction of their articles, and required that Han'nibal, the
+Carthagin'ian general, who had advised this measure, should be
+delivered up: which being refused, both sides prepared for a second
+Punic war.</p>
+<p>
+19. The Carthaginians trusted the management of it to Han'nibal. 20.
+This extraordinary man had been made the sworn foe of Rome, almost
+from his infancy; for, while yet very young, his father brought him
+before the altar, and obliged him to take an oath, that he would never
+be in friendship with the Romans, nor desist from opposing their
+power, until he or they should be no more. 21. On his first appearance
+in the field, he united in his own person the most masterly method of
+commanding, with the most perfect obedience to his superiors. Thus he
+was equally beloved by his generals, and the troops he was appointed
+to lead. 22. He was possessed of the greatest courage in opposing
+danger, and the greatest presence of mind in retiring from it. No
+fatigue was able to subdue his body, nor any misfortune to break his
+spirit; he was equally patient of heat and cold, and he took
+sustenance merely to content<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg. 154]</a></span> nature, not to delight his appetite.
+He was the best horseman and the swiftest runner, of the time. 23.
+This great general, who is considered as the most skilful commander of
+antiquity, having overrun all Spain, and levied a large army composed
+of various nations, resolved to carry the war into Italy itself, as
+the Romans had before carried it into the dominions of Carthage. 24.
+For this purpose, leaving Hanno with a sufficient force to guard his
+conquests in Spain, he crossed the Pyrene'an mountains into Gaul, with
+an army of fifty thousand foot, and nine thousand horse. He quickly
+traversed that country, which was then wild and extensive, and filled
+with nations that were his declared enemies.</p>
+<p>
+25. In vain its forests and rivers appeared to intimidate; in vain the
+Rhone, with its rapid current, and its banks covered with enemies, or
+the Dura branched out into numberless channels, opposed his way; he
+passed them all with undaunted spirit, and in ten days arrived at the
+foot of the Alps, over which he was to explore a new passage into
+Italy. 26. It was in the midst of winter when this astonishing project
+was undertaken. The season added new horrors to the scene. The
+prodigious height and tremendous steepness of these mountains, capped
+with snow; the people barbarous and fierce, dressed in skins, and with
+long shaggy hair, presented a picture that impressed the beholders
+with astonishment and terror. 27. But nothing was capable of subduing
+the courage of the Carthaginian general. At the end of fifteen days,
+spent in crossing the Alps, he found himself in the plains of Italy,
+with about half his army; the other half having died of cold, or been
+cut off by the natives.</p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the consequence of the conclusion of the first Punic war?</p>
+<p>
+2. What advantages did the Romans derive from this interval of peace?</p>
+<p>
+3. What species of entertainment had they hitherto enjoyed?</p>
+<p>
+4. What succeeded these low buffooneries?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the next species, and from whom was it borrowed?</p>
+<p>
+6. Did their former amusements still continue to please?</p>
+<p>
+7. Were the Romans attentive only to the arts of peace?</p>
+<p>
+8. Who first incurred their resentment, and what was their offence?</p>
+<p>
+9. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+10. Who next incurred the displeasure of the Romans?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg. 155]</a></span> 11. What was
+their offence, and what favourable opportunity did they choose?</p>
+<p>
+12. What steps were taken to oppose them?</p>
+<p>
+13. Did the Gauls make any effectual resistance?</p>
+<p>
+14. What was the result of the battle?</p>
+<p>
+15. Did this victory decide the contest?</p>
+<p>
+16. What advantages occurred to the Romans from this war?</p>
+<p>
+17. Were the Carthaginians sincere in their overture for peace?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the consequence of this refusal?</p>
+<p>
+19. To whom was the conduct of the war committed by the Carthaginians?</p>
+<p>
+20. What rendered Hannibal particularly eligible to this post?</p>
+<p>
+21. Was he a favourite with the army?</p>
+<p>
+22. Describe his corporeal and mental qualifications?</p>
+<p>
+23. What resolution did he adopt?</p>
+<p>
+24. What measures did he take for that purpose?</p>
+<p>
+25. Was he not deterred by the dangers of the way?</p>
+<p>
+26. What rendered this passage peculiarly difficult?</p>
+<p>
+27. Did these horrors render the attempt unsuccessful?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">With Hannibal I cleft yon Alpine rocks.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">With Hannibal choked Thrasymene with slaughter;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">But, O the night of Cann&aelig;'s raging field!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">When half the Roman senate lay in blood.&mdash;<i>Young</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. As soon as it was known at Rome, that Han'nibal, at the head of an
+immense army, was crossing the Alps, the senate sent Scip'io to oppose
+him; the armies met near the little river Tici'nus, and the Roman
+general was obliged to retreat with considerable loss. 2. In the mean
+time, Han'nibal, thus victorious, took the most prudent precautions to
+increase his army; giving orders always to spare the possessions of
+the Gauls, while depredations were committed upon those of Rome; and
+this so pleased that simple people, that they declared for him in
+great numbers, and flocked to his standard with alacrity.</p>
+<p>
+3. The second battle was fought upon the banks of the river Tre'bia.
+4. The Carthaginian general, being apprised of the Roman impetuosity,
+of which he availed himself in almost every engagement, had sent off a
+thousand horse, each with a foot soldier behind, to cross the river,
+to ravage the enemy's country, and provoke them to engage. The Romans
+quickly routed this force. Seeming to be defeated, they took the
+river, and were as eagerly pursued by Sempro'nius, the consul. No
+sooner had his army attained the opposite bank, than he perceived
+himself half-conquered, his men being fatigued with wading up to their
+arm-pits, and quite benumbed by the intense coldness of the water<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg. 156]</a></span>
+5. A total route ensued; twenty-six thousand of the Romans were either
+killed by the enemy, or drowned in attempting to repass the river. A
+body of ten thousand men were all that survived; who, finding
+themselves enclosed on every side, broke desperately through the
+enemy's ranks, and fought, retreating, till they found shelter in the
+city of Placentia.</p>
+<p>
+6. The third defeat the Romans sustained was at the lake of
+Thrasyme'ne, near to which was a chain of mountains, and between these
+and the lake, a narrow passage leading to a valley that was embosomed
+in hills. It was upon these hills that Han'nibal disposed his best
+troops and it was into this valley that Flamin'ius, the Roman general,
+led his men to attack him. 7. A disposition every way so favourable
+for the Carthaginians, was also assisted by accident; for a mist
+rising from the lake, kept the Romans from seeing their enemies; while
+the army upon the mountains, being above its influence, saw the whole
+disposition of their opponents. 8. The fortune of the day was such as
+might be expected from the conduct of the two generals. The Roman army
+was slaughtered, almost before they could perceive the enemy that
+destroyed them. About fifteen thousand Romans, with Flamin'ius
+himself, fell in the valley, and six thousand more were obliged to
+yield themselves prisoners of war.</p>
+<p>
+9. Upon the news of this defeat, after the general consternation was
+allayed, the senate resolved to elect a commander with absolute
+authority, in whom they might repose their last and greatest
+expectations. 10. The choice fell upon Fa'bius Max'imus, a man of
+great courage, with a happy mixture of caution. 11. He was apprised
+that the only way to humble the Carthaginians at such a distance from
+home, was rather by harassing than fighting. For this purpose, he
+always encamped upon the highest grounds, inaccessible to the enemy's
+cavalry. Whenever they moved, he watched their motions, straitened
+their quarters, and cut off their provisions.</p>
+<p>
+12. By these arts, Fa'bius had actually, at one time, enclosed
+Han'nibal among mountains, where it was impossible to winter, and from
+which it was almost impracticable to extricate his army without
+imminent danger. 13. In this exigence, nothing but one of those
+stratagems of war, which only men of great abilities invent, could
+save him. 14. He ordered a number of small faggots and lighted torches
+to be<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg. 157]</a></span> tied to the horns of two thousand oxen, which should be
+driven towards the enemy. These, tossing their heads, and funning up
+the sides of the mountain, seemed to fill the whole neighbouring
+forest with fire; while the sentinels that were placed to guard the
+approaches to the mountain, seeing such a number of flames advancing
+towards their posts, fled in consternation, supposing the whole body
+of the enemy was in arms to overwhelm them. 15. By this stratagem
+Han'nibal drew off his army, and escaped through the defiles that led
+beneath the hills, though with considerable damage to his rear.</p>
+<p>
+16. Fa'bius, still pursuing the same judicious measures, followed
+Han'nibal in all his movements, but at length received a letter from
+the senate, recalling him to Rome, on pretence of a solemn sacrifice,
+requiring his presence. 17. On his departure from the army, he
+strictly charged Minu'tius, his general of the horse, not to hazard an
+engagement in his absence. This command he disobeyed, and Fa'bius
+expressed his determination to punish so flagrant a breach of military
+discipline. 18. The senate, however, favouring Minu'tius, gave him an
+equal authority with the dictator. 19. On the arrival of Fa'bius at
+the camp, he divided the army with Minu'tius, and each pursued his own
+separate plan. 20. By artful management, Han'nibal soon brought the
+troops of the latter to an engagement, and they would have been cut
+off to a man, had not Fa'bius sacrificed his private resentment to the
+public good, and hastened to the relief of his colleague. 21. By their
+united forces Han'nibal was repulsed, and Minu'tius, conscious of his
+rashness, resigned the supreme command into the hands of the dictator.</p>
+<p>
+22. On the expiration of his year of office, Fa'bius resigned, and
+Taren'tius Varro was chosen to the command. 23. Varro was a man sprung
+from the dregs of the people, with nothing but confidence and riches
+to recommend him. 24. With him was joined &AElig;mil'ius Paulus, of a
+disposition entirely opposite; experienced, in the field, cautious in
+action, and impressed with a thorough contempt for the abilities of
+his plebeian colleague.</p>
+<p>
+25. The Romans finding themselves enabled to bring a competent force
+into the field, being almost ninety thousand strong, now again
+resolved to meet Han'nibal, who was at this time encamped near the
+village of Cann&aelig;, with a wind in his rear, that, for a certain season,
+blows constantly one<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg. 158]</a></span> way, which, raising great clouds of dust
+from the parched plains behind, he knew must greatly distress an
+approaching enemy. In this situation he waited the coming of the
+Romans with an army of forty thousand foot, and half that number of
+cavalry. 26. The consuls soon appeared to his wish, dividing their
+forces into two parts, and agreeing to take the command each day by
+turns. 27. On the first day of their arrival, &AElig;mil'ius was entirely
+averse to engaging. The next day, however, it being Varro's turn to
+command, he, without asking his colleague's concurrence, gave the
+signal for battle: and passing the river Au'fidus, that lay between
+both armies, put his forces in array. 28. The battle began with the
+light-armed infantry; the horse engaged soon after; but the cavalry
+being unable to stand against those of Numid'ia, the legions came up
+to reinforce them. It was then that the conflict became general; the
+Roman soldiers endeavoured, in vain, to penetrate the centre, where
+the Gauls and Spaniards fought; which Han'nibal observing, he ordered
+part of those troops to give way, and to permit the Romans to embosom
+themselves within a chosen body of his Africans, whom he had placed on
+their wings, so as to surround them; upon that a terrible slaughter of
+the Romans ensued, fatigued with repeated attacks of the Africans, who
+were fresh and vigorous. 29. At last the rout became general in every
+part of the Roman army; the boastings of Varro were now no longer
+heard: while &AElig;mil'ius, who had been wounded by a slinger, feebly led
+on his body of horse, and did all that could be done to make head
+against the enemy. 30. Unable to sit on horseback, he was forced to
+dismount. It was in these deplorable circumstances, that one
+Len'tulus, a tribune of the army, flying from the enemy, who at some
+distance pursued him, met &AElig;mil'ius, sitting upon a stone, covered with
+blood and wounds, and waiting for the coming up of the pursuers. 31.
+"&AElig;mil'ius," cried the generous tribune, "you, at least, are guiltless
+of this day's slaughter; take my horse and fly." "I thank thee,
+Len'tulus," cried the dying consul, "all is over, my part is chosen.
+Go, and tell the senate to fortify Rome against the approach of the
+conqueror. Tell Fa'bius, that &AElig;mil'ius, while living, ever remembered
+his advice; and now, dying, approves it." 32. While he was yet
+speaking, the enemy approached; and Len'tulus at some distance saw the
+consul expire, feebly fighting in the midst of hundreds. 33. In this
+battle the Romans lost fifty thousand men, and so<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg. 159]</a></span> many knights,
+that it is said that Han'nibal sent three bushels of gold rings to
+Carthage, which those of this order wore on their fingers.<a name="FNanchor_2_114" id="FNanchor_2_114"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_114" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What measures were adopted by the Romans when they heard of
+Hannibal's approach?</p>
+<p>
+2. What precautions did Hannibal take?</p>
+<p>
+3. Where was the next battle fought?</p>
+<p>
+4. What was the stratagem employed by Hannibal?</p>
+<p>
+5. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+6. Where was the next engagement?</p>
+<p>
+7. Was this a judicious disposition of the Roman general?</p>
+<p>
+8. What was the result?</p>
+<p>
+9. What expedient did the senate adopt on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+10. Who was chosen to this office?</p>
+<p>
+11. What method of fighting did he adopt?</p>
+<p>
+12. What was the success of this plan?</p>
+<p>
+13. Was his situation hopeless?</p>
+<p>
+14. Describe his stratagem and its consequences?</p>
+<p>
+15. Did it answer his purpose?</p>
+<p>
+16. Was Fabius continued in office?</p>
+<p>
+17, 18. Of what disobedience was Minutius guilty? Was he punished?</p>
+<p>
+19. How was the army divided?</p>
+<p>
+20, 21. What plan did Fabius pursue? How was its superiority proved?</p>
+<p>
+22, 23, 24. Who succeeded Fabius? What was his character, and that of
+his colleague?</p>
+<p>
+25. How were the Carthaginians posted at Cann&aelig;?</p>
+<p>
+26, 27. How did the consuls behave? How did Varro act?</p>
+<p>
+28. What were the circumstances of the engagement?</p>
+<p>
+29. How did the battle terminate?</p>
+<p>
+30. What was the fate of &AElig;milius?</p>
+<p>
+31. What generous offer was made by Lentulus?</p>
+<p>
+32. Did the consul accept the tribune's offer?</p>
+<p>
+33. Was the loss of the Romans severe?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg. 160]</a></span></p>
+
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION III.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">The storming Hannibal</span><br />
+<span class="i2">In vain the thunder of the battle rolled.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The thunder of the battle they returned</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Back on his Punic shores.&mdash;<i>Dyer</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. When the first consternation was abated after this dreadful blow,
+the senate came to a resolution to create a dictator, in order to give
+strength to their government. 2. A short time after Varro arrived,
+having left behind him the wretched remains of his army. As he had
+been the principal cause of the late calamity, it was natural to
+suppose, that the senate would severely reprimand the rashness of his
+conduct. But far otherwise! The Romans went out in multitudes to meet
+him; and the senate returned him thanks that he had not despaired of
+the safety of Rome. 3. Fa'bius, who was considered as the shield, and
+Marcellus, as the sword of Rome, were appointed to lead the armies:
+and though Hannibal once more offered them peace, they refused it, but
+upon condition that he should quit Italy&mdash;a measure similar to that
+they had formerly insisted upon from Pyrrhus.</p>
+<p>
+4. Han'nibal finding the impossibility of marching directly to Rome,
+or willing to give his forces rest after so mighty a victory, led them
+to Cap'ua, where he resolved to winter. 5. This city had long been
+considered as the nurse of luxury, and the corrupter of all military
+virtue. 6. Here a new scene of pleasure opened to his barbarian
+troops: they at once gave themselves up to intoxication; and from
+being hardy veterans, became infirm rioters.</p>
+<p>
+7. Hitherto we have found this great man successful; but now we are to
+reverse the picture, and survey him struggling with accumulated
+misfortunes, and, at last, sinking beneath them.</p>
+<p>
+8. His first loss was at the siege of Nola, where Marcel'lus, the
+pr&aelig;tor, made a successful sally. He some time after attempted to raise
+the siege of Cap'ua, attacked the Romans in their trenches, and was
+repulsed with considerable loss. He then made a feint to besiege Rome,
+but finding a superior army ready to receive him, was obliged to
+retire. 9. For many years he fought with varied success; Marcel'lus,
+his opponent, sometimes gaining, and sometimes losing the advantage,
+without coming to any decisive engagement.</p>
+<p>
+10. The senate of Carthage at length came to a resolution <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg. 161]</a></span> of
+sending his brother As'drubal to his assistance, with a body of forces
+drawn out of Spain. 11. As'drubal's march being made known to the
+consuls Liv'ius and Nero, they went against him with great expedition;
+and, surrounding him in a place into which he was led by the treachery
+of his guides, they cut his whole army to pieces. 12. Han'nibal had
+long expected these succours with impatience; and the very night on
+which he had been assured of his brother's arrival, Nero ordered
+As'drubal's head to be cut off, and thrown into his brother's camp.
+13. The Carthaginian general now began to perceive the downfall of
+Carthage; and, with a sigh, observed to those about him, that fortune
+seemed fatigued with granting her favours.</p>
+<p>
+14. In the mean time, the Roman arms seemed to be favoured in other
+parts; Marcel'lus took the city of Syr'acuse, in Sicily, defended by
+the machines and the fires of Archime'des,<a name="FNanchor_3_115" id="FNanchor_3_115"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_115" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> the mathematician. 15.
+The inhabitants were put to the sword, and among the rest, Archime'des
+himself, who was found, by a Roman soldier, meditating in his study.
+16. Marcel'lus, the general, was not a little grieved at his death. A
+love of literature at that time began to prevail among the higher
+ranks at Rome. Marcel'lus ordered Archime'des to be honourably buried,
+and a tomb to be erected to his memory.</p>
+<p>
+17. As to their fortunes in Spain, though for a while doubtful, they
+soon recovered their complexion under the conduct of Scip'io
+Africa'nus, who sued for the office of proconsul to that kingdom, at a
+time when every one else was willing to decline it. 18. Scip'io, now
+no more than twenty-four years old, had all the qualifications
+requisite for forming a great general, and a good man; he united
+courage with tenderness, was superior to Hannibal in the arts of
+peace, and almost his equal in those of war. 19. His father had been
+killed in Spain, so that he seemed to have an hereditary claim to
+attack that country. He, therefore, appeared irresistible, obtaining
+many great victories,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg. 162]</a></span> yet subduing more by his generosity,
+mildness, and benevolent disposition, than by the force of arms.<a name="FNanchor_4_116" id="FNanchor_4_116"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_116" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+20. He returned with an army from the conquest of Spain, and was made
+consul at the age of twenty-nine. It was at first supposed he intended
+meeting Hannibal in Italy, and that he would attempt driving him from
+thence: but he had formed a wiser plan, which was, to carry the war
+into Africa; and, while the Carthaginians kept an army near Rome, to
+make them tremble for their own capital.</p>
+<p>
+21. Scip'io was not long in Africa without employment; Hanno opposed
+him, but was defeated and slain. Sy'phax, the usurper of Numid'ia, led
+up a large army against him. 22. The Roman general, for a time,
+declined fighting, till finding an opportunity, he set fire to the
+enemy's tents, and attacking them in the midst of the confusion,
+killed forty thousand, and took six thousand prisoners.</p>
+<p>
+23. The Carthaginians, terrified at their repeated defeats, and at the
+fame of Scip'io's successes, determined to recall Hannibal, their
+great champion, out of Italy, in order to oppose the Romans at home.
+Deputies were accordingly despatched with a positive command for him
+to return and oppose the Roman general, who at that time threatened
+Carthage with a siege. 24. Nothing could exceed the regret and
+disappointment of Hannibal; but he obeyed the orders of his infatuated
+country with the submission of the meanest soldier; and took leave of
+Italy with tears, after having kept possession of its most beautiful
+parts above fifteen years.</p>
+<p>
+25. Upon his arrival at Leptis, in Africa, he set out for Adrume'tum,
+and at last approached Za'ma, a city about seventy-five miles from
+Carthage. 26. Scip'io, in the mean time, led his army to meet him,
+joined by Massinis'sa, with six thousand horse; and to show his rival
+how little he<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg. 163]</a></span> feared his approach, sent back the spies which were
+sent to explore his camp, having previously shown them the whole, with
+directions to inform Hannibal of what they had seen. 27. The
+Carthaginian general, conscious of his inferiority, endeavoured to
+discontinue the war by negociation, and desired a meeting with.
+Scip'io to confer upon terms of peace; to which the Roman general
+assented. 28. But after a long conference, both sides parting
+dissatisfied, they returned to their camps, to prepare for deciding
+the controversy by the sword. 29. Never was a more memorable battle
+fought, whether we regard the generals, the armies, the two states
+that contended, or the empire that was in dispute. The disposition
+Hannibal made of his men, is said to be superior to any even of his
+former arrangements. 30. The battle began with the elephants on the
+side of the Carthaginians, which being terrified at the cries of the
+Romans, and wounded by the slingers and archers, turned upon their
+drivers, and caused much confusion in both wings of their army, where
+the cavalry were placed. 31. Being thus deprived of the assistance of
+the horse, in which their greatest strength consisted, the heavy
+infantry joined on both sides; but the Romans being stronger of body,
+the Carthaginians gave ground. 32. In the mean time, Massinissa, who
+had been in pursuit of their cavalry, returning and attacking them in
+the rear, completed their-defeat. A total rout ensued, twenty thousand
+men were killed, and as many taken prisoners. 33. Hannibal, who had
+done all that a great and undaunted general could perform, fled with a
+small body of horse to Adrume'tum; fortune seeming to delight in
+confounding his ability, his valour, and experience.</p>
+<p>
+34. This victory brought on a peace. The Carthaginians, by Hannibal's
+advice, submitted to the conditions which the Romans dictated, not as
+rivals, but as sovereigns. 35. By this treaty the Carthaginians were
+obliged to quit Spain, and all the islands in the Mediterranean. They
+were bound to pay ten thousand talents in fifty years; to give
+hostages for the delivery of their ships and their elephants; to
+restore to Massanis'sa all the territories that had been taken from
+him; and not to make war in Africa but by the permission of the
+Romans. Thus ended the second Punic war, seventeen years after it had
+begun.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg. 164]</a></span></p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. By what measure did the senate attempt to retrieve this disaster?</p>
+<p>
+2. Did Varro venture to return, and what was his reception?</p>
+<p>
+3. Who were appointed to carry on the war?</p>
+<p>
+4. What was Hannibal's next step?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the character of this city?</p>
+<p>
+6. What was the consequence to the Carthaginian army?</p>
+<p>
+7. Was Hannibal uniformly successful?</p>
+<p>
+8. What was his first reverse?</p>
+<p>
+9. What happened to him afterwards?</p>
+<p>
+10. What resolution did the senate of Carthage adopt?</p>
+<p>
+11. Did he effect a junction with his brother?</p>
+<p>
+12. Was Hannibal apprised of these intended succours?</p>
+<p>
+13. What inference did Hannibal draw from this?</p>
+<p>
+14. Were the Romans successful in other parts?</p>
+<p>
+15. What was the fate of its inhabitants?</p>
+<p>
+16. Was his loss deplored?</p>
+<p>
+17. What was the success of the Romans in Spain?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the character of Scipio?</p>
+<p>
+19. What rendered him particularly eligible for this command?</p>
+<p>
+20. Were his exploits confined to Spain?</p>
+<p>
+21. Had he any formidable opposition to encounter?</p>
+<p>
+22. What was the conduct of Scipio?</p>
+<p>
+23. What measures did the Carthaginians have recourse to on this
+occasion?</p>
+<p>
+24. Was Hannibal pleased at his recall?</p>
+<p>
+25. Whither did he repair on his arrival in Africa?</p>
+<p>
+26. What was the conduct of Scipio?</p>
+<p>
+27. Was Hannibal desirous of continuing hostilities?</p>
+<p>
+28. What was the result?</p>
+<p>
+29. Was the battle of consequence?</p>
+<p>
+30. How did it commence?</p>
+<p>
+31. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+32. What completed the defeat of the Carthaginians?</p>
+<p>
+33. What became of Hannibal?</p>
+<p>
+34. What was the result of the victory?</p>
+<p>
+35. What were the conditions of the treaty?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_113" id="Fnote_1_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_113">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The first was in the reign of Numa.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_114" id="Fnote_2_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_114">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Hannibal has been blamed for not having marched to Rome
+immediately after this victory; but his army was by no means adequate
+to the siege of the city; and the allies of the Romans would have been
+able to curtail his quarters and intercept his convoys. He was,
+besides, badly provided with provisions and the munitions of war, both
+of which he could procure by invading Campania, the course which he
+actually pursued.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_115" id="Fnote_3_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_115">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This great man was equal to an army for the defence of
+the place. He invented engines which threw enormous stones against the
+Romans, hoisted their ships in the air, and then dashed them against
+the rocks beneath, and dismounted their battering engines. He also set
+fire to some of the Roman ships by the use of reflectors, or
+looking-glasses, directing the sun's rays from a great number of them
+on the same spot at the same time.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_116" id="Fnote_4_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_116">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ During his command in Spain, a circumstance occurred
+which has contributed more to the fame and glory of Scipio than all
+his military exploits. At the taking of New Carthage, a lady of
+extraordinary beauty was brought to Scipio, who found himself greatly
+affected by her charms. Understanding, however, that she was betrothed
+to a Celtibe'rian prince, named Allu'cius, he generously resolved to
+conquer his rising passion, and sending for her lover, restored her
+without any other recompence than requesting his friendship to the
+republic. Her parents had brought a large sum of money for her ransom,
+which they earnestly entreated Scipio to accept; but he generously
+bestowed it on Allu'cius, as the portion of his bride. (Liv. l. xxvi.
+c. 50.)</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XVI.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2"> Beauteous Greece,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Torn from her joys, in vain, with languid arm,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Half raised her lusty shield.&mdash;<i>Dyer</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. While the Romans were engaged with Hannibal, they carried on also a
+vigorous war against Philip, king of Ma'cedon, not a little incited
+thereto by the prayers of the Athe'nians; who, from once controlling
+the powers of Persia,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg. 165]</a></span> were now unable to defend themselves. The
+Rho'dians with At'talus, king of Per'gamus, also entered into the
+confederacy against Philip. 2. He was more than once defeated by
+Galba, the consul. He attempted to besiege Athens, but the Romans
+obliged him to raise the siege. He tried to take possession of the
+Straits of Thermop'yl&aelig;, but was driven from thence by Quin'tus
+Flamin'ius, with great slaughter. He attempted to take refuge in
+Thes'saly, where he was again defeated, with considerable loss, and
+obliged to beg a peace, upon condition of paying a thousand talents.
+3. Peace with Philip gave the Romans an opportunity of showing their
+generosity, by restoring liberty to Greece.</p>
+<p>
+4. Antio'chus, king of Syria, was next brought to submit to the Roman
+arms: after embassies on the one side and on the other, hostilities
+were commenced against him five years after the conclusion of the
+Macedo'nian war. 5. After many mistakes and great misconduct, he
+attempted to obtain a peace, by offering to quit all his places in
+Europe, and such in Asia as professed alliance to Rome. 6. But it was
+now too late; Scip'io perceived his own superiority, and was resolved
+to avail himself of it. 7. Antio'chus, thus driven into resistance,
+for some time retreated before the enemy, till, being pressed hard,
+near the city of Magnesia he was forced to draw out his men, to the
+number of seventy thousand foot, and twelve thousand horse.</p>
+<p>
+8. Scip'io opposed him with forces as much inferior in number, as they
+were superior in courage and discipline. Antio'chus, therefore, was in
+a short time entirely defeated; his own chariots, armed with scythes,
+being driven back upon his men, contributed much to his overthrow. 9.
+Being thus reduced to the last extremity, he was glad to procure peace
+from the Romans, upon their own terms; which were, to pay fifteen
+thousand talents; to quit his possessions in Europe, and in Asia, on
+the hither side of Mount Taurus; to give twenty hostages, as pledges
+of his fidelity; and to deliver up Hannibal, the inveterate enemy of
+Rome, who had taken refuge at his court.</p>
+<p>
+10. In the mean time Hannibal, whose destruction was one of the
+articles of this extorted treaty, endeavoured to avoid the threatened
+ruin. 11. This consummate general had long been a wanderer, and an
+exile from his ungrateful country. He had taken refuge at the court of
+Antio'chus who, at first, gave him a sincere welcome, and made
+him<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg. 166]</a></span> admiral of his fleet, in which station he showed his usual
+skill in stratagem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image09.jpg"
+alt="Death of Hannibal"
+title="Death of Hannibal" width="410" height="316" />
+</div>
+<p>
+12. But he soon sunk in the Syrian's esteem for projecting schemes
+which that monarch had neither genius to understand, nor talents to
+execute. 13. Sure, therefore, to find no safety or protection, he
+departed by stealth; and, after wandering for a time among the petty
+states, which had neither power nor generosity to protect him, he took
+refuge at the court of Pru'sias, king of Bythin'ia. 14. In the mean
+time, the Romans, with a vindictive spirit utterly unworthy of them,
+sent &AElig;mil'ius, one of their most celebrated generals, to demand him of
+this king; who, fearing the resentment of Rome, and willing to
+conciliate their friendship by this breach of hospitality, ordered a
+guard to be placed upon Hannibal, with an intent to deliver him up.
+15. The poor old general, thus implacably persecuted from one country
+to another, and finding every method of safety cut off, determined to
+die. He, therefore, desired one of his followers to bring him poison;
+and drinking it, he expired as he had lived, with intrepid bravery.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 513</div>
+
+<p>
+16. A second Macedo'nian war was soon after proclaimed against
+Per'seus, the son of that Philip who had been obliged to beg peace of
+the Romans. 17. Perseus, in order to secure the crown, had murdered
+his brother Deme'trius; and, upon the death of his father, pleased
+with the hopes of imaginary triumphs, made war against Rome. 18,
+During the course of this war, which continued about three years,
+opportunities were offered him of cutting off the Roman army; but
+being ignorant how to take advantage of their rashness, he spent the
+time in empty<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg. 167]</a></span> overtures for peace. 19. At length &AElig;mil'ius gave
+him a decisive overthrow. He attempted to procure safety by flying
+into Crete: but being abandoned by all, he was obliged to surrender
+himself, and to grace the splendid triumph of the Roman general.<a name="FNanchor_1_117" id="FNanchor_1_117"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_117" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+20. About this time Massinis'sa, the Numidian, having made some
+incursions into a territory claimed by the Carthaginians, they
+attempted to repel the invasion. 21. This brought on a war between
+that monarch and them; while the Romans, who pretended to consider
+this conduct of theirs as an infraction of the treaty, sent to make a
+complaint. 22. The ambassadors who were employed upon this occasion,
+finding the city very rich and flourishing, from the long interval of
+peace which it had now enjoyed for nearly fifty years, either from
+motives of avarice to possess its plunder, or from fear of its growing
+greatness, insisted much on the necessity of a war, which was soon
+after proclaimed, and the consuls set out with a thorough resolution
+utterly to demolish Carthage.</p>
+<p>
+The territory thus invaded by Massinis'sa, was Tysca, a rich province,
+undoubtedly belonging to the Carthaginians. One of the ambassadors
+sent from Rome was the celebrated Cato, the censor, who, whatever his
+virtues may have been, appears to have imbibed an inveterate hatred to
+Carthage. For, on whatever subject he debated in the senate, he never
+failed to conclude in these words, "I am also of opinion that Carthage
+should be destroyed." The war, however, which had broken out in Spain,
+and the bad success of the Roman arms in that quarter, for some time
+delayed the fate of that devoted city; and it might, perhaps, have
+stood much longer, had not some seditious demagogues incited the
+populace to insult the Roman ambassador, and to banish those senators
+who voted for peace.</p>
+<p>
+To account for the apparent pusillanimity of the Carthaginians, it is
+necessary to observe, that they had suffered repeated defeats in their
+war with Massinis'sa; and that fifty thousand of their troops, after
+having been blocked up in their camp till from want they were obliged
+to submit to the most humiliating conditions, were inhumanly massacred
+by Gulus'sa, the son of the Numidian king. The Romans chose this
+distressing juncture to declare war against them.</p>
+<p>
+As one proof of their sincere desire for peace, they had<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg. 168]</a></span>
+previously delivered up to the Romans all their arms and warlike
+engines, of which they possessed prodigious magazines; thus leaving
+themselves still more defenceless than before.</p>
+<p>
+23. The wretched Carthaginians, finding that the conquerors would not
+desist from making demands, while the vanquished had any thing to
+give, attempted to soften the victors by submission; but they received
+orders to leave the city, which was to be levelled with the ground.
+24. This severe command they received with all the distress of a
+despairing people: they implored for a respite from such a hard
+sentence: they used tears and lamentations; but finding the consuls
+inexorable, they departed with a gloomy resolution, prepared to suffer
+the utmost extremities, and fight to the last for their seat of
+empire.</p>
+<p>
+25. Those vessels, therefore, of gold and silver, which their luxury
+had taken such pride in, were converted into arms. The women parted
+also with their ornaments, and even cut off their hair to be converted
+into strings for the bowmen. As'drubal, who had been lately condemned
+for opposing the Romans, was now taken from prison to head their army;
+and such preparations were made, that when the consuls came before the
+city, which they expected to find an easy conquest, they met with such
+resistance as quite dispirited their forces and shook their
+resolution. 26. Several engagements were fought before the walls, with
+disadvantage to the assailants; so that the siege would have been
+discontinued, had not Scip'io &AElig;milia'nus, the adopted son of
+Africa'nus, who was now appointed to command it, used as much skill to
+save his forces after a defeat, as to inspire them with fresh hopes of
+a victory. 27. But all his arts would have failed, had he not found
+means to seduce Phar'nes, the master of the Carthaginian horse, who
+came over to his side. The unhappy townsmen soon saw the enemy make
+nearer approaches; the wall which led to the haven was quickly
+demolished; soon after the forum itself was taken, which offered to
+the conquerors a deplorable spectacle of houses nodding to their fall,
+heaps of men lying dead, hundreds of the wounded struggling to emerge
+from the carnage around them, and deploring their own and their
+country's ruin. The citadel soon after surrendered at discretion. 28.
+All now but the temple was subdued, and that was defended by deserters
+from the Roman army, and<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg. 169]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image10.jpg"
+alt="Destruction of Carthage."
+title="Destruction of Carthage." width="544" height="318" />
+</div>
+<p>
+those who had been most forward to undertake the war. These expected
+no mercy, and finding their condition desperate, set fire to the
+building, and voluntarily perished in the flames. This was the end of
+one of the most renowned cities in the world, for arts, opulence, and
+extent of dominion; it had rivalled Rome for above a hundred years,
+and, at one time, was thought to have the superiority.</p>
+<p>
+29. The conquest of Carthage was soon followed by many others. The
+same year Corinth, one of the noblest cities of Greece, was levelled
+to the ground. Scip'io also having laid siege to Numan'tia, the
+strongest city in Spain, the wretched inhabitants, to avoid falling
+into the hands of the enemy, fired the city, over their own heads; and
+all, to a man, expired in the flames. Thus Spain became a Roman
+province, and was governed thenceforward by two annual pr&aelig;tors.</p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. With whom were the Romans at war besides Carthage, and who assisted
+in it?</p>
+<p>
+2. What was the success of Philip in this war?</p>
+<p>
+3. What was the consequence of peace with Philip?</p>
+<p>
+4. Who next fell under the displeasure of the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the result?</p>
+<p>
+6. Were his offers accepted?</p>
+<p>
+7. Did Antiochus boldly face the Romans?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg. 170]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+8. What were the strength and character of the Roman army, and what
+the result of the battle?</p>
+<p>
+9. Was he able to make further resistance?</p>
+<p>
+10. Was Hannibal delivered up?</p>
+<p>
+11. What occasioned Hannibal to put himself in the power of Antiochus?</p>
+<p>
+12. Was this kindness lasting?</p>
+<p>
+13. Whither did he next betake himself?</p>
+<p>
+14. Was he in safety at this court?</p>
+<p>
+15. How did Hannibal escape his persecution?</p>
+<p>
+16. Against whom did the Romans next direct their arms?</p>
+<p>
+17. What occasioned it?</p>
+<p>
+18. Was Perseus a skilful general?</p>
+<p>
+19. What was the result of the war?</p>
+<p>
+20. What farther happened about this time?</p>
+<p>
+21. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+22. Was this misunderstanding peaceably accommodated?</p>
+<p>
+23. By what means did the Carthaginians endeavour to avert their fate?</p>
+<p>
+24. Did they obey these orders?</p>
+<p>
+25. What extraordinary efforts were made for the defence of the city?</p>
+<p>
+26. Were the Romans successful in their attempts?</p>
+<p>
+27. Describe the progress of the siege.</p>
+<p>
+28. Was the city now completely in the power of the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+29. What other conquests were made by the Romans?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_117" id="Fnote_1_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_117">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ From this time, Macedon became a Roman province.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XVII.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.</h4><br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE TO THE END OF THE SEDITION OF THE
+GRACCHI.&mdash;U.C. 621.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Seldom is faction's ire in haughty minds</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Extinguished but by death; it oft, like flame</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Suppressed, breaks forth again, and blazes higher.&mdash;<i>May.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The Romans being now left without a rival, the triumphs and the
+spoils of Asia introduced a taste for splendid expense, and this
+produced avarice and inverted ambition. 2. The two Gracchi were the
+first who saw this strange corruption among the great, and resolved to
+repress it, by renewing the Licinian law, which had enacted that no
+person in the state should possess above five hundred acres of land.
+3. Tibe'rius Gracchus, the elder of the two, was, both for the
+advantages of his person and the qualities of his mind, very different
+from Scipio, of whom he was the grandson. He seemed more ambitious of
+power than desirous of glory; his compassion for the oppressed was
+equal to his animosity against the oppressors; but unhappily his
+passions, rather than his reason, operated even in his pursuits<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg. 171]</a></span>
+of virtue; and these always drove him beyond the line of duty. 4. This
+was the disposition of the elder Gracchus, who found the lower orders
+of people ready to second all his proposals. 5. The above law, though
+at first carried on with proper moderation, greatly disgusted the
+rich, who endeavoured to persuade the people that the proposer only
+aimed at disturbing the government, and throwing all things into
+confusion. 6. But Gracchus, who was a man of the greatest eloquence of
+his time, easily wiped off these impressions from the minds of the
+people, already irritated by their wrongs, and at length the law was
+passed.</p>
+<p>
+7. The death of At'talus, king of Per'gamus, furnished Gracchus with a
+new opportunity of gratifying the meaner part of the people at the
+expense of the great. 8. This king had by his last will made the
+Romans his heirs; and it was now proposed, that the money so left
+should be divided among the poor, in order to furnish them with proper
+utensils for cultivating the lands which became theirs by the late law
+of partition. 9. This caused still greater disturbances than before,
+and the senate assembled upon the occasion, in order to concert the
+most proper methods of securing these riches to themselves, which they
+now valued above the safety of the commonwealth. 10. They had numerous
+dependents, who were willing to give up liberty for plenty and ease.
+These, therefore, were commanded to be in readiness to intimidate the
+people, who expected no such opposition, and who were now attending to
+the harangues of Gracchus in the capitol. 11. Here, as a clamour was
+raised by the clients of the great on one side, and by the favourers
+of the law on the other, Gracchus found his speech entirely
+interrupted, and begged in vain to be attended to; till at last,
+raising his hand to his head, to intimate that his life was in danger,
+the partisans of the senate gave out that he wanted a diadem. 12. In
+consequence of this an universal uproar spread itself through all
+ranks of the people; the corrupt part of the senate were of opinion
+that the consul should defend the commonwealth by force of arms; but
+this prudent magistrate declining such violence, Scip'io Nas'ica,
+kinsman to Gracchus, immediately rose up, and preparing himself for
+the contest, desired that all who would defend the dignity and
+authority of the laws, should follow him. 13. Upon this, attended by a
+large body of senators and clients armed with clubs, he went directly
+to the Capitol, striking down all who ventured to resist.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg. 172]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+14. Tibe'rius Gracchus, perceiving by the tumult that his life was in
+danger, endeavoured to fly; and throwing away his robe to expedite his
+escape, attempted to get through the throng; but happening to fall
+over a person already on the ground, Sature'ius, one of his colleagues
+in the tribuneship, who was of the opposite faction, struck him dead
+with a piece of a seat; and not less than three hundred of his hearers
+shared the same fate, being killed in the tumult. 15. Nor did the
+vengeance of the senate rest here, but extended to numbers of those
+who seemed to espouse his cause; many of them were put to death, many
+were banished, and nothing was omitted to inspire the people with an
+abhorrence of his pretended crimes. Soon after the death of Gracchus a
+rebellion broke out in Sicily among the slaves, who, exasperated by
+the cruelties exercised upon them by their masters, revolted, and
+having seized Enna, chose one Eunus for their king. This new monarch
+gained considerable advantages over the Romans, took the strong city
+of Tauromin'ium, and protracted the war upwards of six years. At
+length he was completely defeated by the consul Rupil'ius, and his
+followers slaughtered or executed: as for Eunus, he died in prison.</p>
+<p>
+16. Ca'ius Gracchus was but twenty-one upon the death of Tibe'rius his
+brother; and as he was too young to be much dreaded by the great, so
+he was at first unwilling to incur their resentment by aims beyond his
+reach; he therefore lived in retirement, unseen and forgotten. 17.
+But, while he thus seemed desirous of avoiding popularity, he was
+employed in his solitude in the study of eloquence, which was the
+surest means to obtain it. 18. At length, when he thought himself
+qualified to serve his country, he offered himself a candidate for the
+<i>qu&aelig;storship</i> to the army in Sardin'ia, which he easily obtained. His
+valour, affability, and temperance in this office were remarked by
+all. 19. The king of Numid'ia sending a present of corn to the Romans,
+ordered his ambassadors to say, that it was a tribute to the virtues
+of Ca'ius Gracchus. 20. This the senate treated with scorn, and
+ordered the ambassadors to be treated with contempt, as ignorant
+barbarians, which so inflamed the resentment of young Gracchus, that
+he immediately came from the army to complain of the indignity thrown
+upon his reputation, and to offer himself for the tribuneship of the
+people. 21. It was then that this youth, who had been hitherto
+neglected, proved a more formidable enemy than<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg. 173]</a></span> even his brother
+had been. Notwithstanding the warmest opposition from the senate, he
+was declared tribune by a very large majority; and he now prepared for
+the career which his brother had run before him.</p>
+<p>
+22. His first effort was to have Pompil'ius, one of the most
+inveterate of his brother's enemies, cited before the people; but
+rather than stand the event of a trial, he chose to go into voluntary
+banishment. 23. He next procured an edict, granting the freedom of the
+city to the inhabitants of La'tium, and soon after to all the people
+on the hither side of the Alps. 24. He afterwards fixed the price of
+corn at a moderate standard, and procured a monthly distribution of it
+among the people. 25. He then proceeded to an inspection into the late
+corruptions of the senate; in which the whole body being convicted of
+bribery, extortion, and the sale of offices (for at that time a total
+degeneracy seemed to have taken place,) a law was made, transferring
+the power of judging corrupt magistrates from the senate to the
+knights, which made a great alteration in the constitution.</p>
+<p>
+26. Gracchus, by these means, being grown not only popular, but
+powerful, was become an object at which the senate aimed all their
+resentment. 27. But he soon found the populace a faithless and
+unsteady support. They began to withdraw all their confidence from
+him, and to place it upon Drusus, a man insidiously set up against him
+by the senate. 28. It was in vain that he revived the Licin'ian law in
+their favour, and called up several of the inhabitants of the
+different towns of Italy to his support; the senate ordered all to
+depart from Rome, and even sent one stranger to prison whom Gracchus
+had invited to live with him, and honoured with his table and
+friendship. 29. To this indignity was shortly after added a disgrace
+of a more fatal tendency; for, standing for the tribuneship a third
+time, he was rejected. It was supposed that the officers, whose duty
+it was to make the return, were bribed to reject him, though fairly
+chosen.</p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What consequences followed this great prosperity of the Roman arms?</p>
+<p>
+2. Who first resolved to repress the corruption which had taken place
+in the manners of the people?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg. 174]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+3. What was the character of Tiberius Gracchus?</p>
+<p>
+4. Had he any influence with the people?</p>
+<p>
+5. How was the Licinian law received?</p>
+<p>
+6. Did the people believe them?</p>
+<p>
+7. What furthered his views?</p>
+<p>
+8. What advantages occurred to the Romans by his death?</p>
+<p>
+9. What was the effect of this will?</p>
+<p>
+10. What measures did they adopt for this purpose?</p>
+<p>
+11. What was the consequence of their interference?</p>
+<p>
+12. Was this insinuation believed?</p>
+<p>
+13. Did Scipio use violence?</p>
+<p>
+14. What was the fate of Gracchus and his friends?</p>
+<p>
+15. Were his enemies satisfied with this vengeance?</p>
+<p>
+16. What became of Caius Gracchus in the mean time?</p>
+<p>
+17. Was he really desirous of avoiding popularity?</p>
+<p>
+18. In what way did he bring himself into notice?</p>
+<p>
+19. What proof of esteem was given him?</p>
+<p>
+20. How was this compliment received?</p>
+<p>
+21. What was the consequence of this resentment?</p>
+<p>
+22. What was his first effort?</p>
+<p>
+23. What was his next act?</p>
+<p>
+24. What was the next?</p>
+<p>
+25. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+26. What was the consequence of these acts?</p>
+<p>
+27. Did he find steady friends?</p>
+<p>
+28. Were his measures of precaution successful?</p>
+<p>
+29. What farther indignities did he experience?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Say, Romans, whence so dire a fury rose,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">To glut with Latin blood your barbarous foes?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Could you in wars like these provoke your fate?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Wars, where no triumphs on the victors waits&mdash;<i>'Rowe's Lucan</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<p>
+1. It was now seen that the fate of Gracchus was resolved on.
+Opim'ius, the consul, was not contented with the protection of the
+senate, the knights, and a numerous retinue of slaves and clients; he
+ordered a body of Candians, who were mercenaries in the Roman service,
+to follow and attend him. 2. Thus guarded, and conscious of the
+superiority of his forces, he insulted Gracchus whereever he met him,
+doing all in his power to produce a quarrel, in which he might have a
+pretence for despatching his enemy in the fray. 3. Gracchus avoided
+all recrimination, and, as if apprised of the consul's designs, would
+not even wear any arms for his defence. 4. His friend Ful'vius
+Flaccus, however, a zealous tribune, was not so remiss, but resolved
+to oppose party against party, and for this purpose brought up several
+countrymen to Rome, who came under<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg. 175]</a></span> pretence of desiring
+employment. 5. When the day for determining the controversy was
+arrived, the two parties, early in the morning, attended at the
+Capitol, where, while the consul was sacrificing, according to custom,
+one of the lictors taking up the entrails of the beast that was slain
+in order to remove them, could not forbear crying out to Flac'cus and
+his party, "Make way, ye factious citizens, for honest men." 6. This
+insult so provoked, the party to whom it was addressed, that they
+instantly fell upon him, and pierced him to death with the instruments
+they used in writing, which they then happened to have in their hands.
+7. This murder caused a great disturbance in the assembly. Gracchus,
+who saw the consequences that were likely to ensue, reprimanded his
+party for giving his enemies such advantage over him; and now prepared
+to lead his followers to Mount Av'entine. 8. It was there he learned,
+that a proclamation had been made by the consuls, that whosoever
+should bring either his head, or that of Flaccus, should receive its
+weight in gold as a reward. 9. It was to no purpose that he sent the
+youngest son of Flaccus, who was yet a child, with proposals for an
+accommodation. The senate and the consuls, who were sensible of their
+superiority, rejected all his offers, and resolved to punish his
+offence with nothing less than death; and they offered pardon also to
+all who should leave him immediately. 10. This produced the desired
+effect; the people fell from him by degrees, and left him with very
+inferior forces. 11. In the meantime, Opim'ius, the consul, who
+thirsted for slaughter, leading his forces up to Mount Av'entine, fell
+in among the crowd with ungovernable fury. A terrible slaughter of the
+scarcely resisting multitude ensued, and not less than three thousand
+citizens were slain upon the spot. 12. Flaccus attempted to find
+shelter in a ruinous cottage; but, being discovered, was slain, with
+his eldest son. Gracchus, at first, retired to the temple of Dian'a,
+where he resolved to die by his own hand, but was prevented by two of
+his faithful friends and followers, Pompo'nius and Lucin'ius, who
+forced him to seek safety by flight. Thence he made the best of his
+way across a bridge that led from the city, still attended by his two
+generous friends, and a Grecian slave, whose name was Philoc'rates.
+13. But his pursuers still pressed upon him from behind, and when come
+to the foot of the bridge, he was obliged to turn and face the enemy.
+His two friends were soon slain, defending him against the crowd; and
+he<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg. 176]</a></span> was forced to take refuge, with his slave, in a grove beyond
+the Ti'ber, which had long been dedicated to the Furies. 14. Here,
+finding himself surrounded on every side, and no way left of escaping,
+he prevailed upon his slave to despatch him. The slave immediately
+after killed himself, and fell down upon the body of his beloved
+master. The pursuers coming up, cut off the head of Gracchus, and
+placed it for a while as a trophy on a spear. 15. Soon after, one
+Septimule'ius carried it home, and taking out the brain artfully
+filled it with lead, in order to increase its weight, and then
+received of the consul seventeen pounds of gold as his recompence.</p>
+<p>
+16. Thus died Cai'us Gracchus. He is usually impeached by historians,
+as guilty of sedition; but from what we see of his character, the
+disturbance of public tranquillity was rather owing to his opposers
+than to him; so that, instead of calling the tumults of that time the
+sedition of the Gracchi, we should rather call them the sedition of
+the senate against the Gracchi; since the efforts of the latter were
+made in vindication of a law to which the senate had assented; and the
+designs of the former were supported by an extraneous armed power from
+the country, that had never before meddled in the business of
+legislation, and whose introduction gave a most irrecoverable blow to
+the constitution. 17. Whether the Gracchi were actuated by motives of
+ambition or of patriotism, in the promulgation of the law, it is
+impossible to determine; but from what appears, justice was on their
+side, and all injury on that of the senate. 18. In fact, this body was
+now changed from that venerable assembly, which we have seen
+overthrowing Pyr'rhus and Hannibal, as much by their virtues as their
+arms. They were now only to be distinguished from the rest of the
+people by their superior luxuries; and ruled the commonwealth by the
+weight of an authority gained from riches and mercenary dependents.
+19. The venal and the base were attached to them from motives of
+self-interest; and they who still ventured to be independent, were
+borne down, and entirely lost in an infamous majority. 20. In short,
+the empire at this period came under the government of a hateful
+aristocracy; the tribunes, who were formerly accounted protectors of
+the people, becoming rich themselves, and having no longer opposite
+interests from those of the senate, concurred in their oppressions;
+for the struggle was not now between patricians and plebeians, who
+only nominally differed,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg. 177]</a></span> but between the rich and the poor. 21.
+The lower orders of the state being by these means reduced to a degree
+of hopeless subjection, instead of looking after liberty, only sought
+for a leader; while the rich, with all the suspicion of tyrants,
+terrified at the slightest appearance of opposition, entrusted men
+with uncontrollable power, from whom they had not strength to withdraw
+it when the danger was over. 22. Thus both parties of the state
+concurred in giving up their freedom; the fears of the senate first
+made the dictator, and the hatred of the people kept him in his
+office. Nothing can be more dreadful to a thinking mind than the
+government of Rome from this period, till it found refuge under the
+protection of Augus'tus.<a name="FNanchor_1_118" id="FNanchor_1_118"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_118" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What appearances now threatened the life of Gracchus?</p>
+<p>
+2. How did he commence hostilities?</p>
+<p>
+3. How did Gracchus attempt to divert the storm?</p>
+<p>
+4. Were his friends equally prudent?</p>
+<p>
+5. What unhappy incident increased the animosity?</p>
+<p>
+6. How was this insult revenged?</p>
+<p>
+7. What was the consequence of this outrage?</p>
+<p>
+8. What news did he hear on his arrival?</p>
+<p>
+9. Did he attempt to conciliate his enemies, and were his attempts
+successful?</p>
+<p>
+10. Was this offer accepted?</p>
+<p>
+11. What was the conduct of the consul?</p>
+<p>
+12. What was the fate of the chiefs?</p>
+<p>
+13. Did Gracchus effect his escape?</p>
+<p>
+14. Did he fall into the hands of his enemies?</p>
+<p>
+15. What artifice did avarice contrive?</p>
+<p>
+16.' Was the conduct of Gracchus deserving of praise or blame?</p>
+<p>
+17. By what motives were the Gracchi supposed to be actuated?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the character of the senate at this period?</p>
+<p>
+19. What was the character of their adherents?</p>
+<p>
+20. What was the nature of their government?</p>
+<p>
+31. What concurred to perpetuate this tyranny?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg. 178]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_118" id="Fnote_1_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_118">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ From the death of Gracchus until the first consulship of
+Marius, Rome was governed by a venal and profligate oligarchy, formed
+from a coalition of the most powerful families. Shame was unknown to
+this body; the offices of state were openly sold to the highest
+bidder, redress of grievances was to be obtained only by paying a
+heavier sum for vengeance than the oppressor would give for impunity:
+advocacy of popular rights was punished as treason, and complaints
+were treated as criminal acts of sedition. The young patricians, under
+such a system, became the scourge of the state, for nothing remained
+safe from their violence or their lust, when the monopoly of judicial
+office by their friends and relatives insured them impunity for every
+excess, however flagrant or disgraceful.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XVIII.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.</h4><br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE SEDITION OF GRACCHUS TO THE PERPETUAL DICTATORSHIP OF SYLLA,
+WHICH WAS THE FIRST STEP TOWARDS THE RUIN OF THE COMMONWEALTH.&mdash;U.C.
+634.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">By brutal Marius, and keen Sylla, first</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Effused the deluge dire of civil blood,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Unceasing woes began.&mdash;<i>Thomson</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. While the Romans were in this state of deplorable corruption at
+home, they nevertheless were very successful in their transactions
+with foreign powers.</p>
+<p>
+2. Among other victories, a signal one was gained over Jugur'tha, king
+of Numid'ia. He was grandson to Massinis'sa, who sided with Rome
+against Hannibal, and educated with the two young princes, who were
+left to inherit the kingdom. 3. Being superior in abilities to both,
+and greatly in favour with the people, he murdered Hiemp'sal, the
+eldest son, but Adher'bal, the younger, escaped, and fled to the
+Romans for succour. 4. Jugur'tha, sensible how much avarice and
+injustice had crept into the senate, sent his ambassadors to Rome with
+large presents, which so successfully prevailed, that the senate
+decreed him half the kingdom thus acquired by murder and usurpation,
+and sent ten commissioners to divide it between him and Adher'bal. 5.
+The commissioners, of whom Opim'ius, the enemy of Gracchus, was one,
+willing to follow the example which the senate had set them, were also
+bribed to bestow the richest and most populous parts of that kingdom
+upon the usurper. 6. But Jugur'tha resolved to possess himself of the
+whole: and willing to give a colour to his ambition, he only made, in
+the beginning, incursions in order to provoke reprisals, which he knew
+how to convert into seeming aggression. 7. This scheme failing, he
+resolved to throw off the mask, and besieging Adher'bal in Cirta, his
+capital, he at length got him into his power, and murdered him. 8. The
+Roman people, who had still some generosity remaining, unanimously
+complained of this treachery, and procured a decree that Jugur'tha
+should be summoned in person before them, to give an account of all
+such as had accepted bribes. 9. Jugur'tha made no difficulty of
+throwing himself upon the clemency of Rome; but not giving<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg. 179]</a></span> the
+people satisfaction, he had orders to depart the city.<a name="FNanchor_1_119" id="FNanchor_1_119"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_119" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> 10. In the
+meantime, Alba'nus, the consul, was sent with an army to follow him,
+who giving up the direction of it to Au'lus, his brother; a person who
+was every way unqualified for the command, the Romans were compelled
+to hazard a battle upon disadvantageous terms; and the whole army, to
+avoid being cut to pieces, was obliged to pass under the yoke.</p>
+<p>
+11. In this condition Metel'lus, the succeeding consul, found affairs
+upon his arrival in Numid'ia; officers in whom the soldiers had no
+confidence, an army without discipline, and an enemy ever watchful and
+intriguing. 12. However, by his great attention to business, and by
+integrity that shuddered at corruption, he soon began to retrieve the
+affairs of Rome, and the credit of the army. In the space of two
+years, Jugur'tha was overthrown in several battles, forced out of his
+own dominions, and constrained to beg a peace. 13. Thus all things
+promised Metel'lus a happy termination of the war; but he was
+frustrated in his expectations by the intrigues of Ca'ius Ma'rius, his
+lieutenant, who came in to reap that harvest of glory which the
+other's industry had sown. 14. Ca'ius Ma'rius was born in a village
+near Apin'ium, of poor parents, who gained their living by their
+labour. As he had been bred up in a participation of their toils, his
+manners were as rude as his countenance was frightful. He was a man of
+extraordinary stature, incomparable strength, and undaunted bravery.</p>
+<p>
+15. When Metel'lus was obliged to solicit at Rome for a continuance of
+his command, Ma'rius, whose ambition knew no bounds, was resolved to
+obtain it for himself, and thus gain all the glory of putting an end
+to the war. 16. To that end he privately inveighed against Metel'lus
+by his emissaries at Rome, and having excited a spirit of discontent
+against him, he had leave granted him to go there to stand for the
+consulship, which he obtained, contrary to the expectation and
+interest of the nobles.</p>
+<p>
+17. Marius, being thus invested with the supreme power of managing the
+war, showed himself every way fit for the commission. His vigilance
+was equal to his valour, and he quickly made himself master of the
+cities which Jugur'tha<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg. 180]</a></span> had yet remaining in Numid'ia.<a name="FNanchor_2_120" id="FNanchor_2_120"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_120" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> 18. This
+unfortunate prince, finding himself unable to make opposition singly
+was obliged to have recourse for assistance to Bocchus, king of
+Maurita'nia, to whose daughter he was married. A battle soon after
+ensued, in which the Numid'ians surprised the Roman camp by night, and
+gained a temporary advantage. However, it was but of short
+continuance, for Ma'rius soon after overthrew them in two signal
+engagements, in one of which not less than ninety thousand of the
+African army were slain. 19. Bocchus now finding the Romans too
+powerful to be resisted, did not think it expedient to hazard his own
+crown, to protect that of his ally; he, therefore, determined to make
+peace, upon whatever conditions he might obtain it; and accordingly
+sent to Rome, imploring protection. 20. The senate received the
+ambassadors with their usual haughtiness, and without complying with
+their request, granted the suppliant, not their friendship, but their
+pardon. Notwithstanding, after some time, he was given to understand,
+that the delivering up of Jugur'tha to the Romans would, in some
+measure, conciliate their favour, and soften their resentment. 21. At
+first the pride of Bocchus struggled against such a proposal; but a
+few interviews with Sylla reconciled him to this treacherous measure,
+and Jugur'tha was given up, being drawn into an ambuscade by the
+specious pretences of his ally, who deluded him by desiring a
+conference; and being made a prisoner, he was loaded with chains, and
+carried by Ma'rius to Rome, a deplorable instance of blighted
+ambition. 22. He did not long survive his overthrow, being condemned
+by the senate to be starved to death in prison, a short time after he
+had been made to adorn the triumph of the conqueror.<a name="FNanchor_3_121" id="FNanchor_3_121"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_121" class="fnanchor">[3]</a><span class="newpage"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg. 181]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+23. Ma'rius, by this and two succeeding victories over the Gauls,
+having become very formidable to distant nations in war, became soon
+after much more dangerous to his fellow-citizens in peace. 24. The
+strength which he had given to the popular party every day grew more
+conspicuous, and the Italians, being frustrated by the intrigues of
+the senate in their aims of gaining the freedom of Rome, resolved upon
+obtaining by force, what was refused them as a favour. This gave rise
+to the Social War, in which most of the states of Italy entered into a
+confederacy against Rome, in order to obtain a redress of their
+grievances.</p>
+<p>
+25. After a lapse of two years, this war having continued to rage with
+doubtful success, the senate began to reflect that, whether conquered
+or conquerors, the power of the Romans was in danger of being
+destroyed. 26. To soften, therefore, their compliance by degrees, they
+began by giving the freedom of the city to such of the Italian states
+as had not revolted. They then offered it to such as would lay down
+their arms. 27. This unexpected bounty had its effect; the allies,
+with mutual distrust, offered each a separate treaty; the senate took
+them one by one into favour, but gave the freedom of the city in such
+a manner, that, not being empowered to vote until all the other tribes
+had given their suffrages, they had very little weight in the
+constitution.</p>
+<p>
+28. This destructive war being concluded, the senate began to think of
+turning their arms against Mithrida'tes, the most powerful and warlike
+monarch of the east.<a name="FNanchor_4_122" id="FNanchor_4_122"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_122" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> 29. For this expedition Ma'rius had long been
+preparing, but Sylla had interest enough to get himself appointed to
+the expedition. Ma'rius, however, tried all his arts with the people
+to get his appointment reversed; and the command of the army, intended
+to oppose Mithrida'tes, was ordered to be transferred from Sylla to
+Ma'rius. 30. In consequence of this, Ma'rius immediately sent officers
+from Rome, to take the command in his name. But instead of being
+obeyed, the officers were slain, and Sylla was entreated by the army
+to lead them directly to take signal vengeance upon all his enemies at
+Rome.</p>
+<p>
+31. Accordingly, his soldiers entered the city sword in<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg. 182]</a></span> hand, as
+a place taken by storm. Ma'rius and Sulpi'cius, at the head of a
+tumultuary body of their partisans, attempted to oppose their
+entrance; and the citizens themselves, who feared the sackage of the
+place, threw down stones and tiles from the houses upon the intruders.
+32. So unequal a conflict lasted longer than could have been expected;
+at length Ma'rius and his party were obliged to seek safety by flight,
+after having vainly offered liberty to the slaves who would assist
+them.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. Was this internal degeneracy of the Roman people accompanied by ill
+success abroad?</p>
+<p>
+2. What signal victory did they obtain, and who was Jugurtha?</p>
+<p>
+3. By what means did he obtain the crown?</p>
+<p>
+4. How did he propitiate the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+
+5. How did these <ins class="correction" Title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'commissoners'">commissioners</ins> discharge their trust?</p>
+<p>
+6. Was Jugurtha satisfied with this allotment?</p>
+<p>
+7. Did this answer his purpose?</p>
+<p>
+8. Did the Romans suffer this treachery to pass unpunished?</p>
+<p>
+9. Did Jugurtha obey this summons?</p>
+<p>
+10. Were hostilities commenced against him, and what was the result?</p>
+<p>
+11. What was the condition of the army when Metellus assumed the
+command?</p>
+<p>
+12. Did this deplorable state continue?</p>
+<p>
+13. Did Metellus enjoy the fruits of his victories?</p>
+<p>
+14. Who was Caius Marius?</p>
+<p>
+15. What resolution did he adopt?</p>
+<p>
+16. By what artifices did he succeed in his design?</p>
+<p>
+17. What was the conduct of Marius in his new command?</p>
+<p>
+18. To whom did Jugurtha have recourse in his extremity?</p>
+<p>
+19. Did Bocchus continue to befriend Jugurtha?</p>
+<p>
+20. Was his request complied with?</p>
+<p>
+21. Did Bocchus submit to this condition?</p>
+<p>
+22. What became of Jugurtha after this?</p>
+<p>
+23. How did Marius conduct himself after his victories?</p>
+<p>
+24. What was the consequence of his attempts at popularity?</p>
+<p>
+25. Was this war of long continuance?</p>
+<p>
+26. What measure did the senate adopt to end it?</p>
+<p>
+27. What was the consequence of this measure?</p>
+<p>
+28. Against whom did the senate next turn their arms?</p>
+<p>
+29. Who was appointed to command this expedition?</p>
+<p>
+30. What was the consequence of this order?</p>
+<p>
+31. Did Sylla comply with their request?</p>
+<p>
+32. What was the issue of the contest?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg. 183]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image11.jpg"
+alt="Marius sitting among the Ruins of Carthage."
+title="Marius sitting among the Ruins of Carthage." width="450" height="332" />
+</div>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">It is a vain attempt</span><br />
+<span class="i2">To bind th' ambitious and unjust by treaties.&mdash;<i>Thomson</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Sylla, now finding himself master of the city, began by modelling
+the laws so as to favour his outrages; while Ma'rius, driven out of
+Rome and declared a public enemy at the age of seventy, was obliged to
+save himself, unattended and on foot, from the pursuit of those who
+sought his life. 2. After having wandered for some time in this
+deplorable condition, he found every day his dangers increase, and his
+pursuers making nearer advances. In this distress he concealed himself
+in the marshes of Mintur'n&aelig;, where he continued a night up to the chin
+in a quagmire. 3. At break of day he left this dismal place, and made
+towards the seaside, in hopes of finding a ship to facilitate his
+escape; but being known and discovered by some of the inhabitants, he
+was conducted to a neighbouring town, with a halter round his neck,
+without clothes, and covered with mud; and in this condition was sent
+to prison. 4. The governor of the place, willing to conform to the
+orders of the senate, soon after sent a Cim'brian slave to despatch
+him; but the barbarian no sooner entered the dungeon for this purpose
+than he stopped short, intimidated by the dreadful visage and awful
+voice of the fallen general, who sternly demanded if he had the
+presumption to kill Ca'ius Ma'rius? The slave, unable to reply, threw
+down his sword, and rushing back from the
+<ins class="correction" Title="Transcriber's note: original reads
+'prision'">prison</ins>, cried
+out, that he found it impossible to kill him! 5. The governor,
+considering the fear of the slave as an omen in the unhappy exile's
+favour, gave him<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg. 184]</a></span> his freedom; and, commending him to his fortune,
+provided him with a ship to convey him from Italy. 6. He was forced by
+a tempest on the coast of Sicily. A Roman qu&aelig;stor, who happened to be
+there, resolved to seize him; and he lost sixteen of his crew, who
+were killed in their endeavours to cover his retreat to the ship. He
+afterwards landed in Africa, near Carthage, and, overwhelmed with
+melancholy, sat himself down amongst the ruins of that desolate place.
+He soon, however had orders from the pr&aelig;tor to retire. 7. Marius, who
+remembered his having once served this very man in necessity, could
+not suppress his indignation at finding ingratitude every where: and,
+preparing to obey, bid the messenger tell his master, that he had seen
+Ma'rius sitting among the ruins of Carthage; intimating the greatness
+of his fall, by the desolation that was around him. 8. He once more
+embarked, and not knowing where to land without encountering an enemy,
+he spent the winter at sea, expecting every hour the return of a
+messenger from his son, whom he had sent to solicit protection from
+the African prince, Mandras'tal. 9. After long expectation, instead of
+the messenger, his son himself arrived, having escaped from the
+inhospitable court of that monarch, where he had been kept, not as a
+friend, but as a prisoner, and had returned just time enough to
+prevent his father from sharing the same fate. 10. In this situation
+they were informed that Cinna, one of their party who had remained at
+Rome, had put himself at the head of a large army, collected out of
+the Italian states, who had espoused his cause. Nor was it long before
+they joined their forces at the gates of Rome. Sylla was at that time
+absent in his command against Mithri'dates. 11. Cinna marched into the
+city; but Ma'rius stopped, and refused to enter, alleging, that having
+been banished by a public decree, it was necessary to have another to
+authorise his return. It was thus that he desired to give his
+meditated cruelties the appearance of justice; and while he was about
+to destroy thousands, to pretend an implicit veneration for the laws.
+12. An assembly of the people being called, they began to reverse his
+banishment; but they had scarcely gone through three of the tribes,
+when, incapable of restraining his desire of revenge, he entered the
+city at the head of his guards, and massacred all who had been
+obnoxious to him, without remorse or pity. 13. Several who sought to
+propitiate the tyrant's rage, were murdered by<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg. 185]</a></span> his command in his
+presence; many even of those who had never offended him were put to
+death; and, at last, even his own officers never approached him but
+with terror. 14. Having in this manner satiated his revenge, he next
+abrogated all the laws which were enacted by his rival, and then made
+himself consul with Cinna. 15. Thus gratified in his two favourite
+passions, vengeance and ambition, having once saved his country, and
+now deluged it with blood, at last, as if willing to crown the pile of
+slaughter which he had made, with his own body, he died the month
+after, not without suspicion of having hastened his end. 16. In the
+mean time these accounts were brought to Sylla, who had been sent
+against Mithrida'tes, and who was performing many signal exploits
+against him; hastily concluding a peace, therefore, he returned home
+to take vengeance on his enemies at Rome. 17. Nothing could intimidate
+Cinna from attempting to repel his opponent. Being joined by Car'bo,
+(now elected in the room of Vale'rius, who had been slain) together
+with young Ma'rius, who inherited all the abilities and the ambition
+of his father, he determined to send over part of the forces he had
+raised in Dalma'tia to oppose Sylla before he entered Italy. Some
+troops were accordingly embarked; but being dispersed by a storm, the
+others that had not yet put to sea, absolutely refused to go. 18. Upon
+this, Cinna, quite furious at their disobedience, rushed forward to
+persuade them to their duty. In the mean time one of the most mutinous
+of the soldiers being struck by an officer, returned the blow, and was
+apprehended for his crime. This ill-timed severity produced a tumult
+and a mutiny through the whole army; and, while Cinna did all he could
+to appease it, he was run through the body by one of the crowd. 19.
+Scip'io, the consul, who commanded against Sylla, was soon after
+allured by proposals for a treaty; but a suspension of arms being
+agreed upon, Sylla's soldiers went into the opposite camp, displaying
+those riches which they had acquired in their expeditions, and
+offering to participate with their fellow-citizens, in case they
+changed their party. 20. In consequence of this the whole army
+declared unanimously for Sylla; and Scip'io scarcely knew that he was
+forsaken and deposed, till he was informed of it by a party of the
+enemy, who, entering his tent, made him and his son prisoners.</p>
+<p>
+21. In this manner both factions, exasperated to the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg. 186]</a></span> highest
+degree, and expecting no mercy on either part, gave vent to their fury
+in several engagements. The forces on the side of young Ma'rius, who
+now succeeded his father in command, were the most numerous, but those
+of Sylla better united, and more under subordination. 22. Carbo, who
+commanded for Ma'rius in the field, sent eight legions to Pr&aelig;nes'te,
+to relieve his colleague, but they were met by Pompey, afterwards
+surnamed the Great, in a defile, who slew many of them, and dispersed
+the rest. Carbo soon after engaged Metel'lus, but was overcome, with
+the loss of ten thousand slain, and six thousand taken prisoners. 23.
+In consequence, Urba'nus, one of the consuls, killed himself, and
+Carbo fled to Africa, where, after wandering a long time, he was at
+last delivered up to Pompey, who, to please Sylla, ordered him to be
+beheaded. 24. Sylla, now become undisputed master of his country,
+entered Rome at the head of his army. Happy, had he supported in peace
+the glory which he had acquired in war; or, had he ceased to live when
+he ceased to conquer!</p>
+<p>
+25. Eight thousand men, who had escaped the general carnage,
+surrendered themselves to the conqueror; he ordered them to be put
+into the Villa Pub'lica, a large house in the Campus Mar'tius; and, at
+the same time, convoked the senate: there, without discovering the
+least emotion, he spoke with great fluency of his own exploits, and,
+in the mean time, gave private directions that all those wretches whom
+he had confined, should be slain. 26. The senate, amazed at the horrid
+outcries of the sufferers, at first thought that the city was given up
+to plunder; but Sylla, with an unembarrassed air, informed them, that
+it was only some criminals who were punished by his order, and that
+the senate ought not to make themselves uneasy at their fate. 27. The
+day after he proscribed forty senators, and sixteen hundred knights;
+and after an intermission of two days, forty senators more, with an
+infinite number of the richest citizens. 28. He next resolved to
+invest himself with the dictatorship, and that for a perpetuity; and
+thus uniting all civil as well as military power in his own person, he
+thought he might thence give an air of justice to every oppression.
+29. Thus he continued to govern with capricious tyranny, none daring
+to resist his power, until, contrary to the expectation of all
+mankind, he laid down the dictatorship, after having held it not quite
+three years.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg. 187]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+       <img src="images/image12.jpg"
+        alt="Sylla reproaching the little image of Apollo with his defeat."
+        title="Sylla reproaching the little image of Apollo with his defeat." width="430" height="338" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+30 After this, he retired into the country, and abandoned himself to
+debauchery; but he did not long survive his abdication; he was seized
+with a horrible distemper, and died a loathsome and mortifying object,
+and a melancholy proof of the futility of human ambition.<a name="FNanchor_5_123" id="FNanchor_5_123"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_123" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+The character of Sylla exhibits a singular compound of great and mean
+qualities. Superstition was one of its features. It is said that
+having suffered a defeat in the course of the Social War, in Italy, he
+drew from his bosom a little image of Apollo, which he had stolen from
+the temple of Delphi, and had ever since carried about him when
+engaged in war. Kissing it with great devotion, he expostulated with
+the god, for having brought him to perish dishonourably, with his
+countrymen, at the gates of his native city, after having raised him
+by many victories to such a height of glory and greatness.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg. 188]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What were the first acts of Sylla?</p>
+<p>
+2. What became of Marius?</p>
+<p>
+3. To what dangers was he exposed?</p>
+<p>
+4. Was an attempt made on his life?</p>
+<p>
+5. How did the governor treat the fugitive general?</p>
+<p>
+6. What ingratitude was shown to Marius?</p>
+<p>
+7. What was his reply?</p>
+<p>
+8. From what African prince did he ask aid?</p>
+<p>
+9. Was it granted?</p>
+<p>
+10. What opportunity was taken by the Marian party to renew the
+struggle?</p>
+<p>
+11. To what scruple did Marius pretend?</p>
+<p>
+12. What proves it a pretence?</p>
+<p>
+13. What cruelties were practised by Marius?</p>
+<p>
+14. What laws did he change? 15. How did Marius die?</p>
+<p>
+16. How did Sylla act when he learned the news of the change?</p>
+<p>
+17. What caused a tumult in Cinna's army?</p>
+<p>
+18. How did it end?</p>
+<p>
+19. What artifice was practised on Scipio?</p>
+<p>
+20. What was the result?</p>
+<p>
+21. Describe the relative condition of the rival forces?</p>
+<p>
+22. Did Pompey obtain any victory?</p>
+<p>
+23. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+24. Which faction finally prevailed?</p>
+<p>
+25. What massacre was perpetrated by Sylla?</p>
+<p>
+26. How did he excuse it? 27. Were these his only cruelties?</p>
+<p>
+28. What magistracy did Sylla usurp?</p>
+<p>
+29. How did he govern?</p>
+<p>
+30. In what manner did the tyranny of Sylla terminate?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_119" id="Fnote_1_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_119">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ So astonished was Jugur'tha at the mercenary disposition
+discovered by the Romans, that he is said to have exclaimed, on
+leaving the city, "Oh, Rome! thou wouldst thyself be sold, could a
+chapman be found to purchase thee."</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_120" id="Fnote_2_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_120">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ It has been said with great truth, that "the wicked have
+no friends." Jugur'tha experienced this. Bomil'car, who professed the
+warmest attachment to Jugur'tha, was gained over by the proconsul
+Metel'lus to persuade his master, that submission to the Romans was
+absolutely necessary. Jugur'tha accordingly sent an embassy to the
+proconsul, professing his readiness to submit to any terms. Upon this
+he was required to send to the Romans 200,000 pounds weight of silver,
+all his elephants, a certain number of horses and arms, and all
+deserters. The king complied exactly with these hard conditions; but
+after thus weakening his resources, he found himself still obliged to
+continue the war, or submit to such farther impositions as would have
+endangered, not only his crown, but his life.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_121" id="Fnote_3_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_121">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Never did any one more deservedly suffer than this
+treacherous and cruel man.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_122" id="Fnote_4_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_122">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This king incurred the resentment of the Romans by making
+war on some of their allies, and by putting Op'pius and Aquil'ius to
+death. Upbraiding the Romans with their avarice and corruption, he
+caused melted gold to be poured down the throat of the latter.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_123" id="Fnote_5_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_123">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Two events, important in the history of Rome, occurred
+about this time. Serto'rius, a Roman general, in Spain, had rebelled
+against the government of Syl'la, and defeated every army sent against
+him, till Pompey took the command; and even then the result appeared
+doubtful, till Serto'rius, being assassinated by his own officers put
+an end to the war. Spar'tacus, a gladiator, having escaped from
+confinement, and assembled a number of his followers, commenced what
+is called the second Servile War. His army gradually increasing, he
+became a formidable enemy to the Roman state; overthrew the pr&aelig;tors
+and consuls sent against him; but was at length defeated by Crassus,
+and the remains of his army cut in pieces by Pompey, who met them on
+his return from Spain.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XIX.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE PERPETUAL DICTATORSHIP OF SYLLA TO THE TRIUMVIRATE OF C&AElig;SAR,
+POMPEY, AND CRASSUS.&mdash;U.C. 680.</p>
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">With Tully she her wide reviving light</span><br />
+<span class="i2">To senates holds, a Catiline confounds.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And saves awhile from C&aelig;sar sinking Rome.&mdash;<i>Thomson</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+1. Upon the death of Sylla, the jealousies of Pompey and Crassus, the
+two most powerful men in the empire, began to excite fresh
+dissensions. Pompey was the most beloved general, but Crassus the
+richest man in Rome.</p>
+<p>
+2. The first opportunity that was offered of discovering their mutual
+jealousy, was upon disbanding their troops. Neither chose to begin; so
+that the most fatal consequences were likely to arise from their
+dissension. At length Crassus, stifling his resentment, laid down his
+command; and<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg. 189]</a></span> the other followed his example immediately after. 3.
+The next trial between them was, who should be foremost in obtaining
+the favour of the people. Crassus entertained the populace at a
+thousand tables, distributed corn to the families of the poor, and fed
+the greatest part of the citizens for nearly three months. Pompey, on
+the other hand, laboured to abrogate the laws made against the
+authority of the people by Sylla; restored to the knights the power of
+judging, which had been formerly granted them by Gracchus; and gave
+back to the tribunes all their former privileges. 4. Thus each gave
+his private aims an appearance of zeal for the public good; so that
+what was in reality ambition in both, took with one the name of
+liberality; with the other, that of a love of freedom.</p>
+<p>
+5. An expedition, in which Pompey cleared the Mediterranean, which was
+infested by pirates, having added greatly to his reputation, the
+tribunes of the people hoped it would be easy to advance their
+favourite still higher. 6. Man'lius, therefore, one of the number,
+preferred a law, that all the armies of the empire, the government of
+Asia, and the management of the war which was renewed against
+Mithrida'tes, should be committed to Pompey alone. The law passed,
+with little opposition, and the decree was confirmed.</p>
+<p>
+7. Being thus appointed to the command of that important war, he
+departed for Asia. 8. Mithrida'tes had been obliged by Lucul'lus to
+take refuge in Lesser Armenia, and thither that general was preparing
+to follow him, when his whole army abandoned him; so that it remained
+for Pompey to terminate the war, which he effected with great ease and
+expedition, adding a large extent of dominion to the Roman empire, and
+returning to Rome in triumph at the head of his conquering army.</p>
+<p>
+9. But the victories of Pompey rather served to heighten the glory
+than to increase the power of Rome; they made it more a glaring object
+of ambition, and exposed its liberties to greater danger. Those
+liberties, indeed, seemed devoted to ruin on every side; for, even
+while he was pursuing his conquests abroad, Rome was at the verge of
+ruin from a conspiracy at home. 10. This conspiracy was projected and
+carried on by Ser'gius Cat'iline, a patrician by birth, who resolved
+to build his own power on the downfall of his country. 11. He was
+singularly formed, both by art and nature, to conduct a conspiracy: he
+was possessed of courage equal to the most desperate attempts, and of
+eloquence <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg. 190]</a></span> to give a colour to his ambition: ruined in his
+fortunes, profligate in his manners, vigilant in pursuing his aims, he
+was insatiable after wealth, only with a view to lavish it on his
+guilty pleasures. 12. Cat'iline having contracted debts in consequence
+of such an ill-spent life, was resolved to extricate himself from them
+by any means, however unlawful. Accordingly, he assembled about thirty
+of his debauched associates, and informed them of his aims, his hopes,
+and his settled plans of operations. 13. It was resolved among them,
+that a general insurrection should be raised throughout Italy, the
+different parts of which he assigned to different leaders. Rome was to
+be fired at several places at once; and Cat'iline, at the head of an
+army raised in Etru'ria, was, in the general confusion, to possess
+himself of the city, and massacre all the senators. Len'tulus, one of
+his profligate assistants, who had been pr&aelig;tor, or judge in the city,
+was to preside in their general councils; Cethe'gus, a man who
+sacrificed the possession of great present power to the hopes of
+gratifying his revenge against Cicero,<a name="FNanchor_1_124" id="FNanchor_1_124"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_124" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> was to direct the massacre
+through the city; and Cas'sius was to conduct those who fired it.</p>
+<p>
+14. But the vigilance of Ci'cero being the chief obstacle to their
+designs, Catiline was very desirous to see him taken off before he
+left Rome; upon which two knights of the company undertook to kill him
+the next morning in his bed, in an early visit, on pretence of
+business. 15. But the meeting was no sooner over, than Ci'cero had
+information of all that passed in it; for, by the intrigues of a woman
+named Ful'via, he had gained over Cu'rius, her lover, one of the
+conspirators, to send him a punctual account of all their
+deliberations. 16. Having taken proper precautions to guard himself
+against the designs of his morning visitors, who were punctual to the
+appointment, he next took care to provide for the defence of the city;
+when, assembling the senate, he consulted what was best to be done in
+such a time of danger.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image13.jpg"
+alt="Curius, disclosing Catiline's conspiracy to Fulvia."
+title="Curius, disclosing Catiline's conspiracy to Fulvia." width="447" height="326" />
+</div>
+<p>
+17. The first step taken was to offer considerable rewards for farther
+discoveries, and then to prepare for<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg. 191]</a></span> the defence of the state.
+18. Cat'iline, to show how well he could dissemble, or justify any
+crime, went boldly to the senate, declaring his innocence;<a name="FNanchor_2_125" id="FNanchor_2_125"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_125" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> but,
+when confronted by the eloquence of Ci'cero, he hastily withdrew,
+declaring aloud, that since he was denied a vindication of himself,
+and driven headlong into rebellion by his enemies, he would extinguish
+the flame which was raised about him in universal ruin. 19. After a
+short conference with Len'tulus and Cethe'gus, he left Rome by night,
+with a small retinue, to hasten towards Etru'ria, where Man'lius, one
+of the conspirators, was raising an army to support him.<a name="FNanchor_3_126" id="FNanchor_3_126"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_126" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+20. In the mean time Ci'cero took proper precautions to secure all
+those of the conspiracy who remained in Rome. Len'tulus, Cethe'gus,
+Cas'sius, and several others, were put into confinement; and soon
+after strangled in prison.</p>
+<p>
+21. While his associates were put to death in the city, Cat'iline had
+raised an army of twelve thousand men, of which a fourth part only
+were completely armed, the rest being furnished with such weapons as
+chance afforded; darts, lances, and clubs. 22. He refused, at first,
+to enlist slaves, who flocked to him in great numbers, trusting to the
+strength of the conspiracy; but upon the approach of the consul, who
+was sent against him, and upon the arrival of the news that his
+confederates were put to death, the face<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg. 192]</a></span> of affairs altered. 23.
+His first attempt, therefore, was, by long marches, to make his escape
+over the Appenines into Gaul; but in this his hopes were disappointed;
+all the passes being guarded by an army superior to his own. 24. Being
+thus hemmed in on every side, and seeing all things desperate, with
+nothing left him but either to die or conquer, he resolved to make one
+vigorous effort against that army which pursued him. Anto'nius, the
+consul, being sick, the command devolved upon Petrei'us, who, after a
+fierce and bloody action in which he lost a considerable part of his
+best troops, put Cat'iline's forces to the rout, and destroyed his
+whole army.<a name="FNanchor_4_127" id="FNanchor_4_127"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_127" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+25. The extinction of this conspiracy seemed only to leave an open
+theatre for the ambition of the great men to display itself in. Pompey
+was now returned in triumph from conquering the east, as he had before
+been victorious in Europe and Africa.</p>
+<p>
+26. Crassus was the richest man in Rome, and next to Pompey, possessed
+the greatest authority; his party in the senate was even greater than
+that of his rival, and the envy raised against him was less. He and
+Pompey had long been disunited by an opposition of interests and of
+characters; however, it was from a continuance of their mutual
+jealousies that the state was in some measure to expect its future
+safety. 27. It was in this situation of things that Julius C&aelig;sar, who
+had lately gone, as pr&aelig;tor, into Spain, and had returned with great
+riches and glory, resolved to convert their mutual jealousy to his own
+advantage. 28. This celebrated man was descended from popular and
+illustrious ancestors. He warmly espoused the side of the people, and
+shortly after the death of Sylla, procured the recall of those whom
+Sylla had banished. He had all along declared for the populace against
+the senate, and became their most favourite magistrate. 29. This
+consummate statesman began by offering his services to Pompey,
+promising to assist him in getting all his acts passed,
+notwithstanding the senate's opposition. Pompey, pleased at the
+acquisition of a person of so much merit, readily granted him his
+confidence and protection. 30. He next applied to Crassus, who, from
+former connections, was disposed to become still more nearly his
+friend. 31. At length, finding them not averse to an union of
+interests, he took an opportunity<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg. 193]</a></span> of bringing them together; and,
+remonstrating with them on the advantages as well as the necessity of
+a reconciliation, he had art enough to persuade them to forget former
+animosities. 32. A combination was thus formed, by which they agreed
+that nothing should be done in the commonwealth without their mutual
+concurrence and approbation. This was called the first Trium'virate,
+by which we find the constitution weakened by a new interest which had
+not hitherto taken place, very different from that of the senate or
+the people, and yet dependent on both.</p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What followed on the death of Sylla?</p>
+<p>
+2. What first discovered their mutual jealousy?</p>
+<p>
+3. What was the next trial between them?</p>
+<p>
+4. Under what pretences did they hide their real views?</p>
+<p>
+5. What farther raised the reputation of Pompey?</p>
+<p>
+6. What means were had recourse to for this purpose?</p>
+<p>
+7, 8. What was the state of the war in Asia?</p>
+<p>
+9. What were the consequences of Pompey's victories?</p>
+<p>
+10. Who was the author, and what was the object of this conspiracy?</p>
+<p>
+11. What was the character of Catiline?</p>
+<p>
+12. What occasioned this conspiracy?</p>
+<p>
+13. How was it to be carried into execution?</p>
+<p>
+14. What was the chief obstacle to its accomplishment, and how was
+this obstacle to be removed?</p>
+<p>
+15. Was Cicero informed of their proceedings?</p>
+<p>
+16. What precautions did he take in consequence?</p>
+<p>
+17. What was the first step taken?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the conduct of Catiline on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+19. Did he continue in Rome?</p>
+<p>
+20. Did the other conspirators escape?</p>
+<p>
+21. How was Catiline employed in the mean time?</p>
+<p>
+22. Had he a fair prospect of success?</p>
+<p>
+23. Did he boldly face his opponents?</p>
+<p>
+24. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+25. Did the extinction of this conspiracy give peace to Rome?</p>
+<p>
+26. Who were the contending parties, and what was the consequence of
+this dissension?</p>
+<p>
+27. Who profited by these jealousies?</p>
+<p>
+28. Who was Julius C&aelig;sar, and by what means did he acquire popularity?</p>
+<p>
+29. What was his first step towards power?</p>
+<p>
+30. To whom did he next apply?</p>
+<p>
+31. What consequence resulted from his application?</p>
+<p>
+32. What agreement was entered into by them, and what were they
+called?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg. 194]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_124" id="Fnote_1_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_124">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Ci'cero, the first of Roman orators, as Demos'thenes was
+of the Greek, was born at Arpin'um, a town of the Volsci, and studied
+under the most celebrated orators and philosophers of Greece. His
+style of eloquence was copious, highly ornamented, and addressed more
+to the passions than to the judgment of his hearers. He was consul at
+the time of Cat'iline's conspiracy; and, for his eminent services in
+detecting and frustrating it, was honoured with the title of Pater
+Patri&aelig;.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_125" id="Fnote_2_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_125">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ On his entrance, the senators near whom he attempted to
+seal himself, quitting their places, left him quite alone.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_126" id="Fnote_3_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_126">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ On his arrival, he assumed all the insignia of a supreme
+magistrate being preceded by lictors carrying the axes and fasces.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_127" id="Fnote_4_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_127">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Cataline himself, finding his affairs desperate, threw
+himself into the midst of the enemy, and there found the death he
+sought. (Sallust.)</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XX.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.</h4><br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE, TO THE DEATH OF
+POMPEY.&mdash;U.C. 694.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">How happy was I, in my lawful wars</span><br />
+<span class="i2">In Germany, in Gaul, and Brittany!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">When every night with pleasure I set down</span><br />
+<span class="i2">What the day ministered; then sleep came sweetly.</span> </p>
+<p class="citation"><i>Beaumont and Fletcher</i>.</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The first thing that C&aelig;sar did, upon forming the Trium'virate, was
+to avail himself of the interest of his confederates to obtain the
+consulship. 2. The senate had still some influence left; and though
+they were obliged to concur in choosing him, yet they gave him for a
+colleague one Bib'ulus, whom they supposed would be a check upon his
+power. 3. But the opposition was too strong for even superior
+abilities to resist; so that Bib'ulus, after a slight attempt in
+favour of the senate, remained inactive. 4. C&aelig;sar began his schemes
+for empire by ingratiating himself with the people; he procured a law
+for dividing certain lands in Campa'nia among such of the poor
+citizens as had at least three children. This proposal was just enough
+in itself, and it was criminal only from the views of the proposer.</p>
+<p>
+5. Having thus strengthened himself at home, he deliberated with his
+confederates about sharing the foreign provinces of the empire. 6. The
+partition was soon made: Pompey chose Spain; for, being fatigued with
+conquest, and satiated with military fame, he was willing to take his
+pleasures at Rome. Crassus chose Syria; which province, as it had
+hitherto enriched the generals who had subdued it, would, he hoped,
+gratify him in this his favourite pursuit. To C&aelig;sar were left the
+provinces of Gaul, composed of fierce and powerful nations, most of
+them unsubdued, and the rest only professing a nominal subjection. 7.
+As this was appointing him rather to conquer than command, the
+government was granted him for five years, as if by its continuance to
+compensate for its danger.</p>
+<p>
+8. It would be impossible, in this narrow compass, to enumerate the
+battles C&aelig;sar fought, and the states he subdued, in his expeditions
+into Gaul and Britain, which continued eight years.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image14.jpg"
+alt="C&aelig;sar landing in Britain."
+title="C&aelig;sar landing in Britain." width="435" height="331" />
+</div>
+<p>
+9. The Helvetians<a name="FNanchor_1_128" id="FNanchor_1_128"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_128" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> were the first that were brought into subjection,
+with the loss of nearly two<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg. 195]</a></span> hundred thousand men; those who
+remained after the carnage were sent by C&aelig;sar in safety to the forests
+whence they had issued.<a name="FNanchor_2_129" id="FNanchor_2_129"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_129" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> 10. The Germans, with Ariovis'tus at their
+head, were next cut off, to the number of eighty thousand, their
+monarch himself narrowly escaping in a little boat across the Rhine.
+The Belg&aelig;<a name="FNanchor_3_130" id="FNanchor_3_130"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_130" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> suffered such a terrible overthrow, that marshes and
+rivers were rendered impassable from the heaps of slain. 11. The
+Ner'vians,<a name="FNanchor_4_131" id="FNanchor_4_131"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_131" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> who were the most warlike of those barbarous nations,
+made head for a short time, and fell upon the Romans with such fury,
+that their army was in danger of being utterly routed; but C&aelig;sar
+himself, hastily catching up a buckler, rushed through his troops into
+the midst of the enemy; by which means he so turned the fate of the
+day, that the barbarians were all cut off to a man. 12. The Celtic
+Gauls were next brought under subjection. After them, the Sue'vi, the
+Mena'pii, and all the nations from the Mediterranean to the British
+sea. 13. Thence, stimulated by the desire of conquest, he crossed over
+into Britain, upon pretence that the natives had furnished his enemies
+with continual supplies. 14. Upon approaching the shores, he found
+them covered with men to oppose his landing, and his forces were in
+danger of being<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg. 196]</a></span> driven back, till the standard-bearer of the
+tenth legion boldly leapt ashore, and being well assisted by C&aelig;sar,
+the natives were put to flight. 15. The Britons being terrified at
+C&aelig;sar's power, sent to desire a peace, which was granted them, and
+some hostages delivered. A storm, however, soon after destroying great
+part of his fleet, they resolved to take advantage of the disaster,
+and marched against him with a powerful army. But what could naked
+undisciplined troops do against forces that had been exercised under
+the greatest generals, and hardened by the conquest of the greatest
+part of the world? Being overthrown, they were obliged once more to
+sue for peace. C&aelig;sar granted it, and returned to the continent.</p>
+<p>
+16. While C&aelig;sar was thus increasing his reputation and riches abroad,
+Pompey, who remained in Rome, steadily co-operated with his ambition,
+and advanced his interests, while he vainly supposed he was forwarding
+his own. By this means C&aelig;sar was continued five years longer in Gaul.
+17. Nor was Pompey roused from his lethargy till the fame of that
+great commander's valour, riches, and humanity, began to make him
+suspect they would soon eclipse his own. 18. He now therefore did all
+in his power to diminish C&aelig;sar's reputation; obliging the magistrates
+not to publish any letters they received till he had diminished the
+credit of them, by spreading disadvantageous reports. 19. One or two
+accidents, also, helped to widen the separation; namely, the death of
+Julia,<a name="FNanchor_5_132" id="FNanchor_5_132"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_132" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Pompey's wife, who had not a little contributed to improve
+the harmony that subsisted between them; and the destruction of
+Crassus, who had conducted the war against the Parthians with so
+little prudence, that he suffered them to get the advantage of him in
+almost every skirmish; when, incapable of extricating himself, he fell
+a sacrifice to his own rashness in trusting himself to a perfidious
+enemy.<a name="FNanchor_6_133" id="FNanchor_6_133"></a><a href="#Fnote_6_133" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+<p>
+It was at this period that T. Maurius Milo, being a candidate for the
+office of consul, during the heat of the canvassing happened, when
+riding into the country, to meet Clodius, a turbulent man, who
+favoured his opponent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image15.jpg"
+alt="Exposure of Clodius's body in the Forum."
+title="Exposure of Clodius's body in the Forum." width="421" height="344" />
+</div>
+<p>
+The meeting was accidental, but a skirmish between their
+attendants<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg. 197]</a></span> drew on a contest which terminated in the death of
+Clodius. The body was brought into Rome where it was exposed, all
+covered with blood and wounds, to the view of the populace, who
+flocked around it in crowds to lament the miserable fate of their
+leader. The next day the mob, headed by a kinsman of the deceased,
+carried the body, with the wounds exposed, into the forum; and the
+enemies of Milo, addressing the crowd with inflammatory speeches,
+wrought them up to such a frenzy that they carried the body into the
+senate-house, and, tearing up the benches and tables, made a funeral
+pile, and, together with the body, burnt the house itself, and then
+stormed the house of Milo, but were repulsed. This violence, and the
+eloquence of Cicero in his defence, saved Milo from the punishment
+which he had good reason to fear for the assassination of Clodius.</p>
+<p>
+20. C&aelig;sar, who now began to be sensible of the jealousies of Pompey,
+took occasion to solicit for the consulship, together with a
+prolongation of his government in Gaul, desirous of trying whether
+Pompey would thwart or promote his pretensions. 21. In this Pompey
+seemed to be quite inactive; but, at the same time, privately employed
+two of his creatures, who alleged in the senate that the laws did not
+permit a person who was absent to offer himself as a candidate for
+that high office. 22. Pompey's view in this was to allure C&aelig;sar from
+his government, in order to stand for the consulship in person. 23.
+C&aelig;sar, however, perceiving<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg. 198]</a></span> his artifice, chose to remain in his
+province, convinced that while he headed an army devoted to him, he
+could give law as well as magistrates to the state.</p>
+<p>
+24. The senate, which was devoted to Pompey, because he had for some
+time attempted to defend them from the encroachments of the people,
+ordered home the two legions which were in C&aelig;sar's army belonging to
+Pompey, as it was pretended, to oppose the Parthians, but in reality
+to diminish C&aelig;sar's power. 25. C&aelig;sar saw their motive: but as his
+plans were not yet ripe for execution, he sent them home in pursuance
+of the orders of the senate, having previously attached the officers
+to him by benefits, and the soldiers by bounties. 26. The next step
+the senate took, was to recall C&aelig;sar from his government, as his time
+was very near expiring. But Cu'rio, his friend in the senate, proposed
+that C&aelig;sar should not leave his army till Pompey had set him the
+example. 27. This for a while perplexed Pompey; however, during the
+debate, one of the senate declaring that C&aelig;sar had passed the Alps,
+and was marching with his whole army directly towards Rome, the
+consul, immediately quitting the senate, went with his colleagues to a
+house where Pompey at that time resided. He there presented him with a
+sword, commanding him to march against C&aelig;sar, and fight in defence of
+the commonwealth. 28. Pompey declared he was ready to obey, but with
+an air of pretended moderation added, that it was only in case more
+gentle expedients could not be employed. 29. C&aelig;sar, who was instructed
+in all that passed, though he was still in Gaul, was willing to give
+his aims all the appearance of justice. He agreed to lay down his
+employment when Pompey should do the same. But the senate rejected his
+propositions, blindly confident of their power, and relying on the
+assurances of Pompey. C&aelig;sar, still unwilling to come to an open
+rupture with the state, at last was content to ask the government of
+Illyr'ia, with two legions; but this also was refused him. 30. Finding
+all attempts at an accommodation fruitless, and conscious, if not of
+the goodness of his cause, at least of the goodness of his troops, he
+began to draw them down towards the confines of Italy; and passing the
+Alps with his third legion, stopped at Raven'na, whence he once more
+wrote to the consuls, declaring that he was ready to resign all
+command in case Pompey would do so. 31. On the other hand, the senate
+decreed, that<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg. 199]</a></span> C&aelig;sar should lay down his government, and disband
+his forces within a limited time; and, if he refused obedience, that
+he should be declared an enemy to the commonwealth.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was C&aelig;sar's first act after the Triumvirate had been formed?</p>
+<p>
+2. Whom did the senate appoint as C&aelig;sar's colleague, and why?</p>
+<p>
+3. Had Bibulus any controul over C&aelig;sar?</p>
+<p>
+4. How did C&aelig;sar commence his schemes?</p>
+<p>
+5. How did he farther promote his views?</p>
+<p>
+6. How were the provinces allotted?</p>
+<p>
+7, 8. Was C&aelig;sar's a desirable allotment?</p>
+<p>
+9. Who were the first that submitted to C&aelig;sar's arms?</p>
+<p>
+10. Who were the next?</p>
+<p>
+11. Who made the most formidable resistance?</p>
+<p>
+12. What other nations were subdued by C&aelig;sar?</p>
+<p>
+13. Did these conquests content him?</p>
+<p>
+14. What opposition did he experience on the British coast?</p>
+<p>
+15. What followed this defeat?</p>
+<p>
+16. In what way were C&aelig;sar's views promoted?</p>
+<p>
+17. Did not Pompey suspect his intentions?</p>
+<p>
+18. When undeceived, what measures did he pursue?</p>
+<p>
+19. What contributed to widen the breach?</p>
+<p>
+20. How did C&aelig;sar ascertain the disposition of Pompey towards him?</p>
+<p>
+21. Did Pompey take an active part?</p>
+<p>
+22. What was Pompey's view in this?</p>
+<p>
+23. Did C&aelig;sar fall into the snare?</p>
+<p>
+24. Which side did the senate favour?</p>
+<p>
+25. Did C&aelig;sar give up the legions?</p>
+<p>
+26. What was the next step they took?</p>
+<p>
+27. What was the consequence of this proposal?</p>
+<p>
+28. Did Pompey obey this command?</p>
+<p>
+29. What was C&aelig;sar's conduct on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+30. How did he next proceed?</p>
+<p>
+31. What measure did the senate adopt?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">On him thy hate, on him thy curse bestow.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Who would persuade thee C&aelig;sar is thy foe;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And since to thee I consecrate my toil,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Oh! favour thou my cause, and on thy soldier smile.&mdash;<i>Lucan.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. C&aelig;sar, however, seemed no way disturbed at these violent
+proceedings; the night before his intended expedition into Italy, he
+sat down to table cheerfully, conversing with his friends on subjects
+of literature and philosophy; and apparently disengaged from every
+ambitious concern. After<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg. 200]</a></span> some time, rising up, he desired the
+company to make themselves joyous in his absence, and that he would be
+with them in a moment: in the mean time, having ordered his chariot to
+be prepared, he immediately set out, attended by a few friends, for
+Arim'inum, a city upon the confines of Italy, whither he had
+despatched a part of his army the morning before. 2. This journey by
+night, which was very fatiguing, he performed with great diligence,
+sometimes walking, and sometimes on horseback; till at the break of
+day, he came up with his army, which consisted of about five thousand
+men, near the Ru'bicon, a little river which separates Italy from
+Gaul, and which marked the limits of his command. 3. The Romans had
+ever been taught to consider this river as the sacred boundary of
+their domestic empire. 4. C&aelig;sar, therefore, when he advanced at the
+head of his army to the side of it, stopped short upon the bank, as if
+impressed with terror at the greatness of his enterprise. He could not
+pass it without transgressing the laws; he therefore pondered for some
+time in fixed melancholy, looking and debating with himself whether he
+should venture in. "If I pass this river," said he to one of his
+generals, "what miseries shall I bring upon my country! and if I now
+stop short I am undone." 5. After a pause he exclaimed, "Let us go
+where the gods and the injustice of our enemies call us." Thus saying,
+and renewing all his former alacrity, he plunged in, crying out, "The
+die is cast." His soldiers followed him with equal promptitude, and
+having passed the Ru'bicon, quickly arrived at Arim'inum, and made
+themselves masters of the place without any resistance.</p>
+<p>
+6. This unexpected enterprise excited the utmost terror in Rome; every
+one imagining that C&aelig;sar was leading his army to lay the city in
+ruins. At the same time were to be seen the citizens flying into the
+country for safety, and the inhabitants of the country coming to seek
+shelter in the city. 7. In this universal confusion, Pompey felt all
+that repentance and self-condemnation, which must necessarily arise
+from the remembrance of having advanced his rival to his present pitch
+of power: wherever he appeared, many of his former friends were ready
+to tax him with his supineness, and sarcastically to reproach his
+ill-grounded presumption. 8. "Where is now," cried Favo'nius, a
+ridiculous senator of this party, "the army that is to rise at your
+command?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg. 201]</a></span> let us see if it will appear by stamping."<a name="FNanchor_7_134" id="FNanchor_7_134"></a><a href="#Fnote_7_134" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Cato
+reminded him of the many warnings he had given him; which, however, as
+he was continually boding nothing but calamities, Pompey might very
+justly be excused from attending to. 9. Being at length wearied with
+these reproaches, which were offered under colour of advice, he did
+all that lay in his power to encourage and confirm his followers: he
+told them that they should not want an army, for that he would be
+their leader. He confessed, indeed, that he had all along mistaken
+C&aelig;sar's aims, judging only from what they ought to have been; however,
+if his friends were still inspired with the love of freedom, they
+might yet enjoy it in whatever place their necessities should happen
+to conduct them. 16. He let them know that their affairs were in a
+very promising situation: that his two lieutenants were at the head of
+a very considerable army in Spain, composed of veteran troops that had
+made a conquest of the east: besides these, there were infinite
+resources, both in Asia and Africa, together with the succours they
+were sure to receive from all the kingdoms that were in alliance with
+Rome. 11. This speech served in some measure to revive the hopes of
+the confederacy. The greatest part of the senate, his private friends
+and dependents, with all those who expected to make their fortunes by
+espousing his cause, agreed to follow him. But being in no capacity to
+resist C&aelig;sar at Rome, he resolved to lead his forces to Cap'ua, where
+the two legions that served under C&aelig;sar in Gaul were stationed.</p>
+<p>
+12. C&aelig;sar in the mean time, after having vainly attempted to bring
+Pompey to an accommodation, resolved to pursue him into Cap'ua before
+he could collect his forces. Accordingly, he marched on to take
+possession of the cities that lay between him and his rival, not
+regarding Rome, which he knew would fall of course to the conqueror.</p>
+<p>
+13. Corfin'ium was the first city that attempted to stop the rapidity
+of his march. It was defended by Domi'tius, who had been appointed by
+the senate to succeed him in Gaul. C&aelig;sar quickly invested it; and
+though Domi'tius sent frequently to Pompey, exhorting him to come and
+raise<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg. 202]</a></span> the siege, he was at length obliged to endeavour to escape
+privately. 14. His intentions being divulged, the garrison resolved to
+consult their own safety by delivering him up to the besiegers. C&aelig;sar
+readily accepted their offers, but kept his men from immediately
+entering the town. 15. After some time, Len'tulus the consul, who was
+one of the besieged, came out to implore forgiveness for himself and
+the rest of his confederates, putting C&aelig;sar in mind of their ancient
+friendship, and acknowledging the many favours he had received at his
+hands. 16. To this C&aelig;sar, who would not wait the conclusion of his
+speech, generously replied, that he came into Italy not to injure the
+liberties of Rome and its citizens, but to restore them. 17. This
+humane reply being quickly carried into the city, the senators and the
+knights, with their children, and some officers of the garrison, came
+out to claim the conqueror's protection, who, just glancing at their
+ingratitude, gave them their liberty, with permission to go
+wheresoever they should think proper. 18. But while he dismissed the
+leaders, he took care upon this, as upon all other occasions, to
+attach the common soldiers to his interest, sensible that he might
+stand in need of the army; but that while he lived, the army could
+never stand in need of a commander.</p>
+<p>
+19. Pompey, who was unable to continue in Rome, having intelligence of
+what had passed upon this occasion, retreated to Brundu'sium, where he
+resolved to stand a siege, in order to retard the enemy, until the
+forces of the empire should be united to oppose him. 20. His aim in
+this succeeded to his wish; and after having employed C&aelig;sar for some
+time in a fruitless siege, he privately carried his forces over to
+Dyrrach'ium, where the consul had levied a body of troops for his
+assistance. 21. However, though he made good his escape, he was
+compelled to leave all Italy at the mercy of his rival, without a town
+or an army that had strength to oppose his progress.</p>
+<p>
+22. C&aelig;sar, who could not follow Pompey for want of shipping, went back
+to Rome, to take possession of the public treasures, which his
+opponent, by a most unaccountable oversight, had neglected to take
+with him. 23. Upon his coming up to the door of the treasury,
+Metel'lus, the tribune, who guarded it, refused to let him pass; but
+C&aelig;sar, with emotion, laying his hand upon his sword, threatened to
+strike him dead. "Know, young man," cried he, "it is easier to do this
+than say it." This menace had its effect;<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg. 203]</a></span> Metel'lus retired, and
+C&aelig;sar took out of the treasury three hundred thousand pounds weight of
+gold, and an immense quantity of silver.</p>
+<p>
+24. Having thus provided for continuing the war, he departed from
+Rome, resolved to subdue Pompey's lieutenants, Afra'nius and
+Petrei'us, who had been long in Spain at the head of a veteran army,
+which had ever been victorious. 25. C&aelig;sar, however, who knew the
+abilities of its present commanders, jocosely said, as he was
+preparing to march, "I am going to fight an army without a general,
+and return to fight a general without an army."</p>
+<p>
+26. The first conflict which he had with Afra'nius and Petrei'us was
+rather unfavourable. It was fought near the city of Ilerda,<a name="FNanchor_8_135" id="FNanchor_8_135"></a><a href="#Fnote_8_135" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> and
+both sides claimed the honour of the victory. But, by various
+stratagems, he reduced them at last to such extremity of hunger and
+drought, that they were obliged to yield at discretion. 27. Clemency
+was his favourite virtue; he dismissed them all with the kindest
+professions, and then sent them home to Rome loaded with shame, and
+with obligations to publish his virtues, and confirm the affections of
+his adherents. 28. Thus, in the space of about forty days, he became
+master of Spain, and returned again victorious to Rome. The citizens
+on this occasion received him with fresh demonstrations of joy, and
+created him dictator and consul. But the first of these offices he
+laid down when he had held it eleven days.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. How did C&aelig;sar conduct himself on the night previous to his intended
+journey to Italy?</p>
+<p>
+2. Did he accomplish his journey in safety?</p>
+<p>
+3. What rendered this little river of consequence?</p>
+<p>
+4. Did C&aelig;sar pass it without hesitation?</p>
+<p>
+5. How did he determine?</p>
+<p>
+6. What effect was produced at Rome by this enterprise?</p>
+<p>
+7. How was Pompey affected by it?</p>
+<p>
+8. What taunting expressions were used on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+9. What was Pompey's conduct in reply?</p>
+<p>
+10. How did he represent the state of affairs?</p>
+<p>
+11. What was the consequence of this statement?</p>
+<p>
+12. How was C&aelig;sar employed in the mean while?</p>
+<p>
+13. What city first arrested his progress?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg. 204]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+14. Did he succeed in his endeavour?</p>
+<p>
+15. What attempt was made to incline C&aelig;sar to mercy?</p>
+<p>
+16. What was C&aelig;sar's reply?</p>
+<p>
+17. What was the consequence of this reply?</p>
+<p>
+18. Did he dismiss the soldiers likewise?</p>
+<p>
+19. Whither did Pompey retreat, and with what view?</p>
+<p>
+20. Did he succeed in his aims?</p>
+<p>
+21. What was the consequence of his retreat?</p>
+<p>
+22. Did C&aelig;sar follow Pompey?</p>
+<p>
+23. Was he opposed in his attempt?</p>
+<p>
+24. What was his next enterprise?</p>
+<p>
+25. What was C&aelig;sar's opinion of these commanders?</p>
+<p>
+26. Were they easily conquered?</p>
+<p>
+27. What use did he make of his victory?</p>
+<p>
+28. What was the duration of this campaign, and what were its
+consequences?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION III.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">O war! what art thou?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">At once the proof and scourge of man's fall'n state!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">After the brightest conquest, what appears</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Of all thy glories? for the vanquish'd, chains!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">For the proud victors, what? Alas! to reign</span><br />
+<span class="i2">O'er desolated nations.&mdash;<i>H.More</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+1. While C&aelig;sar was thus employed, Pompey was active in making
+preparations in Epi'rus and Greece to oppose him. 2. All the monarchs
+of the East had declared in his favour, and sent very large supplies.
+He was master of nine effective Italian legions, and had a fleet of
+five hundred large ships, under the conduct of Bib'ulus, an active and
+experienced commander. Added to these, he was supplied with large sums
+of money, and all the necessaries for an army, from the tributary
+provinces round him. 3. He had attacked Antony and Dolabel'la, who
+commanded for C&aelig;sar in that part of the empire, with such success,
+that the former was obliged to fly, and the latter was taken prisoner.
+Crowds of the most distinguished citizens and nobles from Rome came
+every day to join him. He had at one time above two hundred senators
+in his camp, among whom were Ci'cero and Ca'to, whose approbation of
+his cause was equivalent to an army.</p>
+<p>
+4. Notwithstanding these preparations, C&aelig;sar shipped off five of his
+twelve legions at Brundu'sium, and fortunately steered through the
+midst of his enemies, timing it so well that he made his passage in
+one day.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image16.jpg"
+alt="C&aelig;sar embarking in a fishing boat."
+title="C&aelig;sar embarking in a fishing boat." width="428" height="342" />
+</div>
+<p>
+5. Still, however, convinced that the proper time for making proposals
+for a peace was after gaining advantage, he sent one Ru'fus, whom he
+had taken prisoner, to effect an accommodation with <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg. 205]</a></span> Pompey,
+offering to refer all to the senate and people of Rome; but Pompey
+once more rejected the overture, considering the people of Rome too
+much in C&aelig;sar's interest to be relied on.</p>
+<p>
+6. Pompey had been raising supplies in Macedo'nia when he was first
+informed of C&aelig;sar's landing upon the coast of Epi'rus: he now resolved
+immediately to march to Dyrrach'ium, in order to cover that place from
+C&aelig;sar's attempts, as all his ammunition and provisions were deposited
+there. 7. The first place where both armies came in sight of each
+other was on the opposite banks of the river Ap'sus; and as both were
+commanded by the two greatest generals then in the world; the one
+renowned for his conquests in the East, and the other celebrated for
+his victories over the western parts of the empire, a battle was
+eagerly desired by the soldiers on either side. 8. But neither of the
+generals was willing to hazard it upon this occasion: Pompey could not
+rely upon his new levies; and C&aelig;sar would not venture an engagement
+till he was joined by the rest of his forces.</p>
+<p>
+9. C&aelig;sar had waited some time with extreme impatience for the coming
+up of the remainder of his army, and even ventured alone in an open
+fishing-boat to hasten its arrival; but he was driven back by a
+storm.<a name="FNanchor_9_136" id="FNanchor_9_136"></a><a href="#Fnote_9_136" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> 10. However, his disappointment was soon relieved by an
+information of the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg. 206]</a></span> landing of the troops at Apollo'nia; he,
+therefore, decamped in order to meet them; and to prevent Pompey, with
+his army, from engaging them on their march, as he lay on that side of
+the river where the succours had been obliged to come on shore.</p>
+<p>
+11. Pompey, being compelled to retreat, led his forces to Aspara'gium,
+where he was sure of being supplied with every thing necessary for his
+army, by the numerous fleets which he employed along the coasts of
+Epi'rus: there he pitched his camp upon a tongue of land (as mariner's
+express it) that jutted into the sea, where also was a small shelter
+for his ships. 12. In this place, being most advantageously situated,
+he began immediately to intrench his camp; which C&aelig;sar perceiving, and
+finding that he was not likely soon to quit so advantageous a post,
+began also to intrench behind him. 13. As all beyond Pompey's camp
+towards the land side was hilly and steep, C&aelig;sar built redoubts upon
+the hills, stretching from shore to shore, and then caused lines of
+communication to be drawn from hill to hill, by which he blocked up
+the camp of the enemy. 14. He hoped by this blockade to force his
+opponent to a battle, which he ardently desired, and which the other
+with equal industry declined. Thus both sides continued for some time
+employed in designs and stratagems, the one to annoy and the other to
+defend. 15. C&aelig;sar's men daily carried on their works to straiten the
+enemy; those of Pompey, having the advantage of numbers, did the same
+to enlarge themselves, and severely galled the enemy by their slingers
+and archers. 16. C&aelig;sar, however, was indefatigable; he caused blinds
+or mantalets to be made of the skins of beasts, to cover his men while
+at work; he cut off all the water that supplied the enemy's camp, and
+the forage from the horses, so that there remained no more subsistence
+for them. 17. But Pompey at last resolved to break through his lines,
+and gain some other part of the country more convenient for
+encampment. Accordingly, having informed himself of the condition of
+C&aelig;sar's fortifications from some deserters who came over to him, he
+ordered the light infantry and archers on board his ships to attack
+C&aelig;sar's entrenchments by sea, where they were least defended. 18. This
+was done with such effect, that though C&aelig;sar and his officers used
+their utmost endeavours to hinder Pompey's designs, yet by means of
+reiterated attempts, he at last effected his purpose of extricating
+his army from its present camp, and of encamping<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg. 207]</a></span> in another place
+by the sea, where he had the convenience both of forage and shipping.
+19. C&aelig;sar being thus frustrated in his views of blocking up the enemy,
+and perceiving the loss he had sustained, resolved at last to force
+Pompey to a battle, though upon disadvantageous terms. 20. The
+engagement began by attempting to cut off a legion which was posted in
+a wood; and this brought on a general battle. The conflict was for
+some time carried on with great ardour, and with equal fortune; but
+C&aelig;sar's army being entangled in the entrenchments of the old camps
+lately abandoned, began to fall into disorder; upon which Pompey
+pressing his advantage, they at last fled with precipitation. Great
+numbers perished in the trenches and on the banks of the river, or
+were pressed to death by their fellows. 21. Pompey pursued his success
+to the very camp of C&aelig;sar; but either from surprise, under the
+suddenness of his victory, or fearful of an ambuscade, he with drew
+his troops into his own camp, and thus lost an opportunity of
+completing his victory.</p>
+<p>
+22. After this defeat, which was by no means decisive, C&aelig;sar marched,
+with all his forces united in one body, directly to Gom'phi, a town in
+the province of Thes'saly. But the news of his defeat at Dyr'rachium
+had reached this place before him; the inhabitants, therefore, who had
+before promised him obedience, now changed their minds, and, with a
+degree of baseness equal to their imprudence, shut their gates against
+him. 23. C&aelig;sar was not to be injured with impunity. Having represented
+to his soldiers the great advantage of forcing a place so very rich,
+he ordered the scaling ladders to be got ready, and causing an assault
+to be made, proceeded with such vigour that, notwithstanding the
+height of the walls, the town was taken in a few hours. 24. C&aelig;sar left
+it to be plundered, and, without delaying his march, went forward to
+Metrop'olis, another town of the same province, which yielded at his
+approach. By this means he soon became possessed of all Thes'saly,
+except Laris'sa, which was garrisoned by Scip'io, with his legion who
+commanded for Pompey. 25. During this interval, Pompey's officers
+continually soliciting their commander to come to a battle, he, at
+length, resolved to renounce his own judgment in compliance with those
+about him, and gave up all schemes of prudence for those dictated by
+avarice and passion. 26. Advancing, therefore, into Thes'saly, within
+a few days after the taking of Gom'phi, he drew <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg. 208]</a></span> down upon the
+plains of Pharsa'lia, where he was joined by Scip'io, his lieutenant,
+and the troops under his command. There, waiting the coming of C&aelig;sar,
+he resolved to engage, and, by a single battle, decide the fate of
+kingdoms.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. How was Pompey engaged at this time?</p>
+<p>
+2. What advantages did he possess?</p>
+<p>
+3. What farther contributed to give him hopes of success?</p>
+<p>
+4. Was C&aelig;sar discouraged by these formidable preparations?</p>
+<p>
+5. Was he resolutely bent on hostilities?</p>
+<p>
+6. What was Pompey's first measure?</p>
+<p>
+7. Where did the armies first come in sight of each other?</p>
+<p>
+8. Was an immediate engagement the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+9. Was this junction soon effected?</p>
+<p>
+10. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+11. What was Pompey's next measure?</p>
+<p>
+12. Did he remain long in this place?</p>
+<p>
+13. What means did C&aelig;sar adopt to distress the enemy?</p>
+<p>
+14. What did he promise himself from the adoption of this plan?</p>
+<p>
+15. How were both armies employed?</p>
+<p>
+16. What was the conduct of C&aelig;sar on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+17. How did Pompey frustrate his designs?</p>
+<p>
+18. Was he successful in his attempts?</p>
+<p>
+19. What was C&aelig;sar's resolution on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+20. By what means did he effect this?</p>
+<p>
+21. Did Pompey make the most of his victory?</p>
+<p>
+22. Whither did C&aelig;sar betake himself, and what was the consequence of
+his defeat?</p>
+<p>
+23. Did he quietly submit to this insult?</p>
+<p>
+24. What revenge did he take?</p>
+<p>
+25. How did Pompey act on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+26. Where was this great contest about to be decided?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION IV.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Each had proposed an empire to be won;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Had each once known a Pompey for his son,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Had C&aelig;sar's soul informed each private breast.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">A fiercer fury could not be expressed.&mdash;<i>Lucan</i></span>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+
+1. C&aelig;sar had employed all his art for some time in sounding the
+inclinations of his men; and finding his army once more resolute and
+vigorous, he advanced towards the plains of Pharsa'lia, where Pompey
+was encamped.</p>
+<p>
+2. The approach of two armies, composed of the best and bravest troops
+in the world, together with the greatness of the prize for which they
+contended, filled every mind <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg. 209]</a></span> with anxiety, though with different
+expectations. 3. Pompey's army, being most numerous, turned all their
+thoughts to the enjoyment of the victory; C&aelig;sar's considered only the
+means of obtaining it; Pompey's army depended upon their numbers, and
+their many generals; C&aelig;sar's upon their discipline, and the conduct of
+their single commander. 4. Pompey's partisans hoped much from the
+justice of their cause; C&aelig;sar's alleged the frequent proposals which
+they had made for peace without effect. Thus the views, hopes and
+motives of both seemed different, whilst their hatred and ambition
+were the same. 5. C&aelig;sar, who was ever foremost in offering battle, led
+out his army to meet the enemy; but Pompey, either suspecting his
+troops, or dreading the event, kept his advantageous situation at the
+foot of the hill near which he was posted. 6. C&aelig;sar, unwilling to
+attack him at a disadvantage, resolved to decamp the next day, hoping
+to weary out his antagonist, who was not a match for him in sustaining
+the fatigues of duty. 7. Accordingly the order for marching was given,
+and the tents were struck, when word was brought him that Pompey's
+army had now quitted their intrenchments, and advanced farther into
+the plain than usual; so that he might engage them at less
+disadvantage. 8. Upon this he caused his troops to halt, and, with a
+countenance of joy, informed them that the happy time was at last
+come, which they had so long wished for, and which was to crown their
+glory, and terminate their fatigues. He then drew up his troops in
+order, and advanced towards the place of battle. 9. His forces did not
+amount to above half those of Pompey; the army of the one was about
+forty-five thousand foot, and seven thousand horse: that of the other
+not exceeding twenty-two thousand foot, and about a thousand horse.
+10. This disproportion, particularly in the cavalry, had filled C&aelig;sar
+with apprehensions; he therefore had some days before picked out the
+strongest and nimblest of his foot soldiers, and accustomed them to
+fight between the ranks of his cavalry. By their assistance, his
+thousand horse was a match for Pompey's seven thousand, and had
+actually got the better in a skirmish that happened between them some
+days before.</p>
+<p>
+11. Pompey, on the other hand, had a strong expectation of success; he
+boasted that he could put C&aelig;sar's legions to flight without striking a
+single blow; presuming that as soon as the armies formed, his cavalry,
+on which he placed his greatest expectations, would out-flank and
+surround the <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg. 210]</a></span> enemy. In this disposition Pompey led his troops to
+battle. 12. As the armies approached, the two generals went from rank
+to rank, encouraging their men, exciting their hopes, and lessening
+their apprehensions. 13. Pompey represented to his men that the
+glorious occasion which they had long besought him to grant was now
+before them. "What advantages," said he, "could you wish, that you are
+not now possessed of. Your numbers, your vigour, a late victory, all
+assure us of a speedy and an easy conquest of those harassed and
+broken troops, composed of men worn out with age, and impressed with
+the terrors of a recent defeat; but there is still a stronger bulwark
+for our protection than the superiority of our strength; and that is,
+the justice of our cause. You are engaged in the defence of liberty
+and of your country; you are supported by its laws, and followed by
+its magistrates; the world are spectators of your conduct, and wish
+you success: on the contrary, he whom you oppose is a robber, an
+oppressor of his country, already nearly sunk with the consciousness
+of his crimes, as well as the ill success of his arms. Show then, on
+this occasion, all that ardour and detestation of tyranny which should
+animate Romans, and do justice to mankind."</p>
+<p>
+14. C&aelig;sar, on his part, went among his men with that steady serenity
+for which he was so much admired in the midst of danger. He insisted
+on nothing so strongly, as his frequent and unsuccessful endeavours
+for peace. He spoke with terror of the blood he was about to shed, and
+pleaded the necessity that urged him to it. He deplored the many brave
+men that were to fall on both sides, and the wounds of his country,
+whoever might be victorious. 15. His soldiers answered only with looks
+of ardour and impatience. He gave the signal to begin. The word on
+Pompey's side was, "Her'cules the Invincible:" that on C&aelig;sar's,
+"Ve'nus the Victorious." 16. There was no more space between both
+armies than to give room for the charge: Pompey therefore ordered his
+men to receive the first shock without moving from their places,
+expecting the enemy's ranks to be put into disorder. C&aelig;sar's soldiers
+were now rushing on with their usual impetuosity, when, perceiving the
+enemy motionless, they all stopt short, as if by general consent, and
+halted in the midst of their career. 17. A terrible pause ensued, in
+which both armies continued to gaze upon each other with mutual terror
+and dreadful serenity. At length, C&aelig;sar's men having taken breath, ran
+furiously upon the <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg. 211]</a></span> enemy, first discharging their javelins, and
+then drawing their swords. The same method was observed by Pompey's
+troops, who as firmly sustained the attack. His cavalry also were
+ordered to charge at the very onset, which, with the multitude of
+archers and slingers, soon obliged C&aelig;sar's men to give ground. 18.
+C&aelig;sar instantly ordered the six cohorts, that were placed as a
+reinforcement, to advance, and to strike at the enemy's faces. 19.
+This had its desired effect: Pompey's cavalry, that were just before
+sure of the victory, received an immediate check. The unusual method
+of fighting pursued by the cohorts, their aiming entirely at the
+visages of the assailants, and the horrible disfiguring wounds they
+made, all contributed to intimidate them so much, that instead of
+defending their persons, they endeavoured only to save their
+faces.<a name="FNanchor_10_137" id="FNanchor_10_137"></a><a href="#Fnote_10_137" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> 20. A total rout ensued; they fled to the neighbouring
+mountains, while the archers and slingers, who were thus abandoned,
+were cut to pieces. 21. C&aelig;sar now commanded the cohorts to pursue
+their success, and charge Pompey's troops upon the flank: this charge
+the enemy withstood for some time with great bravery, till C&aelig;sar
+brought up his third line, which had not yet engaged. 22. Pompey's
+infantry being thus doubly attacked, in front by fresh troops, and in
+the rear by the victorious cohorts, could no longer resist, but fled
+to their camp. The flight began among the strangers. Pompey's right
+wing still valiantly maintained their ground. 23. C&aelig;sar, however,
+convinced that the victory was certain, with his usual clemency cried
+out to pursue the strangers, but to spare the Romans; upon which they
+all laid down their arms and received quarter. The greatest slaughter
+was among the auxiliaries, who fled on all sides. 24. The battle had
+now lasted from break of day till noon, and the weather was extremely
+hot; nevertheless, the conquerors remitted not their ardour, being
+encouraged by the example of a general, who thought his victory
+incomplete till he should become master of the enemy's camp.
+Accordingly, marching on foot at their head, he called upon them to
+follow and strike the decisive blow. 25. The cohorts which were left
+to defend the camp, for some time made a formidable resistance;
+particularly a great number of Thra'cians and other barbarians, who
+were appointed for that purpose; but nothing could<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg. 212]</a></span> resist the
+ardour of C&aelig;sar's victorious army; the enemy were at last driven from
+the trenches, and compelled to fly to the mountains.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the state of C&aelig;sar's army immediately before the battle of
+Pharsalia?</p>
+<p>
+2. What effect had the approaching event on the minds of men?</p>
+<p>
+3. What were the respective advantages of each army?</p>
+<p>
+4. On what did they principally build their hopes?</p>
+<p>
+5. Who was the first to offer battle?</p>
+<p>
+6. How did C&aelig;sar act on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+7. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+8. What effect had this intelligence on C&aelig;sar's plan?</p>
+<p>
+9. Of what number of troops were each of the armies composed?</p>
+<p>
+10. What did C&aelig;sar consider necessary to be done to remedy this
+dis-proportion?</p>
+<p>
+11. What were Pompey's expectations and boasts?</p>
+<p>
+12. What was the conduct of the generals?</p>
+<p>
+13. Repeat Pompey's address to his troops?</p>
+<p>
+14. How did C&aelig;sar encourage his men?</p>
+<p>
+15. What effect had this speech, and what was the word on both sides?</p>
+<p>
+16. In what manner did the attack commence?</p>
+<p>
+17. Describe the progress of the battle?</p>
+<p>
+18. What means did C&aelig;sar adopt to prevent a defeat?</p>
+<p>
+19. Was this measure successful?</p>
+<p>
+20. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+21. What were C&aelig;sar's farther commands?</p>
+<p>
+22. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+23. What use did C&aelig;sar make of his victory?</p>
+<p>
+24. Did not fatigue abate the ardour of C&aelig;sar's troops?</p>
+<p>
+25. Did they attempt to defend the camp?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION V.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Sad Pompey's soul uneasy thoughts infest,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And his Cornelia pains his anxious breast,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">To distant Lesbos fain he would remove.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Far from the war, the partner of his love.&mdash;<i>Lucan.</i></span>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+1. C&aelig;sar, seeing the field and camp strewed with his fallen
+countrymen, was strongly affected at the melancholy prospect, and
+cried out to one that stood near him, "They would have it so." 2. In
+the camp, every object presented fresh instances of the blind
+presumption and madness of his adversaries. On all sides were to be
+seen tents adorned with ivy and myrtle, couches covered with purple,
+and sideboards loaded with plate. Every thing gave proof of the <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg. 213]</a></span>
+highest luxury, and seemed rather the preparatives for a banquet, or
+the rejoicings for a victory, than dispositions for a battle. 3. A
+camp so richly furnished would have engaged the attention of any
+troops but C&aelig;sar's; but there was still something to be done, and he
+permitted them not to pursue any other object than their enemies. 4. A
+considerable body having retired to the adjacent mountains, he
+prevailed on his soldiers to join him in the pursuit, in order to
+oblige these to surrender. He began by inclosing them with a line
+drawn at the foot of the mountain; but they quickly abandoned a post
+which was untenable for want of water, and endeavoured to reach the
+city of Laris'sa. 5. C&aelig;sar, leading a part of his army by a shorter
+way, intercepted their retreat. However, these unhappy fugitives again
+found protection from a mountain, at the foot of which ran a rivulet
+that supplied them with water. 6. Night approaching, C&aelig;sar's men were
+almost spent, and fainting with their incessant toil since morning;
+yet still he prevailed upon them to renew their labours, and cut off
+the rivulet that supplied the defendants. 7. The fugitives, thus
+deprived of all hopes of succour or subsistence, sent deputies to the
+conqueror, offering to surrender at discretion. During this interval
+of negociation, a few senators that were among them, took the
+advantage of the night to escape, and the rest, next morning, gave up
+their arms, and experienced the conqueror's clemency. In fact, he
+addressed them with great gentleness, and forbade the soldiers to
+offer violence, or to take any thing from them. 8. Thus C&aelig;sar gained
+the most complete victory that had ever been obtained; and by his
+great clemency after the battle, seemed to have deserved it. His loss
+amounted only to two hundred men; that of Pompey to fifteen thousand;
+twenty-four thousand men surrendered themselves prisoners of war, and
+the greatest part of these entered into C&aelig;sar's army, and were
+incorporated with the rest of his forces. 9. To the senators and Roman
+knights, who fell into his hands, he generously gave liberty to retire
+wherever they thought proper; and as for the letters which Pompey had
+received from those who wished to be thought neutral, C&aelig;sar burnt them
+all without reading, as Pompey had done on a former occasion. 10. Thus
+having performed all the duties of a general and a statesman, he sent
+for the legions which had passed the night in camp, to relieve those
+which had accompanied him in the pursuit, and arrived the same day at
+Laris'sa.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg. 214]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+11. As for Pompey, who had formerly shown such instances of courage
+and conduct, when he saw his cavalry routed, on which he had placed
+his sole dependence, he absolutely lost his reason. 12. Instead of
+thinking how to remedy this disorder by rallying such troops as fled,
+or by opposing fresh forces to stop the progress of the conqueror,
+being totally amazed by this first blow, he returned to the camp, and
+in his tent waited the issue of an event which it was his duty to have
+directed, not to follow. There he remained for some moments
+speechless, till being told that the camp was attacked&mdash;"What!" says
+he, "are we pursued to our very intrenchments?" when, immediately
+quitting his armour for a habit more suited to his circumstances, he
+fled on horseback to Laris'sa: thence, perceiving that he was not
+pursued, he slackened his pace, giving way to all the agonizing
+reflections which his deplorable situation must naturally suggest. 13.
+In this melancholy manner he passed along the vale of Tempe, and
+pursuing the course of the river Pe'neus, at last arrived at a
+fisherman's hut; here he passed the night, and then went on board a
+little bark, keeping along the sea-shore, till he descried a ship of
+some burden, which seemed preparing to sail. In this he embarked; the
+master of the vessel still paying him that homage which was due to his
+former station.</p>
+<p>
+14. From the mouth of the river Pe'neus he sailed to Amphip'olis,
+where, finding his affairs desperate, he steered to Les'bos, to take
+with him his wife Corne'lia, whom he had left there, at a distance
+from the dangers and distresses of war. 15. She, who had long
+flattered herself with the hopes of victory, now felt the agonizing
+reverse of fortune: she was desired by the messenger, whose tears more
+than his words proclaimed her unspeakable misfortunes, to hasten away
+if she expected to see Pompey, who had but one ship, and even that not
+his own. 16. Her grief, which before was violent, became now
+insupportable: she fainted, and lay without signs of life. At length
+recovering, and reflecting that it was no time for vain lamentations,
+she fled through the city to the seaside.</p>
+<p>
+17. Pompey received and embraced her, and in silent despair supported
+her in his arms. "Alas!" said Corne'lia, "you who, before our
+marriage, appeared in these seas as the commander of five hundred
+sail, are now reduced to make your escape in a single vessel. Why come
+you in search of an unfortunate woman? Why was I not left to a <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg. 215]</a></span>
+fate which now you are under the necessity of sharing with me? Happy
+for me had I executed, long since, my design of quitting this life!
+But fatally have I been reserved to add to Pompey's sorrows."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image17.jpg"
+alt="Death of Pompey."
+title="Death of Pompey." width="458" height="344" />
+</div>
+<p>
+18. Pompey instanced the uncertainty of all human affairs, and
+endeavoured by every argument to give her comfort; then, taking her
+under his protection, he continued his course, stopping no longer than
+was necessary for a supply of provisions at the ports which occurred
+in his passage. 19. He now determined upon applying to Ptol'emy, king
+of Egypt, to whose father he had been a considerable benefactor.
+Ptol'emy was yet a minor, and had not the government in his own hands,
+but was under the direction of an administration. 20. His council
+insidiously contrived that Pompey should be invited on shore, and
+murdered before he should come into the king's presence. Achil'las,
+commander of the forces, and Septim'ius, a Roman, who had formerly
+been a centurion in Pompey's army, undertook to carry the treacherous
+design into execution. Attended by three or four more, they put off in
+a little bark, and rowed to Pompey's ship, that lay about a mile from
+the shore.</p>
+<p>
+21. Pompey now took leave of Corne'lia, repeating to her a verse of
+Soph'ocles, signifying, that "he who trusts his freedom to a tyrant,
+from that moment becomes a slave." He then gave his hand to Achil'las,
+and, with only two of his own attendants, stepped into the bark. 22.
+The frantic Corne'lia hung over the side of the deck, weeping and
+<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg. 216]</a></span> exclaiming against his separation from her. "Alas!" said she,
+"whither art thou going?"</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">He spoke; but she, unmoved at his commands,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Thus loud exclaiming, stretch'd her eager hands;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">"Whither, inhuman! whither art thou gone?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Still must I weep our common griefs alone?"</span>
+<p class="citation">ROWE'S LUCAN.
+</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In wild astonishment she followed him with her eyes, and uttering to
+the winds her fruitless lamentations.</p>
+<p>
+23. The mariners, regardless of her sorrows, rowed towards land,
+without a word passing among them, till Pompey, by way of breaking
+silence, looking at Septim'ius, whose face he recollected. "Methinks,
+friend," said he, "you once served under me." Septim'ius noticing
+these words only by a contemptuous nod of the head, Pompey betook
+himself to a paper, on which he had minuted a speech intended to be
+made to the king, and began reading it. In this manner they approached
+the shore; whilst Corne'lia, whose insufferable sorrow had never let
+her lose sight of her husband, began to conceive hopes, perceiving
+that the people on the strand crowded down along the coast as if eager
+to receive him. 24. Alas! these hopes were soon destroyed. At the
+instant that Pompey rose, supporting himself upon his freedman's arm,
+Septim'ius stabbed him in the back, and Achil'las instantly seconded
+the blow. 25. Pompey, perceiving his death inevitable, calmly disposed
+himself to meet it with decency; and covering his face with his robe,
+without a word resigned himself to his fate. 26. At this horrid sight,
+Corne'lia and her attendants shrieked, so as to be heard to the very
+shore. But the danger they were in allowing no time to look on, they
+immediately set sail, and, the wind proving favourable, fortunately
+escaped the pursuit of the Egyptian galleys. 27. In the mean time,
+Pompey's murderers, having taken off his head, embalmed it for a
+present to C&aelig;sar, whilst the body was thrown naked on the strand, and
+exposed to the view of those whose curiosity was to be satisfied. 28.
+But his faithful freedman, Philip, still kept near it; and when the
+crowd dispersed, he washed it in the sea, and looking round for
+materials to burn it, perceived the wrecks of a fishing-boat, of which
+he composed a pile. 29. While he was thus piously employed, he was
+accosted by an old Roman soldier, who had served under Pompey in his
+youth. "Who art thou?" said he <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg. 217]</a></span> "that art making these humble
+preparations for Pompey's funeral?"&mdash;"One of his freedmen," answered
+Philip.&mdash;"Alas," replied the soldier, "permit me to share with you the
+honour of this sacred action. Among all the miseries of my exile, it
+will be my last sad comfort, that I have been able to assist at the
+funeral of my old commander, and to touch the body of the bravest
+general that ever Rome produced."</p>
+<p>
+30. Thus were the last rites performed to Pompey. But his ashes
+(according to Plutarch) were carefully collected, and carried to
+Corne'lia, who deposited them at his villa near Alba, in Italy. 31. We
+are told, too, that the Egyptians afterwards erected a monument to
+him, on the spot on which his funeral pile had been raised, with an
+inscription to this purpose:&mdash;"How poor a tomb covers the man who once
+had temples erected to his honour!"</p>
+<p>
+32. From Pompey's death we may date the extinction of the republic.
+From this period the senate was dispossessed of its power; and Rome
+henceforward was never without master.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. How was C&aelig;sar affected by the result of the battle?</p>
+<p>
+2. What appearance did Pompey's camp present?</p>
+<p>
+3. Did C&aelig;sar's troops immediately begin to plunder?</p>
+<p>
+4. What became of the fugitives?</p>
+<p>
+5. Did they succeed in the attempt?</p>
+<p>
+6. Were the labours of C&aelig;sar's soldiers now at an end?</p>
+<p>
+7. What effect had this on the fugitives?</p>
+<p>
+8. Was this victory of importance, and what was the loss on both
+sides?</p>
+<p>
+9. In what manner did C&aelig;sar behave to the vanquished?</p>
+<p>
+10. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+11. What was the conduct of Pompey on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+12. Mention your reasons for this assertion?</p>
+<p>
+13. Proceed in relating farther particulars?</p>
+<p>
+14. Whither did he next steer his course?</p>
+<p>
+15, 16. What effect had the tidings on Cornelia?</p>
+<p>
+17. Relate what passed at their interview?</p>
+<p>
+18. How did Pompey attempt to comfort her?</p>
+<p>
+19. What determination did he now form? 20. What was his intended
+reception?</p>
+<p>
+21. Did Pompey fall into the snare?</p>
+<p>
+22. Was his separation from his wife a painful one?</p>
+<p>
+23. What passed in the boat?</p>
+<p>
+24. Were Cornelia's hopes well founded?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg. 218]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+25. Did Pompey resist this treacherous attack?</p>
+<p>
+26. Was Cornelia a witness to this horrid transaction?</p>
+<p>
+27. How was the body of Pompey treated?</p>
+<p>
+28. Had he no friend to perform the last offices for him?</p>
+<p>
+29. By whom was he assisted?</p>
+<p>
+30. What became of his remains?</p>
+<p>
+31. What respect did the Egyptians afterwards pay to his memory?</p>
+<p>
+32. What was the face of affairs after Pompey's death?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_128" id="Fnote_1_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_128">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The inhabitants of the country now called Switzerland.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_129" id="Fnote_2_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_129">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The Helvetians, finding their country too narrow for
+their increased population, had determined on emigration. Being denied
+by C&aelig;sar a passage through his province, hostilities commenced, which
+terminated us above. (C&aelig;sar de Bel. Gal.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_130" id="Fnote_3_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_130">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Inhabitants of the country between the Rhine and the
+Loire.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_131" id="Fnote_4_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_131">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Inhabitants of the modern province of Hainault.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_132" id="Fnote_5_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_132">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ She was the daughter of C&aelig;sar.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_6_133" id="Fnote_6_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_133">[6]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Crassus was inveigled into the power of Surena, the
+Parthian general, under the pretence of treating for peace. His head
+was cut off and sent to Orodes, the king of Parthia, who poured molten
+gold down his throat.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_7_134" id="Fnote_7_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_134">[7]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This alludes to a boasting speech made some time before
+by Pompey, when he told the senate not to be alarmed at the news of
+C&aelig;sar's approach, for that he had only to stamp, and an army would
+rise at his command.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_8_135" id="Fnote_8_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_135">[8]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Now Lerida in Catalonia.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_9_136" id="Fnote_9_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_136">[9]</a></p>
+<p>
+ It was on this occasion that he encouraged the master of
+the vessel, to whom he had not before made himself known, with these
+memorable words&mdash;"Fear nothing, for thou carriest C&aelig;sar and all his
+fortunes."</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_10_137" id="Fnote_10_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_137">[10]</a></p>
+<p>
+ C&aelig;sar calls the young patricians that composed Pompey's
+cavalry "pretty young dancers."</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XXI.</h2><hr /> <br /> <br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.</h4><br />
+<p class="smcap">
+FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF THE COMMONWEALTH TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE
+FIRST EMPEROR, AUGUSTUS.&mdash;U.C. 706.</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">When our ear is pierced</span><br />
+<span class="i2">With the sad notes which mournful beauty yields,</span>
+<span class="i2">Our manhood melts in sympathizing tears.&mdash;<i>Fenton</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+1. C&aelig;sar has been much celebrated for his good fortune, but his
+abilities seem equal to the highest success. He possessed shining
+qualities, tarnished by ambition only. His talents were such as would
+have rendered him victorious at the head of any army; and he would
+have governed in any republic that had given him birth. 2. Having now
+gained a most complete victory, his success seemed only to increase
+his activity, and inspire him with fresh resolution to face new
+dangers. He determined, therefore, to pursue his last advantage, and
+follow Pompey to whatever country he had retired; convinced that,
+though he might gain new triumphs, he should never enjoy security
+until his rival was in his power.</p>
+<p>
+3. Accordingly, losing no time, he set sail for Egypt, and arrived at
+Alexandria with about four thousand men: a very inconsiderable force
+to keep so powerful a kingdom under subjection. 4. The first accounts
+he received were of Pompey's miserable end; and soon after, one of the
+murderers came with his head and his ring, as a most grateful present
+to the conqueror. 5. But C&aelig;sar had too much humanity to be pleased
+with so horrid a spectacle&mdash;with the sad remains of the man he once
+loved; his partner in power. He turned from it with disgust; and,
+after a short pause, gave vent to his pity in a flood of tears. He
+ordered the head to be burned with the most costly perfumes,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg. 219]</a></span> and
+placed the ashes in a temple, which he built and dedicated to the
+goddess Nem'esis, the avenger of cruel and inhuman deeds.</p>
+<p>
+6. It should seem that the Egyptians, by this time, had some hopes of
+breaking off all alliance with the Romans, which they considered, as
+in fact it was, only another name for subjection. They first took
+offence at C&aelig;sar's carrying the ensigns of Roman power before him as
+he entered the city. Photi'nus also treated him with great disrespect,
+and even attempted his life. 7. C&aelig;sar, however, concealed his
+resentment till he had a force sufficient to punish his treachery;
+sending, therefore, privately, for the legions which he had formerly
+enrolled for Pompey's service, as being the nearest to Egypt, he, in
+the mean time, pretended to repose an entire confidence in the king's
+ministers, making great entertainments, and assisting at the
+conferences of the philosophers, who were numerous at Alexandria. 8.
+However, he soon changed his manner, when he found himself in no
+danger from the ministers' attempts: and declared, that, being a Roman
+consul, it was his duty to settle the succession of the Egyptian
+crown.</p>
+<p>
+9. There were at that time two pretenders to the crown of Egypt;
+Ptol'emy, the acknowledged king, and the celebrated Cleopa'tra, his
+sister, to whom, by the custom of the country, he was married; and
+who, by his father's will, shared jointly in the succession. 10. Not
+contented with the participation of power, Cleopa'tra aimed at
+governing alone; but being opposed in her views by the Roman senate,
+who confirmed her brother's title to the crown, she was banished into
+Sy'ria, with Arsin'oe, her younger sister. 11. C&aelig;sar gave her new
+hopes of aspiring to the kingdom, and sent both to her and her brother
+to plead their cause before him. But Photi'nus, the young king's
+guardian, disdaining to accept this proposal, backed his refusal by
+sending an army of twenty thousand men to besiege him in Alexandria.
+12. C&aelig;sar bravely repulsed the enemy; but finding the city of too
+great extent to be defended by so small an army as his, he retired to
+the palace, which commanded the harbour, and there purposed to make
+his stand. 13. Achil'las, who commanded the Egyptians, attacked him
+with great vigour, and aimed at making himself master of the fleet
+that lay before the palace. 14. C&aelig;sar, however, too well knew the
+importance of those ships in the hands of an enemy; and therefore
+burnt them all, in spite of every<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg. 220]</a></span> effort to prevent him. He next
+possessed himself of the isle of Pha'ros, by which he was enabled to
+receive supplies; and, in this situation, determined to withstand the
+united force of the Egyptians.<a name="FNanchor_1_138" id="FNanchor_1_138"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_138" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+15. In the mean time, Cleopa'tra, having heard of the present turn in
+her favour, resolved to depend on C&aelig;sar's patronage for gaining the
+government, rather than on her own forces. But no arts, as she justly
+conceived, were so likely to influence C&aelig;sar as the charms of her
+person, which were irresistible. 16. She was now in the bloom of youth
+and beauty, while every feature borrowed grace from the lively turn of
+her temper. To the most enchanting address she joined the most
+harmonious voice. With all these accomplishments, she possessed a
+great share of the learning of the times, and could give audience to
+the ambassadors of seven different nations without an interpreter. 17.
+The difficulty was, how to gain admission to C&aelig;sar, as her enemies
+were in possession of all the avenues that led to the palace. For this
+purpose she went on board a small vessel, and, in the evening, landed
+near the palace; where, being wrapt up in a coverlet, she was carried
+as a bundle of clothes into the very presence of C&aelig;sar. 18. Her
+address instantly struck him; her wit and understanding fanned the
+flame; but her affability entirely brought him over to second her
+claims.</p>
+<p>
+19. While Cleopa'tra was thus employed in forwarding her own views,
+her sister, Arsin'oe was also strenuously engaged in the camp, in
+pursuing a separate interest. She had found means, by the assistance
+of one Gan'ymede, her confidant, to make a large division in the
+Egyptian army in her favour; and, soon after, by one of those sudden
+revolutions which are common in barbarian camps to this day, she
+caused Achil'las to be murdered, and Gan'ymede to take the command in
+his stead, and to carry on the siege with greater vigour than before.
+20. Gan'ymede's principal effort was by letting in the sea upon those
+canals which supplied the palace with fresh water; but this
+inconvenience C&aelig;sar remedied by digging a great number of wells. His
+next endeavour was to prevent the junction of C&aelig;sar's twenty-fourth
+legion, which he twice attempted in vain. He soon after made himself
+master of a bridge which joined the isle<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg. 221]</a></span> of Pha'ros to the
+continent, from which post C&aelig;sar was resolved to dislodge him. 21. In
+the heat of the action, some mariners, partly through curiosity, and
+partly through ambition, came and joined the combatants; but, being
+seized with a panic, instantly fled, and spread a general terror
+through the army. All C&aelig;esar's endeavours to rally his forces were in
+vain, the confusion was past remedy, and numbers were drowned or put
+to the sword in attempting to escape. 22. Now, therefore, seeing the
+irremediable disorder of his troops, he fled to a ship, in order to
+get to the palace that was just opposite; but he was no sooner on
+board, than such crowds entered after him, that being apprehensive of
+the ship's sinking, he jumped into the sea, and swam two hundred paces
+to the fleet which lay before the palace, all the time holding his
+Commentaries in his left hand above the water, and his coat of mail in
+his teeth.</p>
+<p>
+23. The Alexandrians, finding their efforts to take the palace
+ineffectual, endeavoured at least to get their king out of C&aelig;sar's
+power, as he had seized upon his person in the beginning of their
+disputes. For this purpose they made use of their customary arts of
+dissimulation, professing the utmost desire of peace, and only wanting
+the presence of their lawful prince to give a sanction to the treaty.
+24. C&aelig;sar was sensible of their perfidy, but concealed his suspicions,
+and gave them their king, as he was under no apprehensions from the
+abilities of a boy. Ptol'emy, however, the instant he was set at
+liberty, instead of promoting the peace, made every effort to give
+vigour to his hostilities.</p>
+<p>
+25. In this manner was C&aelig;sar hemmed in for some time by an artful and
+insidious enemy, and surrounded with almost insurmountable
+difficulties; but he was at last relieved from this mortifying
+situation by Mithrida'tes Pergame'nus, one of his most faithful
+partizans, who came with an army to his assistance. This general
+marched into Egypt, took the city of Pelu'sium, repulsed the Egyptian
+army with loss, and, at last, joining with C&aelig;sar, attacked their camp
+with a great slaughter of the Egyptians. Ptol'emy himself, attempting
+to escape on board a vessel, was drowned by the ship's sinking. 26.
+C&aelig;sar thus became master of all Egypt, without any farther opposition.
+He appointed Cleopa'tra, with her younger brother, who was then an
+infant, joint governors, according to the intent of their father's
+will, and drove out Arsin'oe, with Gan'ymede, to banishment.</p>
+<p>
+27. Having thus given away kingdoms, he now, for a<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg. 222]</a></span> while, seemed
+to relax from the usual activity of his conduct, being captivated with
+the charms of Cleopa'tra. Instead of quitting Egypt to go and quell
+the remains of Pompey's party, he abandoned himself to his pleasures,
+passing whole nights in feasting with the young queen. He even
+resolved on attending her up the Nile, into Ethiopia; but the brave
+veterans, who had long followed his fortune, boldly reprehended his
+conduct, and refused to be partners in so infamous an expedition. 23.
+Thus at length roused from his lethargy, he resolved to prefer the
+call of ambition to that of love; and to leave Cleopa'tra, in order to
+oppose Pharna'ces, the king of Bosphorus, who had made some inroads
+upon the dominions of Rome in the East.</p>
+<p>
+29. This prince, who had cruelly deposed his father, the great
+Mithrida'tes, being ambitious of conquering those dominions, seized
+upon Arme'nia and Col'chis, and overcame Domit'ius, who had been sent
+against him. 30. Upon C&aelig;sar's march to oppose him, Pharna'ces, who was
+as much terrified at the name of the general as at the strength of his
+army, laboured, by all the arts of negociation, to avert the impending
+danger. 31. C&aelig;sar, exasperated at his crimes and ingratitude, at first
+dissembled with the ambassadors; and using all expedition, fell upon
+the enemy unexpectedly, and, in a few hours, obtained an easy and
+complete victory. Pharna'ces attempting to take refuge in his capital,
+was slain by one of his own commanders&mdash;a just punishment for his
+former parricide. C&aelig;sar achieved this conquest with so much ease, that
+in writing to a friend at Rome, he expressed the rapidity of his
+victory in three words, "VENI, VIDI, VICI."<a name="FNanchor_2_139" id="FNanchor_2_139"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_139" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> A man so accustomed to
+conquest might, perhaps, think a slight battle scarcely worth a long
+letter; though it is more probable that these memorable words were
+dictated rather by vanity than indifference.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What were the abilities and character of C&aelig;sar?</p>
+<p>
+2. Did he rest satisfied with his present successes?</p>
+<p>
+3. Whither did he steer his course?</p>
+<p>
+4. What occurred on his arrival?</p>
+<p>
+5. Was C&aelig;sar pleased with this spectacle?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg. 223]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+6. What was the conduct of the Egyptians towards C&aelig;sar?</p>
+<p>
+7. Did C&aelig;sar resent this conduct?</p>
+<p>
+8. Did he continue this appearance of confidence?</p>
+<p>
+9. Who were at this time the sovereigns of Egypt?</p>
+<p>
+10. What rendered C&aelig;sar's interference necessary?</p>
+<p>
+11. Was this interference agreeable to the Egyptians?</p>
+<p>
+12. How did C&aelig;sar conduct himself on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+13. Was the attack formidable?</p>
+<p>
+14. How did C&aelig;sar prevent the designs of the enemy?</p>
+<p>
+15. What was the conduct of Cleopatra?</p>
+<p>
+16. What attractions did she possess?</p>
+<p>
+17. What obstacles presented themselves, and how were they overcome?</p>
+<p>
+18. Was C&aelig;sar captivated by her charms?</p>
+<p>
+19. What measures did Arsinoe pursue?</p>
+<p>
+20. What attempts did the enemy make to annoy C&aelig;sar, and how were they
+frustrated?</p>
+<p>
+21. What unlucky accident occasioned the miscarriage of C&aelig;sar's
+design?</p>
+<p>
+22. How did C&aelig;sar escape?</p>
+<p>
+23. What did the Alexandrians next attempt?</p>
+<p>
+24. Did C&aelig;sar comply with their wishes?</p>
+<p>
+25. How was C&aelig;sar delivered from this dangerous situation?</p>
+<p>
+26. What was the consequence of this victory?</p>
+<p>
+27. Did C&aelig;sar pursue his career of victory?</p>
+<p>
+28. What was the consequence of this boldness?</p>
+<p>
+29. What farther cause of offence had Pharnaces given?</p>
+<p>
+30. Did Pharnaces boldly oppose the invader?</p>
+<p>
+31. Did he succeed?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8"> Oh, my friends,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">How is the toil of fate, the work of ages,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The Roman empire fallen! Oh, cursed ambition!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Fallen into C&aelig;sar's hand: our great forefathers</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Had left him nought to conquer but his country.&mdash;<i>Addison's Cato.</i></span></p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+1. C&aelig;sar, having settled affairs in this part of the empire, embarked
+for Italy, where he arrived sooner than his enemies could expect, but
+not before his presence there was absolutely required. 2. During his
+absence, he had been created consul for five years, dictator for one
+year, and tribune of the people for life. 3. But Antony, who in the
+mean time governed for him in Rome, had filled the city with riot and
+debauchery, and many commotions ensued, which nothing but the arrival
+of C&aelig;sar could appease. 4. By his moderation and humanity he soon
+restored tranquillity to the city, scarcely making any distinction
+between those of his own and the opposite party. 5. Having, by gentle
+means, restored his authority at home, he prepared to march into
+Africa, where Pompey's party had found time<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg. 224]</a></span> to rally under Scipio
+and Cato, assisted by Juba, king of Maurita'nia; and, with his usual
+diligence, landed with a small party in Africa, while the rest of his
+army followed him. 6. Scipio coming to a battle soon after, received a
+complete and final overthrow, with little, or no loss on the side of
+the victor. Juba, and Petrei'us his general, killed each other in
+despair. Scipio, attempting to escape by sea into Spain, fell in among
+the enemy, and was slain; so that of all the generals of that undone
+party, Cato was now the only one that remained.</p>
+<p>
+7. This extraordinary man, whom prosperity could not elate, nor
+misfortunes depress, having retired into Africa, after the battle of
+Pharsa'lia, had led the wretched remains of Pompey's army through
+burning deserts, and tracts infested with serpents of various
+malignity, and was now in the city of Utica, which he had been left to
+defend. 8. In love, however, with the show of Roman government, Cato
+had formed the principal citizens into a senate, and conceived a
+resolution of holding out the town. But the enthusiasm for liberty
+subsiding among his followers, he was resolved no longer to force men
+to be free, who seemed naturally prone to slavery. 9. He now,
+therefore, desired some of his friends to save themselves by sea, and
+bade others submit to C&aelig;sar's clemency; observing, that, as to
+himself, he was at last victorious. After this, supping cheerfully
+among his friends, he retired to his apartment, where he behaved with
+unusual tenderness to his son, and to all his friends. When he came
+into his bed-chamber, laying himself down, he took up Plato's Dialogue
+on the Immortality of the Soul, and read for some time. Casting his
+eyes to the head of his bed, he wondered much not to see his sword
+there, which had been conveyed away by his son's order while they were
+at supper. Calling to one of his domestics to know what was become of
+it, and receiving no answer, he resumed his studies; and some time
+after asked again for his sword. When he had done reading, and
+perceived that nobody obeyed him, he called for his domestics one
+after the other, and with a peremptory air again demanded his sword.
+10. His son, with tears, besought him to change his resolution; but,
+receiving a stern reprimand, desisted from his persuasions. His sword
+being at length brought to him, he seemed satisfied, and cried out,
+"Now, again, I am master of myself." He took up the book again, which
+having pursued, he fell into a sound<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg. 225]</a></span> sleep. Upon awaking, he
+called to one of his freedmen to know if his friends were embarked, or
+if any thing yet remained that could be done to serve them. The
+freedman, assuring him that all was quiet, was ordered to leave the
+room. Cato no sooner found himself alone, than, seizing his sword, he
+stabbed himself below his chest. The blow not despatching him, he fell
+from his bed and overturned a table, on which he had been drawing some
+geometrical figures. At the noise of the fall, his servants shrieked,
+and his son and friends immediately flew to the room. They found him
+weltering in his blood, with his bowels appearing through the wound.
+11. The surgeon, perceiving that his intestines were not wounded, was
+replacing them; but Cato recovering himself, and understanding their
+intention was to preserve his life, forced the surgeon from him, and,
+with a fierce resolution, tore out his bowels and expired.</p>
+<p>
+12. Upon the death of Cato, the war in Africa being completed, C&aelig;sar
+returned in such triumph to Rome, as if he had abridged all his former
+triumphs only to increase the splendour of this. The citizens were
+astonished at the magnificence of the procession, and at the number of
+the countries he had subdued. 13. It lasted four days: the first was
+for Gaul, the second for Egypt, the third for his victories in Asia,
+and the fourth for that over Juba in Africa. His veteran soldiers,
+scarred with wounds, and now laid up for life, followed their
+triumphant general, crowned with laurels, and conducted him to the
+Capitol. 14. To every one of those he gave a sum equivalent to about a
+hundred and fifty pounds sterling, double that sum to the centurions,
+and four times as much to the superior officers. The citizens also
+shared his bounty: to every one he distributed ten bushels of corn,
+ten pounds of oil, and a sum of money equal to about two pounds
+sterling. After this he entertained the people at above twenty
+thousand tables, treated them with combats of gladiators, and filled
+Rome with a concourse of spectators from every part of Italy.</p>
+<p>
+15. The people, intoxicated with pleasure, thought their freedom too
+small a return for such benefits. They seemed eager only to find out
+new modes of homage, and unusual epithets of adulation for their great
+enslaver. He was created, by a new title, <i>Magis'ter Mo'rum</i>, or
+Master of the Morals of the People. He received the title of Emperor
+and father of his country. His person was declared sacred; and, in
+short, upon him alone were devolved for life all the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg. 226]</a></span> great
+dignities of the state. 16. It must be owned, that so much power could
+never have been entrusted to better keeping. He immediately began his
+empire by repressing vice and encouraging virtue. He committed the
+power of judicature to the senators and knights alone; and by many
+sumptuary laws restrained the scandalous luxuries of the rich. He
+proposed rewards to all such as had many children, and took the most
+prudent method of re-peopling the city, which had been exhausted in
+the late commotions.</p>
+<p>
+17. Having thus restored prosperity once more to Rome, he again found
+himself under a necessity of going into Spain to oppose an army which
+had been raised there under the two sons of Pompey, and Labie'nus his
+former general. 18. He proceeded in this expedition with his usual
+celerity, and arrived in Spain before the enemy thought him yet
+departed from Rome. Cne'ius Pompey, and Sextus, Pompey's sons,
+profiting by their unhappy father's example, resolved, as much as
+possible, to protract the war; so that the first operations of the two
+armies were spent in sieges and fruitless attempts to surprise each
+other. 19. However, C&aelig;sar, after taking many cities from the enemy,
+and pursuing his adversary with unwearied perseverance, at last
+compelled him to come to a battle upon the plain of Munda. 20. Pompey
+drew up his men, by break of day, upon the declivity of a hill, with
+great exactness and order. C&aelig;sar drew up likewise in the plains below;
+and after advancing a little way from his trenches, ordered his men to
+make a halt, expecting the enemy to come down from the hill. This
+delay made C&aelig;sar's soldiers begin to murmur; while Pompey's with full
+vigour poured down upon them, and a dreadful conflict ensued. 21. The
+first shock was so dreadful, that C&aelig;sar's men, who had hitherto been
+used to conquer, now began to waver. C&aelig;sar was never in so much danger
+as now; he threw himself several times into the very thickest of the
+battle. "What," cried he, "are you going to give up to a parcel of
+boys your general, who is grown grey in fighting at your head?" 22.
+Upon this, his tenth legion exerted themselves with more than usual
+bravery; and a party of horse being detached by Labie'nus from the
+camp in pursuit of a body of Numid'ian cavalry, C&aelig;sar cried aloud that
+they were flying. This cry instantly spread itself through both
+armies, exciting the one as much as it depressed the other. 23. Now,
+therefore, the tenth legion pressed forward, and a total rout soon
+ensued. Thirty thousand<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg. 227]</a></span> men were killed on Cne'ius Pompey's side,
+and amongst them Labie'nus, whom C&aelig;sar ordered to be buried with the
+funeral honours of a general officer. Cne'ius Pompey escaped with a
+few horsemen to the seaside; but finding his passage intercepted by
+C&aelig;sar's lieutenant, he was obliged to seek for a retreat in an obscure
+cavern. He was quickly discovered by some of C&aelig;sar's troops, who
+presently cut off his head, and brought it to the conqueror. His
+brother Sextus, however, concealed himself so well, that he escaped
+all pursuit; and afterwards, from his piracies, became noted and
+formidable to the people of Rome.</p>
+<p>
+24. C&aelig;sar, by this last blow, subdued all his avowed enemies; and the
+rest of his life was employed for the advantage of the state. He
+adorned the city with magnificent buildings; he rebuilt Carthage and
+Corinth, sending colonies to both cities: he undertook to level
+several mountains in Italy, to drain the Pontine marshes near Rome;
+and he designed to cut through the Isthmus of Peloponne'sus. 25. Thus,
+with a mind that could never remain inactive, he pondered mighty
+projects and schemes, beyond the limits of the longest life; but the
+greatest of all was his intended expedition against the Parthians, by
+which he designed to revenge the death of Crassus, who having
+penetrated too far into their country, was overthrown, taken prisoner,
+and put to a cruel death, by having molten gold poured down his
+throat, as a punishment for his former avarice. From Parthia, C&aelig;sar
+intended to pass through Hyrca'nia, and enter Scyth'ia, along the
+banks of the Caspian sea; then to open a way through the immeasurable
+forests of Germany into Gaul, and so to return to Rome. These were the
+aims of ambition; but the jealousy of a few individuals put an end to
+them all.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was C&aelig;sar's next step?</p>
+<p>
+2. What honours were awarded him in his absence?</p>
+<p>
+3. What was the conduct of his deputy?</p>
+<p>
+4. How did he put an end to these disturbances?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was his next enterprise?</p>
+<p>
+6. What was the success of the campaign?</p>
+<p>
+7. How was Cato situated?</p>
+<p>
+8. What measure had he pursued?</p>
+<p>
+9. When all hope had forsaken him, what was his conduct?</p>
+<p>
+10. Was no effort made to change his resolution, and what
+followed?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg. 228]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+11. Was the wound mortal?</p>
+<p>
+12. What happened after the death of Cato?</p>
+<p>
+13. Describe the triumph.</p>
+<p>
+14. Was not C&aelig;sar extremely liberal?</p>
+<p>
+15. What returns were made for this extraordinary liberality?</p>
+<p>
+16. Was he deserving of these honours?</p>
+<p>
+17. Was he destined to pass the rest of his life in tranquillity?</p>
+<p>
+18. Describe the opening of the campaign?</p>
+<p>
+19. Were the sons of Pompey successful in their attempts?</p>
+<p>
+20. What were the dispositions of the two armies?</p>
+<p>
+21. What memorable expression did the danger of the conflict draw from
+C&aelig;sar?</p>
+<p>
+22. What was the consequence of this exclamation?</p>
+<p>
+23. What was the result of the battle?</p>
+<p>
+24. In what manner did C&aelig;sar employ himself at this time?</p>
+<p>
+25. What were his most important resolutions?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION III.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">O mighty C&aelig;sar! dost thou lie so low?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Shrunk to this little measure?&mdash;<i>Shakspeare.</i></span></p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+1. C&aelig;sar having been made perpetual dictator, and received from the
+senate accumulated honours, it began to be rumoured that he intended
+to make himself king. In fact, he was possessed of the power; but the
+people, who had an aversion to the name, could not bear his assuming
+the title. 2. Whether he really designed to assume that empty honour,
+must for ever remain a secret; but certain it is, that the
+unsuspecting openness of his conduct created something like confidence
+in the innocence of his intentions. 3. When informed by those about
+him of the jealousies of many who envied his power, he was heard to
+say, that he would rather die once by treason, than live continually
+in the apprehension of it. When advised by some to beware of Brutus,
+in whom he had for some time reposed the greatest confidence, he
+opened his breast, all scarred with wounds, saying, "Do you think
+Brutus cares for such poor pillage as this?" and, being one night at
+supper, as his friends disputed among themselves what death was
+easiest, he replied, "That which is most sudden and least foreseen."
+But, to convince the world how little he apprehended from his enemies,
+he disbanded his Spanish guards, and thus facilitated the enterprise
+against his life.</p>
+<p>
+4. A deep conspiracy was now laid against him, into which no less than
+sixty senators entered. They were still the more formidable, as the
+generality of them were of his<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg. 229]</a></span> own party; and, having been raised
+above other citizens, felt more strongly the weight of a single
+superior.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image18.jpg"
+alt="Brutus and Cassius conspiring against C&aelig;sar."
+title="Brutus and Cassius conspiring against C&aelig;sar." width="406" height="306" />
+</div>
+<p>
+At the head of this conspiracy were Brutus, whose life C&aelig;sar had
+spared after the battle of Pharsalia, and Cassius, who was pardoned
+soon after; both pr&aelig;tors for the present year. 5. Brutus made it his
+chief glory to have descended from that Brutus who first gave liberty
+to Rome. The passion for freedom seemed to have been transmitted to
+him with the blood of his ancestors. But, though he detested tyranny,
+yet could he not forbear loving the tyrant from whom he had received
+the most signal benefits.</p>
+<p>
+6. The conspirators, to give a colour of justice to their proceedings,
+put off the execution of their design to the ides of March,<a name="FNanchor_3_140" id="FNanchor_3_140"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_140" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> the day
+on which C&aelig;sar was to be offered the crown. 7. The augurs had foretold
+that this day would be fatal to him. The night preceding he heard his
+wife, Calphur'nia, lamenting in her sleep. Being awakened, she
+confessed to him, that she dreamt of his being assassinated in her
+arms. 8. These omens, in some measure, began to change his intention
+of going to the senate; but one of the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg. 230]</a></span> conspirators coming in,
+prevailed upon him to keep his resolution, telling him of the reproach
+that would attend his staying at home till his wife should have lucky
+dreams, and of the preparations that were made for his appearance. 9.
+As he went along to the senate, a slave who hastened to him with
+information of the conspiracy, attempted to come near him, but was
+prevented by the crowd. Artemido'rus, a Greek philosopher, who had
+discovered the whole plot, delivered him a memorial, containing the
+heads of his information; but C&aelig;sar gave it, with other papers, to one
+of his secretaries, without reading, as was visual in matters of this
+nature. Having at length entered the senate-house, where the
+conspirators were prepared to receive him, he met one Spuri'na, an
+augur, who had foretold his danger, to whom he said smiling, "Well,
+Spuri'na, the ides of March are come."&mdash;"Yes," replied the augur, "but
+they are not yet gone." 10. No sooner had he taken his place, than the
+conspirators approached, under pretence of saluting him: Cimber, who
+was one of them, in a suppliant posture, pretended to sue for his
+brother's pardon, who had been banished by C&aelig;sar's order. The
+conspirators seconded him with great earnestness; and Cimber, seeming
+to sue with still greater submission, took hold of the bottom of his
+robe; holding him, so as to prevent his rising. 11. This was the
+signal agreed on; when Casca, who was behind, instantly stabbed him in
+the shoulder, C&aelig;sar sprung around, and, with the steel of his tablet,
+wounded him in the arm. The conspirators were all alarmed; when, being
+inclosed round, he received a second stab, from an unseen hand, in the
+breast; while Cassius wounded him in the face. He still defended
+himself with great vigour, rushing among them, and throwing down such
+as opposed him, till he saw Brutus among the conspirators, who, coming
+up, struck his dagger into his thigh. 12. C&aelig;sar, from that moment,
+thought no more of defending himself; but, looking upon Brutus, cried
+out, "<i>Et tu Brute!</i>"&mdash;And you too, O Brutus! Then covering his head,
+and spreading his robe before him, in order to fall with decency, he
+sunk down at the base of Pompey's statue: after having received three
+and twenty wounds, from those whom he vainly supposed he had disarmed
+by his benefits.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 709.</div>
+
+<p>
+13. C&aelig;sar was killed in his fifty-sixth year, and about fourteen years
+after he had begun the conquest of the world.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image19.jpg"
+alt="Death of Julius C&aelig;sar."
+title="Death of Julius C&aelig;sar." width="446" height="327" />
+</div>
+<p>
+14. If we examine his history, we shall<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg. 231]</a></span> be at a loss whether most
+to admire his great abilities, or his wonderful fortune. To pretend to
+say, that from the beginning he planned the subjection of his native
+country, is doing no great credit to his well-known penetration, as a
+thousand obstacles lay in his way, which fortune, rather than conduct,
+was to surmount; no man, therefore, of his sagacity, would have begun
+a scheme in which the chances of succeeding were so many against him.
+It is most probable that, like all very successful men, he made the
+best of every occurrence; and his ambition rising with his good
+fortune, from at first being content with humbler aims, he at last
+began to think of governing the world, when he found scarcely any
+obstacle to oppose his designs. Such is the disposition of man, whose
+cravings after power are then most insatiable when he enjoys the
+greatest share.<a name="FNanchor_4_141" id="FNanchor_4_141"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_141" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+16. As soon as the conspirators had despatched C&aelig;sar, they retired to
+the Capitol, and guarded its accesses by a body of gladiators which
+Brutus had in pay.</p>
+<p>
+17. The friends of the late dictator now began to find that this was
+the time for coming into greater power than before, and for satisfying
+their ambition under the pretence of promoting justice: of this number
+was Antony. 18. He was a man of moderate abilities, of excessive
+vices, ambitious<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg. 232]</a></span> of power only because it gave his pleasures a
+wider range to riot in; but skilled in war, to which he had been
+trained from his youth.<a name="FNanchor_5_142" id="FNanchor_5_142"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_142" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> He was consul for this year, and resolved,
+with Lep'idus, who like himself was fond of commotions, to seize this
+opportunity of gaining a power which C&aelig;sar had died for usurping.
+Lep'idus, therefore, took possession of the Forum,<a name="FNanchor_6_143" id="FNanchor_6_143"></a><a href="#Fnote_6_143" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> with a band of
+soldiers at his devotion; and Antony, being consul, was permitted to
+command them. 19. Their first step was to possess themselves of
+C&aelig;sar's papers and money, and the next to assemble the senate. 20.
+Never had this august assembly been convened upon so delicate an
+occasion, as to determine whether C&aelig;sar had been a legal magistrate,
+or a tyrannical usurper; and whether those who killed him merited
+rewards or punishments. Many of them had received all their promotions
+from C&aelig;sar, and had acquired large fortunes in consequence of his
+appointments: to vote him an usurper, therefore, would be to endanger
+their property; and yet, to vote him innocent, might endanger the
+state. In this dilemma they seemed willing to reconcile extremes; they
+approved all the acts of C&aelig;sar, and yet granted a general pardon to
+the conspirators.</p>
+<p>
+21. This decree was very far from giving Antony satisfaction, as it
+granted security to a number of men who were the avowed enemies of
+tyranny, and who would be foremost in opposing his schemes of
+restoring absolute power. As, therefore, the senate had ratified all
+C&aelig;sar's acts without distinction, he formed a plan of making him rule
+when dead as imperiously as he had done when living. 22. Being
+possessed of C&aelig;sar's books of accounts, he so far gained over his
+secretary as to make him insert whatever he thought proper. By these
+means, great sums of money, which C&aelig;sar would never have bestowed,
+were distributed among the people; and every man who had any seditious
+designs against the government was there sure to find a gratuity. 23.
+Things being in this situation, Antony demanded of the senate that
+C&aelig;sar's funeral obsequies should be performed. This they could not
+decently forbid, as they had never declared <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg. 233]</a></span> him a tyrant:
+accordingly, the body was brought forth into the Forum with the utmost
+solemnity; and Antony, who charged himself with these last duties of
+friendship, began his operations upon the passions of the people by
+the prevailing motives of private interest. 24. He first read to them
+C&aelig;sar's will, in which he made Octavius, his sister's grandson, his
+heir, permitting him to take the name of C&aelig;sar, and bequeathed him
+three parts of his private fortune; which, in case of his death,
+Brutus was to have inherited. To the Roman people were left the
+gardens which he possessed on the other side of the Tiber; and to
+every citizen three hundred sesterces. Unfolding C&aelig;sar's bloody robe,
+pierced by the daggers of the conspirators, he observed to them the
+number of stabs in it. He also displayed a waxen image, representing
+the body of C&aelig;sar, all covered with wounds. 25. The people could no
+longer retain their indignation, but unanimously cried out for
+revenge, and ran, with flaming brands from the pile, to set fire to
+the houses of the conspirators. In this rage of resentment, meeting
+with one Cinna, whom they mistook for another of the same name that
+was in the conspiracy, they tore him in pieces. 26. The conspirators
+themselves, however, being well guarded, repulsed the multitude with
+no great trouble; but perceiving the general rage of the people, they
+thought it safest to retire from the city.</p>
+<p>
+27. In the mean time, Antony, who had excited this flame, resolved to
+make the most of the occasion. But an obstacle to his ambition seemed
+to arise from a quarter in which he least expected it, namely, from
+Octa'vius, afterwards called Augus'tus, who was the grand-nephew and
+adopted son of C&aelig;sar. A third competitor also for power appeared in
+Lep'idus, a man of some authority and great riches. 28. At first, the
+ambition of these three seemed to threaten fatal consequences to each
+other; but, uniting in the common cause, they resolved to revenge the
+death of C&aelig;sar, and dividing their power, they formed what is called
+the Second Triumvirate.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What design was C&aelig;sar supposed to entertain?</p>
+<p>
+2. Was this rumour well founded?</p>
+<p>
+3. When hints of danger were given him, what was his conduct?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg. 234]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+4. What was the consequence of this imprudence?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the character of Brutus?</p>
+<p>
+6. What time was fixed for the conspiracy to take place?</p>
+<p>
+7. Had C&aelig;sar any intimations of his danger?</p>
+<p>
+8. Was he at all influenced by them?</p>
+<p>
+9. Were no other attempts made to warn him of his approaching fate?</p>
+<p>
+10. In what way did the conspirators commence their attempt?</p>
+<p>
+11. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+12. What was the consequence of this?</p>
+<p>
+13. What was C&aelig;sar's age?</p>
+<p>
+14. Did C&aelig;sar plan the conquest of his country from the first?</p>
+<p>
+15. By what means did he accomplish it?</p>
+<p>
+16. How did the conspirators escape the vengeance of the people?</p>
+<p>
+17. What advantage was taken of this event?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the character of Antony, and what resolution did he form?</p>
+<p>
+19. What were his first acts?</p>
+<p>
+20. How were the seriate situated on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+21. Was Antony satisfied with this decree?</p>
+<p>
+22. How did he accomplish this?</p>
+<p>
+23. What was his next measure?</p>
+<p>
+24. By what means did he effect his purpose?</p>
+<p>
+25. What was the consequence of this artful conduct?</p>
+<p>
+26. Did the conspirators fall victims to their fury?</p>
+<p>
+27. Had Antony no rivals in his attempts to acquire power?</p>
+<p>
+28. What was the result of this rivalship?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION IV.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Come, Antony, and young Octavius, come,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Revenge yourself alone on Cassius,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">For Cassius is aweary of the world.&mdash;<i>Shakspeare.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The meeting of these three usurpers of their country's freedom, was
+upon a little island of the river Rhenus.<a name="FNanchor_7_144" id="FNanchor_7_144"></a><a href="#Fnote_7_144" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Their mutual suspicions
+were the cause of their meeting in a place where they had no fear of
+treachery; for, even in their union, they could not divest themselves
+of mutual diffidence. 2. Lep'idus first entered; and, finding all
+things safe, made the signal for the other two to approach. At their
+first meeting, after saluting each other, Augustus began the
+conference, by thanking Antony for putting Dec'imus Brutus to death;
+who, being abandoned by his army, had been taken, as he was
+endeavouring to escape into Macedo'nia, and was beheaded by Antony's
+soldiers. 3. They then entered upon the business that lay before them,
+without any retrospection to the past.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+       <img src="images/image20.jpg"
+        alt="The Second Triumvirate preparing their Proscription List."
+        title="The Second Triumvirate preparing their Proscription List." width="364" height="399" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Their conference lasted three<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg. 235]</a></span> days; and, in this period, they
+settled a division of the government, and determined the fate of
+thousands. 4. The result of this conference was, that the supreme
+authority should be lodged in their hands, under the title of the
+Trium'virate, for the space of five years; that Antony should have
+Gaul; Lep'idus, Spain, and Augustus, Africa and the Mediterranean
+islands. As for Italy, and the eastern provinces, they were to remain
+in common, until their general enemy should be subdued; and, among
+other articles of union, it was agreed that all their enemies should
+be destroyed, of which each presented a list. 5. In these were
+comprised, not only the enemies but the friends of the Trium'virate,
+since the partisans of the one were found among the opposers of the
+other. Thus Lep'idus gave up his brother &AElig;mil'ius Paulus to the
+vengeance of his colleague; Antony permitted the proscription of his
+uncle Lucius; and Augustus delivered up the great Ci'cero, who was
+assassinated shortly after by Antony's command.<a name="FNanchor_8_145" id="FNanchor_8_145"></a><a href="#Fnote_8_145" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+<p>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg. 236]</a></span>6. In the mean time Brutus and Cassius, the principal of the
+conspirators against C&aelig;sar, being compelled to quit Rome, went into
+Greece, where they persuaded the Roman students at Athens to declare
+in the cause of freedom; then parting, the former raised a powerful
+army in Macedonia, while the latter went into Syria, where he soon
+became master of twelve legions, and reduced his opponent, Dolabella,
+to such straits as to force him to lay violent hands on himself. 7.
+Both armies joined at Smyr'na: the sight of such a formidable force
+began to revive the declining spirits of the party, and to reunite the
+two generals still more closely, between whom there had been, some
+time before, a slight misunderstanding. In short, having quitted Italy
+like distressed exiles, without having one soldier or one town that
+owned their command, they now found themselves at the head of a
+flourishing army, furnished with every necessary for carrying on the
+war, and in a condition to support a contest on which the empire of
+the world depended.</p>
+<p>
+8. It was in this flourishing state of their affairs that the
+conspirators formed a resolution of marching against Cleopatra, who
+had made great preparations to assist their opponents. 9. However,
+they were diverted from this purpose by information that Augustus and
+Antony were now upon their march, with forty legipns, to oppose them.
+Brutus, therefore, moved to have their army pass over into Greece and
+Macedonia, and there meet the enemy: but Cassius so far prevailed as
+to have the Rho'dians and Ly'cians first reduced, who had refused
+their usual contributions. 10. This expedition was immediately put in
+execution, and extraordinary contributions were thus raised, the
+Rho'dians having scarcely anything left them but their lives. The
+Ly'cians suffered still more severely; for having shut themselves up
+in their capital town Nanthus, they defended the place against Brutus
+with so much fury, that neither his arts nor entreaties could prevail
+upon them to surrender. 11. At length, the town being set on fire by
+their attempting to burn the works of the Romans, Brutus, instead of
+laying hold of this opportunity to storm the place, made every effort
+to preserve it, entreating his soldiers to try all means of
+extinguishing the fire; but the desperate frenzy<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg. 237]</a></span> of the citizens
+was not to be mollified. 12. Far from thinking themselves obliged to
+the generous enemy for the efforts which they made to save them, they
+resolved to perish in the flames. Instead of extinguishing, therefore,
+they did all in their power to augment the fire, by throwing in wood,
+dry reeds, and all kinds of fuel. 13. Nothing could exceed the
+distress of Brutus upon seeing the townsmen thus resolutely bent on
+destroying themselves. He rode about the fortifications, stretching
+out his hands to the Xan'thians, and conjuring them to have pity on
+themselves and their city; but, insensible to his expostulations, they
+rushed into the flames with desperate obstinacy, and the whole soon
+became a heap of undistinguishable ruin. 14. At this horrid spectacle
+Brutus melted into tears, offering a reward to every soldier who
+should bring him a Ly'cian alive. The number of those whom it was
+possible to save from their own fury amounted to no more than one
+hundred and fifty. 15. Some writers, however, affirm that the town was
+burnt to the ground, and the inhabitants destroyed, by the command of
+Brutus; and that those who surrendered at discretion, he deprived of
+all their public and private property.</p>
+<p>
+16. Brutus and Cassius met once more at Sardis where they resolved to
+have a private conference together. They shut themselves up in the
+first convenient house, with express orders to their servants to give
+admission to no one. 17. Brutus began by reprimanding Cassius for
+having disposed of offices for money, which should ever be the reward
+of merit, and for having overtaxed the tributary states. Cassius
+repelled the imputation of avarice with the more bitterness, as he
+knew the charge to be groundless. The debate grew warm; till, from
+loud speaking, they burst into tears. 18. Their friends, who were
+standing at the door, overheard the increasing vehemence of their
+voices, and began to tremble for the consequences, till Favo'nius, who
+valued himself upon a cynical boldness, that knew no restraint,
+entering the room with a jest, calmed their mutual animosity. 19.
+Cassius was ready enough to forego his anger, being a man of great
+abilities, but of an uneven disposition; not averse to pleasure in
+private company, and, upon the whole, of morals not quite correct. But
+the conduct of Brutus was perfectly steady. An even gentleness, a
+noble elevation of sentiment, a strength of mind over which neither
+vice nor pleasure could have an influence, and an inflexible firmness
+in the cause of justice, composed<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg. 238]</a></span> the character of this great
+man. 20. After their conference night coming on, Cassius invited
+Brutus and his friends to an entertainment, where freedom and
+cheerfulness, for a while, took place of political anxiety, and
+softened the severity of wisdom. Upon retiring home it was that Brutus
+thought he saw a spectre in his tent. 21. He naturally slept but
+little, and was capable of bearing want of rest by long habit and
+great sobriety. He never allowed himself to sleep in the daytime, as
+was common in Rome; and only gave so much of the night to repose as
+could barely renew the functions of nature. But now, oppressed with
+various cares, he allowed himself a still shorter time after his
+nightly repast; and, waking about midnight, generally read or studied
+till morning. 22. It was in the dead of night, says Plutarch, when the
+whole camp was perfectly quiet, that Brutus was thus employed; reading
+by a lamp that was just expiring. On a sudden he thought he heard a
+noise, as if somebody was approaching, and looking towards the door,
+perceived it open. A gigantic figure of frightful aspect stood before
+him, and continued to gaze upon him with silent severity. 23. Brutus
+is reported to have asked, "Art thou a d&aelig;mon or a mortal? and why
+comest thou to me?" "Brutus," answered the phantom, "I am thy evil
+genius&mdash;thou shalt see me again at Philippi."<a name="FNanchor_9_146" id="FNanchor_9_146"></a><a href="#Fnote_9_146" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> "Well, then," replied
+Brutus, without being discomposed, "we shall meet again." Upon this
+the phantom vanished; when Brutus, calling to his servants, asked if
+they had seen anything; to which they answering in the negative, he
+resumed his studies. 24. Struck with so strange an occurrence, he
+mentioned it to Cassius, who rightly considered it as the effect of an
+imagination disordered by vigilance and anxiety. 25. Brutus appeared
+satisfied with this solution; and as Antony and Augustus were now
+advanced into Macedonia, he and his colleague passed over into Thrace,
+and drew near to Philippi, where the forces of the Trium'viri were
+posted to receive them.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg. 239]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Where was the first meeting of the Triumvirate, and why was it
+chosen?</p>
+<p>
+2. What precautions did they take?</p>
+<p>
+3. What farther was done?</p>
+<p>
+4. What was the result of the conference?</p>
+<p>
+5. Who were the proscribed?</p>
+<p>
+6. What became of Brutus and Cassius?</p>
+<p>
+7. What effect had this success on the minds of their party?</p>
+<p>
+8. What was their first resolution?</p>
+<p>
+9. Did they put it in execution?</p>
+<p>
+10. What was the consequence to the Rhodians and Lycians?</p>
+<p>
+11. What unfortunate accident hastened the fate of the town?</p>
+<p>
+12. Did they not second the efforts of Brutus?</p>
+<p>
+13. By what means did Brutus attempt to divert them from their
+purpose?</p>
+<p>
+14, 15. By what method did he endeavour to save some of the Lycians?</p>
+<p>
+16. Where did Brutus and Cassius meet, and what ensued?</p>
+<p>
+17. Was their interview an amicable one?</p>
+<p>
+18. Did no one interpose?</p>
+<p>
+19. What were the characters of these great men?</p>
+<p>
+20. What happened after the conference?</p>
+<p>
+21. What were the peculiar habits of Brutus?</p>
+<p>
+22. What happened to him while thus employed?</p>
+<p>
+23. What conversation passed between them?</p>
+<p>
+24. Did he mention the circumstance to any one?</p>
+<p>
+25. Did Brutus assent to this opinion, and what followed?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION V.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">I dare assure you that no enemy</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Shall ever take alive the noble Brutus.&mdash;<i>Shakspeare</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Mankind now began to regard the approaching armies with terror and
+suspense. The empire of the world depended upon the fate of a battle.
+From victory, on the one side, they had to expect freedom; on the
+other, a sovereign with absolute command. 2. Brutus was the only man
+who looked upon these great events with calmness and tranquillity.
+Indifferent as to success, and satisfied with having done his duty, he
+said to one of his friends, "If I am victorious, I shall restore
+liberty to my country: if not, by dying, I shall myself be delivered
+from slavery. My condition is fixed; I run no hazards." 3. The
+republican army consisted of fourscore thousand foot, and twenty
+thousand horse. The army of the Trium'viri amounted to a hundred
+thousand foot and thirteen thousand horse. 4. Thus complete on both
+sides, they met and encamped near each other<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg. 240]</a></span> upon the plains of
+Philip'pi. Near the town were two little hills, about a mile distant
+from each other; upon these hills, Brutus and Cassius fixed their
+camps, and kept up a free communication, which mutually defended each
+other. 5. In this commodious situation they could act as they thought
+proper, and give battle just when it was thought to their advantage to
+engage. Behind was the sea, which furnished them with all kinds of
+provisions; and, at twelve miles distance, the island of Thasos, which
+served them for a general magazine. 6. The Trium'viri, on the other
+hand, were encamped on the plain below, and were obliged to bring
+provisions from fifteen leagues' distance; so that their scheme and
+interest were to forward a battle as soon as possible. This they
+offered several times, drawing out their men from the camp, and
+provoking the enemy to engage. 7. On the contrary, the enemy contented
+themselves with drawing up their troops at the head of their camps,
+without descending to the plain. This resolution of postponing the
+battle, was the chance that the republican army had for victory; and
+Cassius, sensible of his advantage, resolved to harass rather than
+engage the enemy. 8. But Brutus, who began to suspect the fidelity of
+some of his officers, used all his influence to persuade Cassius to
+change his resolution. "I am impatient," said he, "to put an end to
+the miseries of mankind; and in this I hope to succeed whether I
+conquer or fall." 9. His wishes were soon gratified; for Antony's
+soldiers having, with great labour, made a road through the marsh
+which lay to the left of Cassius's camp, by that means opened a
+communication with the island of Thasos, which lay behind him. Both
+armies, after several attempts to possess themselves of this road,
+resolved at length to come to a general engagement. 10. This, however,
+was contrary to the advice of Cassius, who found himself forced, as
+Pompey had formerly been, to expose the liberty of Rome to the hazard
+of a battle. On the ensuing morning, the two generals gave the signal
+for engaging, and conferred together a little while before the battle
+began. 11. Cassius desired to be informed how Brutus intended to act
+in case they should be unsuccessful. To this Brutus replied,
+"Formerly, in my writings, I condemned the death of Cato, and
+maintained, that avoiding calamities by suicide is an insolent attempt
+against Heaven, that allotted them: but I have altered my opinion; I
+have given up my life to my country, and I think I have a right to my
+own way of<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg. 241]</a></span> ending it.<a name="FNanchor_10_147" id="FNanchor_10_147"></a><a href="#Fnote_10_147" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> I am resolved, therefore, to change a
+miserable being here for a better hereafter, if fortune turn against
+me." 12. "My friend," cried Cassius, embracing him, "now may we
+venture to face the enemy; for either we shall be conquerors, or we
+shall have no cause to fear those that be so." 13. Augustus being
+sick, the forces of the Triumviri were commanded by Antony alone, who
+began the engagement by a victorious attack upon the lines of Cassius.
+Brutus, on the other side, made a dreadful irruption on the army of
+Augustus, and drove forward with so much intrepidity, that he broke
+them upon the very first charge. Upon this, he penetrated as far as
+the camp, and slaughtering those that were left for its defence, his
+troops immediately began to plunder. 14. In the mean time, however,
+the lines of Cassius were forced, and his cavalry put to flight. There
+was no effort that this unfortunate general did not exert to make his
+infantry stand; stopping those that fled, and himself seizing the
+colours to rally them. But the valour of an individual was
+insufficient to inspire a timorous army. 15. At length, despairing of
+success, Cassius retired to his tent and killed himself. Brutus was
+soon informed of the defeat of Cassius, and in a little time after, of
+his death; scarcely able to restrain the excess of his grief for a man
+whom he lamented as the last of the Romans.</p>
+<p>
+16. Brutus, now become sole general, assembled the dispersed troops of
+Cassius, and animated them with fresh hopes of victory. As they had
+lost their all from the plundering of their camp, he promised two
+thousand denarii to each man to make them amends. 17. Inspired with
+new ardour, they admired the liberality of their general, and, with
+loud shouts, proclaimed his intrepidity. Still, however, he wanted
+confidence to face the adversary, who offered him battle the ensuing
+day. His aim was to starve the enemy, who were in extreme want of
+provisions, from their fleet having been lately defeated. 18. But his
+single opinion was overruled by the army, who now grew every day more
+confident of their strength, and more arrogant to their general. At
+last, therefore, after a respite of twenty days, he was obliged to
+comply with their solicitations to try the fate of a battle. Both
+armies were drawn out, and <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg. 242]</a></span> they remained a long while opposite
+to each other without offering to engage. It is said, that he himself
+had lost much of his ardour by having again seen, or fancied that he
+saw, the spectre, in the night preceding. However, he encouraged his
+men, and gave the signal for battle. As usual, he had the advantage
+where he commanded in person; bearing down the enemy at the head of
+his infantry, and supported by his cavalry, making great slaughter.
+19. But the forces which had belonged to Cassius were seized with a
+panic, and communicating their terror to the rest, the whole army at
+last gave way. Brutus, surrounded by the most valiant of his officers,
+fought long with amazing valour. The son of Cato, and the brother of
+Cassius, fell fighting by his side. At last, he was obliged to yield
+to necessity, and fled. 20. In the mean time, the two Triumviri,
+assured of victory, expressly ordered that the general should by no
+means be suffered to escape. Thus the whole body of the enemy being
+intent on the person of Brutus alone, his capture seemed inevitable.
+21. In this deplorable exigence, Lucil'ius, his friend, resolved, by
+his own death, to effect his general's delivery. 22. Seeing a body of
+Thracian horse closely pursuing Brutus, and just upon the point of
+taking him, he boldly threw himself in their way, telling them that
+<i>he</i> was Brutus. The Thra'cians overjoyed with so great a prize,
+immediately despatched some of their companions with the news of their
+success to the army. 23. Upon this, the ardour of the pursuit abating,
+Antony marched out to meet his prisoner, either to hasten his death,
+or insult his misfortunes. He was followed by a great number of
+officers and soldiers, some silently deploring the fate of so virtuous
+a man, others reproaching that mean desire of life far which he
+consented to undergo captivity. 24. Antony now seeing the Thracians
+approach, began to prepare himself for the interview; but the faithful
+Lucilius, advancing with a cheerful air&mdash;"It is <i>not</i> Brutus," said
+he, "that is taken; fortune has not yet had the power of committing so
+great an outrage upon virtue. As for my life, it is well lost in
+preserving his honour; take it, for I have deceived you." Antony,
+struck with so much fidelity, pardoned him, loaded him with benefits,
+and honoured him with his friendship.</p>
+<p>
+25. In the mean time, Brutus, with a small number of friends, passed
+over a rivulet; and night coming on, sat down under a rock, which
+concealed him from the pursuit of the enemy. After taking breath, and
+casting his eyes to<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg. 243]</a></span> heaven, he repeated a line from Eurip'ides,
+containing a wish to the gods, "That guilt should not pass in this
+life without punishment." To this he added another from the same poet:
+"O unhappy virtue! I have worshipped thee as a real good; but thou art
+a vain empty name, and the slave of fortune." He then called to mind,
+with great tenderness, those whom he had seen perish in battle. 26. He
+sent out one Statil'ius to give him information of those that
+remained; but Statil'ius never returned, being killed by a party of
+the enemy's horse. Brutus, judging rightly of his fate, now resolved
+to die likewise; and entreated those who stood round him to give him
+their last sad assistance: but they all refused so melancholy a
+service. 27. He then retired aside with his friend Strato, requesting
+him to perform the last office of friendship. Upon Strato's refusal,
+he ordered one of his slaves to execute what he so ardently desired;
+but Strato crying out, "that it never should be said that Brutus, in
+his last extremity, stood in need of a slave for want of a friend,"
+turned aside his head, and presenting the sword's point, Brutus threw
+himself upon it, and immediately expired, in the forty-third year of
+his age. A.U. 711.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What great event was now depending?</p>
+<p>
+2. What were Brutus's feelings on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+3. What was the respective strength of the armies?</p>
+<p>
+4. Where did they meet and encamp?</p>
+<p>
+5. What were the advantages of this situation?</p>
+<p>
+6. Were the Triumviri equally well situated?</p>
+<p>
+7. Were the enemy equally ready to engage?</p>
+<p>
+8. What induced Brutus to combat this resolution?</p>
+<p>
+9. Did he obtain his wish?</p>
+<p>
+10. Did Cassius wish to engage?</p>
+<p>
+11. What passed between the generals on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+12. What was the reply of Cassius?</p>
+<p>
+13. What happened at the commencement of the battle?</p>
+<p>
+14. Was Cassius equally successful?</p>
+<p>
+15. What did he do in his extremity, and what effect had it on Brutus?</p>
+<p>
+16. Did Brutus attempt to recover the victory?</p>
+<p>
+17. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+18. Were his intentions agreeable to his troops, and what was the
+consequence?</p>
+<p>
+19. What decided the victory against him?</p>
+<p>
+20. What orders were issued by the Triumviri or this occasion?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg. 244]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+21. By whom was his deliverance attempted?</p>
+<p>
+22. How did he accomplish this?</p>
+<p>
+23. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+24. Relate the circumstances of their interview?</p>
+<p>
+25. What happened to Brutus in the mean time?</p>
+<p>
+26. How did he attempt to gain intelligence, and what followed his
+disappointment?</p>
+<p>
+27. Relate the manner of his death?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION VI.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">But anxious cares already seized the queen;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">She fed within her veins a flame unseen:</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The hero's valour, acts, and birth, inspire</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Her soul with love, and fan the secret fire.&mdash;<i>Dryden</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. From the moment of Brutus's death, the Trium'viri began to act as
+sovereigns, and to divide the Roman dominions among them as their own
+by right of conquest. 2. However, though there were apparently three
+who participated all power, yet, in fact, only two were actually
+possessed of it, since Lep'idus was admitted at first merely to curb
+the mutual jealousy of Antony and Augustus, and was possessed neither
+of interest in the army, nor authority among the people. 3. Their
+earliest care was to punish those whom they had formerly marked for
+vengeance. Horten'sius, Dru'sus, and Quintil'ius Va'rus, all men of
+the first rank in the commonwealth, either killed themselves or were
+slain. A senator and his son were ordered to cast lots for their
+lives, but both refused; the father voluntarily gave himself up to the
+executioner, and the son stabbed himself before his face. Another
+begged to have the rites of burial after his death: to which Augus'tus
+replied, "that he would soon find a grave in the vultures that would
+devour him." 4. But chiefly the people lamented to see the head of
+Brutus sent to Rome to be thrown at the foot of C&aelig;sar's statue. His
+ashes, however, were sent to his wife Portia, Cato's daughter, who,
+following the examples of both her husband and father, killed herself,
+by swallowing coals. 5. It is observed, that of all those who had a
+hand in the death of C&aelig;sar, not one died a natural death.</p>
+<p>
+6. The power of the Triumviri being thus established upon the ruin of
+the commonwealth, they now began to think of enjoying that homage to
+which they had aspired. 7. Antony went into Greece to receive the
+flattery of that refined people, and spent some time at A'thens,
+conversing with the philosophers, and assisting at their disputes in
+person.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image21.jpg"
+alt="Antony with Cleopatra In Egypt"
+title="Antony with Cleopatra In Egypt" width="403" height="278" />
+</div>
+<p>
+Thence he passed over into Asia, where all the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg. 245]</a></span> monarchs of the
+east, who acknowledged the Roman power, came to pay him their
+obedience; while the fairest princesses strove to gain his favour by
+the greatness of their presents or the allurements of their beauty. 8.
+In this manner he proceeded from kingdom to kingdom, attended by a
+succession of sovereigns, exacting contributions, distributing
+favours, and giving away crowns with capricious insolence. He
+presented the kingdom of Cappado'cia to Sy'senes, in prejudice of
+Ariara'thes, only because he was pleased with the beauty of Glaph'yra,
+the mother of the former. He settled Herod in the kingdom of Judea,
+and supported him. But among all the sovereigns of the east, who
+depended upon Antony, Cleopatra, the celebrated queen of Egypt, was
+the most distinguished.</p>
+<p>
+9. It happened that Sera'pion, her governor in the isle of Cyprus, had
+formerly furnished some succours to Cassius and the conspirators; and
+it was thought proper she should answer for his conduct. Accordingly,
+having received orders from Antony to clear herself of the imputation
+of infidelity, she readily complied, equally conscious of the goodness
+of her cause and the power of her beauty. 10. She was now in her
+twenty-seventh year, and consequently had improved those allurements
+by art, which in earlier age are seldom attended to. Her address and
+wit were still farther heightened; and though there were some women in
+Rome that were her equals in beauty, none could rival her in the
+powers of conversation; 11. Antony was in Tarsus, a city of Cili'cia,
+when Cleopatra resolved to attend his court in person. She sailed down
+the river Cydnus to meet him, with the most sumptuous pageantry. The
+stern of<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg. 246]</a></span> her galley was covered with gold, its sails were purple
+silk, its oars silver, and they kept time to the sound of flutes and
+cymbals. She exhibited herself reclining on a couch spangled with
+stars of gold, and such other ornaments as poets and painters had
+usually ascribed to Venus. On each side were boys like cupids, fanning
+her by turns, while beautiful nymphs, dressed like Nereids and Graces,
+were placed at proper distances around her: the sweets that were
+burning on board her galley perfumed the banks of the river as she
+passed, while an infinite number of people gazed upon the exhibition
+with delight and admiration. 12. Antony soon became captivated with
+her beauty, and found himself unable to defend his heart against that
+passion which proved the cause of his future misfortunes. When
+Cleopa'tra had thus secured her power, she set out on her return to
+Egypt. Antony, quitting every other object, presently hastened after
+her, and there gave himself up to all that case and softness to which
+his vicious heart was prone, and which that luxurious people were able
+to supply.</p>
+<p>
+13. While he remained thus idle in Egypt, Augustus, who took upon him
+to lead back the veteran troops, and settle them in Italy, was
+assiduously employed in providing for their subsistence. 14. He had
+promised them lands at home, as a recompense for their past services;
+but they could not receive their new grants without turning out the
+former inhabitants. 15. In consequence of this, multitudes of women,
+with their children in their arms, whose tender years and innocence
+excited compassion, daily filled the temples and the streets with
+their lamentations. Numbers of husbandmen and shepherds came to
+deprecate the conqueror's intention, or to obtain a habitation in some
+other part of the world. 16. Among this number was Virgil, the poet,
+to whom mankind owe more obligations than to a thousand conquerors,
+who, in an humble manner, begged permission to retain his patrimonial
+farm. 17. Virgil obtained his request;<a name="FNanchor_11_148" id="FNanchor_11_148"></a><a href="#Fnote_11_148" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> but the rest of his
+countrymen at Mantua,<a name="FNanchor_12_149" id="FNanchor_12_149"></a><a href="#Fnote_12_149" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> and Cremo'na, were turned out without mercy.</p>
+<p>
+18. Italy and Rome now felt the most extreme miseries. <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg. 247]</a></span> The
+insolent soldiers plundered at will; while Sextus Pompey, being master
+of the sea, cut off all foreign communication, and prevented the
+people from receiving their usual supplies of corn. To these mischiefs
+were added the commencement of another civil war. 19. Fulvia, the wife
+of Antony, whom he had left behind at Rome, felt for some time all the
+rage of jealousy, and resolved to try every method of bringing back
+her husband from Cleopa'tra. 20. She considered a breach with Augustus
+as the only probable means of rousing him from his lethargy; and,
+accordingly, with the assistance of Lucius, her brother-in-law, she
+began to sow the seeds of dissension. The pretext was, that Antony
+should have a share in the distribution of lands as well as Augustus.
+21. This produced negotiations between them, and Augustus offered to
+make the veterans themselves umpires in this dispute. Lucius refused
+to acquiesce; and being at the head of more than six legions, mostly
+composed of such as were dispossessed of their lands, he resolved to
+compel Augustus to accept of whatever terms he should offer. Thus a
+new war was excited between Augustus and Antony; or, at least, the
+generals of Antony assumed the sanction of his name. 22. Augustus was
+victorious; Lucius was hemmed in between two armies, and constrained
+to retreat to Peru'sia, where he was closely besieged by the opposite
+party. He made many desperate sallies, and Fulvia did all in her power
+to relieve him, but without success, so that, being at last reduced to
+extremity by famine, he delivered himself up to the mercy of the
+conqueror. Augustus received him honourably, and generously pardoned
+him and all his followers.<a name="FNanchor_13_150" id="FNanchor_13_150"></a><a href="#Fnote_13_150" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+<p>
+23. Antony having heard of his brother's overthrow, and of his wife
+being compelled to leave Italy, was resolved to oppose Augustus. He
+accordingly sailed at the head of a considerable fleet, and had an
+interview with Fulvia at Athens. 24. He much blamed her for
+occasioning the late disorders, testified the utmost contempt for her
+person, and, leaving her upon her death-bed, hastened into Italy to
+fight Augustus. They both met at Brundu'sium, and it was now thought
+that the flames of civil war were going to blaze out once more. 25.
+The forces of Antony were numerous, but <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg. 248]</a></span> mostly newly raised;
+however, he was assisted by Sextus Pompei'us, who, in those
+oppositions of interest, was daily coming into power. Augustus was at
+the head of those veterans who had always been irresistible, but who
+seemed no way disposed to fight against Antony, their former general.
+26. A negociation was therefore proposed, and a reconciliation was
+effected: all offences and affronts were mutually forgiven; and, to
+cement the union, a marriage was concluded between Antony and Octavia,
+the sister of Augustus. 27. A new division of the Roman empire was
+made between them; Augustus was to have command of the West&mdash;Antony of
+the East; while Lepidus was obliged to content himself with the
+provinces in Africa. As for Sextus Pompei'us, he was permitted to
+retain all the islands he already possessed, together with
+Peloponnesus; he was also granted the privilege of demanding the
+consulship, though absent, and of discharging that office by a friend.
+It was stipulated to leave the sea open, and to pay the people what
+corn was due out of Sicily. Thus a general peace was concluded, to the
+great satisfaction of the people, who now expected an end to all their
+calamities.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What ensued on the death of Brutus?</p>
+<p>
+2. Were the triumviri possessed of equal power?</p>
+<p>
+3. What were their first measures?</p>
+<p>
+4. By what were the people most affected?</p>
+<p>
+5. What observation has been made on these events?</p>
+<p>
+6. What was the consequence of the establishment of their power?</p>
+<p>
+7. Whither did Antony betake himself for that purpose?</p>
+<p>
+8. How was he employed?</p>
+<p>
+9. By what means did Cleopatra incur his displeasure?</p>
+<p>
+10. What personal advantages did she possess?</p>
+<p>
+11. Did she appear before Antony as an humble suppliant?</p>
+<p>
+12. What was the result of the interview?</p>
+<p>
+13. How was Augustus employed in the mean time?</p>
+<p>
+14. What recompense had he promised these troops?</p>
+<p>
+15. What was the consequence of this tyranny?</p>
+<p>
+16. What remarkable person was among the sufferers?</p>
+<p>
+17. Was his request granted?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the state of Italy at this time?</p>
+<p>
+19. What occasioned it?</p>
+<p>
+20. What did she consider as the most probable means of reclaiming
+him?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg. 249]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+21. Were terms of accommodation offered and accepted?</p>
+<p>
+22. What was the event of the war?</p>
+<p>
+23. What was Antony's conduct on the occasion?</p>
+<p>
+24. Did he approve of his wife's proceedings?</p>
+<p>
+25. Were the two armies of nearly equal strength?</p>
+<p>
+26. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+27. What further measures were adopted?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION VII.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2"><i>Octavia</i>.&mdash;You have been his ruin.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Who made him cheap at Rome, but Cleopatra?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Who made him scorned abroad, but Cleopatra?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">At Actium who betrayed him? Cleopatra.&mdash;<i>Dryden</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The only obstacle to the ambition of Augustus was Antony, whom he
+resolved to remove; and for that purpose rendered his character at
+Rome as contemptible as he possibly could. In fact, Antony's conduct
+did not a little contribute to promote the endeavours of his ambitious
+partner. 2. He had marched against the Parthians with a prodigious
+army, but was forced to return with the loss of the fourth part of his
+forces, and all his baggage.</p>
+<p>
+3. However, Antony seemed quite regardless of contempt: alive only to
+pleasure, and totally disregarding the business of the state, he spent
+his whole time in the company of Cleopatra, who studied every art to
+increase his passion and vary his entertainments. 4. Few women have
+been so much celebrated for the art of giving novelty to pleasure, and
+making trifles important. Still ingenious in filling up the time with
+some new strokes of refinement, she was at one time a queen, then a
+<i>bac'chanal</i>, and sometimes a huntress. 5. Not contented with sharing
+with her all the delights which Egypt could afford, Antony was
+resolved to enlarge his sphere of luxury, by granting her some of
+those kingdoms which belonged to the Roman empire. He gave her all
+Pheni'cia, Celo-Syria, and Cy'prus, with a great part of Cili'cia,
+Ara'bia, and Jude'a, gifts which he had no right to bestow, but which
+he pretended to grant in imitation of Hercules. 6. This complication
+of vice and folly at last totally exasperated the Romans, and
+Augus'tus, willing to take the advantage of their resentment, took
+care to exaggerate all his defects. 7. At length, when he found the
+people sufficiently irritated against him, he resolved to send
+Octa'via, who was then at Rome, to Antony, as if with a view of
+reclaiming her husband; but, in fact, to furnish a sufficient pretext
+for declaring war against him, as he knew she would be dismissed with
+contempt.</p>
+<p>
+<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg. 250]</a></span> 8. Antony was now in the city of Leucop'olis, revelling with
+Cleopatra, when he heard that Octa'via was at Athens, upon her journey
+to visit him. This was very unwelcome news both to him and Cleopa'tra;
+the latter, fearing the charms of her rival, endeavoured to convince
+Antony of the strength of her passion, by her sighs, her looks, and
+well-feigned melancholy. He frequently caught her in tears, which she
+seemingly attempted to hide, and of which she appeared extremely
+reluctant to tell him the cause. 9. These artifices, together with the
+ceaseless flattery and importunity of her creatures, prevailed so much
+on Antony's weakness, that he commanded Octa'via to return home
+without seeing her; and still more to exasperate the people of Rome,
+he resolved to repudiate her, and take Cleopa'tra as his wife. 10. He
+accordingly assembled the people of Alexandria in the public theatre,
+where was raised an alcove of silver, under which were placed two
+thrones of gold, one for himself, and the other for Cleopa'tra. There
+he seated himself, dressed as Bacchus, while Cleopatra sat beside him,
+clothed in the ornaments and attributes of I'sis, the principal deity
+of the Egyptians. 11. On that occasion he declared her queen of all
+the countries which he had already bestowed upon her, while he
+associated C&aelig;sa'rio, her son by C&aelig;sar, as her partner in the
+government. To the two children of himself by her, he gave the title
+of King of Kings, with very extensive dominions; and, to crown his
+absurdities, he next sent a minute account of his proceedings to the
+two consuls at Rome.</p>
+<p>
+12. In the mean time, Augustus had a sufficient pretext for declaring
+war, and informed the senate of his intentions. However, he deferred
+the execution of his design for a while, being then employed in
+quelling an insurrection of the Illy'rians. 13. The following year was
+chiefly taken up in preparations against Antony, who, perceiving his
+intentions, remonstrated to the senate, that he had many causes of
+complaint against his colleague, who had seized upon Sicily without
+affording him a share; alleging that he had also dispossessed
+Lep'idus, and kept to himself the province he had commanded; and that
+he had divided all Italy among his own soldiers, leaving nothing to
+recompense those in Asia. 14. To this complaint Augustus was content
+to make a sarcastic answer, implying that it was absurd to complain of
+his distribution of a few trifling districts in Italy, when Antony,
+having conquered Par'thia<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg. 251]</a></span> might now reward his soldiers with
+cities and provinces.<a name="FNanchor_14_151" id="FNanchor_14_151"></a><a href="#Fnote_14_151" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> 15. This sarcasm provoked him to send his
+army without delay into Europe, to meet Augustus, while he and
+Cleopa'tra followed to Sa'mos,<a name="FNanchor_15_152" id="FNanchor_15_152"></a><a href="#Fnote_15_152" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> in order to prepare for carrying on
+the war with vigour. 16. When arrived there, it was ridiculous enough
+to behold the odd mixture of preparations for pleasure and for war. On
+one side, all the kings and princes from Egypt to the Euxine Sea had
+orders to send him supplies of men, provisions, and arms; on the
+other, comedians, dancers, buffoons, and musicians, were ordered to
+attend him.</p>
+<p>
+17. His delay at Sa'mos, and afterwards at A'thens, where he carried
+Cleopa'tra to receive new honours, proved extremely favourable to the
+arms of Augustus, who was at first scarcely in a situation to oppose
+him, had he gone into Italy; but he soon found time to put himself in
+a condition for carrying on the war, and shortly after declared it
+against him in form. At length both sides found themselves in
+readiness to begin, and their armies were suitable to the greatness of
+the empire for which they contended. 18. The one was followed by all
+the forces of the East; the other drew after him all the strength of
+the West. Antony's force composed a body of one hundred thousand foot,
+and twelve thousand horse, while his fleet amounted to five hundred
+ships of war. Augustus mustered but eighty thousand foot, but equalled
+his adversary in the number of cavalry; his fleet was but half as
+numerous as Antony's; however, his ships were better built, and manned
+with better soldiers.</p>
+<p>
+19. The great decisive engagement, which was a naval one, was fought
+near Ac'tium,<a name="FNanchor_16_153" id="FNanchor_16_153"></a><a href="#Fnote_16_153" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> a city of Epi'rus, at the entrance of the gulf of
+Ambra'cia. Antony ranged his ships before the mouth of the gulf; and
+Augustus drew up his fleet in opposition. Neither general assumed any
+fixed station to command in, but went about from ship to ship,
+wherever his presence was necessary. In the mean time the two land
+armies, on the opposite sides of the gulf, were drawn up, only as
+spectators of the engagement, and<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg. 252]</a></span> couraged the fleets, by their
+shouts, to engage. 20. The battle began on both sides after a manner
+not practised upon former occasions. The prows of their vessels were
+armed with brazen beaks, with which it was usual to drive furiously
+against each other; but Antony's ships being large, unwieldy, and
+badly manned, were incapable of the necessary swiftness, while those
+of Augustus, from the lightness of their construction, were fearful of
+the rude encounter: the battle, therefore, rather resembled a land
+fight, the ships being brought alongside each other. They fought with
+great ardour, without advantage on either side, except from a small
+appearance of disorder in the centre of Antony's fleet. 21. But, all
+on a sudden, Cleopa'tra determined the fortune of the day. She was
+seen flying from the engagement with her sixty sail, struck, perhaps,
+with the terrors natural to her sex; and, to increase the general
+amazement, Antony himself precipitately followed, leaving his fleet at
+the mercy of the conquerors; while the army on land submitted, being
+thus abandoned by their general.</p>
+<p>
+22. When Cleopa'tra fled, Antony pursued her in a quinquireme,<a name="FNanchor_17_154" id="FNanchor_17_154"></a><a href="#Fnote_17_154" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> and
+coming alongside her ship, entered it without any desire of seeing
+her. She was in the stern, and he went to the prow, where he remained
+silent and melancholy. In this manner he continued three whole days,
+during which, either through indignation or shame, he neither saw nor
+spoke to Cleopa'tra. The queen's female attendants, however,
+reconciled them, and every thing went on as before. 23. Still he had
+the consolation to suppose his army continued faithful to him, and
+accordingly despatched orders to conduct it into Asia. But he was soon
+undeceived when he arrived in Africa, where he was informed of their
+submission to his rival.<a name="FNanchor_18_155" id="FNanchor_18_155"></a><a href="#Fnote_18_155" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> 24. This so transported him with rage,
+that with difficulty he was prevented from killing him self. At
+length, at the entreaty of his friends, he returned to Alexandria. 25.
+Cleopa'tra seemed to retain that fortitude in her misfortunes, which
+had utterly abandoned her admirer. Having amassed considerable riches,
+by means of confiscations and other acts of violence, she formed a
+very<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg. 253]</a></span> singular and unheard of project.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image22.jpg"
+alt="Sea-fight, near Actium."
+title="Sea-fight, near Actium." width="444" height="330" />
+</div>
+<p>
+26. This was to convey her whole fleet over the Isthmus of Su'ez into
+the Red Sea, and thereby save herself, with all her treasures, in
+another region beyond the power of Rome. 27. Some of her vessels were
+actually transported thither, pursuant to her orders; but the Arabians
+having burnt them, and Antony dissuading her from the design, she
+abandoned it for the more improbable scheme of defending Egypt against
+the conqueror. 28. She omitted nothing in her power to put this in
+practice, and made all kinds of preparations for war, hoping, at
+least, by these means to obtain better terms from Augustus. In fact,
+she had been more in love with Antony's fortune than his person; and
+if she could have fallen upon any method of saving herself, though
+even at his expense, there is little doubt but she would have embraced
+it with gladness. 29. She had still hopes from the power of her
+charms, though she was almost arrived at the age of forty: and was
+desirous of trying upon Augustus those arts which had already been so
+successful. Thus, in three embassies which were sent from Antony to
+Augustus in Asia, the queen had always her secret agents, charged with
+proposals in her name. Antony desired no more than that his life might
+be spared, and to have the liberty of passing the remainder of his
+days in obscurity. To these requests Augustus made no reply. 30.
+Cleopa'tra also sent him public proposals in favour of her children;
+but at the same time privately resigned to him her crown, with all the
+ensigns of royalty. To the queen's public proposal no<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg. 254]</a></span> answer was
+given; to her private offer he replied by giving her assurances of his
+favour, in case she would send away Antony, or put him to death. 31.
+These private negociations were not so concealed but they came to the
+knowledge of Antony, whose jealousy and rage every occurrence now
+contributed to heighten. He built a small solitary house upon a mole
+in the sea, and shut himself up, a prey to those passions that are the
+tormentors of unsuccessful tyranny. There he passed his time; shunning
+all commerce with man kind, and professing to imitate Timon,<a name="FNanchor_19_156" id="FNanchor_19_156"></a><a href="#Fnote_19_156" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> the
+man-hater. 32. However, his furious jealousy drove him from this
+retreat into society; for hearing that Cleopa'tra had secret
+conferences with one Thyrsus, an emissary from Augustus, he seized
+upon him, ordered him to be cruelly scourged, and sent him back to his
+patron. At the same time he sent letters by him importing that Thyrsus
+had been chastised for insulting a man in misfortunes; but withal he
+gave Augustus permission to revenge himself by scourging Hippar'chus,
+Antony's freedman, in the same manner. The revenge, in this case,
+would have been highly pleasing to Antony, as Hippar'chus had left
+him, to join the fortunes of his more successful rival.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What obstacle remained to the ambition of Augustus, and how did he
+attempt its removal?</p>
+<p>
+2. How was Antony at this time employed?</p>
+<p>
+3. Did he keenly feel his misfortune?</p>
+<p>
+4. Was she eminently skilled in the art of pleasing?</p>
+<p>
+5. Was not Antony lavish in his favours to her?</p>
+<p>
+6. What was the consequence of this folly?</p>
+<p>
+7. By what means did he seek a quarrel?</p>
+<p>
+8. How was this measure approved by Antony and Cleopatra?</p>
+<p>
+9. What imprudent resolutions did he adopt?</p>
+<p>
+10. Did he do this publicly?</p>
+<p>
+11. What farther favours did he bestow on her?</p>
+<p>
+12. Did Augustus immediately commence hostilities?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg. 255]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+13. What complaints did Antony make of Augustus?</p>
+<p>
+14. Did Augustus notice these accusations?</p>
+<p>
+15. What effect had his reply on Antony?</p>
+<p>
+16. Were these military preparations formidable?</p>
+<p>
+17. What advantages did Antony offer Augustus?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the respective strength of the armies?</p>
+<p>
+19. Describe the preparations for this great conflict?</p>
+<p>
+20. Was the engagement well contested?</p>
+<p>
+21. What extraordinary circumstance decided its fate?</p>
+<p>
+22. Did he reproach Cleopatra for her timidity?</p>
+<p>
+23. Had Antony any resources left?</p>
+<p>
+24. How did he receive this news?</p>
+<p>
+25. How did Cleopatra act in this exigence?</p>
+<p>
+26. What was this project?</p>
+<p>
+27. Was it put in execution?</p>
+<p>
+28. How did she attempt this, and with what views?</p>
+<p>
+29. What farther hopes had she of favour?</p>
+<p>
+30. What proposals did she make, and how were they received?</p>
+<p>
+31. Was Antony aware of these negociations?</p>
+<p>
+32. Did he persist in thus secluding himself?</p>
+
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION VIII.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">O sun, thy uprise I shall see no more:</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Fortune and Antony part here.&mdash;<i>Shakspeare</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Augustus advanced with another army against Pellu'sium,<a name="FNanchor_20_157" id="FNanchor_20_157"></a><a href="#Fnote_20_157" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> which,
+by its strong situation, might have retarded his progress for some
+time. But the governor of the city, either wanting courage to defend
+it, or previously instructed by Cleopa'tra to give it up, permitted
+him to take possession; so that Augus'tus had now no obstacle in his
+way to Alexan'dria, whither he marched with all expedition. 2. Antony,
+upon his arrival, sallied out to oppose him, fighting with
+desperation, and putting the enemy's cavalry to flight. 3. This slight
+advantage once more revived his declining hopes; and, being naturally
+vain, he re-entered Alexan'dria in triumph. Then going, armed as he
+was, to the palace, and embracing Cleopa'tra, he presented to her a
+soldier who had distinguished himself in the engagement. 4. The queen
+rewarded him very magnificently, presenting him with a helmet and
+breastplate of gold. With these, however, the soldier deserted in the
+night to the other army, prudently resolving to secure his riches by
+keeping on the strongest side. 5. Antony, not able to bear this
+defection without fresh indignation, resolved to make a bold expiring
+effort by<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg. 256]</a></span> sea and land; but previously offered to fight his
+adversary in single combat. Augus'tus, however, too well knew the
+inequality of their situations to comply with this forlorn proposal;
+he, therefore, coolly replied, "Antony has ways enough to die besides
+in single combat."</p>
+<p>
+6. The next day, he posted the few troops he had remaining upon a
+rising ground near the city, whence he sent orders to his galleys to
+engage the enemy. There he waited to be a spectator of the combat; and
+at first he had the satisfaction to see them advance in good order. 7.
+But his joy was soon turned into rage, when he beheld his ships only
+saluting those of Augus'tus, and both fleets uniting together and
+sailing back into the harbour, and at the same time his cavalry
+deserting him. He tried, however, to lead on his infantry; but these
+were easily vanquished, and he himself compelled to return into the
+town. 8. His fury was now ungovernable, crying out as he passed that
+he was betrayed by Cleopa'tra, and delivered up to those who, for her
+sake alone, were his enemies. In these suspicions he was not deceived;
+for it was by secret orders from the queen that the fleet passed over
+to the enemy.</p>
+<p>
+9. Cleopa'tra had for a long while dreaded the effects of Antony's
+jealousy; and had some time before prepared a method of obviating the
+effects of any sudden sallies it might produce. 10. Near the temple of
+Isis she had erected a building, which was seemingly designed for a
+sepulchre. Hither she moved her treasure and most valuable effects,
+covering them with torches, fagots, and other combustible matter. 11.
+This sepulchre she designed to answer a double purpose, as well to
+screen her from the sudden resentments of Antony, as to make Augustus
+believe that she would burn all her treasure, in case he refused
+proper terms of capitulation. Here, therefore, she retired from
+Antony's fury&mdash;shutting the fortified gates, and giving orders to have
+it reported that she was dead. 12. This news soon reached Antony, and
+it recalled all his former love and tenderness. Subject to every gust
+of passion, and each of them in the extreme, he now lamented her death
+with the same violence that he had just before seemed to desire it.
+"Miserable man!" exclaimed he, "what is there now worth living for?
+since all that could soothe or soften my cares is departed! O
+Cleopa'tra! our separation does not so much afflict me, as the
+disgrace I suffer, in permitting a woman to instruct me in the ways of
+dying."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image23.jpg"
+alt="Death of Eros."
+title="Death of Eros." width="428" height="314" />
+</div>
+<p>
+13. He now called to<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg. 257]</a></span> him one of his freedmen, named Eros, whom he
+had engaged, by oath, to kill him, whenever fortune should drive him
+to this last resource, and commanded him to perform his promise. This
+faithful follower drew his sword, as if going instantly to strike the
+blow, when, turning his face, he plunged it into his own bosom, and
+dropped at his master's feet. 14. Antony, for a while, hung over his
+faithful servant, charmed with his fidelity. Then snatching up the
+sword he stabbed himself in the belly, and fell backward upon a couch.
+15. The wound was mortal; yet the blood stopping, he recovered his
+spirits, and earnestly conjured those who were come into the room to
+put an end to his life; but they all fled, seized with fright and
+horror. 16. He continued in this miserable condition till he was
+informed by one of the queen's secretaries, that his mistress was
+still alive, and begged that he would suffer himself to be transported
+to the monument where she was. He was accordingly brought to the
+sepulchre; but Cleopa'tra, attended by her two women only, durst by no
+means permit the gate to be opened, but from the window threw down
+cords, with which, with great difficulty, they drew him up. 17.
+Antony, bathed in his blood, held out his hands to Cleopa'tra, and
+faintly endeavoured to raise himself from the couch on which he had
+been laid. The queen gave way to sorrow, tore her clothes, beat her
+breast, and kissing the wound of which he was dying, called him her
+husband, her lord, her emperor. 18. Antony entreated her to moderate
+the transports of her grief, and to preserve her life, if she could be
+able to do it with honour. "As for <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg. 258]</a></span> me, lament not my
+misfortunes," he said; "but congratulate me upon the happiness which I
+have enjoyed; I have lived the greatest and most powerful of men; and
+though I fall, my fate is not ignominious; <i>a Roman myself, I am, at
+last, by a Roman overcome</i>" Having thus said, he expired.</p>
+<p>
+19. Proculei'us now made his appearance by command of Augus'tus, who
+had been informed of Antony's desperate conduct. He was sent to try
+all means of getting Cleopa'tra into his power. 20. Augustus had a
+double motive for his solicitude on this occasion; one was&mdash;to prevent
+her destroying the treasures she had taken with her into the tomb; the
+other&mdash;to preserve her person, as an ornament to grace his triumph.
+21. Cleopa'tra, however, was upon her guard, and rejected any
+conference with Proculei'us, except through the gate, which was well
+secured. At length, having procured a ladder, he, with two of
+Augustus's soldiers, entered by the same window through which Antony
+had been drawn up. Cleopa'tra, perceiving what had happened, drew a
+poinard, that hung at her girdle, to stab herself; but Proculei'us
+forced it from her. 22. Augustus, pleased to find her in his power,
+sent Epaphrodi'tus to bring her to his palace, and to watch her with
+the utmost circumspection. He was ordered to use her, in every
+respect, with that deference and submission which were due to her
+rank, and to do every thing in his power to render her captivity
+tolerable.</p>
+<p>
+23. Though kings and generals made interest for Antony's body, in
+order to pay the last honours to it, this consolation was reserved for
+Cleopa'tra. She alone was permitted to have the honour of granting
+Antony the rites of burial, and was furnished with every thing
+becoming his dignity to receive, or her love to offer. 24. Yet still
+she languished under her new confinement. Her many losses, her frantic
+sorrow, the blows which she had given her bosom, produced a fever,
+which she wished to increase. She resolved, by abstaining from
+nourishment, to starve herself to death, under the pretence of a
+regimen necessary for her disorder. 25. But Augus'tus, being made
+acquainted with the real motive by her physicians, began to threaten
+her, with regard to the safety of her children, in case she should
+perish. The fear of being the cause of their death was a motive she
+could not resist. Cleopa'tra, therefore, allowed herself to be treated
+as was thought proper, and she recovered.</p>
+<p>
+26. In the mean time Augustus made his entry into Alexandria, taking
+care to mitigate the fears of the inhabitants, <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg. 259]</a></span> by conversing
+familiarly with Ar'cus, a philosopher, and a native of the place. The
+citizens, however, trembled at his approach. And when he placed
+himself upon the tribunal, they prostrated themselves, with their
+faces to the ground, before him, like criminals who waited the
+sentence for their execution. 27. Augus'tus presently ordered them to
+rise, telling them that three motives induced him to pardon them: his
+respect for Alexander, who was the founder of their city; his
+admiration of its beauty; and his friendship for Ar'cus, their fellow
+citizen. 28. Two only of particular note were put to death upon this
+occasion; Antony's eldest son, Antyl'lus, and C&aelig;sa'rio, the son of
+Julius C&aelig;sar, both betrayed into his hands by their respective tutors,
+who themselves suffered for their perfidy shortly after. As for the
+rest of Cleopa'tra's children, he treated them with great gentleness,
+leaving them to the care of those who were intrusted with their
+education, to whom he gave orders to provide them with every thing
+suitable to their birth. 29. Cleopa'tra, being recovered, Augus'tus
+visited her in person: she received him lying on a couch; but, upon
+his entering the apartment, rose up, habited in a loose robe, and
+prostrated herself before him. Her misfortunes had given an air of
+severity to her features; her hair was dishevelled, her voice
+trembling, her complexion pale, and her eyes swollen with weeping;
+yet, still, her natural beauty seemed to gleam through the distresses
+that surrounded her; and the grace of her motions, and the alluring
+softness of her looks, still bore testimony to the former power of her
+charms. 30. Augus'tus raised her with his usual complaisance, and,
+desiring her to sit, placed himself beside her. 31. Cleopa'tra had
+been prepared for this interview, and made use of every art to
+propitiate the conqueror. She tried apologies, entreaties and
+allurements, to obtain his favour and soften his resentment. She began
+by attempting to justify her conduct; but when her skill failed
+against manifest proofs, she turned her defence into supplications.
+She reminded him of C&aelig;sar's humanity to those in distress; she read
+some of his letters to her, full of tenderness, and expatiated upon
+the intimacy that subsisted between them. "But of what service," cried
+she, "are now all his benefits to me! Why did I not die with him! Yet,
+still he lives&mdash;methinks I see him still before me! he revives in
+you." 32. Augus'tus, who was no stranger to this method of address,
+remained firm against all attacks; answering with a cold
+indifference<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg. 260]</a></span> which obliged her to give her attempts a different
+turn. 33. She now addressed his avarice, presenting him with an
+inventory of her treasure and jewels. This gave occasion to a very
+singular scene, that may serve to show that the little decorums of
+breeding were then by no means attended to as in modern times. 34. One
+of her stewards having alleged, that the inventory was defective, and
+that she had secreted a part of her effects, she fell into the most
+extravagant passion, started from her couch, and snatching him by the
+hair, gave him repeated blows on the face. Augus'tus, smiling at her
+indignation, led her to the couch, and desired her to be pacified. To
+this she replied, that it was insufferable to be insulted in the
+presence of one whom she so highly esteemed. "And admitting," cried
+she, "that I have secreted a few ornaments, am I to blame, when they
+are reserved, not for myself, but for Liv'ia and Octa'via, whom I hope
+to make my intercessors with you?" 35. The apology, which intimated a
+desire of living, was not disagreeable to Augustus, who politely
+assured her she was at liberty to keep whatever she had reserved, and
+that in everything she should be indulged to the height of her
+expectations. He then took leave, and departed, imagining he had
+reconciled her to life, and to the indignity of being shown in the
+intended triumph, which he was preparing for his return to Rome; but
+in this he was deceived. 36. Cleopa'tra had all this time corresponded
+with Dolabel'la, a young Roman of high birth in the camp of Augustus,
+who, from compassion, or perhaps from stronger motives, was interested
+in her misfortunes. By him she was secretly informed that Augustus
+determined to send her and her children, within three days, to Rome,
+to grace his triumphant entry. 37. She, at length, therefore,
+determined upon dying; but first throwing herself upon Antony's
+coffin, bewailed her captivity, and renewed her protestations not to
+survive him. Having bathed, and ordered a sumptuous banquet, she
+attired herself in the most splendid manner. After partaking of the
+banquet, she commanded all, except her two women, to leave the
+apartment. She had contrived to have an asp secretly conveyed to her
+in a basket of fruit, and then wrote to Augustus, to inform him of her
+fatal purpose, desiring to be buried in the same tomb with Antony. 38.
+Augustus, upon receiving the letter, instantly despatched messengers
+in hopes to stop the fulfilment of her intentions; but they arrived
+too late.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image24.jpg"
+alt="Death of Cleopatra."
+title="Death of Cleopatra." width="417" height="310" />
+</div>
+<p>
+Upon entering the chamber, they beheld<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg. 261]</a></span> Cleopa'tra lying dead upon
+her couch, arrayed in royal robes. Near her, I'ras, one of her
+faithful attendants, was stretched at the feet of her mistress; and
+Char'mion,<a name="FNanchor_21_158" id="FNanchor_21_158"></a><a href="#Fnote_21_158" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> the other, scarcely alive, was settling the diadem upon
+Cleopa'tra's head. "Alas!" cried one of the messengers, "is this well
+done, Charmion?" "Yes," replied she, "it is well done&mdash;such a death
+become a glorious queen, descended from a race of glorious ancestors."
+Pronouncing these words, she dropped and expired with her much loved
+mistress.<a name="FNanchor_22_159" id="FNanchor_22_159"></a><a href="#Fnote_22_159" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What new conquest was achieved by Augustus?</p>
+<p>
+2. What was Antony's conduct on his arrival?</p>
+<p>
+3. Was he elated by this slight success?</p>
+<p>
+4. How was he rewarded, and in what manner did he evince his
+gratitude?</p>
+<p>
+5. What were Antony's feelings and conduct on the occasion?</p>
+<p>
+6. Did he attempt farther hostilities?</p>
+<p>
+7. Was this satisfaction well founded?</p>
+<p>
+8. How was he affected by this ill success?</p>
+<p>
+9. Was Cleopatra prepared for these misfortunes?</p>
+<p>
+10. What precautions had she taken?</p>
+<p>
+11 What was her design in building this sepulchre?</p>
+<p>
+12. Was Antony affected by this news?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg. 262]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+13. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+14. Did Antony persist in his purpose?</p>
+<p>
+15. Did he immediately expire?</p>
+<p>
+16. Had he another interview with Cleopatra?</p>
+<p>
+17, 18. Relate the particulars of this interview?</p>
+<p>
+19. How did Augustus act on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+20. Why was Augustus anxious to preserve this life of Cleopatra?</p>
+<p>
+21. Did he obtain ready admittance to her, and what was the
+consequence?</p>
+<p>
+22. How was she treated?</p>
+<p>
+23. By whom were the last honours paid to Antony?</p>
+<p>
+24. Did this kindness reconcile her to her situation?</p>
+<p>
+25. By what means did Augustus overcome her resolution?</p>
+<p>
+26. What circumstance attended the entrance of Augustus into
+Alexandria?</p>
+<p>
+27. Were their fears realized?</p>
+<p>
+28. Who fell victims on the occasion?</p>
+<p>
+29. Did Augustus visit Cleopatra, and how was he received?</p>
+<p>
+30. What was his conduct towards her?</p>
+<p>
+31. How did Cleopatra conduct herself at this interview?</p>
+<p>
+32. Was Augustus moved by her artifices?</p>
+<p>
+33. Mention her next attempt and its consequence.</p>
+<p>
+34. Relate the particulars.</p>
+<p>
+35. Was the apology accepted?</p>
+<p>
+36. With whom did Cleopatra correspond, and what did she learn?</p>
+<p>
+37. What resolution did she form, and how did she accomplish it?</p>
+<p>
+38. Did not Augustus attempt to prevent her resolution, and was he
+successful?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_138" id="Fnote_1_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_138">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ In this contest the famous Alexan'drian library,
+consisting, it is said, of 700,000 volumes, was accidentally burnt.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_139" id="Fnote_2_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_139">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ I came, I saw, I conquered.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_140" id="Fnote_3_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_140">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The Romans divided their months into three parts; namely,
+Calends, Nones, and Ides; all which they reckoned backwards. The Ides
+were always eight in number. The Nones sometimes four, at others six.
+The Calends varied according to the length of the month, and also with
+the Nones, as they were four or six. The Calends always began on the
+first of every month, and were counted backwards to the Ides, which
+fell on the 15th of March, May, July, and October; and on the 13th of
+other months; so that the Nones began on the 5th of each month when
+four, and on the 7th when six in number. The Nones, therefore, always
+ended on the 2d day of the month.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_141" id="Fnote_4_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_141">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Though C&aelig;sar's ambition led him to usurp a power to which
+the Romans were not willing to submit, it appears that he used it with
+unexampled moderation. He was beloved and revered by the people,
+honoured and almost adored by his friends, and esteemed and admired
+even by his enemies. Absolute power could not have been in better
+hands.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_142" id="Fnote_5_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_142">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ It was the general opinion of the conspirators that
+Antony should be cut off with C&aelig;sar; but Brutus pleaded for and
+obtained his safety. This kindness was ill repaid.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_6_143" id="Fnote_6_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_143">[6]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The Forum was a public place at Rome, where lawyers and
+orators made their speeches in matters of property of the state, or in
+criminal cases.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_7_144" id="Fnote_7_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_144">[7]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Now the Rheno, which runs through Bologna and falls into
+the Po.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_8_145" id="Fnote_8_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_145">[8]</a></p>
+<p>
+ It is impossible to paint the horrors of this dreadful
+proscription. Nothing was to be seen but blood and slaughter; the
+streets were covered with dead bodies; the heads of the most
+illustrious senators were exposed on the rostra, and their bodies left
+to be devoured by dogs and birds of prey; three hundred senators, and
+above two thousand knights, besides a vast number of others of
+considerable rank, fell victims on this occasion. Many noble instances
+of fidelity were displayed by slaves at this terrible conjuncture,
+several chose rather to die on the rack, in the most exquisite
+torments, than betray the place where their masters were concealed.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_9_146" id="Fnote_9_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_146">[9]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A city on the confines of Macedonia, noted for the battle
+between Brutus and Cassius, and Mark Antony and Augustus, B.C. 42; and
+also the Epistle of Paul to the people of Philip'pi.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_10_147" id="Fnote_10_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_147">[10]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This is very erroneous reasoning: suicide is, no doubt a
+heinous crime: but Brutus appears to have been governed by his
+apprehension of danger, instead of being convinced by the sober
+dictates of his judgment.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_11_148" id="Fnote_11_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_148">[11]</a></p>
+<p>
+ On showing the order for the restoration of his
+property, he was nearly killed by the centurion who was in possession,
+and escaped only by swimming across a river. To these melancholy
+events he alludes in his first Eclogue.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_12_149" id="Fnote_12_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_149">[12]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Mantua was a very ancient town, supposed to be older
+than Rome. It is still called Mantua, and is the capital of a duchy of
+the same name.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_13_150" id="Fnote_13_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_150">[13]</a></p>
+<p>
+ He, however, displayed his usual cruelty towards the
+inhabitants, causing three hundred senators to be sacrificed at an
+altar erected to the memory of Julius C&aelig;sar, and delivering up the
+city to plunder and the flames.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_14_151" id="Fnote_14_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_151">[14]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The severity of this sarcasm lay in its being directly
+contrary to truth, as Antony had been defeated by the Par'thians.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_15_152" id="Fnote_15_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_152">[15]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Samos, a celebrated island in the Archipel'ago. It has
+been rendered famous for the worship and a temple of Juno, with a
+noted Asylum. Its capital was of the same name, and is memorable for
+the birth of Pythag'oras.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_16_153" id="Fnote_16_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_153">[16]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Actium is famous for a temple of Apollo.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_17_154" id="Fnote_17_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_154">[17]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A galley with five banks of oars.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_18_155" id="Fnote_18_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_155">[18]</a></p>
+<p>
+ They continued unshaken in their fidelity for seven days
+after the battle of Actium, notwithstanding the advantageous offers
+made them by Augustus, in hopes Antony would return and put himself at
+their head, but finding themselves disappointed, and abandoned by
+their principal officers, they at length surrendered.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_19_156" id="Fnote_19_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_156">[19]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Ti'mon, the misanthrope, was born near Athens, B.C. 420.
+He declared himself the enemy of the human race, and had a companion
+named Apeman'tus, who possessed a similar disposition. The latter
+asking him one day why he paid such respect to Alcibi'ades, "It is,"
+said the churl, "because I foresee he will prove the ruin of the
+Athe'nians, my countrymen."(Plutarch.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_20_157" id="Fnote_20_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_157">[20]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A strong city of Egypt.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_21_158" id="Fnote_21_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_158">[21]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Pronounced Kar'mion.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_22_159" id="Fnote_22_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_159">[22]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Cleopatra was forty years old at the time of her death,
+and had wed twelve years with Antony.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XXII.</h2><hr /> <br /> <br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Happy Augustus! who so well inspired,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Couldst throw thy pomp and royalties aside.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Attentive to the wise, the great of soul.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And dignify thy mind. Thrice glorious days.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Auspicious to the muses!&mdash;<i>Dyer</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. By the death of Antony, Augus'tus having become master of the Roman
+empire, returned to Rome in triumph; where, by feasts and magnificent
+shows, he began to obliterate the impressions of his former cruelty;
+and thenceforward resolved to secure, by his clemency, a throne, the
+foundations of which were laid in blood. 2. He was now at the head of
+the most extensive empire that mankind had ever beheld. The former
+spirit of the Romans, and those characteristic marks that
+distinguished them from others, were now totally lost. The city was
+inhabited by a concourse from all the countries of the world; and
+being consequently divested of all just patriotic principles, perhaps
+a<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg. 263]</a></span> monarchy is the best form of government that could be found to
+unite its members. 3. However, it was very remarkable, that during
+these long contentions among themselves, and these horrid devastations
+by civil war, the state was daily growing more formidable and
+powerful, and completed the destruction of all the kings-who presumed
+to oppose it.</p>
+<p>
+4. The first care of Augus'tus was to assure himself of the friends of
+Antony; to which end he publickly reported that he had burnt all
+Antony's letters and papers without reading them, convinced that,
+while any thought themselves suspected, they would be fearful of even
+offering him their friendship.</p>
+<p>
+5. He had gained the kingdom by his army, but he resolved to govern it
+by the senate. This body, though greatly fallen from its ancient
+splendor, he knew to be the best constituted, and most remarkable for
+wisdom and justice. To the senate, therefore, he gave the chief power
+in the administration of his government, while he himself secured the
+fidelity of the people and the army by donatives, and acts of favour.
+6. By these means the odium of severity fell upon the senate, and the
+popularity of pardon was solely his own. Thus restoring splendor to
+the senate and discountenancing corruption, he pretended to reserve to
+himself a very moderate share of authority, to which none could
+object: namely, power to compel all ranks of the state to do their
+duty. 7. This was, in fact, reserving absolute dominion in his own
+hands; but the misguided people began to look upon his moderation with
+astonishment: they considered themselves as restored to their former
+freedom, except the capacity of promoting sedition; and the senate
+supposed their power re-established in all things but their tendency
+to injustice. It was even said that the Romans, by such a government,
+lost nothing of the happiness that liberty could produce, and were
+exempt from all the misfortunes it could occasion. 8. This observation
+might have some truth under such a monarch as Augustus now appeared to
+be; but they were afterwards taught to change their sentiments under
+his successors, when they found themselves afflicted with all the
+punishments that tyranny could inflict, or sedition make necessary.</p>
+<p>
+9. After having established this admirable order, Augustus found
+himself agitated by different passions; and considered, a long time,
+whether he should keep the empire, or restore the people to their
+ancient liberty. 10. But he adopted <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg. 264]</a></span> the advice of M&aelig;ce'nas,
+which was, to continue in power: and he was afterwards swayed by him
+on every occasion. By the advice of that minister, he became gentle,
+affable, and humane: he encouraged men of learning, and gave them much
+of his time and his friendship. These in their turn relieved his most
+anxious hours, and circulated his praise throughout the empire.</p>
+<p>
+11. Thus having given peace and happiness to his subjects, and being
+convinced of the attachment of all orders of the state to his person,
+he resolved upon impressing the people with an idea of his
+magnanimity, by making a show of resigning his authority. 12. To this
+end, having previously instructed his creatures in the senate how to
+act, he addressed them in a studied speech, importing the difficulty
+of governing so extensive an empire; a task to which, he said, none
+but the immortal gods were equal. He modestly urged his own inability,
+though impelled by every motive to undertake it; and then, with a
+degree of seeming generosity, freely gave up all that power which his
+arms had gained, and which the senate had confirmed, giving them to
+understand, that the true spirit of the Romans was not lost in him.
+13. This speech operated upon the senate variously, as they were more
+or less in the secret. Many believed the sincerity of his conduct as
+an act of heroism unequalled by any thing that had hitherto appeared;
+others, though ignorant of his motives, distrusted his designs. Some
+there were, who, having greatly suffered during the popular
+commotions, were fearful of their being renewed; but the majority, who
+were properly instructed by his ministers, frequently attempted to
+interrupt him while speaking, and received his proposals with
+pretended indignation. 14. These unanimously besought him not to
+resign the administration; and, upon his continuing to decline their
+request, they in a manner compelled him to comply. However, that his
+person might be in greater security, they immediately decreed that the
+pay of his guard should be doubled. 15. On the other hand, that he
+might seem to make concessions on his side, he permitted the senate to
+govern the weak, internal provinces, while the most powerful
+provinces, and those that required the greatest armies for their
+defence, were taken entirely under his own command. Over these he
+assumed the government for ten years only, leaving the people still in
+hopes of regaining their ancient freedom; at the same tune, however,
+laying his measures so well, <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg. 265]</a></span> that his government was renewed
+every ten years, to his death.</p>
+<p>
+16. This show of resignation only served to confirm him in the empire,
+and in the hearts of the people. New honours were heaped upon him. He
+was now first called Augustus (a name I have hitherto used as that by
+which he is best known in history.) A laurel was ordered to be planted
+at his gates. That house was called the palace wherever he made his
+abode. He was confirmed in the title of father of his country, and his
+person declared sacred and inviolable. 17. In short, flattery seemed
+on the rack to find out new modes of pleasing him; but, though he
+despised the arts of the senate, he permitted their homage, well
+knowing that, among mankind, titles produce a respect which enforces
+authority.</p>
+<p>
+18. Upon entering into his tenth consulship, the senate, by oath,
+approved of all his acts, and set him wholly above the power of the
+laws. They, some time after, offered to swear not only to all the laws
+he had made, but such as he should make for the future. 19. It was
+customary with fathers, upon their death-beds, to command their
+children to carry oblations to the Capitol, with an inscription, that
+at the day of their deaths they left Augustus in health. It was
+determined that no man should be put to death on such days as the
+emperor entered the city. Upon a dearth of provisions, the people
+entreated him to accept of the dictatorship; but he would by no means
+assume the title of dictator, which had been abolished by law.</p>
+<p>
+20. An accumulation of titles and employments did not in the least
+diminish his assiduity in fulfilling the duties of each. Several very
+wholesome edicts were passed by his command, tending to suppress
+corruption in the senate, and licentiousness in the people. 21. He
+ordained that none should exhibit a show of gladiators without an
+order from the senate; and then not oftener than twice a year, nor
+with more than a hundred and twenty at a time. This law was extremely
+necessary at so corrupt a period of the empire, when armies of these
+unfortunate men were brought at once upon the stage, and compelled to
+fight, often, till half of them were slain. 22. It had been usual also
+with the knights, and women of the first distinction, to exhibit
+themselves as dancers upon the theatre; he ordered that not only
+these, but their children and grand-children should be restrained from
+such exercises for the future. 23. He fined many<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg. 266]</a></span> that had refused
+to marry at a certain age, and rewarded such as had many children. He
+enacted that the senators should be held in great reverence; adding to
+their dignity what he had taken from their power. 24. He made a law,
+that no man should have the freedom of the city without a previous
+examination into his merit and character. He appointed new rules and
+limits to the manumission of slaves, and was himself very strict in
+the observance of them. With regard to dramatic performers, of whom he
+was very fond, he severely examined their morals, not allowing
+licentiousness in their lives, nor indecency in their actions. Though
+he encouraged the athletic exercises, he would not permit women to be
+present at them. 25. In order to prevent bribery in suing for offices,
+he took considerable sums of money from the candidates by way of
+pledge; and if any indirect practices were proved against them, they
+were obliged to forfeit all. 26. Slaves had been hitherto disallowed
+to confess anything against their own masters; but he abolished the
+practice, and first sold the slave to another, which altering the
+property, his examination became free. 27. These and other laws, all
+tending to extirpate vice or deter from crimes, gave the manners of
+the people another complexion; and the rough character of the Roman
+soldier was now softened into that of the refined citizen.<a name="FNanchor_1_160" id="FNanchor_1_160"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_160" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination.</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the consequence of the death of Antony?</p>
+<p>
+2. What was the character of the Roman people at this time?</p>
+<p>
+3. Did these convulsions weaken the empire?</p>
+<p>
+4. What was the first care of Augustus?</p>
+<p>
+5. In what way did he propose to govern?</p>
+<p>
+6. What were the consequences of this conduct?</p>
+<p>
+7. What advantages did the Romans fancy they enjoyed?</p>
+<p>
+8. Was this observation correct?</p>
+<p>
+9. What conflicting passions agitated the mind of Augustus?</p>
+<p>
+10. Whose advice did he adopt, and what was that advice?</p>
+<p>
+11. What artifice did he employ to confirm his power?</p>
+<p>
+12. How did he make his intentions known?</p>
+<p>
+13. What effect was produced by this proposal?</p>
+<p>
+14. What was their conduct on this occasion?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg. 267]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+15. What farther artifices did he employ?</p>
+<p>
+16. What were the consequences of this affected moderation?</p>
+<p>
+17. Was he imposed upon by these arts?</p>
+<p>
+18. What farther instances of abject servility did the senate display?</p>
+<p>
+19. What else was done to his honour?</p>
+<p>
+20. Did these honours render him remiss?</p>
+<p>
+21. What salutary law did he enact?</p>
+<p>
+22. What next?</p>
+<p>
+23. What regulations concerning marriage, and respect to senators, did
+he enforce?</p>
+<p>
+24. How did he improve the morals of the people?</p>
+<p>
+25. How did he prevent bribery?</p>
+<p>
+26. By what means did he promote justice?</p>
+<p>
+27. What was the consequence of these regulations?</p>
+
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">The death of those distinguished by their station,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">But by their virtue more, awakes the mind</span><br />
+<span class="i2">To solemn dread, and strikes a saddening awe.&mdash;<i>Young</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Augustus, by his own example, tended greatly to humanize his
+fellow-citizens; for being placed above all equality, he had nothing
+to fear from condescension. He was familiar with all, and suffered
+himself to be reprimanded with the most patient humility. Though, by
+his sole authority, he could condemn or acquit whomsoever he thought
+proper, he gave the laws their proper course, and even pleaded for
+persons he desired to protect. 2. When the advocate for Pri'mus<a name="FNanchor_2_161" id="FNanchor_2_161"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_161" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+desired to know, with an insolent air, what brought Augustus into
+court, the emperor calmly replied, "The public good." When one of his
+veteran soldiers entreated his protection, Augustus bid him apply to
+an advocate. "Ah!" replied the soldier, "it was not by proxy that I
+served you at the battle of Ac'tium." Augustus was so pleased that he
+pleaded his cause and gained it for him. One day a petition was
+presented to him with so much awe as to displease him. "Friend," cried
+he, "you seem as if you were offering something to an elephant rather
+than to a man; be bolder." 3. Once as he was sitting in judgment,
+M&aelig;ce'nas perceiving that he was inclined to be severe, and not being
+able to get to him through the crowd, he threw a paper into his lap,
+on which was written, "Arise, executioner!" Augustus read it without
+displeasure, and immediately<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg. 268]</a></span> rising, pardoned those whom he was
+disposed to condemn. 4. But what most of all showed a total
+alteration, was his treatment of Corne'lius Cinna, Pompey's grandson.
+This nobleman had entered into a conspiracy against him: Augustus sent
+for the other conspirators, reprimanded them, and dismissed them. But
+resolving to mortify Cinna by the greatness of his generosity&mdash;"I have
+twice," says he, "given you your life, as an enemy and as a
+conspirator: I now give you the consulship; let us therefore be
+friends for the future; let us contend only in showing whether my
+confidence or your fidelity shall be victorious."</p>
+<p>
+5. In the practice of such virtues he passed a long reign. In fact, he
+seemed the first Roman who aimed at gaining a character by the arts of
+peace, and who obtained the affections of the soldiers without any
+military talents of his own: nevertheless, the Roman arms, under his
+lieutenants, were crowned with success.</p>
+<p>
+6. But he had uneasiness of a domestic nature that distressed him. He
+had married Liv'ia, the wife of Tibe'rius Nero, by the consent of her
+husband, when she was six months advanced in her pregnancy. She was an
+imperious woman, and, conscious of being beloved, controlled him at
+her pleasure. 7. She had two sons, Tibe'rius the elder, and Dru'sus,
+who was born three months after she had been married to Augustus, and
+who was thought to be his own son. The elder of these, Tibe'rius, whom
+he afterwards adopted, and who succeeded him in the empire, was a good
+general, but of a suspicious and obstinate temper, and of a conduct so
+turbulent and restless, that he was at last exiled for five years to
+the island of Rhodes, where he chiefly spent his time in a retired
+manner, conversing with the Greeks, and addicting himself to
+literature, of which, however he afterwards made but a bad use.</p>
+<p>
+8. But the greatest affliction that Augustus experienced was from the
+conduct of his daughter Julia, whom he had by Scribo'nia, his former
+wife. Julia, whom he married to his general Agrip'pa, and afterwards
+to Tibe'rius, set no bounds to her misconduct. She was arrived at that
+excess of wickedness, that the very court where her father presided
+was not exempt from her infamies. 9. Augustus, at first, had thoughts
+of putting her to death: but, after consideration, he banished her to
+Pandata'ria.<a name="FNanchor_3_162" id="FNanchor_3_162"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_162" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> He ordered that no<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg. 269]</a></span> person should come near her
+without his permission, and sent her mother Scribo'nia along with her,
+to bear her company. When any one attempted to intercede for Julia,
+his answer was, "that fire and water should sooner unite than he with
+her." 10. Augustus, having survived most of his contemporaries, at
+length, in the seventy-fourth year of his age, began to think of
+retiring from the fatigues of state, and of constituting Tibe'rius his
+partner in the throne. He desired the senate to salute him no longer
+at the palace, nor take it amiss, if, for the future, he could not
+converse with them, as formerly.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 762.</div>
+
+<p>
+11. From that time Tibe'rius was joined in the government of the
+provinces with him, and invested with nearly the same authority.
+However, Augustus could not entirely forsake the administration, which
+habit had rendered a source of pleasure; and he still continued a
+watchful guardian, and showed himself, to the last, a lover of his
+people. 12. Finding it now, therefore, very inconvenient to come to
+the senate, by reason of his age, he desired to have twenty
+privy-counsellors assigned him for a year; and it was decreed, that
+whatever measures were resolved upon by them and the consuls, should
+have entirely the force of a law. 13. He seemed apprehensive of his
+approaching end, for he made his will, and delivered it to the vestal
+virgins. He then solemnized the census, or numbering the people, whom
+he found to amount to four millions one hundred and thirty-seven
+thousand; which shows Rome to be equal to four of the greatest cities
+of modern times. 14. While these ceremonies were performing, in the
+midst of a mighty concourse of people in the Cam'pus Mar'tius, it is
+said that an eagle flew round the emperor several times, and,
+directing its flight to a neighbouring temple, perched over the name
+of Agrippa: this omen was, by the augurs, conceived to portend the
+death of the emperor. 15. Shortly after, having accompanied Tibe'rius
+in his march into Illyr'ia, he was taken ill. Returning thence, he
+sent for Tibe'rius and his most intimate friends. A few hours before
+his death he ordered a looking-glass to be brought, and his hair to be
+adjusted with more than usual care. He then addressed his friends,
+whom he beheld surrounding his bed, and desired to know whether he had
+properly played his part in life; to which, being answered in the
+affirmative, he cried out with his last breath, "Then give me your
+applause." Thus, at the age of seventy-six, after reigning forty-four
+years, he expired in the arms of<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg. 270]</a></span> Liv'ia, bidding her remember
+their marriage and their last farewell.<a name="FNanchor_4_163" id="FNanchor_4_163"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_163" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+16. The death of the emperor caused inexpressible grief throughout the
+whole empire. It was, by some, supposed that his wife Liv'ia had some
+hand in hastening it, with a view to procure the succession more
+speedily for her son. However this was, she took care, for a time, to
+keep the important event concealed, by guarding all the passages to
+the palace; sometimes giving out that he was recovered, and then
+pretending a relapse. At length, having settled the succession to her
+mind, she published the emperor's death; and at the same time, the
+adoption of Tibe'rius to the empire. 17. The emperor's funeral was
+performed with great magnificence. The senators being in their places,
+Tibe'rius, on whom that care devolved, pronounced a consolatory
+oration. After this his will was read, wherein he made Tibe'rius and
+Liv'ia his heirs. 18. He was studious of serving his country to the
+very last, and the sorrow of the people seemed equal to his assiduity.
+It was decreed, that all the women should mourn for him a whole year.
+Temples were erected to him, divine honours were allowed him, and one
+Nume'rius At'ticus, a senator, willing to convert the adulation of the
+times to his own benefit, received a large sum of money for swearing
+that he saw him ascending into heaven; so that no doubt remained among
+the people concerning his divinity.</p>
+<p>
+19. Such were the honours paid to Augustus, whose power began in the
+slaughter, and terminated in the happiness of his subjects; so that it
+was said of him, "that it had been good for mankind if he had never
+been born, or if he had never died." 20. It is possible that the
+cruelties exercised in his triumvirate were suggested by his
+colleagues. In the case of C&aelig;sar's death, he might think that revenge
+was virtue. Certain it is, that severities were necessary to restore
+public tranquillity; for, until the Roman spirit should be eradicated,
+no monarchy could be secure. 21. He indulged his subjects in the
+appearance of a republic, while<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg. 271]</a></span> he made them really happy in the
+effects of a most absolute monarchy, administered with the most
+consummate prudence. In this last quality he seems to have excelled
+most monarchs; and indeed, could we separate Octavius from Augustus,
+he was one of the most faultless princes in history. 22. About this
+time our Saviour was born in Jude'a.<a name="FNanchor_5_164" id="FNanchor_5_164"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_164" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the general conduct of Augustus?</p>
+<p>
+2. Mention some instances of his moderation?</p>
+<p>
+3. What farther instance of his moderation is on record?</p>
+<p>
+4. How did he most decidedly show the alteration in his disposition?</p>
+<p>
+5. In what was he particularly remarkable?</p>
+<p>
+6. Was he happy in domestic life?</p>
+<p>
+7. What family had she, and what was the character of her son?</p>
+<p>
+8. Had he no other domestic trials?</p>
+<p>
+9. In what way was she punished?</p>
+<p>
+10. Was the reign of Augustus of considerable length?</p>
+<p>
+11. Did he associate Tiberius with him in the government?</p>
+<p>
+12. By what means did he lighten the burden of government?</p>
+<p>
+13. By what measure did he prepare for his approaching end?</p>
+<p>
+14. What omen portended his death?</p>
+<p>
+15. How did he meet his end?</p>
+<p>
+16. How were the people affected by his death, and why was it for a
+time concealed?</p>
+<p>
+17. How was his funeral celebrated?</p>
+<p>
+18. What honours were decreed him?</p>
+<p>
+19. Were those honours deserved?</p>
+<p>
+20. What excuses may be made for his early cruelties?</p>
+<p>
+21. By what means did he secure his power?</p>
+<p>
+22. What remarkable event happened in his reign?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION III.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">                        Thy acts,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Thy fame, Germanicus, will long outlive</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The venomed shafts of envy; and the praise</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Of patriot tongues shall follow thee in death.&mdash;<i>Clarke.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 762.<br />A.D. 10.</div>
+
+<p>
+1. Tibe'rius was fifty-six years old when he took upon him the
+government of the Roman empire. He had lived in a state of profound
+dissimulation under Augustus, and was not yet hardy enough to show
+himself in his real character. In the beginning of his reign nothing
+appeared but prudence, generosity, and<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg. 272]</a></span> clemency.<a name="FNanchor_6_165" id="FNanchor_6_165"></a><a href="#Fnote_6_165" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> 2. But the
+successes of his nephew, German'icus, son of his late brother Dru'sus,
+over the Germans, first brought his natural disposition to light, and
+discovered the malignity of his mind without disguise. 3. He was
+hardly settled on his throne, when he received intelligence that the
+legions in Panno'nia, hearing of the death of Augustus, and desirous
+of novelty, had revolted; but these were soon quieted, and
+Percen'nius, their leader, slain. 4. A commotion in Germany was
+attended with much more important consequences. The legions in that
+part of the empire were conducted by German'icus, a youth of most
+admirable qualities, who had been at the late emperor's request,
+adopted, in order to succeed to the empire. These forces had taken the
+opportunity of his absence to revolt, and now began to affirm that the
+whole Roman empire was in their power, and that its principal grandeur
+was owing to the success of their arms; when German'icus returned,
+therefore, they unanimously resolved to choose him emperor. 5. This
+general was the darling of the soldiers, and almost idolized, so that
+he might, with very little difficulty, have raised himself to the
+highest dignity in the state; but his duty prevailed over his
+ambition; he rejected their offers with the utmost indignation, and
+used the most indefatigable endeavours to quell the sedition. This he
+effected, though with extreme hazard, by cutting off many of the
+principal revolters, and then by leading the troops against the
+Germans, who were considered as the common enemies of the empire.</p>
+<p>
+6. Tiberius was as much pleased with the loyalty of German'icus, as he
+was distressed at his superior popularity; his success, also,
+immediately after, against the Germans, still more excited the
+emperor's envy and private disgust. He overthrew the enemy in several
+battles, subduing many wild and extensive countries. 7. These
+victories, however, only served to inflame the emperor's jealousy: and
+every virtue in the general now became a new cause of offence. This
+dislike began to appear by Tiberius's making use of every pretence to
+draw German'icus from the legions: but he was obliged to postpone his
+purpose on account of a domestic insurrection made in Italy by one
+Cle'mens, whom he put to death by a private execution in a secret
+apartment of the palace.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg. 273]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+9. Having thus got rid of his domestic enemy, he turned his thoughts
+to the most specious means of bringing home German'icus from the
+legions in Germany. He began by procuring him a triumph for his late
+victories, and when writing to him to return in order to enjoy those
+honours which the senate had decreed; adding, that he had reaped
+enough of glory in a country to which he had been sent nine times, and
+been each time victorious; concluding, that so great a number of
+triumphs was sufficient; and the most signal vengeance which could be
+inflicted on this turbulent people was to permit them to continue
+their intestine divisions. 10. German'icus was met on his return, many
+miles from the city, by a vast multitude, who received him with marks
+of adoration rather than respect. The gracefulness of his person; his
+triumphal chariot, in which were carried his five children; and the
+recovered standards of the army of Va'rus, threw the people into a
+phrenzy of joy and admiration.<a name="FNanchor_7_166" id="FNanchor_7_166"></a><a href="#Fnote_7_166" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+<p>
+11. German'icus was now appointed to a new dignity. He departed from
+Rome on an expedition to the east, carrying with him his wife
+Agrippi'na, and his children. 12. But Tibe'rius, to restrain his
+power, had sent Cne'ius Pi'so governor into Syr'ia. This Pi'so was a
+person of furious and headstrong temper, and, in every respect, fit to
+execute those fatal purposes for which he was designed. 13. His
+instructions were, to oppose German'icus upon every occasion, to
+excite hatred against him, and even to procure his death if an
+opportunity should offer. He accordingly took every opportunity of
+abusing German'icus; and taxed him with diminishing the Roman glory,
+by his peculiar protection of the Athe'nians. 14. German'icus
+disregarded his invectives, being more intent on executing the
+business of his commission, than on counteracting the private designs
+of Pi'so. 15. Piso, however, and his wife Planci'na, who is recorded
+as a woman of an implacable and cruel disposition, continued to defame
+him. German'icus opposed only patience and condescension to all their
+invectives, and, with that gentleness which was peculiar to him,
+repaid their resentments by courtesy. 16. He was not ignorant of their
+motives, and was father willing to evade than oppose their<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg. 274]</a></span>
+enmity. He, therefore, took a voyage into Egypt, under pretence of
+viewing the celebrated antiquities of that country; but, in reality,
+to avoid the machinations of Pi'so, and those of his wife, which were
+still more dangerous. 17. Upon his return he fell sick, and, whether
+from a mind previously alarmed, or from more apparent marks of
+treachery, he sent to let Pi'so know, that he broke off all further
+connections. Growing daily worse, his death appeared to be inevitable.
+18. Finding his end approaching, he addressed his friends, who stood
+around his bed, to the following effect: "Had my death been natural, I
+might have reason to complain of being thus snatched away from all the
+endearments of life, at so early an age; but my complaints are
+aggravated, in falling the victim of Pi'so's and Planci'na's
+treachery. Let the emperor, therefore, I conjure you, know the manner
+of my death, and the tortures I suffer. Those who loved me when
+living&mdash;those who even envied my fortune&mdash;will feel some regret, when
+they hear of a soldier, who had so often escaped the rage of the
+enemy, falling a sacrifice to the treachery of a woman. Plead then my
+cause before the people&mdash;you will be heard with pity&mdash;and if my
+murderers should pretend to have acted by command, they will either
+receive no credit or no pardon." 19. As he spoke these words, he
+stretched forth his hand, which his weeping friends tenderly pressing,
+most earnestly vowed that they would lose their lives rather than
+their revenge. The dying prince, then turning to his wife, conjured
+her, by her regard to his memory, and by all the bonds of nuptial
+love, to submit to the necessity of the times, and to evade the
+resentment of her more powerful enemies by not opposing it.<a name="FNanchor_8_167" id="FNanchor_8_167"></a><a href="#Fnote_8_167" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> 20.
+Nothing could exceed the distress of the whole empire, upon hearing of
+the death of German'icus, and the people of Rome seemed to set no
+bounds to it. 21. In this universal confusion, Pi'so seemed marked for
+destruction. He and his wife stood charged with the death of
+German'icus, by giving him a slow poison. Indeed, even the emperor
+himself, with his mother Liv'ia, incurred a share of the general
+suspicion. 22. This was soon after greatly increased by the arrival of
+Agrippi'na, the widow of German'icus, a woman of invincible courage,
+and in<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg. 275]</a></span> high esteem for her virtue. She appeared bearing the urn
+containing the ashes of her husband, and, attended by all her
+children, went to the tomb of Augustus. 23. When she approached the
+city, she was met by the senate and people of Rome, both with
+acclamations and expressions of sorrow. The veteran soldiers, who had
+served under German'icus, gave the sincerest testimonies of their
+concern. The multitude, while the ashes were depositing, regarded the
+ceremony in profound silence; but presently broke out into loud
+lamentations, crying out, The commonwealth is now no more.</p>
+<p>
+24. Tibe'rius permitted the accusation of Pi'so, though he was justly
+supposed to be merely the instrument of his own vengeance. This
+general was accused before the senate of the death of German'icus, and
+of other crimes.</p>
+<p>
+25. He put an end to his trial, which had been drawn out to a great
+length, by committing suicide.<a name="FNanchor_9_168" id="FNanchor_9_168"></a><a href="#Fnote_9_168" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> His wife Planci'na, who was
+universally believed to be most culpable, escaped punishment by the
+interest of Liv'ia.</p>
+<p>
+26. Tibe'rius, having now no object of jealousy to keep him in awe,
+began to pull off the mask, and appear more in his natural character
+than before. 27. In the beginning of his cruelties, he took into his
+confidence Seja'nus, a Roman knight, who found out the method of
+gaining his affection by the most refined degree of dissimulation, and
+was an overmatch for his master in his own arts.<a name="FNanchor_10_169" id="FNanchor_10_169"></a><a href="#Fnote_10_169" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> It is not well
+known whether he was the adviser of all the cruelties that ensued; but
+certain it is, that from the beginning of his ministry, Tibe'rius
+seemed to become more fatally suspicious.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What were the age and character of Tiberius on his accession?</p>
+<p>
+2. What first showed him in his true colours?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg. 276]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+3. What was the first news he heard?</p>
+<p>
+4. Was there not a more formidable revolt?</p>
+<p>
+5. Did Germanicus accept this dignity?</p>
+<p>
+6. Did Tiberius properly appreciate this conduct?</p>
+<p>
+7. Was he pleased with his success?</p>
+<p>
+8. How did this appear?</p>
+<p>
+9. What followed this execution?</p>
+<p>
+10. How was Germanicus received?</p>
+<p>
+11. How was he next employed?</p>
+<p>
+12. What restraints were imposed on him?</p>
+<p>
+13. What were Piso's instructions, and how did he execute them?</p>
+<p>
+14. How did Germanicus act on the occasion?</p>
+<p>
+15. Did Piso persevere in his base attempts?</p>
+<p>
+16. Was Germanicus aware of their design?</p>
+<p>
+17. What happened on his return?</p>
+<p>
+18. Repeat his speech on his death-bed.</p>
+<p>
+19. What farther passed on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+20. Was his untimely end lamented?</p>
+<p>
+21. Who incurred the popular hatred on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+22. How was this increased?</p>
+<p>
+23. What honours were paid her?</p>
+<p>
+24. Was the tyrant's vile agent rewarded for his services?</p>
+<p>
+25. What was the issue?</p>
+<p>
+26. How did Tiberius conduct himself after this?</p>
+<p>
+27. Who was his prime minister?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION IV.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Some ask for envied power; which public hate</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Pursues, and hurries headlong to their fate;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Down go the titles; and the statue crowned,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Is by base hands in the next river drowned.&mdash;<i>Juvenal</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Seja'nus began his administration by using all his address to
+persuade Tiberius to retire to some agreeable retreat, remote from
+Rome; from this he expected many advantages, since there could be no
+access to the emperor but through him. 2. The emperor, either
+prevailed upon by his persuasions, or pursuing the natural turn of his
+temper, left Rome and went into Campa'nia, under pretence of
+dedicating temples to Ju'piter and Augustus. Growing weary, however,
+of places where mankind might follow him with their complaints and
+distresses, he withdrew himself into the delightful island of Ca'pre&aelig;;
+and buried in this retreat, gave himself up to abandoned pleasures,
+regardless of the miseries of his subjects. 3. From this time he
+became more cruel, and Seja'nus increased his distrusts. Secret spies
+and informers were placed in all parts of the city, who converted the
+most harmless actions into subjects of offence. 4. In consequence of
+this, Ne'ro and Dru'sus, the children of German'icus, were declared
+enemies to the state, and<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg. 277]</a></span> afterwards starved to death in prison;
+while Agrippi'na, their mother, was sent into banishment. Sabi'nus,
+Asin'ius, Gal'lus, and Syria'eus, were, upon slight pretences,
+condemned and executed. 5. In this manner Seja'nus proceeded, removing
+all who stood between him and the empire; and every day increasing his
+confidence with Tibe'rius, and his power with the senate. The number
+of his statues exceeded even those of the emperor; people swore by his
+fortune, in the same manner as they would have done had he been upon
+the throne; and he was more dreaded than even the tyrant who actually
+enjoyed the empire. 6. But the rapidity of his rise seemed only
+preparatory to the greatness of his downfall. All we know of his first
+disgrace with the emperor is, that Sati'rus Secun'dus was the man who
+had the boldness to accuse him of treason; and Anto'nia, the mother of
+German'icus, seconded the accusation. 7. The senate, who had long been
+jealous of his power, and dreaded his cruelty, immediately took this
+opportunity of going beyond the orders of Tibe'rius; instead of
+sentencing him to imprisonment, they directed his execution.<a name="FNanchor_11_170" id="FNanchor_11_170"></a><a href="#Fnote_11_170" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> 8.
+Whilst he was conducting to his fate, the people loaded him with
+insult and execration; pursued him with sarcastic reproaches; and
+threw down his statues. He himself was strangled by the executioner.</p>
+<p>
+9. His death only lighted up the emperor's rage for farther
+executions. Planci'na, the wife of Pi'so, and others, were put to
+death for being attached to Seja'nus. He began to grow weary of single
+executions, and gave orders that all the accused should be put to
+death together, without further examination. The whole city was, in
+consequence, filled with slaughter and mourning. 10. When one
+Carnu'lius killed himself, to avoid the torture, "Ah!" cried
+Tibe'rius, "how has that man been able to escape me!" When a prisoner
+had earnestly entreated that he would not defer his death: "Know,"
+said the tyrant, "I am not sufficiently your friend to shorten your
+torments."<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg. 278]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+11. In this manner he lived, odious to the world, and troublesome to
+himself; an enemy to the lives of others, a tormentor of his own.<a name="FNanchor_12_171" id="FNanchor_12_171"></a><a href="#Fnote_12_171" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
+At length, in the 22d year of his reign, he began to feel the
+approaches of dissolution, and his appetite totally forsook him. 12.
+He now, therefore, found it was time to think of a successor, and
+fixed upon Calig'ula:<a name="FNanchor_13_172" id="FNanchor_13_172"></a><a href="#Fnote_13_172" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> willing, perhaps, by the enormity of
+Calig'ula's conduct, with which he was well acquainted, to lessen the
+obloquy of his own.</p>
+<p>
+13. Still, however, he seemed desirous to avoid his end; and strove,
+by change of place, to cut off the inquietude of his own reflections.
+He left his favourite island, and went upon the continent; and at
+last, fixed at the promontory of Mise'num.<a name="FNanchor_14_173" id="FNanchor_14_173"></a><a href="#Fnote_14_173" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> There he fell into
+faintings, which all believed to be fatal. 14. Calig'ula supposing him
+actually dead, caused himself to be acknowledged by the Pr&aelig;torian
+soldiers,<a name="FNanchor_15_174" id="FNanchor_15_174"></a><a href="#Fnote_15_174" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> and went forth from the emperor's apartment amidst the
+applauses of the multitude; when, all of a sudden, he was informed
+that the emperor was likely to recover. 15. This unexpected account
+filled the whole court with terror and alarm; every one who had before
+been earnestly testifying his joy, now reassumed his pretended sorrow,
+and forsook the new emperor, through a feigned solicitude for the fate
+of the old. 16, Calig'ula seemed thunderstruck; he preserved a gloomy
+silence, expecting nothing but death, instead of the empire at which
+he aspired. 17. Marco, however, who was hardened in crimes, ordered
+that the dying emperor should be despatched, by smothering him with
+pillows; or, as some will have it, by poison. Thus died Tibe'rius in
+the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg. 279]</a></span> seventy-eighth year of his age, after reigning twenty-two
+years.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 780.<br />A.D. 37.</div>
+
+<p>
+18. It was in the eighteenth year of this emperor's reign that Christ,
+(after having spent two years in the public ministry, instructing the
+multitude in the way of salvation,) was crucified; as if the universal
+depravity of mankind wanted no less a sacrifice than this to reclaim
+them. Pi'late sent to Tibe'rius an account of Christ's passion,
+resurrection, and miracles, and the emperor made a report of the whole
+to the senate, desiring that Christ might be accounted a god by the
+Romans. 19. But the senate, displeased that the proposal had not come
+first from themselves, refused to allow of his apotheosis; alleging an
+ancient law, which gave them the superintendence in all matters of
+religion. They even went so far as to command, by an edict, that all
+Christians should leave the city; but Tibe'rius, by another edict,
+threatened death to such as should accuse them; by which means they
+continued unmolested during the rest of his reign.</p>
+<p>
+20. The vices of Calig'ula were concealed under the appearance of
+virtue in the beginning of his reign. In less than eight months,
+however, every trace of moderation and clemency vanished; while
+furious passions, unexampled avarice, and capricious cruelty, reigned
+uncontrolled; and pride, impiety, lust, and avarice, appeared in all
+their native deformity.</p>
+<p>
+21. Calig'ula's pride first appeared in his assuming to himself the
+title of ruler; which was usually granted only to kings. He would also
+have taken the crown and diadem, had he not been advised, that he was
+already superior to all the monarchs of the world. 22. Not long after
+he assumed divine honours, and gave himself the names of such
+divinities as he thought most agreeable to his nature. For this
+purpose he caused the heads of the statues of Jupiter, and some other
+gods, to be struck off, and his own to be put in their places. He
+frequently seated himself between Castor and Pollux, and ordered that
+all who came to this temple to worship should pay their adorations
+only to himself. 23. However, such was the extravagant inconsistency
+of this unaccountable idiot, that he changed his divinity as often as
+he changed his clothes; being at one time a male deity, at another a
+female; sometimes Jupiter or Mars; and not unfrequently Venus or
+Diana. 24. He even built and dedicated a temple to his own divinity,
+in which his statue of gold was every day dressed in robes similar to
+those which<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg. 280]</a></span> he himself wore, and worshipped by crowds of adorers.
+His priests were numerous; the sacrifices made to him were of the most
+exquisite delicacies that could be procured; and the dignity of the
+priesthood was sought by the most opulent men of the city. However, he
+admitted his wife and his horse to that honour; and to give a
+finishing stroke to his absurdities, became a priest to himself. 25.
+His method of assuming the manners of a deity was not less ridiculous;
+he often went out at full moon, and courted it in the style of a
+lover. He employed many inventions to imitate thunder, and would
+frequently defy Jupiter, crying out with a speech of Homer, "Do you
+conquer me, or I will conquer you." He frequently pretended to
+converse in whispers with the statue of Jupiter, and usually seemed
+angry at its replies, threatening to send it back into Greece, whence
+it came. Sometimes, however, he would assume a better temper, and seem
+contented that Jupiter and he should dwell together in amity.</p>
+<p>
+26. Of all his vices, prodigality was the most remarkable, and that
+which in some measure gave rise to the rest. The luxuries of former
+emperors were simplicity itself when compared to those which he
+practised. He contrived new ways of bathing, when the richest oils and
+most precious perfumes were lavished with the utmost profusion. His
+luxuries of the table were of immense value, and even jewels, as we
+are told, were dissolved in his sauces. He sometimes had services of
+pure gold presented before his guests, instead of meat, observing that
+a man should be an economist or an emperor.</p>
+<p>
+27. The manner in which he maintained his horse will give some idea of
+his domestic extravagance. He built a stable of marble, and a manger
+of ivory; and whenever the animal, which he called Incita'tus, was to
+run in the race, he placed sentinels near its stable, the night
+preceding, to prevent its slumbers from being broken.<a name="FNanchor_16_175" id="FNanchor_16_175"></a><a href="#Fnote_16_175" class="fnanchor">[16]</a><span class="newpage"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg. 281]</a></span></p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the first measure of Sejanus?</p>
+<p>
+2. Did the emperor yield to his persuasions?</p>
+<p>
+3. What consequences ensued from this measure?</p>
+<p>
+4. Who were the first sufferers?</p>
+<p>
+5. Did Sejanus increase his influence?</p>
+<p>
+6. Was this elevation permanent?</p>
+<p>
+7. To what punishment was he condemned?</p>
+<p>
+8. What occurred at his execution?</p>
+<p>
+9. Was this the only victim to the cruelty of Tiberius?</p>
+<p>
+10. How did Tiberius aggravate his cruelties?</p>
+<p>
+11. Did these cruelties long continue?</p>
+<p>
+12. How did he act on this?</p>
+<p>
+13. Was he resigned to his fate?</p>
+<p>
+14. What followed on this?</p>
+<p>
+15. How was this news received?</p>
+<p>
+16. Did Caligula boldly meet the consequences?</p>
+<p>
+17. How was this averted?</p>
+<p>
+18. What highly remarkable event happened in this reign?</p>
+<p>
+19. Was his desire gratified?</p>
+<p>
+20. What was the conduct of Caligula on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+21. By what acts did he display his pride?</p>
+<p>
+22. Did his arrogance carry him farther than this?</p>
+<p>
+23. Under what name did he assume divine honours?</p>
+<p>
+24. Of what farther absurdities was he guilty?</p>
+<p>
+25. Relate other follies of his?</p>
+<p>
+26. What was his principal vice?</p>
+<p>
+27. Give an instance of his domestic extravagance?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION V.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">For him no prayers are poured, no p&aelig;ans sung,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">No blessings chanted from a nation's tongue.&mdash;<i>Brereton.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The impiety, however, of Calig'ula was but subordinate to his
+cruelties. He slew many of the senate, and afterwards cited them to
+appear. He cast great numbers of old and infirm men to the wild
+beasts, to free the state from such unserviceable citizens. He usually
+fed his wild beasts with the bodies of those wretches whom he
+condemned; and every tenth day sent off numbers of them to be thus
+devoured, which he jocosely called clearing his accounts. One of those
+who was thus exposed, crying out that he was innocent,<a name="FNanchor_17_176" id="FNanchor_17_176"></a><a href="#Fnote_17_176" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Calig'ula
+ordered him to be taken up, his tongue<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg. 282]</a></span> to be cut out, and then
+thrown into the amphitheatre as before. 2. He took delight in killing
+men with slow tortures, that, as he expressed it, they might feel
+themselves dying, being always present at such executions himself,
+directing the duration of the punishment, and mitigating the tortures
+merely to prolong them. 3. In fact, he valued himself for no quality
+more than his unrelenting temper, and inflexible severity, when he
+presided at an execution. 4. Upon one occasion, being incensed with
+the citizens, he wished that the Roman people had but one neck, that
+he might dispatch them at one blow.</p>
+<p>
+5. Such insupportable and capricious cruelties produced many secret
+conspiracies against him; but they were for a while deferred upon
+account of his intended expedition against the Germans and Britons.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 793.<br />A.D. 41</div>
+
+<p>
+6. For this purpose he caused numerous levies to be made, and talked
+with so much resolution, that it was universally believed he would
+conquer all before him. 7. His march perfectly indicated the
+inequality of his temper; sometimes it was so rapid that the cohorts
+were obliged to leave their standards behind them; at other times it
+was so slow, that it more resembled a pompous procession than a
+military expedition. 8. In this disposition he would cause himself to
+be carried on a litter, on eight men's shoulders, and ordered all the
+neighbouring cities to have their streets well swept and watered, that
+he might not be annoyed with dust. 9 However, all these mighty
+preparations ended in nothing. Instead of conquering Britain, he
+merely gave refuge to one of its banished princes; and this he
+described, in his letter to the senate, as taking possession of the
+whole island. 10. Instead of conquering Germany, he only led his army
+to the seashore in Gaul: there, disposing his engines and warlike
+machines with great solemnity, and drawing up his men in order of
+battle, he went on board his galley, with which coasting along, he
+commanded his trumpets to sound, and the signal to be given as if for
+an engagement. 11. His men, who had previous orders, immediately fell
+to gathering the shells that lay upon the shore into their helmets, as
+their spoils of the conquered ocean, worthy of the palace and the
+capitol. 12. After this doughty expedition, calling his army together,
+like a general after victory, he harangued them in a pompous manner,
+and highly extolled their achievements; then, distributing money among
+them, and congratulating them upon their riches, he dismissed them,
+with orders to<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg. 283]</a></span> be joyful: and, that such exploits should not pass
+without a memorial, he ordered a lofty tower to be erected by the
+seaside.<a name="FNanchor_18_177" id="FNanchor_18_177"></a><a href="#Fnote_18_177" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+<p>
+13. Cassius Cher'ea, a tribune of the Pr&aelig;torian bands, was the person
+who at last freed the world from this tyrant. Besides the motives
+which he had in common with other men, he had received repeated
+insults from Calig'ula, who took all occasions of turning him into
+ridicule, and impeaching him with cowardice, merely because he
+happened to have an effeminate voice. Whenever Cher'ea came to demand
+the watch-word from the emperor, according to custom, he always gave
+him either Venus, Adonis, or some such, implying softness and
+effeminacy.</p>
+<p>
+14. Cher'ea secretly imparted his design to several senators and
+knights, whom he knew to have received personal injuries from
+Calig'ula. While these were deliberating upon the most certain and
+speedy method of destroying the tyrant, an unexpected incident gave
+new strength to the conspiracy. 15. Pempe'dius, a senator of
+distinction, being accused before the emperor of having spoken of him
+with disrespect, the informer cited one Quintil'ia, an actress, to
+confirm the accusation. 16. Quintil'ia, however, was possessed of a
+degree of fortitude not frequently found even in the other sex. She
+denied the fact with obstinacy; and, being put to the torture, bore
+the severest tortures of the rack with unshaken constancy. 17. Indeed,
+so remarkable was her resolution, that though acquainted with all the
+particulars of the conspiracy, and although Cher'ea was the person
+appointed to preside at her torture, she revealed nothing; on the
+contrary, when she was led to the rack, she trod upon the toe of one
+of the conspirators, intimating at once her knowledge of their
+conspiracy, and her resolution not to divulge it. 18. Thus she
+suffered, until all her limbs were dislocated; and, in that deplorable
+state, was presented to the emperor, who ordered her a gratuity for
+what she had endured.</p>
+<p>
+19. Cher'ea could no longer contain his indignation, at being thus
+made the instrument of a tyrant's cruelty. After several deliberations
+of the conspirators, it was at last resolved to attack him during the
+Palatine games, which<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg. 284]</a></span> lasted four days,<a name="FNanchor_19_178" id="FNanchor_19_178"></a><a href="#Fnote_19_178" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> and to strike the
+blow when his guards should not have the opportunity to defend him.
+20. The first three days of the games passed. Cher'ea began to
+apprehend that deferring the completion of the conspiracy might be the
+means of divulging it; he even dreaded that the honour of killing the
+tyrant might fall to the lot of some other person bolder than himself.
+At last he resolved to defer the execution of his plot only to the day
+following, when Calig'ula should pass through a private gallery, to
+some baths near the palace.</p>
+<p>
+21. The last day of the games was more splendid than the rest; and
+Calig'ula seemed more sprightly and condescending than usual. He
+enjoyed the amusement of seeing the people scramble for the fruits and
+other rarities by his order thrown among them, being no way
+apprehensive of the plot formed for his destruction. 22. In the mean
+time the conspiracy began to transpire: and, had he any friends
+remaining, it could not have failed of being discovered. A senator who
+was present, asking one of his acquaintance if he had heard any thing
+new, and the other replying in the negative, said "you must know, that
+this day will be represented the death of a tyrant." The other
+immediately understood him, but desired him to be cautious. 23. The
+conspirators waited many hours with extreme anxiety; and Calig'ula
+seemed resolved to spend the whole day without any refreshment. So
+unexpected a delay exasperated Cher'ea; and, had he not been
+restrained, he would suddenly have perpetrated his design in the midst
+of all the people. 24. At that instant, while he was hesitating,
+Aspore'nus,<a name="FNanchor_20_179" id="FNanchor_20_179"></a><a href="#Fnote_20_179" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> one of the conspirators, persuaded Calig'ula to go to
+the bath, and take some slight refreshment, that he might the better
+enjoy the rest of the entertainment. 25. The emperor, rising up, the
+conspirators used every precaution to keep off the throng, and to
+surround him themselves, under pretence of great assiduity. Upon his
+entering a little vaulted gallery that led to the bath, Cher'ea struck
+him to the ground with his dagger, crying out, "Tyrant, think
+upon<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg. 285]</a></span> this." The other conspirators closed in upon him; and while
+the emperor was resisting, and crying out that he was not yet dead,
+they dispatched him with thirty wounds.</p>
+<p>
+26. Such was the merited death of Calig'ula, in the 29th year of his
+age, after a short reign of not four years. His character may be
+summed up in the words of Sen'eca; namely, "Nature seemed to have
+brought him forth, to show what mischief could be effected by the
+greatest vices supported by the greatest authority."</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Of what enormities was Caligula guilty?</p>
+<p>
+2. How did he heighten his cruelties?</p>
+<p>
+3. On what did he chiefly value himself?</p>
+<p>
+4. What monstrous wish did he express?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the consequence of such atrocities?</p>
+<p>
+6. What preparations did he make?</p>
+<p>
+7. How did his disposition display itself on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+8. How did he sometimes travel?</p>
+<p>
+9. What exploits did he perform?</p>
+<p>
+10. Did he not make a show of some great enterprise?</p>
+<p>
+11. How did it end?</p>
+<p>
+12. Of what farther follies was he guilty?</p>
+<p>
+13. By whom was he assassinated, and by what provocations was his fate
+hastened?</p>
+<p>
+14. Were others made privy to the design?</p>
+<p>
+15. Relate this incident.</p>
+<p>
+16. Did Quintilia confirm the accusation?</p>
+<p>
+17. What rendered this resolution more remarkable?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the result?</p>
+<p>
+19. Was the <i>crisis</i> much longer deferred?</p>
+<p>
+20. Was this resolution put in practice?</p>
+<p>
+21. Was Caligula at all apprehensive of what was in agitation?</p>
+<p>
+22. Was the secret inviolably kept?</p>
+<p>
+23. How was the design nearly frustrated?</p>
+<p>
+24. What induced Caligula to alter his intention?</p>
+<p>
+25. Relate the manner of his death.</p>
+<p>
+26. Repeat the summary of his character as given by Seneca.</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION VI.<br />
+
+U.C. 794.&mdash;A.D. 42.</h4>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">                           Old as I am,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And withered as you see these war-worn limbs,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Trust me, they shall support the mightiest load</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Injustice dares impose.&mdash;<i>Mason's Caractacus</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. As soon as the death of Calig'ula was made public it produced the
+greatest confusion. The conspirators, who only aimed at destroying a
+tyrant, without attending to the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg. 286]</a></span> appointment of a successor, had
+all sought safety by retiring to private places. 2. Some soldiers
+happening to wander about the palace, discovered Clau'dius,
+Calig'ula's uncle, lurking in a secret place where he had hid himself.
+Of this person, who had hitherto been despised for his imbecility,
+they resolved to make an emperor: and accordingly they carried him
+upon their shoulders to the camp, where they proclaimed him at a time
+when he expected nothing but death.</p>
+<p>
+3. Clau'dius was now fifty years old. The complicated diseases of his
+infancy had, in some measure, affected all the faculties of his mind
+as well as body, and he seemed, both in public and domestic life,
+incapable of conducting himself with propriety.<a name="FNanchor_21_180" id="FNanchor_21_180"></a><a href="#Fnote_21_180" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+<p>
+4. The commencement of his reign, however, as had been the case with
+all the bad emperors, gave the most promising hopes. It began by an
+act of oblivion for all former words and actions, and by disannulling
+all the cruel edicts of Calig'ula. 5. He showed himself more moderate
+than his predecessors with regard to titles and honours. He forbade
+all persons, under severe penalties, to sacrifice to him, as they had
+done to Calig'ula. He was assiduous in hearing and examining
+complaints; and frequently administered justice in person with great
+mildness. To his solicitude for the internal advantages of the state,
+he added that of a watchful guardianship over the provinces. He
+restored Jude'a to Her'od Agrip'pa,<a name="FNanchor_22_181" id="FNanchor_22_181"></a><a href="#Fnote_22_181" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> which Calig'ula had taken from
+Her'od Antipas, his uncle, the man who had put John the Baptist to
+death, and who was banished by order of the present emperor.<a name="FNanchor_23_182" id="FNanchor_23_182"></a><a href="#Fnote_23_182" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image25.jpg"
+alt="Triumph of Claudius."
+title="Triumph of Claudius." width="446" height="344" />
+</div>
+<p>
+6. He even undertook to gratify the people by foreign<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg. 287]</a></span> conquest.
+The Britons, who had for nearly a hundred years been left in quiet
+possession of their own island, began to seek the mediation of Rome,
+to quell their intestine commotions. 7. The principal man who desired
+to subject his native country to the Roman dominion, was one Ber'icus,
+who persuaded the emperor to make a descent upon the island,
+magnifying the advantages that would attend the conquest of it. 8. In
+pursuance of his advice, therefore, Plau'tius, the pr&aelig;tor, was ordered
+to go into Gaul, and make preparations for this great expedition. At
+first, indeed, his soldiers seemed backward to embark, declaring that
+they were unwilling to make war beyond the limits of the world; for so
+they judged Britain to be. However, they were at last persuaded to go,
+and the Britons were several times overthrown.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A.D. 46.</div>
+
+<p>
+9. These successes soon after induced Claud'ius to go into Britain in
+person, under pretence that the natives were still seditious, and had
+not delivered up some Roman fugitives, who had taken shelter among
+them. 10. However, this exhibition seemed rather calculated for show
+than service: the time he continued in Britain, which was in all but
+sixteen days, was more taken up in receiving homage than extending his
+conquests. 11. Great rejoicings were made upon his return to Rome: the
+senate decreed him a splendid triumph; triumphal arches were erected
+to his honour, and annual games instituted to commemorate his
+victories. 12. In the mean time the war was vigorously prosecuted by
+Plau'tius, and his lieutenant Vespasian, who,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg. 288]</a></span> according to
+Sueto'nius, fought thirty battles, and reduced a part of the island
+into the form of a Roman province.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A.D. 51</div>
+
+<p>
+13. However, this war broke out afresh under the government of
+Osto'rius, who succeeded Plau'tius. The Britons, either despising him
+for want of experience, or hoping to gain advantages over a person
+newly come to command, rose up in arms, and disclaimed the Roman
+power. 14. The Ice'ni, who inhabited Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and
+Huntingdonshire; the Can'gi, in Wiltshire and Somersetshire; and the
+Brigan'tes, in Yorkshire, &amp;c. made a powerful resistance, though they
+were at length overcome; but the Silu'res, or inhabitants of South
+Wales, under their king Carac'tacus, were the most formidable
+opponents the Roman generals had ever yet encountered. 15. This brave
+barbarian not only made a gallant defence, but often claimed a
+doubtful victory. He, with great conduct, removed the seat of war into
+the most inaccessible parts of the country, and for nine years kept
+the Romans in continued alarm.</p>
+<p>
+16. Upon the approach of Osto'rius, however, Carac'tacus, finding
+himself obliged to come to a decisive engagement, addressed his
+countrymen with calm resolution, telling them that this battle would
+either establish their liberty, or confirm their servitude; that they
+ought to remember the bravery of their ancestors, by whose valour they
+were delivered from taxes and tribute; and that this was the time to
+show themselves equal to their progenitors. 17. But nothing that
+undisciplined valour could perform availed against the conduct of the
+Roman legions. After an obstinate fight, the Britons were entirely
+routed: the wife and daughter of Carac'tacus were taken prisoners; and
+he himself, seeking refuge from Cartisman'dua, queen of the
+Brigan'tes, was treacherously delivered up to the conquerors. 18. When
+he was brought to Rome, nothing could exceed the curiosity of the
+people to behold a man who had, for so many years, braved the power of
+the empire. Carac'tacus testified no marks of base dejection. When he
+was led through the streets, and observed the splendor of every object
+around him&mdash;"Alas!" cried he, "how is it possible that people
+possessed of such magnificence at home, could think of envying
+Carac'tacus a humble cottage in Britain!" 19. When he was brought
+before the emperor, while the other prisoners sued for pity with the
+most abject lamentations, Carac'tacus stood before the tribunal with
+an intrepid air, and<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg. 289]</a></span> though he was willing to accept of pardon,
+was not mean enough to sue for it. "If," said he, "I had yielded
+immediately, and without opposing you, neither would my fortune have
+been remarkable, nor your glory memorable; you could not have been
+victorious, and I had been forgotten. If now, therefore, you spare my
+life, I shall continue a perpetual example of your clemency."
+Clau'dius generously pardoned him, and Osto'rius was decreed a
+triumph.</p>
+<p>
+20. In the beginning of his reign Clau'dius gave the highest hopes of
+a happy continuance; but he soon began to lessen his care for the
+public, and to commit to his favourites all the concerns of the
+empire. This prince, weak from his infancy, was little able, when
+called to govern, to act but under the direction of others. 21. One of
+his chief instructors was his wife Messa'lina: whose name is become a
+common appellation for women of abandoned character. By her was
+Clau'dius urged on to commit cruelties, which he considered only as
+wholesome severities; while her crimes became every day more
+notorious, and exceeded what had ever been in Rome. For her crimes and
+enormities, however, she, together with her accomplice Cai'us Sil'ius,
+suffered that death they both had so justly deserved.</p>
+<p>
+22. Clau'dius afterwards married Agrippi'na, the daughter of his
+brother German'icus, a woman of a cruel and ambitious spirit, whose
+only aim being to procure the succession of Nero, her son by a former
+marriage, she treated Claudius with such haughtiness, that he was
+heard to declare, when heated with wine, that it was his fate to smart
+under the disorders of his wives, and to be their executioner. 23.
+This expression sunk deep in her mind, and engaged all her faculties
+to prevent the blow; she therefore resolved not to defer a deed which
+she had meditated long before, which was to poison him. She for some
+time debated within herself in what quantity the poison should be
+administered, as she feared that too strong a dose would discover the
+treachery, while one too weak would fail of its effect. 24. At length
+she determined upon a poison of singular efficacy to destroy his
+intellects, and yet not suddenly to terminate his life; it was given
+among mushrooms, a dish the emperor was particularly fond of. 25.
+Shortly after he had eaten, he dropped down insensible; but this
+caused no alarm, as it was usual with him to eat till he had stupified
+his facilities, and been obliged to be carried from the table to his
+bed. 26. His constitution, however, seemed<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg. 290]</a></span> to overcome the
+effects of the potion; but Agrippi'na resolving to make sure of him,
+directed a wretch of a physician, her creature, to introduce a
+poisoned feather into his throat, under pretence of making him vomit,
+and thus to dispatch him, which had its intended effect. Thus died
+Clau'dius the First, the complicated diseases of whose infancy seemed
+to have affected and perverted all the faculties of his mind. He was
+succeeded by Nero, the son of Agrippi'na by her first husband. Nero
+had been adopted by Clau'dius.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What happened on the death of Caligula?</p>
+<p>
+2. Who was appointed his successor?</p>
+<p>
+3. What was the character of Claudius?</p>
+<p>
+4. How did he conduct himself?</p>
+<p>
+5. By what farther acts did he distinguish his accession?</p>
+<p>
+6. Did he adopt any warlike measure?</p>
+<p>
+7. By whom was he persuaded to interfere?</p>
+<p>
+8. Who was sent into that country, and what occurred in consequence?</p>
+<p>
+9. What resolution did Claudius form?</p>
+<p>
+10. Did he perform any memorable exploits?</p>
+<p>
+11. Was his return celebrated?</p>
+<p>
+12. Was the war in Britain now at an end?</p>
+<p>
+13. Did this finish the war?</p>
+<p>
+14. Who were the most formidable adversaries of the Romans?</p>
+<p>
+15. How did he distinguish himself?</p>
+<p>
+16. By what means did he strengthen the courage of his troops?</p>
+<p>
+17. Were his efforts successful?</p>
+<p>
+18. What happened on his arrival in Rome?</p>
+<p>
+19. What was his behaviour before the emperor?</p>
+<p>
+20. Did Claudius continue to govern well?</p>
+<p>
+21. Who was the chief instigator of his cruelties?</p>
+<p>
+22. Who was the second wife of Claudius, and what was her conduct
+towards him?</p>
+<p>
+23. What was the consequence of this unguarded expression?</p>
+<p>
+24. On what did she at length resolve?</p>
+<p>
+25. What effect did it produce?</p>
+<p>
+26. Did he recover? <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg. 291]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image26.jpg"
+alt="Rome set on fire, by order of Nero."
+title="Rome set on fire, by order of Nero." width="440" height="329" />
+</div>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION VII.<br />
+U.C. 793&mdash;A.D. 55.</h4>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">That so, obstructing those that quenched the fire,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">He might at once destroy rebellious Rome.&mdash;<i>Lee</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Nero, though but seventeen years old, began his reign with the
+general approbation of mankind. He appeared just, liberal, and humane.
+When a warrant for the execution of a criminal was brought to be
+signed, he would cry out with compassion, "Would to heaven that I had
+never learned to write!"</p>
+<p>
+2. But as he increased in years, his native disposition began to show
+itself. The execution of his mother Agrippi'na was the first alarming
+instance he gave of his cruelty. After attempting to get her drowned
+at sea, he ordered her to be put to death in her palace; and coming to
+gaze upon the dead body, was heard to say, that he had never thought
+his mother so handsome a woman.</p>
+<p>
+The manner of his attempt to drown her was extremely singular. He
+caused a vessel to be constructed that, by withdrawing some bolts,
+would separate in the open sea, and thus give her death the appearance
+of a shipwreck. Agrippi'na, naturally suspicious, at first refused to
+go on board; but, lulled into security by the artful blandishments of
+her son, she embarked. The attempt was made; but Agrippi'na was taken
+up by some fisher-boats, and conveyed to her own villa. The very great
+calmness of the sea prevented the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg. 292]</a></span> possibility of its being
+considered as an accident. Agrippi'na, however, dissembled her
+suspicions, and informed the emperor of her wonderful escape. Three
+years after the death of his mother, he murdered his tutor Burrhus,
+and also his wife Octavia, a young princess of admirable virtue and
+beauty that he might marry the infamous Popp&aelig;'a.</p>
+<p>
+3. The mounds of virtue being thus broken down, Nero gave a loose to
+appetites that were not only sordid, but inhuman. There was a sort of
+odd contrast in his disposition: for while he practised cruelties
+sufficient to make the mind shudder with horror, he was fond of those
+amusing arts which soften and refine the heart. He was particularly
+addicted, even from childhood, to music, and not totally ignorant of
+poetry; chariot-driving was his favourite pursuit; and all these he
+frequently exhibited in public.</p>
+<p>
+4. Happy had it been for mankind, had he confined himself to these;
+and contented with being contemptible, sought not to become formidable
+also. His cruelties exceeded all his other extravagancies. 5. A great
+part of the city of Rome was consumed by fire in his time, and to him
+most historians ascribe the conflagration. It is said that he stood
+upon a high tower, during the continuance of the flames, enjoying the
+sight, and singing, in a theatrical manner to his harp, verses upon
+the burning of Troy. Of the fourteen quarters into which Rome was
+divided, only four remained entire. None were permitted to lend
+assistance towards extinguishing the flames; and several persons were
+seen setting fire to the houses, alleging that they had orders for so
+doing. 6. However this be, the emperor used every art to throw the
+odium of so detestable an action from himself, and fix it upon the
+Christians, who were at that time gaining ground in Rome.</p>
+<p>
+7. Nothing could be more dreadful than the persecution raised against
+them upon this false accusation. Some were covered with the skins of
+wild beasts, and, in that disguise, devoured by the dogs; some were
+crucified, and others burnt alive. "When the day was not sufficient
+for their tortures, the flames in which, they perished," says
+Ta'citus, "served to illuminate the night:" while Nero, dressed in the
+habit of a charioteer, regaled himself with a view of their tortures
+from his gardens, and entertained the people at one time with their
+sufferings, at another with the games of the circus. 8. In this
+persecution St. Paul was beheaded, and St. Peter crucified, with his
+head downwards; a mode of death he chose, as being more dishonourable
+than that of his divine master.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg. 293]</a></span> Upon the ruins of the demolished
+city, Nero founded a palace, which he called his Golden House. It
+contained within its inclosure, artificial lakes, large wildernesses,
+spacious parks, gardens, orchards, vineyards, &amp;c. &amp;c. The entrance of
+the stately edifice was sufficiently lofty to admit a colossal statue
+of Nero, 120 feet high. The galleries, erected on three rows of tall
+pillars, were each a mile in length. The palace itself was tiled with
+gold (probably gilding), the walls covered with the same metal, and
+richly adorned with precious stones and mother-of-pearl: and the
+ceiling of one of the banqueting rooms represented the firmament beset
+with, stars, turning about incessantly night and day, and showering
+sweet waters on the guests.</p>
+<p>
+9. A conspiracy formed against Nero, by Piso, a man of great power and
+integrity, which was prematurely discovered, opened a train of
+suspicions that destroyed many of the principal families in Rome. 10.
+The two most remarkable personages who fell on this occasion, were
+Sen'eca, the philosopher, and Lucan the poet, his nephew.</p>
+<p>
+Epicha'ris, a woman of infamous character, who by some means was
+implicated in the conspiracy, deserves to be mentioned as an instance
+of female fortitude. She was condemned to the torture, but the united
+force of racks, stripes and fire, could not extort a word from her.
+The next day she was conducted in a chair to be tortured afresh, (for
+her limbs were so mangled and disjointed, that she could not stand,)
+she hung herself with her girdle to the top of the chair, voluntarily
+suspending the whole weight of her body to the noose: thus a woman
+once a slave, cheerfully endured the most exquisite torture, and even
+death, to save persons she scarcely knew, and from whom she had never
+received any favours.</p>
+<p>
+Nero, either having real testimony, or else hating him for his
+virtues, sent a tribune to Sen'eca<a name="FNanchor_24_183" id="FNanchor_24_183"></a><a href="#Fnote_24_183" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>, informing him that he was
+suspected as an accomplice. The tribune found the philosopher at table
+with Pauli'na, his wife; and informing him of his business, Sen'eca
+replied without emotion, that his welfare depended upon no man; that
+he had never been<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg. 294]</a></span>accustomed to indulge the errors of the emperor,
+and would not do it now. 11. When this answer was brought to Nero, he
+demanded whether Sen'eca seemed afraid to die; the tribune replying
+that he did not appear in the least terrified; "Then go to him again,"
+cried the emperor, "and give him my orders to die." Accordingly he
+sent a centurion to Sen'eca, signifying that it was the emperor's plea
+sure that he should die. Sen'eca seemed no way discomposed, but
+displayed the fortitude of conscious integrity. He endeavoured to
+console his wife, and exhorted her to a life of persevering virtue.
+12. She seemed resolved, however, not to survive him, and pressed her
+request to die with him so earnestly, that Sen'eca, who had long
+looked upon death as a benefit, at last gave his consent; and the
+veins of both their arms were opened at the same time. 13. As Sen'eca
+was old, and much enfeebled by the austerities of his life, the blood
+flowed but slowly; so that he caused the veins of his legs and thighs
+to be opened also. His pains were long and violent, but they were not
+capable of repressing his fortitude or his eloquence. He dictated a
+discourse to two secretaries, which was read with great avidity after
+his death, but which has since perished in the lapse of time. 14. His
+agonies being now drawn out to a great length, he at last demanded
+poison from his physician; but this also failed of its effect, his
+body being already exhausted, and incapable of exciting its operation.
+He was from this carried into a warm bath, which only served to
+prolong his sufferings; at length, therefore, he was put in a stove,
+the vapour of which quickly dispatched him. 15. In the mean time his
+wife, Pauli'na, having fallen into a swoon with the loss of blood, had
+her arms bound up by her domestics, and by this means survived her
+husband for some years; but by her conduct during the rest of her
+life, she seemed never to forget her affection and his example.</p>
+<p>
+16. The death of Lucan was not less remarkable. After he had lost a
+great quantity of blood from the veins of his arms, perceiving his
+hands and legs already dead, while the vital parts still continued
+warm and vigorous, he called to mind the description of his own poem
+of the Pharsa'lia, of a person dying in similar circumstances, and
+expired while he was repeating the passage.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 817.<br />A.D. 66.</div>
+
+<p>
+17. The death of C. Petro'nius, about this time, is too remarkable to
+be passed over in silence. This person, whom some historians suppose
+to be <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg. 295]</a></span>the author of the piece entitled T. Petro'nii Arbi'tri
+Saty'ricon, was an Epicu'rean, both in principle and practice. In a
+court like that of Nero, he was esteemed for his refinements in
+luxury, and became the emperor's tutor in this exquisite art. 18.
+Accused of being privy to Piso's conspiracy, he was committed to
+prison. Petro'nius, who could not endure the anxiety of suspense,
+resolved upon putting himself to death, by causing his veins to be
+opened. 19. In the mean time, he conversed with his friends, not upon
+maxims of philosophy, or grave subjects, but upon such topics as had
+amused his gayest revels. He listened while they recited the lightest
+poems; and by no action, no word, no circumstance, showed the
+perplexity of a dying person. 20. Shortly after him, Numi'cius
+Thermus, Bare'a Sora'nus, and Pe'tus Thra'sea, were put to death. The
+valiant Cor'bulo, who had gained Nero so many victories over the
+Parthians, followed next. Nor did the empress Popp&aelig;'a herself escape.
+21. At length human nature grew weary of bearing her persecutor; and
+the whole world seemed to rouse, as if by common consent, to rid the
+earth of a monster.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was Nero's conduct at the commencement of his reign?</p>
+<p>
+2. Did this disposition continue?</p>
+<p>
+3. What was there peculiar in his disposition?</p>
+<p>
+4. Were these his greatest faults?</p>
+<p>
+5. Of what heinous crime is he accused?</p>
+<p>
+6. On whom was the odium of this barbarous action cast?</p>
+<p>
+7. What was the consequence to these unhappy men?</p>
+<p>
+8. What eminent persons suffered on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+9. Did not these cruelties give birth to conspiracies?</p>
+<p>
+10. What persons of note suffered in consequence?</p>
+<p>
+11. Did this defence save his life?</p>
+<p>
+12. Were his exhortations effectual?</p>
+<p>
+13. Relate the circumstances of Seneca's death?</p>
+<p>
+14. Were not other means resorted to?</p>
+<p>
+15. Did not Paulina survive him?</p>
+<p>
+16. Describe the death of Lucan.</p>
+<p>
+17. What other victim of Nero's cruelty deserves mention?</p>
+<p>
+18. What brought him into danger?</p>
+<p>
+19. How did he meet death?</p>
+<p>
+20. Were not other illustrious persons sacrificed?</p>
+<p>
+21. Were these cruelties committed with impunity?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg. 296]</a></span></p>
+
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION VIII.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">O breath of public praise,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Short-lived and vain; oft gained without desert,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">As often lost unmerited: composed</span><br />
+<span class="i2">But of extremes&mdash;<i>Havard.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Ser'vius Galba, at that time governor of Spain, was remarkable for
+his wisdom in peace, and his courage in war; but as a display of
+talents under corrupt princes is dangerous, he, for some years, had
+seemed to court obscurity and an inactive life. 2. Willing, however,
+to rid his country of the monster that now occupied the throne, he
+accepted the invitation of Vindex, to march with an army towards Rome.
+3. From the moment he declared against Nero, the tyrant considered
+himself as fallen. He received the account as he was at supper, and
+instantly struck with terror, overturned the table with his foot,
+breaking two crystal vases of immense value. He fell into a swoon, and
+on his recovery tore his clothes and struck his head, crying out,
+"that he was utterly undone." 4. He now called for the assistance of
+Locus'ta, a woman famous in the art of poisoning, to furnish him with
+the means of death; but being prevented in this, and the revolt
+becoming general, he went in person from house to house; but the doors
+were shut against him. Being reduced to a state of desperation, he
+desired that one of his favourite gladiators might dispatch him; but
+even in this request not one would obey. "Alas," cried he, "have I
+neither friend nor enemy?" then running desperately forth, he seemed
+resolved to plunge headlong into the Ti'ber. 5. But his courage failed
+him; he made a sudden stop, as if willing to re-collect his reason,
+and asked for some sacred place where he might reassume his courage,
+and meet death with becoming fortitude. 6. In this distress, Pha'on,
+one of his freedmen, offered him his country-house, about four miles
+distant, where he might for some time remain concealed. Nero accepted
+the offer; and, with his head covered, hiding his face with his
+handkerchief, he mounted on horseback, attended by four of his
+domestics, of whom the wretched Sporus was one. 7. His journey, though
+short, was crowded with adventures. An earthquake gave him the first
+alarm. The lightning from heaven next flashed in his face. Round him
+he heard nothing but confused noises from the camp, the cries of the
+soldiers imprecating a thousand evils upon his head. 8. A traveller,
+meeting him on the way, cried, "Those men are in pursuit of Nero."
+Another asked him if there was any news of Nero in the city. His horse
+taking fright at a dead body that lay near the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg. 297]</a></span> road, he dropped
+his handkerchief, when a soldier addressing him by name, he quitted
+his horse, and forsaking the highway, entered a thicket that led
+towards the back part of Pha'ron's house, making the best of his way
+among the reeds and brambles with which the place was overgrown. 9.
+During this interval, the senate, finding the Pr&aelig;to'rian guards had
+taken part with Galba, declared him emperor, and condemned Nero to
+die, <i>mo're majo'rum;</i> that is, according to the rigour of the ancient
+laws. 10. When he was told of the resolution of the senate, he asked
+what was meant by being punished according to the rigour of the
+ancient laws? To this it was answered, that the criminal was to be
+stripped naked, his head fixed in a pillory, and in that posture he
+was to be scourged to death. 11. Nero was so terrified at this, that
+he seized two poniards, which he had brought with him: after examining
+their points, he returned them, however, to their sheaths, pretending
+that the fatal moment was not yet arrived. 12. He then desired Sporus
+to begin the lamentations which were used at funerals; he next
+entreated that one of his attendants would die, to give him courage by
+his example, and afterwards began to reproach his own cowardice,
+crying out, "Does this become Nero? Is this trifling well-timed?
+No!&mdash;let me be courageous!" In fact, he had no time to spare; for the
+soldiers who had been sent in pursuit of him, were just then
+approaching the house. 13. Upon hearing, therefore, the sound of the
+horses' feet, he set a dagger to his throat, with which, by the
+assistance of Epaphrod'itus, his freedman and secretary, he gave
+himself a mortal wound. 14. However, he was not yet dead when one of
+the centurions, entering the room and pretending that he came to his
+relief, attempted to stop the blood with his cloak. But Nero,
+regarding him with a stern countenance, said, "It is now too late! Is
+this your fidelity?" Upon which, with his eyes fixed and frightfully
+staring, he expired; exhibiting, even after death, a ghastly spectacle
+of innoxious tyranny. 15. He reigned thirteen years, seven months, and
+twenty-eight days, and died in the thirty-second year of his age.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 820.<br />A.D. 69.</div>
+
+<p>
+16. Galba was seventy-two years old when he was declared emperor, and
+was then in Spain with his legions. He soon found that his being
+raised to the throne was but an inlet to new disquietudes. 17. He
+seemed to have three objects in view: to curb the insolence of the
+soldiers; to punish those vices which had risen to an<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg. 298]</a></span> enormous
+height in the last reign; and to replenish the exchequer, which had
+been drained by the prodigality of his predecessors. 18. However,
+permitting himself to be governed by favourites, he at one time showed
+himself severe and frugal; at another remiss and prodigal; condemning
+some illustrious persons without any hearing, and pardoning others,
+though guilty. In consequence of this, seditions were kindled, and
+factions promoted. 19. Galba was sensible that, besides his age, his
+want of an heir rendered him less respected: he resolved, therefore,
+to adopt a person whose virtues might deserve such advancement, and
+protect his declining age from danger; but his favourites wished to
+give him an heir of their own choosing; so that there arose a great
+contention among them upon this occasion. 20. Otho made earnest
+application for himself, alleging the great services he had done the
+emperor, as being the first man of note who came to his assistance
+when he declared against Nero. 21. However, Galba, being fully
+resolved to consult the public good alone, rejected his suit; and, on
+a day appointed, ordered Piso Lucia'nus to attend him. The character
+given by historians of Piso is, that he was every way worthy of the
+honour designed him. 22. Taking this youth by the hand, Galba adopted
+him to succeed in the empire, giving him the most wholesome lessons
+for guiding his future conduct. Piso showed that he was highly
+deserving this distinction, in all his deportment there appeared such
+modesty, firmness, and equality of mind as bespoke him rather capable
+of discharging than ambitious of obtaining his present dignity. 23.
+But the army and the senate did not seem equally disinterested upon
+this occasion; they had been so long used to bribery and corruption,
+that they could now bear no emperor who was not in a capacity of
+satisfying their avarice. The adoption, therefore, of Piso, was coldly
+received; for his virtues were no recommendation in a time of
+universal depravity. 24. Otho, who had long been a favourite of Galba,
+and hoped to be adopted a successor in the empire, finding himself
+disappointed, and stimulated by the immense load of debt which he had
+contracted by his riotous way of living, resolved upon obtaining the
+empire by force, since he could not do it by peaceable succession.
+Having corrupted the fidelity of the army, he stole secretly from the
+emperor while he was sacrificing, and, assembling the soldiers,
+he,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg. 299]</a></span> in a short speech, urged the cruelties and the avarice of
+Galba. 25. Finding his invectives received with universal shouts by
+the army, he entirely threw off the mask, and avowed his intention of
+dethroning him. The soldiers being ripe for sedition, immediately
+seconded his views, and taking Otho upon their shoulders, declared him
+emperor; and to strike the citizens with terror, carried him, with
+their swords drawn, into the camp.</p>
+<p>
+26. Soon after, finding Galba in some measure deserted by his
+adherents, the soldiers rushed in upon him, trampling under foot the
+crowds of people that then filled the forum. 27. Galba seeing them
+approach, seemed to recollect all his former fortitude; and bending
+his head forward, bid the assassins strike it off, if it were for the
+good of the people. 28. The command was quickly obeyed. The soldier
+who struck it off stuck it upon the point of a lance, and
+contemptuously carried it round the camp; his body remaining unburied
+in the streets till it was interred by one of his slaves. His short
+reign of seven months was as illustrious by his own virtues as it was
+contaminated by the vices of his favourites, who shared in his
+downfall.</p>
+<p>
+29. Otho, who was now elected emperor, began his reign by a signal
+instance of clemency, in pardoning Marius Celsus, who had been highly
+favoured by Galba; and not content with barely forgiving, he advanced
+him to the highest honours, asserting that "fidelity deserved every
+reward."</p>
+<p>
+30. In the mean time, the legions in Lower Germany having been
+purchased by the large gifts and specious promises of Vitel'lius their
+general, were at length induced to proclaim him emperor; and,
+regardless of the senate, they declared that they had an equal right
+to appoint to that high station, with the cohorts at Rome.</p>
+<p>
+31. Otho departed from Rome with all haste to give Vitel'lius battle.
+The army of Vitel'lius, which consisted of seventy thousand men, was
+commanded by his generals Va'lens and Cecin'na, he himself remaining
+in Gaul, in order to bring up the rest of his forces. Both sides
+hastened to meet each other with so much animosity and precipitation,
+that three considerable battles were fought in the space of three
+days, in all of which Otho and the Romans had the advantage. 32. These
+successes, however, were but of short continuance, for Va'lens and
+Cecin'na, who had hitherto acted separately, joining their forces, and
+strengthening their armies with fresh supplies, resolved to come
+to<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg. 300]</a></span> a general engagement. Otho's forces were partially over thrown
+at Bedria'cum, a village near Cremo'na, in Lombardy, in Italy; and
+though he had still numerous armies at his devotion, he killed himself
+shortly after, having reigned three months and five days, and was
+succeeded by Vitel'lius.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the character of Sergius Galba?</p>
+<p>
+2. Did he at length emerge from his obscurity?</p>
+<p>
+3. Was he formidable to Nero?</p>
+<p>
+4. What was the conduct of Nero on this emergency?</p>
+<p>
+5. Did he actually do so?</p>
+<p>
+6. Was his request complied with?</p>
+<p>
+7. What befell him by the way?</p>
+<p>
+8. What farther happened?</p>
+<p>
+9. What occurred in the interval?</p>
+<p>
+10. How did Nero receive this intelligence?</p>
+<p>
+11. Did he resolve to await this terrible punishment?</p>
+<p>
+12. How did he contrive to put off the fatal moment?</p>
+<p>
+13. What at length put an end to this irresolution?</p>
+<p>
+14. Was he dead when the soldiers arrived?</p>
+<p>
+15. How long did he reign?</p>
+<p>
+16. What was the age of Galba on his accession?</p>
+<p>
+17. What were his principal views?</p>
+<p>
+18. Was his conduct regular and consistent?</p>
+<p>
+19. What important measure did he adopt?</p>
+<p>
+20. Who was the chief candidate on the occasion?</p>
+<p>
+21. Was he chosen?</p>
+<p>
+22. Was Piso the chosen successor, and what was his character?</p>
+<p>
+23. Was this adoption generally approved?</p>
+<p>
+24. Did not Otho attempt to set him aside?</p>
+<p>
+25. Was he favourably received?</p>
+<p>
+26. Did Galba suppress this rebellion?</p>
+<p>
+27. What was his behaviour on the occasion?</p>
+<p>
+28. Was this command obeyed, and what treatment did Galba experience?</p>
+<p>
+29. How did Otho commence his reign?</p>
+<p>
+30. Did he reign without a rival?</p>
+<p>
+31. What was the consequence of this rivalship?</p>
+<p>
+32. Was Otho finally successful? <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg. 301]</a></span></p>
+
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION IX.<br />
+A.D. 70.</h4>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Afflicted Israel shall sit weeping down,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Fast by the stream where Babel's waters run;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Their harps upon the neighbouring willows hung.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Nor joyous hymn encouraging their tongue.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Nor cheerful dance their feet; with toil oppressed,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Their wearied limbs aspiring but to rest.&mdash;<i>Prior.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Vitel'lius was declared emperor by the senate, and received the
+marks of distinction which were now accustomed to follow the
+appointments of the strongest side.</p>
+<p>
+2. He had been accustomed from his youth to dissipation and applause.
+Caligula was pleased with his skill in driving a chariot; Claudius
+loved him because he was a great gamester; and he gained the favour of
+Nero by wishing him to sing publicly in the theatre. Upon his arrival
+at Rome, he entered the city, not as a place he came to govern with
+justice, but as a town that was become his own by the laws of
+conquest.</p>
+<p>
+3. Vitel'lius soon gave himself up to all kinds of luxury and
+profuseness; but gluttony was his favourite vice. His entertainments,
+seldom indeed at his own cost, were prodigiously expensive. He
+frequently invited himself to the tables of his subjects; in the same
+day breakfasting with one, dining with another, and supping with a
+third. 4. By such vices and by enormous cruelties, he became a burthen
+to himself, and odious to all mankind. Having become insupportable to
+the inhabitants of Rome, the legions of the east unanimously resolved
+to make Vespa'sian emperor.</p>
+<p>
+Vespa'sian was by no means of an illustrious family, his father being
+only a collector of the tax called quadragesima. Nor was his conduct,
+previous to his accession to the imperial throne, calculated to do him
+honour, as he was guilty of the meanest flattery and servility to
+ingratiate himself with men in power. Yet, as a general, he was
+indefatigable in his duties, and of unquestionable valour; abstemious
+in his diet, and plain in his dress. On attaining to the imperial
+dignity he appears to have laid aside every vice except avarice. His
+elevation neither induced him to assume arrogant and lofty airs, nor
+to neglect those friends who had shown<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg. 302]</a></span> themselves deserving of
+his favour.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image27.jpg"
+alt="Coliseum."
+title="Coliseum." width="423" height="245" />
+</div>
+<p>
+Desirous of convincing the world that he owed his good fortune to
+merit alone, he disdained to court the soldiers by largesses; in
+short, he displayed a nobleness of disposition worthy of the most
+illustrious birth, and befitting the exalted station to which he had
+arrived. This prince was the founder of the noble amphitheatre, called
+the Coliseum, which remains to this day. Twelve thousand Jewish
+captives were employed in its erection, and it was capable of
+containing 80,000 spectators seated, and 30,000 standing. It is now in
+ruins.</p>
+<p>
+5. During the preparations against him, Vitel'lius, though buried in
+sloth and luxury, resolved to make an effort to defend the empire; and
+his chief commanders, Va'lens and Cecin'na, were ordered to make all
+possible preparations to resist the invaders. 6. The first army that
+entered Italy with a hostile intention was under the command of
+Anto'nius Pri'mus, who was met by Cecin'na, near Cremo'na. A battle
+was expected to ensue; but a negociation taking place, Cecin'na was
+prevailed upon to change sides, and declared for Vespa'sian.<a name="FNanchor_25_184" id="FNanchor_25_184"></a><a href="#Fnote_25_184" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> His
+army, however, quickly repented of what they had done, and,
+imprisoning their general, attacked Anto'nius, though without a
+leader. 7. The engagement continued the whole night; and in the
+morning, after a short repast, both armies engaged a second time; when
+the soldiers of Anto'nius saluting the rising sun, according to
+custom, the Vitel'lians supposed that they had received new
+reinforcements, and betook themselves to flight, with the loss of
+thirty thousand men.</p>
+<p>
+8. In the mean time, Vitel'lius made offers to Vespa'sian of resigning
+the empire in his favour, provided his life were<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg. 303]</a></span> spared, and a
+sufficient revenue allotted for his support. In order to enforce this
+proposal, he issued from his palace in deep mourning, with all his
+domestics weeping round him. 9. He then went to offer the sword of
+justice to Cecil'ius, the consul, which he refusing, the abject
+emperor prepared to lay down the ensigns of empire in the Temple of
+Concord; but being interrupted by some who cried out, that he himself
+was Concord, he resolved, upon so weak an encouragement, still to
+maintain his power, and immediately prepared for his defence.</p>
+<p>
+10. During this fluctuation of counsels, one Sabi'nus, who had advised
+Vitel'lius to resign, perceiving his desperate situation, resolved, by
+a bold step, to favour Vespa'sian; and accordingly seized upon the
+capitol. But he was premature in his attempt; for the soldiers of
+Vitel'lius attacked him with great fury; and prevailing by their
+numbers, soon laid that beautiful building in ashes. 11. During this
+dreadful conflagration, Vitel'lius was feasting in the palace of
+Tibe'rius, and beheld all the horrors of the assault with
+satisfaction. 12. Sabi'nus was taken prisoner, and shortly after
+executed by the emperor's command. Young Domi'tian, his nephew, who
+was afterwards emperor, escaped by flight, in the habit of a priest;
+and the rest, who survived the fire, were put to the sword.</p>
+<p>
+13. But Anto'nius, Vespa'sian's commander, being arrived before the
+walls of the city, the forces of Vitel'lius resolved upon defending it
+to the utmost extremity. It was attacked with fury; while the army
+within, sallying out upon the besiegers, defended it with equal
+obstinacy. The battle lasted the whole day; the besieged were driven
+back into the city, and a dreadful slaughter made of them in the
+streets which they vainly attempted to defend.</p>
+<p>
+14. Vitel'lius was soon found hidden in an obscure corner, whence he
+was taken by a party of the conquering soldiers. Still, however,
+desirous of adding a few hours to his miserable life, he begged to be
+kept in prison till the arrival of Vespa'sian at Rome, pretending that
+he had secrets of importance to discover. 15. But his entreaties were
+vain; the soldiers binding his hands behind him, and throwing a halter
+round his neck, led him along, half naked, into the public forum,
+loading him with all the bitter reproaches their malice could suggest,
+or his cruelty might deserve. At length, being come to the place of
+punishment, they put him to death with blows: and then dragging the
+dead body<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg. 304]</a></span> through the streets with a hook, they threw it, with
+all possible ignominy, into the river Tiber.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A.D. 70.</div>
+
+<p>
+16. Vespa'sian was now declared emperor by the unanimous consent both
+of the senate and the army; and dignified with all those titles which
+now followed rather the power than the merit of those who were
+appointed to govern. 17. Having continued some months at Alexan'dria,
+in Egypt, where it is said he cured a blind man and a cripple by
+touching them, he set out for Rome. Giving his son, Ti'tus, the
+command of the army that was to lay siege to Jerusalem, he himself
+went forward, and was met many miles from Rome by all the senate, and
+the inhabitants, who gave the sincerest testimony of their joy, in
+having an emperor of such great and experienced virtue. 18. Nor did he
+in the least disappoint their expectations; as he showed himself
+equally assiduous in rewarding merit and pardoning his adversaries; in
+reforming the manners of the citizens, and setting them the best
+example in his own.</p>
+<p>
+19. In the mean time Titus carried on the war against the Jews with
+vigour. This obstinate and infatuated people had long resolved to
+resist the Roman power, vainly hoping to find protection from heaven,
+which their impieties had utterly offended. 20. Their own historian
+represents them as arrived at the highest pitch of iniquity; while
+famines, earthquakes, and prodigies, all conspired to forebode their
+approaching ruin. 21. Nor was it sufficient that heaven and earth
+seemed combined against them; they had the most bitter dissensions
+among themselves, and were divided into two parties, who robbed and
+destroyed each other with impunity: constantly pillaging, yet boasting
+their zeal for the religion of their ancestors.</p>
+<p>
+22. At the head of one of these parties was an incendiary, whose name
+was John. This fanatic affected sovereign power, and filled the whole
+city of Jeru'salem, and all the towns around, with tumult and pillage.
+In a short time a new faction arose, headed by one Si'mon, who,
+gathering together multitudes of robbers and murderers who had fled to
+the mountains, attacked many cities and towns, and reduced all Idume'a
+under his power. 23. Jeru'salem, at length, became the theatre in
+which these two demagogues exercised their mutual animosity: John was
+possessed of the temple, while Si'mon was admitted into the city; both
+equally enraged against each other; while slaughter and devastation
+were the consequence of their pretensions. Thus<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg. 305]</a></span> did a city
+formerly celebrated for peace and unity, become the seat of tumult and
+confusion.</p>
+<p>
+24. In this miserable situation, Ti'tus began his operations within
+six furlongs of Jeru'salem, during the feast of the passover, when the
+place was filled with an infinite multitude of people, who had come
+from all parts to celebrate that great solemnity. 25. The approach of
+the Romans produced a temporary reconciliation between the contending
+factions within the city; so that they unanimously resolved to oppose
+the common enemy, and decide their domestic quarrels at a more
+convenient season. 26. Their first sally, which was made with much
+fury and resolution, put the besiegers into great disorder, and
+obliged them to abandon their camp, and fly to the mountains; however,
+rallying immediately after, the Jews were forced back into the city,
+while Ti'tus, in person, showed surprising instances of valour and
+conduct.</p>
+<p>
+27. The city was strongly fortified with three walls on every side,
+except where it was fenced by precipices. Ti'tus began by battering
+down the outward wall, which, after much fatigue and danger, he
+effected; in the mean time showing the greatest clemency to the Jews,
+and offering them repeated assurances of pardon. Five days after the
+commencement of the siege, Ti'tus broke through the second wall; and
+though driven back by the besieged, he recovered his ground, and made
+preparations for battering the third wall, which was their last
+defence. 28. But first he sent Jose'phus, their countryman, into the
+city, to exhort them to yield; who using all his eloquence to persuade
+them, was answered only with scoffs and reproaches. 29. The siege was
+now therefore carried on with greater vigour than before; formidable
+engines for throwing darts and stones were constructed, and as quickly
+destroyed by the enemy. At length it was resolved in council to
+surround the whole city with a trench, and thus prevent all relief and
+all succours from abroad. 30. This, which was quickly executed, seemed
+no way to intimidate the Jews. Though famine, and pestilence its
+necessary attendant, began now to make the most horrid ravages among
+them, yet this desperate people still resolved to hold out. 31. Ti'tus
+now cut down all the woods within a considerable distance of the city;
+and causing more batteries to be raised, he at length beat down the
+wall, and in five days entered the citadel by force. 32. The Jews,
+however, continued to deceive themselves with<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg. 306]</a></span> absurd
+expectations, while many false prophets deluded the multitude, by
+declaring that they should soon have assistance from God. The heat of
+the battle was now gathered round the inner wall of the temple, while
+the defendants desperately combatted from the top. 33. Ti'tus was
+desirous of saving this beautiful structure; but a soldier casting a
+brand into some adjacent buildings, the fire communicated to the
+temple; and notwithstanding the utmost endeavours on both sides, the
+whole edifice was quickly consumed. 34. The sight of the temple in
+ruins effectually served to damp the ardour of the Jews. They now
+began to suppose that heaven had forsaken them, while their cries and
+lamentations echoed from the adjacent mountains. Even those who were
+almost expiring, lifted up their dying eyes to bewail the loss of
+their temple, which they valued more than life itself. 35. The most
+resolute, however, still endeavoured to defend the upper and stronger
+part of the city, named Sion; but Ti'tus, with his battering engines,
+soon made himself entire master of the place. 36. John and Simon were
+taken from the vaults where they had concealed themselves; the former
+was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and the latter reserved to
+grace the conqueror's triumph. The greatest part of the populace were
+put to the sword; and the city was, after a six month's siege,
+entirely razed, and its site ploughed up; so that according to our
+Saviour's prophecy, not one stone remained upon another. Those who
+perished in this siege amounted to about a million; the captives to
+almost a hundred thousand.<a name="FNanchor_26_185" id="FNanchor_26_185"></a><a href="#Fnote_26_185" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Who succeeded Otho?</p>
+<p>
+2. In what way did he assume the sovereignty?</p>
+<p>
+3. How did he conduct himself in his new station?</p>
+<p>
+4. What were the consequences of this conduct?</p>
+<p>
+5. Did Vitellius tamely submit to his rival?</p>
+<p>
+6. Who first commenced hostilities?</p>
+<p>
+7. What followed?</p>
+<p>
+8. What was the conduct of Vitellius on this occasion?</p>
+<p>
+9. What farther measures did he adopt?</p>
+<p>
+10. Were the friends of Vespasian idle at this juncture?</p>
+<p>
+11. How was Vitellius engaged at the time of this disaster?</p>
+<p>
+12. What became of Sabinus?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg. 307]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+13. What was the consequence of this success on the part of Vitellius?</p>
+<p>
+14. What became of the fallen emperor?</p>
+<p>
+15. Was his request granted?</p>
+<p>
+16. Did Vespasian quietly succeed?</p>
+<p>
+17. What were his first measures?</p>
+<p>
+18. Were they disappointed in their expectations?</p>
+<p>
+19. What was the state of the Jewish war?</p>
+<p>
+20. What was the state of the Jewish nation?</p>
+<p>
+21. Were they united among themselves?</p>
+<p>
+22. Who were at the head of these factions?</p>
+<p>
+23. What was the chief theatre of their enormities?</p>
+<p>
+24. At what remarkable season did Titus commence his attack?</p>
+<p>
+25. What effect did this attack produce?</p>
+<p>
+26. Did the Jews bravely defend their city?</p>
+<p>
+27. What progress did Titus make in the siege?</p>
+<p>
+28. Did he make no attempt to persuade the Jews to surrender?</p>
+<p>
+29. What measures were then adopted?</p>
+<p>
+30. Did these formidable measures terrify the Jews?</p>
+<p>
+31. By what means did Titus gain the city?</p>
+<p>
+32. Was all opposition now at an end?</p>
+<p>
+33. Was the temple destroyed?</p>
+<p>
+34. What effect did this sad event produce?</p>
+<p>
+35. Were there none who attempted farther resistance?</p>
+<p>
+36. What became of the inhabitants and their chiefs?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION X.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">This world, 'tis true.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Was made for C&aelig;sar&mdash;but for Titus too;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And which more blest? who chain'd his country, say,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Or, he whose virtue sigh'd to lose a day!&mdash;<i>Pope</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Upon the taking of Jerusalem, the soldiers would have crowned Titus
+as conqueror; but he modestly refused the honour, alleging, that he
+was only an instrument in the hand of heaven, that manifestly declared
+its wrath against the Jews. 2. At Rome, however, all men's mouths were
+filled with the praises of the conqueror, who had not only showed
+himself an excellent general, but a courageous combatant. His return,
+therefore, in triumph, with Vespa'sian his father, was marked with all
+the magnificence and joy in the power of men to express. All things
+that were esteemed valuable or beautiful were brought to adorn this
+great occasion. 3. Among the rich spoils were exposed vast quantities
+of gold, taken out of the temple; but the Book of the Holy Law was not
+the least remarkable among the magnificent profusion. 4. This was the
+first time that ever Rome saw the father and the son triumphant
+together. A triumphal arch was erected upon this occasion, on which
+were described the victories of Titus over the Jews; and it remains
+almost entire to this day.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg. 308]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+5. Few emperors have received a better character from historians than
+Vespasian; yet his numerous acts of generosity and magnificence could
+not preserve his character from the imputation of rapacity and
+avarice; for it is well known that he descended to some very unusual
+and dishonourable imposts.</p>
+<p>
+6. Having reigned ten years, beloved by his subjects, and deserving
+their affection, he was seized with an indisposition at Campa'nia,
+which he perceived would be fatal. 7. Finding his end approaching, he
+exerted himself, and cried out, "An emperor ought to die standing;"
+whereupon, raising himself upon his feet, he expired in the arms of
+those who sustained him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A.D. 79.</div>
+
+<p>
+8. Titus was joyfully received as emperor, and began his reign with
+the practice of every virtue that became a sovereign and a man. During
+the life of his father, there had been many imputations against him
+both for cruelty, lust, and prodigality; but upon his exaltation to
+the throne, he seemed to have entirely taken leave of his former
+vices, and became an example of the greatest moderation and humanity.
+9. His first step towards gaining the affections of his subjects, was
+the moderating of his passions, and bridling his inclinations. 10. He
+discarded those who had been the ministers of his pleasures, though he
+had formerly taken great pains in the selection. 11. This moderation,
+added to his justice and generosity, procured him the love of all good
+men, and the appellation of the <i>Delight of Mankind</i>; which all his
+actions seemed calculated to insure.</p>
+<p>
+12. Ti'tus took particular care to punish all informers, false
+witnesses, and promoters of dissension. Wretches who had their rise in
+the licentiousness and impunity of former reigns, were now become so
+numerous, that their crimes called loud for punishment. 13. Of these
+he daily made public example, condemning them to be scourged in the
+public streets, dragged through the theatre, and then banished into
+the uninhabited parts of the empire, or sold as slaves. 14. His
+courtesy and readiness to do good have been celebrated even by
+Christian writers; his principal rule being, not to send away a
+petitioner dissatisfied. One night, recollecting that he had done
+nothing beneficial to mankind during the day, he cried out, "I have
+lost a day!" A sentence too remarkable not to be had in remembrance.</p>
+<p>
+15. In the first year of his reign, an eruption of Mount<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg. 309]</a></span>
+Vesu'vius overwhelmed many towns,<a name="FNanchor_27_186" id="FNanchor_27_186"></a><a href="#Fnote_27_186" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> throwing its ashes into
+countries more than a hundred miles distant. Upon this memorable
+occasion, Pliny, the naturalist, lost his life; being impelled by too
+eager a curiosity to observe the eruption, he was suffocated in the
+flames. 16. This and other disasters were, in some measure,
+counterbalanced by the successes in Britain, under Agrico'la. This
+excellent general, having been sent into Britain towards the latter
+end of Vespasian's reign, showed himself equally expert in quelling
+the refractory, and civilizing those who had formerly submitted to the
+Roman power. 17. The Ordovi'ces, or inhabitants of North Wales, were
+the first that were subdued. He then made a descent upon the isle of
+An'glesey, which surrendered at discretion. 18. Having thus rendered
+himself master of the whole country, he took every method to restore
+discipline to his whole army, and to introduce politeness among those
+whom he had conquered. He exhorted them, both by advice and example,
+to build temples, theatres, and stately houses. He caused the sons of
+their nobility to be instructed in the liberal arts, and to be taught
+the Latin language; and induced them to imitate the Roman modes of
+dress and living. 19. Thus, by degrees, this barbarous people began to
+assume the luxurious<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg. 310]</a></span> manners of their conquerors, and even to
+outdo them in all the refinements of sensual pleasure. 20. Upon
+account of the successes in Britain, Titus was saluted Impera'tor<a name="FNanchor_28_187" id="FNanchor_28_187"></a><a href="#Fnote_28_187" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
+for the fifteenth time; but he did not long survive this honour, being
+seized with a violent fever at a little distance from Rome. He expired
+shortly after, but not without suspicion of treachery from his brother
+Domi'tian, who had long wished to govern. He died in the forty-first
+year of his age, having reigned two years, two months, and twenty
+days.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A.D. 81.</div>
+
+<p>
+21. The beginning of Domi'tian's reign was universally acceptable to
+the people, as he appeared equally remarkable for his clemency,
+liberality and justice.<a name="FNanchor_29_188" id="FNanchor_29_188"></a><a href="#Fnote_29_188" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> 22. But he soon began to show the natural
+deformity of his mind. Instead of cultivating literature, as his
+father and brother had done, he neglected all kinds of study,
+addicting himself wholly to meaner pursuits, particularly archery and
+gaming. 23. He was so very expert an archer, that he would frequently
+cause one of his slaves to stand at a great distance, with his hand
+spread as a mark, and would shoot his arrows with such exactness, as
+to stick them all between his fingers. 24. He instituted three sorts
+of contests to be observed every five years, in music, horsemanship
+and wrestling; but at the same time he banished all philosophers and
+mathematicians from Rome. 25. No emperor before him entertained the
+people with such various and expensive shows. During these diversions
+he distributed great rewards, sitting as president himself, adorned
+with a purple robe and crown, with the priests of Ju'piter, and the
+college of Fla'vian priests about him. 26. The meanness of his
+occupations in solitude, was a just contrast to his exhibitions of
+public ostentation. He usually spent his hours of retirement in
+catching flies, and sticking them through with a bodkin; so that one
+of his servants, being asked if the emperor were alone, answered, that
+he had not so much as a fly to bear him company. 27. His vices seemed
+every day to increase, and his ungrateful treatment of Agrico'la
+afforded a convincing proof of his natural malevolence. 28.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg. 311]</a></span>
+Domi'tian was always particularly fond of obtaining a military
+reputation, and therefore felt jealous of it in others. He had marched
+some time before into Gaul, upon a pretended expedition against the
+Catti, a people of Germany, and without even seeing the enemy,
+resolved to have the honour of a triumph upon his return to Rome. For
+that purpose he purchased a number of slaves, whom he dressed in
+German habits, and at the head of this miserable procession he entered
+the city, amid the apparent acclamations and concealed contempt of all
+his subjects.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. How did Titus conduct himself after this important conquest?</p>
+<p>
+2. How was he received at Rome?</p>
+<p>
+3. What were the most remarkable among the spoils?</p>
+<p>
+4. What peculiarity attended this triumph?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the character of Vespasian?</p>
+<p>
+6. How many years did Vespasian reign?</p>
+<p>
+7. Did he not display great resolution at the hour of death?</p>
+<p>
+8. How did Titus commence his reign?</p>
+<p>
+9. By what means did he gain the love of his subjects?</p>
+<p>
+10. What sacrifices did he make for this purpose?</p>
+<p>
+11. Did he succeed in his views?</p>
+<p>
+12. What class of delinquents met his most decided disapprobation?</p>
+<p>
+13. What punishment was inflicted on them?</p>
+<p>
+14. What were his chief virtues?</p>
+<p>
+15. What remarkable event occurred in this reign, and what eminent
+personage became its victim?</p>
+<p>
+16. By what successes was this disaster counterbalanced?</p>
+<p>
+17. What were his first enterprizes?</p>
+<p>
+18. What methods did he take to civilize the conquered countries?</p>
+<p>
+19. Were his measures successful?</p>
+<p>
+20. Did Titus long enjoy the glory of this conquest?</p>
+<p>
+21. How did Domitian commence his reign?</p>
+<p>
+22. Did he persevere in his meritorious conduct?</p>
+<p>
+23. In what exercise did he excel?</p>
+<p>
+24. Did he encourage the arts and sciences?</p>
+<p>
+25. Was he magnificent in his exhibitions?</p>
+<p>
+26. How did he employ himself in private?</p>
+<p>
+27. Did time render him less vicious?</p>
+<p>
+28. By what means did he attempt to acquire military fame?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg. 312]</a></span></p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION XI.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">           What wretch would groan</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Beneath the galling load of power, or walk</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Upon the slippery pavements of the great!&mdash;<i>Somerville.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The success of Agric'ola in Britain affected Domit'ian, with an
+extreme degree of envy. This excellent general pursued the advantages
+which he had already obtained; he subdued the Caledo'nians, and
+overcame Gal'gacus, the British chief, who commanded an army of thirty
+thousand men; afterwards sending out a fleet to scour the coast, he
+discovered Great Britain to be an island. He likewise discovered and
+subdued the Orkneys; and thus reduced the whole into a civilized
+province of the Roman empire. 2. When the account of these successes
+was brought to Domitian, he received it with a seeming pleasure, but
+real uneasiness. He thought Agric'ola's rising reputation a tacit
+reproach upon his own inactivity; and instead of attempting to
+emulate, he resolved to suppress the merits of his services. 3. He
+ordered him, therefore, external marks of approbation, and took care
+that triumphal ornaments, statues, and other honours should be decreed
+him; but at the same time he removed him from his command, under a
+pretence of appointing him to the government of Syria. 4. By these
+means Agric'ola surrendered up his province to Sallus'tius Lucul'lus,
+but soon found that Syria was otherwise disposed of. Upon his return
+to Rome, which was privately and by night, he was coolly received by
+the emperor; and dying some time after in retirement, it was generally
+supposed that his end was hastened by Domi'tian's direction.</p>
+<p>
+5. Domi'tian soon found the want of so experienced a commander, in the
+many irruptions of the barbarous nations that surrounded the empire.
+The Sarma'tians in Europe, joined with those of Asia, made a
+formidable invasion, at once destroying a whole legion, and a general
+of the Romans. The Da'cians, under the conduct of Dece'balus, their
+king, made an irruption, and overthrew the Romans in several
+engagements. 6. At last, however, the barbarians were repelled, partly
+by force, and partly by the assistance of money, which only served to
+enable them to make future invasions with greater advantage. 7. But in
+whatever manner the enemy might have been repelled, Domi'tian was
+resolved not to lose the honours of a triumph. He returned in great
+splendour to Rome; and, not contented with thus triumphing twice
+without a victory, he resolved to take the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg. 313]</a></span> surname of
+German'icus, for his conquests over a people with whom he never
+contended.</p>
+<p>
+8. In proportion as the ridicule increased against him, his pride
+seemed every day to demand greater homage. He would permit his statues
+to be made only of gold and silver; he assumed to himself divine
+honours; and ordered that all men should address him by the same
+appellations which they gave to the Divinity. 9. His cruelty was not
+inferior to his arrogance; he caused numbers of the most illustrious
+senators and others to be put to death, upon the most trifling
+pretences. One &AElig;'lius La'ma was condemned and executed only for
+jesting, though there was neither novelty nor poignancy in his humour.
+Occea'nus was murdered only for celebrating the nativity of O'tho.
+Pomposia'nus shared the same fate, because it was foretold by an
+astrologer that he should be emperor. Sallus'tius Lucul'lus his
+lieutenant in Britain, was destroyed only for having given his name to
+a new sort of lances of his own invention. Ju'nius Rus'ticus died for
+publishing a book, in which he commended Thra'sea and Pris'cus, two
+philosophers, who opposed Vespa'sian's coming to the throne.</p>
+<p>
+10. Lu'cius Anto'nius, governor of Upper Germany, knowing how much the
+emperor was detested at home, resolved upon striking for the throne;
+and accordingly assumed the ensigns of imperial dignity. 11. As he was
+at the head of a formidable army, his success remained a long time
+doubtful; but a sudden overflow of the Rhine dividing his army, he was
+set upon at that juncture by Norman'dus, the emperor's general, and
+totally routed. The news of this victory, we are told, was brought to
+Rome by supernatural means, on the same day that the battle was
+fought. 12. Domi'tian's severity was greatly increased by this
+short-lived success. In order to discover the accomplices of the
+adverse party, he invented new tortures: sometimes cutting off the
+hands&mdash;at other times thrusting fire into the bodies of those whom he
+suspected of being his enemies. 13. In the midst of these severities,
+he aggravated his guilt by hypocrisy&mdash;never pronouncing sentence
+without a preamble full of gentleness and mercy. The night before he
+crucified the comptroller of his household, he treated him with the
+most flattering marks of friendship, and ordered him a dish of meat
+from his own table. He carried Areti'nus Cle'mens with him in his own
+litter the day he resolved upon his death. 14. He was particularly
+terrible to the senate and<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg. 314]</a></span> nobility, the whole body of whom he
+frequently threatened to extirpate entirely. At one time he surrounded
+the senate-house with his troops, to the great consternation of the
+senators. At another, he resolved to amuse himself with their terrors
+in a different manner. 15. Having invited them to a public
+entertainment, he received them all very formally at the entrance of
+his palace, and conducted them into a spacious hall, hung round with
+black, and illuminated by a few melancholy lamps, that diffused no
+more light than was just sufficient to show the horrors of the place.
+All around were to be seen coffins, with the names of each of the
+senators written upon them, together with other objects of terror, and
+instruments of execution. 16. While the company beheld all these
+preparations with silent agony, several men having their bodies
+blackened, each with a drawn sword in one hand, and a flaming torch in
+the other, entered the hall, and danced round them. 17. After some
+time, when, from the knowledge of Domi'tian's capricious cruelty, the
+guests expected nothing less than instant death, the doors were set
+open, and one of the servants came to inform them, that the emperor
+gave all the company leave to withdraw.</p>
+<p>
+18. His cruelties were rendered still more odious by his avarice. 19.
+The last part of the tyrant's reign was more insupportable than any of
+the preceding. Ne'ro exercised his cruelties without being a
+spectator; but a principal part of the Roman miseries, during his
+reign, was to behold the stern air and fiery visage of the tyrant,
+which he had armed against sensibility by continued intemperance,
+directing the tortures, and maliciously pleased with adding poignance
+to every agony.</p>
+<p>
+20. But a period was soon to be put to this monster's cruelties. Among
+the number of those whom he at once caressed and suspected, was his
+wife, Domi'tia, whom he had taken from &AElig;'lius La'ma, her former
+husband. 21. It was the tyrant's method to put down the names of all
+such as he intended to destroy, in his tablets, which he kept about
+him with great circumspection. Domi'tia fortunately happening to get a
+sight of them, was struck at finding her own name in the catalogue of
+those destined to destruction. 22. She showed the fatal list to
+Norba'nus and Petro'nius, pr&aelig;fects of the pr&aelig;torian bands, who found
+themselves among the number of devoted victims; as likewise to
+Steph'anus, the comptroller of the household, who came<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg. 315]</a></span> into the
+conspiracy with alacrity. They fixed upon the eighteenth day of
+September for the completion of their great attempt. 23. Upon the
+emperor's preparing to go to the bath on the morning of that day,
+Petro'nius his chamberlain came to inform him that Steph'anus desired
+to speak upon an affair of the utmost importance. The emperor having
+given orders that his attendants should retire, Steph'anus entered
+with his hand in a scarf, which he had worn thus for some days, the
+better to conceal a dagger, as none were permitted to approach the
+emperor with arms. 24. He began by giving information of a pretended
+conspiracy, and exhibited a paper, in which the particulars were
+specified. While Domi'tian was reading the contents with eager
+curiosity, Steph'anus drew his dagger and struck him with much
+violence; but the wound not being mortal, Domi'tian caught hold of the
+assassin and threw him upon the ground, calling out for assistance.
+But Parthe'nius, with his freedman, a gladiator, and two subaltern
+officers, now coming in, they ran furiously upon the emperor and
+dispatched him: Steph'anus, however, was slain by the guards, but the
+other conspirators escaped in the tumult.</p>
+<p>
+25. It is rather incredible, what some writers relate concerning
+Apollo'nius Tyane'us, who was then at Ephesus. This person, whom some
+call a magician, and some a philosopher, but who more probably was
+only an impostor, was, just at the minute in which Domi'tian was
+slain, lecturing in one of the public gardens of the city; but
+stopping short, on a sudden he cried out, "Courage, Steph'anus, strike
+the tyrant!" then, after a pause, "Rejoice, my friends, the tyrant
+dies this day;&mdash;this day do I say?&mdash;the very moment in which I kept
+silence he suffered for his crimes! He dies!"</p>
+<p>
+26. Many prodigies are said to have portended his death; and if the
+Roman historians are to be credited, more preternatural appearances
+and predictions announced this event, than its importance
+deserved.<a name="FNanchor_30_189" id="FNanchor_30_189"></a><a href="#Fnote_30_189" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> The truth seems to be, that a belief in omens and
+prodigies was again become prevalent, as the people were evidently
+relapsing into pristine barbarity, ignorance being ever the proper
+soil for a harvest of imposture. <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg. 316]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What advantages did Agricola gain in Britain?</p>
+<p>
+2. How did Domitian receive the account of Agricola's success?</p>
+<p>
+3. In what way did the emperor treat him?</p>
+<p>
+4. To whom did Agricola surrender up his province?</p>
+<p>
+5. What nations afterwards made irruptions into the Roman provinces?</p>
+<p>
+6. By what means were the barbarians at length repelled?</p>
+<p>
+7. What surname did Domitian assume?</p>
+<p>
+8. To what extravagance did his pride lead him?</p>
+<p>
+9. What trifling pretexts were made use of by Domitian to put to death
+some of the most illustrious Romans?</p>
+<p>
+10. Who now assumed the ensigns of the imperial dignity?</p>
+<p>
+11. By what general was Lucius Antonius defeated?</p>
+<p>
+12. What new cruelties were resorted to by the emperor?</p>
+<p>
+13. By what hypocritical conduct was he distinguished?</p>
+<p>
+14. To whom was he particularly terrible?</p>
+<p>
+15, 16, 17. What terrific ceremonies did he invent on one occasion?</p>
+<p>
+18. Was the result fatal to them?</p>
+<p>
+19. Did not his cruelties become still more insupportable at the
+latter part of his reign?</p>
+<p>
+20. Who was among the number that he at the same time caressed and
+suspected?</p>
+<p>
+21. Whose name did Domitia discover among his list of victims?</p>
+<p>
+22. To whom did she show the fatal list, and what was resolved on?</p>
+<p>
+23. What means were used by Stephanus to assassinate the emperor?</p>
+<p>
+24. Relate the particulars of the assassination.</p>
+<p>
+25. What exclamation is Apollonius Tyaneus said to have made at
+Ephesus, at the time of Domitian's death?</p>
+<p>
+26. Did not the Romans relapse into their pristine state of barbarity
+about this period?</p>
+
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_160" id="Fnote_1_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_160">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ In his sixth consulship Augustus commanded a census to be
+made, when there was found the astonishing number of 4,060,000
+inhabitants in Rome, which was fifty miles in circumference.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_161" id="Fnote_2_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_161">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ M. Primus, while governor of Macedon, had made an
+irruption into the country of the Odrysians; for this he was
+prosecuted, and pleaded that it was by the emperor's orders. Augustus
+denying this, L. Murena put the impudent question to him mentioned in
+the text.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_162" id="Fnote_3_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_162">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ An island on the coast of Lucania, in Italy; now called
+Santa Maria.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_163" id="Fnote_4_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_163">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The date of Augustus's reign is here reckoned from the
+death of Antony, when he became sole monarch; but if it be reckoned
+from his first coming into power, soon after the death of Julius
+C&aelig;sar, it is nearly 56 years. Augustus carried on his wars principally
+by his lieutenants, but he went personally into Spain and Gaul. His
+bravery, however, has been greatly called in question, and many
+flagrant instances of his cowardice recorded. How true they may be is
+not easy to determine.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_164" id="Fnote_5_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_164">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The temple of Janus was now shut for the third time since
+the foundation of the city.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_6_165" id="Fnote_6_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_165">[6]</a></p>
+<p>
+ He began his reign, however, with the murder of Agrippa
+Posthumus, the grandson of Augustus.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_7_166" id="Fnote_7_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_166">[7]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Varus had been surprised by the Germans, defeated, and
+his whole army cut to pieces. Augustus was so grieved at this disgrace
+and loss, that, for a long time, he wore mourning, and frequently was
+heard to cry out, in the agony of his grief, "Restore me my legions,
+Varus."</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_8_167" id="Fnote_8_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_167">[8]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Germanicus died in the 34th year of his age, and was
+universally mourned for, not only by the Roman people, but by the
+princes in alliance with Rome, and even by the proud monarch of
+Parthia. (Suet. l. 4. c. 5.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_9_168" id="Fnote_9_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_168">[9]</a></p>
+<p>
+ He was found in the morning with his throat cut, and his
+sword lying by him; but whether this was done by his own hand, or by
+the orders of Tiberius, is not known. (Tacitus.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_10_169" id="Fnote_10_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_169">[10]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Sejanus, though simply a Roman knight, was descended
+from an illustrious family, and was, in the very beginning of
+Tiberius's reign, associated with his father in the command of the
+pr&aelig;torian guards. By removing these from their usual quarters in the
+city, and uniting them in one body in a camp, he laid the foundation
+of that power, which they afterwards usurped, of disposing of the
+empire at their pleasure.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_11_170" id="Fnote_11_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_170">[11]</a></p>
+<p>
+ To such a pitch of meanness were the Roman senators
+arrived, that when the emperor's letter arrived, the senators,
+thinking it contained orders for bestowing on Sejanus the tribunitial
+power, crowded around him, each striving to be foremost in
+congratulating him on his new dignity; but they no sooner learned the
+real contents of the fatal letter than all forsook him; even those who
+sat near him removed to another part of the house, lest they should be
+accounted his friends. (Dio.) The populace likewise broke in pieces
+those very statues which, a few hours before, they had adored.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_12_171" id="Fnote_12_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_171">[12]</a></p>
+<p>
+ It has been well said of Tiberius, "This great
+prince&mdash;this sovereign of Rome&mdash;with his numerous armies, his
+pr&aelig;torian bands, and his unlimited power, was in hourly fear of secret
+assassins, incessantly prompted by his own apprehensions; with all the
+eclat of empire, the most miserable being in his dominions. His power,
+indeed, was unlimited, but so was his misery; the more he made others
+suffer, the faster he supplied his own torments. Such was his
+situation and life, and such were the natural consequences of the
+abuse of power."</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_13_172" id="Fnote_13_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_172">[13]</a></p>
+<p>
+ He was so named from <i>caliga</i>, a sort of military boot
+which he usually wore.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_14_173" id="Fnote_14_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_173">[14]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A promontory, port, and town in Italy, near Naples.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_15_174" id="Fnote_15_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_174">[15]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The Pr&aelig;torian bands were instituted by Augustus, to
+guard his person, and maintain his authority. Under bold and warlike
+emperors, they were kept in tolerable subjection: but when the reins
+of government were held by feeble hands, they became the disturbers,
+instead of preservers, of the public peace; and, at length, deposed
+and set up emperors at their pleasure.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_16_175" id="Fnote_16_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_175">[16]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Some still more extraordinary accounts are given of this
+horse: it is said that he appointed it a house, furniture, and
+kitchen, in order to treat all its visitors with proper respect.
+Sometimes he invited Incita'tus to his own table, and presented it
+with gilt oats, and wine in a golden cup. He would often swear, "by
+the safety of his horse!" and it is even said that it was his
+intention to have appointed it to the consul-ship, had not his death
+prevented it.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_17_176" id="Fnote_17_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_176">[17]</a></p>
+<p>
+ One day on visiting the amphitheatre, finding there were
+no criminals condemned to fight with wild beasts, he ordered numbers
+of the spectators to be thrown to them, previously causing their
+tongues to be cut out, that they might not, by their cries, disturb
+his inhuman diversions.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_18_177" id="Fnote_18_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_177">[18]</a></p>
+<p>
+ It is said that the tower which stands at the entry of
+the port of Bologne, called La tour d'ordre, is that built by
+Calig'ula on this occasion.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_19_178" id="Fnote_19_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_178">[19]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Palatine games were so called from their being
+celebrated on the Palatine Hill, which was the most considerable of
+the seven hills on which Rome was built. This was the first hill
+occupied by Rom'ulus, and where he fixed his residence, and kept his
+court; as also did Tul'lus, Hostil'ius, Augus'tus, and all the
+succeeding emperors; and hence it is that the residence of princes is
+called Palatium or Palace.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_20_179" id="Fnote_20_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_179">[20]</a></p>
+<p>
+ He is by some called Am'pronus.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_21_180" id="Fnote_21_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_180">[21]</a></p>
+<p>
+ His mother Anto'nia, used to call him a human monster;
+and his nephew, Calig'ula, when he had butchered many of his kindred,
+saved him merely for a laughing-stock. The kindest word Agustus gave
+him was that of Misel'lus, (poor wretch.) This example was followed by
+others. If he happened to come to table when the guests had taken
+their places, no one showed him the least civility; and when he slept,
+as he sometimes did, after meals, they would divert themselves by
+throwing the stones of fruit at him, or by wakening him with a blow of
+a rod or whip.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_22_181" id="Fnote_22_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_181">[22]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Her'od Agrip'pa was the grandson of Herod the Great;
+who, at the birth of our Saviour, caused all the infants of Bethlehem
+to be massacred, in hopes that he would fall in the number. Her'od
+Agrip'pa to please the Jews, also persecuted the Christians; and put
+to death St. James the Great.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_23_182" id="Fnote_23_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_182">[23]</a></p>
+<p>
+ He put to death Cher'ea and some others of the murderers
+of his nephew.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_24_183" id="Fnote_24_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_183">[24]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Sen'eca, a celebrated philosopher, and a son of Sen'eca
+the orator, was born at Corduba, in Spain, A.D. 8. This town was also
+the birthplace of his father. (Strabo and Lucan.) Corduba was founded
+by the Romans, B.C. 150, and in process of time it became the
+residence of the Moorish kings, and where they continued till their
+expulsion into Africa. It was in the vicinity of this city that C&aelig;sar
+fought his last battle with the sons of Pompey.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_25_184" id="Fnote_25_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_184">[25]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Vespasian was at that time conducting the war in Jude'a,
+in Asia.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_26_185" id="Fnote_26_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_185">[26]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The destruction of Jerusalem happened in the year of our
+Lord 70.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_27_186" id="Fnote_27_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_186">[27]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Hercula'neum, Pompe'ii, &amp;c. This eruption happened
+August 24, A.D. 79. These towns, after having been buried under the
+lava for more than 1600 years, were discovered in the beginning of the
+last century: Hercula'neum, in 1713, about 24 feet under ground, by
+labourers digging a well, and Pompe'ii 40 years after, about 12 feet
+below the surface; and from the houses and streets which, in a great
+measure, remain perfect, have been drawn busts, statues, manuscripts,
+paintings, &amp;c. which contribute much to enlarge our notions concerning
+the ancients, and develope many classical obscurities. (Mala.) In the
+year following this dreadful eruption, a fire happened at Rome, which
+consumed the capitol, the pantheon, the library of Augustus, the
+theatre of Pompey, and a great many other buildings. In the ruins of
+Hercula'neum there have lately been found loaves which were baked
+under the reign of Titus, and which still bear the baker's mark,
+indicating the quality of the flour, which was probably prescribed by
+the regulation of the police. There have also been found utensils of
+bronze, which, instead of being tinned, like ours, are all silvered;
+the ancients doubtless preferred this method, as more wholesome and
+more durable. The excavations at Pompe'ii continue to furnish the
+royal museum at Naples with all kinds of valuable objects: some
+buildings have lately been discovered at Pompe'ii, remarkable for the
+richness of their architecture. At Paggo'ia, another town buried by
+the lava from Vesuvius, some sepulchres have been found, which are
+stated to be magnificently adorned with sculpture of the finest kind.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_28_187" id="Fnote_28_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_187">[28]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Impera'tor, a title of honour among the Romans,
+conferred on victorious generals by their armies, and afterwards by
+the senate.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_29_188" id="Fnote_29_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_188">[29]</a></p>
+<p>
+ It is a remarkable fact, that the most odious tyrants
+that ever sat on the Roman throne, commenced their reigns with a
+display of all the virtues that adorn humanity: on the contrary,
+Augustus, who was truly the father of his people, began his reign with
+cruelties that afforded but a melancholy presage of his future
+administration.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_30_189" id="Fnote_30_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_189">[30]</a></p>
+<p>
+ In the reign of Domi'tian, a violent persecution raged
+against the Christians. During this persecution St. John was confined
+to the Isle of Patmos, in the Archipelago, where he wrote the
+Apoc'alypse, or Revelation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XXIII.</h2><hr /> <br /> <br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.<br />
+THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS OF ROME.</h4>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">These slaves, whom I have nurtur'd, pamper'd, fed.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And swoln with peace, and gorg'd with plenty, till</span><br />
+<span class="i2">They reign themselves&mdash;all monarchs in their mansions.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Now swarm forth in rebellion, and demand</span><br />
+<span class="i2">His death, who made their lives a jubilee.&mdash;<i>Byron</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. When it was publicly known that Domi'tian<a name="FNanchor_1_190" id="FNanchor_1_190"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_190" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> was slain, the senate
+began to load his memory with every reproach. His statues were
+commanded to be taken down, and a decree was made, that all his
+inscriptions should be erased, his name struck out of the registers of
+fame, and his funeral<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg. 317]</a></span> obsequies omitted. 2. The people, who now
+took but little part in the affairs of government, looked on his death
+with indifference; the soldiers alone, whom he had loaded with
+favours, and enriched by largesses, sincerely regretted their
+benefactor.</p>
+<p>
+3. The senate, therefore, resolved to provide a successor before the
+army could have an opportunity of taking the appointment upon itself,
+and Cocce'ius Ner'va was chosen to the empire the same day on which
+the tyrant was slain. 4. He is said to have been of an illustrious
+family in Spain, and above sixty-five years old when he was called to
+the throne, an elevation which he owed solely to his virtues,
+moderation, respect to the laws, and the blameless tenor of his life.</p>
+<p>
+5. The people, long accustomed to tyranny, regarded Nerva's gentle
+reign with rapture, and even gave to his imbecility (for his humanity
+was carried too far for justice) the name of benevolence. 6. Upon
+coming to the throne he solemnly swore, that no senator of Rome should
+be put to death by his command during his reign, though guilty of the
+most heinous crimes. 7. This oath he so religiously observed, that
+when two senators had conspired his death, he used no kind of severity
+against them; but, sending for them to let them see he was not
+ignorant of their designs, he carried them with him to the public
+theatre; there presenting each a dagger, he desired them to strike,
+assuring them that he should make no resistance. 8. He had so little
+regard for money, that when one of his subjects found a large
+treasure, and wrote to the emperor for instructions how to dispose of
+it, he received for answer, that he might use it; the finder however
+replying, that it was a fortune too large for a private person to use,
+Nerva, admiring his honesty, wrote him word that then he might abuse
+it.<a name="FNanchor_2_191" id="FNanchor_2_191"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_191" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+9. A sovereign of such generosity and mildness was not, however,
+without his enemies. Vigil'ius Ru'fus, who had opposed his accession,
+was not only pardoned, but made his colleague in the consulship.
+Calpur'nius Cras'sus also, with some others, formed a conspiracy to
+destroy him; but Nerva was satisfied with banishing those who were
+culpable, though the senate were for inflicting more rigorous
+punishments. 10. But the most dangerous insurrection was<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg. 318]</a></span> that of
+the pr&aelig;torian bands, who, headed by Caspa'rius Olia'nus, insisted upon
+revenging the late emperor's death, whose memory was still dear to
+them, from his frequent liberalities. 11. Nerva, whose kindness to
+good men rendered him more obnoxious to the vicious, did all in his
+power to stop the progress of this insurrection; he presented himself
+to the mutinous soldiers, and laying bare his bosom, desired them to
+strike there rather than be guilty of so much injustice. 12. The
+soldiers, however, paid no regard to his remonstrances; but seizing
+upon Petro'nius and Parthe'nius, slew them in the most ignominious
+manner. Not content with this, they even compelled the emperor to
+approve of their sedition, and to make a speech to the people, in
+which he thanked the cohorts for their fidelity.</p>
+<p>
+13. So disagreeable a constraint upon the emperor's inclinations was
+in the end attended with the most happy effects, as it caused the
+adoption of Trajan<a name="FNanchor_3_192" id="FNanchor_3_192"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_192" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> to succeed him; for, perceiving that in the
+present turbulent disposition of the times, he stood in need of an
+assistant in the empire, setting aside all his own relations, he fixed
+upon Ul'pius Tra'jan, an utter stranger to his family, who was then
+governor in Upper Germany, as his successor. 14. About three months
+after this, having put himself into a violent passion with one
+Reg'ulus, a senator, he was seized with a fever of which he died,
+after a reign of one year, four months, and nine days.</p>
+<p>
+15. He was the first foreigner that ever reigned in Rome, and justly
+reputed a prince of great generosity and moderation. He is also
+celebrated for his wisdom, though with less reason; the greatest
+instance given of it during his reign, being the choice of his
+successor.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 851.<br />A.D. 98.</div>
+
+<p>
+16. On hearing of the death of Nerva, Trajan prepared to come to Rome
+from Germany, where he was governor. He received upon his arrival a
+letter from Plu'tarch, the philosopher, who had the honour of being
+his master, to the following purport:&mdash;"Since your merits and not your
+importunities, have advanced you to the empire, permit me to
+congratulate you on your virtues, and my own good fortune. If your
+future government<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg. 319]</a></span> proves answerable to your former worth, I shall
+be happy; but if you become worse for power, yours will be the danger,
+and mine the ignominy of your conduct. The errors of the pupil will be
+charged upon his instructor. Sen'eca is reproached for the enormities
+of Nero; and Soc'rates and Quintil'ian have not escaped censure for
+the misconduct of their respective scholars. But you have it in your
+power to make me the most honoured of men, by continuing what you are.
+Retain the command of your passions; and make virtue the rule of all
+your actions. If you follow these instructions, then will I glory in
+having presumed to give them: if you neglect what I advise, then will
+this letter be my testimony that you have not erred through the
+counsel and authority of Plu'tarch." I insert this letter, because it
+is a striking picture of this great philosopher's manner of addressing
+the best of princes.</p>
+<p>
+17. This good monarch's application to business, his moderation
+towards his enemies, his modesty in exaltation, his liberality to the
+deserving, and his frugal management of the resources of the state,
+were the subjects of panegyric among his contemporaries, and continue
+to be the admiration of posterity.</p>
+<p>
+18. The first war he was engaged in after his coming to the throne was
+with the Da'cians, who, during the reign of Domi'tian, had committed
+numberless ravages upon the provinces of the empire. To revenge these,
+he raised a powerful army, and with great expedition marched into
+those barbarous countries, where he was vigorously opposed by
+Deceb'alus, the Da'cian king, who for some time withstood his boldest
+efforts. 19. At length, however, this monarch being constrained to
+come to a general battle, and no longer able to protract the war, was
+routed with great slaughter. The Roman soldiers upon this occasion
+wanting linen to bind up their wounds, the emperor tore his own robes
+to supply them. 20. This victory compelled the enemy to sue for peace,
+which they obtained upon very disadvantageous terms; their king coming
+into the Roman camp, and acknowledging himself a vassal of the Roman
+empire.</p>
+<p>
+21. Upon Trajan's return, after the usual triumphs and rejoicings, he
+was surprised with an account that the Da'cians had renewed
+hostilities. Deceb'alus, their king, was a second time adjudged an
+enemy to the Roman state, and Tra'jan again entered his dominions. 22.
+In order to be enabled to invade the enemy's territories at pleasure,
+he undertook<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg. 320]</a></span> a most stupendous work, which was no less than
+building a bridge across the Dan'ube. 23. This amazing structure,
+which was built over a deep, broad, and rapid river, consisted of more
+than twenty-two arches; the ruins, which remain to this day, show
+modern architects how far they were surpassed by the ancients, both in
+the greatness and boldness of their designs. 24. Upon finishing this
+work, Tra'jan continued the war with great vigour, sharing with the
+meanest of his soldiers the fatigues of the campaign, and continually
+encouraging them to their duty by his own example. 25. By these means,
+notwithstanding the country was spacious and uncultivated, and the
+inhabitants brave and hardy, he subdued the whole, and added the
+kingdom of Da'cia as a province to the Roman empire. Deceb'alus made
+some attempts to escape; but being surrounded, he slew himself. 26.
+These successes seemed to advance the empire to a greater degree of
+splendor than it had hitherto acquired. Ambassadors came from the
+interior parts of India, to congratulate Trajan on his successes, and
+solicit his friendship. On his return, he entered Rome in triumph, and
+the rejoicings for his victories lasted a hundred and twenty days.</p>
+<p>
+27. Having given peace and prosperity to the empire, he was loved,
+honoured, and almost adored. He adorned the city with public
+buildings; he freed it from such men as lived by their vices; he
+entertained persons of merit with familiarity; and so little did he
+fear his enemies, that he could scarcely be induced to suppose he had
+any.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. How was the account of Domitian's death received?</p>
+<p>
+2. Was he regretted by any description of his subjects?</p>
+<p>
+3. What consequences ensued from this regret?</p>
+<p>
+4. Who was Cocceius Nerva?</p>
+<p>
+5. Was his government acceptable to the people?</p>
+<p>
+6. What afforded a presage of his future mild administration?</p>
+<p>
+7. Did he keep this oath inviolate?</p>
+<p>
+8. Was Nerva avaricious?</p>
+<p>
+9. Was his reign free from disturbances?</p>
+<p>
+10. Were all conspiracies repressed from this time?</p>
+<p>
+11. Did Nerva exert himself to quell it?</p>
+<p>
+12. Were his endeavours successful?</p>
+<p>
+13. What important consequences ensued from these commotions?</p>
+<p>
+14. What occasioned his death?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg. 321]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+15. What was his character?</p>
+<p>
+16. How did Trajan act on his accession, and what advice did he
+receive?</p>
+<p>
+17. What sentiments did his subjects entertain of their new emperor?</p>
+<p>
+18. With whom did he commence hostilities?</p>
+<p>
+19. What was the event of the campaign?</p>
+<p>
+20. What was the consequence of this victory?</p>
+<p>
+21. Did peace continue long?</p>
+<p>
+22. What great undertaking did he accomplish in this expedition?</p>
+<p>
+23. Was it a difficult work?</p>
+<p>
+24. What followed the building of the bridge?</p>
+<p>
+25. What was the event of this second campaign?</p>
+<p>
+26. What advantages arose from this conquest?</p>
+<p>
+27. Did Trajan suffer prosperity to make him neglectful of his duties?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">With fatal heat impetuous courage glows.&mdash;<i>Johnson</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 860.<br />A.D. 107.</div>
+
+<p>
+1. It had been happy for Trajan's memory, had he shown equal clemency
+to all his subjects; but about the ninth year of his reign, he was
+persuaded to look upon the Christians with a suspicious eye, and great
+numbers of them were put to death by popular tumults and judicial
+proceedings. 2. However, the persecution ceased after some time; for
+the emperor, finding that the Christians were an innocent and
+inoffensive people, suspended their punishments.</p>
+<p>
+3. During this emperor's reign there was a dreadful insurrection of
+the Jews in all parts of the empire. This wretched people, still
+infatuated, and ever expecting some signal deliverance, took the
+advantage of Tra'jan's expedition to the east, to massacre all the
+Greeks and Romans whom they could get into their power. 4. This
+rebellion first began in Cyre'ne, a Roman province in Africa; from
+thence the flame extended to Egypt, and next to the island of Cyprus.
+Dreadful were the devastations committed by these infatuated people,
+and shocking the barbarities exercised on the unoffending inhabitants.
+5. Some were sawn asunder, others cast to wild beasts, or made to kill
+each other, while the most unheard-of torments were invented and
+exercised on the unhappy victims of their fury. Nay, to such a pitch
+was their animosity carried, that they actually ate the flesh of their
+enemies, and even wore their skins. 6. However, these cruelties were
+of no long duration: the governors of the respective provinces making
+head against<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg. 322]</a></span> their tumultuous fury, caused them to experience the
+horrors of retaliation, and put them to death, not as human beings,
+but as outrageous pests of society. In Cy'prus it was made capital for
+any Jew to set foot on the island.</p>
+<p>
+7. During these bloody transactions, Tra'jan was prosecuting his
+successes in the east, where he carried the Roman arms farther than
+they had ever before penetrated; but resolving to visit Rome once
+more, he found himself too weak to proceed in his usual manner. He
+therefore determined to return by sea; but on reaching the city of
+Seleu'cia, he died of an apoplexy, in the sixty-third year of his age,
+after a reign of nineteen years, six months, and fifteen days.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A.D. 117.</div>
+
+<p>
+8. A'drian, the nephew of Trajan, was chosen to succeed him. He began
+his reign by pursuing a course opposite to that of his predecessor,
+taking every method of declining war, and promoting the arts of peace.
+His first care was to make peace with the Par'thians, and to restore
+Chos'roes, for he was satisfied with preserving the ancient limits of
+the empire, and seemed no way ambitious of extensive conquest.</p>
+<p>
+9. A'drian was one of the most remarkable of the Roman emperors for
+the variety of his endowments. He was highly skilled in all the
+accomplishments both of body and mind. He composed with great beauty,
+both in prose and verse, he pleaded at the bar, and was one of the
+best orators of his time. 10. Nor were his virtues fewer than his
+accomplishments. His moderation and clemency appeared by pardoning the
+injuries which he had received when he was yet but a private man. One
+day meeting a person who had formerly been his most inveterate
+enemy&mdash;"My good friend," said he, "you have escaped; for I am made
+emperor." He was affable to his friends, and gentle to persons of
+meaner stations; he relieved their wants, and visited them in
+sickness; it being his constant maxim, that he had been elected
+emperor, not for his own good, but for the benefit of mankind at
+large.</p>
+<p>
+11. These virtues were, however, contrasted by vices of considerable
+magnitude; or rather, he wanted strength of mind to preserve his
+rectitude of character without deviation.</p>
+<p>
+12. He was scarcely settled on the throne, when several of the
+northern barbarians began to devastate the frontier provinces of the
+empire. These hardy nations, who now found the way to conquer by
+issuing from their forests, and<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg. 323]</a></span> then retiring on the approach of
+a superior force, began to be truly formidable to Rome. 13. A'drian
+had thoughts of contracting the limits of the empire, by giving up
+some of the most remote and least defensible provinces; in this,
+however, he was overruled by friends, who wrongly imagined that an
+extensive frontier would intimidate an invading enemy. 14. But though
+he complied with their remonstrances, he broke down the bridge over
+the Dan'ube, which his predecessor had built, sensible that the same
+passage which was open to him, was equally convenient to the
+incursions of his barbarous neighbours.</p>
+<p>
+15. Having staid a long time at Rome, to see that all things were
+regulated and established for the safety of the public, he prepared to
+make a progress through his whole empire. 16. It was one of his
+maxims, that an emperor ought to imitate the sun, which diffuses
+warmth and vigour over all parts of the earth. He, therefore, took
+with him a splendid court, and a considerable force, and entered the
+province of Gaul, where he caused the inhabitants to be numbered. 17.
+From Gaul he went into Germany, thence to Holland, and afterwards
+passed over into Britain; where, reforming many abuses, and
+reconciling the natives to the Romans, he, for the better security of
+the southern parts of the kingdom, built a wall of wood and earth,
+extending from the river E'den, in Cumberland, to the Tyne, in
+Northumberland, to prevent the incursions of the Picts, and other
+barbarous nations of the north. 18. From Britain, returning through
+Gaul, he directed his journey to Spain, his native country, where he
+was received with great joy. 19. Returning to Rome, he continued there
+for some time, in order to prepare for his journey into the east,
+which was hastened by a new invasion of the Par'thians. His approach
+compelling the enemy to peace, he pursued his travels without
+molestation. He visited the famous city of Athens; there making a
+considerable stay, he was initiated into the Eleusin'ian mysteries,
+which were accounted the most sacred in the Pagan mythology, and took
+upon him the office of archon or chief magistrate. 20. In this place,
+also, he remitted the severity of the Christian persecution. He was
+even so far reconciled to their sect, as to think of introducing
+Christ among the number of the gods. 21. From thence he crossed over
+into Africa, and spent much time in reforming abuses, regulating the
+government, deciding controversies, and erecting magnificent
+buildings. Among the rest, he ordered<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg. 324]</a></span> Carthage<a name="FNanchor_4_193" id="FNanchor_4_193"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_193" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> to be rebuilt,
+calling it after his own name, Adrian'ople.<a name="FNanchor_5_194" id="FNanchor_5_194"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_194" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> 22. Again he returned
+to Rome; travelled a second time into Greece; passed over into Asia
+Minor; from thence into Syr'ia; gave laws and instructions to all the
+neighbouring kings; entered Pal'estine, Arabia, and Egypt, where he
+caused Pompey's tomb, that had been long neglected, and almost covered
+with sand, to be repaired and beautified. 23. He gave orders for the
+rebuilding of Jerusalem; which was performed with great expedition by
+the assistance of the Jews, who now began to conceive hopes of being
+restored to their long lost kingdom. 24. But these expectations only
+served to aggravate their calamities: for, being incensed at the
+privileges which were granted the Pagan worshippers in their new city,
+they fell upon the Romans and Christians that were dispersed
+throughout Jude'a, and unmercifully put them all to the sword. 25.
+A'drian, sending a powerful body of men against them, obtained many
+signal, though bloody victories, over the insurgents. The war was
+concluded in two years, by the demolition of above one thousand of
+their best towns, and the destruction of nearly six hundred thousand
+men in battle.</p>
+<p>
+26. Having thus effectually quelled this dangerous insurrection, he
+banished all those who remained in Judea; and by a public decree
+forbade them to come within view of their native soil. But he was soon
+after alarmed by a dangerous irruption of the barbarous nations to the
+northward of the empire; who, entering Me'dia with great fury and
+passing through Arme'nia, carried their devastations as far as
+Cappado'cia. Preferring peace, however, upon any terms, to an
+unprofitable war, A'drian bought them off by large sums of money; so
+that they returned peaceably into their native wilds, to enjoy their
+plunder, and to meditate fresh invasions.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg. 325]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Was Trajan uniformly merciful?</p>
+<p>
+2. Was the persecution of long duration?</p>
+<p>
+3. What remarkable event happened in this reign?</p>
+<p>
+4. Where did the rebellion principally rage?</p>
+<p>
+5. What were these barbarities?</p>
+<p>
+6. Were no steps taken to repress this insurrection?</p>
+<p>
+7. How was Trajan employed at this time, and what was his end?</p>
+<p>
+8. Who succeeded him?</p>
+<p>
+9. What was the character of Adrian?</p>
+<p>
+10. Was he a virtuous character?</p>
+<p>
+11. Were not his virtues counterbalanced?</p>
+<p>
+12. By whom was the empire now invaded?</p>
+<p>
+13. What wise measure did Adrian contemplate?</p>
+<p>
+14. What remarkable edifice did he destroy?</p>
+<p>
+15. Was he attentive to the concerns of the empire?</p>
+<p>
+16. Why did he do this?</p>
+<p>
+17. What places did he next visit?</p>
+<p>
+18. Whither did he next proceed?</p>
+<p>
+19. Mention his further progress, and the incidents that occurred.</p>
+<p>
+20. Was he merciful to the Christians?</p>
+<p>
+21. Whither did he next repair, and how did he employ himself?</p>
+<p>
+22. Proceed in the description of his route.</p>
+<p>
+23. Did he not favour the Jews?</p>
+<p>
+24. Did they profit by this favourable disposition in the emperor?</p>
+<p>
+25. Was this cruelty punished?</p>
+<p>
+26. What followed this dangerous insurrection?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION III.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Trajan and he,<a name="FNanchor_6_195" id="FNanchor_6_195"></a><a href="#Fnote_6_195" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> with the mild sire and son</span><br />
+<span class="i2">His son of virtue; eased awhile mankind;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And arts revived beneath their gentle beam.&mdash;<i>Thomson</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Having spent thirteen years in travelling and reforming the abuses
+of the empire, A'drian at last resolved to end his fatigues at Rome.
+2. Nothing could be more grateful to the people than his resolution of
+coming to reside for the rest of his days among them; they received
+him with the loudest demonstrations of joy; and though he now began to
+grow old and unwieldy, he remitted not the least of his former
+assiduity and attention to the public welfare. 3. His chief amusement
+was in conversing with the most celebrated men in every art and
+science, frequently asserting, that he thought no kind of knowledge
+inconsiderable, or to be neglected, either in his private or public
+capacity. 4. He ordered the knights and senators never to appear in
+public, but in the proper habits of their orders. He forbade
+masters<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg. 326]</a></span> to kill their slaves, as had been before allowed; but
+ordained that they should be tried by the laws. 5. He still further
+extended the lenity of the laws to those unhappy men, who had long
+been thought too mean for justice: if a master was found killed in his
+house, he would not allow all his slaves to be put to the torture as
+formerly, but only such as might have perceived and prevented the
+murder.</p>
+<p>
+6. In such employments he spent the greatest part of his time; but at
+last finding the duties of his station daily increasing, and his own
+strength proportionally upon the decline, he resolved on adopting a
+successor, and accordingly chose Antoni'nus to that important station.</p>
+<p>
+7. While he was thus careful in providing for the future welfare of
+the state, his bodily infirmities became so insupportable, that he
+vehemently desired some of his attendants to dispatch him. 8.
+Antoni'nus, however, would by no means permit any of the domestics to
+be guilty of so great an impiety, but used all the arts in his power
+to reconcile the emperor to sustain life. 9. His pain daily
+increasing, he was frequently heard to cry out, "How miserable a thing
+it is to seek death, and not to find it!" After enduring some time
+these excruciating tortures, he at last resolved to observe no
+regimen, saying, that kings sometimes died merely by the multitude of
+their physicians. 10. This conduct served to hasten that death he
+seemed so ardently to desire; and it was probably joy upon its
+approach which dictated the celebrated stanzas that are so well
+known;<a name="FNanchor_7_196" id="FNanchor_7_196"></a><a href="#Fnote_7_196" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> and while repeating which he expired, in the sixty-second
+year of his age, after a prosperous reign of twenty-one years and
+eleven months<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg. 327]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+11. Titus Antoni'nus, his successor, was born at Lavin'ium, near Rome,
+but his ancestors came originally from Nismes, in Gaul. His father was
+a nobleman, who had enjoyed the highest honours of the empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 891.</div>
+
+<p>
+At the time of his succeeding to the throne he was above fifty years
+old, and had passed through many of the most important offices of the
+state with great integrity and application. 12. His virtues in private
+life were no way impaired by his exaltation, as he showed himself one
+of the most excellent princes for justice, clemency, and moderation;
+his morals were so pure, that he was usually compared to Numa, and was
+surnamed the Pious, both for his tenderness to his predecessor
+A'drian, when dying, and his particular attachment to the religion of
+his country.</p>
+<p>
+13. He was an eminent rewarder of learned men, to whom he gave large
+pensions and great honours, collecting them around him from all parts
+of the world. 14. Among the rest, he sent for Apollo'nius, the famous
+stoic philosopher, to instruct his adopted son, Mar'cus Aure'lius.
+Apollo'nius being arrived, the emperor desired his attendance; but the
+other arrogantly answered, that it was the scholar's duty to wait upon
+the master, not the master upon the scholar. 15. To this reply,
+Antoni'nus only returned with a smile, "That it was surprising how
+Apollo'nius, who made no difficulty of coming from Greece to Rome,
+should think it hard to walk from one part of Rome to another;" and
+immediately sent Mar'cus Aure'lius to him.<a name="FNanchor_8_197" id="FNanchor_8_197"></a><a href="#Fnote_8_197" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> 16. While the good
+emperor was thus employed in making mankind happy, in directing their
+conduct by his own example, or reproving their follies by the keenness
+of rebuke, he was seized with a violent fever, and ordered his friends
+and principal officers to attend him. 17. In their presence he
+confirmed the adoption of Mar'cus Aure'lius; then commanding the
+golden statue of Fortune, which was always in the chamber of the
+emperors, to be removed to that of his successor, he expired in the
+seventy-fourth year of his age, after a prosperous reign of
+twenty-two years and almost eight months.<a name="FNanchor_9_198" id="FNanchor_9_198"></a><a href="#Fnote_9_198" class="fnanchor">[9]</a><span class="newpage"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg. 328]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 914.</div>
+
+<p>
+18. Mar'cus Aure'lius, though left sole successor to the throne, took
+Lu'cius Ve'rus as his associate and equal, in governing the state. 19.
+Aure'lius was the son of An'nius Ve'rus, of an ancient and illustrious
+family, which claimed its origin from Nu'ma. Lu'cius Ve'rus was the
+son of Com'modus, who had been adopted by A'drian, but died before he
+succeeded to the throne. 20. Aure'lius was as remarkable for his
+virtues and accomplishments, as his partner in the empire was for his
+ungovernable passions and debauched morals. The one was an example of
+the greatest goodness and wisdom; the other of ignorance, sloth, and
+extravagance.</p>
+<p>
+21. The two emperors were scarcely settled on the throne, when the
+empire was attacked on every side, from the barbarous nations by which
+it was surrounded. The Cat'ti invaded Germany and Rh&oelig;'tia, ravaging
+all with fire and sword; but were repelled by Victori'nus. The Britons
+likewise revolted, but were repressed by Capur'nius. 22. But the
+Parthians, under their king Volog'esus, made an irruption still more
+dreadful than either of the former; destroying the Roman legions in
+Arme'nia; then entering Syria, they drove out the Roman governor, and
+filled the whole country with terror and confusion. To repel this
+barbarous eruption, Ve'rus went in person, being accompanied by
+Aure'lius part of the way.</p>
+<p>
+23. Ve'rus, however, proceeded no farther than An'tioch, and there
+gave an indulgence to every appetite, rioting in excesses unknown even
+to the voluptuous Greeks; leaving all the glory of the field to his
+lieutenants, who were sent to repress the enemy. 24. These, however,
+fought with great success; for in the four years that the war lasted,
+the Romans entered far into the Parthian country, and entirely subdued
+it; but upon their return their army was wasted to less than half its
+original number by pestilence and famine. 25. This, however, was no
+impediment to the vanity of Ve'rus, who resolved to enjoy the honours
+of a triumph, so hardly earned by others. Having appointed a king over
+the Arme'nians, and finding the Parthians entirely subdued, he assumed
+the titles of Arme'nius and Parthi'cus; and on his return to Rome, he
+partook of a triumph with Aure'lius, which was solemnized with great
+pomp and splendour.</p>
+<p>
+26. While Ve'rus was engaged in this expedition, Aure'lius was
+sedulously intent upon distributing justice and happiness to his
+subjects at home. He first applied himself to<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg. 329]</a></span> the regulation of
+public affairs, and to the correcting of such faults as he found in
+the laws and policy of the state. 27. In this endeavour he showed a
+singular respect for the senate, often permitting them to determine
+without appeal; so that the commonwealth seemed in a manner once more
+revived under his equitable administration. 28. Besides, such was his
+application to business, that he often employed ten days together on
+the same subject, maturely considering it on all sides, and seldom
+departing from the senate-house till the assembly was dismissed by the
+consul. 29. But he was daily mortified with accounts of the enormities
+of his colleague; being repeatedly assured of his vanity and
+extravagance. 30. However, feigning himself ignorant of these
+excesses, he judged marriage to be the best method of reclaiming him;
+and, therefore, sent him his daughter Lucil'la, a woman of great
+beauty, whom Ve'rus married at Antioch. 31. But even this was found
+ineffectual, for Lucil'la proved of a disposition very unlike her
+father; and, instead of correcting her husband's extravagances only
+contributed to inflame them. 32. Aure'lius still hoped that, upon the
+return of Ve'rus to Rome, his presence would keep him in awe, and that
+happiness would at length be restored to the state. In this he was
+also disappointed. His return seemed fatal to the empire; for his army
+carried back the plague from Par'thia, and disseminated the infection
+into the provinces through which it passed.</p>
+<p>
+33. Nothing could exceed the miserable state of things upon the return
+of Ve'rus. In this horrid picture were represented an emperor, unawed
+by example or the calamities surrounding him, giving way to unheard-of
+crimes; a raging pestilence spreading terror and desolation through
+all parts of the western world; earthquakes, famines, inundations,
+almost unexampled in history; the products of the earth through all
+Italy devoured by locusts; the barbarous nations around the empire
+taking advantage of its various calamities, and making their
+irruptions even into Italy itself. 34. The priests doing all they
+could to put a stop to the miseries of the state, by attempting to
+appease the gods, vowing and offering numberless sacrifices;
+celebrating all the sacred rites that had ever been known in Rome. 35.
+To crown the whole, these enthusiasts, as if the impending calamities
+had not been sufficient, ascribed the distresses of the state to the
+impieties of the Christians. A violent persecution<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg. 330]</a></span> ensued in all
+parts of the empire; and Justin Martyr, Polycarp'us, and a prodigious
+number of less note, suffered martyrdom.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Did Adrian enjoy repose from this time?</p>
+<p>
+2. Was this resolution agreeable to the people?</p>
+<p>
+3. How did he amuse himself?</p>
+<p>
+4. What new edicts did he issue?</p>
+<p>
+5. Did he not ameliorate the condition of slaves?</p>
+<p>
+6. Was he still equal to the fatigues of the empire?</p>
+<p>
+7. Were not his sufferings great?</p>
+<p>
+8. Were his wishes complied with?</p>
+<p>
+9. Were these arts successful?</p>
+<p>
+10. What was the consequence of this conduct?</p>
+<p>
+11. Who was his successor?</p>
+<p>
+12. Did he preserve his virtue on his exaltation?</p>
+<p>
+13. Was he a favourer of learning?</p>
+<p>
+14. What anecdote is related of one of these?</p>
+<p>
+15. What was the emperor's reply?</p>
+<p>
+16. Did he experience a long and prosperous reign?</p>
+<p>
+17. Whom did he appoint as his successor?</p>
+<p>
+18. Was Marcus Aurelius sole emperor?</p>
+<p>
+19. Who were Aurelius and Lucius Verus?</p>
+<p>
+20. Were their characters similar?</p>
+<p>
+21. Was their reign peaceable?</p>
+<p>
+22. Was there not a more formidable invasion still?</p>
+<p>
+23. Did Verus show himself worthy of the trust?</p>
+<p>
+24. Were they successful?</p>
+<p>
+25. Did Verus appear to feel this misfortune?</p>
+<p>
+26. How was Aurelius employed in the mean time?</p>
+<p>
+27. Did he do this solely by his own authority?</p>
+<p>
+28. Was he hasty in his decisions?</p>
+<p>
+29. Was he acquainted with the follies of his colleague?</p>
+<p>
+30. How did he attempt his reformation?</p>
+<p>
+31. Was this effectual?</p>
+<p>
+32. What farther hopes did Aurelius entertain?</p>
+<p>
+33. What was the state of the empire at this period?</p>
+<p>
+34. What were the means made use of to avert these calamities?</p>
+<p>
+35. To whom were they imputed?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION IV.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">And wise Aurelius, in whose well-taught mind,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">With boundless power unbounded virtue join'd.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">His own strict judge, and patron of mankind.&mdash;<i>Pope.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. In this scene of universal tumult, desolation and distress, there
+was nothing left but the virtues and the wisdom of one man to restore
+tranquillity and happiness to the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg. 331]</a></span> empire. 2. Aure'lius began his
+endeavours by marching against the Marcoman'ni and Qua'di, taking
+Ve'rus with him, who reluctantly left the sensual delights of Rome for
+the fatigues of a camp. 3. They came up with the Marcoman'ni near the
+city of Aquile'ia, and after a furious engagement, routed their whole
+army; then pursuing them across the Alps, overcame them in several
+contests; and, at last, entirely defeating them, returned into Italy
+without any considerable loss.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 922.<br />A.D. 169.</div>
+
+<p>
+4. As the winter was far advanced, Ve'rus was determined on going to
+Rome, in which journey he was seized with an apoplexy that put an end
+to his life, at the age of thirty-nine, having reigned in conjunction
+with Aure'lius nine years.</p>
+<p>
+5. Aure'lius, who had hitherto sustained the fatigues of governing,
+not only an empire, but his colleague, began to act with greater
+diligence, and more vigour than ever. After thus subduing the
+Marcoman'ni, he returned to Rome, where he resumed his attempts to
+benefit mankind by a farther reformation.</p>
+<p>
+6. But his good endeavours were soon interrupted by a renewal of the
+former wars. In one of the engagements that ensued, he is said to have
+been miraculously relieved when his army was perishing with thirst, by
+the prayers of a Christian legion<a name="FNanchor_10_199" id="FNanchor_10_199"></a><a href="#Fnote_10_199" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> which had been levied in his
+service; for we are told, that there fell such a shower of rain, as
+instantly refreshed the fainting army. The soldiers were seen holding
+their mouths and their helmets towards heaven, to catch the water
+which came so wonderfully to their relief. 7. The same clouds which
+served for their rescue, discharged so terrible a storm of hail,
+accompanied with thunder, against the enemy, as astonished and
+confused them. By this unlooked-for aid, the Romans, recovering
+strength and courage, renewed the engagement with fresh vigour, and
+cut the enemy to pieces. 8. Such are the circumstances of an event,
+acknowledged by Pagan as well as Christian writers; only with this
+difference, that the latter ascribe the miracle to their own, the
+former to the prayers of their emperor. However this be, Aure'lius
+seemed so sensible of miraculous assistance, that he immediately
+relaxed the persecution against the Christians, and wrote to the
+senate in their favour.</p>
+<p>
+9. Soon after this event, Avid'ius Cas'sius, one of the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg. 332]</a></span> generals
+who had fought with such success against the Parthians, assumed the
+imperial purple, but was shortly after killed in an engagement. When
+his head was brought to Aure'lius, he expressed great sorrow, turned
+his eyes away, and caused it to be honourably interred, complaining
+that he had been robbed of an opportunity of showing mercy. On being
+blamed for his too great lenity to the relatives and friends of
+Cas'sius, he sublimely replied, "We have not lived nor served the gods
+so ill, as to think that they would favour Cas'sius."</p>
+<p>
+10. He usually called philosophy his mother, in opposition to the
+court, which he considered as his step-mother. He also frequently
+said, "the people are happy whose kings are philosophers." He was,
+independent of his dignity, one of the most considerable men then
+existing; and, though he had been born in the meanest station, his
+merits as a writer (for his works remain to this day) would have
+insured him immortality.</p>
+<p>
+11. Having thus restored prosperity to his subjects, and peace to
+mankind, news was brought him that the Scyth'ians, and other barbarous
+nations of the north, were up in arms, and invading the empire. 12. He
+once more, therefore, resolved to expose his aged person in the
+defence of his country, and made speedy preparations to oppose
+them.&mdash;He went to the senate, and desired to have money out of the
+public treasury. He then spent three days in giving the people
+lectures on the regulation of their lives; and, having finished,
+departed upon his expedition, amidst the prayers and lamentations of
+his subjects. Upon going to open his third campaign, he was seized at
+Vienna with the plague, which stopped his farther progress. Nothing,
+however, could abate his desire of being beneficial to mankind. 14.
+His fears for the youth and unpromising disposition of Com'modus, his
+son and successor, seemed to give him great uneasiness. He therefore
+addressed his friends and the principal officers that were gathered
+round his bed, expressing his hope, that as his son was now losing his
+father, he would find many in them. 15. While thus speaking, he was
+seized with a weakness which stopped his utterance, and brought on
+death. He died in the fifty-ninth year of his age, having reigned
+nineteen years. It seemed as if the glory and prosperity of the empire
+died with this greatest of the Roman emperors.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg. 333]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. To whom did the Romans look for a restoration of the tranquillity
+of the empire?</p>
+<p>
+2. Against whom did Aurelius march, and who accompanied him?</p>
+<p>
+3. Where did they come up with the Marcomanni, and what was the result
+of the engagement?</p>
+<p>
+4. What was the fate of Verus?</p>
+<p>
+5. How did Aurelius act on his return to Rome?</p>
+<p>
+6. What miraculous event was ascribed to the prayers of a Christian
+legion?</p>
+<p>
+7. How did it operate on the enemy?</p>
+<p>
+8. Did not Aurelius, in consequence, interest himself in favour of the
+Christians?</p>
+<p>
+9. What reply did Aurelius make to these who blamed him for his lenity
+to the friends of Cassius?</p>
+<p>
+10. What sayings are recorded of him, and what was his character?</p>
+<p>
+11. What news was brought to Aurelius soon after peace had been
+restored?</p>
+<p>
+12. In what way did he occupy himself previous to his departure to
+oppose the enemy?</p>
+<p>
+13. At what place was he seized with the plague?</p>
+<p>
+14. What seemed to give him great uneasiness?</p>
+<p>
+15. How old was Aurelius when he died, and how many years had he
+reigned?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_190" id="Fnote_1_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_190">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Domi'tian was the last of those emperors commonly called
+the Twelve C&aelig;sars.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_191" id="Fnote_2_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_191">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Nerva, the most remarkable man in Rome for his virtues,
+recalled all the Christians who had been banished or had emigrated
+under the persecution of Domi'tian.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_192" id="Fnote_3_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_192">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ It was customary among the Romans, for a person destitute
+of a son to adopt one from another family; and the son thus adopted
+became immediately invested with the same rights and privileges as if
+he had been born to that station; but he had no longer any claim on
+the family to which he originally belonged.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_193" id="Fnote_4_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_193">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Car'thage, the celebrated capital of Africa Pro'pria, was
+built by the Tyr'ians, under Dido. This city, the mistress of Spain,
+Si'cily, and Sardin'ia, was long the rival of Rome, till it was
+totally destroyed by Scip'io the Second, surnamed Africa'nus, B.C.
+147. In its height of prosperity, it contained upwards of 700,000
+inhabitants.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_194" id="Fnote_5_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_194">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This must be distinguished from Adrian'ople, the second
+city of European Turkey, which was founded about A.M. 2782, and
+repaired by the emperor Adrian, A.D. 122. Hence, its name.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_6_195" id="Fnote_6_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_195">[6]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The poet here alludes to Titus, whom he has before been
+commending; his actions are described in Chap. XXII. Sect X.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_7_196" id="Fnote_7_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_196">[7]</a></p>
+<p>
+ These stanzas are&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Animula, vagula, blandula,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Hospes, comesque corporis</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Qu&aelig; nonc abibis in loca,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Pallidula, rigida, nudula?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Nec, ut soles, dabis jocos.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+Thus imitated by Prior:</p>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Poor little pretty fluttering thing,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Must we no longer live together?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And dost thou prune thy trembling wing</span><br />
+<span class="i2">To take thy flight thou know'st not whither?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Thy hum'rous vein, thy pleasing folly,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Lie all neglected, all forgot;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And pensive, wav'ring, melancholy,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Thou dread'st and hop'st thou know'st not what</span><br /></p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_8_197" id="Fnote_8_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_197">[8]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Antoni'nus being made a model of wisdom and virtue, he
+was as much respected by foreigners as by his own people?</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_9_198" id="Fnote_9_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_198">[9]</a></p>
+<p>
+ This emperor was remarkably favourable to the Christians,
+and wrote thus to his governors in Asia:&mdash;"If any one shall, for the
+future, molest the Christians, and accuse them merely on account of
+their religion, let the person who is arraigned be discharged, though
+he is found to be a Christian, and the accuser be punished according
+to the rigour of the law."</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_10_199" id="Fnote_10_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_199">[10]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Legion, a body of soldiers in the Roman army, consisting
+of 300 horse and 4000 foot. Figuratively, an army, a military force,
+or a great number.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XXIV.</h2><hr /> <br /> <br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.<br />
+FROM COMMODUS TO THE TRANSFERRING OF THE SEAT OF EMPIRE UNDER
+CONSTANTINE, FROM ROME TO CONSTANTINOPLE.&mdash;U.C. 933. A.D. 180.</h4>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">O name of country, once how sacred deem'd!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">O sad reverse of manners, once esteem'd!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">While Rome her ancient majesty maintain'd,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And in his capitol while Jove imperial reign'd.&mdash;<i>Horace</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The merits of Aurelius procured Commodus an easy accession to the
+throne.<a name="FNanchor_1_200" id="FNanchor_1_200"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_200" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> He was acknowledged emperor by the army, by the senate and
+people, and afterwards by all the provinces.</p>
+<p>
+2. But his whole reign was a tissue of wantonness and folly, cruelty
+and injustice, rapacity and corruption. So strong a similitude was
+there between his conduct and that of Domi'tian, that a reader might
+imagine he was going over the history of the same reign. 3. He spent
+the day in<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg. 334]</a></span> feasting, and the night in the most abominable
+wickedness. He would sometimes go about the markets in a frolic, with
+small wares, as a petty chapman; sometimes he affected to be a
+horse-courser; at other times he drove his own chariot, in a slave's
+habit. Those he promoted resembled himself, being the companions of
+his pleasures, or the ministers of his cruelties.</p>
+<p>
+4. If any person desired to be revenged on an enemy, by bargaining
+with Com'modus for a sum of money, he was permitted to destroy him in
+any manner he thought proper. He commanded a person to be cast to the
+wild beasts for reading the life of Calig'ula in Sueto'nius. He
+ordered another to be thrown into a burning furnace, for accidentally
+overheating his bath. He would sometimes, when he was in a pleasant
+humour, cut off men's noses, under pretence of shaving their beards;
+and yet he was himself so jealous of all mankind, that he thought it
+necessary to be his own barber.</p>
+<p>
+5. At length, upon the feast of Janus, resolving to fence before the
+people, as a common gladiator, three of his friends remonstrated with
+him upon the indecency of such behaviour: these were L&aelig;'tus, his
+general; Elec'tus, his chamberlain; and Mar'cia, of whom he always
+appeared excessively fond. 6. Their advice was attended with no other
+effect than that of exciting him to resolve upon their destruction. 7.
+It was his method, like that of Domi'tian, to set down the names of
+all such as he intended to put to death in a roll, which he carefully
+kept by him. However, at this time, happening to lay the roll on his
+bed, while he was bathing a another room, it was taken up by a little
+boy whom he passionately loved. The child, after playing with it some
+time brought it to Mar'cia, who was instantly alarmed at the contents.
+8. She immediately discovered her terror to L&aelig;'tus and Elec'tus, who,
+perceiving their dangerous situation, instantly resolved upon the
+tyrant's death. 9. After some deliberation, it was agreed to dispatch
+him by poison; but this not succeeding, Mar'cia hastily introduced a
+young man, called Narcis'sus, whom she prevailed upon to assist in
+strangling the tyrant. Com'modus died in the thirty-first year of his
+age, after an impious reign of twelve years and nine months.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 945.<br />A.D. 192.</div>
+
+<p>
+10. Such were the secrecy and expedition with which Com'modus was
+assassinated, that few were acquainted with the real circumstances of
+his<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg. 335]</a></span> death. His body was wrapt up as a bale of useless furniture,
+and carried through the guards, most of whom were either drunk or
+asleep.</p>
+<p>
+11. Hel'vius Per'tinax, whose virtues and courage rendered him worthy
+of the most exalted station, and who had passed through many changes
+of fortune, had been previously fixed upon to succeed him. When,
+therefore, the conspirators repaired to his house, to salute him
+emperor, he considered it as a command from the emperor Com'modus for
+his death. 12. Upon L&aelig;'tus entering his apartment, Per'tinax, without
+any show of fear, cried out, that for many days he had expected to end
+his life in that manner, wondering that the emperor had deferred it so
+long. He was not a little surprised when informed of the real cause of
+their visit; and being strongly urged to accept of the empire, he at
+last complied. 13. Being carried to the camp, Per'tinax was proclaimed
+emperor, and soon after was acknowledged by the senate and citizens.
+They then pronounced Com'modus a parricide, an enemy to the gods, his
+country, and all mankind; and commanded that his corpse should rot
+upon a heap of dirt. 14. In the mean time they saluted Per'tinax as
+emperor and C&aelig;sar, with numerous acclamations, and cheerfully took the
+oaths of obedience. The provinces soon after followed the example of
+Rome; so that he began his reign with universal satisfaction to the
+whole empire, in the sixty-eighth year of his age.</p>
+<p>
+15. Nothing could exceed the justice and wisdom of this monarch's
+reign, during the short time it continued. But the pr&aelig;torian soldiers,
+whose manners he attempted to reform, having been long corrupted by
+the indulgence and profusion of their former monarch, began to hate
+him for his parsimony, and the discipline he had introduced among
+them. 16. They therefore resolved to dethrone him; and accordingly, in
+a tumultuous manner, marched through the streets of Rome, entered his
+palace without opposition, where a Tungrian soldier struck him dead
+with a blow of his lance. 17. From the number of his adventures he was
+called the tennis-ball of fortune; and certainly no man ever went
+through such a variety of situations with so blameless a character. He
+reigned but three months.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 954.<br />A.D. 201.</div>
+
+<p>
+18. The soldiers having committed this outrage, made proclamation,
+that they would sell the empire to whoever would purchase it at the
+highest price. 19. In consequence of this proclamation, two
+bidders<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg. 336]</a></span> were found, namely, Sulpicia'nus and Did'ius. The former
+a consular person, prefect of the city, and son-in-law to the late
+emperor Per'tinax. The latter a consular person likewise, a great
+lawyer, and the wealthiest man in the city. 20. Sulpicia'nus had
+rather promises than treasure to bestow. The offers of Did'ius, who
+produced immense sums of ready money, prevailed. He was received into
+the camp, and the soldiers instantly swore to obey him as emperor. 21.
+Upon being conducted to the senate-house, he addressed the few that
+were present in a laconic speech, "Fathers, you want an emperor, and I
+am the fittest person you can choose." The choice of the soldiers was
+confirmed by the senate, and Did'ius was acknowledged emperor, in the
+fifty-seventh year of his age. 22. It should seem, by this weak
+monarch's conduct when seated on the throne, that he thought the
+government of an empire rather a pleasure than a toil. Instead of
+attempting to gain the hearts of his subjects, he gave himself up to
+ease and inactivity, utterly regardless of the duties of his station.
+He was mild and gentle indeed, neither injuring any, nor expecting to
+be injured. 23. But that avarice by which he became opulent, still
+followed him in his exaltation; so that the very soldiers who elected
+him soon began to detest him, for qualities so opposite to a military
+character. 24. The people also, against whose consent he was chosen,
+were not less his enemies. Whenever he issued from his palace, they
+openly poured forth their imprecations against him, crying out, that
+he was a thief, and had stolen the empire. 25. Did'ius, however,
+patiently bore all their reproach, and testified his regard by every
+kind of submission. 26. Soon after Seve'rus, an African by birth,
+being proclaimed by his army, began his reign by promising to revenge
+the death of Per'tinax.</p>
+<p>
+27. Did'ius upon being informed of his approach towards Rome, obtained
+the consent of the senate to send him ambassadors, offering to make
+him a partner in the empire. 28. But Seve'rus rejected this offer,
+conscious of his own strength, and of the weakness of the proposer.
+The senate appeared to be of the same sentiment; and perceiving the
+timidity and weakness of their present master, abandoned him. 29.
+Being called together, as was formerly practised in the times of the
+commonwealth, by the consuls, they unanimously decreed, that Did'ius
+should be deprived of the empire, and that Severus should be
+proclaimed in his stead. They then commanded Did'ius to be slain, and
+sent messengers<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg. 337]</a></span> for this purpose to the palace, who, having found
+him, with a few friends that still adhered to his interest, they
+struck off his head.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Did Commodus succeed peaceably? 2. Did he imitate his father's
+virtues? 3. Mention some of his follies? 4. Mention some of his wanton
+cruelties? 5. Who remonstrated with him on this conduct? 6. What
+effect did this remonstrance produce? 7. How was this discovered? 8.
+What was the consequence? 9. How was it affected? 10. Were the
+circumstances of his death generally known? 11. Who succeeded him? 12.
+Did Pertinax discover any signs of fear? 13. What ensued on his
+compliance? 14. Was he acceptable to the Roman people? 15. How did he
+govern? 16. What was the consequence? 17. By what appellation was he
+distinguished, and why? 18. How was the imperial purple next disposed
+of? 19. Who were the candidates? 20. Who was the successful candidate?
+21. Was he acknowledged by the senate? 22. What was his conduct as
+emperor? 23. What gained him the hatred of the soldiers? 24. Was he a
+favourite of the people? 25. How did Didius bear this? 26. What new
+competitor for the throne appeared? 27. How did Didius act on this
+occasion? 28. Was his offer accepted? 29. What was the event?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">There's nought so monstrous but the mind of man,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">In some conditions, may be brought to approve;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Theft, sacrilege, treason, and parricide,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">When flattering opportunity enticed,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And desperation drove, have been committed</span><br />
+<span class="i2">By those who once would start to hear them named.&mdash;<i>Lillo</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Seve'rus having overcome Niger, A.D. 194, and Albinus, A.D. 198,
+who were his competitors for the empire, assumed the reins of
+government, uniting great vigour with the most refined policy; yet his
+African cunning was considered as a singular defect in him. 2. He is
+celebrated for his wit, learning, and prudence; but execrated for
+his<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg. 338]</a></span> perfidy and cruelty. In short, he seemed equally capable of
+the greatest acts of virtue, and the most bloody severities. 3. He
+loaded his soldiers with rewards and honours, giving them such
+privileges as strengthened his own power, while they destroyed that of
+the senate; for the soldiers, who had hitherto showed the strongest
+inclination to an abuse of power, were now made arbiters of the fate
+of emperors. 4. Being thus secure of his army he resolved to give way
+to his natural desire of conquest, and to turn his arms against the
+Parthians, who were then invading the frontiers of the empire. 5.
+Having, therefore, previously given the government of domestic policy
+to one Plau'tian, a favourite, to whose daughter he married his son
+Caracal'la, he set out for the east, and prosecuted the war with his
+usual expedition and success. 6. He compelled submission from the king
+of Arme'nia, destroyed several cities of Ara'bia Felix, landed on the
+Parthian coast, took and plundered the famous city of Ctes'iphon,
+marched back through Pal'estine and Egypt, and at length returned to
+Rome in triumph. 7. During this interval, Plau'tian, who was left to
+direct the affairs of Rome, began to think of aspiring to the empire
+himself. Upon the emperor's return, he employed a tribune of the
+pr&aelig;torian cohorts, of which he was commander, to assassinate him, and
+his son Caracal'la. 8. The tribune informed Seve'rus of his
+favourite's treachery. He at first received the intelligence as an
+improbable story, and as the artifices of one who envied his
+favourite's fortune. However, he was at last persuaded to permit the
+tribune to conduct Plau'tian to the emperor's apartments to be a
+testimony against himself. 9. With this intent the tribune went and
+amused him with a pretended account of his killing the emperor and his
+son; desiring him, if he thought fit to see them dead, to go with him
+to the palace. 10. As Plau'tian ardently desired their death, he
+readily gave credit to the relation, and, following the tribune, was
+conducted at midnight into the innermost apartments of the palace. But
+what must have been his surprise and disappointment, when, instead of
+finding the emperor lying dead, as he expected, he beheld the room
+lighted up with torches, and Seve'rus surrounded by his friends,
+prepared in array to receive him. 11. Being asked by the emperor, with
+a stern countenance, what had brought him there at that unseasonable
+time, he ingenuously confessed<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg. 339]</a></span> the whole, entreating forgiveness
+for what he had intended. 12. The emperor seemed inclined to pardon;
+but Caracal'la, his son, who from the earliest age showed a
+disposition to cruelty, ran him through the body with his sword. 13.
+After this, Seve'rus spent a considerable time in visiting some cities
+in Italy, permitting none of his officers to sell places of trust or
+dignity, and distributing justice with the strictest impartiality. He
+then undertook an expedition into Britain, where the Romans were in
+danger of being destroyed, or compelled to fly the province. After
+appointing his two sons, Caracal'la and Ge'ta, joint successors in the
+empire, and taking them with him, he landed in Britain, A.D. 208, to
+the great terror of such as had drawn down his resentment. 14. Upon
+his progress into the country, he left his son Ge'ta in the southern
+part of the province, which had continued in obedience, and marched,
+with his son Caracal'la, against the Caledo'nians. 15. In this
+expedition, his army suffered prodigious hardships in pursuing the
+enemy; they were obliged to hew their way through intricate forests,
+to drain extensive marshes, and form bridges over rapid rivers; so
+that he lost fifty thousand men by fatigue and sickness. 16. However,
+he surmounted these inconveniences with unremitting bravery, and
+prosecuted his successes with such vigour, that he compelled the enemy
+to beg for peace; which they did not obtain without the surrender of a
+considerable part of their country. 17. It was then that, for its
+better security, he built the famous wall, which still goes by his
+name, extending from Solway Frith on the west, to the German Ocean on
+the east. He did not long survive his successes here, but died at
+York, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, after an active, though
+cruel reign of about eighteen years.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 964.<br />A.D. 211.</div>
+
+<p>
+18. Caracal'la and Ge'ta, his sons, being acknowledged as emperors by
+the army, began to show a mutual hatred to each other, even before
+their arrival at Rome. But this opposition was of no long continuance;
+for Caracal'la, being resolved to govern alone, furiously entered
+Ge'ta's apartment, and, followed by ruffians, slew him in his mother's
+arms. 19. Being thus sole emperor, he went on to mark his course with
+blood. Whatever was done by Domi'tian or Ne'ro, fell short of this
+monster's barbarities.<a name="FNanchor_2_201" id="FNanchor_2_201"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_201" class="fnanchor">[2]</a><span class="newpage"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg. 340]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image28.jpg"
+alt="Massacre of the Alexandrians."
+title="Massacre of the Alexandrians." width="416" height="294" />
+</div>
+<p>
+20. His tyrannies at length excited the resentment of Macri'nus, the
+commander of the forces in Mesopota'mia who employed one Mar'tial, a
+man of great strength, and a centurion of the guards, to dispatch him.
+21. Accordingly, as the emperor was riding out one day, near a little
+city called Carr&aelig;, he happened to withdraw himself privately, upon a
+natural occasion, with only one page to hold his horse. This was the
+opportunity Mar'tial had so long and ardently desired: when, running
+to him hastily, as if he had been called, he stabbed the emperor in
+the back, and killed him instantly. 22. Having performed this hardy
+attempt, he, with apparent unconcern, returned to his troop; but,
+retiring by insensible degrees, he endeavoured to secure himself by
+flight. His companions, however, soon missing him, and the page giving
+information of what had been done, he was pursued by the German horse,
+and cut in pieces.</p>
+<p>
+23. During the reign of this execrable tyrant, which continued six
+years, the empire was every day declining; the soldiers were entirely
+masters of every election; and as there were various armies in
+different parts, so there were as many interests opposed to each
+other.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 970.<br />A.D. 217.</div>
+
+<p>
+24. The soldiers, after remaining without an emperor two days, fixed
+upon Macri'nus, who took all possible methods to conceal his being
+privy to Caracal'la's murder. The senate confirmed their choice
+shortly after; and likewise that of his son, Diadumenia'nus, whom he
+took as partner in the empire. 25. Macri'nus<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg. 341]</a></span> was fifty-three
+years old when he entered upon the government. He was of obscure
+parentage; some say by birth a Moor, who, by the mere gradation of
+office, being made first prefect of the pr&aelig;torian bands, was now, by
+treason and accident, called to fill the throne.</p>
+<p>
+26. He was opposed by the intrigues of Mosa, and her grandson
+Heliogaba'lus; and being conquered by some seditious legions of his
+own army, he fled to Chalcedon,<a name="FNanchor_3_202" id="FNanchor_3_202"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_202" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> where those who were sent in
+pursuit overtook him, and put him to death, together with his son
+Diadumenia'nus, after a short reign of one year and two months.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 971.<br />A.D. 218.</div>
+
+<p>
+27. The senate and citizens of Rome being obliged to submit, as usual,
+to the appointment of the army, Heliogaba'lus ascended the throne at
+the age of fourteen. His short life was a mixture of effeminacy, lust,
+and extravagance. 28. He married six wives in the short space of four
+years, and divorced them all. He was so fond of the sex, that he
+carried his mother with him to the senate-house, and demanded that she
+should always be present when matters of importance were debated. He
+even went so far as to build a senate-house for women, appointing them
+suitable orders, habits and distinctions, of which his mother was made
+president. 29. They met several times; all their debates turned upon
+the fashions of the day, and the different formalities to be used at
+giving and receiving visits. To these follies he added cruelty and
+boundless prodigality; he used to say, that such dishes as were
+cheaply obtained were scarcely worth eating.</p>
+<p>
+30. However, his soldiers mutinying, as was now usual with them, they
+followed him to his palace, pursuing him from apartment to apartment,
+till at last he was found concealed in a closet. Having dragged him
+from thence through the streets, with the most bitter invectives, and
+dispatched him, they attempted once more to squeeze his pampered body
+into a closet; but not easily effecting this, they threw it into the
+Tiber, with heavy weights, that none might afterwards find it, or give
+it burial. This was the ignominious death of Heliogaba'lus, in the
+eighteenth year of his age, after a detestable reign of four
+years.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg. 342]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Who succeeded Didius Julianus? 2. What was the character of
+Severus? 3. By what means did he strengthen his power? 4. What were
+his first acts? 5. To whom did he commit the government in his
+absence? 6. What were his exploits? 7. How did Plautian conduct
+himself in this important post? 8. How was this treachery discovered?
+9. How was this effected? 10. Did Plautian fall into the snare? 11.
+How did he act on the occasion? 12. Was he pardoned? 13. How did
+Severus next employ himself? 14. What were his first measures in
+Britain? 15. Was it a difficult campaign? 16. Did he overcome these
+difficulties? 17. What famous work did he execute, and where did he
+die? 18. Who succeeded him, and how did the two emperors regard each
+other? 19. What was the conduct of Caracalla on thus becoming sole
+emperor? 20. Were these cruelties tamely suffered? 21. How was this
+effected? 22. Did the assassin escape? 23. What was the state of the
+empire during this reign? 24. Who succeeded Caracalla? 25. Who was
+Macrinus? 26. By whom was he opposed, and what was his fate? 27. How
+did Heliogabalus govern? 28. Give a few instances of his folly? 29.
+Did they enter into his views, and of what farther follies and vices
+was he guilty? 30. What was his end?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION III.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">I know that there are angry spirits</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And turbulent mutterers of stifled treason,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Who lurk in narrow places, and walk out</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Muffled, to whisper curses in the night;</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Disbanded soldiers, discontented ruffians,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And desperate libertines who brawl in taverns.&mdash;<i>Byron</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 975.<br />A.D. 222.</div>
+
+<p>
+1. Heliogaba'lus was succeeded by Alexander, his cousin-german,<a name="FNanchor_4_203" id="FNanchor_4_203"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_203" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+who, being declared emperor without opposition, the senate, with their
+usual adulation, were for conferring new titles upon him; but he
+modestly declined them all. 2. To the most rigid justice he added the
+greatest humanity. He loved the good, and was a severe reprover of the
+lewd and infamous. His accomplishments were equal to his virtues. He
+was an<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg. 343]</a></span> excellent mathematician, geometrician, and musician; he
+was equally skilful in painting and sculpture; and in poetry few of
+his time could equal him. In short, such were his talents, and such
+the solidity of his judgment, that though but sixteen years of age, he
+was considered equal in wisdom to a sage old man.</p>
+<p>
+3. About the thirteenth year of his reign the Upper Germans, and other
+northern nations, began to pour down in immense swarms upon the more
+southern parts of the empire. They passed the Rhine and the Danube
+with such fury, that all Italy was thrown into the most extreme
+consternation. 4. The emperor, ever ready to expose his person for the
+safety of his people, made what levies he could, and went in person to
+stem the torrent, which he speedily effected. It was in the course of
+his successes against the enemy that he was cut off by a mutiny among
+his own soldiers. He died in the twenty-ninth year of his age, after a
+prosperous reign of thirteen years and nine days.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 988.<br />A.D. 235.</div>
+
+<p>
+5. The tumults occasioned by the death of Alexander being appeased,
+Max'imin, who had been the chief promoter of the sedition, was chosen
+emperor. 6. This extraordinary man, whose character deserves a
+particular attention, was born of very obscure parentage, being the
+son of a poor herdsman of Thrace. He followed his father's humble
+profession, and had exercised his personal courage against the robbers
+who infested that part of the country in which he lived. Soon after,
+his ambition increasing, he left his poor employment and enlisted in
+the Roman army, where he soon became remarkable for his great
+strength, discipline, and courage. 7. This gigantic man, we are told,
+was eight feet and a half high; he had strength corresponding to his
+size, being not more remarkable for the magnitude than the symmetry of
+his person. His wife's bracelet usually served him for a thumb ring,
+and his strength was so great that he was able to draw a carriage
+which two oxen could not move. He could strike out the teeth of a
+horse with a blow of his fist, and break its thigh with a kick. 8. His
+diet was as extraordinary as his endowments: he generally ate forty
+pounds weight of flesh every day, and drank six gallons of wine,
+without committing any debauch in either. 9. With a frame so athletic,
+he was possessed of a mind undaunted in danger, neither fearing nor
+regarding any man. 10. The first time he was made known to the emperor
+Seve'rus, was while he was<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg. 344]</a></span> celebrating games on the birth day of
+his son Ge'ta. He overcame sixteen in running, one after the other; he
+then kept up with the emperor on horseback, and having fatigued him in
+the course, he was opposed to seven of the most active soldiers, and
+overcame them with the greatest ease. 11. These extraordinary exploits
+caused him to be particularly noticed; he had been taken into the
+emperor's body guard, and by the usual gradation of preferment came to
+be chief commander. In this situation he had been equally remarkable
+for his simplicity, discipline, and virtue; but, upon coming to the
+empire, he was found to be one of the greatest monsters of cruelty
+that had ever disgraced power; fearful of nothing himself, he seemed
+to sport with the terrors of all mankind.</p>
+<p>
+12. However, his cruelties did not retard his military operations,
+which were carried on with a spirit becoming a better monarch. He
+overthrew the Germans in several battles, wasted all their country
+with fire and sword for four hundred miles together, and formed a
+resolution of subduing all the northern nations, as far as the ocean.
+13. In these expeditions, in order to attach the soldiers more firmly
+to him, he increased their pay; and in every duty of the camp he
+himself took as much pains as the meanest sentinel in his army,
+showing incredible courage and assiduity. In every engagement, where
+the conflict was hottest, Max'imin was seen fighting in person, and
+destroying all before him; for, being bred a barbarian, he considered
+it his duty to combat as a common soldier, while he commanded as a
+general.</p>
+<p>
+14. In the mean time his cruelties had so alienated the minds of his
+subjects, that secret conspiracies were secretly aimed against him.
+None of them, however, succeeded, till at last his own soldiers, long
+harassed by famine and fatigue, and hearing of revolts on every side,
+resolved to terminate their calamities by the tyrant's death. 15. His
+great strength, and his being always armed, at first deterred them
+from assassinating him; but at length the soldiers, having made his
+guards accomplices in their designs, set upon him while he slept at
+noon in his tent, and without opposition slew both him and his son,
+whom he had made his partner in the empire. 16. Thus died this most
+remarkable man, after an usurpation of about three years, in the
+sixty-fifth year of his age. His assiduity when in a humble station,
+and his cruelty when in power, serve to evince, that there are some
+men whose virtues are fitted for<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg. 345]</a></span> obscurity, as there are others
+who only show themselves great when placed in an exalted station.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 991.<br />A.D. 238.</div>
+
+<p>
+17. The tyrant being dead, and his body thrown to dogs and birds of
+prey, Pupie'nus and Balbie'nus, who had usurped the imperial purple,
+continued for some time emperors, without opposition. 18. But,
+differing between themselves, the pr&aelig;torian soldiers, who were the
+enemies of both, set upon them in their palace, at a time when their
+guards were amused with seeing the Capit'oline games; and dragging
+them from the palace towards the camp, slew them both, leaving their
+dead bodies in the street, as a dreadful instance of unsuccessful
+ambition.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 991.<br />A.D. 238.</div>
+
+<p>
+19. In the midst of this sedition, as the mutineers were proceeding
+along, they by accident met Gor'dian, the grandson of him who was
+slain in Africa: him they declared emperor on the spot. 20. This
+prince was but sixteen years old when he began to reign, but his
+virtues seemed to compensate for his want of experience. His principal
+aims were to unite the opposing members of government, and to
+reconcile the soldiers and citizens to each other. 21. The army,
+however, began as usual to murmur; and their complaints were artfully
+fomented by Philip, an Arabian, who was pr&aelig;torian prefect, and aspired
+to the sovereignty. Things thus proceeded from bad to worse. 22.
+Philip was at first made equal to Gor'dian in the command of the
+empire; shortly after he was invested with the sole power; and at
+length, finding himself capable of perpetrating his long meditated
+cruelty, Gor'dian was by his order slain, in the twenty-second year of
+his age, after a successful reign of nearly six years.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Who succeeded Heliogabalus?</p>
+<p>
+2. What was his character?</p>
+<p>
+3. Was his reign peaceable?</p>
+<p>
+4. How did Alexander act on the occasion?</p>
+<p>
+5. Who succeeded Alexander?</p>
+<p>
+6. Who was Maximin?</p>
+<p>
+7. Describe his person.</p>
+<p>
+8. What farther distinguished him?</p>
+<p>
+9. Was his mind proportioned to his body?</p>
+<p>
+10. How did he attract the notice of Severus?</p>
+<p>
+11. By what means did he attain rank in the army?</p>
+<p>
+12. Was he equally a terror to his foreign enemies?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg. 346]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+13. By what means did he gain the confidence of his soldiers?</p>
+<p>
+14. What effect had his cruelties on the minds of his subjects?</p>
+<p>
+15. How did they accomplish their purpose?</p>
+<p>
+16. How long did he reign, and what inference may be drawn from his
+conduct?</p>
+<p>
+17. Who next mounted the imperial throne?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was their end?</p>
+<p>
+19. Who succeeded Pupienus and Balbienus?</p>
+<p>
+20. What were the character and views of this prince?</p>
+<p>
+21. Was his administration approved of by all?</p>
+<p>
+22. Did Philip accomplish his ambitious design?</p>
+
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION IV.<br />U.C. 996.&mdash;A.D. 243.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">What rein can hold licentious wickedness,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">When down the hill he holds his fierce career&mdash;<i>Shakspeare</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Philip having thus murdered his benefactor, was so fortunate as to
+be immediately acknowledged emperor by the army. Upon his exaltation
+he associated his son, a boy of six years of age, as his partner in
+the empire; and, in order to secure his power at home, made peace with
+the Persians, and marched his army towards Rome. 2. However, the army
+revolting in favour of De'cius, his general, and setting violently
+upon him, one of his sentinels at a blow cut off his head, or rather
+cleft it asunder, separating the under jaw from the upper. He died in
+the forty-fifth year of his age, after a short reign of about five
+years.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 1001.<br />A.D. 248.</div>
+
+<p>
+3. De'cius was universally acknowledged as his successor. His activity
+and wisdom seemed, in some measure, to stop the hastening decline of
+the Roman empire. The senate seemed to think so highly of his merits,
+that they voted him not inferior to Tra'jan; and indeed he appeared in
+every instance to consult their dignity, and the welfare of all the
+inferior ranks of people. 4. But no virtues could now prevent the
+approaching downfall of the state; the obstinate disputes between the
+Pagans and the Christians within the empire, and the unceasing
+irruptions of barbarous nations from without, enfeebled it beyond the
+power of remedy. 5. He was killed in an ambuscade of the enemy, in the
+fiftieth year of his age, after a short reign of two years and six
+months.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 1004.<br />A.D. 251.</div>
+
+<p>
+6. Gal'lus, who had betrayed the Roman army, had address enough to get
+himself declared emperor by that part of it which survived the
+defeat;<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg. 347]</a></span> he was forty-five years old when he began to reign, and
+was descended from an honourable family in Rome. 7. He was the first
+who bought a dishonourable peace from the enemies of the state,
+agreeing to pay a considerable annual tribute to the Goths, whom it
+was his duty to repress. He was regardless of every national calamity,
+and was lost in debauchery and sensuality. The Pagans were allowed a
+power of persecuting the Christians through all parts of the state. 8.
+These calamities were succeeded by a pestilence from heaven, that
+seemed to have spread over every part of the earth, and continued
+raging for several years, in an unheard-of manner; as well as by a
+civil war, which followed shortly after between Gallus and his general
+&AElig;milia'nus, who, having gained a victory over the Goths, was
+proclaimed emperor by his conquering army. 9. Gallus hearing this,
+soon roused from the intoxications of pleasure, and prepared to oppose
+his dangerous rival: but both he and his son were slain by &AElig;milia'nus,
+in a battle fought in Mossia. His death was merited, and his vices
+were such as to deserve the detestation of posterity. He died in the
+forty-seventh year of his age, after an unhappy reign of two years and
+four months, in which the empire suffered inexpressible calamities.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 1006.<br />A.D. 253.</div>
+
+<p>
+10. The senate refused to acknowledge the claims of &AElig;milia'nus; and an
+army that was stationed near the Alps chose Vale'rian, who was their
+commander, to succeed to the throne. 11. He set about reforming the
+state with a spirit that seemed to mark a good and vigorous mind. But
+reformation was now grown almost impracticable. 12. The Persians under
+their king Sapor, invading Syr'ia, took the unfortunate Vale'rian
+prisoner, as he was making preparations to oppose them; and the
+indignities as well as the cruelties, which were practised upon this
+unhappy monarch, thus fallen into the hands of his enemies, are almost
+incredible. 13. Sapor, we are told, used him as a footstool for
+mounting his horse; he added the bitterness of ridicule to his
+insults, and usually observed, that an attitude like that to which
+Vale'rian was reduced, was the best statue that could be erected in
+honour of his victory. 14. This horrid life of insult and sufferance
+continued for seven years; and was at length terminated by the cruel
+Persian commanding his prisoner's eyes to be plucked out, and
+afterwards causing him to be flayed alive.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 1012.<br />A.D. 259.</div>
+
+<p>
+15. When Vale'rian was taken prisoner, Galie'nus, his son, promising
+to revenge the insult, was chosen emperor,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg. 348]</a></span> being then about
+forty-one years old. However, it was soon discovered that he sought
+rather the splendours than the toils of empire; for, after having
+overthrown Ingen'uus, who had assumed the title of emperor, he sat
+down, as if fatigued with conquest, and gave himself up to ease and
+luxury. 16. At this time, no less than thirty pretenders were seen
+contending with each other for the dominion of the state, and adding
+the calamities of civil war to the rest of the misfortunes of this
+devoted empire. These are usually mentioned in history by the name of
+the thirty tyrants. 17. In this general calamity, Galie'nus, though at
+first seemingly insensible, was at length obliged for his own security
+to take the field, and led an army to besiege the city of Milan, which
+had been taken by one of the thirty usurping tyrants. In this
+expedition he was slain by his own soldiers: Mar'tian, one of his
+generals, having conspired against him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 1021.<br />A.D. 268.</div>
+
+<p>
+18. Fla'vius Clau'dius being nominated to succeed, was joyfully
+accepted by all orders of the state, and his title confirmed by the
+senate and the people. 19. He was a man of great valour and conduct,
+having performed the most excellent services against the Goths, who
+had long continued to make irruptions into the empire; but, after a
+great victory over that barbarous people, he was seized with a
+pestilential fever at Ser'mium in Panno'nia, of which he died, to the
+great regret of his subjects, and the irreparable loss of the Roman
+empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 1023.<br />A.D. 270.</div>
+
+<p>
+20. Upon the death of Clau'dius, Aure'lian was acknowledged by all the
+states of the empire, and assumed the command with a greater share of
+power than his predecessors had enjoyed for a long time before. 21.
+This active monarch was of mean and obscure parentage in Da'cia, and
+about fifty-five years old at the time of his coming to the throne. He
+had spent the early part of his life in the army, and had risen
+through all the gradations of military rank. He was of unshaken
+courage and amazing strength. He, in one engagement, killed forty of
+the enemy with his own hand; and at different times above nine
+hundred. In short, his valour and expedition were such, that he was
+compared to Julius C&aelig;sar; and, in fact, only wanted mildness and
+clemency to be every way his equal. 22. Among those who were compelled
+to submit to his power, was the famous Zeno'bia, queen of Palmy'ra. He
+subdued her country, destroyed her city, and took her<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg. 349]</a></span> prisoner.
+Longi'nus, the celebrated critic, who was secretary to the queen, was
+by Aure'lian's order put to death. Zeno'bia was reserved to grace his
+triumph; and afterwards was allotted such lands, and such an income,
+as served to maintain her in almost her former splendour. 23. But the
+emperor's severities were at last the cause of his own destruction.
+Mnes'theus, his principal secretary, having been threatened by him for
+some fault which he had committed, formed a conspiracy against him,
+and as the emperor passed, with a small guard, from Ura'clea, in
+Thrace, towards Byzan'tium, the conspirators set upon him at once and
+slew him, in the sixtieth year of his age, after a very active reign
+of almost five years.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 1028.<br />A.D. 275.</div>
+
+<p>
+24. After some time the senate made choice of Ta'citus, a man of great
+merit, and no way ambitious of the honours that were offered him,
+being at that time seventy-five years old. 25. A reign begun with much
+moderation and justice, only wanted continuance to have made his
+subjects happy: but after enjoying the empire about six months, he
+died of a fever in his march to oppose the Persians and Scyth'ians,
+who had invaded the eastern parts of the empire. 26. During this short
+period the senate seemed to have possessed a large share of authority,
+and the histories of the times are liberal of their praises to such
+emperors as were thus willing to divide their power.</p>
+<p>
+27. Upon the death of Ta'citus, his half-brother took upon himself the
+title of emperor, in Cile'sia: but being twice defeated by Pro'bus, he
+killed himself in despair, when the whole army, as if by common
+consent, cried out that Pro'bus should be emperor. 28. He was then
+forty-four years old; was born of noble parentage, and bred a soldier.
+He began early to distinguish himself for his discipline and valour:
+being frequently the first man that scaled the walls, or that burst
+into the enemy's camp. He was equally remarkable for single combat,
+and for having saved the lives of many eminent citizens. Nor were his
+activity and courage when elected to the empire less apparent than in
+his private station. 29. Every year now produced new calamities to the
+state; and fresh irruptions on every side threatened universal
+desolation. Perhaps at this time no abilities, except those of
+Pro'bus, were capable of opposing such united invasions. 30. However,
+in the end, his own mutinous soldiers, taking their opportunity, as he
+was marching into Greece, seized and slew him, after he had reigned
+six<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg. 350]</a></span> years and four months with general approbation. He was
+succeeded by Ca'rus.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Did Philip succeed without opposition?</p>
+<p>
+2. Was his reign of long duration?</p>
+<p>
+3. What was the character of Decius?</p>
+<p>
+4. Did he restore the empire to its former grandeur?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was his end?</p>
+<p>
+6. Who succeeded him?</p>
+<p>
+7. What was his character?</p>
+<p>
+8. What farther calamities distinguished this reign?</p>
+<p>
+9. What effect had this news on Gallus?</p>
+<p>
+10. Who succeeded Gallus?</p>
+<p>
+11. What were his first acts and their effects?</p>
+<p>
+12. What disaster befel him?</p>
+<p>
+13. How was he treated in captivity?</p>
+<p>
+14. Did he long survive this cruelty?</p>
+<p>
+15. Who succeeded him?</p>
+<p>
+16. Was Galienus the only pretender to the throne?</p>
+<p>
+17. What measures did Galienus adopt on this?</p>
+<p>
+18. Who succeeded Galienus?</p>
+<p>
+19. What were his character and end?</p>
+<p>
+20. Who succeeded Claudius?</p>
+<p>
+21. Who was Aurelian?</p>
+<p>
+22. Over whom did he triumph?</p>
+<p>
+23. What occasioned his destruction?</p>
+<p>
+24. Who succeeded Aurelian?</p>
+<p>
+25. Did he govern well?</p>
+<p>
+26. What distinguished his reign?</p>
+<p>
+27. Who succeeded Tacitus?</p>
+<p>
+28. What were the qualifications of Probus?</p>
+<p>
+29. What was the state of the empire at this time?</p>
+<p>
+30. What was the end of Probus?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION V.<br />
+U.C. 1035.&mdash;A.D. 282.</h4>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Forbid it, gods! when barbarous Scythians come</span><br />
+<span class="i2">From their cold north to prop declining Rome.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">That I should see her fall, and sit secure at home.&mdash;<i>Lucan</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Ca'rus, who was pr&aelig;torian prefect to the deceased emperor, was
+chosen by the army to succeed him; and he, to strengthen his
+authority, united his two sons, Cari'nus and Nume'rian, with him in
+command; the elder of whom was as much sullied by his vices, as the
+younger was remarkable for his virtues, his modesty, and courage.</p>
+<p>
+2. The next object of Ca'rus was to punish the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg. 351]</a></span> murderers of
+Pro'bus, and procure public tranquillity. Several nations of the west
+having revolted, he sent his son Cari'nus against them, and advanced
+himself against the Sarma'tians, whom he defeated, with the loss of
+sixteen thousand men killed, and twenty thousand prisoners. Soon after
+this he entered Persia, and removed to Mesopota'mia. Vera'nes the
+second, king of Persia, advancing against him, was defeated, and lost
+Ctes'iphon, his capital. This conquest gained Ca'rus the surname of
+Per'sieus; but he had not enjoyed it long, when he was struck dead, by
+lightning, in his tent, with many of his attendants, after a reign of
+about sixteen months. Upon the death of Ca'rus, the imperial power
+devolved on his sons Cari'nus and Nume'rian, who reigned jointly. In
+the first year of their accession, having made peace with the
+Persians, Cari'nus advanced against Ju'lian, who had caused himself to
+be proclaimed in Vene'tia,<a name="FNanchor_5_204" id="FNanchor_5_204"></a><a href="#Fnote_5_204" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> and whom he defeated; when he returned
+again into Gaul.</p>
+<p>
+3. Cari'nus was at this time in Gaul, but Nume'rian, the younger son,
+who accompanied his father in his expedition was inconsolable for his
+death, and brought such a disorder upon his eyes, with weeping, that
+he was obliged to be carried along with the army, shut up in a close
+litter. 4. The peculiarity of his situation, after some time, excited
+the ambition of A'per, his father-in-law, who supposed that he could
+now, without any great danger, aim at the empire himself. He therefore
+hired a mercenary villain to murder the emperor in his litter; and,
+the better to conceal the fact, gave out that he was still alive, but
+unable to endure the light. 5. The offensive smell, however, of the
+body, at length discovered the treachery, and excited an universal
+uproar throughout the whole army. 6. In the midst of this tumult,
+Diocle'sian, one of the most noted commanders of his time, was chosen
+emperor, and with his own hand slew A'per, having thus, as it is said,
+fulfilled a prophecy, that Diocle'sian should be emperor after he had
+slain a boar.<a name="FNanchor_6_205" id="FNanchor_6_205"></a><a href="#Fnote_6_205" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 1057.<br />A.D. 284.</div>
+
+<p>
+7. Diocle'sian was a person of mean birth; he received his name from
+Dio'clea, the town in which he was born, and was about forty years old
+when he was elected to the empire. He owed his exaltation entirely to
+his merit; having passed through all the gradations of office with
+sagacity, courage, and success.<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg. 352]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+8. In his time, the northern hive, as it was called poured down
+its swarms of barbarians upon the Roman empire. Ever at war with the
+Romans, they issued forth whenever that army that was to repress their
+invasions was called away; and upon its return, they as suddenly
+withdrew into their cold, barren, and inaccessible retreats, which
+themselves alone could endure. 9. In this manner the Scyth'ians,
+Goths, Sarma'tians, Ala'ni, Car'sii, and Qua'di, came down in
+incredible numbers, while every defeat seemed but to increase their
+strength and perseverance. 10. After gaining many victories over
+these, and in the midst of his triumphs, Diocle'sian and Maxim'ian,
+his partners in the empire, surprised the world by resigning their
+dignities on the same day, and both retiring into private stations.
+11. In this manner Diocle'sian lived some time, and at length died
+either by poison or madness, but by which of them is uncertain. His
+reign of twenty years was active and useful; and his authority, which
+was tinctured with severity, was adapted to the depraved state of
+morals at that time.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 1057.<br />A.D. 304.</div>
+
+<p>
+12. Upon the resignation of the two emperors, the two C&aelig;sars, whom
+they had before chosen, were universally acknowledged as their
+successors, namely, Constan'tius Chlo'rus, so called from the paleness
+of his complexion, a man virtuous, valiant, and merciful; and
+Gele'rius, who was brave, but brutal, incontinent and cruel. 13. As
+there was such a disparity in their tempers, they readily agreed, upon
+coming into full power, to divide the empire. Constan'tius was
+appointed to govern the western parts, and died at York, in Britain,
+A.D. 396, appointing Con'stantine, his son, as his successor.
+Gale'rius was seized with a very extraordinary disorder, which baffled
+the skill of his physicians, and carried him off.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 1064.<br />A.D. 311.</div>
+
+<p>
+14. Con'stantine, afterwards surnamed the Great, had some competitors
+at first for the throne.&mdash;Among the rest was Maxen'tius, who was at
+that time in possession of Rome, and a stedfast assertor of Paganism.
+15. It was in Constantine's march against that usurper, we are told,
+that he was converted to Christianity, by a very extraordinary
+appearance. 16. One evening, the army being on its march towards Rome,
+Constantine was intent on various considerations upon the fate of
+sublunary things, and the dangers of his approaching expedition.
+Sensible of his own incapacity to succeed without divine assistance,
+he employed his meditations upon the opinions<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg. 353]</a></span> that were then
+agitated among mankind, and sent up his ejaculations to heaven to
+inspire him with wisdom to choose the path he should pursue. As the
+sun was declining, there suddenly appeared a pillar of light in the
+heavens, in the fashion of a cross, with this inscription, EN TOTTO
+NIKA, IN THIS OVERCOME. 17. So extraordinary an appearance did not
+fail to create astonishment, both in the emperor and his whole army,
+who reflected on it as their various dispositions led them to believe.
+Those who were attached to Paganism, prompted by their aruspices,
+pronounced it to be a most inauspicious omen, portending the most
+unfortunate events; but it made a different impression on the
+emperor's mind; who, as the account goes, was farther encouraged by
+visions the same night. 18. He, therefore, the day following, caused a
+royal standard to be made, like that which he had seen in the heavens,
+and commanded it to be carried before him in his wars, as an ensign of
+victory and celestial protection. After this he consulted with the
+principal teachers of Christianity, and made a public avowal of that
+holy religion.</p>
+<p>
+19. Con'stantine having thus attached his soldiers to his interest,
+who were mostly of the Christian persuasion, lost no time in entering
+Italy, with ninety thousand foot and eight thousand horse, and soon
+advanced almost to the very gates of Rome. Maxen'tius advanced from
+the city with an army of a hundred and seventy thousand foot, and
+eighteen thousand horse. 20. The engagement was fierce and bloody,
+till the cavalry of the latter being routed, victory declared upon the
+side of his opponent, and he himself was drowned in his flight by the
+breaking down of a bridge, as he attempted to cross the Tiber.</p>
+<p>
+21. In consequence of this victory, Con'stantine entered the city, but
+disclaimed all the praises which the senate and people were ready to
+offer; and ascribed his successes to a superior power. He even caused
+the cross, which he was said to have seen in the heavens, to be placed
+at the right hand of all his statues, with this inscription: "That
+under the influence of that Victorious Cross, Con'stantine had
+delivered the city from the yoke of tyrannical power, and had restored
+the senate, and people of Rome to their ancient authority." He
+afterwards ordained that no criminal should, for the future, suffer
+death upon the cross, which had formerly been the most usual way of
+punishing slaves convicted of capital offences. 22. Edicts were soon
+after issued,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg. 354]</a></span> declaring that the Christians should be eased of
+all their grievances, and received into places of trust and authority.</p>
+<p>
+23. Things continued in this state for some time. Con'tantine
+contributing every thing in his power to the interest of religion, and
+the revival of learning, which had long been upon the decline, and was
+almost wholly extinct in his dominions. 24. But, in the midst of these
+assiduities, the peace of the empire was again disturbed by the
+preparations of Maxim'ian, who governed in the east; and who, desirous
+of a full participation of power, marched against Licin'ius with a
+very numerous army. 25. In consequence of this step, after many
+conflicts, a general engagement ensued, in which Maxim'ian suffered a
+total defeat; many of his troops were cut to pieces, and those that
+survived submitted to the conqueror. Having, however, escaped the
+general carnage, he put himself at the head of another army, resolving
+to try the fortune of the field; but his death prevented the design.
+26. As he died by a very extraordinary kind of madness, the
+Christians, of whom he was the declared enemy, did not fail to ascribe
+his end to a judgment from heaven. But this was the age in which false
+opinions and false miracles made up the bulk of every history.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. Who succeeded Probus?</p>
+<p>
+2. Mention the actions of Carus, and the manner of his death.</p>
+<p>
+3. How were his sons affected by this catastrophe?</p>
+<p>
+4. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+5. How was this atrocious act discovered?</p>
+<p>
+6. Did Aper reap the reward of his treachery?</p>
+<p>
+7. Who was Dioclesian?</p>
+<p>
+8. By whom was the empire now invaded?</p>
+<p>
+9. Were they effectually repelled?</p>
+<p>
+10. What remarkable event now occurred?</p>
+<p>
+11. What was the end of Dioclesian?</p>
+<p>
+12. Who succeeded Dioclesian and Maximian?</p>
+<p>
+13. How did they conduct the administration?</p>
+<p>
+14. Did Constantine succeed without any opposition?</p>
+<p>
+15. Did not a remarkable occurrence happen about this time?</p>
+<p>
+16. Repeat the particulars.</p>
+<p>
+17. What effect had this appearance on the emperor and his men?</p>
+<p>
+18. What orders did he issue in consequence?</p>
+<p>
+19. What was the respective strength of the hostile armies?</p>
+<p>
+20. What was the result of the engagement?</p>
+<p>
+21. What use did Constantine make of his victory?</p>
+<p>
+22. What edicts did he publish on the occasion?</p>
+<p>
+23. How was Constantine employed after this?</p>
+<p>
+24. Did the peace long continue?</p>
+<p>
+25. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+26. To what was his death ascribed?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg. 355]</a></span></p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION VI.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">A crown? what is it?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">It is to bear the miseries of a people!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">To hear their murmurs, feel their discontents,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And sink beneath a load of splendid care!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">To have your best success ascribed to Fortune.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And Fortune's failures all ascribed to you!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">It is to sit upon a joyless height,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">To every blast of changing fate exposed!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Too high for hope! too great for happiness!&mdash;<i>H. More</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Con'stantine and Licin'ius thus remaining undisputed possessors of,
+and partners in the empire, all things promised a peaceable
+continuance of friendship and power. 2. However, it was soon found
+that the same ambition that aimed after a part, would be content with
+nothing less than the whole. Pagan writers ascribe the rupture between
+these two potentates to Con'stantine; while the Christians, on the
+other hand, impute it wholly to Licin'ius. 3. Both sides exerted all
+their power to gain the ascendancy; and at the head of very formidable
+armies came to an engagement near Cy'balis, in Panno'nia. 4.
+Con'stantine, previous to the battle, in the midst of his Christian
+bishops, begged the assistance of heaven; while Licin'ius, with equal
+zeal, called upon the Pagan priests to intercede with the gods in
+their favour. 5. The success was on the side of truth. Con'stantine,
+after experiencing an obstinate resistance, became victorious, took
+the enemy's camp, and after some time compelled Licin'ius to sue for a
+truce, which was agreed upon. 6. But this was of no long continuance;
+for, soon after, the war breaking out afresh, the rivals came once
+more to a general engagement, and it proved decisive. Licin'ius was
+entirely defeated, and pursued by Con'stantine into Nicome'dia, where
+he surrendered himself up to the victor; having first obtained an oath
+that his life should be spared, and that he should be permitted to
+pass the remainder of his days in retirement. 7. This, however,
+Con'stantine shortly after broke; for either fearing his designs, or
+finding him actually engaged in fresh conspiracies, he commanded him
+to be put to death, together with Mar'tian, his general, who some time
+before had been created C&aelig;sar.</p>
+<p>
+8. Con'stantine being thus become sole monarch, resolved to establish
+Christianity on so sure a basis that no new revolution should shake
+it. He commanded that, in all the provinces of the empire, the orders
+of the bishops should he implicitly obeyed. He called also a general
+council, in<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg. 356]</a></span> order to repress the heresies that had already crept
+into the church, particularly that of A'rius. 9. To this council, at
+which he presided in person, repaired about three hundred and eighteen
+bishops, besides a multitude of presbyters and deacons; who all,
+except about seventeen, concurred in condemning the tenets of A'rius,
+who, with his associates, was banished into a remote part of the
+empire.</p>
+<p>
+10. Thus he restored universal tranquillity to his dominions, but was
+not able to ward off calamities of a more domestic nature. As the
+wretched historians of this period are entirely at variance with each
+other, it is not easy to explain the motives which induced him to put
+his wife Faus'ta, and his son Cris'pus, to death.</p>
+<p>
+11. But it is supposed, that all the good he did was not equal to the
+evil the empire sustained by his transferring the imperial seat from
+Rome to Byzan'tium, or Constantino'ple, as it was afterwards called.
+12. Whatever might have been the reasons which induced him to this
+undertaking; whether it was because he was offended at some affronts
+he had received at Rome, or that he supposed Constantino'ple more in
+the centre of the empire, or that he thought the eastern parts more
+required his presence, experience has shown that they were all weak
+and groundless. 13. The empire had long before been in a most
+declining state: but this, in a great measure, gave precipitation to
+its downfall. After this, it never resumed its former splendour, but,
+like a flower transplanted into a foreign clime, languished by
+degrees, and at length sunk into nothing.</p>
+<p>
+14. At first, his design was to build a city, which he might make the
+capital of the world: and for this purpose he made choice of a
+situation at Chal'cedon, in Asia Minor; but we are told that, in
+laying out the ground plan, an eagle caught up the line, and flew with
+it over to Byzan'tium, a city which lay on the opposite side of the
+Bosphorus. 15. Here, therefore, it was thought expedient to fix the
+seat of empire; and, indeed, nature seemed to have formed it with all
+the conveniences, and all the beauties which might induce power to
+make it the seat of residence.</p>
+<p>
+16. It was situated on a plain, that rose gently from the water: it
+commanded that strait which unites the Mediterranean with the Euxine
+sea, and was furnished with all the advantages which the most
+indulgent climate could bestow.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">U.C. 1084.<br />A.D. 330.</div>
+
+<p>
+17. The city, therefore, he beautified with the most magnificent
+edifices; he divided it into fourteen regions; built<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg. 357]</a></span> a capitol,
+an amphitheatre, many churches, and other public works; and having
+thus rendered it equal to the magnificence of his first idea, he
+dedicated it in a very solemn manner to the God of martyrs; and in
+about two years after repaired thither with his whole court.</p>
+<p>
+18. This removal produced no immediate alteration in the government of
+the empire. The inhabitants of Rome, though with reluctance, submitted
+to the change; nor was there, for two or three years, any disturbance
+in the state, until at length the Goths, finding that the Romans had
+withdrawn all their garrisons along the Danube, renewed their inroads,
+and ravaged the country with unheard-of cruelty. 19. Con'stantine,
+however, soon repressed their incursions, and so straitened them, that
+nearly a hundred thousand of their number perished by cold and hunger.</p>
+<p>
+20. Another great error ascribed to him is, the dividing the empire
+among his sons. Con'stantine, the emperor's eldest son, commanded in
+Gaul and the western provinces; Constan'tius, the second, governed
+Africa and Illyr'icum; and Con'stans, the youngest, ruled in Italy.
+21. This division of the empire still further contributed to its
+downfall; for the united strength of the state being no longer brought
+to repress invasion, the barbarians fought with superior numbers, and
+conquered at last, though often defeated. When Con'stantine was above
+sixty years old, and had reigned about thirty, he found his health
+decline.</p>
+<p>
+22. His disorder, which was an ague, increasing, he went to
+Nicome'dia, where, finding himself without hopes of a recovery, he
+caused himself to be baptised. He soon after received the sacrament,
+and expired.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the state of the empire at this period?</p>
+<p>
+2. Was this peace lasting, and by whom was it broken?</p>
+<p>
+3. Was the contest likely to be vigorous?</p>
+<p>
+4. In what way did the two emperors prepare for the conflict?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the result?</p>
+<p>
+6. Was this truce religiously observed?</p>
+<p>
+7. Did Constantine fulfil his engagement?</p>
+<p>
+8. What was Constantine's resolution on becoming sole monarch, and
+what steps did he take?</p>
+<p>
+9. By whom was it attended, and what was the result?</p>
+<p>
+10. Was he happy in his domestic relations?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg. 358]</a></span> 11. Was the removal
+of the seat of the empire beneficial to the state?</p>
+<p>
+12. Were his reasons for doing so well grounded?</p>
+<p>
+13. What was the consequence?</p>
+<p>
+14. What was his original intention, and what induced him to alter it?</p>
+<p>
+15. Was it a Convenient spot?</p>
+<p>
+16. Describe its situation.</p>
+<p>
+17. What alteration did he make, and to whom was it dedicated?</p>
+<p>
+18. What was the immediate effect of this transfer?</p>
+<p>
+19. Were they vigorously opposed?</p>
+<p>
+20. Of what error is Constantine accused besides?</p>
+<p>
+21. What was the consequence of this division?</p>
+<p>
+22. Relate the particulars of his death.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_200" id="Fnote_1_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_200">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Com'modus was the first emperor that was born in his
+father's reign, and the second that succeeded his father in the
+empire.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_201" id="Fnote_2_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_201">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Being offended by the Alexan'drians, he commanded them to
+be put to the sword without distinction of sex, age, or condition;
+every house was filled with carcases, and the streets were obstructed
+with dead bodies; this was merely in revenge for some lampoons they
+had published against him.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_202" id="Fnote_3_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_202">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A city of Bithyn'ia, in Asia Minor, opposite to
+Constantinople.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_203" id="Fnote_4_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_203">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A Term generally applied to the children of brothers or
+sisters.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_5_204" id="Fnote_5_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_204">[5]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Now called Venice.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_6_205" id="Fnote_6_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_205">[6]</a></p>
+<p>
+ A'per signifies a boar.</p>
+</div>
+<br />
+<p>
+<i>Dr. Goldsmith having concluded his History too abruptly, it has been
+thought advisable to cancel his last Chapter, and substitute the
+following brief notice of the events which occurred from the death of
+Constantine to the final extinction of the Empire of the West</i>.</p>
+<br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XXV.</h2><hr /> <br /> <br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.<br />
+FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE TO THE RE-UNION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+UNDER THEODOSIUS THE GREAT.</h4>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i8">Talents, angel bright.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">If wanting worth, are shining instruments</span><br />
+<span class="i2">In false ambition's hands, to finish faults</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Illustrious, and give infamy renown.&mdash;<i>Young</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. The character of the prince who removed the seat of empire and made
+a complete revolution in the civil and religious institutions of his
+country, is naturally one on which the opinions of historians are
+divided, according to their sentiments respecting the great changes
+that he effected. The heathen writers describe him as a monster of
+tyranny; the Christian fathers are anxious to conceal his faults and
+exaggerate his virtues, as if the nature of Christianity was in some
+degree affected by the character of its first and greatest patron. The
+truth is, that the character of Constantine, like that of other great
+conquerors, varied with the circumstances of his life. While engaged
+in the contest for empire, while employed in making unparalleled
+political changes, he displayed the fortitude of a hero, and wisdom of
+a legislator; but when complete success reduced him to inactivity,
+when his vigorous mind was no longer stimulated by fear or hope,
+prosperity roused all his bad passions by affording an opportunity for
+their indulgence; and the virtues which had insured<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg. 359]</a></span> victory
+disappeared when there was no longer any stimulus to rouse them into
+action. The fourteen years of profound peace that preceded the
+emperor's death, form a period of great external splendour, but of
+real and rapid decay; the court was distinguished at once by avarice
+and prodigality; the money raised by heavy taxes, unknown in former
+ages, was lavished on unworthy favourites or wasted in idle
+exhibitions of magnificence. 2. A mind relaxed by prosperity is
+peculiarly open to suspicion; the ears of the monarch were greedily
+lent to every tale brought to him by malignant spies and informers;
+such encouragement increased the number of those wretches; every
+street and almost every house in the capital, contained some one ever
+on the watch to pick up any unguarded expression which might be
+distorted into treason or sedition. It was not likely that a monarch
+who had consented to the murder of his own son, on the most groundless
+charges, would be more merciful to those who had no natural claims
+upon his forbearance; execution followed execution with fearful
+rapidity, until the bonds of society were broken, and every man
+dreaded his neighbour, lest by misinterpreting a word or look, he
+should expose him to the indiscriminate cruelty of the sovereign.</p>
+<p>
+3. The example of their father's tyranny produced an effect on the
+minds of his sons, which no education, however excellent or judicious,
+could remove. Pious Christian pastors, learned philosophers, and
+venerable sages of the law, were employed to instruct the three
+princes, Constanti'ne, Constan'tius, and Con'stans; but the effects of
+their labours never appeared in the lives of their pupils.</p>
+<p>
+4. For some reasons which it is now impossible to discover, the great
+Constantine had raised two of his nephews to the rank of princes, and
+placed them on an equality with his own children. Before the emperor's
+body was consigned to the tomb, this impolitic arrangement brought
+destruction on the entire Flavian family. A forged scroll was produced
+by the bishop of Nicome'dia, purporting to be Constantine's last will,
+in which he accused his brothers of having given him poison, and
+besought his sons to avenge his death. 5. Constan'tius eagerly
+embraced such an opportunity of destroying the objects of his
+jealousy; his two uncles, seven of his cousins, the patrician
+Opta'lus, who married the late emperor's sister, and the prefect
+Abla'vius, whose chief crime was enormous wealth, were subjected to a
+mock trial, and delivered to the executioner. Of so numerous a
+family<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg. 360]</a></span> Gal'lus and Julian alone were spared; they owed their
+safety to their concealment, until the rage of the assassins had
+abated. 6. After this massacre, the three brothers, similar in name,
+and more alike in crime, proceeded to divide their father's dominions:
+Constantine took for his share the new capital and the central
+provinces; Thrace and the East were assigned to Constan'tius;
+Con'stans received Italy, Africa, and the western Illy'ricum.</p>
+<p>
+7. The weakness produced by this division encouraged the enemies of
+the Romans, whom the dread of Constantine's power had hitherto kept
+quiet, to take up arms. Of these the most formidable was Sa'por king
+of Persia. 8. The abilities of Sapor showed that he merited a throne;
+he had scarcely arrived at maturity when he led an army against Tha'ir
+king of Arabia, who had harassed Persia during his minority; the
+expedition was completely successful. Tha'ir was slain, and the
+kingdom subdued. The young conqueror did not abuse his victory; he
+treated the vanquished with such clemency, that the Arabs gave him the
+title of <i>Doulacnaf</i> or protector of the nation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A.D. 338.</div>
+
+<p>
+9. On the death of Constantine, Sa'por invaded the eastern provinces
+of the Roman empire; he was vigorously opposed by Constan'tius, and
+the war was protracted during several years with varying fortune. At
+the battle of Sin'gara, the Romans surprised the Persian camp, but
+were in their turn driven from it with great slaughter by the troops
+which Sapor had rallied. The eldest son of the Persian king was,
+however, brought off as a prisoner by the Romans, and the barbarous
+Constan'tius ordered him to be scourged, tortured, and publicly
+executed. 10. Though Sa'por had been victorious in the field, he
+failed in his chief design of seizing the Roman fortresses in
+Mesopota'mia; during twelve years he repeatedly besieged Ni'sibis,
+which had been long the great eastern bulwark of the empire, but was
+invariably baffled by the strength of the place, and the valour of the
+garrison. At length both parties became wearied of a struggle which
+exhausted their resources, and new enemies appearing, they resolved to
+conclude a peace. Sa'por returned home to repel an invasion of the
+Scythians; Constan'tius, by the death of his two brothers, found
+himself involved in a civil war which required his undivided
+attention.</p>
+<p>
+11. Constan'tine had scarcely been seated on his throne, when he
+attempted to wrest from Con'stans some of the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg. 361]</a></span> provinces which had
+been assigned as his portion. He rashly led his army over the Julian
+Alps, and devastated the country round Aquile'ia where, falling into
+an ambuscade, he perished ingloriously. Con'stans seized on the
+inheritance of the deceased prince, and retained it during ten years,
+obstinately refusing to give any share to his brother Constan'tius.
+12. But the tyranny of Con'stans at last became insupportable.
+Magnen'tius, an enterprising general, proclaimed himself emperor, and
+his cause was zealously embraced by the army. Con'stans was totally
+unprepared for this insurrection; deserted by all except a few
+favourites, whom dread of the popular hatred they had justly incurred
+prevented from desertion, he attempted to escape into Spain, but was
+overtaken at the foot of the Pyrenees, and murdered. 13. The
+prefectures of Gaul and Italy cheerfully submitted to the usurpation
+of Magnen'tius; but the legions of Illyr'icum elected their general,
+Vetra'nio, emperor, and his usurpation was sanctioned by the princess
+Constanti'na, who, regardless of her brother's rights, placed the
+diadem upon his head with her own hands. 14. The news of these events
+hastened the return of Constan'tius to Europe; on his arrival at the
+capital, he received embassies from the two usurpers, offering terms
+of accommodation; he rejected the terms of Magnen'tius with disdain,
+but entered into a negociation with Vetra'nio. The Illyrian leader,
+though a good general, was a bad politician; he allowed himself to be
+duped by long discussions, until the greater part of his army had been
+gained over by Constan'tius; he then consented to a personal
+interview, and had the mortification to see his soldiers, with one
+accord, range themselves under the banners of their lawful sovereign.
+Vetra'nio immediately fell at the feet of Constan'tius, and tendered
+his homage, which was cheerfully accepted; he was not only pardoned,
+but rewarded; the city of Pru'sa, in Bythnia, was allotted to him as a
+residence, and a pension assigned for his support. 15. The war against
+Magnen'tius was maintained with great obstinacy, but at first with
+little success; the emperor was confined in his fortified camp, while
+the troops of the usurper swept the surrounding country, and captured
+several important posts. Constan'tius was so humbled, that he even
+proposed a treaty, but the terms on which Magnen'tius insisted were so
+insulting, that the emperor determined to encounter the hazard of a
+battle. Scarcely had he formed this resolution, when his army was
+strengthened by the accession of<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg. 362]</a></span> Sylva'nus, a general of some
+reputation, who, with a large body of cavalry, deserted from the
+enemy.</p>
+<p>
+16. The decisive battle between the competitors for the empire, was
+fought under the walls of Mur'sa, a city on the river Drave.
+Magnen'tius attempted to take the place by storm, but was repulsed;
+and almost at the same moment, the imperial legions were seen
+advancing to raise the siege. The army of Magnen'tius consisted of the
+western legions that had already acquired fame in the wars of Gaul;
+with battalions of Germans and other barbarous tribes, that had of
+late years been incorporated with the regular forces. In addition to
+the imperial guards, Constan'tius had several troops of those oriental
+archers, whose skill with the bow was so justly celebrated; but far
+the most formidable part of his army were his mail-clad cuirassiers,
+whose scaly armour, and ponderous lances, made their charge almost
+irresistible. The cavalry on the emperor's left wing commenced the
+engagement, and broke through the Gallic legions in the first charge;
+the hardy veterans again rallied, were again charged, and again
+broken; at length, before they could form their lines, the light
+cavalry of the second rank rode, sword in hand, through the gaps made
+by the cuirassiers, and completed their destruction. Meantime, the
+Germans and barbarians stood exposed, with almost naked bodies, to the
+destructive shafts of the oriental archers; whole troops, stung with
+anguish and despair, threw themselves into the rapid stream of the
+Drave, and perished. Ere the sun had set, the army of Magnen'tius was
+irretrievably ruined; fifty-four thousand of the vanquished were
+slain, and the loss of the conquerors is said to have been even
+greater.</p>
+<p>
+17. From this battle the ruin of the Roman empire may be dated; the
+loss of one hundred thousand of its best and bravest soldiers could
+not be repaired, and never again did any emperor possess a veteran
+army equal to that which fell on the fatal plains of Mur'sa. The
+defeat of Magnen'tius induced the Italian and African provinces to
+return to their allegiance; the Gauls, wearied out by the exactions
+which distress forced the usurper to levy, refused to acknowledge his
+authority, and at length his own soldiers raised the cry of "God save
+Constan'tius." To avoid the disgrace of a public execution,
+Magnen'tius committed suicide, and several members of his family
+imitated his example. The victor punished with relentless severity all
+who had shared in the guilt of this rebellion; and several who had
+been compelled<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg. 363]</a></span> to join in it by force shared the fate of those by
+whom it had been planned.</p>
+<p>
+18. The Roman, empire was now once more united under a single monarch;
+but as that prince was wholly destitute of merit, his victory served
+only to establish the reign of worthless favourites. Of these the most
+distinguished was the chamberlain, Euse'bius, whose influence was so
+great that he was considered the master of the emperor; and to whose
+instigation many of the crimes committed by Constan'tius must be
+attributed.</p>
+<p>
+19 Gal'lus and Ju'lian, who had escaped in the general massacre of the
+Flavian family, were detained as prisoners of state in a strong
+castle, which had once been the residence of the kings of Cappado'cia.
+Their education had not been neglected, and they had been assigned a
+household proportionate to the dignity of their birth. At length the
+emergencies of the state compelled Constan'tius to nominate an
+associate in the government of the empire; and Gal'lus now in the
+twenty-fifth year of his age, was summoned from his retirement,
+invested with the title of C&aelig;sar, and married to the princess
+Constan'tina. 20. The latter circumstance proved his ruin; stimulated
+by the cruel ambition of his wife, he committed deeds of tyranny,
+which alienated the affections of his subjects, and acts bordering on
+treason, that roused the jealousy of Constan'tius. He was summoned to
+appear at the imperial court to explain his conduct, but was seized on
+his journey, made a close prisoner, and transmitted to Po'la a town in
+Ist'ria, where he was put to death.</p>
+<p>
+21. Julian, the last remnant of the Flavian family, was, through the
+powerful intercession of the empress, spared, and permitted to
+pursue his studies in Athens. In that city, where the Pagan philosophy
+was still publicly taught, the future emperor imbibed the doctrines of
+the heathens, and thus acquired the epithet of Apostate, by which he
+is unenviably known to posterity. Julian was soon recalled from his
+retirement, and elevated to the station which his unfortunate brother
+had enjoyed. His investiture with the royal purple took place at
+Milan, whither Constantius had proceeded to quell a new insurrection
+in the western provinces.</p>
+<p>
+22. Before the emperor returned to the east, he determined to revisit
+the ancient capital; and Rome, after an interval of more than thirty
+years, became for a brief space the residence the sovereign. He
+signalized his visit by presenting to the city an obelisk, which at a
+vast expense he procured<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg. 364]</a></span> to be transported from Egypt. 23. The
+renewed efforts of the Persians and other enemies of the empire in the
+East, recalled Constan'tius to Constantinople, while Julian was
+employed in driving from Gaul the barbarous tribes by which it had
+been invaded. The conduct of the young C&aelig;sar, both as a soldier and a
+statesman, fully proved that literary habits do not disqualify a
+person from discharging the duties of active life; he subdued the
+enemies that devastated the country, and forced them to seek refuge in
+their native forests; he administered the affairs of state with so
+much wisdom, temperance, and equity, that he acquired the enthusiastic
+love of his subjects, and richly earned the admiration of posterity.
+24. The unexpected glory obtained by Julian, awakened the jealousy of
+Constan'tius; he sent to demand from him a large body of forces, under
+the pretence that reinforcements were wanting in the East; but the
+soldiers refused to march, and Julian, after some affected delays,
+sanctioned their disobediance. A long negociation, in which there was
+little sincerity on either side, preceded any hostile step; both at
+length began to put their armies in motion, but the horrors of civil
+war were averted by the timely death of Constan'tius, who fell a
+victim to fever, aggravated by his impatience, at a small village near
+Tar'sus in Cili'cia.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the character of Constantine the Great?</p>
+<p>
+2. Did any evil result from the employment of spies?</p>
+<p>
+3. In what manner were the sons of Constantine educated?</p>
+<p>
+4. What conspiracy was formed against part of the imperial family?</p>
+<p>
+5. Did any of the Flavian family escape from the massacre?</p>
+<p>
+6. How was the empire divided between the sons of Constantine?</p>
+<p>
+7. Who was the most formidable enemy of the empire?</p>
+<p>
+8. How did the king of Persia behave in the Arabian war?</p>
+<p>
+9. What were the chief events in the war between Sapor and
+Constantius? 10. How were Sapor and Constantius forced to make peace?</p>
+<p>
+11. What was the fate of the younger Constantine?</p>
+<p>
+12. By whom was Constans dethroned?</p>
+<p>
+13. What parties embraced the cause of Vetranio?</p>
+<p>
+14. How did Constantius treat the Illyrian general?</p>
+<p>
+15. Was Magnentius deserted by any of his forces?</p>
+<p>
+16. What were the circumstances of the battle of Mursa?</p>
+<p>
+17. What important results were occasioned by this great battle?</p>
+<p>
+18. Who was the prime minister of Constantius?</p>
+<p>
+19. Whom did the emperor select as an associate?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg. 365]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+20. How was Gallus brought to an untimely end?</p>
+<p>
+21. Where was Julian educated?</p>
+<p>
+22. Did Constantius visit Rome?</p>
+<p>
+23. How did Julian conduct himself in Gaul?</p>
+<p>
+24. What led to the war between Julian and Constantius?</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">To him, as to the bursting levin,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Brief, bright, resistless course was given,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Till burst the bolt on yonder shore,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Burn'd, blaz'd, destroy'd&mdash;and was no more.&mdash;<i>Scott</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Julian was in his thirty-second year when by the death of his
+cousin he became undisputed sovereign of the Roman empire; his worst
+error was his apostacy from Christianity; he hated the religion he had
+deserted, and laboured strenuously to substitute in its place an idle
+system which combined the most rational part of the old heathen system
+with the delusive philosophy of the schools. Vanity was his besetting
+sin; he chose to be considered a philosopher rather than a sovereign,
+and to acquire that title he thought fit to reject the decencies of
+this life, and the best guide to that which is to come. A treatise is
+extant from Julian's pen, in which he expatiates with singular
+complacency on the filth of his beard, the length of his nails, and
+the inky blackness of his hands, as if cleanliness was inconsistent
+with the philosophic character! In every other respect, the conduct of
+Julian merits high praise; he was just, merciful, and tolerant; though
+frequently urged to become a persecutor, he allowed his subjects that
+freedom of opinion which he claimed for himself, unlike Constan'tius,
+who, having embraced the Arian heresy, treated his Catholic subjects
+with the utmost severity. 2. But, though Julian would not inflict
+punishment for a difference of opinion, he enacted several
+disqualifying laws, by which he laboured to deprive the Christians of
+wealth, of knowledge, and of power; he ordered their schools to be
+closed, and he jealously excluded them from all civil and military
+offices. 3. To destroy the effects of that prophecy in the Gospel to
+which Christians may appeal as a standing miracle in proof of
+revelation,&mdash;the condition of the Jews,&mdash;Julian determined to rebuild
+the temple of Jerusalem, and restore the children of Israel to the
+land of their fathers. Historians worthy of credit inform us, that his
+plan was defeated by a direct miraculous interposition, and there are
+few historical facts supported by more decisive testimony; but even if
+the miracle be denied, the prophecy must be considered as having<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg. 366]</a></span>
+received decisive confirmation, from the acknowledged fact, that the
+emperor entertained such a design, and was unable to effect its
+accomplishment.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+       <img src="images/image29.jpg"
+        alt="Julian the Apostate, ordering the Christian schools to be closed."
+        title="Julian the Apostate, ordering the Christian schools to be closed." width="415" height="289" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+4. The mutual hatred of the Pagans and Christians would probably have
+rekindled the flames of civil war, had not Julian fallen in an
+expedition against the Persians. 5. The emperor triumphantly advanced
+through the dominions of Sa'por as far as the Ti'gris; but the
+Asiatics, though defeated in the field, adopted means of defence more
+terrible to an invader than arms. They laid waste the country,
+destroyed the villages, and burned the crops in the Roman line of
+march; a burning sun weakened the powers of the western veterans, and
+when famine was added to the severity of the climate, their sufferings
+became intolerable. 6. With a heavy heart Julian at last gave orders
+to commence a retreat, and led his exhausted soldiers back over the
+desert plains which they had already passed with so much difficulty.
+The retrograde march was terribly harassed by the light cavalry of the
+Persians, a species of troops peculiarly fitted for desultory warfare.
+The difficulties of the Romans increased at every step, and the
+harassing attacks of their pursuers became more frequent and more
+formidable; at length, in a skirmish which almost deserved the name of
+a battle, Julian was mortally wounded, and with his loss the Romans
+dearly purchased a doubtful victory.</p>
+<p>
+7. In the doubt and dismay which followed the death of Ju'lian, a few
+voices saluted Jo'vian, the first of the imperial domestics, with the
+title of emperor, and the army ratified the choice. The new sovereign
+successfully repelled some fresh attacks of the Persians, but
+despairing of final success,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg. 367]</a></span> he entered into a treaty with
+Sa'por, and purchased a peace, or rather a long truce of thirty years,
+by the cession of several frontier provinces.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image30.jpg"
+alt="Jovian issuing the edict in favour of Christianity."
+title="Jovian issuing the edict in favour of Christianity." width="426" height="291" />
+</div>
+<p>
+8. The first care of Jo'vian was to fulfil the stipulated articles;
+the Roman garrisons and colonies so long settled in the frontier towns
+that they esteemed them as their native soil, were withdrawn; and the
+Romans beheld with regret the omen of their final destruction in the
+first dismemberment of the empire. The first edict in the new reign
+contained a repeal of Julian's disqualifying laws, and a grant of
+universal toleration. This judicious measure at once showed how
+ineffectual had been the efforts of the late emperor to revive the
+fallen spirit of paganism; the temples were immediately deserted, the
+sacrifices neglected, the priests left alone at their altars; those
+who, to gratify the former sovereign assumed the dress and title of
+philosophers, were assailed by such storms of ridicule, that they laid
+aside the designation, shaved their beards, and were soon
+undistinguished in the general mass of society. 9. Jo'vian did not
+long survive this peaceful triumph of Christianity; after a reign of
+eight months, he was found dead in his bed, having been suffocated by
+the mephitic vapours which a charcoal fire extracted from the fresh
+plaster, on the walls of his apartment.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A.D. 364.</div>
+
+<p>
+10. During ten days the Roman empire remained without a sovereign, but
+finally the soldiers elevated to the imperial purple, Valentinian, the
+son of count Gratian, an officer of distinguished merit. He chose as
+his associate in the government his brother Valens, whose only claim
+seems to have rested on fraternal affection; to him he entrusted the
+rich prefecture of the East, while he himself<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg. 368]</a></span> assumed the
+administration of the western provinces, and fixed the seat of his
+government at Milan. 11. Though in other respects cruel, Valentinian
+was remarkable for maintaining a system of religious toleration; but
+Valens was far from pursuing such a laudable course. He had imbibed
+the errors of Arius, and bitterly persecuted all who remained faithful
+to the Catholic doctrines. By this unwise conduct he provoked a
+formidable rebellion, which was headed by Proco'pius, an able general,
+whom unjust persecution had stimulated to revolt. 12. The success of
+the usurper was at first so great, that Va'lens was ready to yield up
+his throne; but being dissuaded from this inglorious resolution, he
+entrusted the conduct of the war to the aged prefect Sallust, who had
+twice refused the imperial diadem. The followers of Proco'pius soon
+deserted to those leaders whose names were endeared to their
+recollections by the remembrance of former glories; and the
+unfortunate leader, forsaken by all, was made prisoner and delivered
+to the executioner.</p>
+<p>
+13. In the mean time, Valenti'nian was engaged in a desperate warfare
+with the German and other barbarous nations, who had recovered from
+the losses which they had suffered under Ju'lian. On every frontier of
+the western empire hordes of enemies appeared, eager for plunder,
+regardless of their own lives, and merciless to those of others. 14.
+The Picts and Scots rushed from the mountains of Caledo'nia upon the
+colonies of North Britain, and devastated the country with fire and
+sword, almost to the walls of London. The task of quelling these
+incursions was entrusted to the gallant Theodo'sius, and the event
+proved that Valentinian could not have made a better choice. In the
+course of two campaigns, the invaders were driven back to their
+forests, and a Roman fleet sweeping the coasts of Britain, made them
+tremble for the safety of their own retreats.</p>
+<p>
+15. The success of the emperor against the Saxons, the Franks, the
+Alleman'ni<a name="FNanchor_1_206" id="FNanchor_1_206"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_206" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>, the Qua'di, and other tribes on the Rhine and Danube,
+was not less conspicuous than that of Theodo'sius in Britain. 16. The
+Qua'di, humbled by a severe defeat, sent ambassadors to deprecate his
+displeasure; but while Valenti'nian was angrily upbraiding the
+deputies for their unprovoked hostility, he ruptured a blood-vessel
+and died almost instantaneously. He was succeeded by his sons Gra'tian
+and Valenti'nian II.</p>
+<p>
+17. A much more important change took place in the eastern world; the
+first admission of the barbarian tribes into<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg. 369]</a></span> the empire, which
+they finally destroyed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image31.jpg"
+alt="The body of Valens, found upon the field of battle."
+title="The body of Valens, found upon the field of battle." width="450" height="338" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A.D. 376.</div>
+
+<p>
+The nation of the Goths had been from remote ages settled on the banks
+of the Danube, and were by that river divided into two nations, the
+Ostrogoths on the east, and the Visigoths on the west. They had for
+many years enjoyed the blessings of profound peace under the
+government of their king Herman'ric, when they were suddenly alarmed
+by the appearance of vast hordes of unknown enemies on their northern
+and eastern frontiers. These were the Huns, a branch of the great
+Mongolian race, which, from the earliest time, had possessed the vast
+and wild plains of Tartary. Terrified by the numbers, the strength,
+the strange features and implacable cruelty of such foes, the Goths
+deserted their country, almost without attempting opposition, and
+supplicated the emperor Va'lens to grant them a settlement in the
+waste lands of Thrace. This request was cheerfully granted, and the
+eastern empire was supposed to be strengthened by the accession of a
+million of valiant subjects, bound both by interest and gratitude to
+protect its frontiers.</p>
+<p>
+18. But the avarice of Va'lens and his ministers defeated these
+expectations; instead of relieving their new subjects, the Roman
+governors took advantage of their distress to plunder the remains of
+their shattered fortunes, and to reduce their children to slavery.
+Maddened by such oppression, the Goths rose in arms, and spread
+desolation over the fertile plains of Thrace. Va'lens summoned his
+nephew, Gratian, to his assistance; but before the emperor of the west
+arrived, he imprudently engaged the Goths near Adrianople, and with
+the greater part of his army fell on<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg. 370]</a></span> the field. 19. This was the
+most disastrous defeat which the Romans had sustained for several
+centuries; and there was reason to dread that it would encourage a
+revolt of the Gothic slaves in the eastern provinces, which must
+terminate in the ruin of the empire. To prevent such a catastrophe,
+the senate of Constantinople ordered a general massacre of these
+helpless mortals, and their atrocious edict was put into immediate
+execution. 20. The Goths attempted to besiege both Adrianople and
+Constantinople, but, ignorant of the art of attacking fortified
+places, they were easily repelled; but they however succeeded in
+forcing their way through the Thracian mountains, and spread
+themselves over the provinces to the west, as far as the Adriatic sea
+and the confines of Italy. The march of the emperor Gratian had been
+delayed by the hostility of the Alleman'ni, whom he subdued in two
+bloody engagements; but as he advanced towards Adrianople, fame
+brought the news of his uncle's defeat and death, which he found
+himself unable to revenge.</p>
+<p>
+21. Feeling that the affairs of the East required the direction of a
+mind more energetic than his own, he determined to invest with the
+imperial purple, Theodo'sius, the son of that general who had rescued
+Britain from the barbarians. How great must have been his confidence
+in the fidelity of his new associate, who had a father's death to
+revenge; for the elder Theodo'sius, notwithstanding his splendid
+services, had fallen a victim to the jealous suspicions of the
+emperor!</p>
+<p>
+22. The reign of Theodo'sius in the East lasted nearly sixteen years,
+and was marked by a display of unusual vigour and ability. He broke
+the power of the Goths by many severe defeats, and disunited their
+leading tribes by crafty negociations. But the continued drain on the
+population, caused by the late destructive wars, compelled him to
+recruit his forces among the tribes of the barbarians, and a change
+was thus made in the character and discipline of the Roman army, which
+in a later age produced the most calamitous consequences. The
+exuberant zeal, which led him to persecute the Arians and the pagans,
+occasioned some terrible convulsions, which distracted the empire, and
+were not quelled without bloodshed. He, however, preserved the
+integrity of the empire, and not a province was lost during his
+administration.</p>
+<p>
+23. The valour which Gratian had displayed in the early part of his
+life, rendered the indolence and luxury to which he abandoned himself,
+after the appointment of Theodo'sius,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg. 371]</a></span> more glaring. The general
+discontent of the army induced Max'imus, the governor of Britain, to
+raise the standard of revolt, and, passing over to the continent, he
+was joined by the greater part of the Gallic legions. When this
+rebellion broke out Gratian was enjoying the sports of the field in
+the neighbourhood of Paris, and did not discover his danger until it
+was too late to escape. He attempted to save his life by flight, but
+was overtaken by the emissaries of the usurper, near Lyons, and
+assassinated. 24. Theodo'sius was induced to make peace with Max'imus,
+on condition that the latter should content himself with the
+prefecture of Gaul, and should not invade the territories of the
+younger Valentin'ian. 25. Ambition hurried the faithless usurper to
+his ruin; having by perfidy obtained possession of the passes of the
+Alps, he led an overwhelming army into Italy, and Valenti'nian, with
+his mother Justi'na, were scarcely able, by a hasty flight, to escape
+to the friendly court of Theodo'sius.</p>
+<p>
+26. The emperor of the East readily embraced the cause of the
+fugitives; the numerous troops of barbarian cavalry which he had taken
+into pay, enabled him to proceed with a celerity which baffled all
+calculation. 27. Before Maximus could make any preparations for his
+reception, Theodosius had completely routed his army, and was already
+at the gates of Aquilei'a, where the usurper had taken refuge. The
+garrison, secretly disinclined to the cause of Maximus, made but a
+faint resistance, the town was taken, and the unfortunate ruler led as
+a captive into the presence of his conqueror, by whom he was delivered
+to the executioner.</p>
+<p>
+Theodo'sius, having re-established the authority of the youthful
+Valentin'ian, returned home. But the emperor of the West did not long
+enjoy his restored throne; he was murdered by Arbogas'tes, his prime
+minister, who dreaded that the abilities displayed by the young prince
+would enable him, when arrived to maturity, to shake off the authority
+of an unprincipled servant. 28. The assassin was afraid himself to
+assume the purple, but he procured the election of Euge'nius, a man
+not wholly unworthy of empire. Theodo'sius was called by these events
+a second time to Italy; he passed the Alps, but found his further
+progress impeded by the judicious disposition which Arbogas'tes had
+made of his forces. Defeated in his first attack, Theodo'sius renewed
+the engagement on the following day, and being aided by the seasonable
+revolt of some Italian legions, obtained a<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg. 372]</a></span> complete victory.
+Euge'nius was taken prisoner, and put to death by the soldiers.
+Arbogas'tes, after wandering some time in the mountains, lost all hope
+of escape, and terminated his life by suicide.</p>
+<p>
+29. The empire was thus once more reunited under the government of a
+single sovereign; but he was already stricken by the hand of death.
+The fatigues of the late campaign proved too much for a constitution
+already broken by the alternate pleasures of the palace and the toils
+of the camp; four months after the defeat of Euge'nius, he died at
+Milan, universally lamented.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the character of Julian?</p>
+<p>
+2. To what disqualifications did he subject the Christians?</p>
+<p>
+3. How was Julian frustrated in his attempt to weaken the prophetic
+evidence of Christianity?</p>
+<p>
+4. How was a civil contest between the Pagans and Christians averted?</p>
+<p>
+5. What success had Julian in the Persian invasion?</p>
+<p>
+6. How did Julian die?</p>
+<p>
+7. Who succeeded Julian?</p>
+<p>
+8. What were the most important occurrences in the reign of Jovian?</p>
+<p>
+9. What caused Jovian's death?</p>
+<p>
+10. Who were the successors of Jovian?</p>
+<p>
+11. How did Valens provoke a revolt?</p>
+<p>
+12. By what means was the rebellion of Procopius suppressed?</p>
+<p>
+13. What barbarous nations attacked the Roman empire?</p>
+<p>
+14. In what state was Britain at this period?</p>
+<p>
+15. Over what enemies did the emperor triumph?</p>
+<p>
+16. What occasioned the death of Valentinian?</p>
+<p>
+17. What caused the introduction of the Goths into the Roman empire?</p>
+<p>
+18. How did the imprudence of Valens cause his destruction?</p>
+<p>
+19. What atrocious edict was issued by the senate of Constantinople?</p>
+<p>
+20. How was Gratian prevented from avenging his uncle's death?</p>
+<p>
+21. To whom did Gratian entrust the eastern provinces?</p>
+<p>
+22. How did Theodosius administer the government of the East?</p>
+<p>
+23. By whom was Gratian deposed and slain?</p>
+<p>
+24. On what conditions did Theodosius make peace with Maximus?</p>
+<p>
+25. Were these conditions observed?</p>
+<p>
+26. How did the war between Theodosius and Maximus terminate?</p>
+<p>
+27. Did Valentinian long survive his restoration?</p>
+<p>
+28. How did Theodosius act on the news of Valentinian's murder?</p>
+<p>
+29. What caused the death of Theodosius?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg. 373]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTE:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_206" id="Fnote_1_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_206">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ From this powerful tribe Germany is still called, by the
+French, <i>Allemagne</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XXVI.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION I.<br />
+FROM THE DEATH OF THEODOSIUS TO THE SUBVERSION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE.</h4>
+<p>
+With eye of flame, and voice of fear, He comes, the breaker of the
+spear, The scorner of the shield!&mdash;<i>Anon</i>.</p>
+<p>
+1. The memory of their father's virtues protected the feeble youth of
+Arca'dius and Hono'rius, the sons of Theodo'sius; by the unanimous
+consent of mankind, they were saluted emperors of the East and West,
+and between them was made the final and permanent division of the
+Roman empire. Though both parts were never re-united under a single
+ruler, they continued for several centuries to be considered as one
+empire, and this opinion produced important consequences even in a
+late period of the middle ages. The dominions of Arca'dius extended
+from the lower Danube to the confines of Ethiopia and Persia;
+including Thrace, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. Hono'rius, a
+youth in his eleventh year, received the nominal sovereignty of Italy,
+Africa, Gaul, Spain, and Britain, with the provinces of No'ricum,
+Panno'nia, and Dalma'tia. The great and martial prefecture of
+Illyr'icum was divided equally between the two princes, the boundary
+line of whose dominions consequently nearly coincided with that which
+separates the Austrian states from the Turkish provinces. 2. The
+Western empire, to the history of which we must now confine ourselves,
+though equal to the Eastern in extent, wealth, and population, was
+incomparably weaker, and already appeared rapidly tending to decay.
+The Caledonians in Britain, and the German tribes on the northern
+frontiers, harassed the imperial troops by frequent incursions; on the
+east, the Goths were hourly becoming more formidable, and the African
+provinces were threatened by the Moors. 3. The internal state of the
+empire furnished little ground for hope that these various enemies
+could be subdued; the principle of union no longer existed; the proud
+title of Roman citizen was an empty name, Rome itself had ceased to be
+the metropolis, and was now only protected by the memory of her former
+greatness.</p>
+<p>
+4. Stil'icho, a general of superior abilities, and a statesman of
+profound wisdom, acted as the guardian of Hono'rius. He was descended
+from the perfidious race of the Vandals, and unfortunately possessed,
+in an eminent degree, the cunning,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg. 374]</a></span> treachery, and cruelty that
+characterised his nation. The administration of the Eastern empire was
+entrusted by Arca'dius, to Rufi'nus, who possessed all the bad
+qualities of Stil'icho without his redeeming virtues. The ministers of
+the two empires hated each other most cordially, and each secretly
+sought to remove his powerful rival; but the superior craft of
+Stil'icho, and his great influence over the soldiers, made him
+conqueror. 5. He was ordered to lead into the East a fair proportion
+of the army which Theodo'sius had assembled, and in obedience to the
+requisition, he marched towards Constantinople, at the head of the
+Gothic legions. The approach of his great rival with a powerful army
+alarmed the timid Rufi'nus; he obtained a peremptory edict from
+Arca'dius, commanding Stil'icho to return to Italy, and the
+promptitude with which the order was obeyed lulled the Eastern
+minister into fatal negligence. The troops arrived near
+Constantinople, under the guidance of Gai'nas a Gothic leader, and the
+emperor, accompanied by his minister, came out to welcome and review
+the soldiers. As Rufi'nus rode along the ranks, endeavouring to
+conciliate favour by studied courtesy, the wings gradually advanced,
+and enclosed the devoted victim within the fatal circle of their arms.
+Before he was aware of his danger, Gai'nas gave the signal of death; a
+soldier rushing forward plunged his sword into his breast, and the
+bleeding corpse fell at the very feet of the alarmed emperor. 6. His
+mangled body was treated with shocking indignity, and his wife and
+daughter would have shared his fate, had they not placed themselves
+under the protection of religion, and sought refuge in the sanctuary.</p>
+<p>
+7. Stil'icho derived no advantage from this crime which he had
+planned, but not executed; Arca'dius chose for his new minister,
+Eutro'pius, one of his servants, and Gai'nas declared himself the
+determined enemy of his former general.</p>
+<p>
+8. The national hatred between the Greeks and the Romans was excited
+by the rival ministers, and thus at a moment when union alone would
+delay ruin, the subjects of Arca'dius and Hono'rius were induced to
+regard each other not only as foreigners, but as enemies. 9. The
+revolt of Gil'do, in Africa, under the pretence of transferring his
+allegiance from the Western to the Eastern empire, was sanctioned by
+the court of Constantinople. Such an event was peculiarly alarming, as
+Italy at the time imported most of the corn necessary to the
+subsistence of the people, from the African provinces. The vigour of
+Stil'icho warded off<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg. 375]</a></span> the danger; he sent a small but veteran army
+into Africa, before which Gildo's hosts of unarmed and undisciplined
+barbarians fled almost without a blow. The usurper was taken and
+executed; his partizans were persecuted with merciless impolicy.</p>
+<p>
+10. The Goths, who had remained quiet during the reign of the great
+Theodo'sius, disdained submission to his unwarlike successors; under
+the pretence that the subsidy prudently paid them by the late emperor
+was withheld, they raised the standard of revolt, and chose for their
+leader Al'aric, the most formidable enemy that the Romans had hitherto
+encountered. Instead of confining his depredations to the northern
+provinces, already wasted by frequent incursions, Alaric resolved to
+invade Greece, where the din of arms had not been heard for centuries.
+11. The barbarian encountered little or no resistance, the memorable
+pass of Thermop'yl&aelig; was abandoned by its garrison; Athens purchased
+inglorious safety by the sacrifice of the greater part of its wealth;
+the Corinthian isthmus was undefended, and the Goths ravaged without
+opposition the entire Peloponne'sus. Unable to protect themselves, the
+Greeks sought the aid of Stilicho, and that great leader soon sailed
+to their assistance; he inflicted a severe defeat on the Goths, but
+neglected to improve his advantages; and before he could retrieve his
+error, news arrived that the faithless court of Constantinople had
+concluded a treaty of peace with Al'aric. Stilicho, of course,
+returned to Italy; while the eastern emperor, with incomprehensible
+folly, nominated the Gothic leader, master-general of eastern
+Illyr'icum.</p>
+<p>
+12. Italy soon excited the ambition and cupidity of Alaric; he
+determined to invade that country, and, after surmounting all
+impediments, appeared with his forces before the imperial city of
+Milan. The feeble Hono'rius would have fled with his effeminate court
+into some remote corner of Gaul, had not the indignant remonstrances
+of Stil'icho induced him to remain, until he could assemble forces
+sufficient to protect the empire. For this purpose the brave general
+hurried into Gaul, assembled the garrisons from the frontier towns,
+recalled a legion from Britain, and strengthened his forces by taking
+several German tribes into pay. 13. But before Stil'icho could return,
+the empire had been brought to the very brink of ruin; Hono'rius,
+affrighted by the approach of the Goths, fled from Milan to As'ta, and
+was there closely besieged. When the town was on the point<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg. 376]</a></span> of
+capitulating, the emperor was saved by the opportune arrival of
+Stil'icho, before whom Alaric retired. He was closely pursued, and the
+armies of the Romans and barbarians came to an engagement nearly on
+the same ground where Marius had so many years before defeated the
+Cimbri. 14. The Goths were completely beaten, and a second victory
+obtained over them near Vero'na seemed to insure the deliverance of
+Italy; but Al'aric was still formidable, and the favourable terms
+granted him by Stil'icho, proved, that in the opinion of that general,
+the Gothic king, though defeated, was unconquered.</p>
+<p>
+15. The late invasion so alarmed the timid Hono'rius, that he resolved
+to fix his residence in some remote and strong fortress; and for this
+purpose he selected Raven'na, an ancient city, but which had not
+previously obtained notoriety. 16. Before Italy had recovered from the
+terrors of the Gothic invasion, a new host of barbarians rushed from
+the shores of the Baltic, bore down before them all opposition in
+Germany and Gaul; and had passed the Alps, the Po, and the Apennines,
+ere an army could be assembled to resist them. 17. Radagai'sus, the
+leader of these hordes, was a more formidable enemy even than Alaric;
+the Goths had embraced Christianity, and their fierce passions were in
+some degree moderated by the mild precepts of the gospel; but
+Radagai'sus was a stranger to any religion but the cruel creed of his
+fathers, which taught that the favour of the gods could only be
+propitiated by human sacrifices. 18. The wealthy city of Florence was
+besieged by the barbarians, but its bishop, St. Ambrose, by his
+zealous exhortations, and by holding out the hope of divine
+assistance, prevented the garrison from yielding to despair. Stil'icho
+a second time earned the title of the deliverer of Italy; Radagai'sus
+was defeated and slain; but the remains of his forces escaped into
+Gaul, and spread desolation over that entire province, from which the
+garrisons had been withdrawn for the defence of Italy. 19. An usurper,
+named Constantine, about this time appeared in Britain, and soon
+established his minority both in Gaul and Spain, which had been
+virtually deserted by the emperor. Al'aric offered his services to
+repress the rebellion, and to purchase either his assistance or his
+forbearance, a large subsidy was voted to him by the senate, through
+the influence of Stil'icho. 20. But the reign of this great man was
+drawing fast to a close; Olym'pius, a miserable favourite, who owed
+his first elevation to<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg. 377]</a></span> Stil'icho, filled the emperor's mind with
+suspicion, and a secret resolution to destroy the minister was
+adopted. 21. By exciting the jealousy of the legions against the
+auxiliary forces that Stil'icho employed, Olym'pius was enabled to
+gain the army to his side, and the last great supporter of the Roman
+name fell by the swords of those soldiers whom he had so often led to
+victory. His friends, including the best and bravest generals of the
+army, shared his fate; many of them were racked, to extort from them a
+confession of a conspiracy which never existed; and their silence
+under the tortures at once proved their own innocence and that of
+their leader.</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b><i>Questions for Examination</i>.</b></p>
+<p>
+1. What division was made of the Roman empire between the sons of
+Theodosius?</p>
+<p>
+2. By what enemies was the Western empire assailed?</p>
+<p>
+3. What was the internal condition of the state?</p>
+<p>
+4. To what ministers did the emperors trust the administration?</p>
+<p>
+5. How did Stilicho prevail over Rufinus?</p>
+<p>
+6. What instances of savage cruelty were exhibited by the murderers of
+Rufinus?</p>
+<p>
+7. Did Stilicho derive any advantage from the death of his rival?</p>
+<p>
+8. What rivalry broke out between the subjects of the eastern and
+western empire?</p>
+<p>
+9. How did the revolt of Gildo in Africa end?</p>
+<p>
+10. Why did the Goths attack the eastern empire?</p>
+<p>
+11. How did the Gothic invasion of Greece end?</p>
+<p>
+12. Did the western emperor display any courage when Italy was
+invaded?</p>
+<p>
+13. How was Honorius saved from ruin?</p>
+<p>
+14. Was this defeat destructive of the Gothic power?</p>
+<p>
+15. Where did Honorius fix the seat of his government?</p>
+<p>
+16. What new hordes invaded Italy?</p>
+<p>
+17. Why were the northern barbarians more formidable than the Goths?</p>
+<p>
+18. How was Florence saved?</p>
+<p>
+19. On what occasion was a subsidy voted to Alaric?</p>
+<p>
+20. Who conspired against Stilicho?</p>
+<p>
+21. In what manner was Stilicho slain?</p>
+
+<br /><br /><h4>SECTION II.</h4><br />
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">  Time's immortal garlands twine</span><br />
+<span class="i2">O'er desolation's mournful shrine.</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Like youth's embrace around decline.&mdash;<i>Malcolm</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Al'aric, posted on the confines of Italy, watched the distractions
+of the peninsula with secret joy; he had been unwisely irritated by
+the delay of the subsidy which had<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg. 378]</a></span> formerly been promised him,
+and when payment was finally refused, he once more led his followers
+into Italy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A.D. 408.</div>
+
+<p>
+2. The feeble successors of Stil'icho had made no preparations for
+resistance; they retired with their master into the fortress of
+Raven'na, while the Goths, spreading ruin in their march, advanced to
+the very walls of Rome. Six hundred years had now elapsed since an
+enemy had appeared to threaten THE ETERNAL CITY; a worse foe than
+Hannibal was now at their gates, and the citizens were more disabled
+by luxury from attempting a defence, than their ancestors had been by
+the carnage of Can'n&aelig;.<a name="FNanchor_1_207" id="FNanchor_1_207"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_207" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> 3. The strength of the walls deterred the
+Goth from attempting a regular siege, but he subjected the city to a
+strict blockade. Famine, and its usual attendant, pestilence, soon
+began to waste the miserable Romans; but even the extreme of misery
+could not induce them to sally forth, and try their fortune in the
+field. They purchased the retreat of Al'aric by the sacrifice of their
+wealth; and the victorious Goth formed his winter quarters in Tuscany,
+where his army was reinforced by more than forty thousand of his
+countrymen who had been enslaved by the Romans.</p>
+<p>
+4. The presence of a victorious leader, with one hundred thousand men,
+in the very centre of Italy, ought to have taught the imperial court
+at Raven'na prudence and moderation; but such was their incredible
+folly that they not only violated their engagements with Al'aric, but
+added personal insult to injury. Rome was once more besieged, and as
+Al'aric had seized the provisions at Os'tia, on which the citizens
+depended for subsistence, the Romans were forced to surrender at
+discretion. 5. At the instigation of the Gothic king, At'talus, the
+prefect of the city, was invested with the imperial purple, and
+measures were taken to compel Hono'rius to resign in his favour. But
+At'talus proved utterly unworthy of a throne, and after a brief reign
+was publicly degraded; the rest of his life was passed in obscurity
+under the protection of the Goths. 6. A favourable opportunity of
+effecting a peace was now offered, but it was again insolently
+rejected by the wretched Hono'rius, and a herald publicly proclaimed
+that in consequence of the guilt of Al'aric, he was for ever excluded
+from the friendship and alliance of the emperor.</p>
+<p>
+7. For the third time Al'aric proceeded to revenge the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg. 379]</a></span> insults of
+the emperor on the unfortunate city of Rome. The trembling senate made
+some preparations for defence but they were rendered ineffectual by
+the treachery of a slave, who betrayed one of the gates to the Gothic
+legions. That city which had been for ages the mistress of the world,
+became the prey of ruthless barbarians, who spared, indeed, the
+churches and sanctuaries, but placed no other bound to their savage
+passions. For six successive days the Goths revelled in the sack of
+the city; at the end of that period they followed Al'aric to new
+conquests and new devastations. 8. The entire south of Italy rapidly
+followed the fate of the capital, and Al'aric determined to add Sicily
+to the list of his triumphs. Before, however, his army could pass the
+Strait, he was seized with an incurable disease, and his premature
+death protracted for a season the existence of the Western empire.<a name="FNanchor_2_208" id="FNanchor_2_208"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_208" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+9. Al'aric was succeeded by his brother Adol'phus, who immediately
+commenced negociations for a treaty; the peace was cemented by a
+marriage between the Gothic king and Placid'ia, the sister of the
+emperor. The army of the invaders evacuated Italy, and Adol'phus,
+leading his soldiers into Spain, founded the kingdom of the Visigoths.
+10. Adolphus did not long survive his triumphs; Placid'ia returned to
+her brother's court, and was persuaded to bestow her hand on
+Constan'tius, the general who had suppressed the rebellion of
+Constan'tine. Britain, Spain, and part of Gaul had been now
+irrecoverably lost; Constan'tius, whose abilities might have checked
+the progress of ruin, died, after the birth of his second child;
+Placid'ia retired to the court of Constantinople, and at length
+Hono'rius, after a disgraceful reign of twenty-eight years, terminated
+his wretched life.</p>
+<p>
+11. The next heir to the throne was Valenti'nian, the son of
+Placid'ia; but John, the late emperor's secretary, took advantage of
+Placid'ia's absence in the east, to seize<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg. 380]</a></span> on the government. The
+court of Constantinople promptly sent a body of troops against the
+usurper, and John was surprised and taken prisoner at Raven'na. 12.
+Valenti'nian III., then in the sixth year of his age, was proclaimed
+emperor, and the regency entrusted to his mother, Placid'ia. The two
+best generals of the age, &AElig;'tius and Bon'iface, were at the head of
+the army, but, unfortunately, their mutual jealousies led them to
+involve the empire in civil war.</p>
+<p>
+13. Bon'iface was recalled from the government of Africa through the
+intrigues of his rival, and when he hesitated to comply, was
+proclaimed a traitor. Unfortunately the African prefect, unable to
+depend on his own forces, invited the Vandals to his assistance.
+Gen'seric, the king of that nation, passed over from Spain, which his
+barbarous forces had already wasted, and the African provinces were
+now subjected to the same calamities that afflicted the rest of the
+empire. 14. Bon'iface became too late sensible of his error; he
+attempted to check the progress of the Vandals, but was defeated, and
+Africa finally wrested from the empire. He returned to Italy, and was
+pardoned by Placid'ia; but the jealous &AElig;'tius led an army to drive
+his rival from the court; a battle ensued, in which &AElig;'tius was
+defeated; but Bon'iface died in the arms of victory. Placid'ia was at
+first determined to punish &AElig;'tius as a rebel; but his power was too
+formidable, and his abilities too necessary in the new dangers that
+threatened the empire; he was not only pardoned, but invested with
+more than his former authority.</p>
+<p>
+15. The hordes of Huns that had seized on the ancient territory of the
+Goths, had now become united under the ferocious At'tila, whose
+devastations procured him the formidable name of "The Scourge of God."
+The Eastern empire, unable to protect itself from his ravages,
+purchased peace by the payment of a yearly tribute, and he directed
+his forces against the western provinces, which promised richer
+plunder. He was instigated also by secret letters from the princess
+Hono'ria, the sister of the emperor, who solicited a matrimonial
+alliance with the barbarous chieftain. &AElig;'tius being supported by the
+king of the Goths, and some other auxiliary forces, attacked the Huns
+in the Catalaunian plains, near the modern city of Chalons in France.
+16. After a fierce engagement the Huns were routed, and it was not
+without great difficulty that At'tila effected his retreat. The
+following year he invaded Italy with more success; peace, however, was
+purchased by bestowing on him the<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg. 381]</a></span> hand of the princess Hono'ria,
+with an immense dowry. Before the marriage could be consummated,
+At'tila was found, dead in his bed, having burst a blood-vessel during
+the night.</p>
+<p>
+17. The brave &AElig;'tius was badly rewarded by the wretched emperor for
+his eminent services; Valentinian, yielding to his cowardly
+suspicions, assassinated the general with his own hand. 18. This crime
+was followed by an injury to Max'imus, an eminent senator, who, eager
+for revenge, joined in a conspiracy with the friends of &AElig;'tius; they
+attacked the emperor publicly, in the midst of his guards, and slew
+him.</p>
+<p>
+19. The twenty years which intervened between the assassination of
+Valentinian, and the final destruction of the Western empire, were
+nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. 20. Even in the
+age of Cicero, when the empire of Rome, seemed likely to last for
+ever, it was stated by the augurs that the <i>twelve vultures</i> seen by
+Romulus,<a name="FNanchor_3_209" id="FNanchor_3_209"></a><a href="#Fnote_3_209" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> represented the <i>twelve centuries</i> assigned for the fatal
+period of the city. This strange prediction, forgotten in ages of
+peace and prosperity, was recalled to the minds of men when events, at
+the close of the twelfth century, showed that the prophecy was about
+to be accomplished. It is not, of course, our meaning, that the
+ominous flight of birds, the prophetic interpretation, and its almost
+literal fulfilment, were any thing more than an accidental
+coincidence; but, it must be confessed, that it was one of the most
+remarkable on record.</p>
+<p>
+21. Maximus succeeded to the imperial throne, and found that the first
+day of his reign was the last of his happiness. On the death of his
+wife, whose wrongs he had so severely revenged, he endeavoured to
+compel Eudox'ia, the widow of the murdered emperor, to become his
+spouse. In her indignation at this insulting proposal, Eudox'ia did
+not hesitate to apply for aid to Gen'seric, king of those Vandals that
+had seized Africa; and the barbarian king, glad of such a fair
+pretence, soon appeared with a powerful fleet in the Tiber. 22.
+Max'imus was murdered in an insurrection, occasioned by these tidings;
+and Gen'seric, advancing to Rome, became master of the city, which
+was, for fourteen days pillaged by the Moors and Vandals. Eudox'ia had
+reason to lament her imprudent conduct; she was carried off a captive
+by the ferocious Vandal, along with her two <span class="newpage"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg. 382]</a></span> daughters, the last
+of the family of the great Theo'dosius and many thousand Romans were
+at the same time dragged into slavery.</p>
+<p>
+23. The army in Gaul saluted their general, Avi'tus, emperor, and the
+Roman senate and people at first acquiesced in the choice. Rut Avi'tus
+was soon found unfit to hold the reins of power at a time of so much
+danger and difficulty; the senate, influenced by Ri'cimer, the
+commander of the barbarian auxiliaries, voted his deposition. He died
+shortly after, whether by disease or violence is uncertain.</p>
+<p>
+24. The powerful Ri'cimer now placed upon the throne Ju'lian
+Majo'rian, who united in an eminent degree the qualities of a brave
+soldier and a wise statesman. The coasts of Italy had long been wasted
+by Gen'seric, king of the Vandals, and in order to put an end to their
+incursions, the emperor determined to attack the pirates in Africa,
+the seat of their power. The judicious preparations which he made were
+disconcerted by treason; Ri'cimer, who had hoped to rule the empire
+while Majo'rian enjoyed the empty title of monarch, was disappointed
+by the abilities which the new emperor displayed. Some of his
+creatures betrayed the Roman fleet to the torches of the Vandals; and
+Ri'cimer took advantage of the popular discontent occasioned by this
+disaster, to procure the dethronement of his former friend. Majo'rian
+died five years after his deposition, and the humble tomb which
+covered his remains was consecrated by the respect and gratitude of
+succeeding generations.</p>
+<p>
+25. Ri'cimer's next choice was more prudent; at his instigation the
+obsequious senate raised to the throne Lib'ius Sev'erus, of whom
+history records little more than his elevation, and his death, which
+occurred in the fifth year after his election. During the nominal
+reign of Sev'erus and the interregnum that followed, the entire power
+of the state was possessed by Ri'cimer, whom barbarian descent alone
+prevented from being acknowledged emperor. He was unable, however, to
+protect Italy from the devastations of the Vandals; and to obtain the
+aid of Le'o, the Eastern emperor, he was forced to acknowledge
+Anthe'mius, who was nominated to the throne of the West by the court
+of Constantinople.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image32.jpg"
+alt="Fall of Constantinople."
+title="Fall of Constantinople." width="464" height="376" />
+</div>
+<p>
+26. The perfidious Ricimer soon became dissatisfied with Anthe'mius,
+and raised the standard of revolt. Marching to Rome he easily became
+master of the city, and Anthe'mius<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg. 383]</a></span> was slain in the tumult. The
+unhappy Romans were again subjected to all the miseries that military
+licentiousness could inflict; for forty days Ricimer exulted in the
+havoc and ruin of the imperial city; but a disease, occasioned by
+excessive intemperance, seized on his vitals, and death freed Rome
+from the tyrant.</p>
+<p>
+27. Olyb'ius, the successor of Anthe'mius, dying after a short reign
+of three months, Glyce'rius, an obscure soldier, assumed the purple at
+Raven'na, but was soon dethroned by Ju'lius Ne'pos, whom the court of
+Constantinople supported. A treaty by which the most faithful
+provinces of Gaul were yielded to the Visigoths, produced so much
+popular discontent, that Ores'tes, a general of barbarian auxiliaries,
+was encouraged to revolt, and Ne'pos, unable to defend the throne,
+abdicated, and spent the remainder of his unhonoured life in
+obscurity.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">A.D. 476.</div>
+
+<p>
+28. Ores'tes placed the crown on the head of his son Rom'ulus
+Momyl'lus, better known in history by the name of Augus'tulus. He was
+the last of the emperors; before he had enjoyed his elevation many
+months, he was dethroned by Odoa'cer, a leader, of the barbarian
+troops, and banished to a villa that once belonged to the wealthy
+Lucul'lus, where he was supported by a pension allowed him by the
+conqueror<a name="FNanchor_4_210" id="FNanchor_4_210"></a><a href="#Fnote_4_210" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>. 29. Odoa'cer assumed the title of king of Italy, but
+after a reign of fourteen years,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg. 384]</a></span> he was forced to yield to the
+superior genius of Theod'oric, king of the Ostrogoths, under whose
+prudent government Italy enjoyed the blessings of peace and
+prosperity, to which the country had been long a stranger.</p>
+<p>
+30. Thus finally fell the Roman empire of the west, while that of the
+east survived a thousand years, notwithstanding its fierce internal
+dissensions, which alone would have sufficed to destroy any other; and
+the hosts of barbarians by which it was assailed. The almost
+impregnable situation of its capital, whose fate usually decides that
+of such empires, joined to its despotism, which gave unity to the
+little strength it retained, can alone explain a phenomenon
+unparalleled in the annals of history. At length, on the 29th of May,
+1453, Constantinople was taken by Mohammed the Second, and the
+government and religion established by the great Constantine, trampled
+in the dust by the Moslem conquerors.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What induced Alaric to invade Italy a second time?</p>
+<p>
+2. Did the emperor and his ministers make adequate preparations for
+resistance?</p>
+<p>
+3. How was Alaric induced to raise the siege of Rome?</p>
+<p>
+4. Why did Alaric besiege Rome a second time?</p>
+<p>
+5. Whom did the Goths make emperor?</p>
+<p>
+6. What favourable opportunity of making peace did Honorius lose?</p>
+<p>
+7. By what means did the Goths become masters of Rome?</p>
+<p>
+8. Where did Alaric die?</p>
+<p>
+9. What events marked the reign of Adolphus?</p>
+<p>
+10. What remarkable persons died nearly at the same time?</p>
+<p>
+11. What was the fate of the usurper John?</p>
+<p>
+12. To whom was the government entrusted during Valentinian's
+minority?</p>
+<p>
+13. By whom were the Vandals invited to Africa?</p>
+<p>
+14. What was the fate of Boniface?</p>
+<p>
+15. How were the Huns instigated to invade Italy?</p>
+<p>
+16. Under what circumstances did Attila die?</p>
+<p>
+17. Of what great crimes was Valentinian III. guilty?</p>
+<p>
+18. How was Valentinian slain?</p>
+<p>
+19. 20. What strange prophecy was now about to be fulfilled?</p>
+<p>
+21. What terminated the brief reign of Maximus?</p>
+<p>
+22. Had Eudoxia reason to lament her invitation to the Vandals?</p>
+<p>
+23. Why was the emperor Avitus dethroned?</p>
+<p>
+24. How did Ricimer procure the deposition of Majorian?</p>
+<p>
+25. What changes followed on the death of Majorian?</p>
+<p>
+26. How did Ricimer terminate his destructive career?</p>
+<p>
+27. What changes took place after the death of Arthemius?</p>
+<p>
+28. Who was the last Roman emperor?</p>
+<p>
+29. What kingdoms were founded on the ruins of the western empire?</p>
+<p>
+20. How was the existence of the eastern empire prolonged?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg. 385]</a></span></p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_207" id="Fnote_1_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_207">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See Chapter xv. Sect. ii.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_208" id="Fnote_2_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_208">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ The ferocious character of the barbarians was displayed
+in the funeral of their chief. The unhappy captives were compelled to
+divert the stream of the river Busenti'nus, which washed the walls of
+Consen'tia, (now Cosenza, in farther Cala'bria, Italy,) in the bed of
+which the royal sepulchre was formed: with the body were deposited
+much of the wealth, and many of the trophies obtained at Rome. The
+river was then permitted to return to its accustomed channel, and the
+prisoners employed in the work were inhumanly massacred, to conceal
+the spot in which the deceased hero was entombed. A beautiful poem on
+this subject, entitled, The Dirge of Alaric the Visigoth, has
+appeared, which is attributed to the honourable Edward Everett.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_3_209" id="Fnote_3_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_209">[3]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See Chapter i.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_4_210" id="Fnote_4_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_210">[4]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See Chapter xxvii.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XXVII.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<h4>HISTORICAL NOTICES OF THE DIFFERENT BARBAROUS TRIBES THAT AIDED IN
+DESTROYING THE ROMAN EMPIRE.</h4>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Lo! from the frozen forests of the north,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">The sons of slaughter pour in myriads forth!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Who shall awake the mighty? Will thy woe,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">City of thrones, disturb the world below?</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Call on the dead to hear thee! let thy cries</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Summon their shadowy legions to arise,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Array the ghosts of conquerors on thy walls</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Barbarians revel in their ancient halls!</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And their lost children bend the subject knee,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Amidst the proud tombs and trophies of the free!&mdash;<i>Anon</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. We have already mentioned that the barbarous nations which joined
+in the destruction of the Roman empire, were invited to come within
+its precincts through the weakness or folly of successive sovereigns
+who recruited their armies from those hardy tribes, in preference to
+their own subjects, enervated by luxury and indolence. The grants of
+land, and the rich donations by which the emperors endeavoured to
+secure the fidelity of these dangerous auxiliaries, encouraged them to
+regard the Roman territories as their prey; and being alternately the
+objects of lavish extravagance and wanton insult, their power was
+increased at the same time that their resentment was provoked. 2.
+Towards the close of the year 406, the Vandals, the Suevi, and the
+Alans, first sounded the tocsin of invasion, and their example was
+followed by the Goths, the Burgundians, the Alleman'ni, the Franks,
+the Huns, the Angli, the Saxons, the Heruli, and the Longobar'di, or
+Lombards. The chief of these nations, with the exception of the Huns
+were of German origin. It is not easy in every instance to discover
+the original seat of these several tribes, and trace their successive
+migrations, because, being ignorant of letters, they only retained
+some vague traditions of their wanderings.</p>
+<p>
+THE VANDALS AND ALANS</p>
+<p>
+3. This tribe was, like the Burgundians and Lombards, a branch of the
+ancient Sue'vi, and inhabited that part of Germany which lies between
+the Elbe and the Vis'tula. Being joined by some warriors from
+Scandinavia, they advanced towards the south, and established
+themselves in that part of Da'cia which included the modern province
+of Transylva'nia,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg. 386]</a></span> and part of Hungary. Being oppressed in their
+new settlement by the Goths, they sought the protection of Constantine
+the Great, and obtained from him a grant of lands in Pannonia, on
+condition of their rendering military service to the Romans. 4. About
+the commencement of the fifth century, they were joined by the ALANS,
+a people originally from mount Cau'casus, and the ancient Scythia: a
+branch of which having settled in Sarma'tia, near the source of the
+Borysthenes <i>(Dnieper)</i>, had advanced as far as the Danube, and there
+made a formidable stand against the Romans. In their passage through
+Germany, the Vandals and Alans were joined by a portion of the Suevi,
+and the confederate tribes entering Gaul, spread desolation over the
+entire country.</p>
+<p>
+5. From thence the barbarians passed into Spain and settled in the
+province, from them named Vandalu'sia, since corrupted to Andalusia.
+On the invitation of Count Boniface, the Vandals proceeded from Spain
+to Africa, where they founded a formidable empire. After remaining
+masters of the western Mediterranean for nearly a century, the eastern
+emperor Justinian sent a formidable force against them under the
+command of the celebrated Belisa'rius. This great leader not only
+destroyed the power of these pirates, but erased the very name of
+Vandals from the list of nations.</p>
+<p>
+THE GOTHS.</p>
+<p>
+6. The Goths, the most powerful of these destructive nations, are said
+to have come originally from Scandina'via; but when they first began
+to attract the notice of historians, we find them settled on the banks
+of the Danube. Those who inhabited the districts towards the east, and
+the Euxine sea, between the Ty'ras <i>(Dniester)</i> the Borys'thenes
+<i>(Dnieper)</i> and the Tan'ais <i>(Don)</i> were called Ostrogoths; the
+Visigoths extended westwards over ancient Dacia, and the regions
+between the Ty'ras, the Danube, and the Vistula.</p>
+<p>
+7. Attacked in these vast countries by the Huns, as has been mentioned
+in a preceding chapter, some were subjugated, and others compelled to
+abandon their habitations. They obtained settlements from the
+emperors, but being unwisely provoked to revolt, they became the most
+formidable enemies of the Romans. After having twice ravaged Italy and
+plundered Rome, they ended their conquests by establishing themselves
+in Gaul and Spain.</p>
+<p>
+8. The Spanish monarchy of the Visigoths, which in its flourishing
+state comprised, besides the entire peninsula,<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg. 387]</a></span> the province of
+Septima'nia (<i>Langucaoc</i>) in Gaul, and Mauritania, Tingeta'na,
+(<i>north-western Africa</i>) on the opposite coasts of the Mediterranean,
+lasted from the middle of the fifth to the commencement of the eighth
+century, when it was overthrown by the Moors. 9. The Thuringians, whom
+we find established in the heart of Germany, in the middle of the
+fifth century, appear to have been a branch of the Visigoths.</p>
+<p>
+THE FRANKS.</p>
+<p>
+10. A number of petty German tribes having entered into a confederacy
+to maintain their mutual independence, took the name of Franks, or
+Freemen. The tribes which thus associated, principally inhabited the
+districts lying between the Rhine and the Weser, including the greater
+part of Holland and Westphalia. 11. In the middle of the third
+century, they invaded Gaul, but were defeated by Aurelian, who
+afterwards became emperor. In the fourth, and towards the beginning of
+the fifth century, they permanently established themselves as a
+nation, and gave the name of <i>Francia</i>, or <i>France</i>, to the provinces
+lying between the Rhine, the Weser, the Maine, and the Elbe; but about
+the sixth century that name was transferred to ancient Gaul, when it
+was conquered by the Franks.</p>
+<p>
+THE ALLEMANNI.</p>
+<p>
+12. The Alleman'ni were another confederation of German tribes, which
+took its name from including a great variety of nations. It is
+scarcely necessary to remark, that the name is compounded of the words
+<i>all</i> and <i>man</i> which still continue unchanged in our language. Their
+territories extended between the Danube, the Rhine, and the Maine, and
+they rendered themselves formidable to the Romans by their frequent
+inroads into Gaul and Italy during the third and fourth centuries.</p>
+<p>
+THE SAXONS AND ANGLES.</p>
+<p>
+13. The Saxons began to be conspicuous about the close of the second
+century. They were then settled beyond the Elbe, in modern Holstein;
+having for their neighbours the ANGLI, or ANGLES, inhabiting Sleswick.
+These nations were early distinguished as pirates, and their
+plundering expeditions kept the shores of western Europe in constant
+alarm. Being invited by the Britons to assist in repelling<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg. 388]</a></span> the
+invasions of the Picts, they subdued the southern part of the island,
+which has ever since retained the name of England, from its conquerors
+the An'gli. When the Franks penetrated into Gaul, the Saxons passed
+the Elbe, and seizing on the vacated territory, gave the name of
+Saxony to ancient France.</p>
+<p>
+THE HUNS.</p>
+<p>
+14. The Huns were the most ferocious and sanguinary of the barbarians.
+They seem to have been originally Kalmuck or Mongolian Tartars, and,
+during the period of their supremacy, seem never to have laid aside
+the savage customs which they brought from their native deserts. 15.
+After having expelled the Goths from the banks of the Danube, they
+fell upon the eastern empire, and compelled the court of
+Constantinople to pay them tribute. They then, under the guidance of
+Attila, invaded Italy, and after devastating the peninsula, captured
+and plundered Rome. After the death of Attila, the Huns were broken up
+into a number of petty states, which maintained their independence
+until the close of the eighth century, when they were subdued by
+Charlemagne.</p>
+<p>
+THE BURGUNDIANS.</p>
+<p>
+16. The Burgundians were originally inhabitants of the countries
+situated between the Oder and the Vistula. They followed nearly the
+track of the Visigoths, and at the beginning of the fifth century had
+established themselves on the Upper Rhine and in Switzerland. On the
+dissolution of the empire, they seized on that part of Gaul, which
+from them retains the name of Burgundy.</p>
+<p>
+THE LOMBARDS, THE GEPID&AElig;, AND THE AVARS.</p>
+<p>
+17. The Lombards, more properly called Longo-bardi, from the length of
+their beards, are supposed by some to have been a branch of the
+Sue'vi, and by others to have migrated from Scandina'via. They joined
+with the Avars, a fierce Asiatic people, in attacking the Gep'id&aelig;,
+then in possession of that part of Dacia lying on the left bank of the
+Danube, but who are supposed to have come thither from some more
+northern country. The Avars and Lombards triumphed, but the former
+soon turned their arms against their allies, and compelled them to
+seek new habitations. 18. About the middle of the sixth century they
+invaded<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg. 389]</a></span> Italy, which the Eastern emperors had just before wrested
+from the Turks, and made themselves masters of the northern part;
+which has since borne the name of Lombardy.</p>
+<p>
+THE SLA'VI.</p>
+<p>
+19. These were the last of the barbarian hordes, and are not mentioned
+by any author before the sixth century. They first appeared in the
+east of Europe, and spreading themselves over the central provinces,
+occupied the greater part of the countries that now constitute the
+dominions of Austria. The Sla'vi warred chiefly against the Eastern
+empire, and their contest with the Grecian forces on the Danube, in
+the sixth and seventh centuries, shook the throne of Constantinople.
+The VENE'DI and the AN'TES were tribes of the Slavi.</p>
+<p>
+THE NORMANS.</p>
+<p>
+20. The piratical inhabitants of Norway and Denmark were called by the
+Franks, Normans, or, Men of the North; in Ireland they were named
+Ostmen, or, Men of the East. Their depredations began to attract
+notice early in the seventh century, but did not become formidable
+before the ninth: when they obtained possession of that part of France
+now called Normandy. In the two following centuries they wrested
+England from the Saxons, and established kingdoms in Sicily and
+southern Italy.</p>
+<p>
+THE BULGARIANS.</p>
+<p>
+21. The Bulgarians were of Scythian or Tartar origin, and became
+formidable to the Eastern empire in the latter part of the seventh
+century. In the beginning of the ninth, Cruni'nus, their king,
+advanced to the gates of Constantinople; but the city proving too
+strong, he seized Adrianople, and returned home loaded with booty. The
+successors of Cruni'nus did not inherit his abilities, and the
+Bulgarians soon sunk into comparative insignificance.</p>
+<p>
+THE SARACENS MOORS AND TURKS.</p>
+<p>
+22. In concluding this chapter, it may be proper to give some account
+of the subverters of the Eastern empire, and of their irruption into
+Europe. The Arabs, called in the middle ages Saracens, are supposed to
+be descended from Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar. During all
+the changes of dynasties and empires in the eastern and western<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg. 390]</a></span>
+world, they retained their independence, though almost constantly at
+war with the surrounding states. "Their hand was against every man,
+and every man's hand was against them." In the beginning of the
+seventh century, Mohammed, a native of Mecca, descended from a noble
+family, laid claim to the title of a prophet, and being aided by a
+renegade Christian, formed a religious system, which, after
+encountering great opposition, was finally adopted by the principal
+tribes of Arabia. The successors of Mohammed, called Caliphs, resolved
+to propagate the new religion by the sword, and conquered an empire,
+more extensive than that of the Romans had been. The entire of central
+and southern Asia, including Persia, India, and the provinces of the
+Eastern empire owned their sway; northern Africa was soon after
+subdued, and in the beginning of the eighth century, the Saracenic
+Moors established their dominion in Spain. 23. It is probable, even,
+that all Europe would have submitted to their yoke, if the French
+hero, Charles Martel,<a name="FNanchor_1_211" id="FNanchor_1_211"></a><a href="#Fnote_1_211" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> had not arrested their victorious career, and
+defeated their numerous armies on the plains of <i>Poitiers</i>, A.D.
+732.<a name="FNanchor_2_212" id="FNanchor_2_212"></a><a href="#Fnote_2_212" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+24. The empire of the Caliphs soon declined from its original
+splendour, and its ruin finally proceeded from the same cause that
+produced the downfall of Rome, the employment of barbarian
+mercenaries. The soldiers levied by the Caliphs, were selected from
+the Tartar tribes that had embraced the religion of Mohammed; they
+were called Turcomans or Turks, from Turkistan, the proper name of
+western Tartary. These brave, but ferocious warriors, soon wrested the
+sceptre from the feeble caliphs, and completed the conquest of western
+Asia. The crusades for a time delayed the fate of the Greek empire,
+but finally the Turks crossed the Hellespont, and having taken
+Constantinople, (A.D. 1453,) established their cruel despotism over
+the fairest portion of Europe.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. How were the barbarians first brought into the Roman empire?</p>
+<p>
+2. When did the first great movement of the Northern tribes take
+place?</p>
+<p>
+3. Where did the Vandals first settle?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg. 391]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+4. From whence did the Alans come?</p>
+<p>
+5. In what countries did the Vandals establish their power?</p>
+<p>
+6. Where did we first find the Goths settled?</p>
+<p>
+7. To what countries did the Goths remove?</p>
+<p>
+8. How long did the kingdom of the Visigoths continue?</p>
+<p>
+9. What branch of the Goths settled in Germany?</p>
+<p>
+10. From what did the Franks derive their name?</p>
+<p>
+11. Which was the ancient, and which the modern France?</p>
+<p>
+12. What is the history of the Allemanni?</p>
+<p>
+13. In what countries did the Saxons and Angles settle?</p>
+<p>
+14. Whence did the Huns come?</p>
+<p>
+15. How far did their ravages extend?</p>
+<p>
+16. What territory did the Burgundians seize?</p>
+<p>
+17. How did the alliance between the Lombards and Avars injure the
+former people?</p>
+<p>
+18. Where was the kingdom of the Lombards established?</p>
+<p>
+19. What is told respecting the Slavi?</p>
+<p>
+20. Who were the Normans?</p>
+<p>
+21. What is the history of the Bulgarians?</p>
+<p>
+22. What great conquests were achieved by the Arabs under Mohammed and
+his successors?</p>
+<p>
+23. By whom was the Saracenic career of victory checked?</p>
+<p>
+24. How was the empire of the Turks established?</p>
+<br /><p>
+<b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_1_211" id="Fnote_1_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_211">[1]</a></p>
+<p>
+ See Taylor's History of France.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="Fnote_2_212" id="Fnote_2_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_212">[2]</a></p>
+<p>
+ Here also the heroic Black Prince took John, king of
+France, prisoner. See Taylor's France.</p>
+</div>
+<br /><br /> <br /> <br /> <hr /><h2>CHAPTER XXVIII.</h2><hr /> <br />
+<h4>THE PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY.</h4>
+
+<blockquote class="poem">
+<p>
+<span class="i2">Waft, waft, ye winds, his story,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And you, ye oceans, roll,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">Till, like a sea of glory,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">It spreads from pole to pole.&mdash;<i>Heber</i>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+1. Judea became a Roman province some years before the birth of Jesus
+Christ, and the Jews, who had hitherto been conspicuous for their
+attachment to their native land, were induced, by the spirit of trade,
+to spread themselves over the empire. 2. The exclusive nature of their
+religion kept them in a marked state of separation from their fellow
+subjects; the worshipper of Osi'ris scrupled not to offer sacrifices
+to Jupiter; the Persian, the Indian, and the German, bowed before the
+Roman altars; but the sons of Abraham refused to give the glory of
+their God to graven images, and were regarded by their idolatrous
+neighbours at first with surprise, and afterwards with contempt. 3.
+The appearance of the Messiah in Palestine, and the miraculous
+circumstances of his life, death, and resurrection, did not fill the
+world with their fame, because his preaching was principally addressed
+to his countrymen, the first object of his mission being "the lost
+sheep of the house of Israel."<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg. 392]</a></span></p>
+<p>
+4. The disciples, after their Divine Master was taken from them,
+proceeded to fulfil his last commandments, by preaching the gospel "to
+every nation," and an opportunity of spreading its blessings was
+afforded by Jewish synagogues having been previously established in
+most of the great cities through the empire. Independent of the
+sustaining providence of its Almighty Author, there were many
+circumstances that facilitated the progress and prepared the way for
+the final triumph of Christianity. 5. In the first place, Paganism had
+lost its influence; men secretly laughed at the fabulous legends about
+Jupiter and Rom'ulus, the sacrifices had become idle forms, and the
+processions a useless mockery. Philosophers had not scrupled to cover
+with ridicule the whole system of Heathenism, and there were not a few
+who professed themselves Atheists. 6. Without some system of religion
+society cannot exist; for a sanction stronger than human laws is
+necessary to restrain the violence of passion and ardent desires. The
+innate feeling that our existence is not dependent on our mortal
+frame, disposes men to search for some information respecting a future
+state; the heathen system was at once obscure and absurd; the
+philosophers avowedly spoke from conjecture; but by the Gospel, "life
+and immortality were brought to light." 7. The influence of a purer
+faith was discernible in the lives and actions of the first
+Christians; they lived in an age of unparalleled iniquity and
+debauchery, yet they kept themselves "unspotted from the world;" those
+who were once conspicuous for violence, licentiousness, and crime,
+became, when they joined the new sect, humble, temperate, chaste, and
+virtuous; the persons who witnessed such instances of reformation were
+naturally anxious to learn something of the means by which so great a
+change had been effected. 8. A fourth cause was, that Christianity
+offered the blessings of salvation to men of every class; it was its
+most marked feature, that "to the poor the gospel was preached," and
+the wretch who dared not come into the pagan temple, because he had no
+rich offering to lay upon the altar, was ready to obey the call of him
+who offered pardon and love "without money and without price."</p>
+<p>
+9. In the course of the first century of the Christian era churches
+were established in the principal cities of the empire, but more
+especially in Asia Minor; and the progress of Christianity, which had
+been at first disregarded, began to attract the notice of the ruling
+powers. Too indolent<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg. 393]</a></span> to investigate the claims of Christianity,
+and by no means pleased with a system which condemned their vices, the
+Roman rulers viewed the rapid progress of the new religion with
+undisguised alarm. The union of the sacerdotal and magisterial
+character in the Roman policy, added personal interest to the motives
+that urged them to crush this rising sect; and the relentless Ne'ro at
+length kindled the torch of persecution. 10. But "the blood of the
+martyrs proved the seed of the Church;" the constancy with which they
+supported the most inhuman tortures, their devotion and firm reliance
+on their God in the moments of mortal agony, increased the number of
+converts to a religion which could work such a moral miracle.
+Persecution also united the Christians more closely together, and when
+the reign of terror ended with the death of Nero, it was found that
+Christianity had derived additional strength from the means taken to
+insure its destruction.</p>
+<p>
+11. The successive persecutions inflicted by the policy or the bigotry
+of the following emperors had precisely the same results; and at
+length the Christians had acquired such strength, that their aid, as a
+body, became a matter of importance in contests for the empire.</p>
+<p>
+12. The mild administration of Constantino, while he was only prefect
+of Gaul, the protection which he afforded to the Christians, and the
+favour that he showed to their religion, induced them to aid him with
+all their might in his struggle for the throne. Brought thus into
+contact with the professors of the new doctrine, Constantine was
+induced to examine the foundations of its high claims&mdash;perfect
+conviction was the result, and on his accession to the imperial
+purple, the Christian church was legally established. 13. During the
+reign of the apostate Julian, Christianity was discouraged, but not
+persecuted; his premature death, however, removed the last impediment
+to its final triumph, which was consummated in the reign of the great
+Theodo'sius. 14. Under that emperor the last vestiges of the pagan
+worship were destroyed, its idols overthrown, its altars demolished,
+and its temples closed. The world had become ripe for such a
+revolution, as the temples had been long before almost universally
+abandoned.</p>
+<p>
+15. Since that period Christianity has prevailed in Europe, and formed
+the great bond of the social happiness and the great source of the
+intellectual eminence enjoyed in that quarter of the globe. Let us
+hope that the exertions now<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg. 394]</a></span> made to diffuse its blessings over
+the benighted portions of the earth will prove successful, and that
+"peace and happiness, truth and justice, religion and piety" will
+prevail from pole to pole.</p>
+
+<br /><p><b><i>Questions for Examination.</i></b></p>
+<p>
+1. What was the state of the Jews at the coming of Christ?</p>
+<p>
+2. How were the Jews preserved separate from other nations?</p>
+<p>
+3. What probable cause may be assigned for the neglect of the
+Christian miracles?</p>
+<p>
+4. How did the dispersion of the Jews afford an opportunity for the
+propagation of Christianity?</p>
+<p>
+5. What was the state of paganism when Christianity was first
+preached?</p>
+<p>
+6. What great mystery is brought to light by the gospel?</p>
+<p>
+7. How did the lives of the first Christians contribute to the rapid
+progress of Christianity?</p>
+<p>
+8. To what class of people was the gospel more particularly addressed?</p>
+<p>
+9. What induced the rulers of the Roman empire to persecute
+Christianity?</p>
+<p>
+10. Was Christianity crushed by persecution?</p>
+<p>
+11. What proves the great strength early acquired by Christians?</p>
+<p>
+12. By whom was Christianity legally established?</p>
+<p>
+13. Under whose government did it receive a slight check?</p>
+<p>
+14. When were the last vestiges of paganism abolished?</p>
+<p>
+15. What have been the political effects of the establishment of
+Christianity?<span class="newpage"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg. 395]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX.</h3>
+
+<table summary="CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX."  width="100%">
+
+<tr><td align = "right">B.C.</td><td></td><td></td><td align = "right">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;PAGE</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">1230</td><td colspan = "2">(Supposed) Pelasgic migration to Italy, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_014">14</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">1184</td><td colspan = "2">(Supposed) Arrival of &AElig;neas in Latium, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_063">63</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">753</td><td colspan = "2">(Supposed) foundation of the city of Rome, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_023">23</a>, <a href ="#Page_065">65</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">750</td><td colspan = "2">Union of the Romans and Sabines, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_069">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">716</td><td colspan = "2">Death of Romulus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_070">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">714</td><td colspan = "2">Virtuous Administration of Numa, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_071">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">671</td><td colspan = "2">Accession of Tullus Hostilius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_073">73</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">665</td><td colspan = "2">Duel between the Horatii and Curiatii&mdash;Destruction of Alba, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_073">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">639</td><td colspan = "2">Accession of Ancus Martius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_075">75</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">616</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; Tarquinius Priscus,<td align = "right"><a href="#Page_077">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>The Augurs acquire importance in the state,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_078">78</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "3">578</td><td rowspan = "3"><font size = "+6">{</font></td><td>Death of Tarquinius Priscus,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_079">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Accession of Servius Tullius,</td><td align = "right"><a href ="#Page_080">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>The establishment of the Centuries,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href ="#Page_080">80</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "3">534</td><td rowspan = "3"><font size = "+6">{</font></td><td>Murder of Servius Tullius,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Accession of Tarquinius Superbus,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_083">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gabii taken by stratagem,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_084">84</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">509</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>Expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Establishment of Consuls, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_088">88</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">508</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>Conspiracy for the restoration of the Tarquinii,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_088">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Death of Brutus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_089">89</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">507</td><td colspan = "2">War with Porsenna, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_090">90</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">498</td><td colspan = "2">Lartius the first Dictator created, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_092">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">493</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>The Roman populace retire "to Mons Sacer, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_094">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Tribunes of the people appointed, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_036">36</a>, <a href ="#Page_095">95</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "3">487</td><td rowspan = "3"><font size = "+6">{</font></td><td>Exile of Coriolanus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Rome besieged by Coriolanus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_098">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">His retreat and death, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">484</td><td colspan = "2"> Condemnation and death of Cassius,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_100">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">459</td><td colspan = "2"> First Dictatorship of Cincinnatus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">457</td><td colspan = "2"> Second ditto, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">454</td><td colspan = "2"> The Romans send to Athens for Solon's laws, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_035">35</a>, <a href ="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">451</td><td colspan = "2"> The laws of the Twelve Tables&mdash;The Decemviri, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">449</td><td colspan = "2"> The expulsion of the Decemviri, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">443</td><td colspan = "2"> Military Tribunes chosen instead of Consuls, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">442</td><td colspan = "2"> The Censorship instituted,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_116">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">439</td><td colspan = "2"> M&aelig;lius murdered by Ahala, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">406</td><td colspan = "2"> The siege of Veii begun, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">396</td><td colspan = "2"> Veii taken by Camillus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">391</td><td colspan = "2"> The Gauls invade Italy, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">390</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>The battle of Allia. Rome sacked by the Gauls, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">The Gauls defeated by Camillus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">383</td><td colspan = "2"> Manlius put to death on a charge of treason, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">361</td><td colspan = "2"> Curtius devotes himself in the Forum, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">342</td><td colspan = "2"> Beginning of the Samnite war, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">339</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>Manlius puts his son to death for disobedience, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Decius devotes himself for his country, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">320</td><td colspan = "2"> A Roman army forced to surrender to the Samnites in the Caudine Forks, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">280</td><td colspan = "2"> Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, invades Italy, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">272</td><td colspan = "2"> &mdash;&mdash; finally defeated by Curius Dentatus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">270</td><td colspan = "2"> Tarentum surrendered to the Romans, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">264</td><td colspan = "2"> Commencement of the first Punic war, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">260</td><td colspan = "2"> The Carthaginian fleet defeated by Duilius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">256</td><td colspan = "2"> Regulus defeated by Xantippus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">252</td><td colspan = "2"> Regulus sent to negociate peace. His death, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">241</td><td colspan = "2"> End of the first Punic war, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">234</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>The temple of Janus shut, and Rome at peace, for the first time since the death of Numa, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Literature cultivated at Rome, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">229</td><td colspan = "2"> War with the Illyrians,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_152">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">225</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>The Gauls invade Italy a second time,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_152">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">&mdash;&mdash; are defeated by Marcellus, who gains the spolia opima, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "4">218</td><td rowspan = "4"><font size = "+8">{</font></td><td>The second Punic war begins,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_153">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Hannibal invades Italy, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Battle of the Ticenus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">&mdash;&mdash; of the Trebia,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_155">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">217</td><td colspan = "2"> &mdash;&mdash; of the lake Thrasymene, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">216</td><td colspan = "2"> &mdash;&mdash; of Cann&aelig;, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">214</td><td colspan = "2"> The Romans begin an auxiliary war against Philip of Macedon, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">212</td><td colspan = "2"> Syracuse taken by Marcellus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">207</td><td colspan = "2"> Asdrubal defeated and slain,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_161">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">202</td><td colspan = "2"> Battle of Zama and end of the second Punic war, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">197</td><td colspan = "2"> Philip conquered by the Romans, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">192</td><td colspan = "2"> The Romans wage war against Antiochus,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_165">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">189</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Hannibal, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">171</td><td colspan = "2"> Commencement of the second Macedonian war,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_166">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">168</td><td colspan = "2"> Macedon became a Roman province, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">149</td><td colspan = "2"> The third Punic war begins,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_167">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">147</td><td colspan = "2"> Carthage destroyed by Scipio, and Corinth by Munimius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">132</td><td colspan = "2"> Sedition of Tiberius Gracchus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">126</td><td colspan = "2"> Revolt of the slaves in Sicily, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">122</td><td colspan = "2"> Seditions of Caius Gracchus,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_172">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">121</td><td colspan = "2"> Murder of Caius Gracchus. Persecution of the popular party, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">111</td><td colspan = "2"> The Jugurthine war begins, and lasts five years, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">91</td><td colspan = "2"> The social war begins, and lasts three years, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">89</td><td colspan = "2"> The Mithridatic war begins, and lasts twenty-six years,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_181">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">88</td><td colspan = "2"> The civil war between Marius and Sylla,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_181">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">86</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>Cruelties of Marius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Death of Marius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">82</td><td colspan = "2"> Sylla created dictator, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">78</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Sylla, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">73</td><td colspan = "2"> The insurrection of the slaves under Spartacus <i>note</i>,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_187">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">66</td><td colspan = "2"> Mithridates conquered by Pompey, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">63</td><td colspan = "2"> Catiline's conspiracy detected, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">60</td><td colspan = "2"> The first Triumvirate. C&aelig;sar, Pompey, and Crassus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">55</td><td colspan = "2"> C&aelig;sar invades Britain, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">53</td><td colspan = "2"> Crassus slain in Parthia, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">50</td><td colspan = "2"> Civil war between C&aelig;sar and Pompey, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">48</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>The battle of Pharsalia, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Death of Pompey, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">47</td><td colspan = "2"> Alexandria taken by C&aelig;sar, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">46</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>The war in Africa, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Death of Cato, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">45</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>The war in Spain, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">The battle of Munda,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">44</td><td colspan = "2"> C&aelig;sar murdered in the senate house, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">43</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>Formation of the second Triumvirate&mdash;Antony, Octavius (Augustus) and Lepidus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">The Proscription. The murder of Cicero, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">42</td><td colspan = "2"> The battle of Philippi, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">32</td><td colspan = "2"> Octavius (Augustus) and Antony prepare for war,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">31</td><td colspan = "2"> The battle of Actium, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "3">30</td><td rowspan = "3"><font size = "+6">{</font></td><td>The death of Antony, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Alexandria surrendered, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Death of Cleopatra, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">27</td><td colspan = "2"> The title of Augustus given to Octavius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right"></td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">A.D.</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right"></td><td> </td><td> </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">4</td><td colspan = "2"> Birth of JESUS CHRIST (four years before the vulgar era), </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">14</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Augustus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">19</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Germanicus by poison, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">26</td><td colspan = "2"> The retreat of Tiberius to Capre&aelig;, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">31</td><td colspan = "2"> Disgrace and downfall of Sejanus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">33</td><td colspan = "2"> The Crucifixion, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">37</td><td colspan = "2"> The Accession of Caligula,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_279">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">41</td><td colspan = "2"> Caligula murdered by Cherea, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_284">284</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">43</td><td colspan = "2"> Claudius invades Britain, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">51</td><td colspan = "2"> Caractacus carried captive to Rome, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">54</td><td colspan = "2"> Nero succeeds Claudius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">59</td><td colspan = "2"> Nero murders his mother, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">64</td><td colspan = "2"> First general persecution of the Christians, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">65</td><td colspan = "2"> Seneca, Lucan, and others, executed for conspiracy, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">68</td><td colspan = "2"> Suicide of Nero. Accession of Galba, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "3">69</td><td rowspan = "3"><font size = "+6">{</font></td><td>Death of Galba, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Defeat and death of Otho, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Defeat and death of Vitellius. Accession of Vespasian, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">70</td><td colspan = "2"> Siege and capture of Jerusalem, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">79</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>Death of Vespasian. Accession of Titus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Eruption of Vesuvius: destruction of Herculaneum, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">81</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Titus. Accession of Domitian, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">88</td><td colspan = "2"> The Dacian war, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">96</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>Assassination of Domitian, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Accession of Nerva, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">98</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Nerva. Accession of Trajan, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">107</td><td colspan = "2"> Third general persecution of the Christians, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">117</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Trajan. Accession of Adrian, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">121</td><td colspan = "2"> A wall to restrain the incursions of the Picts and Scots erected in Britain by Adrian, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">131</td><td colspan = "2"> Great rebellion of the Jews, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">136</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Adrian. Accession of Antoninus Pius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">161</td><td colspan = "2"> Accession of Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">162</td><td colspan = "2"> The Parthian war,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_323">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">169</td><td colspan = "2"> The war with the Marcomanni, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">180</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>Death of Marcus Aurelius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Accession of Commodus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">192</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>Commodus murdered by Marcia and L&aelig;tus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Assassination of Pertinax, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">200</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>Roman empire offered for sale,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_335">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Severus subdues the Parthians, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_338">338</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">211</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Severus at York. Accession of Caracalla and Geta, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">217</td><td colspan = "2"> Assassination of Caracalla, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">218</td><td colspan = "2"> Accession of Heliogabalus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_341">341</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">222</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>His miserable death,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_341">ib.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">Accession of Alexander Severus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_342">342</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">235</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Alexander. Maximin elected emperor, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_343">343</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">236</td><td colspan = "2"> Assassination of Maximin, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_344">344</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "right">238</td><td colspan = "2">Accession of Gordian, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">244</td><td colspan = "2">His murder by Philip,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_345"></a>ib.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">248</td><td colspan = "2"> Philip killed by his soldiers: succeeded by Decius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_346">346</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">251</td><td colspan = "2"> Decius slain in an ambuscade: succeeded by Gallus,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_346">ib</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">254</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Gallus: a disputed succession, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">270</td><td colspan = "2"> Accession of Aurelian, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">275</td><td colspan = "2"> Brief reign of Tacitus, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">282</td><td colspan = "2"> Assassination of the emperor Probus,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_349">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">284</td><td colspan = "2"> Accession of Dioclesian, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">304</td><td colspan = "2"> The reign of Constantius and Galerius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">312</td><td colspan = "2"> Victory of Constantino over Maxentius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">319</td><td colspan = "2"> Favour showed to the Christians, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_354">354</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">324</td><td colspan = "2"> Defeat of Licinius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_355">355</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">325</td><td colspan = "2"> Legal establishment of Christianity, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">328</td><td colspan = "2"> The seat of government removed from Rome to Byzantium, which city from thenceforward takes the name of Constantinople, from the emperor Constantine, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_356">356</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">337</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>Death of Constantine, and division of the empire among his sons, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_357">357</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">(Destruction of the Flavian Family, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_359">359</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">338</td><td colspan = "2"> War between Constantius and Sapor, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_360">360</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">340</td><td colspan = "2"> Constantine the younger defeated and slain by his brother Constans, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_361">361</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">350</td><td colspan = "2"> Constans killed by Magnentius,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_361">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">351</td><td colspan = "2"> Magnentius totally defeated at the fatal battle of Mursa, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_362">362</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">354</td><td colspan = "2"> Gallas put to death by Constantius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">360</td><td colspan = "2"> The civil war between Constantius and Julian prevented by the death of the former, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_364">364</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">362</td><td colspan = "2"> Julian's attempt to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem defeated, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">363</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Julian in the Persian war. Brief reign of Jovian, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_366">366</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">364</td><td colspan = "2"> The empire divided between Valenlinian and Valens, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right" rowspan = "2">376</td><td rowspan = "2"><font size = "+3">{</font></td><td>The Goths permitted to settle in Thrace, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align = "left">First appearance of the Huns in Europe, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">378</td><td colspan = "2"> The emperor Valens defeated by the Goths at Adrianople,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_369">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">379</td><td colspan = "2"> Theodosius becomes emperor of the East, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_370">370</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">388</td><td colspan = "2"> The usurper Maximus defeated and slain, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_371">371</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">392</td><td colspan = "2"> Reunion of the Eastern and Western empires, under Theodosius, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_372">372</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">395</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Theodosius, and final separation of the Eastern and Western empires,</td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_372">ib.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">398</td><td colspan = "2"> Revolt of Gildo in Africa, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_374">374</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">405</td><td colspan = "2"> Stilicho obtains two victories over the Goths, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_375">375</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">406</td><td colspan = "2"> The Vandals and Alans settle in Gaul, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">408</td><td colspan = "2"> Alaric, king of the Goths, besieges Rome, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_378">378</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">410</td><td colspan = "2"> Rome taken and plundered by the Goths, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_379">379</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">412</td><td colspan = "2"> Beginning of the Vandal kingdom in Spain, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">415</td><td colspan = "2"> Commencement of the kingdom of the Visigoths, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">423</td><td colspan = "2"> Death of Honorius. Accession of Valentinian, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_379">379</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">430</td><td colspan = "2"> The Vandals invited to Africa by count Boniface, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">447</td><td colspan = "2"> The Huns under the guidance of Attila, ravage Europe, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_380">380</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">449</td><td colspan = "2"> The Britons, deserted by the Romans, invite the Sarons and Angles to their assistance, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_389">389</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">455</td><td colspan = "2"> Rome taken and plundered by Genseric, the king of the African Vandals, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_381">381</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">476</td><td colspan = "2"> Augustulus, the last emperor of the West deposed, Odoacer takes the title of king of Italy, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align = "right">453</td><td colspan = "2"> Subversion of the Eastern empire, </td><td align = "right"><a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<h3>THE END</h3>
+
+<hr />
+<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br />
+<h4>MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.</h4>
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image33.jpg"
+alt="ads"
+title="ads" width="421" height="355" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p class="smcap">THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT &amp; CO.,<br />
+PUBLISH</p>
+
+<h2>MITCHELL'S AMERICAN SYSTEM</h2>
+
+<h5>OF</h5>
+
+<h3><b>STANDARD SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY,</b>
+</h3>
+<p class="smcap">IN A SERIES,<br />
+
+ADAPTED TO THE PROGRESSIVELY DEVELOPING CAPACITIES OF YOUTH.</p>
+<h6>The series comprise the following works, viz.</h6>
+
+<p class="smcap">
+MITCHELL'S PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY.<br />
+MITCHELL'S INTERMEDIATE GEOGRAPHY.<br />
+MITCHELL'S SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS.<br />
+MITCHELL'S ATLAS OF OUTLINE MAPS.<br />
+MITCHELL'S KEY TO THE STUDY OF THE MAPS.<br />
+MITCHELL'S ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS.<br />
+MITCHELL'S ANCIENT ATLAS.<br />
+MITCHELL'S BIBLICAL AND SABBATH-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.<br />
+MITCHELL'S HIGH-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. <i>(Preparing.)</i><br />
+MITCHELL'S VIEW OF THE HEAVENS.<br />
+<br /> <br />
+
+ONE VOLUME QUARTO, HANDSOMELY ILLUSTRATED. <i>(Preparing.)</i></p>
+
+<p>There are no works published in this country that are more in demand,
+or that have a wider circulation than those of Mr. Mitchell. There are
+upwards of 350,000 copies of his geographical works sold annually, and
+more than 250 workmen are constantly employed upon them. The
+arrangements of the publishers are such, that they are enabled to give
+the most correct and latest geographical discoveries and improvements of
+any firm in the United States. They publish the only full series of geographics
+in the country, and having in constant employ a strong geographical
+force of map engravers, &amp;c., and being very largely engaged in the
+publication of the various State and other maps, they are enabled to present
+the school series correct, both in maps and matter, up to the date of
+publication.
+</p>
+<p class="smcap">DESCRIPTION OF THE SERIES</p>
+
+<hr class="minor" />
+<h3><b>MITCHELL'S PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY.</b></h3>
+
+<p class="smcap">SECOND REVISED EDITION.</p>
+
+<h3>AN EASY INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY.</h3>
+
+<p class="smcap">DESIGNED FOR THE INSTRUCTION OF CHILDREN<br /> IN SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.</p>
+
+<h6>Illustrated by 120 Engravings and 14 coloured Maps.</h6>
+
+<h5>BY S. AUGUSTUS MITCHELL.</h5>
+<hr class="major" />
+<p>
+The publishers have embraced the opportunity of a new revision of the
+work to augment its size, so that the book is now a third larger than any
+of the preceding editions.
+</p>
+<p>
+The Maps for the present edition have all been redrawn and re-engraved.
+They are on a much larger scale, more distinct, and fuller in information
+than those of the previous editions, or any similar work extant. The true
+boundaries of all the Western States and Territories are exhibited, California,
+Utah, &amp;c., and proper attention given to all political changes up
+to the present time.</p>
+<br /><br /><br />
+
+<p class="smcap">MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image34.jpg"
+alt="ads"
+title="ads" width="406" height="245" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>MITCHELL'S INTERMEDIATE OR SECONDARY GEOGRAPHY.</h3>
+
+<p class="smcap">A SYSTEM OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY;<br />
+
+Comprising a Description of the present state of the World, and its five
+great Divisions,<br />
+
+AMERICA, EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA, AND OCEANICA,<br />
+
+WITH THEIR SEVERAL EMPIRES, KINGDOMS, STATES, TERRITORIES, ETC.<br />
+
+ILLUSTRATED BY FORTY MAPS AND NUMEROUS WOOD-CUT ENGRAVINGS.<br />
+
+Designed for the instruction of Youth in Schools and Families.<br />
+
+<b>BY S. AUGUSTUS MITCHELL.</b></p>
+<hr class="major" />
+<br />
+<p>
+Mitchell's Intermediate Geography, the last published book of the
+series, has been before the public but a short time, yet it has been extensively
+introduced and is now largely used in public and private schools
+throughout the Union. It has been adopted independently, or in connection
+with other numbers of the series, by the Public School Directors of
+the cities of
+</p>
+<table summary="ads" width="75%">
+<tr><td>New York,</td><td>Philadelphia,</td><td>Baltimore,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Washington,</td><td>St. Louis,</td><td>Albany,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Rochester,</td><td>Cleveland,</td><td>Syracuse,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Utica,</td><td>Schenectady,</td><td>Oswego, &amp;c. &amp;c.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>By numerous county boards in the various States, and a great number of
+the towns and villages of the whole country.
+</p>
+<p class="smcap">MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.
+</p> <p>
+This work is designed to occupy a medium place between the Author's
+Primary, and the well known School Geography and Atlas, of which last
+book it contains about two-thirds of the amount of matter.
+</p> <p>
+Like the Primary Geography, the Map Questions are upon the same
+or opposite page to the map itself, so that in no case have the leaves to be
+turned to find an answer to the question.
+</p> <p>
+Superior excellence is claimed for this book, on account of the natural
+and progressive order of the lessons,&mdash;of the conciseness and truthfulnes
+of the descriptive matter,&mdash;of the number, correctness, and uniform excellence
+of the Maps,&mdash;from the fact that the book is faithfully revised as
+often as political changes in our own or other countries require it,&mdash;that
+the pronunciations of the difficult geographical names are given,&mdash;and
+finally, on account of the superior mechanical execution of the work.
+</p> <p>
+As a specimen of numerous recommendations the publishers have
+received, they submit the following:
+</p> <p>
+<i>Copy of a petition of the Public School Teachers of the City of Troy, New
+York, addressed to the Board of Education of said city</i>.
+</p> <p>
+GENTLEMEN,&mdash;Having examined Mitchell's Intermediate and Primary
+Geographies, and faithfully compared them with Smith's, in regard to
+accuracy of definitions, reliability of topography, and faithfulness of the
+descriptive part, we, the undersigned, teachers, are respectively of
+opinion that the interests of your public schools require that the former
+geographies be substituted, to be used in our schools in the room of the
+latter, and we respectfully request that this change may be made.
+</p> <p>
+<i>Signed,</i></p>
+<blockquote>
+<span class="i8">EDWARD WILSON, JR.</span><br />
+<span class="i8">HENRY ROBBINS,</span><br />
+<span class="i8">HORACE BACON,</span><br />
+<span class="i8">P.W. ROBERTSON,</span><br />
+<span class="i8">N.H. BENSON,</span><br />
+<span class="i8">P.S. CRANDALL,</span><br />
+<span class="i8">JNO. PRENTICE,</span><br />
+<span class="i8">J.A. PETERS,</span><br />
+<span class="i8">ROXANA CARMICHAEL,</span><br />
+<span class="i8">RICHARD DAVIDSON.</span>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="citation"><i>Principals of the Public Schools
+of the City of Troy.</i>
+</p>
+
+<br /><br /><br />
+<p class="smcap">HISTORICAL SERIES.</p>
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/image35.jpg"
+alt="ads"
+title="ads" width="364" height="282" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h4>PINNOCK'S HISTORICAL SERIES.</h4>
+<hr class="major" />
+
+<h4><b>PINNOCK'S ENGLAND</b>.</h4>
+
+<p class="smcap">REVISED EDITION.</p>
+
+<p class="smcap>">PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND,<br />
+
+<b>FROM THE INVASION OF JULIUS C&AElig;SAR</b><br />
+
+<h4><b>TO THE DEATH OF GEORGE THE II.</b></h4>
+
+<p class=smcap>WITH A CONTINUATION TO THE YEAR 1845:<br />
+
+WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION;<br />
+
+BESIDES A VARIETY OF VALUABLE INFORMATION ADDED THROUGHOUT THE WORK,</p>
+<p>
+Consisting of Tables of Contemporary Sovereigns and eminent Persons, copious Explanatory
+Notes, Remarks on the Politics, Manners and Literature of the Age,
+and an Outline of the Constitution.
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+<b>ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.</b><br />
+
+FORTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, CORRECTED AND REVISED FROM THE THIRTY-FIFTH ENGLISH EDITION.</p>
+
+<h4>By W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D.,</h4><p class="smcap"> OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN,<br />
+
+Author of a Manual of Ancient and Modern History, &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<h3><b>PINNOCK'S FRANCE,</b></h3>
+<p class="smcap">
+HISTORY OF FRANCE AND NORMANDY, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO<br />
+THE REVOLUTION OF 1848,<br />
+WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION,<br />
+
+BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D., OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN,
+</p>
+<p class="smcap">
+Author of a Manual of Ancient and Modern History, &amp;c. &amp;c., and Editor of Pinnock's
+Improved editions of Goldsmith's Greece, Rome, and England.
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+<b>ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.</b>
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+FIRST AMERICAN FROM THE THIRD ENGLISH EDITION.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="major" />
+<h3><b>PINNOCK'S ROME,</b></h3>
+<p class="smcap">
+REVISED EDITION,
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ROME,
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+TO WHICH IS PREFIXED
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF ROMAN HISTORY,
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+AND A GREAT VARIETY OF INFORMATION THROUGHOUT THE WORK,
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+ON THE MANNERS, INSTITUTIONS, AND ANTIQUITIES OF THE ROMANS;
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION.
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+TWENTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, FROM THE NINETEENTH LONDON EDITION, IMPROVED
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+<b>BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D.,</b>
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS BY ATHERTON AND OTHERS.
+</p> <hr class="major" />
+<h3><b>PINNOCK'S GREECE,</b></h3>
+ <p class="smcap">
+REVISED EDITION,<br /> <br />
+
+PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE,<br />
+REVISED, CORRECTED, AND VERY CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED,<br />
+BY THE ADDITION OF SEVERAL NEW CHAPTERS, AND NUMEROUS<br />
+USEFUL NOTES.
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION.
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+TWENTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, FROM THE NINETEENTH LONDON EDITION, IMPROVED
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D.,
+</p> <p class="smcap">
+WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY ATHERTON AND OTHERS.</p>
+
+
+<br /> <br /> <br /><p>
+Pinnock's England, Greece, Rome, and France, have become school
+classics. In order to make this series more complete, the volumes have
+been revised by that well-known historian, W.C. Taylor, LL.D., of Trinity
+College, Dublin.
+</p> <p>
+The popularity of these books is almost without a parallel. Teachers
+unacquainted with them, will on examination give them a decided preference
+to any other historical series published.
+</p>
+<hr class="minor" />
+<h6>
+<i>From the Pennsylvania Inquirer, Philadelphia</i>.
+</h6> <p>
+PINNOCK'S GOLDSMITH'S GREECE, ROME, AND ENGLAND.&mdash;The popularity
+of these histories is almost without a parallel among our school books.
+Their use is co-extensive with the English language, and their names are
+familiar to all who have received an English education. But if permitted
+to remain as they came from the hands of the author, they would soon be
+antiquated; for not only is the stream of modern history flowing onward,
+but numerous scholars are constantly making researches into that of
+ancient times. These works are therefore frequently revised, and thus
+the labours of successive individuals are added to those of the gifted man
+who wrote them. The present edition is quite an improvement on the
+former ones. Several important matters which had before been omitted,
+have been introduced into the text, numerous notes and several new cuts
+have been added, and every chapter commences with one or more well
+selected poetical lines, which express the subject of the chapter, and will
+assist the memory as well as improve the taste of the student. We feel
+assured that these additions will increase the reputation which these works
+have hitherto so deservedly sustained.
+</p>
+<hr class="minor" />
+<h6>
+<i>From</i> JOHN M. KEAGY, <i>Friends' Academy, Philadelphia.</i>
+</h6> <p>
+I consider Pinnock's edition of Goldsmith's History of England as the
+best edition of that work which has as yet been published for the use of
+schools. The tables of contemporary sovereigns and eminent persons, at
+the end of each chapter, afford the means of many useful remarks and
+comparisons with the history of other nations. With these views, I cheerfully
+recommend it as a book well adapted to school purposes.
+</p>
+<hr class="minor" />
+<h6><i>From</i> MR. J.F. GOULD, <i>Teacher, Baltimore.</i>
+</h6> <p>
+Having examined Pinnock's improved edition of Dr. Goldsmith's History
+of Rome, I unhesitatingly say, that the style and elegance of the language,
+the arrangement of the chapters, and the questions for examination, render
+it, in my estimation, a most valuable school book:&mdash;I therefore most
+cheerfully recommend it to teachers, and do confidently trust that it will
+find an extensive introduction into the schools of our country.
+</p>
+<hr class="minor" />
+ <h6>
+<i>From the New York Evening Post</i>.
+</h6> <p>
+A well written and authentic History of France possesses unusual interest
+at the present time. It becomes especially valuable when, as in the
+present case, it has been prepared with questions as a text-book for common
+schools and seminaries, by a scholar so accomplished as Dr. Taylor.
+The work has passed through three editions in England. The American
+editor has added one chapter on the late revolutions, bringing the history
+down to 1848, and has added to its value by illustrations throughout, portraying
+the costume and the principal events of the reigns of which it
+treats.
+</p> <p>
+This treatise goes back to the origin of the Celtic race, or the Cimbrians,
+as the offspring of Gomer, peopling the north and east of Europe on
+the one hand, and to the descendants of Cush&mdash;under the names of Scythians,
+Tartars, Goths, and Scots, warlike, wandering tribes, on the
+other, tracing the migrations of the latter till they drove the Celts westward,
+and the Rhine forms the boundary between the two nations. From
+the Gauls it goes on to the reign of the Franks, Charlemagne, the Carlovingian
+race, the history of Normandy, and the history of France from the
+first crusade through its lines of monarchies and its revolutions, to 1848.
+The style is clear and forcible, and from the compactness of the work,
+forming, as it does, a complete chain of events in a most important part
+of the history of Europe, it will be found interesting and valuable for
+general readers, or as a text-book in our schools. It is comprised in 444
+pages, 12mo., and contains a chronological index and genealogy of the
+kings of France.
+</p>
+<hr class="minor" />
+<p>
+Want of space prevents us from inserting all the recommendations
+received: we however present the names of the following gentlemen, who
+have given their recommendations to the Histories:
+</p> <p>
+SIMEON HART, Jr., <i>Farmington, Conn.</i>
+</p> <p>
+REV. D.R. AUSTIN, <i>Principal of Monmouth Academy, Monson, Mass.</i>
+</p> <p>
+T.L. WRIGHT, A.M., <i>Prin. E. Hartford Classical and English School.</i>
+</p> <p>
+REV. N.W. FISKE, A.M., <i>Professor Amherst College, Mass.</i>
+</p> <p>
+E.S. SNELL, A.M., <i>Professor Amherst College, Mass.</i>
+</p> <p>
+REV. S. NORTH, <i>Professor Languages, Hamilton College, N.Y.</i>
+</p> <p>
+W.H. SCRAM, A.M., <i>Prin. Classical and English Academy, Troy, N.Y.</i>
+</p> <p>
+JAMES F. GOULD, <i>Principal of Classical School, Baltimore.</i>
+</p> <p>
+A.B. MYERS, <i>Principal of Whitehall, Academy, New York.</i>
+</p> <p>
+HORACE WEBSTER, <i>Professor Geneva College, N.Y.</i>
+</p> <p>
+W.C. FOWLER, <i>Professor Middlebury College, Vermont.</i>
+</p> <p>
+B.S. NOBLE, <i>Bridgeport, Conn.</i>
+</p> <p>
+REV. S.B. HOWE, <i>Late President of Dickenson College.</i>
+</p> <p>
+B.F. JOSLIN, <i>Professor Union College, N.Y.</i>
+</p>
+<hr class="major" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Pinnock's Improved Edition of Dr.
+Goldsmith's History of Rome, by Oliver Goldsmith
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME ***
+
+***** This file should be named 16387-h.htm or 16387-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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@@ -0,0 +1,19758 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pinnock's Improved Edition of Dr.
+Goldsmith's History of Rome, by Oliver Goldsmith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Pinnock's Improved Edition of Dr. Goldsmith's History of Rome
+
+Author: Oliver Goldsmith
+
+Editor: William C. Taylor
+
+Release Date: July 29, 2005 [EBook #16387]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Alicia Williams, Jayam Subramanian and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+  PINNOCK'S
+
+  IMPROVED EDITION OF
+
+
+
+
+  DR. GOLDSMITH'S
+
+  HISTORY OF ROME:
+
+
+
+
+  TO WHICH IS PREFIXED AN
+
+  INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF ROMAN HISTORY,
+
+  AND
+
+  A GREAT VARIETY OF VALUABLE INFORMATION ADDED THROUGHOUT THE WORK, ON
+  THE
+
+  MANNERS, INSTITUTIONS, AND ANTIQUITIES OF THE ROMANS;
+
+  WITH
+
+  NUMEROUS BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL NOTES;
+
+  AND
+
+  QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION
+
+  AT THE END OF EACH SECTION.
+
+  ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
+
+  [Illustration: Coliseum.]
+
+  BY
+
+  WM. C. TAYLOR, LL.D.,
+
+  OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN.
+
+  AUTHOR OF MANUAL OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY, ETC. ETC.
+
+
+
+
+  THIRTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, FROM THE TWENTY-THIRD ENGLISH EDITION
+
+  PHILADELPHIA:
+
+  THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO.
+
+  1851.
+
+
+
+
+
+  Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1848, by
+
+  THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO.
+
+  In the clerk's office of the District Court of the United States for
+  the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
+
+  PRINTED BY SMITH & PETERS,
+
+  Franklin Buildings, Sixth Street below Arch, Philadelphia.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+The researches of Niebuhr and several other distinguished German
+scholars have thrown a new light on Roman History, and enabled us to
+discover the true constitution of that republic which once ruled the
+destinies of the known world, and the influence of whose literature
+and laws is still powerful in every civilized state, and will probably
+continue to be felt to the remotest posterity. These discoveries have,
+however, been hitherto useless to junior students in this country; the
+works of the German critics being unsuited to the purposes of schools,
+not only from their price, but also from the extensive learning
+requisite to follow them through their laborious disquisitions. The
+editor has, therefore, thought that it would be no unacceptable
+service, to prefix a few Introductory Chapters, detailing such results
+from their inquiries as best elucidate the character and condition of
+the Roman people, and explain the most important portion of the
+history. The struggles between the patricians and plebeians,
+respecting the agrarian laws have been so strangely misrepresented,
+even by some of the best historians, that the nature of the contest
+may, with truth, be said to have been wholly misunderstood before the
+publication of Niebuhr's work: a perfect explanation of these
+important matters cannot be expected in a work of this kind; the
+Editors trust that the brief account given here of the Roman tenure of
+land, and the nature of the agrarian laws, will be found sufficient
+for all practical purposes. After all the researches that have been
+made, the true origin of the Latin people, and even of the Roman city,
+is involved in impenetrable obscurity; the legendary traditions
+collected by the historians are, however, the best guides that we can
+now follow; but it would be absurd to bestow implicit credit on all
+the accounts they have given, and the editor has, therefore, pointed
+out the uncertain nature of the early history, not to encourage
+scepticism, but to accustom students to consider the nature of
+historical evidence, and thus early form the useful habit of
+criticising and weighing testimony.
+
+The authorities followed in the geographical chapters, are principally
+Heeren and Cramer; the treatise of the latter on ancient Italy is one
+of the most valuable aids acquired by historical students within the
+present century. Much important information respecting the peculiar
+character of the Roman religion has been derived from Mr. Keightley's
+excellent Treatise on Mythology; the only writer who has, in our
+language, hitherto, explained the difference between the religious
+systems of Greece and Rome. The account of the barbarians in the
+conclusion of the volume, is, for the most part, extracted from
+"Koch's Revolutions of Europe;" the sources of the notes, scattered
+through the volume, are too varied for a distinct acknowledgment of
+each.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+CHAPTER
+
+I. Geographical Outline of Italy
+
+II. The Latin Language and People--Credibility of the Early History
+
+III. Topography of Rome
+
+IV. The Roman Constitution
+
+V. The Roman Tenure of Land--Colonial Government
+
+VI. The Roman Religion
+
+VII. The Roman Army and Navy
+
+VIII. Roman Law.--Finance
+
+IX. The public Amusements and private Life of the Romans
+
+X. Geography of the empire at the time of its greatest extent
+
+HISTORY.
+
+I. Of the Origin of the Romans
+
+II. From the building of Rome to the death of Romulus
+
+III. From the death of Romulus to the death of Numa
+
+IV. From the death of Numa to the death of Tullus Hostilius
+
+V. From the death of Tullus Hostilius to the death of Ancus Martius
+
+VI. From the death of Ancus Martius to the death of Taiquinius Priscus
+
+VII. From the death of Tarquinius Priscus to the death of Servius Tullius
+
+VIII. From the death of Servius Tullius to the banishment of Tarquinius
+  Superbus
+
+IX. From the banishment of Tarquinius Superbus to the appointment of the
+  first Dictator
+
+X. From the Creation of the Dictator to the election of the Tribunes
+
+XI. From the Creation of the Tribunes to the appointment of the Decemviri,
+  viz.
+
+Section 1.--The great Volscian war
+
+ ----   2.--Civil commotions on account of the Agrarian law
+
+XII. From the creation of the Decemviri to the destruction of the city
+  by the Gauls, viz.
+
+Section 1.--Tyranny of the Decemviri
+
+ ----   2.--Crimes of Appius--Revolt of the army
+
+ ----   3.--Election of Military Tribunes--Creation of the
+  Censorship
+
+ ----   4.--Siege and capture of Veii--Invasion of the Gauls
+
+ ----   5.--Deliverance of Rome from the Gauls
+
+XIII. From the wars with the Samnites to the First Punic war, viz.
+
+Section 1.--The Latin war
+
+ ----   2.--Invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus
+
+ ----   3.--Defeat and departure of Pyrrhus
+
+XIV. From the beginning of the First Punic war to the beginning of the
+  Second, viz.
+
+Section 1.--Causes and commencement of the war--Invasion of Africa by
+  Regulus
+
+ ----   2.--Death of Regulus--Final Triumph of the Romans
+
+XV. The Second Punic war, viz.
+
+Section 1.--Commencement of the war--Hannibal's invasion of Italy
+
+ ----   2.--Victorious career of Hannibal
+
+ ----   3.--Retrieval of the Roman affairs--Invasion of Africa by
+  Scipio--Conclusion of the war
+
+XVI. Macedonian, Syrian, Third Punic, and Spanish wars
+
+XVII. From the Destruction of Carthage to the end of the Sedition of the
+  Gracchi, viz.
+
+Section 1.--Murder of Tiberius Gracchus
+
+ ----   2.--Slaughter of Caius Gracchus and his adherents
+
+XVIII. From the Sedition of Gracchus to the perpetual Dictatorship of
+  Sylla, viz.
+
+Section 1.--The Jugurthine and Social wars
+
+ ----   2.--The cruel massacres perpetrated by Marius and Sylla
+
+XIX. From the perpetual Dictatorship of Sylla to the first Triumvirate
+
+XX. From the First Triumvirate to the death of Pompey, viz.
+
+Section 1.--Caesar's wars in Gaul--Commencement of the Civil war
+
+ ----   2.--Caesar's victorious career
+
+ ----   3.--The campaign in Thessaly and Epirus
+
+ ----   4.--The battle of Pharsalia----5.--Death of Pompey
+
+XXI. From the Destruction of the Commonwealth to the establishment of the
+  first Emperor, Augustus, viz.
+
+Section 1.--Caesar's Egyptian campaign
+
+ ----   2.--The African campaign
+
+ ----   3.--Death of Caesar
+
+ ----   4.--The Second Triumvirate
+
+ ----   5.--The Battle of Philippi
+
+ ----   6.--Dissensions of Antony and Augustus
+
+ ----   7.--The Battle of Actium
+
+ ----   8.--The Conquest of Egypt
+
+XXII. From the accession of Augustus to the death of Domitian, viz.
+
+Section 1.--The beneficent Administration of Augustus
+
+ ----   2.--Death of Augustus
+
+ ----   3.--The reign of Tiberius--Death of Germanicus
+
+ ----   4.--Death of Sejanus and Tiberius--Accession of Caligula
+
+ ----   5.--Extravagant cruelties of Caligula--His death
+
+ ----   6.--The Reign of Claudius
+
+ ----   7.--The reign of Nero
+
+ ----   8.--Death of Nero--Reigns of Galba and Otho
+
+ ----   9.--The reigns of Vitellius and Vespasian--The siege of
+  Jerusalem by Titus
+
+ ----  10.--The Reigns of Titus and Domitian
+
+ ----  11.--The assassination of Domitian
+
+XXIII. The Five good emperors of Rome, viz.
+
+Section 1.--The Reigns of Nerva and Trajan
+
+ ----   2.--The Reign of Adrian
+
+ ----   3.--The Reign of Antoninus Pius
+
+ ----   4.--The reign of Marcus Aurelius
+
+XXIV. From the accession of Commodus to the change of the seat of
+  Government, from Rome to Constantinople, viz.
+
+Section 1.--The Reigns of Commodus, Pertinax, and Didius
+
+ ----   2.--The Reigns of Severus, Caracalla, Maximus, and Heliogabalus
+
+ ----   3.--The reigns of Alexander, Maximin, and Gordian
+
+ ----   4.--The Reigns of Philip, Decius, Gallus, Valerian, Claudius,
+  Aurelian, Tacitus, and Probus
+
+ ----   5.--The reigns of Carus, Carinus, Dioclesian, and
+  Constantius--Accession of Constantine
+
+ ----   6.--The reign of Constantine XXV.
+
+XXV. From the death of Constantine, to the reunion of the Roman empire
+  under Theodosius the Great, viz.
+
+Section 1.--The Reign of Constantius
+
+ ----   2.--The Reigns of Julian Jovian, the Valentinians, and
+  Theodosius
+
+XXVI. From the death of Theodosius to the subversion of the Western Empire,
+  viz.
+
+Section 1.--The division of the Roman dominions into the Eastern and
+  Western empires
+
+ ----   2.--Decline and fall of the Western empire
+
+XXVII. Historical notices of the different barbarous tribes that aided in
+  overthrowing the Roman empire
+
+XXVIII. The progress of Christianity
+
+Chronological Index
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+  HISTORY OF ROME
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF ITALY.
+
+  Italia! oh, Italia! thou who hast
+  The fatal gift of beauty, which became
+  A funeral dower of present woes and past,
+  On thy sweet brow is sorrow plough'd by shame,
+  And annals traced in characters of flame.--_Byron_.
+
+1. The outline of Italy presents a geographical unity and completeness
+which naturally would lead us to believe that it was regarded as a
+whole, and named as a single country, from the earliest ages. This
+opinion would, however, be erroneous; while the country was possessed
+by various independent tribes of varied origin and different customs,
+the districts inhabited by each were reckoned separate states, and it
+was not until these several nations had fallen under the power of one
+predominant people that the physical unity which the peninsula
+possesses was expressed by a single name. Italy was the name
+originally given to a small peninsula in Brut'tium, between the
+Scylacean and Napetine gulfs; the name was gradually made to
+comprehend new districts, until at length it included the entire
+country lying south of the Alps, between the Adriatic and Tuscan seas.
+2. The names Hesperia, Saturnia, and Oenot'ria have also been given
+to this country by the poets; but these designations are not properly
+applicable; for Hesperia was a general name for all the countries
+lying to the west of Greece, and the other two names really belonged
+to particular districts.
+
+3. The northern boundary of Italy, in its full extent, is the chain of
+the Alps, which forms a kind of crescent, with the convex side towards
+Gaul. The various branches of these mountains had distinct names; the
+most remarkable were, the Maritime Alps, extending from the Ligurian
+sea to Mount Vesulus, _Veso_; the Collian, Graian, Penine, Rhoetian,
+Tridentine, Carnic, and Julian Alps, which nearly complete the
+crescent; the Euganean, Venetian, and Pannonian Alps, that extend the
+chain to the east.
+
+4. The political divisions of Italy have been frequently altered, but
+it may be considered as naturally divided into Northern, Central, and
+Southern Italy.
+
+The principal divisions of Northern Italy were Ligu'ria and Cisalpine
+Gaul.
+
+5. Only one half of Liguria was accounted part of Italy; the remainder
+was included in Gaul. The Ligurians originally possessed the entire
+line of sea-coast from the Pyrennees to the Tiber, and the mountainous
+district now called _Piedmont_; but before the historic age a great
+part of their territory was wrested from them by the Iberians, the
+Celts, and the Tuscans, until their limits were contracted nearly to
+those of the present district attached to Genoa. Their chief cities
+were Genua, _Genoa_; Nicoe'a, _Nice_, founded by a colony from
+Marseilles; and As'ta, _Asti_. The Ligurians were one of the last
+Italian states conquered by the Romans; on account of their inveterate
+hostility, they are grossly maligned by the historians of the
+victorious people, and described as ignorant, treacherous, and
+deceitful; but the Greek writers have given a different and more
+impartial account; they assure us that the Ligurians were eminent for
+boldness and dexterity, and at the same time patient and contented.
+
+6. Cisalpine Gaul extended from Liguria to the Adriatic or Upper Sea,
+and nearly coincides with the modern district of Lombardy. The country
+is a continuous plain divided by the Pa'dus, _Po_, into two parts; the
+northern, Gallia Transpada'na, was inhabited by the tribes of the
+Tauri'ni, In'subres, and Cenoma'nni; the southern, Gallia Cispada'na,
+was possessed by the Boi'i, Leno'nes, and Lingo'nes. 7. These plains
+were originally inhabited by a portion of the Etrurian or Tuscan
+nation, once the most powerful in Italy; but at an uncertain period a
+vast horde of Celtic Gauls forced the passage of the Alps and spread
+themselves over the country, which thence received their name.
+
+8. It was sometimes called Gallia Toga'ta, because the invaders
+conformed to Italian customs, and wore the toga. Cisalpine Gaul was
+not accounted part of Italy in the republican age; its southern
+boundary, the river Rubicon, being esteemed by the Romans the limit of
+their domestic empire.
+
+9. The river Pa'dus and its tributary streams fertilized these rich
+plains. The principal rivers falling into the Padus were, from the
+north, the Du'ria, _Durance_; the Tici'nus, _Tessino_; the Ad'dua,
+_Adda_; the Ol'lius, _Oglio_; and the Min'tius, _Minzio_: from
+the south, the Ta'narus, _Tanaro_, and the Tre'bia. The Ath'esis,
+_Adige_; the Pla'vis, _Paive_; fall directly into the Adriatic.
+
+10. The principal cities in Cisalpine Gaul were Roman colonies with
+municipal rights; many of them have preserved their names unchanged to
+the present day. The most remarkable were; north of the Pa'dus,
+Terge'ste, _Trieste_; Aquilei'a; Pata'vium, _Padua_; Vincen'tia,
+Vero'na, all east of the Athe'sis: Mantua; Cremo'na; Brix'ia,
+_Brescia_; Mediola'num, _Milan_; Tici'num, _Pavia_; and Augusta
+Turino'rum, _Turin_; all west of the Athe'sis. South of the Po we find
+Raven'na; Bono'nia, _Bologna_; Muti'na, _Modena_; Par'ma, and
+Placen'tia. 11. From the time that Rome was burned by the Gauls (B.C.
+390), the Romans were harassed by the hostilities of this warlike
+people; and it was not until after the first Punic war, that any
+vigorous efforts were made for their subjugation. The Cisalpine Gauls,
+after a fierce resistance, were overthrown by Marcell'us (B.C. 223)
+and compelled to submit, and immediately afterwards military colonies
+were sent out as garrisons to the most favourable situations in their
+country. The Gauls zealously supported An'nibal when he invaded Italy,
+and were severely punished when the Romans finally became victorious.
+
+12. North-east of Cisalpine Gaul, at the upper extremity of the
+Adriatic, lay the territory of the Venetians; they were a rich and
+unwarlike people, and submitted to the Romans without a struggle, long
+before northern Italy had been annexed to the dominions of the
+republic.
+
+13. Central Italy comprises six countries, Etru'ria, La'tium, and
+Campa'nia on the west; Um'bria, Pice'num, and Sam'nium, on the east.
+
+14. Etru'ria, called also Tus'cia (whence the modern name _Tuscany_)
+and Tyrrhe'nia, was an extensive mountainous district, bounded on the
+north by the river Mac'ra, and on the south and east by the Tiber. The
+chain of the Apennines, which intersects middle and Lower Italy,
+commences in the north of Etru'ria. The chief river is the Ar'nus,
+_Arno_. 15. The names Etruscan and Tyrrhenian, indifferently applied
+to the inhabitants of this country, originally belonged to different
+tribes, which, before the historic age, coalesced into one people. The
+Etruscans appear to have been Celts who descended from the Alps; the
+Tyrrhenians were undoubtedly a part of the Pelas'gi who originally
+possessed the south-east of Europe. The circumstances of the
+Pelasgic migration are differently related by the several historians,
+but the fact is asserted by all.[1] These Tyrrhenians brought with
+them the knowledge of letters and the arts, and the united people
+attained a high degree of power and civilization, long before the name
+of Rome was known beyond the precincts of Latium. They possessed a
+strong naval force, which was chiefly employed in piratical
+expeditions, and they claimed the sovereignty of the western seas. The
+first sea-fight recorded in history was fought between the fugitive
+Phocians,[2] and the allied fleets of the Tyrrhenians and the
+Carthaginians (B.C. 539.)
+
+16. To commerce and navigation the Etruscans were indebted for their
+opulence and consequent magnificence; their destruction was owing to
+the defects of their political system. There were twelve Tuscan cities
+united in a federative alliance. Between the Mac'ra and Arnus were,
+Pi'sae, _Pisa_; Floren'tia, _Florence_; and Fae'sulae: between the Arnus
+and the Tiber, Volate'rrae, _Volterra_; Volsin'ii, _Bolsena_; Clu'sium,
+_Chiusi_; Arre'tium, _Arrezzo_; Corto'na; Peru'sia, _Perugia_, (near
+which is the Thrasamene lake); Fale'rii, and Ve'ii.
+
+17. Each of these cities was ruled by a chief magistrate called
+_lu'cumo_, chosen for life; he possessed regal power, and is
+frequently called a king by the Roman historians. In enterprises
+undertaken by the whole body, the supreme command was committed to one
+of the twelve _lucumones_, and he received a lictor from each city.
+But from the time that Roman history begins to assume a regular form,
+the Tuscan cities stand isolated, uniting only transiently and
+casually; we do not, however, find any traces of intestine wars
+between the several states.
+
+18. The Etrurian form of government was aristocratical, and the
+condition of the people appears to have been miserable in the extreme;
+they were treated as slaves destitute of political rights, and
+compelled to labour solely for the benefit of their taskmasters. A
+revolution at a late period took place at Volsin'ii, and the exclusive
+privileges of the nobility abolished after a fierce and bloody
+struggle; it is remarkable that this town, in which the people had
+obtained their rights, alone made an obstinate resistance to the
+Romans.
+
+19. The progress of the Tuscans in the fine arts is attested by the
+monuments that still remain; but of their literature we know
+nothing; their language is unknown, and their books have perished. In
+the first ages of the Roman republic, the children of the nobility
+were sent to Etru'ria for education, especially in divination and the
+art of soothsaying, in which the Tuscans were supposed to excel. The
+form of the Roman constitution, the religious ceremonies, and the
+ensigns of civil government, were borrowed from the Etrurians.
+
+20. La'tium originally extended along the coast from the Tiber to the
+promontory of Circe'ii; hence that district was called, old La'tium;
+the part subsequently added, called new La'tium, extended from Circeii
+to the Li'ris, _Garigliano_. The people were called Latins; but
+eastward, towards the Apennines, were the tribes of the Her'nici, the
+AE'qui, the Mar'si, and the Sabines; and on the south were the Vols'ci,
+Ru'tuli, and Aurun'ci. The chief rivers in this country were the
+A'nio, _Teverone_; and Al'lia, which fall into the Tiber; and the
+Liris, _Garigliano_; which flows directly into the Mediterranean.
+
+21. The chief cities in old Latium were ROME; Ti'bur, _Tivoli_;
+Tus'culum, _Frescati_; Al'ba Lon'ga, of which no trace remains;
+Lavin'ium; An'tium; Ga'bii; and Os'tia, _Civita Vecchia_; the chief
+towns in new Latium were Fun'di, Anx'ur or Terraci'na, Ar'pinum,
+Mintur'nae, and For'miae.
+
+22. CAMPA'NIA included the fertile volcanic plains that lie between
+the Liris on the north, and the Si'lanus, _Selo_, on the south; the
+other most remarkable river was the Voltur'nus, _Volturno_. The chief
+cities were, Ca'pua the capital, Linter'num, Cu'mae, Neapo'lis,
+_Naples_; Hercula'neum, Pompe'ii, Surren'tum, Saler'num, &c. The
+original inhabitants of Campa'nia, were the Auso'nes and Op'ici or
+Osci, the most ancient of the native Italian tribes. The Tyrrhenian
+Pelas'gi made several settlements on the coast, and are supposed to
+have founded Cap'ua. The Etruscans were afterwards masters of the
+country, but their dominion was of brief duration, and left no trace
+behind. Campa'nia was subdued by the Romans after the Volscian war.
+
+23. The soil of Campa'nia is the most fruitful, perhaps, in the world,
+but it is subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Mount
+Vesu'vius in the early ages of Italy was not a volcano; its first
+eruption took place A.D. 79.
+
+24. UM'BRIA extended along the middle and east of Italy, from the
+river Rubicon in the north, to the AE'sis, _Gesano_, dividing it
+from Pise'num, and the Nar, _Nera_, separating it from Sam'nium in the
+south. The Umbrians were esteemed one of the most ancient races in
+Italy, and were said to have possessed the greater part of the
+northern and central provinces. They were divided into several tribes,
+which seem to have been semi-barbarous, and they were subject to the
+Gauls before they were conquered by the Romans. Their chief towns were
+Arimi'nium, _Rimini_; Spole'tium, _Spoleto_; Nar'nia, _Narni_; and
+Ocricu'lum, _Otriculi_.
+
+25. PICE'NUM was the name given to the fertile plain that skirts the
+Adriatic, between the AE'sis, _Gesano_, and the Atar'nus, _Pescara_.
+The chief cities were Anco'na and Asc'ulum Pice'num, _Ascoli_. The
+Picentines were descended from the Sabines, and observed the strict
+and severe discipline of that warlike race, but they were destitute of
+courage or vigour.
+
+26. SAM'NIUM included the mountainous tract which stretches from the
+Atar'nus in the north, to the Fren'to in the south. It was inhabited
+by several tribes descended from the Sabines[3] and Ma'rsi, of which
+the Samnites were the most distinguished; the other most remarkable
+septs were the Marruci'ni and Pelig'ni in the north, the Frenta'ni in
+the east, and the Hirpi'ni in the south.
+
+27. The Samnites were distinguished by their love of war, and their
+unconquerable attachment to liberty; their sway at one time extended
+over Campa'nia, and the greater part of central Italy; and the Romans
+found them the fiercest and most dangerous of their early enemies. The
+chief towns in the Samnite territory were Alli'fae, Beneventum, and
+Cau'dium.
+
+28. Lower Italy was also called Magna Grae'cia, from the number of
+Greek[4] colonies that settled on the coast; it comprised four
+countries; Luca'nia and Brut'tium on the west, and Apu'lia and
+Cala'bria on the east.
+
+29. LUCA'NIA was a mountainous country between the Sil'arus, _Selo_,
+on the north, and the Lae'us, _Lavo_, on the south. The Lucanians were
+of Sabine origin, and conquered the Oenotrians, who first
+possessed the country: they also subdued several Greek cities on the
+coast. The chief cities were Posido'nia or Paestum, He'lia or Ve'lia,
+Sib'aris and Thu'rii.
+
+30. Brut'tium is the modern Cala'bria, and received that name when the
+ancient province was wrested from the empire. It included the tongue
+of land from the river Laeus to the southern extremity of Italy at
+Rhe'gium. The mountains of the interior were inhabited by the
+Bruta'tes or Brut'tii, a semi-barbarous tribe, at first subject to the
+Sibarites, and afterwards to the Lucanians. In a late age they
+asserted their independence, and maintained a vigorous resistance to
+the Romans. As the Brut'tii used the Oscan language, they must have
+been of the Ausonian race. The chief towns were the Greek settlements
+on the coast, Consen'tia, _Cosenza_; Pando'sia, _Cirenza_; Croto'na,
+Mame'rtum, Petil'ia, and Rhe'gium, _Reggio_.
+
+31. Apu'lia extended along the eastern coast from the river Fren'to,
+to the eastern tongue of land which forms the foot of the boot, to
+which Italy has been compared. It was a very fruitful plain, without
+fortresses or harbours, and was particularly adapted to grazing
+cattle. It was divided by the river Au'fidus, _Ofanto_, into Apu'lia
+Dau'nia, and Apu'lia Peuce'tia, or pine-bearing Apu'lia. The chief
+towns were, in Dau'nia, Sipon'tum and Luce'ria: in Peuce'tia, Ba'rium,
+Can'nae, and Venu'sia.
+
+32. Cala'bria, or Messa'pia, is the eastern tongue of land which
+terminates at Cape Japy'gium, _Santa Maria_; it was almost wholly
+occupied by Grecian colonies. The chief towns were Brundu'sium,
+_Brindisi_: Callipolis, _Gallipoli_: and Taren'tum.
+
+33. The islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia, which are now
+reckoned as appertaining to Italy, were by the Romans considered
+separate provinces.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. How is Italy situated?
+
+2. By what names was the country known to the ancients?
+
+3. How is Italy bounded on the north?
+
+4. What districts were in northern Italy?
+
+5. What was the extent of Liguria, and the character of its
+inhabitants?
+
+6. How was Cisalpine Gaul divided?
+
+7. By whom was Cisalpine Gaul inhabited?
+
+8. Why was it called Togata?
+
+9. What are the principal rivers in northern Italy?
+
+10. What are the chief cities in Cisalpine Gaul?
+
+11. When did the Romans subdue this district?
+
+12. Did the Venetians resist the Roman power?
+
+13. What are the chief divisions of central Italy?
+
+14. How is Etruria situated?
+
+15. By what people was Etruria colonized?
+
+16. What were the Tuscan cities?
+
+17. How were the cities ruled?
+
+18. What was the general form of Tuscan government?
+
+19. For what were the Tuscans remarkable?
+
+20. What was the geographical situation of Latium?
+
+21. What were the chief towns in Latium?
+
+22. What towns and people were in Campania?
+
+23. For what is the soil of Campania remarkable?
+
+24. What description is given of Umbria?
+
+25. What towns and people were in Picenum?
+
+26. From whom were the Samnites descended?
+
+27. What was the character of this people?
+
+28. How was southern Italy divided?
+
+29. What description is given of Lucania?
+
+30. By what people was Bruttium inhabited?
+
+31. What is the geographical situation of Apulia?
+
+32. What description is given of Calabria?
+
+33. What islands belong to Italy?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] See Pinnock's History of Greece, Chap. I.
+
+[2] See Historical Miscellany, Part II. Chap. I.
+
+[3] These colonies, sent out by the Sabines, are said to have
+originated from the observance of the Ver sacrum (_sacred spring_.)
+During certain years, every thing was vowed to the gods that was born
+between the calends (first day) of March and May, whether men or
+animals. At first they were sacrificed; but in later ages this cruel
+custom was laid aside, and they were sent out as colonists.
+
+[4] The history of these colonies is contained in the Historical
+Miscellany, Part II. Chap. ii.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE LATIN LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE--CREDIBILITY OF THE EARLY HISTORY.
+
+  Succeeding times did equal folly call.
+  Believing nothing, or believing all.--_Dryden._
+
+The Latin language contains two primary elements, the first intimately
+connected with the Grecian, and the second with the Oscan tongue; to
+the former, for the most part, belong all words expressing the arts
+and relations of civilized life; to the latter, such terms as express
+the wants of men before society has been organized. We are therefore
+warranted in conjecturing that the Latin people was a mixed race; that
+one of its component parts came from some Grecian stock, and
+introduced the first elements of civilization, and that the other was
+indigenous, and borrowed refinement from the strangers. The traditions
+recorded by the historians sufficiently confirm this opinion; they
+unanimously assert that certain bodies of Pelasgi came into the
+country before the historic age, and coalesced with the ancient
+inhabitants. The traditions respecting these immigrations are so
+varied, that it is impossible to discover any of the circumstances;
+but there is one so connected with the early history of Rome, that it
+cannot be passed over without notice. All the Roman historians
+declare, that after the destruction of Troy, AEneas, with a body of the
+fugitives, arrived in Latium, and having married the daughter of king
+Lati'nus, succeeded him on the throne. It would be easy to show that
+this narrative is so very improbable, as to be wholly unworthy of
+credit; but how are we to account for the universal credence which it
+received? To decide this question we must discuss the credibility of
+the early Roman history, a subject which has of late years attracted
+more than ordinary attention.
+
+The first Roman historian of any authority, was Fa'bius Pic'tor, who
+flourished at the close of the second Punic war; that is, about five
+centuries and a half after the foundation of the city, and nearly a
+thousand years after the destruction of Troy. The materials from which
+his narrative was compiled, were the legendary ballads, which are in
+every country the first record of warlike exploits; the calendars and
+annals kept by the priests, and the documents kept by noble families
+to establish their genealogy. Imperfect as these materials must
+necessarily have been under any circumstances, we must remember that
+the city of Rome was twice captured; once by Porsenna, and a second
+time by the Gauls, about a century and a half before Fabius was born.
+On the latter occasion the city was burned to the ground, and the
+capital saved only by the payment of an immense ransom. By such a
+calamity it is manifest that the most valuable documents must have
+been dispersed or destroyed, and the part that escaped thrown into
+great disorder. The heroic songs might indeed have been preserved in
+the memory of the public reciters; but there is little necessity for
+proving that poetic historians would naturally mingle so much fiction
+with truth, that few of their assertions could be deemed authentic.
+The history of the four first centuries of the Roman state is
+accordingly full of the greatest inconsistences and improbabilities;
+so much so, that many respectable writers have rejected the whole as
+unworthy of credit; but this is as great an excess in scepticism, as
+the reception of the whole would be of credulity. But if the
+founders of the city, the date of its erection, and the circumstances
+under which its citizens were assembled be altogether doubtful, as
+will subsequently be shown, assuredly the history of events that
+occurred four centuries previous must be involved in still greater
+obscurity. The legend of AEneas, when he first appears noticed as a
+progenitor of the Romans, differs materially from that which
+afterwards prevailed. Romulus, in the earlier version of the story, is
+invariably described as the son or grandson of AEneas. He is the
+grandson in the poems of Naevius and Ennius, who were both nearly
+contemporary with Fabius Pictor. This gave rise to an insuperable
+chronological difficulty; for Troy was destroyed B.C. 1184, and Rome
+was not founded until B.C. 753. To remedy this incongruity, a list of
+Latin kings intervening between AEne'as and Rom'ulus, was invented; but
+the forgery was so clumsily executed, that its falsehood is apparent
+on the slightest inspection. It may also be remarked, that the actions
+attributed to AEneas are, in other traditions of the same age and
+country, ascribed to other adventurers; to Evander, a Pelasgic leader
+from Arcadia, who is said to have founded a city on the site
+afterwards occupied by Rome; or to Uly'sses, whose son Tele'gonus is
+reported to have built Tus'culum.
+
+If then we deny the historical truth of a legend which seems to have
+been universally credited by the Romans, how are we to account for the
+origin of the tale? Was the tradition of native growth, or was it
+imported from Greece when the literature of that country was
+introduced into Latium? These are questions that can only be answered
+by guess; but perhaps the following theory may in some degree be found
+satisfactory. We have shown that tradition, from the earliest age,
+invariably asserted that Pelasgic colonies had formed settlements in
+central Italy; nothing is more notorious than the custom of the
+Pelasgic tribes to take the name of their general, or of some town in
+which they had taken up their temporary residence; now AEne'a and AE'nus
+were common names of the Pelasgic towns; the city of Thessaloni'ca was
+erected on the site of the ancient AEne'a; there was an AE'nus in
+Thrace,[A] another in Thessaly,[A] another among the Locrians, and
+another in Epi'rus:[1] hence it is not very improbable but that some
+of the Pelasgic tribes which entered Latium may have been called
+the AEne'adae; and the name, as in a thousand instances, preserved after
+the cause was forgotten. This conjecture is confirmed by the fact,
+that temples traditionally said to have been erected by a people
+called the AEne'adae, are found in the Macedonian peninsula of
+Pall'ene,[2] in the islands of De'los, Cythe'ra, Zacy'nthus,
+Leuca'dia, and Sicily, on the western coasts of Ambra'cia and Epi'rus,
+and on the southern coast of Sicily.
+
+The account of several Trojans, and especially AEne'as, having survived
+the destruction of the city, is as old as the earliest narrative of
+that famous siege; Homer distinctly asserts it when he makes Neptune
+declare,
+
+    --Nor thus can Jove resign
+  The future father of the Dardan line:
+  The first great ancestor obtain'd his grace,
+  And still his love descends on all the race.
+  For Priam now, and Priam's faithless kind,
+  At length are odious, to the all-seeing mind;
+  On great AEneas shall devolve the reign,
+  And sons succeeding sons the lasting line sustain.
+    ILIAD, xx.
+
+But long before the historic age, Phrygia and the greater part of the
+western shores of Asia Minor were occupied by Grecian colonies, and
+all remembrance of AEne'as and his followers lost. When the narrative
+of the Trojan war, with other Greek legends, began to be circulated in
+Lati'um, it was natural that the identity of name should have led to
+the confounding of the AEne'adae who had survived the destruction of
+Troy, with those who had come to La'tium from the Pelasgic AE'nus. The
+cities which were said to be founded by the AEne'adae were, Latin Troy,
+which possessed empire for three years; Lavinium, whose sway lasted
+thirty; Alba, which was supreme for three hundred years; and Rome,
+whose dominion was to be interminable, though some assign a limit of
+three thousand years. These numbers bear evident traces of
+superstitious invention; and the legends by which these cities are
+successively deduced from the first encampment of AEne'as, are at
+variance with these fanciful periods. The account that Alba was built
+by a son of AEne'as, who had been guided to the spot by a white sow,
+which had farrowed thirty young, is clearly a story framed from
+the similarity of the name to Albus (_white_,) and the circumstance of
+the city having been the capital of the thirty Latin tribes. The city
+derived its name from its position on the Alban mountain; for _Alb_,
+or _Alp_, signifies lofty in the ancient language of Italy, and the
+emblem of a sow with thirty young, may have been a significant emblem
+of the dominion which it unquestionably possessed over the other Latin
+states. The only thing that we can establish as certain in the early
+history of La'tium is, that its inhabitants were of a mixed race, and
+the sources from whence they sprung Pelasgic and Oscan; that is, one
+connected with the Greeks, and the other with some ancient Italian
+tribe. We have seen that this fact is the basis of all their
+traditions, that it is confirmed by the structure of their language,
+and, we may add, that it is further proved by their political
+institutions. In all the Latin cities, as well as Rome, we find the
+people divided into an aristocracy and democracy, or, as they are more
+properly called, Patricians and Plebeians. The experience of all ages
+warrants the inference, which may be best stated in the words of Dr.
+Faber: "In the progress of the human mind there is an invariable
+tendency not to introduce into an undisturbed community a palpable
+difference between lords and serfs, instead of a legal equality of
+rights; but to abolish such difference by enfranchising the serfs.
+Hence, from the universal experience of history, we may be sure that
+whenever this distinction is found to exist, the society must be
+composed of two races differing from each other in point of origin."
+
+The traditions respecting the origin of Rome are innumerable; some
+historians assert that its founder was a Greek; others, AEneas and his
+Trojans; and others give the honour to the Tyrrhenians: all, however,
+agree, that the first inhabitants were a Latin colony from Alba. Even
+those who adopted the most current story, which is followed by Dr.
+Goldsmith, believed that the city existed before the time of Rom'ulus,
+and that he was called the founder from being the first who gave it
+strength and stability. It seems probable that several villages might
+have been formed at an early age on the different hills, which were
+afterwards included in the circuit of Rome; and that the first of them
+which obtained a decided superiority, the village on the Palatine
+hill, finally absorbed the rest, and gave its name to "the eternal
+city".
+
+There seems to be some uncertainty whether Romulus gave his name
+to the city, or derived his own from it; the latter is asserted by
+several historians, but those who ascribe to the city a Grecian
+origin, with some show of probability assert that Romus (another form
+of Romulus) and Roma are both derived from the Greek [Greek: rome],
+_strength_. The city, we are assured, had another name, which the
+priests were forbidden to divulge; but what that was, it is now
+impossible to discover.
+
+We have thus traced the history of the Latins down to the period when
+Rome was founded, or at least when it became a city, and shown how
+little reliance can be placed on the accounts given of these periods
+by the early historians. We shall hereafter see that great uncertainty
+rests on the history of Rome itself during the first four centuries of
+its existence.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] It is scarcely necessary to remark that the Pelas'gi were the
+original settlers in these countries.
+
+[2] In all these places we find also the Tyrrhenian Pelas'gi.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME.
+
+  Full in the centre of these wondrous works
+  The pride of earth! Rome in her glory see.--_Thomson._
+
+1. The city of Rome, according to _Varro_, was founded in the fourth
+year of the sixth _Olympiad_, B.C. 753; but Cato, the censor, places
+the event four years later, in the second year of the seventh
+Olympiad. The day of its foundation was the 21st of April, which was
+sacred to the rural goddess Pa'les, when the rustics were accustomed
+to solicit the increase of their flocks from the deity, and to purify
+themselves for involuntary violation of the consecrated places. The
+account preserved by tradition of the ceremonies used on this
+occasion, confirms the opinion of those who contend that Rome had a
+previous existence as a village, and that what is called its
+foundation was really an enlargement of its boundaries, by taking in
+the ground at the foot of the Palatine hill. The first care of
+Ro'mulus was to mark out the Pomoe'rium; a space round the walls of
+the city, on which it was unlawful to erect buildings.
+
+2. The person who determined the Pomoe'rium yoked a bullock and
+heifer to a plough, having a copper-share, and drew a furrow to mark
+the course of the future wall; he guided the plough so that all the
+sods might fall inwards, and was followed by others, who took
+care that none should lie the other way. 3. When he came to the place
+where it was designed to erect a gate, the plough was taken up,[1] and
+carried to where the wall recommenced. The next ceremony was the
+consecration of the commit'ium, or place of public assembly. A vault
+was built under ground, and filled with the firstlings of all the
+natural productions that sustain human life, and with earth which each
+foreign settler had brought from his own home. This place was called
+_Mun'dus_, and was supposed to become the gate of the lower world; it
+was opened on three several days of the year, for the spirits of the
+dead.
+
+4. The next addition made to the city was the Sabine town,[2] which
+occupied the Quirinal and part of the Capitoline hills. The name of
+this town most probably was Qui'rium, and from it the Roman people
+received the name Quirites. The two cities were united on terms of
+equality, and the double-faced Ja'nus stamped on the earliest Roman
+coins was probably a symbol of the double state. They were at first so
+disunited, that even the rights of intermarriage did not exist between
+them, and it was probably from Qui'rium that the Roman youths obtained
+the wives[3] by force, which were refused to their entreaties. 5. The
+next addition was the Coelian hill,[4] on which a Tuscan colony
+settled; from these three colonies the three tribes of Ram'nes,
+Ti'ties, and Lu'ceres were formed. 6. The Ram'nes, or Ram'nenses,
+derived their name from Rom'ulus; the Tities, or Titien'ses, from
+Titus Tatius, the king of the Sabines; and the Lu'ceres, from
+Lu'cumo, the Tuscan title of a general or leader.[5] From this it
+appears that the three tribes[6] were really three distinct nations,
+differing in their origin, and dwelling apart.
+
+7. The city was enlarged by Tullus Hostilius,[7] after the destruction
+of Alba, and the Viminal hill included within the walls; Ancus Martius
+added mount Aventine, and the Esquiline and Capitoline[8] being
+enclosed in the next reign, completed the number of the seven hills on
+which the ancient city stood.
+
+8. The hill called Jani'culum, on the north bank of the Tiber, was
+fortified as an outwork by Ancus Martius, and joined to the city by
+the bridge; he also dug a trench round the newly erected buildings,
+for their greater security, and called it the ditch of the Quirites.
+9. The public works erected by the kings were of stupendous magnitude,
+but the private buildings were wretched, the streets narrow, and the
+houses mean. It was not until after the burning of the city by the
+Gauls that the city was laid out on a better plan; after the Punic
+wars wealth flowed in abundantly, and private persons began to erect
+magnificent mansions. From the period of the conquest of Asia until
+the reign of Augustus, the city daily augmented its splendour, but so
+much was added by that emperor, that he boasted that "he found Rome a
+city of brick, and left it a city of marble."
+
+10. The circumference of the city has been variously estimated, some
+writers including in their computation a part of the suburbs;
+according to Pliny it was near twenty miles round the walls. In
+consequence of this great extent the city had more than thirty gates,
+of which the most remarkable were the Carmental, the Esquiline, the
+Triumphal, the Naval, and those called Tergem'ina and Cape'na.
+
+11. The division of the city into four tribes continued until the
+reign of Augustus; a new arrangement was made by the emperor, who
+divided Rome into fourteen wards, or regions.[9] The magnificent
+public and private buildings in a city so extensive and wealthy were
+very numerous, and a bare catalogue of them would fill a volume;[10]
+our attention must be confined to those which possessed some
+historical importance.
+
+12. The most celebrated and conspicuous buildings were in the eighth
+division of the city, which contained the Capitol and its temples, the
+Senate House, and the Forum. The Capitoline-hill was anciently called
+Saturnius, from the ancient city of Satur'nia, of which it was the
+citadel; it was afterwards called the Tarpeian mount, and finally
+received the name of Capitoline from a human head[11] being found on
+its summit when the foundations of the temple of Jupiter were laid. It
+had two summits; that on the south retained the name Tarpeian;[12] the
+northern was properly the Capitol. 13. On this part of the hill
+Romulus first established his asylum, in a sacred grove, dedicated to
+some unknown divinity; and erected a fort or citadel[13] on the
+Tarpeian summit. The celebrated temple of Jupiter Capitoli'nus,
+erected on this hill, was begun by the elder Tarquin, and finished by
+Tarquin the Proud. It was burned down in the civil wars between
+Ma'rius and Syl'la,  but restored by the latter, who adorned it
+with pillars taken from the temple of Jupiter at Olympia. It was
+rebuilt after similar accidents by Vespa'sian and Domitian, and on
+each occasion with additional splendour. The rich ornaments and gifts
+presented to this temple by different princes and generals amounted to
+a scarcely credible sum. The gold and jewels given by Augustus alone
+are said to have exceeded in value four thousand pounds sterling. A
+nail was annually driven into the wall of the temple to mark the
+course of time; besides this chronological record, it contained the
+Sibylline books, and other oracles supposed to be pregnant with the
+fate of the city. There were several other temples on this hill, of
+which the most remarkable was that of Jupiter Feretrius, erected by
+Romulus, where the spolia opima were deposited.
+
+14. The Forum, or place of public assembly, was situated between the
+Palatine and Capitoline hills. It was surrounded with temples,
+basilicks,[14] and public offices, and adorned with innumerable
+statues.[15] On one side of this space were the elevated seats from
+which the Roman magistrates and orators addressed the people; they
+were called Rostra, because they were ornamented with the beaks of
+some galleys taken from the city of Antium. In the centre of the forum
+was a place called the Curtian Lake, either from a Sabine general
+called Curtius, said to have been smothered in the marsh which was
+once there; or from[16] the Roman knight who plunged into a gulf that
+opened suddenly on the spot. The celebrated temple of Ja'nus, built
+entirely of bronze, stood in the Forum; it is supposed to have been
+erected by Numa. The gates of this temple were opened in time of war,
+and shut during peace. So continuous we're the wars of the Romans,
+that the gates were only closed three times during the space of eight
+centuries. In the vicinity stood the temple of Concord, where the
+senate frequently assembled, and the temple of Vesta, where the
+palla'dium was said to be deposited.
+
+15. Above the rostra was the Senate-house, said to have been
+first erected by Tullus Hostilius; and near the Comitium, or place of
+meeting for the patrician Curiae.[17] This area was at first uncovered,
+but a roof was erected at the close of the second Pu'nic war.
+
+16. The Cam'pus Mar'tius, or field of Mars, was originally the estate
+of Tarquin the Proud, and was, with his other property, confiscated
+after the expulsion of that monarch. It was a large space, where
+armies were mustered, general assemblies of the people held, and the
+young nobility trained in martial exercises. In the later ages, it was
+surrounded by several magnificent structures, and porticos were
+erected, under which the citizens might take their accustomed exercise
+in rainy weather. These improvements were principally made by Marcus
+Agrippa, in the reign of Augustus. 17. He erected in the
+neighbourhood, the Panthe'on, or temple of all the gods, one of the
+most splendid buildings in ancient Rome. It is of a circular form, and
+its roof is in the form of a cupola or dome; it is used at present as
+a Christian church. Near the Panthe'on were the baths and gardens
+which Agrippa, at his death, bequeathed to the Roman people.
+
+18. The theatres and circi for the exhibition of public spectacles
+were very numerous. The first theatre was erected by Pompey the Great;
+but the Circus Maximus, where gladiatorial combats were displayed, was
+erected by Tarquinus Priscus; this enormous building was frequently
+enlarged, and in the age of Pliny could accommodate two hundred
+thousand spectators. A still more remarkable edifice was the
+amphitheatre erected by Vespasian, called, from its enormous size, the
+Colosse'um.
+
+19. Public baths were early erected for the use of the people, and in
+the later ages were among the most remarkable displays of Roman luxury
+and splendour. Lofty arches, stately pillars, vaulted ceilings, seats
+of solid silver, costly marbles inlaid with precious stones, were
+exhibited in these buildings with the most lavish profusion.
+
+20. The aqueducts for supplying the city with water, were still more
+worthy of admiration; they were supported by arches, many of them a
+hundred feet high, and carried over mountains and morasses that might
+have appeared insuperable. The first aqueduct was erected by Ap'pius
+Clo'dius, the censor, four hundred years after the foundation
+of the city; but under the emperors there were not less than twenty of
+these useful structures, and such was the supply of water, that rivers
+seemed to flow through the streets and sewers. Even now, though only
+three of the aqueducts remain, such are their dimensions that no city
+in Europe has a greater abundance of wholesome water than Rome.
+
+21. The Cloa'cae, or common sewers, attracted the wonder of the
+ancients themselves; the largest was completed by Tarquin the Proud.
+The innermost vault of this astonishing structure forms a semicircle
+eighteen Roman palms wide, and as many high: this is inclosed in a
+second vault, and that again in a third, all formed of hewn blocks of
+pepenno, fixed together without cement. So extensive were these
+channels, that in the reign of Augustus the city was subterraneously
+navigable.
+
+22. The public roads were little inferior to the aqueducts and Cloa'cae
+in utility and costliness; the chief was the Appian road from Rome to
+Brundu'sium; it extended three hundred and fifty miles, and was paved
+with huge squares through its entire length. After the lapse of
+nineteen centuries many parts of it are still as perfect as when it
+was first made.
+
+23. The Appian road passed through the following towns; Ari'cia,
+Fo'rum Ap'pii, An'xur or Terraci'na, Fun'di, Mintur'nae, Sinue'ssa,
+Cap'ua, Can'dium, Beneven'tum, Equotu'ticum, Herdo'nia, Canu'sium,
+Ba'rium, and Brundu'sium. Between Fo'rum Ap'pii and Terraci'na lie the
+celebrated Pomptine marshes, formed by the overflowing of some small
+streams. In the flourishing ages of Roman history these pestilential
+marshes did not exist, or were confined to a very limited space; but
+from the decline of the Roman empire, the waters gradually encroached,
+until the successful exertions made by the Pontiffs in modern times to
+arrest their baleful progress. Before the drainage of Pope Sixtus, the
+marshes covered at least thirteen thousand acres of ground, which in
+the earlier ages was the most fruitful portion of the Italian soil.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. When was Rome founded?
+
+2. What ceremonies were used in determining the pomcerium?
+
+3. How was the comitium consecrated?
+
+4. What was the first addition made to Rome?
+
+5. What was the next addition?
+
+6. Into what tribes were the Romans divided?
+
+7. What were the hills added in later times to Rome?
+
+8. Had the Romans any buildings north of the Tiber?
+
+9. When did Rome become a magnificent city?
+
+10. What was the extent of the city?
+
+11. How was the city divided?
+
+12. Which was the most remarkable of the seven hills?
+
+13. What buildings were on the Capitoline hill?
+
+14. What description is given of the forum?
+
+15. Where was the senate-house and comitium?
+
+16. What use was made of the Campus Martius?
+
+17. What was the Pantheon?
+
+18. Were the theatres and circii remarkable?
+
+19. Had the Romans public baths?
+
+20. How was the city supplied with water?
+
+21. Were the cloacae remarkable for their size?
+
+22. Which was the chief Italian road?
+
+23. What were the most remarkable places on the Appian road?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Hence a gate was called _porta_, from _porta're_, to carry. The
+reason of this part of the ceremony was, that the plough being deemed
+holy, it was unlawful that any thing unclean should pollute the place
+which it had touched; but it was obviously necessary that things clean
+and unclean should pass through the gates of the city. It is
+remarkable that all the ceremonies here mentioned were imitated from
+the Tuscans.
+
+[2] This, though apparently a mere conjecture, has been so fully
+proved by Niebuhr, (vol. i. p. 251,) that it may safely be assumed as
+an historical fact.
+
+[3] See Chapter II. of the following history.
+
+[4] All authors are agreed that the Coelian hill was named from
+Coeles Viben'na, a Tuscan chief; but there is a great variety in the
+date assigned to his settlement at Rome. Some make him cotemporary
+with Rom'ulus, others with the elder Tarquin, or Servius Tullius. In
+this uncertainty all that can be satisfactorily determined is, that at
+some early period a Tuscan colony settled in Rome.
+
+[5] Others say that they were named so in honour of Lu'ceres, king of
+Ardea, according to which theory the third would have been a
+Pelasgo-Tyrrhenian colony.
+
+[6] We shall hereafter have occasion to remark, that the Lu'ceres were
+subject to the other tribes.
+
+[7] See History, Chapter IV.
+
+[8] The Pincian and Vatican hills were added at a much later period
+and these, with Janiculum, made the number ten.
+
+[9] They were named as follow:
+
+1. Porta Cape'na 2. Coelimon'tium 3. I'sis and Sera'pis 4. Via
+Sa'cra 5. Esquili'na 6. Acta Se'mita 7. Vita Lata 8. Forum Roma'num 9.
+Circus Flamin'ius 10. Pala'tium 11. Circus Max'imus 12. Pici'na
+Pub'lica 13. Aventinus 14. Transtiberi'na.
+
+The divisions made by Servius were named: the Suburan, which comprised
+chiefly the Coelian mount; the Colline, which included the Viminal
+and Quirinal hills; the Esquiline and Palatine, which evidently
+coincided with the hills of the same name.
+
+[10] Among the public buildings of ancient Rome, when in her zenith,
+are numbered 420 temples, five regular theatres, two amphitheatres,
+and seven circusses of vast extent; sixteen public baths, fourteen
+aqueducts, from which a prodigious number of fountains were constantly
+supplied; innumerable palaces and public halls, stately columns,
+splendid porticos, and lofty obelisks.
+
+[11] From _caput_, "a head."
+
+[12] State criminals were punished by being precipitated from the
+Tarpeian rock; the soil has been since so much raised by the
+accumulation of ruins, that a fall from it is no longer dangerous.
+
+[13] In the reign of Numa, the Quirinal hill was deemed the citadel of
+Rome; an additional confirmation of Niebuhr's theory, that Quirium was
+a Sabine town, which, being early absorbed in Rome, was mistaken by
+subsequent, writers for Cu'res.
+
+[14] Basilicks were spacious halls for the administration of justice.
+
+[15] It is called _Templum_ by Livy; but the word templum with the
+Romans does not mean an edifice, but a consecrated inclosure. From its
+position, we may conjecture that the forum was originally a place of
+meeting common to the inhabitants of the Sabine town on the Quirinal,
+and the Latin town on the Palatine hill.
+
+[16] See Chap. XII. Sect. V. of the following History.
+
+[17] See the following chapter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION.
+
+  As once in virtue, so in vice extreme,
+  This universal fabric yielded loose,
+  Before ambition still; and thundering down,
+  At last beneath its ruins crush'd a world.--_Thomson_.
+
+I. The most remarkable feature in the Roman constitution is the
+division of the people into Patricians and Plebeians, and our first
+inquiry must be the origin of this separation. It is clearly
+impossible that such a distinction could have existed from the very
+beginning, because no persons would have consented in a new community
+to the investing of any class with peculiar privileges. We find that
+all the Roman kings, after they had subdued a city, drafted a portion
+of its inhabitants to Rome; and if they did not destroy the subjugated
+place, garrisoned it with a Roman colony. The strangers thus brought
+to Rome were not admitted to a participation of civic rights; they
+were like the inhabitants of a corporate town who are excluded from
+the elective franchise: by successive immigrations, the number of
+persons thus disqualified became more numerous than that of the first
+inhabitants or old freemen, and they naturally sought a share in the
+government, as a means of protecting their persons and properties. On
+the other hand, the men who possessed the exclusive power of
+legislation, struggled hard to retain their hereditary privileges, and
+when forced to make concessions, yielded as little as they
+possibly could to the popular demands. Modern history furnishes us
+with numerous instances of similar struggles between classes, and of a
+separation in interests and feelings between inhabitants of the same
+country, fully as strong as that between the patricians and plebeians
+at Rome.
+
+2. The first tribes were divided by Ro'mulus into thirty _cu'riae,_ and
+each cu'ria contained ten _gentes_ or associations. The individuals of
+each gens were not in all cases, and probably not in the majority of
+instances, connected by birth;[1] the attributes of the members of a
+_gens_, according to Cicero, were, a common name and participation in
+private religious rites; descent from free ancestors; the absence of
+legal disqualification. 3. The members of these associations were
+united by certain laws, which conferred peculiar privileges, called
+jura gentium; of these the most remarkable were, the succession to the
+property of every member who died without kin and intestate, and the
+obligation imposed on all to assist their indigent fellows under any
+extraordinary burthen.[2] 4. The head of each gens was regarded as a
+kind of father, and possessed a paternal authority over the members;
+the chieftancy was both elective and hereditary;[3] that is, the
+individual was always selected from some particular family.
+
+5. Besides the members of the gens, there were attached to it a number
+of dependents called clients, who owed submission to the chief as
+their patron, and received from him assistance and protection. The
+clients were generally foreigners who came to settle at Rome, and not
+possessing municipal rights, were forced to appear in the courts of
+law, &c. by proxy. In process of time this relation assumed a feudal
+form, and the clients were bound to the same duties as vassals[4] in
+the middle ages.
+
+6. The chiefs of the gentes composed the senate, and were called
+"fathers," (patres.) In the time of Romulus, the senate at first
+consisted only of one hundred members, who of course represented the
+Latin tribe Ramne'nses; the number was doubled after the union with
+the Sabines, and the new members were chosen from the Titienses. The
+Tuscan tribe of the Lu'ceres remained unrepresented in the senate
+until the reign of the first Tarquin, when the legislative body
+received another hundred[5] from that tribe. Tarquin the elder was,
+according to history, a Tuscan Iticumo, and seems to have owed his
+elevation principally to the efforts of his compatriots settled at
+Rome. It is to this event we must refer, in a great degree, the number
+of Tuscan ceremonies which are to be found in the political
+institutions of the Romans.
+
+7. The gentes were not only represented in the senate, but met also in
+a public assembly called "comitia curiata." In these comitia the kings
+were elected and invested with royal authority. After the complete
+change of the constitution in later ages, the "comitia curiata"[6]
+rarely assembled, and their power was limited to religious matters;
+but during the earlier period of the republic, they claimed and
+frequently exercised the supreme powers of the state, and were named
+emphatically, The People.
+
+8. The power and prerogatives of the kings at Rome, were similar to
+those of the Grecian sovereigns in the heroic ages. The monarch was
+general of the army, a high priest,[7] and first magistrate of the
+realm; he administered justice in person every ninth day, but an
+appeal lay from his sentence, in criminal cases, to the general
+assemblies of the people. The pontiffs and augurs, however, were
+in some measure independent of the sovereign, and assumed the
+uncontrolled direction of the religion of the state.
+
+9. The entire constitution was remodelled by Ser'vius Tul'lius, and a
+more liberal form of government introduced. His first and greatest
+achievement was the formation of the plebeians into an organized order
+of the state, invested with political rights. He divided them into
+four cities and twenty-six rustic tribes, and thus made the number of
+tribes the same as that of the curiae. This was strictly a geographical
+division, analagous to our parishes, and had no connection with
+families, like that of the Jewish tribes.
+
+10. Still more remarkable was the institution of the census, and the
+distribution of the people into classes and centuries proportionate to
+their wealth. The census was a periodical valuation of all the
+property possessed by the citizens, and an enumeration of all the
+subjects of the state: there were five classes, ranged according to
+the estimated value of their possessions, and the taxes they
+consequently paid. The first class contained eighty centuries out of
+the hundred and seventy; the sixth class, in which those were included
+who were too poor to be taxed, counted but for one. We shall,
+hereafter have occasion to see that this arrangement was also used for
+military purposes; it is only necessary to say here, that the sixth
+class were deprived of the use of arms, and exempt from serving in
+war.
+
+11. The people voted in the comitia centuriata by centuries; that is,
+the vote of each century was taken separately and counted only as one.
+By this arrangement a just influence was secured to property; and the
+clients of the patricians in the sixth class prevented from
+out-numbering the free citizens.
+
+12. Ser'vius Tul'lius undoubtedly intended that the comitia centuriata
+should form the third estate of the realm, and during his reign they
+probably held that rank; but when, by an aristocratic insurrection he
+was slain in the senate-house, the power conceded to the people was
+again usurped by the patricians, and the comitio centuriata did not
+recover the right[8] of legislation before the laws[9] of the twelve
+tables were established.
+
+13. The law which made the debtor a slave to his creditor was repealed
+by Ser'vius, and re-enacted by his successor; the patricians preserved
+this abominable custom during several ages, and did not resign it
+until the state had been brought to the very brink of ruin.
+
+14. During the reign of Ser'vius, Rome was placed at the head of the
+Latin confederacy, and acknowledged to be the metropolitan city. It
+was deprived of this supremacy after the war with Porsen'na, but soon
+recovered its former greatness.
+
+15. The equestrian rank was an order in the Roman state from the very
+beginning. It was at first confined to the nobility, and none but the
+patricians had the privilege of serving on horseback. But in the later
+ages, it became a political dignity, and persons were raised to the
+equestrian rank by the amount of their possessions.
+
+16. The next great change took place after the expulsion of the kings;
+annual magistrates, called consuls, were elected in the comitia
+centuriata, but none but patricians could hold this office. 17. The
+liberties of the people were soon after extended and secured by
+certain laws, traditionally attributed to Vale'rius Public'ola, of
+which the most important was that which allowed[10] an appeal to a
+general assembly of the people from the sentence of a magistrate. 18.
+To deprive the plebeians of this privilege was the darling object of
+the patricians, and it was for this purpose alone that they instituted
+the dictatorship. From the sentence of this magistrate there was no
+appeal to the tribes or centuries, but the patricians kept their own
+privilege of being tried before the tribunal of the curiae. 19. The
+power of the state was now usurped by a factious oligarchy, whose
+oppressions were more grievous than those of the worst tyrant; they at
+last became so intolerable, that the commonalty had recourse to arms,
+and fortified that part of the city which was exclusively inhabited by
+the plebeians, while others formed a camp on the Sacred Mount at some
+distance from Rome. A tumult of this kind was called a secession; it
+threatened to terminate in a civil war, which would have been both
+long and doubtful; for the patricians and their clients were probably
+as numerous as the people. A reconciliation was effected, and the
+plebeians placed under the protection of magistrates chosen from their
+own body, called tribunes of the people.
+
+20. The plebeians, having now authorised leaders, began to struggle
+for an equalization of rights, and the patricians resisted them with
+the most determined energy. In this protracted contest the popular
+cause prevailed, though the patricians made use of the most violent
+means to secure their usurped powers. The first triumph obtained by
+the people was the right to summon patricians before the comitia
+tributa, or assemblies of people in tribes; soon after they obtained
+the privilege of electing their tribunes at these comitia, instead of
+the centuria'ta; and finally, after a fierce opposition, the
+patricians were forced to consent that the state should be governed by
+a written code.
+
+21. The laws of the twelve tables did not alter the legal relations
+between the citizens; the struggle was renewed with greater violence
+than ever after the expulsion of the decem'viri, but finally
+terminated in the complete triumph of the people. The Roman
+constitution became essentially democratical; the offices of the state
+were open to all the citizens; and although the difference between the
+patrician and plebeian families still subsisted, they soon ceased of
+themselves to be political parties. From the time that equal rights
+were granted to all the citizens, Rome advanced rapidly in wealth and
+power; the subjugation of Italy was effected within the succeeding
+century, and that was soon followed by foreign conquests.
+
+22. In the early part of the struggle between the patricians and
+plebeians, the magistracy, named the censorship, was instituted. The
+censors were designed at first merely to preside over the taking of
+the census, but they afterwards obtained the power of punishing, by a
+deprivation of civil rights, those who were guilty of any flagrant
+immorality. The patricians retained exclusive possession of the
+censorship, long after the consulship had been opened to the
+plebeians.
+
+23. The senate,[11] which had been originally a patrician
+council, was gradually opened to the plebeians; when the free
+constitution was perfected, every person possessing a competent
+fortune that had held a superior magistracy, was enrolled as a senator
+at the census immediately succeeding the termination of his office.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What is the most probable account given of the origin of the
+distinction between the patricians and the plebeians at Rome?
+
+2. How did Romulus subdivide the Roman tribes?
+
+3. By what regulations were the gentes governed?
+
+4. Who were the chiefs of the gentes?
+
+5. What was the condition of the clients?
+
+6. By whom were alterations made in the number and constitution of the
+senate?
+
+7. What assembly was peculiar to the patricians?
+
+8. What were the powers of the Roman kings?
+
+9. What great change was made in the Roman constitution by Servius
+Tullius?
+
+10. For what purpose was the census instituted?
+
+11. How were votes taken in the comitia centuriata?
+
+12. Were the designs of Servius frustrated?
+
+13. What was the Roman law respecting debtors?
+
+14. When did the Roman power decline?
+
+15. What changes were made in the constitution of the equestrian rank?
+
+16. What change was made after the abolition of royalty?
+
+17. How were the liberties of the people secured?
+
+18. Why was the office of dictator appointed?
+
+19. How did the plebeians obtain the protection of magistrates chosen
+from their own order?
+
+20. What additional triumphs were obtained by the plebeians?
+
+21. What was the consequence of the establishment of freedom?
+
+22. For what purpose was the censorship instituted?
+
+23. What change took place in the constitution of the senate?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The same remark may be applied to the Scottish clans and the
+ancient Irish septs, which were very similar to the Roman _gentes_.
+
+[2] When the plebeians endeavoured to procure the repeal of the laws
+which prohibited the intermarriage of the patricians and plebeians,
+the principal objection made by the former was, that these rights and
+obligations of the gentes (jura gentium) would be thrown into
+confusion.
+
+[3] This was also the case with the Irish tanists, or chiefs of septs;
+the people elected a tanist, but their choice was confined to the
+members of the ruling family.
+
+[4] See Historical Miscellany Part III. Chap. i.
+
+[5] They were called "patres nunorum gentium," the senators of the
+inferior gentes.
+
+[6] The "comitia curiata," assembled in the comi'tium, the general
+assemblies of the people were held in the forum. The patrician curiae
+were called, emphatically, the council of the people; (concilium
+populi;) the third estate was called plebeian, (plebs.) This
+distinction between _populus_ and _plebs_ was disregarded after the
+plebeians had established their claim to equal rights. The English
+reader will easily understand the difference, if he considers that the
+patricians were precisely similar to the members of a close
+corporation, and the plebeians to the other inhabitants of a city. In
+London, for example, the common council may represent the senate, the
+livery answer for the populus, patricians, or comitia curiata, and the
+general body of other inhabitants will correspond with the plebs.
+
+[7] There were certain sacrifices which the Romans believed could only
+be offered by a king; after the abolition of royalty, a priest, named
+the petty sacrificing king, (rex sacrificulus,) was elected to perform
+this duty.
+
+[8] Perhaps it would be more accurate to say the _exclusive_ right of
+legislation; for it appears that the comitia centuriata were sometimes
+summoned to give their sanction to laws which had been previously
+enacted by the curiae.
+
+[9] See Chap. XII.
+
+[10] The Romans were previously acquainted with that great principle
+of justice, the right of trial by a person's peers. In the earliest
+ages the patricians had a right of appeal to the curiae; the Valerian
+laws extended the same right to the plebeians.
+
+[11] The senators were called conscript fathers, (patres conscripti,)
+either from their being enrolled on the censor's list, or more
+probably from the addition made to their numbers after the expulsion
+of the kings, in order to supply the places of those who had been
+murdered by Tarquin. The new senators were at first called conscript,
+and in the process of time the name was extended to the entire body.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE ROMAN TENURE OF LAND--COLONIAL GOVERNMENT.
+
+  Each rules his race, his neighbour not his care,
+  Heedless of others, to his own severe.--_Homer_.
+
+[As this chapter is principally designed for advanced students, it has
+not been thought necessary to add questions for examination.]
+
+The contests respecting agrarian laws occupy so large a space in Roman
+history, and are so liable to be misunderstood, that it is necessary
+to explain their origin at some length. According to an almost
+universal custom, the right of conquest was supposed to involve the
+property of the land. Thus the Normans who assisted William I. were
+supposed to have obtained a right to the possessions of the Saxons;
+and in a later age, the Irish princes, whose estates were not
+confirmed by a direct grant from the English crown, were exposed to
+forfeiture when legally summoned to prove their titles. The extensive
+acquisitions made by the Romans, were either formed into extensive
+national domains, or divided into small lots among the poorer classes.
+The usufruct of the domains was monopolized by the patricians who
+rented them from the state; the smaller lots were assigned to the
+plebeians, subject to a tax called tribute, but not to rent. An
+agrarian law was a proposal to make an assignment of portions of the
+public lands to the people, and to limit the quantity of national land
+that could be farmed by any particular patrician.[1] Such a law may
+have been frequently impolitic, because it may have disturbed ancient
+possessions, but it could never have been unjust; for the property of
+the land was absolutely fixed in the state. The lands held by the
+patricians, being divided into extensive tracts, were principally used
+for pasturage; the small lots assigned to the plebeians were, of
+necessity, devoted to agriculture. Hence arose the first great cause
+of hostility between the two orders; the patricians were naturally
+eager to extend their possessions in the public domains, which enabled
+them to provide for their numerous clients, and in remote districts
+they frequently wrested the estates from the free proprietors in their
+neighbourhood; the plebeians, on the other hand, deemed that they
+had the best right to the land purchased by their blood, and saw with
+just indignation, the fruits of victory monopolized by a single order
+in the state. The tribute paid by the plebeians increased this
+hardship, for it was a land-tax levied on estates, and consequently
+fell most heavily on the smaller proprietors; indeed, in many cases,
+the possessors of the national domains paid nothing.
+
+From all this it is evident that an agrarian law only removed tenants
+who held from the state at will, and did not in any case interfere
+with the sacred right of property; but it is also plain that such a
+change must have been frequently inconvenient to the individual in
+possession. It also appears, that had not agrarian laws been
+introduced, the great body of the plebeians would have become the
+clients of the patricians, and the form of government would have been
+a complete oligarchy.
+
+The chief means to which the Romans, even from the earliest ages, had
+recourse for securing their conquests, and at the same time relieving
+the poorer classes of citizens, was the establishment of colonies in
+the conquered states. The new citizens formed a kind of garrison, and
+were held together by a constitution formed on the model of the parent
+state. From what has been said above, it is evident that a law for
+sending out a colony was virtually an agrarian law, since lands were
+invariably assigned to those who were thus induced to abandon their
+homes.
+
+The relations between Rome and the subject cities in Italy were very
+various. Some, called _municipia_, were placed in full possession of
+the rights of Roman citizens, but could not in all cases vote in the
+comitia. The privileges of the colonies were more restricted, for they
+were absolutely excluded from the Roman comitia and magistracies. The
+federative[2] states enjoyed their own constitutions, but were bound
+to supply the Romans with tribute and auxiliary forces. Finally, the
+subject states were deprived of their internal constitutions, and were
+governed by annual prefects chosen in Rome.
+
+Before discussing the subject of the Roman constitution, we must
+observe that it was, like our own, gradually formed by practice; there
+was no single written code like those of Athens and Sparta, but
+changes were made whenever they were required by circumstances; before
+the plebeians obtained an equality of civil rights, the state neither
+commanded respect abroad, nor enjoyed tranquillity at home. The
+patricians sacrificed their own real advantages, as well as the
+interests of their country, to maintain an ascendancy as injurious to
+themselves, as it was unjust to the other citizens. But no sooner had
+the agrarian laws established a more equitable distribution of
+property, and other popular laws opened the magistracy to merit
+without distinction of rank, than the city rose to empire with
+unexampled rapidity.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The Licinian law provided that no one should rent at a time more
+than 500 acres of public land.
+
+[2] The league by which the Latin states were bound (jus Latii) was
+more favourable than that granted to the other Italians (jus
+Italicum.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE ROMAN RELIGION.
+
+  First to the gods 'tis fitting to prepare
+  The due libation, and the solemn prayer;
+  For all mankind alike require their grace,
+  All born to want; a miserable race.--_Homer_.
+
+1. We have shown that the Romans were, most probably, a people
+compounded of the Latins, the Sabines, and the Tuscans; and that the
+first and last of these component parts were themselves formed from
+Pelasgic and native tribes. The original deities[1] worshipped by the
+Romans were derived from the joint traditions of all these tribes; but
+the religious institutions and ceremonies were almost wholly borrowed
+from the Tuscans. Unlike the Grecian mythology, with which, in later
+ages, it was united, the Roman system of religion had all the gloom
+and mystery of the eastern superstitions; their gods were objects of
+fear rather than love, and were worshipped more to avert the
+consequences of their anger than to conciliate their favour. A
+consequence of this system was, the institution of human sacrifices,
+which were not quite disused in Rome until a late period of the
+republic.
+
+2. The religious institutions of the Romans form an essential part of
+their civil government; every public act, whether of legislation or
+election, was connected with certain determined forms, and thus
+received the sanction of a higher power. Every public assembly was
+opened by the magistrate and augurs taking the auspices, or signs
+by which they believed that the will of the gods could be determined;
+and if any unfavourable omen was discovered, either then or at any
+subsequent time, the assembly was at once dismissed. 3. The right of
+taking auspices was long the peculiar privilege of the patricians, and
+frequently afforded them pretexts for evading the demands of the
+plebeians; when a popular law was to be proposed, it was easy to
+discover some unfavourable omen which prohibited discussion; when it
+was evident that the centuries were about to annul some patrician
+privilege, the augurs readily saw or heard some signal of divine
+wrath, which prevented the vote from being completed. It was on this
+account that the plebeians would not consent to place the comitia
+tributa under the sanction of the auspices.
+
+4. The augurs were at first only three in number, but they were in
+later ages increased to fifteen, and formed into a college. Nothing of
+importance was transacted without their concurrence in the earlier
+ages of the republic, but after the second punic war, their influence
+was considerably diminished.[2] 5. They derived omens from five
+sources: 1, from celestial phenomena, such as thunder, lightning,
+comets, &c.; 2, from the flight of birds; 3, from the feeding of the
+sacred chickens; 4, from the appearance of a beast in any unusual
+place; 5, from any accident that occurred unexpectedly.
+
+6. The usual form of taking an augury was very solemn; the augur
+ascended a tower, bearing in his hand a curved stick called a lituus.
+He turned his face to the east, and marked out some distant objects as
+the limits within which he would make his observations, and
+divided mentally the enclosed space into four divisions. He next, with
+covered head, offered sacrifices to the gods, and prayed that they
+would vouchsafe some manifestation of their will. After these
+preliminaries he made his observations in silence, and then announced
+the result to the expecting people.
+
+7. The Arusp'ices were a Tuscan order of priests, who attempted to
+predict futurity by observing the beasts offered in sacrifice. They
+formed their opinions most commonly from inspecting the entrails, but
+there was no circumstance too trivial to escape their notice, and
+which they did not believe in some degree portentous. The arusp'ices
+were most commonly consulted by individuals; but their opinions, as
+well as those of the augurs, were taken on all important affairs of
+state. The arusp'ices seem not to have been appointed officially, nor
+are they recognised as a regular order of priesthood.
+
+8. The pontiffs and fla'mens, as the superior priests were designated,
+enjoyed great privileges, and were generally men of rank. When the
+republic was abolished, the emperors assumed the office of pontifex
+maximus, or chief pontiff, deeming its powers too extensive to be
+entrusted to a subject.
+
+9. The institution of vestal virgins was older than the city itself,
+and was regarded by the Romans as the most sacred part of their
+religious system. In the time of Numa there were but four, but two
+more were added by Tarquin; probably the addition made by Tarquin was
+to give the tribe of the Lu'ceres a share in this important
+priesthood. The duty of the vestal virgins was to keep the sacred fire
+that burned on the altar of Vesta from being extinguished; and to
+preserve a certain sacred pledge on which the very existence of Rome
+was supposed to depend. What this pledge was we have no means of
+discovering; some suppose that it was the Trojan Palla'dium, others,
+with more probability, some traditional mystery brought by the
+Pelas'gi from Samothrace.
+
+10. The privileges conceded to the vestals were very great; they had
+the most honourable seats at public games and festivals; they were
+attended by a lictor with fasces like the magistrates; they were
+provided with chariots when they required them; and they possessed the
+power of pardoning any criminal whom they met on the way to execution,
+if they declared that the meeting was accidental. The magistrates
+were obliged to salute them as they passed, and the fasces of the
+consul were lowered to do them reverence. To withhold from them marks
+of respect subjected the offender to public odium; a personal insult
+was capitally punished. They possessed the exclusive privilege of
+being buried within the city; an honour which the Romans rarely
+extended to others.
+
+11. The vestals were bound by a vow of perpetual virginity, and a
+violation of this oath was cruelly punished. The unfortunate offender
+was buried alive in a vault constructed beneath the Fo'rum by the
+elder Tarquin. The terror of such a dreadful fate had the desired
+effect; there were only eighteen instances of incontinence among the
+vestals, during the space of a thousand years.
+
+12. The mixture of religion with civil polity, gave permanence and
+stability to the Roman institutions; notwithstanding all the changes
+and revolutions in the government the old forms were preserved; and
+thus, though the city was taken by Porsenna, and burned by the Gauls,
+the Roman constitution survived the ruin, and was again restored to
+its pristine vigour.
+
+13. The Romans always adopted the gods of the conquered nations, and,
+consequently, when their empire became very extensive, the number of
+deities was absurdly excessive, and the variety of religious worship
+perfectly ridiculous. The rulers of the world wanted the taste and
+ingenuity of the lively Greeks, who accommodated every religious
+system to their own, and from some real or fancied resemblance,
+identified the gods of Olym'pus with other nations. The Romans never
+used this process of assimilation, and, consequently, introduced so
+much confusion into their mythology, that philosophers rejected the
+entire system. This circumstance greatly facilitated the progress of
+Christianity, whose beautiful simplicity furnished a powerful contrast
+to the confused and cumbrous mass of divinities, worshipped in the
+time of the emperors.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. How did the religion of the Romans differ from that of the Greeks?
+
+2. Was the Roman religion connected with the government?
+
+3. How was the right of taking the Auspices abused?
+
+4. Who were the augurs?
+
+5. From what did the augurs take omens?
+
+6. What were the forms used in taking the auspices?
+
+7. Who were the aruspices?
+
+8. What other priests had the Romans?
+
+9. What was the duty of the vestal virgins?
+
+10. Did the vestals enjoy great privileges?
+
+11. How were the vestals punished for a breach of their vows?
+
+12. Why was the Roman constitution very permanent?
+
+13. Whence arose the confusion in the religious system of the Romans?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The reader will find an exceedingly interesting account of the
+deities peculiar to the Romans, in Mr. Keightley's very valuable work
+on Mythology.
+
+2:
+ The poet Ennius, who was of Grecian descent, ridiculed
+very successfully the Roman superstitions; the following fragment,
+translated by Dunlop, would, probably, have been punished as
+blasphemous in the first ages of the republic:--
+
+  For no Marsian augur (whom fools view with awe,)
+  Nor diviner, nor star-gazer, care I a straw;
+  The Isis-taught quack, an expounder of dreams,
+  Is neither in science nor art what he seems;
+  Superstitious and shameless they prowl through our streets,
+  Some hungry, some crazy, but all of them cheats.
+  Impostors, who vaunt that to others they'll show
+  A path which themselves neither travel nor know:
+  Since they promise us wealth if we pay for their pains,
+  Let them take from that wealth and bestow what remains
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE ROMAN ARMY AND NAVY.
+
+                     Is the soldier found
+  In the riot and waste which he spreads around?
+  The sharpness makes him--the dash, the tact,
+  The cunning to plan, and the spirit to act.--_Lord L. Gower_.
+
+1. It has been frequently remarked by ancient writers that the
+strength of a free state consists in its infantry; and, on the other
+hand, that when the infantry in a state become more valuable than the
+cavalry, the power of the aristocracy is diminished, and equal rights
+can no longer be withheld from the people. The employment of mercenary
+soldiers in modern times renders these observations no longer
+applicable; but in the military states of antiquity, where the
+citizens themselves served as soldiers, there are innumerable examples
+of this mutual connection between political and military systems. It
+is further illustrated in the history of the middle ages; for we can
+unquestionably trace the origin of free institutions in Europe to the
+time when the hardy infantry of the commons were first found able to
+resist the charges of the brilliant chivalry of the nobles. 2. Rome
+was, from the very commencement, a military state; as with the
+Spartans, all their civil institutions had a direct reference to
+warlike affairs; their public assemblies were marshalled like armies;
+the order of their line of battle was regulated by the distinction of
+classes in the state. It is, therefore, natural to conclude, that the
+tactics of the Roman armies underwent important changes when the
+revolutions mentioned in the preceding chapters were effected, though
+we cannot trace the alterations with precision, because no historians
+appeared until the military system of the Romans had been brought to
+perfection.
+
+3. The strength of the Tuscans consisted principally in their cavalry;
+and if we judge from the importance attributed to the equestrian rank
+in the earliest ages, we may suppose that the early Romans
+esteemed this force equally valuable. It was to Ser'vius Tul'lius, the
+great patron of the commonalty, that the Romans were indebted for the
+formation of a body of infantry, which, after the lapse of centuries,
+received so many improvements that it became invincible.
+
+4. The ancient battle array of the Greeks was the phalanx; the troops
+were drawn up in close column, the best armed being in front. The
+improvements made in this system of tactics by Philip, are recorded in
+Grecian history; they chiefly consisted in making the evolutions of
+the entire body more manageable, and counteracting the difficulties
+which attended the motions of this cumbrous mass.
+
+5. The Romans originally used the phalanx; and the lines were formed
+according to the classes determined by the centuries. Those who were
+sufficiently wealthy to purchase a full suit of armour, formed the
+front ranks; those who could only purchase a portion of the defensive
+weapons, filled the centre; and the rear was formed by the poorer
+classes, who scarcely required any armour, being protected by the
+lines in front. From this explanation, it is easy to see why, in the
+constitution of the centuries by Servius Tullius, the first class were
+perfectly covered with mail, the second had helmets and breast-plates
+but no protection for the body, the third, neither a coat of mail, nor
+greaves. 6. The defects of this system are sufficiently obvious; an
+unexpected attack on the flanks, the breaking of the line by rugged
+and uneven ground, and a thousand similar accidents exposed the
+unprotected portions of the army to destruction besides, a line with
+files ten deep was necessarily slow in its movements and evolutions.
+Another and not less important defect was, that the whole should act
+together; and consequently, there were few opportunities for the
+display of individual bravery.
+
+7. It is not certainly known who was the great commander that
+substituted the living body of the Roman legion for this inanimate
+mass; but there is some reason to believe that this wondrous
+improvement was effected by Camil'lus. Every legion was in itself an
+army, combining the advantages of every variety of weapon, with the
+absolute perfection of a military division.
+
+8. The legion consisted of three lines or battalions; the _Hasta'ti_,
+the _Prin'cipes_, and the _Tria'rii_; there were besides two classes,
+which we may likewise call battalions, the _Rora'rii_, or _Velites_,
+consisting of light armed troops, and the _Accen'si_, or
+supernumeraries, who were ready to supply the place of those that fell.
+Each of the two first battalions contained fifteen manip'uli, consisting
+of sixty privates, commanded by two centurions, and having each a
+separate standard (_vexil'lum_) borne by one of the privates called
+Vexilla'rius; the manip'uli in the other battalions were fewer in
+number, but contained a greater portion of men; so that, in round
+numbers, nine hundred men may be allowed to each battalion, exclusive of
+officers. If the officers and the troop of three hundred cavalry be
+taken into account, we shall find that the legion, as originally
+constituted, contained about five thousand men. The Romans, however, did
+not always observe these exact proportions, and the number of soldiers
+in a legion varied at different times of their history.[1]
+
+9. A cohort was formed by taking a manipulus from each of the
+battalions; more frequently two manipuli were taken, and the cohort
+then contained six hundred men. The cavalry were divided into tur'mae,
+consisting each of thirty men.
+
+10. A battle was usually commenced by the light troops, who skirmished
+with missile weapons; the hasta'ti then advanced to the charge, and if
+defeated, fell back on the prin'cipes; if the enemy proved still
+superior, the two front lines retired to the ranks of the tria'rii,
+which being composed of veteran troops, generally turned the scale.
+But this order was not always observed; the number of divisions in the
+legion made it extremely flexible, and the commander-in-chief could
+always adapt the form of his line to circumstances.
+
+11. The levies of troops were made in the Cam'pus Mar'tius, by the
+tribunes appointed to command the legions. The tribes which were to
+supply soldiers were determined by lot, and as each came forward, the
+tribunes, in their turn, selected such as seemed best fitted for war.
+Four legions was most commonly the number in an army. When the
+selected individuals had been enrolled as soldiers, one was chosen
+from each legion to take the military oath of obedience to the
+generals; the other soldiers swore in succession, to observe the oath
+taken by their foreman.
+
+12. Such was the sacredness of this obligation, that even in the midst
+of the political contests by which the city was distracted, the
+soldiers, though eager to secure the freedom of their country, would
+not attempt to gain it by mutiny against their commanders. On this
+account the senate frequently declared war, and ordered a levy as an
+expedient to prevent the enactment of a popular law, and were of
+course opposed by the tribunes of the people.
+
+13. There was no part of the Roman discipline more admirable than
+their form of encampment. No matter how fatigued the soldiers might be
+by a long march, or how harassed by a tedious battle, the camp was
+regularly measured out and fortified by a rampart and ditch, before
+any one sought sleep or refreshment. Careful watch was kept during the
+night, and frequent picquets sent out to guard against a surprise, and
+to see that the sentinels were vigilant. As the arrangement in every
+camp was the same, every soldier knew his exact position, and if an
+alarm occurred, could easily find the rallying point of his division.
+To this excellent system Polyb'ius attributes the superiority of the
+Romans over the Greeks; for the latter scarcely ever fortified their
+camp, but chose some place naturally strong, and did not keep their
+ranks distinct.
+
+14. The military age extended from the sixteenth to the forty-sixth
+year; and under the old constitution no one could hold a civic office
+who had not served ten campaigns. The horsemen were considered free
+after serving through ten campaigns, but the foot had to remain during
+twenty. Those who had served out their required time were free for the
+rest of their lives, unless the city was attacked, when all under the
+age of sixty were obliged to arm in its defence.
+
+15. In the early ages, when wars were begun and ended in a few days,
+the soldiers received no pay; but when the conquest of distant
+countries became the object of Roman ambition, it became necessary to
+provide for the pay and support of the army. This office was given to
+the quaestors, who were generally chosen from the younger nobility, and
+were thus prepared for the higher magistracies by acquiring a
+practical acquaintance with finance.
+
+16. The soldiers were subject to penalties of life and limb at the
+discretion of the commander-in-chief, without the intervention of a
+court-martial; but it deserves to be recorded that this power was
+rarely abused. 17. There were several species of rewards to excite
+emulation; the most honourable were, the civic crown of gold to
+him who had saved the life of a citizen; the mural crown to him who
+had first scaled the wall of a besieged town; a gilt spear to him who
+had severely wounded an enemy; but he who had slain and spoiled his
+foe, received, if a horseman, an ornamental trapping; if a foot
+soldier, a goblet.
+
+18. The lower classes of the centuries were excused from serving in
+the army, except on dangerous emergencies; but they supplied sailors
+to the navy. We learn, from a document preserved by Polyb'ius, that
+the Romans were a naval power at a very early age. 19. This
+interesting record is the copy of a treaty concluded with the
+Carthaginians, in the year after the expulsion of the kings. It is not
+mentioned by the Roman historians, because it decisively establishes a
+fact which they studiously labour to conceal, that is, the weakness
+and decline of the Roman power during the two centuries that followed
+the abolition of royalty, when the power of the state was monopolized
+by a vile aristocracy. In this treaty Rome negociates for the cities
+of La'tium, as her dependencies, just as Carthage does for her subject
+colonies. But in the course of the following century, Rome lost her
+supremacy over the Latin cities, and being thus nearly excluded from
+the coast, her navy was ruined.
+
+20. At the commencement of the first Punic war, the Romans once more
+began to prepare a fleet, and luckily obtained an excellent model in a
+Carthaginian ship that had been driven ashore in a storm. 21. The
+vessels used for war, were either long ships or banked galleys; the
+former were not much used in the Punic wars, the latter being found
+more convenient. The rowers of these sat on banks or benches, rising
+one above the other, like stairs; and from the number of these
+benches, the galleys derived their names; that which had three rows of
+benches was called a _trireme_; that which had four, a _quadrireme_;
+and that which had five, a _quinquireme_. Some vessels had turrets
+erected in them for soldiers and warlike engines; others had sharp
+prows covered with brass, for the purpose of dashing against and
+sinking their enemies.
+
+22. The naval tactics of the ancients were very simple; the ships
+closed very early, and the battle became a contest between single
+vessels. It was on this account that the personal valour of the Romans
+proved more than a match for the naval skill of the
+Carthaginians, and enabled them to, add the empire of the sea to that
+of the land.
+
+23. Before concluding this chapter, we must notice the triumphal
+processions granted to victorious commanders. Of these there are two
+kinds; the lesser triumph, called an ovation,[2] and the greater,
+called, emphatically, the triumph. In the former, the victorious
+general entered the city on foot, wearing a crown of myrtle; in the
+latter, he was borne in a chariot, and wore a crown of laurel. The
+ovation was granted to such generals as had averted a threatened war,
+or gained some great advantage without inflicting great loss on the
+enemy. The triumph was allowed only to those who had gained some
+signal victory, which decided the fate of a protracted war. The
+following description, extracted from Plutarch, of the great triumph
+granted to Paulus AEmilius, for his glorious termination of the
+Macedonian war, will give the reader an adequate idea of the splendour
+displayed by the Romans on these festive occasions.
+
+The people erected scaffolds in the forum and circus, and all other
+parts of the city where they could best behold the pomp. The
+spectators were clad in white garments; all the temples were open, and
+full of garlands and perfumes; and the ways cleared and cleansed by a
+great many officers, who drove away such as thronged the passage, or
+straggled up and down.
+
+The triumph lasted three days; on the first, which was scarce long
+enough for the sight, were to be seen the statues, pictures, and
+images of an extraordinary size, which were taken from the enemy,
+drawn upon seven hundred and fifty chariots. On the second was
+carried, in a great many _wains_, the fairest and richest armour of
+the Macedonians, both of brass and steel, all newly furbished and
+glittering: which, although piled up with the greatest art and order,
+yet seemed to be tumbled on heaps carelessly and by chance; helmets
+were thrown on shields, coats of mail upon greaves; Cretan targets and
+Thracian bucklers, and quivers of arrows, lay huddled among the
+horses' bits; and through these appeared the points of naked swords,
+intermixed with long spears. All these arms were tied together with
+such a just liberty, that they knocked against one another as they
+were drawn along, and made a harsh and terrible noise, so that
+the very spoils of the conquered could not be beheld without dread.
+After these wagons loaded with armour, there followed three thousand
+men, who carried the silver that was coined, in seven hundred and
+fifty vessels, each of which weighed three talents, and was carried by
+four men. Others brought silver bowls, and goblets, and cups, all
+disposed in such order as to make the best show, and all valuable, as
+well for their magnitude as the thickness of their engraved work. On
+the third day, early in the morning, first came the trumpeters, who
+did not sound as they were wont in a procession or solemn entry, but
+such a charge as the Romans use when they encourage their soldiers to
+fight. Next followed young men, girt about with girdles curiously
+wrought, who led to the sacrifice one hundred and twenty stalled oxen,
+with their horns gilded, and their heads adorned with ribbons and
+garlands, and with these were boys that carried dishes of silver and
+gold. After these was brought the gold coin, which was divided into
+vessels that weighed three talents each, similar to those that
+contained the silver; they were in number fourscore, wanting three.
+These were followed by those that brought the consecrated bowl which
+Emil'ius caused to be made, that weighed ten talents, and was adorned
+with precious stones. Then were exposed to view the cups of Antig'onus
+and Seleu'cus, and such as were made after the fashion invented by
+The'ricles, and all the gold plate that was used at Per'seus's table.
+Next to these came Per'seus's chariot, in which his armour was placed,
+and on that his diadem. After a little intermission the king's
+children were led captives, and with them a train of nurses, masters,
+and governors, who all wept, and stretched forth their hands to the
+spectators, and taught the little infants to beg and intreat their
+compassion. There were two sons and a daughter, who, by reason of
+their tender age, were altogether insensible of the greatness of their
+misery; which insensibility of their condition rendered it much more
+deplorable, insomuch that Per'seus himself was scarce regarded as he
+went along, whilst pity had fixed the eyes of the Romans upon the
+infants, and many of them could not forbear tears; all beheld the
+sight with a mixture of sorrow and joy until the children were past.
+After his children and attendants came Per'seus himself, clad in
+black, and wearing slippers after the fashion of his country; he
+looked like one altogether astonished, and deprived of reason, through
+the greatness of his misfortune. Next followed a great company
+of his friends and familiars, whose countenances were disfigured with
+grief, and who testified, to all that beheld them, by their tears and
+their continual looking upon Per'seus, that it was his hard fortune
+they so much lamented, and that they were regardless of their own.
+After these were carried four hundred crowns of gold, sent from the
+cities by their respective ambassadors to Emil'ius, as a reward due to
+his valour. Then he himself came, seated on a chariot magnificently,
+adorned, (a man worthy to be beheld even without these ensigns of
+power) clad in a garland of purple interwoven with gold, and with a
+laurel branch in his right hand. All the army in like manner, with
+boughs of laurel in their hands, and divided into bands and companies,
+followed the chariot of their commander; some singing odes according
+to the usual custom, mingled with raillery; others songs of triumph
+and the praises of Emil'ius's deeds, who was admired and accounted
+happy by all men, yet unenvied by every one that was good.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What political change has frequently resulted from improved
+military tactics?
+
+2. Was Rome a military state?
+
+3. Why are we led to conclude that the Romans considered cavalry an
+important force?
+
+4. By whom was the phalanx instituted?
+
+5. How was the phalanx formed?
+
+6. What were the defects of the phalanx?
+
+7. By whom was the legion substituted for the phalanx?
+
+8. Of what troops was a legion composed?
+
+9. What was a cohort?
+
+10. What was the Roman form of battle?
+
+11. In what manner was an army levied?
+
+12. How was the sanctity of the military oath proved?
+
+13. What advantages resulted from the Roman form of encampment?
+
+14. How long was the citizens liable to be called upon as soldiers?
+
+15. How was the army paid?
+
+16. What power had the general?
+
+17. On what occasion did the soldiers receive rewards?
+
+18. How was the navy supplied with sailors?
+
+19. What fact concealed by the Roman historians is established by
+Polybius?
+
+20. How did the Romans form a fleet?
+
+21. What were the several kinds of ships?
+
+22. What naval tactics did the Romans use?
+
+23. How did an ovation differ from a triumph?
+
+24. Can you give a general description of a triumph?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] This is virtually the same account as that given by Niebuhr, but
+he excludes the accensi and cavalry from his computation, which brings
+down the amount to 3600 soldiers.
+
+[2] From _ovis_, a sheep, the animal on this occasion offered in
+sacrifice; in the greater triumph the victim was a milk-white bull
+hung over with garlands, and having his horns tipped with gold.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ROMAN LAW--FINANCE.
+
+  Then equal laws were planted in the state,
+  To shield alike the humble and the great.--_Cooke_.
+
+1. In the early stages of society, little difficulty is felt in
+providing for the administration of justice, because the subjects of
+controversy are plain and simple, such as any man of common sense may
+determine; but as civilization advances, the relations between men
+become more complicated, property assumes innumerable forms, and the
+determination of questions resulting from these changes, becomes a
+matter of no ordinary difficulty. In the first ages of the republic,
+the consuls were the judges in civil and criminal matters, as the
+kings had previously been;[1] but as the state increased, a new class
+of magistrates, called praetors, was appointed to preside in the courts
+of law. Until the age of the decemvirs, there was no written code to
+regulate their decisions; and even after the laws of the twelve tables
+had been established, there was no perfect system of law, for the
+enactments in that code were brief, and only asserted a few leading
+principles. 2. The Roman judges did not, however, decide altogether
+according to their own caprice; they were bound to regard the
+principles that had been established by the decisions of former
+judges; and consequently, a system of law was formed similar to the
+common law of England, founded on precedent and analogy. In the later
+ages of the empire, the number of law-books and records became so
+enormous, that it was no longer possible to determine the law with
+accuracy, and the contradictory decisions made at different periods,
+greatly increased the uncertainty. To remedy this evil, the emperor
+Justinian caused the entire to be digested into a uniform system, and
+his code still forms the basis of the civil law in Europe.
+
+3. The trials in courts refer either to the affairs of the
+state, or to the persons or properties of individuals, and are called
+state, criminal, or civil trials. The two former are the most
+important in regard to history.
+
+4. The division of the Roman people into two nations, made the
+classification of state offences very difficult. In general, the
+council of the patricians judged any plebeian who was accused of
+conspiring against their order; and the plebeians on the other hand,
+brought a patrician accused of having violated their privileges before
+their own tribunal. 5. Disobedience to the commands of the chief
+magistrate was punished by fine and imprisonment, and from his
+sentence there was no appeal; but if the consul wished to punish any
+person by stripes or death, the condemned man had the right of
+appealing to the general assembly of his peers.[2] 6. To prevent
+usurpation, it was established that every person who exercised an
+authority not conferred on him by the people, should be devoted as a
+victim to the gods.[3] This, was at once a sentence of outlawry and
+excommunication; the Criminal might be slain by any person-with
+impunity, and all connection with him was shunned as pollution. 7. No
+magistrate could legally be brought to trial during the continuance of
+his office, but when his time was expired, he could be accused before
+the general assembly of the people, if he had transgressed the legal
+limits of his authority. The punishment in this case was banishment;
+the form of the sentence declared that the criminal "should be
+deprived of fire and water;" that is, the citizens, were prohibited
+from supplying him with the ordinary necessaries of life.
+
+8. In all criminal trials, and in all cases where damages were sought
+to be recovered for wrongs or injuries, the praetor impanelled a jury,
+but the number of which it was to consist seems to have been left
+to his discretion. The jurors were called ju'dices, and the opinion of
+the majority decided the verdict. Where the votes were equal, the
+traverser or defendant escaped; and when half the jury assessed
+damages at one amount, and half at another, the defendant paid only
+the lesser sum. In disputes about property, the praetor seldom called
+for the assistance of a jury.
+
+9. The general form of all trials was the same; the prosecutor or
+plaintiff made his complaint, and the defendant was compelled either
+to find sufficient bail, or to go into prison until the day of trial.
+On the appointed day, the plaintiff, or his advocate, stated his case,
+and proceeded to establish it by evidence; the defendant replied; and
+the jury then gave their verdict by ballot.
+
+10. In cases tried before the general assembly of the people, it was
+allowed to make use of artifices in order to conciliate the popular
+favour. The accused and his friends put on mourning robes to excite
+pity; they went into the most public places and took every opportunity
+of showing their respect for popular power. When Cicero was accused by
+Clo'dius for having illegally put to death the associates of Cataline,
+the entire senatorian rank changed their robes to show the deep
+interest they felt in his fate. At these great trials, the noblest
+specimens of forensic eloquence were displayed by the advocates of the
+accuser and the accused; but the decisions were usually more in
+accordance with the spirit of party than strict justice.
+
+11. The accused, however, might escape, if he could prevail on any of
+the tribunes to interpose in his behalf, or the accuser to relinquish
+his charge; if unfavourable omens appeared during the trial, it was
+usually adjourned, or sometimes the accusation withdrawn; and up to
+the very moment of the commencement of the trial, the criminal had the
+option of escaping a heavier penalty by going into voluntary exile.
+
+12. The punishments to which state criminals were sentenced, were
+usually, in capital cases, precipitation from the Tarpeian rock,
+beheading, or strangulation in prison; when life was spared, the
+penalties were either exile or fine. Under the emperors severer
+punishments were introduced, such as exposure to wild beasts, or
+burning alive; and torture, which, under the republic, could not be
+inflicted on free citizens, was exercised unsparingly.
+
+13. The punishment of parricides was curious; the criminal having
+been beaten with rods, was sown up in a sack together with a serpent,
+an ape and a cock, and thrown either into the sea or a river, as if
+even the inanimate carcase of such a wretch would pollute the earth.
+
+14. Masters had an absolute, authority over their slaves, extending to
+life or limb; and in the earlier ages patrons had similar power over
+their clients. The condition of slaves in Rome was most miserable,
+especially in the later ages; they were subject to the most
+excruciating tortures, and when capitally punished, were generally
+crucified. Except in this single particular, the Roman criminal code,
+was very lenient and sparing of human life. This was chiefly owing to
+the exertions of the plebeians, for the patricians always patronized a
+more sanguinary policy; and could do so the more easily, as the
+aristocracy retained their monopoly of the administration of justice
+much longer than that of civil government.
+
+15. The Roman system of finance was at first very simple, the public
+revenue being derived from a land-tax on Quiritary property,[4] and
+the tithes of the public lands; but after the conquest of Macedon, the
+revenues from other sources were so abundant, that tribute was no
+longer demanded from Roman citizens. These sources were:--
+
+1. The tribute of the allies, which was a property tax, differing in
+different places according to the terms of their league.
+
+2. The tribute of the provinces, which was both a property and
+poll-tax.
+
+3. Revenue of the national domains leased out by the censors.
+
+4. Revenue from the mines, especially from the Spanish silver-mines.
+
+5. Duties on imports and exports. And,
+
+6. A duty on enfranchised slaves.
+
+The receipts were all paid into the national treasury, and the senate
+had the uncontrolled direction of the general expenditure, as well as
+the regulation of the amount of imposts. The officers employed to
+manage the affairs of the revenue, were the quaestors, chosen annually,
+and under them the scribes, who held their situations for life. Those
+who farmed the public revenue were called-publicans, and were
+generally persons of equestrian dignity; but in the remote provinces
+they frequently sublet to other collectors, who were guilty of great
+extortion. The latter are the publicans mentioned in the New
+Testament.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. When did the Romans first appoint judges?
+
+2. How were the decisions of the praetors regulated?
+
+3. How are trials divided?
+
+4. In what manner were offences against the classes of patricians and
+plebeians tried?
+
+5. How was disobedience to the chief magistrate punished?
+
+6. What was the penalty for usurpation?
+
+7. How was mal-administration punished?
+
+8. When did the praetors impannel a jury?
+
+9. What was the form of a trial?
+
+10. Were there any other forms used, in trials before the people?
+
+11. Had the criminal any chances of escape?
+
+12. What were the usual punishments?
+
+13. How was parricide punished?
+
+14. In what respect alone was the criminal law of the Romans severe?
+
+15. What were the sources of the Roman revenue?
+
+16. To whom was the management of the finances entrusted?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Niebuhr, however, is of opinion, that judicial officers were
+elected by the "comitia curiata," from the earliest ages.
+
+[2] This privilege was conceded to the plebeians by the Valerian law,
+but must have been possessed by the patricians from the earliest
+times; for Horatius, when condemned for the murder of his sister, in
+the reign of Tullus Hostilius, escaped by appealing to the comitia
+curiata. The Valerian law had no sanction, that is, no penalty was
+annexed to its transgression; and during the two centuries of
+patrician usurpation and tyranny, was frequently and flagrantly
+violated. On this account the law, though never repealed, was
+frequently re-enacted.
+
+[3] The formula "to devote his head to the gods," used to express the
+sentence of capital punishment, was derived from the human sacrifices
+anciently used in Rome; probably, because criminals were usually
+selected for these sanguinary offerings.
+
+[4] The lands absolutely assigned to the plebeians free from rent,
+were the most remarkable species of Quiritary property. It was so
+called from the Quirites, who formed a constituent part of the Roman
+people, and whose name was subsequently given to the entire.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE PUBLIC AMUSEMENTS AND PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS.
+
+Butchered to make a Roman holiday.--_Byron_.
+
+The inferiority of the Romans to the Greeks in intellectual
+acquirements, was no where more conspicuous than in their public
+amusements. While the refined Grecians sought to gratify their taste
+by music, the fine arts, and dramatic entertainments, the Romans
+derived their chief pleasure from contemplating the brutal and bloody
+fights of gladiators; or at best, such rich shows and processions as
+gratify the uneducated vulgar. The games in the circus, with which the
+Romans were so delighted, that they considered them of equal
+importance, with the necessaries of life, consisted of athletic
+exercises, such as boxing, racing, wrestling, and gladiatorial
+combats. To these, chariot-racing was added under the emperors, and
+exhibitions of combats between wild beasts, and, in numerous
+instances, between men and beasts.
+
+2. After the establishment of the naval power of Rome, naumachiae, or
+naval combats, were frequently exhibited in circi built for the
+purpose. These were not always sham fights; the contests were, in many
+instances, real engagements displaying all the horrors of a sanguinary
+battle.
+
+3. The custom of exhibiting shows of gladiators, originated in the
+barbarous sacrifices of human beings, which prevailed in remote ages.
+In the gloomy superstition of the Romans, it was believed that the
+manes, or shades of the dead, derived pleasure from human blood, and
+they therefore sacrificed, at the tombs of their ancestors, captives
+taken in war, or wretched slaves. It was soon found that sport to the
+living might be combined with this horrible offering to the dead; and
+instead of giving up the miserable victims to the executioner, they
+were compelled to fight with each other, until the greater part was
+exterminated.
+
+4. The pleasure that the people derived from this execrable amusement,
+induced the candidates for office to gratify, them frequently with
+this spectacle. The exhibitions were no longer confined to funerals;
+they formed an integrant part of every election, and were found more
+powerful than merit in opening a way to office. The utter
+demoralization of the Roman people, and the facility with which the
+tyranny of the emperors was established, unquestionably was owing, in
+a great degree to the pernicious prevalence of these scandalous
+exhibitions.
+
+5. To supply the people with gladiators, schools were, established in
+various parts of Italy, each under the controul of a _lanis'ta_, or
+fencing-master, who instructed them in martial exercises. The victims
+were either prisoners of war, or refractory slaves, sold by their
+masters; but in the degenerate ages of the empire, freemen, and even
+senators, ventured their lives on the stage along with the regular
+gladiators. Under the mild and merciful influence of Christianity
+these combats were abolished, and human blood was no longer shed to
+gratify a cruel and sanguinary populace.
+
+6. So numerous were the gladiators, that Spar'tacus, one of their
+number, having escaped from a school, raised an army of his
+fellow-sufferers, amounting to seventy thousand men; he was finally
+subdued by Cras'sus, the colleague of Pompey. Ju'lius Caesar,
+during his aedileship, exhibited at one time three hundred and twenty
+pairs of gladiators; but even this was surpassed by the emperor
+Trajan, who displayed no less than one thousand.
+
+7. The gladiators were named from their peculiar arms; the most common
+were the _retiarius_, who endeavoured to hamper his antagonist with a
+net; and his opponent the _secutor_.
+
+8. When a gladiator was wounded, or in any way disabled, he fled to
+the extremity of the stage, and implored the pity of the spectators;
+if he had shown good sport, they took him under their protection by
+pressing down their thumbs; but if he had been found deficient in
+courage or activity, they held the thumb back, and he was instantly
+murdered by his adversary.
+
+9. The Roman theatre was formed after the model of the Greeks, but
+never attained equal eminence. The populace always paid more regard to
+the dresses of the actors, and the richness of the decoration, than to
+ingenious structure of plot, or elegance of language. Scenic
+representations do not appear to have been very popular at Rome,
+certainly never so much as the sports of the circus. Besides comedies
+and tragedies, the Romans had a species of drama peculiar to their
+country, called the Atellane farces, which were, in general, low
+pieces of gross indecency and vulgar buffoonery, but sometimes
+contained spirited satires on the character and conduct of public men.
+
+10. We should be greatly mistaken if we supposed that the theatres in
+ancient Rome at all resembled those of modern times; they were
+stupendous edifices, some of which could accommodate thirty thousand
+spectators, and an army could perform its evolutions on the stage. To
+remedy the defects of distance, the tragic actors wore a buskin with
+very thick soles, to raise them above their natural size, and covered
+their faces with a mask so contrived as to render the voice more clear
+and full.[1] Instead of the buskin, comic actors wore a sort of
+slipper called a sock.
+
+11. The periodical festivals of the Romans were celebrated with
+theatrical entertainments and sports in the circus at the public
+expense. The most remarkable of these festivals was the secular,
+which occurred only at periods of one hundred and ten years. The
+others occurred annually, and were named from the gods to whose honour
+they were dedicated.
+
+12. The Romans were a more grave and domestic people than the lively
+Greeks; their favourite dress, the toga or gown, was more formal and
+stately than the Grecian short cloak; their demeanour was more stern,
+and their manners more imposing. The great object of the old Roman
+was, to maintain his dignity under all circumstances, and to show that
+he could controul the emotions to which ordinary men too readily
+yield. Excessive joy or grief, unqualified admiration, or intense
+surprise, were deemed disgraceful; and even at a funeral, the duty of
+lamenting the deceased was entrusted to hired mourners. Temperance at
+meals was a leading feature in the character of the Romans during the
+early ages of the republic; but after the conquest of Asia, their
+luxuries were more extravagant than those of any nation recorded in
+history. But there was more extravagance than refinement in the Roman
+luxury; and though immense sums were lavished on entertainments, they
+were destitute of that taste and elegance more delightful than the
+most costly delicacies.
+
+13. The Roman ladies, enjoyed more freedom than those in any other,
+ancient nation. They visited all places of public amusement
+uncontrolled, and mingled in general society. The power of the
+husband, however, was absolute, and he could divorce his wife at
+pleasure without assigning any cause. In the early ages of the
+republic this privilege was rarely exercised, and the Roman ladies
+were strictly virtuous; but at a later period divorces were
+multiplied, and the most shocking depravity was the consequence.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the national amusements of the Romans?
+
+2. What were the naumachiae?
+
+3. Whence arose the custom of gladiatorial combats?
+
+4. Why were these exhibitions of frequent occurrence?
+
+5. How was the supply of gladiators kept up?
+
+6. From what circumstances do we learn the great numbers of the
+gladiators?
+
+7. What names were given to the gladiators?
+
+8. How were these combats terminated?
+
+9. What pieces were exhibited on the Roman stage?
+
+10. How did the dramatic entertainments in Rome differ from those of
+modern times?
+
+11. Which were the most remarkable Roman festivals?
+
+12. What was the general character of the Roman people?
+
+13. How were women treated in Rome?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Hence the mask was called _persona_, from _personare_, to sound
+through. From _persona_ the English word _person_ is derived, which
+properly signifies not so much an individual, as the aspect of that
+individual in relation to civil society.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+GEOGRAPHY OF THE EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF ITS GREATEST EXTENT.
+
+  The Roman eagle seized
+  The double prey, and proudly perch'd on high
+  And here a thousand years he plumed his wing
+  Till from his lofty eyry, tempest-tost,
+  And impotent through age, headlong he plunged,
+  While nations shuddered as they saw him fall.--_Anon._
+
+1. The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, over which, however,
+it sometimes passed, were, in Europe, the two great rivers of the
+Rhine and Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the Syrian deserts; in
+Africa, the tracts of arid sand which fence the interior of that
+continent. It thus contained those fertile and rich countries which
+surround the Mediterranean sea, and constitute the fairest portion of
+the earth.
+
+2. Beginning at the west of Europe,[1] we find, first, Hispa'nia,
+_Spain_. Its boundaries are, on the east, the chain of the Pyrenees;
+on every other side, the sea. It was divided into three provinces: 1.
+Lusita'nia, _Portugal_, bounded on the north by the Du'rius, _Douro_,
+and on the south by the Anas; _Guadiana_: 2. Bo'etica, bounded on the
+north and west by the A'nas, and on the east by the mountains of
+Orospe'da, _Sierra Moreno_: 3. Tarracone'nsis, which includes the
+remainder of the Spanish peninsula. 3. Spain was annexed to the Roman
+empire after the conclusion of the second _Punic_ war; Lusitania,
+after a desperate resistance, was added at a later period.
+
+4. Transalpine Gaul was the name given to the entire country between
+the Pyrenees and the Rhine; it consequently included France,
+Switzerland, and Belgium.
+
+5. Gaul was divided in four provinces: 1. Narbonen'sis or Bracca'ta,
+bounded on the west by the Pyrenees; on the north by the Cevennian
+mountains, and on the east by the Va'rus, _Var_: 2. Lugdunen'sis or
+Cel'tica, bounded on the south and west by the Li'ger, _Loire_; on the
+north by the Sequa'na, _Seine_, and on the east by the A'rar,
+_Saone_: 3. Aquita'nica, bounded by the Pyrenees on the south,
+and the Li'ger on the north and east: 4. Bel'gica, bounded on the
+north and east by the Rhe'nus, _Rhine;_ on the west by the Arar, and
+on the south by the Rhoda'nus, _Rhone_, as far as the city Lugdu'num,
+_Lyons_. Helve'tia, the modern Switzerland, was included in Belgic
+Gaul. This extensive country was not totally subdued before the time
+of Julius Caesar.
+
+6. Italy has been already mentioned in the first chapter; we shall
+therefore pass it over and come to the islands in the Mediterranean.
+
+Sici'lia or Trinac'ria, _Sicily_, was the first province that the
+Romans gained beyond the confines of Italy. The cities on its coast
+were founded by Phoenician and Grecian colonies, but the native
+inhabitants retained possession of the interior; one tribe, named the
+Sic'uli, are said to have migrated from Italy, and to have given their
+name to the island. The Greeks and Carthaginians long contended for
+supremacy in this island, but it was wrested from both by the Romans
+towards the close of the second _Punic_ war. Nearly at the same time,
+the islands of Corsica and Sardinia were annexed to the empire.
+
+7. Britan'nia, divided into Britan'nia Roma'na, which contained
+England and the south of Scotland; and Britannia Bar'bara or
+Caledo'nia, the northern part of Scotland, into which the Romans never
+penetrated. Britain was first invaded by Julius Caesar, but was not
+wholly subdued before the time of Nero. As for Hiber'nia or Ier'ne,
+_Ireland_, it was visited by Roman merchants, but never by Roman
+legions.
+
+8. The countries south of the Danube, were subdued and divided into
+provinces during the reign of Augustus. The number of these provinces
+was seven: 1. Vindeli'cia, bounded on the north by the Danube; on the
+east by the AE'nus, _Inn_; on the west by Helve'tia, and on the south
+by Rhae'tia: 2. Rhaetia, lying between Helve'tia, Vindeli'cia, and the
+eastern chain of the Alps: 3. Novi'cum, bounded on the north by the
+Danube, on the west by the AE'nus, _Inn_, on the east by mount Ce'tius
+_Kahlenberg_, and on the south by the Julian Alps and the Sa'vus,
+_Save_: 4. Panno'nia Superior, having as boundaries, the Danube on the
+north and east; the Ar'rabo, _Raab_, on the south; and the Cetian
+mountains on the west: 5. Panno'nia Inferior, having the Ar'rabo on
+the north; the Ar'rabo on the east; and the Sa'vus on the south: 6.
+Moe'sia Superior, bounded on the north by the Danube, on the
+south by Mount Scar'dus. _Tihar-dag_; on the west by the Pan'nonia,
+and on the east by the river Ce'brus, _Isker_: 7. Moe'sia Inferior,
+having the Danube on the north; the Ce'brus on the west; the chain of
+mount Hae'mus on the south, and the Pon'tus Eux'imus, _Black Sea_, on
+the east.
+
+9. Illyricum included the districts along the eastern coast of the
+Adriatic, from Rhae'tia to the river Dri'nus, _Drino Brianco_, in the
+south, and the Sa'vus, _Save_, on the east. It was subdued by the
+Romans about the time of the Macedonian war.
+
+10. Macedon and Greece were subdued after the conquest of Carthage;
+for the particulars of their geography, the student is referred to the
+introduction prefixed to the last edition of the Grecian History.
+Thrace was governed by its own kings, who were tributary to the Romans
+until the reign of the emperor Claudian, when it was made a province.
+
+11. Da'cia was first subdued by the emperor Trajan, and was the only
+province north of the Danube; its boundaries were, the Carpathian
+mountains on the north, the Tibis'eus, _Theiss_, on the west, the
+Hiera'sus, _Pruth_, on the east, and the Danube on the south.
+
+12. The principal Asiatic provinces were, Asia Minor, Syria, and
+Phoeni'cia. Beyond the Euphra'tes, Arme'nia and Mesopota'mia were
+reduced to provinces by Trajan, but abandoned by his successor Adrian.
+
+13. The African provinces were, Egypt, Cyrena'ica, Namidia, and
+Maurita'nia.
+
+14. The principal states on the borders of the empire were, Germa'nia
+and Sarma'tia in Europe, Arme'nia and Par'thia in Asia, and AEthio'pia
+in Africa.
+
+15. Eastern Asia, or India, was only known to the Romans by a
+commercial intercourse, which was opened with that country soon after
+the conquest of Egypt.
+
+It was divided into India on this side the Ganges, and India beyond
+the Ganges, which included Se'rica, a country of which the Romans
+possessed but little knowledge. India at the western side of the
+Ganges contained, 1. The territory between the In'dus and Gan'ges: 2.
+The western coast, now called Malabar, which was the part best known,
+and, 3. The island of Taproba'ne, _Ceylon_.
+
+16. The commerce between Europe and southern Asia became important in
+the reign of Alexan'der the Great; the greater part of the towns
+founded by that mighty conqueror were intended to facilitate this
+lucrative trade.[2] After his death, the Ptol'emys of Egypt became the
+patrons of Indian traffic, which was unwisely neglected by the kings
+of Syria. When Egypt was conquered by the Romans, the commerce with
+India was not interrupted, and the principal mart for Indian commerce
+under the Roman emperors, was always Alexandria. The jealousy of the
+Parthians excluded strangers from their territories, and put an end to
+the trade that was carried on between northern India, the shores of
+the Caspian sea, and thence to the AEgean. In consequence of this
+interruption, Palmy'ra and Alexandri'a became the great depots of
+eastern commerce, and to this circumstance they owed their enormous
+wealth and magnificence.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the boundaries of the Roman empire?
+
+2. How was Spain divided?
+
+3. When was Spain annexed to the Roman empire?
+
+4. What countries were included in Transalpine Gaul?
+
+5. How was Gaul divided?
+
+6. What islands in the Mediterranean were included in the Roman
+empire?
+
+7. When was Britain invaded by the Romans, and how much of the country
+did they subdue?
+
+8. Into what provinces were the countries south of the Danube divided?
+
+9. What was the extent of Illyricum?
+
+10. What were the Roman provinces in the east of Europe?
+
+11. By whom was Dacia conquered?
+
+12. What were the Asiatic provinces?
+
+13. What were the African provinces?
+
+14. What were the principal states bordering on the empire?
+
+15. Was India known to the Romans?
+
+16. What cities under the Romans enjoyed the greatest commerce with
+India?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The student will find the particulars of the ancient state of
+these countries detailed more fully in Mitchell's Ancient Geography.
+
+[2] See Pinnock's Grecian History.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+END OF THE INTRODUCTION.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HISTORY OF ROME
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+OF THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANS.
+
+In Alba he shall fix his royal seat.--_Dryden_.
+
+1. The Romans were particularly desirous of being thought descendants
+of the gods, as if to hide the meanness of their real ancestry.
+_AEne'as_, the son of _Venus_ and _Anchi'ses_, having escaped from the
+destruction of Troy, after many adventures and dangers, arrived in
+Italy, A.M. 2294, where he was kindly received by Lati'nus, king of
+the Latins, who promised him his daughter Lavin'ia in marriage.
+
+2. Turnus, king of the _Ru'tuli_, was the first who opposed AEne'as, he
+having long made pretensions to her himself. A war ensued, in which
+the Trojan hero was victorious, and Turnus slain. In consequence of
+this, Lavin'ia became the wife of AEne'as, who built a city to her
+honour, and called it Lavin'ium. Some time after, engaging in a war
+against _Mezen'tius_, one of the petty kings of the country, he was
+vanquished in turn, and died in battle, after a reign of four years.
+3. Asca'nius his son, succeeded to the kingdom; and to him Sil'vius, a
+second son, whom he had by Lavin'ia. It would be tedious and
+uninteresting to recite a dry catalogue of the kings that followed, of
+whom we know little more than the names; it will be sufficient to say,
+that the succession continued for nearly four hundred years in the
+same family, and that Nu'mitor, the fifteenth from AEne'as, was the
+last king of Alba.
+
+Nu'mitor, who took possession of the kingdom in consequence of his
+father's will, had a brother named Amu'lius, to whom were left the
+treasures which had been brought from Troy. 4. As riches too generally
+prevail against right, Amu'lius made use of his wealth to supplant his
+brother, and soon found means to possess himself of the kingdom. Not
+contented with the crime of usurpation, he added that of murder also.
+Nu'mitor's sons first fell a sacrifice to his suspicions; and to
+remove all apprehensions of being one day disturbed in his
+ill-gotten power, he caused Rhe'a Sil'via, his brother's only
+daughter, to become a vestal.
+
+5. His precautions, however, were all frusrtrated in the event. Rhe'a
+Sil'via, and, according to tradition, Mars the god of war, were the
+parents of two boys, who were no sooner born, than devoted by the
+usurper to destruction. 7. The mother was condemned to be buried
+alive, the usual punishment for vestals who had violated their vows,
+and the twins were ordered to be flung into the river Tiber. 8. It
+happened, however, at the time this rigorous sentence was put into
+execution, that the river had, more than usual, overflowed its banks,
+so that the place where the children were thrown being distant from
+the main current, the water was too shallow to drown them. It is said
+by some, that they were exposed in a cradle, which, after floating for
+a time, was, by the water's retiring, left on dry ground; that a wolf,
+descending from the mountains to drink, ran, at the cry of the
+children, and fed them under a fig-tree, caressing and licking them as
+if they had been her own young, the infants hanging on to her as if
+she had been their mother, until Faus'tulus, the king's shepherd,
+struck with so surprising a sight, conveyed them home, and delivered
+them to his wife, Ac'ca Lauren'tia, to nurse, who brought them up as
+her own. 9. Others, however, assert, that from the vicious life of
+this woman, the shepherds had given her the nickname of Lupa, or wolf,
+which they suppose might possibly be the occasion of this marvellous
+story.
+
+10. Romu'lus and Re'mus, the twins, in whatever manner preserved,
+seemed early to discover abilities and desires above the meanness of
+their supposed origin. From their very infancy, an air of superiority
+and grandeur seemed to discover their rank. They led, however, the
+shepherd's life like the rest; worked for their livelihood, and built
+their own huts. But pastoral idleness displeased them, and, from
+tending their flocks, they betook themselves to the chase. Then, no
+longer content with hunting wild beasts, they turned their strength
+against the robbers of their country, whom they often stripped of
+their plunder, and divided it among the shepherds. 11. The youths who
+continually joined them so increased in number, as to enable them to
+hold assemblies, and celebrate games. In one of their excursions, the
+two brothers were surprised. Re'mus was taken prisoner, carried before
+the king, and accused of being a plunderer and robber on Nu'mitor's
+lands. Rom'ulus had escaped; but Re'mus, the king sent to
+Nu'mitor, that he might do himself justice.
+
+12. From many circumstances, Faus'tulus suspected the twins under his
+care to be the same that Amu'lius had exposed on the Ti'ber, and at
+length divulged his suspicions to Rom'ulus. Nu'mitor made the same
+discovery to Re'mus. From that time nothing was thought of but the
+tyrant's destruction. He was beset on all sides; and, during the
+amazement and distraction that ensued, was taken and slain; while
+Nu'mitor, who had been deposed for forty years, recognised his
+grandsons, and was once more placed on the throne.
+
+13. The two brothers, leaving Nu'mitor the kingdom of Alba, determined
+to build a city upon the spot where they had been exposed and
+preserved. But a fatal desire of reigning seized them both, and
+created a difference between these noble youths, which terminated
+tragically. Birth right in the case of twins could claim no
+precedence; they therefore were advised by the king to take an omen
+from the flight of birds, to know to which of them the tutelar gods
+would decree the honour of governing the rising city, and,
+consequently, of being the director of the other. 14. In compliance
+with this advice, each took his station on a different hill. To Re'mus
+appeared six vultures; in the moment after, Rom'ulus saw twelve. Two
+parties had been formed for this purpose; the one declared for Re'mus,
+who first saw the vultures; the other for Rom'ulus, who saw the
+greater number. Each party called itself victorious; the one having
+the first omen, the other that which was most complete. This produced
+a contest which ended in a battle, wherein Re'mus was slain. It is
+even said, that he was killed by his brother, who, being provoked at
+his leaping contemptuously over the city wall, struck him dead upon
+the spot.
+
+15. Rom'ulus being now sole commander and eighteen years of age, began
+the foundation of a city that was one day to give laws to the world.
+It was called Rome, after the name of the founder, and built upon the
+Palatine hill, on which he had taken his successful omen, A.M. 3252;
+ANTE c. 752. The city was at first nearly square, containing about a
+thousand houses. It was almost a mile in circumference, and commanded
+a small territory round it of eight miles over. 16. However, small as
+it appears, it was yet worse inhabited; and the first method made use
+of to increase its numbers, was the opening of a sanctuary for
+all malefactors and slaves, and such as were desirous of novelty;
+these came in great multitudes, and contributed to increase the number
+of our legislator's new subjects.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the origin of the Romans?
+
+2. Who first opposed AEneas, and what was the result?
+
+3. Who were the successors of AEneas?
+
+4. What was the conduct of Amulius?
+
+5. What event frustrated his precautions?
+
+6. What followed?
+
+7. What was the sentence on Rhea Silvia and her children?
+
+8. How were the children preserved?
+
+9. What is supposed to have occasioned this marvellous story?
+
+10. What was the character and conduct of Romulus and Remus?
+
+11. In what manner were they surprised?
+
+12. How was the birth of Romulus and Remus discovered, and what
+consequences followed?
+
+13. What caused a difference between the brothers?
+
+14. Relate the circumstances which followed?
+
+15. By whom was Rome built, and what was then its situation?
+
+16. By what means was the new city peopled?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+FROM THE BUILDING OF ROME TO THE DEATH OF ROMULUS.
+
+  See Romulus the great, born to restore
+  The crown that once his injured grandsire wore.
+  This prince a priestess of our blood shall bear;
+  And like his sire in arms he shall appear.--_Dryden_.
+
+1. Scarcely was the city raised above its foundation, when its rude
+inhabitants began to think of giving some form to their constitution.
+Rom'ulus, by an act of great generosity, left them at liberty to
+choose whom they would for their king; and they, in gratitude,
+concurred to elect him for their founder. He, accordingly, was
+acknowledged as chief of their religion, sovereign magistrate of Rome,
+and general of the army. Beside a guard to attend his person, it was
+agreed, that he should be preceded wherever he went, by twelve
+lictors, each armed with an axe tied up in a bundle of rods;[1] these
+were to serve as executioners of the law, and to impress his new
+subjects with an idea of his authority.
+
+2. The senate, who were to act as counsellors to the king, was
+composed of a hundred of the principal citizens of Rome, consisting of
+men whose age, wisdom, or valour, gave them a natural authority over
+their fellow-subjects. The king named the first senator, who was
+called prince of the senate, and appointed him to the government of
+the city, whenever war required his own absence.
+
+3. The patricians, who composed the third part of the legislature,
+assumed to themselves the power of authorising those laws which were
+passed by the king, or the senate. All things relative to peace or
+war, to the election of magistrates, and even to the choosing a king,
+were confirmed by suffrages in their assemblies.
+
+4. The plebeians were to till the fields, feed cattle, and follow
+trades; but not to have any share in the government, to avoid the
+inconveniences of a popular power.
+
+5. The first care of the new-created king was, to attend to the
+interests of religion. The precise form of their worship is unknown;
+but the greatest part of the religion of that age consisted in a firm
+reliance upon the credit of their soothsayers, who pretended, from
+observation on the flight of birds, and the entrails of beasts, to
+direct the present, and to dive into futurity. Rom'ulus, by an express
+law, commanded that no election should be made, nor enterprise
+undertaken, without first consulting them.
+
+6. Wives were forbidden, upon any pretext whatsoever, to separate from
+their husbands; while, on the contrary, the husband was empowered to
+repudiate the wife, and even, in some cases, to put her to death. The
+laws between children and their parents were still more severe; the
+father had entire power over his offspring, both of fortune and life;
+he could imprison and sell them at any time of their lives, or in any
+stations to which they were arrived.
+
+7. After endeavouring to regulate his subjects by law, Rom'ulus next
+gave orders to ascertain their numbers. The whole amounted to no more
+than three thousand foot, and about as many hundred horsemen, capable
+of bearing arms. These, therefore, were divided equally into three
+tribes, and to each he assigned a different part of the city. Each of
+these tribes was subdivided into ten curiae, or companies, consisting of
+a hundred men each, with a centurion to command it; a priest called
+curio, to perform the sacrifices, and two of the principal inhabitants,
+called duumviri, to distribute justice.
+
+8. By these judicious regulations, each day added strength to the new
+city; multitudes of people flocked in from all the adjacent towns, and
+it only seemed to want women to insure its duration. In this exigence,
+Rom'ulus, by the advice of the senate, sent deputies among the
+Sab'ines, his neighbours, entreating their alliance; and, upon these
+terms, offering to cement the strictest confederacy with them. The
+Sab'ines, who were at that time considered as the most warlike people
+of Italy, rejected the proposal with disdain. 9. Rom'ulus, therefore,
+proclaimed a feast, in honour of Neptune,[2] throughout all the
+neighbouring villages, and made the most magnificent preparations for
+celebrating it. These feasts were generally preceded by sacrifices,
+and ended in shows of wrestlers, gladiators, and chariot-courses. The
+Sab'ines, as he had expected, were among the foremost who came to be
+spectators, bringing their wives and daughters with them, to share the
+pleasures of the sight. 10. In the mean time the games began, and
+while the strangers were most intent upon the spectacle, a number of
+the Roman youth rushed in among them with drawn swords, seized the
+youngest and most beautiful women, and carried them off by violence.
+In vain the parents protested against this breach of hospitality; the
+virgins were carried away and became the wives of the Romans.
+
+11. A bloody war ensued. The cities of Cae'nina,[3] Antem'nae,[4] and
+Crustumi'num,[5] were the first who resolved to avenge the common
+cause, which the Sab'ines seemed too dilatory in pursuing. But all
+these, by making separate inroads, became an easy conquest to
+Rom'ulus, who made the most merciful use of his victories; instead of
+destroying their towns, or lessening their numbers, he only placed
+colonies of Romans in them, to serve as a frontier to repress more
+distant invasions.
+
+12. Ta'tius, king of Cures, a Sabine city, was the last, although the
+most formidable, who undertook to revenge the disgrace his
+country had suffered. He entered the Roman territories at the head of
+twenty-five thousand men, and not content with a superiority of
+forces, he added stratagem also. 13. Tarpe'ia, who was daughter to the
+commander of the Capit'oline hill, happened to fall into his hands, as
+she went without the walls of the city to fetch water. Upon her he
+prevailed, by means of large promises, to betray one of the gates to
+his army. The reward she engaged for, was what the soldiers wore on
+their arms, by which she meant their bracelets. They, however, either
+mistaking her meaning, or willing to punish her perfidy, threw their
+bucklers upon her as they entered, and crushed her to death. 14. The
+Sab'ines being thus possessed of the Capit'oline, after some time a
+general engagement ensued, which was renewed for several days, with
+almost equal success, and neither army could think of submitting; it
+was in the valley between the Capit'oline and Quiri'nal hills that the
+last engagement was fought between the Romans and the Sab'ines. 15.
+The battle was now become general, and the slaughter prodigious; when
+the attention of both sides was suddenly turned from the scene of
+horror before them to another. The Sab'ine women, who had been carried
+off by the Romans, flew in between the combatants, with their hair
+loose, and their ornaments neglected, regardless of their own danger;
+and, with loud outcries, implored their husbands and their fathers to
+desist. Upon this the combatants, as if by natural impulse, let fall
+their weapons. 16. An accommodation ensued, by which it was agreed,
+that Rom'ulus and Ta'tius should reign jointly in Rome, with equal
+power and prerogative; that a hundred Sab'ines should be admitted into
+the senate; that the city should retain its former name, but the
+citizens, should be called Qui'rites, after Cu'res, the principal town
+of the Sab'ines; and that both nations being thus united, such of the
+Sab'ines as chose it, should be admitted to live in and enjoy all the
+privileges of citizens of Rome. 17. The conquest of Came'ria was the
+only military achievement under the two kings, and Ta'tius was killed
+about five years after by the Lavin'ians, for having protected some of
+his servants who had plundered them and slain their ambassadors; so
+that, by this accident, Rom'ulus once more saw himself sole monarch of
+Rome. 18. Soon after the death of Ta'tius, a cruel plague and famine
+having broken out at Rome, the Camerini embraced the opportunity to
+lay waste the Roman territory. But Rom'ulus gave them battle,
+killed six thousand on the spot, and returned in triumph to Rome. He
+took likewise Fidenae, a city about forty furlongs distant from his
+capital, and reduced the Veien'tes to submission.
+
+19. Successes like these produced an equal share of pride in the
+conqueror. From being contented with those limits which had been
+wisely assigned to his power, he began to affect absolute sway, and to
+controul those laws to which he had himself formerly professed
+implicit obedience. The senate was particularly displeased at his
+conduct, as they found themselves used only as instruments to ratify
+the rigour of his commands. 20. We are not told the precise manner
+which they employed to get rid of the tyrant. Some say that he was
+torn in pieces in the senate-house; others, that he disappeared while
+reviewing his army; certain it is, that, from the secrecy of the fact,
+and the concealment of the body, they took occasion to persuade the
+multitude that he was taken up into heaven; thus, him whom they could
+not bear as a king, they were contented to worship as a god. Rom'ulus
+reigned thirty-seven years; and, after his death, had a temple built
+to him, under the name of Quiri'nus.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What were the first proceedings of the rude inhabitants of Rome?
+
+2. Of whom was the senate composed?
+
+3. Who were the patricians?
+
+4. Who were the plebeians?
+
+5. What was the first care of the new king? In what did the Religion
+of Rome consist?
+
+6. What were the laws between husband and wife, and between parents
+and children?
+
+7. What were the regulations directed by Romulus?
+
+8. What was the result of these regulations?
+
+9. What conduct did Romulus adopt in consequence?
+
+10. What treatment did the Sabines experience?
+
+11. Did they tamely acquiesce in this outrage?
+
+12. Who undertook to revenge the disgrace of the Sabines?
+
+13. What was this stratagem, and how was its perpetrator rewarded?
+
+14. Did the possession of the Capitoline put an end to the war?
+
+15. What put a stop to this sanguinary conflict?
+
+16. What were the terms of accommodation?
+
+17. Was this joint sovereignty of long continuance?
+
+18. Was Romulus successful in military affairs?
+
+19. What was the consequence?
+
+20. What was the manner of his death?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] This symbol of authority was borrowed from his neighbours, the
+Istrurians.
+
+[2] More properly in honour of Con'sus, a deity of Sabine origin, whom
+the Romans, in a later age, confounded with Neptune. (See Keightley's
+Mythology.)
+
+[3] A town of Latium, near Rome. (Livy.)
+
+[4] A city of the Sabines, between Rome and the Anio, from whence its
+name,--Ante Amnem. (Dionys. Hal.)
+
+[5] A town of Etruria, near Veii. (Virg.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF ROMULUS TO THE DEATH OF NUMA POMPILIUS, THE SECOND
+KING OF ROME.--U.C. 38.
+
+  When pious Numa reigned, Bellona's voice
+    No longer called the Roman youth to arms;
+  In peaceful arts he bid her sons rejoice,
+    And tranquil live, secure from war's alarms.--_Brooke._
+
+1. Upon the death of Rom'ulus, the city seemed greatly divided in the
+choice of a successor. The Sab'ines were for having a king chosen from
+their body; but the Romans could not endure the thoughts of advancing
+a stranger to the throne. In this perplexity, the senators undertook
+to supply the place of the king, by taking the government each of them
+in turn, for five days, and during that time enjoying all the honours
+and all the privileges of royalty. 2. This new form of government
+continued for a year; but the plebeians, who saw this method of
+transferring power was only multiplying their masters, insisted upon
+altering that mode of government. The senate being thus driven to an
+election, at length pitched upon Nu'ma Pompil'ius, a Sab'ine, and
+their choice was received with universal approbation by the people.[1]
+
+3. Nu'ma Pompil'ius, who was now about forty, had long been eminent
+for his piety, his justice, his moderation, and exemplary life. He was
+skilled in all the learning and philosophy of the Sab'ines, and lived
+at home at Cu'res,[2] contented with a private fortune; unambitious of
+higher honours. It was not, therefore, without reluctance, that he
+accepted the dignity; which, when he did so, produced such joy, that
+the people seemed not so much to receive a king as a kingdom.
+
+4. No monarch could be more proper for them than Nu'ma, at a
+conjuncture when the government was composed of various petty states
+lately subdued, and but ill united to each other: they wanted a master
+who could, by his laws and precepts, soften their fierce dispositions;
+and, by his example, induce them to a love of religion, and every
+milder virtue. 5. Numa's whole time, therefore, was spent in
+inspiring his subjects with a love of piety, and a veneration for the
+gods. He built many new temples, instituted sacred offices and feasts;
+and the sanctity of his life gave strength to his assertion--that he
+had a particular correspondence with the goddess _Ege'ria_. By her
+advice he built the temple of _Janus_, which was to be shut in time of
+peace, and open in war. He regulated the appointment of the vestal
+virgins, and added considerably to the privileges which they had
+previously enjoyed.
+
+6. For the encouragement of agriculture, he divided those lands, which
+Romulus had gained in war, among the poorer part of the people; he
+regulated the calendar, and abolished the distinction between Romans
+and Sabines, by dividing the people according to their several trades,
+and compelling them to live together. Thus having arrived at the age
+of fourscore years, and having reigned forty-three in profound peace,
+he died, ordering his body, contrary to the custom of the times, to be
+buried in a stone coffin; and his books of ceremonies, which consisted
+of twelve in Latin, and as many in Greek, to be buried by his side in
+another.[3]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. Upon the death of Romulus, what took place in regard to his
+successor?
+
+2. How long did this order of things continue?
+
+3. What was the character of Numa Pompilius?
+
+4. Was Numa a monarch suited to this peculiar conjuncture?
+
+5. Relate the acts of Numa?
+
+6. What were the further acts of Numa?
+
+7. What orders did he leave at his death?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Nu'ma Pompil'ius was the fourth son of Pompil'ius Pom'po, an
+illustrious Sab'ine. He had married Ta'tia, the daughter of Ta'tius,
+the colleague of Rom'ulus, and on the death of his wife, gave himself
+up entirely to solitude and study. (Plutarch--Livy.)
+
+[2] More probably at Quirium, the Sabine town which was united with
+Rome. (See Introduction, Chap. II.)
+
+[3] The age of Nu'ma is scarcely more historical than that of
+Rom'ulus, but the legends respecting it are fewer and partake less of
+extravagance. Indeed, he had himself discouraged the songs of the
+bards, by ordering the highest honours to be paid to Tac'ita, the
+Came'na or Muse of Silence. His memory was best preserved by the
+religious ceremonies ascribed to him by universal tradition. The later
+poets loved to dwell on his peaceful virtues, and on the pure
+affection that existed between him and the nymph Egeria. They tell us
+that when the king served up a moderate repast to his guests on
+earthen-ware, she suddenly changed the dishes into gold, and the plain
+food into the most sumptuous viands. They also add, that when he died,
+Egeria melted away in tears for his loss, and was changed into a
+fountain.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF NUMA TO THE DEATH OF TULLUS HOSTILIUS THE THIRD KING
+OF ROME.--U.C. 82.
+
+  From either army shall be chose three champions,
+  To fight the cause alone.--_Whitehead._
+
+1. At the death of Nu'ma, the government once more devolved upon the
+senate, and so continued, till the people elected Tullus Hostil'ius
+for their king, which choice had also the concurrence of the other
+part of the constitution. This monarch, the grandson of a noble
+Roman,[1] who had formerly signalized himself against the Sab'ines,
+was every way unlike his predecessor, being entirely devoted to war,
+and more fond of enterprise than even the founder of the empire
+himself had been; so that he only sought a pretext for leading his
+forces to the field.
+
+2. The _Albans_, by committing some depredations on the Roman
+territory, were the first people that gave him an opportunity of
+indulging his favourite inclinations. The forces of the two states met
+about five miles from Rome, prepared to decide the fate of their
+respective kingdoms; for, in these times, a single battle was
+generally decisive. The two armies were for some time drawn out in
+array, awaiting the signal to begin, both chiding the length of that
+dreadful suspense, when an unexpected proposal from the Alban general
+put a stop to the onset. 3. Stepping in between both armies, he
+offered the Romans to decide the dispute by single combat; adding,
+that the side whose champion was overcome, should submit to the
+conqueror. A proposal like this, suited the impetuous temper of the
+Roman king, and was embraced with joy by his subjects, each of whom
+hoped that he himself should be chosen to fight the cause of his
+country. 4. There were, at that time, three twin brothers in each
+army; those of the Romans were called Hora'tii, and those of the
+Albans Curia'tii; all six remarkable for their courage, strength, and
+activity, and to these it was resolved to commit the management of the
+combat.[2] At length the champions met, and each, totally
+regardless of his own safety, only sought the destruction of his
+opponent. The spectators, in horrid silence, trembled at every blow,
+and wished to share the danger, till fortune seemed to decide the
+glory of the field. 5. Victory, that had hitherto been doubtful,
+appeared to declare against the Romans: they beheld two of their
+champions lying dead upon the plain, and the three Curia'tii, who were
+wounded, slowly endeavouring to pursue the survivor, who seemed by
+flight to beg for mercy. Too soon, however, they perceived that his
+flight was only pretended, in order to separate his three antagonists,
+whom he was unable to oppose united; for quickly after, stopping his
+course, and turning upon the first, who followed closely behind, he
+laid him dead at his feet: the second brother, who was coming up to
+assist him that had already fallen, shared the same fate. 6. There now
+remained but the last Curia'tius to conquer, who, fatigued and
+disabled by his wounds, slowly advanced to offer an easy victory. He
+was killed, almost unresisting, while the conqueror, exclaiming, "Two
+have I already sacrificed to the manes of my brothers, the third I
+will offer up to my country," despatched him as a victim to the
+superiority of the Romans, whom now the Alban army consented to
+obey.[3]
+
+7. But the virtues of that age were not without alloy; that very hand
+that in the morning was exerted to save his country, was, before
+night, imbrued in the blood of a sister: for, returning triumphant
+from the field, it raised his indignation to behold her bathed in
+tears, and lamenting the loss of her lover, one of the Curia'tii, to
+whom she had been betrothed. This so provoked him beyond the powers of
+sufferance, that in a rage he slew her: but the action displeased the
+senate, and drew after it the condemnation of the magistrate. He was,
+however, pardoned, by making his appeal to the people, but obliged to
+pass under the yoke; an ignominious punishment, usually inflicted on
+prisoners of war.[4]
+
+8. Tullus having greatly increased the power and wealth of Rome by
+repeated victories, now thought proper to demand satisfaction of the
+Sab'ines for the insults which had been formerly offered to some Roman
+citizens at the temple of the goddess Fero'nia, which was common
+to both nations A war ensued, which lasted some years, and ended in
+the total overthrow of the Sab'ines.
+
+[Illustration: The victorious Horatius killing his sister.]
+
+Hostil'ius died after a reign of thirty-two years; some say by
+lightning; others, with more probability, by treason.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. On whom devolved the government on the death of Numa, and what is
+the character of his successor?
+
+2. What opportunity first offered of indulging the new king's
+inclinations?
+
+3. What proposal was offered, and accepted for deciding the dispute?
+
+4-6. Relate the circumstances which attended the combat, and the
+result of it.
+
+7. What act followed the victory?
+
+8. What conquest was next achieved?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] It seems to have been part of the compact between the Romans and
+Sabines, that a king of each people should reign alternately.
+
+[2] The Hora'tii and Curia'tii were, according to Diony'sius of
+Halicarnas'sus, the sons of two sisters, daughters of Sequin'ius, an
+illustrious citizen of Alba. One married to Curia'tius, a citizen of
+Alba, and the other to Hora'tius, a Roman: so that the champions were
+near relatives.
+
+[3] This obedience of the Albans was of short duration; they soon
+rebelled and were defeated by Tullus, who razed the city of Alba to
+the ground, and transplanted the inhabitants to Rome, where he
+conferred on them the privileges of citizens.
+
+[4] Livy, lib. i. cap. 26. Dion. Hal. l. 3.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF TULLUS HOSTILIUS TO THE DEATH OF ANCUS MARTIUS THE
+FOURTH KING OF ROME.--U.C. 115.
+
+                       Where what remains
+  Of Alba, still her ancient rights retains,
+  Still worships Vesta, though an humbler way,
+  Nor lets the hallow'd Trojan fire decay.--_Juvenal_.
+
+1. After an interregnum, as in the former case, Ancus Mar'tius, the
+grandson of Numa, was elected king by the people, and their choice was
+afterwards confirmed by the senate. As this monarch was a lineal
+descendant from Numa, so he seemed to make him the great object
+of his imitation. He instituted the sacred ceremonies, which were to
+precede a declaration of war;[1] but he took every occasion to advise
+his subjects to return to the arts of agriculture, and to lay aside
+the less useful stratagems of war.
+
+2. These institutions and precepts were considered by the neighbouring
+powers rather as marks of cowardice than of wisdom. The Latins
+therefore began to make incursions upon his territories, but their
+success was equal to their justice. An'cus conquered the Latins,
+destroyed their cities, removed their inhabitants to Rome, and
+increased his dominions by the addition of part of theirs. He quelled
+also an insurrection of the _Ve'ii_, the _Fiden'ates_, and the
+_Vol'sci_; and over the Sab'ines he obtained a second triumph.
+
+3. But his victories over the enemy were by no means comparable to his
+works at home, in raising temples, fortifying the city, making a
+prison for malefactors, and building a sea-port at the mouth of the
+Ti'ber, called Os'tia, by which he secured to his subjects the trade
+of that river, and that of the salt-pits adjacent. Thus having
+enriched his subjects, and beautified the city, he died, after a reign
+of twenty-four years.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Who was elected by the people after the interregnum, and what
+measures did he pursue?
+
+2. In what light did his enemies consider his institutions? With what
+success did they oppose him?
+
+3. What were the other acts of Ancus? How many years did he reign?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] First an ambassador was sent to demand satisfaction for the
+alleged injury; if this were not granted within thirty-three days,
+heralds were appointed to proclaim the war in the name of the gods and
+people of Rome. At the conclusion of their speech, they threw their
+javelins into the enemy's confines, and departed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF ANCUS MARTIUS, TO THE DEATH OF TARQUINIUS PRISCUS
+THE FIFTH KING OF ROME.--U.C. 130.
+
+  The first of Tarquin's hapless race was he,
+  Who odium tried to cast on augury;
+  But Naevius Accius, with an augur's skill.
+  Preserved its fame, and raised it higher still.--_Robertson_.
+
+1. Lu'cius Tarquin'ius Pris'cus was appointed guardian to the sons of
+the late king, and took the surname of Tarquin'ius from the city of
+_Tarquin'ia_, whence he last came. His father was a merchant of
+Corinth,[1] who had acquired considerable wealth by trade, and had
+settled in Italy, upon account of some troubles at home. His son, who
+inherited his fortune, married a woman of family in the city of
+Tarquin'ia.
+
+2. His birth, profession, and country, being contemptible to the
+nobles of the place, he, by his wife's persuasion, came to settle at
+Rome, where merit also gave a title to distinction. On his way
+thither, say the historians, as he approached the city gate, an eagle,
+stooping from above, took off his hat, and flying round his chariot
+for some time, with much noise, put it on again. This his wife
+Tan'aquil, who it seems was skilled in augury, interpreted as a
+presage that he should one day wear the crown. Perhaps it was this
+which first fired his ambition to pursue it.
+
+3. Ancus being dead, and the kingdom, as usual, devolving upon the
+senate, Tarquin used all his power and arts to set aside the children
+of the late king, and to get himself elected in their stead. For this
+purpose, upon the day appointed for election, he contrived to have
+them sent out of the city; and in a set speech, in which he urged his
+friendship for the people, the fortune he had spent among them, and
+his knowledge of their government, he offered himself for their king.
+As there was nothing in this harangue that could be contested, it had
+the desired effect, and the people, with one consent, elected him as
+their sovereign.
+
+4. A kingdom thus obtained by _intrigue_, was, notwithstanding,
+governed with equity. In the beginning of his reign, in order to
+recompense his friends, he added a hundred members more to the senate,
+which made them, in all, three hundred.
+
+5. But his peaceful endeavours were soon interrupted by the inroads of
+his restless neighbours, particularly the Latins, over whom he
+triumphed, and whom he forced to beg for peace. He then turned his
+arms against the Sabines, who had risen once more, and had passed the
+river Ti'ber; but attacking them with vigour, Tarquin routed their
+army; so that many who escaped the sword, were drowned in attempting
+to cross over, while their bodies and armour, floating down to Rome,
+brought news of the victory, even before the messengers could arrive
+that were sent with the tidings. These conquests were followed by
+several advantages over the Latins, from whom he took many towns,
+though without gaining any decisive victory.
+
+6. Tarquin, having thus forced his enemies into submission, was
+resolved not to let his subjects grow corrupt through indolence. He
+therefore undertook and perfected several public works for the
+convenience and embellishment of the city.[2]
+
+7. In his time it was, that the augurs came into a great increase of
+reputation. He found it his interest to promote the superstition of
+the people; for this was, in fact, but to increase their obedience.
+Tan'aquil, his wife, was a great pretender to this art; but Ac'cius
+Nae'vius was the most celebrated adept of the kind ever known in Rome.
+8. Upon a certain occasion, Tarquin, being resolved to try the augur's
+skill, asked him, whether what he was then pondering in his mind could
+be effected? Nae'vius, having consulted his auguries, boldly affirmed
+that it might: "Why, then," cries the king, with an insulting smile,
+"I had thoughts of cutting this whetstone with a razor." "Cut boldly,"
+replied the augur; and the king cut it through accordingly.
+Thenceforward nothing was undertaken in Rome without consulting the
+augurs, and obtaining their advice and approbation.
+
+9. Tarquin was not content with a kingdom, without having also the
+ensigns of royalty. In imitation of the Lyd'ian kings, he assumed a
+crown of gold, an ivory throne, a sceptre with an eagle on the top,
+and robes of purple. It was, perhaps, the splendour of these royalties
+that first raised the envy of the late king's sons, who had now,
+for above thirty-seven years, quietly submitted to his government. His
+design also of adopting Ser'vius Tul'lius, his son-in-law, for his
+successor, might have contributed to inflame their resentment. 10.
+Whatever was the cause of their tardy vengeance, they resolved to
+destroy him; and, at last, found means to effect their purpose, by
+hiring two ruffians, who, demanding to speak with the king, pretending
+that they came for justice, struck him dead in his palace with the
+blow of an axe. The lictors, however, who waited upon the person of
+the king, seized the murderers as they were attempting to escape, and
+put them to death: but the sons of Ancus, who were the instigators,
+found safety in flight.
+
+11. Thus fell Lu'cius Tarquin'ius, surnamed Pris'cus, to distinguish
+him from one of his successors of the same name. He was eighty years
+of age, and had reigned thirty-eight years.[3]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Who was Lucius Tarquinius Priscus?
+
+2. What occasioned his removal to Rome, and what circumstances
+attended it?
+
+3. Was this presage fulfilled, and by what means?
+
+4. In what manner did he govern?
+
+5. Was Tarquin a warlike prince?
+
+6. How did he improve his victories?
+
+7. By what act did he insure the obedience of his subjects?
+
+8. What contributed to increase the reputation of the augurs?
+
+9. What part of his conduct is supposed, to have raised the envy of
+the late king's sons?
+
+10. What was the consequence of this envy and resentment?
+
+11. What was his age, and how long did he reign?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Corinth (now Corito) was a celebrated city of ancient Greece,
+situated on the isthmus of that name, about sixty stadia or furlongs
+from the sea. Its original name was Ephy're.
+
+[2] Preparations for building the Capitol were made in this reign. The
+city was likewise fortified with stone walls, and the cloacae, or
+common sewers, constructed by the munificence of this prince. (See
+Introd.)
+
+[3] The history of the elder Tarquin presents insuperable
+difficulties. We are told that his original name was Lu'cumo; but
+that, as has been mentioned in the Introduction, was the Etrurian
+designation of a chief magistrate. One circumstance, however, is
+unquestionable, that with him began the greatness and the splendour of
+the Roman city. He commenced those vaulted sewers which still attract
+the admiration of posterity; he erected the first circus for the
+exhibition of public spectacles; he planned the Capitol, and
+commenced, if he did not complete, the first city wall. The tradition
+that he was a Tuscan prince, appears to be well founded; but the
+Corinthian origin of his family is very improbable.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF TARQUINIUS PRISCUS TO THE DEATH OF SERVIUS TULLIUS
+THE SIXTH KING OF ROME.--U.C. 176.
+
+  Servius, the king, who laid the solid base
+  On which o'er earth the vast republic spread.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. The report of the murder of Tarquin filled all his subjects with
+complaint and indignation; while the citizens ran from every quarter
+to the palace, to learn the truth of the account, or to take vengeance
+on the assassins. 2. In this tumult, Tan'aquil, widow of the late
+king, considering the danger she must incur, in case the conspirators
+should succeed to the crown, and desirous of seeing her son-in-law his
+successor, with great art dissembled her sorrow, as well as the king's
+death. She assured the people, from one of the windows of the palace,
+that he was not killed, but only stunned by the blow; that he would
+shortly recover; and that in the meantime he had deputed his power to
+Ser'vius Tul'lius, his son-in-law. Ser'vius, accordingly, as it had
+been agreed upon between them, issued from the palace, adorned with
+the ensigns of royalty, and, preceded by his lictors, went to despatch
+some affairs that related to the public safety, still pretending that
+he took all his instructions from the king. This scene of
+dissimulation continued for some days, till he had made his party good
+among the nobles; when, the death of Tarquin being publicly
+ascertained, Ser'vius came to the crown, solely at the senate's
+appointment, and without attempting to gain the suffrages of the
+people.
+
+3. Ser'vius was the son of a bondwoman, who had been taken at the
+sacking of a town belonging to the Latins, and was born whilst his
+mother was a slave. While yet an infant in his cradle, a lambent
+flame[1] is said to have played round his head, which Tan'aquil
+converted into an omen of future greatness.
+
+4. Upon being acknowledged king, he determined to make a great change
+in the Roman constitution by admitting the plebeians to a
+participation in the civil government. The senate was too weak to
+resist the change when it was proposed, but it submitted with great
+reluctance. 5. Ser'vius divided all the Romans into classes and
+centuries according to their wealth and the amount of taxes paid
+to the state. The number of centuries in the first class nearly
+equalled that of all the others; a great advantage to the plebeians;
+for the lower classes being chiefly clients of the patricians, were
+always inclined to vote according to the prejudices or interests of
+their patrons.
+
+6. The classification by centuries was also used for military
+purposes; the heavy armed infantry being selected from the richer
+classes; the light troops, whose arms and armour could be obtained at
+less expense, were levied among the lower centuries.
+
+7. In order to ascertain the increase or decay of his subjects, and
+their fortunes, he instituted another regulation, which he called a
+_lustrum_. By this, all the citizens were to assemble in the Cam'pus
+Mar'tius,[2] in complete armour, and in their respective classes, once
+in five years, and there to give an exact account of their families
+and fortune.
+
+8. Having enjoyed a long reign, spent in settling the domestic policy
+of the state, and also not inattentive to foreign concerns, he
+conceived reasonable hopes of concluding it with tranquillity and
+ease. He even had thoughts of laying down his power; and, having
+formed the kingdom into a republic, to retire into obscurity; but so
+generous a design was frustrated ere it could be put into execution.
+
+9. In the beginning of his reign, to secure the throne by every
+precaution, he had married his two daughters to the two grandsons of
+Tarquin; and as he knew that the women, as well as their intended
+husbands, were of opposite dispositions, he resolved to cross their
+tempers, by giving each to him of a contrary turn of mind; her that
+was meek and gentle to him that was bold and furious; her that was
+ungovernable and proud, to him that was remarkable for a contrary
+character; by this he supposed that each would correct the failings of
+the other, and that the mixture would be productive of concord. 10.
+The event, however, proved otherwise. Lu'cius, the haughty son-in-law,
+soon grew displeased with the meekness of his consort, and placed his
+whole affections upon his brother's wife, Tul'lia, who answered his
+passion with sympathetic ardour. As their wishes were ungovernable,
+they soon resolved to break through every restraint that
+prevented their union; they both undertook to murder their respective
+consorts; they succeeded, and were soon after married together. 11. A
+first crime ever produces a second; from the destruction of their
+consorts, they proceeded to conspiring that of the king. They began by
+raising factions against him, alleging his illegal title to the crown,
+and Lu'cius claiming it as his own, as heir to Tarquin. At length,
+when he found the senate ripe for seconding his views, he entered the
+senate-house, adorned with all the ensigns of royalty, and, placing
+himself upon the throne, began to harangue them on the obscurity of
+the king's birth, and the injustice of his title. 12. While he was yet
+speaking, Ser'vius entered, attended by a few followers, and seeing
+his throne thus rudely invaded, offered to push the usurper from his
+seat; but Tarquin, being in the vigour of youth, threw the old king
+down the steps which led to the throne; some of his adherents, who
+were instructed for that purpose, followed him, as he was feebly
+attempting to get to the palace, dispatched him by the way, and threw
+his body, all mangled and bleeding, as a public spectacle, into the
+street. 13. In the mean time, Tul'lia, burning with impatience for the
+event, was informed of what her husband had done, and, resolving to be
+among the first who should salute him as monarch, ordered her chariot
+to the senate-house. But as her charioteer approached the place where
+the body of the old king, her father, lay exposed and bloody; the man,
+amazed at the inhuman spectacle, and not willing to trample upon it
+with his horses, offered to turn another way; this serving only to
+increase the fierceness of her anger, she threw the foot-stool at his
+head, and ordered him to drive over the body without hesitation.[3]
+
+14. This was the end of Ser'vius Tul'lius, a prince of eminent justice
+and moderation, after an useful and prosperous reign of forty-four
+years.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What effect had the murder of Tarquin on his subjects?
+
+2. By what means was the succession assured to Servius Tullius?
+
+3. Who was Servius?
+
+4. What was the chief object of his reign?
+
+5. What was the nature of the change made by Servius in the Roman
+constitution?
+
+6. Was the classification by centuries used for civil purposes only?
+
+7. What other important measure did he adopt?
+
+8. What hopes did he entertain in his old age?
+
+9. By what means did he hope to secure tranquil possession of the
+throne?
+
+10. How was it that the event failed to answer his expectations?
+
+11. To what farther crimes did the commencement lead?
+
+12. What followed?
+
+13. What was the conduct of his daughter on this melancholy occasion?
+
+14. What was the character of Servius, and how long did he reign?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] A flame of fire gliding about without doing any harm.
+
+[2] A large plain at Rome, without the walls of the city, where the
+Roman youth performed their exercises. Cam'pus is the Latin word for
+field; and this field or plain was called Mar'tius, because it was
+dedicated to Mars, the god of war.
+
+[3] The blood of the good old king is said to have dyed the chariot
+wheels, and even the clothes of the inhuman daughter; from that time
+the street where it happened was called _vicus sceleratus_, the wicked
+or accursed street.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF SERVIUS TULLIUS TO THE BANISHMENT OF TARQUINIUS
+SUPERBUS THE SEVENTH AND LAST KING OF ROME U.C. 220.
+
+  A nobler spirit warm'd
+  Her sons; and roused by tyrants, nobler still
+  It burn'd in Brutus.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. LU'CIUS TARQUIN'IUS, afterwards called Super'bus, or the Proud,
+having placed himself upon the throne, in consequence of this horrid
+deed, was resolved to support his dignity with the same violence with
+which it was acquired. Regardless of the senate or the people's
+approbation, he seemed to claim the crown by an hereditary right, and
+refused burial to the late king's' body, under pretence of his being
+an usurper. 2. All the good part of mankind, however, looked upon his
+accession with detestation and horror: and this act of inefficient
+cruelty only served to confirm their hatred. 3. Conscious of this, he
+ordered all such as he suspected to have been attached to Ser'vius, to
+be put to death; and fearing the natural consequences of his tyranny,
+he increased the guard round his person.
+
+4. His chief policy seems to have been to keep the people always
+employed either in wars or public works, by which means he diverted
+their attention from his unlawful method of coming to the crown. He
+first marched against the Sab'ines, who refused to pay him obedience;
+and he soon reduced them to submission. 5. In the meantime, many of
+the discontented patricians, abandoning their native country, took
+refuge in Ga'bii, a city of Latium, about twelve miles from Rome,
+waiting an opportunity to take up arms, and drive Tarquin from his
+throne. To escape this danger. Tarquin had recourse to the following
+stratagem. 6. He caused his son Sextus to counterfeit desertion, upon
+pretence of barbarous usage, and to seek refuge among the inhabitants
+of the place. There, by artful complaints and studied lamentations,
+Sextus so prevailed upon the pity of the people, as to be chosen their
+governor, and, soon after, general of their army. 7. At first, in
+every engagement, he appeared successful; till, at length, finding
+himself entirely possessed of the confidence of the state, he sent a
+trusty messenger to his father for instructions. Tarquin made no
+answer; but taking the messenger to the garden, he cut down before him
+the tallest poppies. Sextus readily understood the meaning of this
+reply, and found means to destroy or remove, one by one, the principal
+men of the city; taking care to confiscate their effects among the
+people. 8. The charms of this dividend kept the giddy populace blind
+to their approaching ruin, till they found themselves at last without
+counsellors or head; and, in the end, fell under the power of Tarquin,
+without even striking a blow.[1]
+
+9. But, while he was engaged in wars abroad, he took care not to
+suffer the people to continue in idleness at home. He undertook to
+build the Capitol, the foundation of which had been laid in a former
+reign; and an extraordinary event contributed to hasten the execution
+of his design. A woman, in strange attire, made her appearance at
+Rome, and came to the king, offering to sell nine books, which, she
+said, were of her own composing. 10. Not knowing the abilities of the
+seller, or that she was, in fact, one of the celebrated _Sybils_,
+whose prophecies were never found to fail, Tarquin refused to buy
+them. Upon this she departed, and burning three of her books, returned
+again, demanding the same price for the six remaining. 11. Being once
+more despised as an impostor, she again departed, and burning three
+more, she returned with the remaining three, still asking the same
+price as at first. Tarquin, surprised at the inconsistency of her
+behaviour, consulted the augurs, to be advised what to do. These much
+blamed him for not buying the nine, and commanded him to take the
+three remaining, at whatsoever price they were to be had. 12. The
+woman, says the historian, after thus selling and delivering the three
+prophetic volumes, and advising him to have a special attention to
+what they contained, vanished from before him, and was never seen
+after. A trick this, invented probably by Tarquin himself, to impose
+upon the people; and to find in the Sybil's leaves whatever the
+government might require. However this was, he chose proper persons to
+keep them, who, though but two at first, were afterwards increased to
+fifteen, under the name of _Quindecemviri_. The important volumes were
+put into a stone chest, and a vault in the newly designed building was
+thought the properest place to secure them.[2]
+
+13. The people, having been now for four years together employed in
+building the Capitol, began, at last, to wish for something new to
+engage them; Tarquin, therefore, to satisfy their wishes, proclaimed
+war against the Ru'tuli, upon a frivolous pretence of their having
+entertained some malefactors, whom he had banished; and invested their
+chief city, Ar'dea, which lay about sixteen miles from Rome. 14. While
+the army was encamped before this place, the king's son Sextus
+Tarquinius, Collati'nus a noble Roman, and some others, sitting in a
+tent drinking together, the discourse turned upon wives, each man
+preferring the beauty and virtue of his own. Collati'nus offered to
+decide the dispute by putting it to an immediate trial, whose wife
+should be found possessed of the greatest beauty, and most sedulously
+employed at that very hour: being heated with wine, the proposal was
+relished by the whole company; and, taking horse without delay, they
+posted to Rome, though the night was already pretty far advanced.
+
+15. There they found Lucre'tia, the wife of Collati'nus, not like the
+other women of her age, spending the time in ease and luxury, but
+spinning in the midst of her maids, and cheerfully portioning out
+their tasks. Her modest beauty, and the easy reception she gave her
+husband and his friends, so charmed them all, that they unanimously
+gave her the preference, but kindled, in the breast of Sextus
+Tarquin'ius, a detestable passion, which occasioned the grossest
+insult and injury to Lucre'tia, who, detesting the light, and
+resolving to destroy herself for the crime of another, demanded her
+husband Collati'nus, and Spu'rius, her father, to come to her; an
+indelible disgrace having befallen the family. 16. They instantly
+obeyed the summons, bringing with them Valerius, a kinsman of her
+father, and Junius Bru'tus, a reputed idiot, whose father Tarquin had
+murdered, and who had accidentally met the messenger by the way. 17.
+Their arrival only served to increase Lucre'tia's poignant anguish;
+they found her in a state of the deepest desperation, and vainly
+attempted to give her relief. After passionately charging Sextus
+Tarquin'ius with the basest perfidy towards her husband and injury to
+herself, she drew a poinard from beneath her robe, and instantly
+plunging it into her bosom, expired without a groan. 18. Struck with
+sorrow, pity, and indignation, Spu'rius and Collati'nus gave vent to
+their grief; but Bru'tus, drawing the poinard, reeking, from
+Lucre'tia's wound, and lifting it up towards heaven, "Be witness, ye
+gods," he cried, "that, from this moment, I proclaim myself the
+avenger of the chaste Lucretia's cause; from this moment I profess
+myself the enemy of Tarquin and his wicked house; from henceforth this
+life, while life continues, shall be employed in opposition to
+tyranny, and for the happiness and freedom of my much-loved country."
+19. A new amazement seized the hearers: he, whom they had hitherto
+considered as an idiot, now appearing, in his real character, the
+friend of justice, and of Rome. He told them, that tears and
+lamentations were unmanly, when vengeance called so loudly; and,
+delivering the poinard to the rest, imposed the same oath upon them
+which he himself had just taken.
+
+20. Ju'nius Brutus was the son of Marcus Ju'nius, who was put to death
+by Tarquin the Proud, and the grandson of Tarquin the elder. He had
+received an excellent education from his father, and had, from nature,
+strong sense and an inflexible attachment to virtue; but knowing that
+Tarquin had murdered his father and his eldest brother, he
+counterfeited a fool, in order to escape the same danger, and thence
+obtained the surname of Bru'tus. Tarquin, thinking his folly real,
+despised the man; and having possessed himself of his estate, kept him
+as an idiot in his house, merely with a view of making sport for his
+children.
+
+21. Brutus, however, only waited this opportunity to avenge the cause
+of his family. He ordered Lucre'tia's dead body to be brought out
+to view, and exposing it in the public forum, inflamed the ardour of
+the citizens by a display of the horrid transaction. He obtained a
+decree of the senate, that Tarquin and his family should be for ever
+banished from Rome, and that it should be capital for any to plead
+for, or to attempt his future return. 22. Thus this monarch, who had
+now reigned twenty-five years, being expelled his kingdom, went to
+take refuge with his family at Ci'ra, a little city of _Etru'ria_. In
+the mean time the Roman army made a truce with the enemy, and Bru'tus
+was proclaimed deliverer of the people.
+
+Thus ended with Tarquin, after a continuance of two hundred and
+forty-five years, the regal state of Rome.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the conduct of Lucius Tarquinius at the commencement of
+his reign?
+
+2. Was his claim quietly acquiesced in?
+
+3. What means did he adopt for his security?
+
+4. By what means did he divert the people's attention from the
+unlawful manner in which he acquired the crown?
+
+5. What happened in the mean time?
+
+6. To what mean artifice did he have recourse?
+
+7. How did Sextus accomplish his father's design?
+
+8. What were the effects of this measure?
+
+9. In what way did he employ his subjects at home during his absence,
+and what extraordinary event occurred?
+
+10. Did he accept her offer?
+
+11. Was her second application successful, and what followed?
+
+12. What became of the Sybil, and what is the general opinion
+respecting this transaction?
+
+13. Upon what pretence did Tarquin proclaim war against the Rutuli?
+
+14. What remarkable event took place at the siege of Ardea?
+
+15. What was the consequence of this intemperate frolic?
+
+16. How did Lucretia support the loss of her honour?
+
+17. Did they obey her summons, and who did they bring with them?
+
+18. What was the consequence of their arrival?
+
+19. What effect had this dreadful catastrophe on those present?
+
+20. How was this unexpected resolution received?
+
+21. Give some account of Brutus.
+
+22. For what reason, and by what means, did Brutus endeavour the
+abolition of royalty?
+
+23. What became of Tarquin after his expulsion?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] This story is manifestly a fiction formed from the Greek
+traditions respecting Zopy'nus and Thrasybu'lus. It is decisively
+contradicted by the fact, that a treaty for the union of the Romans
+and Gabians, on equitable terms, was preserved in the Capitol. It was
+painted on a shield covered with the hide of the bull which had been
+sacrificed at the ratification of the league.
+
+[2] The Capitol, or temple of Jupiter Capitoli'nus.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE COMMONWEALTH.
+
+FROM THE BANISHMENT OF TARQUIN TO THE APPOINTMENT OF THE
+DICTATOR--U.C. 245.
+
+  The great republic seek that glowed, sublime,
+  With the mixt freedom of a thousand states.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. The regal power being overthrown, a republican form of government
+was substituted in its room. The senate, however, reserved by far the
+greatest share of the authority to themselves, and decorated their own
+body with all the spoils of deposed monarchy. The centuries of the
+people chose from among the senators, instead of a king, two annual
+magistrates, whom they called CONSULS,[1] with power equal to that of
+the regal, and with the same privileges and the same ensigns of
+authority.
+
+2. Brutus, the deliverer of his country, and Collati'nus, the husband
+of Lucre'tia, were chosen the first consuls in Rome.
+
+3. But this new republic, however, which seemed so grateful to the
+people, had like to have been destroyed in its very commencement. A
+party was formed in favour of Tarquin. Some young men of the principal
+families in the state, who had been educated about the king, and had
+shared in all the luxuries and pleasures of the court, undertook to
+re-establish monarchy. 4. This party secretly increased every day; and
+what may create surprise, the sons of Bru'tus himself, and the
+Aqui'lii, the nephews of Collati'nus, were among the number, 5.
+Tarquin, who was informed of these intrigues in his favour, sent
+ambassadors from Etru'ria to Rome, under a pretence of reclaiming the
+estates of the exiles; but, in reality, with a design to give spirit
+to his faction. 6. The conspiracy was discovered by a slave who had
+accidentally hid himself in the room where the conspirators used to
+assemble. 7. Few situations could have been more terribly affecting
+than that of Bru'tus: a father placed as a judge upon the life and
+death of his own children, impelled by justice to condemn, and by
+nature to spare them. 8. The young men pleaded nothing for themselves;
+but, with conscious guilt, awaited their sentence in silence and
+agony. 9. The other judges who were present felt all the pangs of
+nature; Collati'nus wept, and Vale'rius could not repress his
+sentiments of pity. Brutus, alone, seemed to have lost all the
+softness of humanity; and, with a stern countenance and a tone of
+voice that marked his gloomy resolution, demanded of his sons if they
+could make any defence, to the crimes with which they had been
+charged. This demand he made three several times; but receiving no
+answer, he at length turned himself to the executioner: "Now," cried
+he, "it is your part to perform the rest." 10. Thus saying, he again
+resumed his seat with an air of determined majesty; nor could all the
+sentiments of paternal pity, the imploring looks of the people, nor
+yet the tears of his sons, who were preparing for execution, alter the
+tenor of his resolution. Bru'tus, unmoved by any motive but the public
+good, pronounced upon them the sentence of death, and by his office
+was obliged to see it put in execution. The prisoners were scourged
+and then beheaded, and Bru'tus beheld the cruel spectacle; but, in
+spite of his stoic firmness, could not stifle the sentiments of nature
+which he sacrificed to the necessity of his office.
+
+11. Tarquin's hopes of an insurrection in his favour being thus
+overset, he now resolved to force himself upon his former throne by
+foreign assistance. He prevailed upon the _Veians_ to assist him, and,
+with a considerable army, advanced towards Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 246.]
+
+12. The consuls were not remiss in preparations to oppose him.
+Vale'rius commanded the foot, and Bru'tus being appointed to head the
+cavalry, went out to meet him on the Roman border. 13. A'runs, the son
+of Tarquin, who commanded the cavalry for his father, seeing Bru'tus
+at a distance, resolved, by one great attempt, to decide the fate of
+the day before the engaging of the armies, when, spurring his horse he
+flew to him with fury. Bru'tus perceived his approach, and singled out
+from the ranks, they met with such ungoverned rage, that, eager only
+to assail, and thoughtless of defending, they both fell dead upon the
+field together. 14. A bloody battle ensued, with equal slaughter on
+both sides: but the Romans, remaining in possession of the field of
+battle, claimed the victory. In consequence, Vale'rius returned in
+triumph to Rome.  15. In the mean time Tarquin, no way
+intimidated by his misfortunes, prevailed upon Porsen'na, one of the
+kings of Etruria, to espouse his cause, and in person to undertake his
+quarrel. 16. This prince, equally noted for courage and conduct
+marched directly to Rome, with a numerous army, and laid siege to the
+city; while the terror of his name and arms filled all ranks of the
+people with dismay The siege was carried on with vigour; a furious
+attack was made upon the place; the consuls opposed in vain, and were
+carried off wounded from the field; while the Romans, flying in great
+consternation, were pursued by the enemy to the bridge, over which
+both victors and vanquished were about to enter the city in the
+confusion. 17. All now appeared lost, when Hora'tius Co'cles, who had
+been placed there as sentinel to defend it, opposed himself to the
+torrent of the enemy, and, assisted only by two more, for some time
+sustained the whole fury of the assault, till the bridge was broken
+down behind him. When he found the communication thus cut off,
+plunging with his arms into the torrent of the Tiber, he swam back
+victorious to his fellow-soldiers, and was received with just
+applause.[2]
+
+18. Still, however, Porsen'na was determined upon taking the city; and
+though five hundred of his men were slain in a sally of the Romans, he
+reduced it to the greatest straits, and turning the siege into a
+blockade, resolved to take it by famine. 19. The distress of the
+besieged soon began to be insufferable, and all things seemed to
+threaten a speedy surrender, when another act of fierce bravery, still
+superior to that which had saved the city before again brought about
+its safety and freedom.
+
+20. Mu'tius, a youth of undaunted courage, was resolved to rid his
+country of an enemy that so continued to oppress it; and, for this
+purpose, disguised in the habit of an Etru'rian peasant, entered the
+camp of the enemy, resolving to die or to kill the king. 21. With this
+resolution he made up to the place where Porsen'na was paying his
+troops, with a secretary by his side; but mistaking the latter for the
+king, he stabbed him to the heart, and was immediately apprehended and
+brought into the royal presence. 22. Upon Porsen'na's demanding
+who he was, and the cause of so heinous an action, Mu'tius, without
+reserve, informed him of his country and his design, and at the same
+time thrusting his right hand into a fire that was burning upon the
+altar before him, "You see," cried he, "how little I regard the
+severest punishment your cruelty can inflict. A Roman knows not only
+how to act, but how to suffer; I am not the only person you have to
+fear; three hundred Roman youths, like me, have conspired your
+destruction; therefore prepare for their attempts." 23. Porsen'na,
+amazed at so much intrepidity, had too noble a mind not to acknowledge
+merit, though found in an enemy; he therefore ordered him to be safely
+conducted back to Rome, and offered the besieged conditions of
+peace.[3] 24. These were readily accepted on their side, being neither
+hard nor disgraceful, except that twenty hostages were demanded; ten
+young men, and as many virgins, of the best families in Rome. 25. But
+even in this instance also, as if the gentler sex were resolved to be
+sharers in the desperate valour of the times, Cle'lia, one of the
+hostages, escaping from her guards, and pointing out the way to the
+rest of her female companions, swam over the Tiber on horseback,
+amidst showers of darts from the enemy, and presented herself to the
+consul. 26. This magistrate, fearing the consequences of detaining
+her, sent her back; upon which Porsen'na, not to be outdone in
+generosity, not only gave her liberty, but permitted her to choose
+such of the hostages of the opposite sex as she should think fit, to
+attend her. 27. On her part, she, with all the modesty of a Roman
+virgin, chose only such as were under fourteen, alleging, that their
+tender age was least capable of sustaining the rigours of slavery.[4]
+28. The year after the departure of Porsen'na, the Sab'ines invading
+the Roman territories, committed great devastations. The war that
+ensued was long and bloody; but at length the Sab'ines were
+compelled to purchase a peace, with corn, money, and the cession of
+part of their territory.
+
+29. Tarquin, by means of his son-in-law, Man'lius, once more stirred
+up the Latins to espouse his interest, and took the most convenient
+opportunity when the plebeians were at variance with the senators
+concerning the payment of their debts.[5] These refused to go to war,
+unless their debts were remitted upon their return: so that the
+consuls, finding their authority insufficient, offered the people to
+elect a temporary magistrate, who should have absolute power, not only
+over all ranks of the state, but even over the laws themselves. To
+this the plebeians readily consented, willing to give up their own
+power for the sake of abridging that of their superiors. 30. In
+consequence of this, Lar'tius was created the first dictator of Rome,
+for so was this high office called, being nominated to it by his
+colleague in the consulship. 31. Thus the people, who could not bear
+the very name of king, readily submitted to a magistrate possessed of
+much greater power; so much do the names of things mislead us, and so
+little is any form of government irksome to the people, when it
+coincides with their prejudices.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What form of government was substituted for the regal?
+
+2. Who were the first consuls?
+
+3. Did this new government appear stable at its commencement?
+
+4. Was this party formidable, and who were the most remarkable of its
+members?
+
+5. What share had Tarquin in this conspiracy?
+
+6. By what means was it discovered?
+
+7. In what unhappy situation was Brutus placed?
+
+8. What had the criminals to say in extenuation of their offences?
+
+9. What effect had this scene on the judges?
+
+10. Did not paternal affection cause him to relent?
+
+11. What measures did Tarquin next pursue?
+
+12. What steps were taken to resist him?
+
+13. What remarkable event attended the meeting of the armies?
+
+14. Did this decide the fate of the day?
+
+15. Did Tarquin relinquish his hopes?
+
+16. In what manner did Porsenna attempt the restoration of Tarquin?
+
+17. By what heroic action was the city saved?
+
+18. Did Porsenna persevere in his attempt?
+
+19. What was the consequence?
+
+20. What was this act of heroism?
+
+21. Did he succeed?
+
+22. What followed?
+
+23. How did Porsenna act on the occasion?
+
+24. Were these conditions accepted?
+
+25. What remarkable circumstance attended the delivery of the
+hostages?
+
+26. How did the consul act on the occasion?
+
+27. Whom did she choose?
+
+28. What happened after the departure of Porsenna?
+
+29. What measures did Tarquin next resort to?
+
+30. What was the consequence?
+
+31. What inference may be drawn from this?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] These were first called Praetors, next Judices, and afterwards
+Consuls: a Consulendo, from their consulting the good of the Common
+wealth. They had the royal ornaments, as the golden crown, sceptre,
+purple robes, lictors, and the ivory and curule chairs. The crowns and
+sceptres were, however, used only on extraordinary days of
+triumph.--See Introduction.
+
+[2] For this heroic act, Hora'tius was crowned on his return; his
+status was erected in the temple of Vulcan; as much land was given him
+as a plough could surround with a furrow in one day, and a tax was
+voluntarily imposed to make him a present in some degree suitable to
+the service he had performed.
+
+[3] From this time he obtained the additional name of Scaevola, or
+left-handed, from his having lost the use of his right hand by the
+fire.
+
+[4] National pride induced the Romans to conceal the fact that the
+city was surrendered to Porsenna; Tacitus, however, expressly declares
+that it was, and Pliny informs us of the severe conditions imposed by
+the conqueror; one of the articles prohibited them from using iron
+except for the purposes of agriculture. Plutarch, in his Roman
+Questions, declares that there was a time when the Romans paid a tenth
+of their produce to the Etrurians, but that they were freed from the
+disgraceful tribute by Hercules; this tradition appears to refer to
+the conquest of the city by Porsenna.
+
+[5] Besides this, by his emissaries, he engaged the meaner sort of
+citizens and the slaves in a conspiracy. The former were, at an
+appointed time, to seize the ramparts, and the latter to murder their
+masters at the same instant. The gates were then to be opened to the
+Tar'quins, who were to enter Rome while it was yet reeking with the
+blood of the senators. This conspiracy was discovered to the consul by
+two of Tarquin's principal agents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+FROM THE CREATION OF THE DICTATOR TO THE ELECTION OF THE
+TRIBUNES.--U.C. 255.
+
+  And add the Tribunes, image of the people--_Anon_.
+
+1. LAR'TIUS, being created dictator,[1] entered upon his office,
+surrounded with lictors and all the ensigns of ancient royalty; and,
+seated upon a throne in the midst of the people, ordered the levies to
+be made, in the manner of the kings of Rome. 2. The populace looked
+with terror upon a magistrate whom they had invested with
+uncontrollable power, and each went peaceably to range himself under
+his respective standard. 3. Thus going forth to oppose the enemy, he,
+after concluding a truce for a year, returned with his army, and, in
+six months, laid down the dictatorship, with the reputation of having
+exercised it with blameless lenity.
+
+4. But, though for this time the people submitted to be led forth,
+they yet resolved to free themselves from the yoke; and, though
+they could not get their grievances redressed, yet they determined to
+fly from those whom they could not move to compassion. The grievances,
+therefore, continuing, they resolved to quit a city which gave them no
+shelter, and to form a new establishment without its limits. They,
+therefore, under the conduct of a plebe'ian, named Sicin'ius
+Bellu'tus, retired to a mountain, hence called the Mons Sacer, within
+three miles of Rome.
+
+5. Upon the news of this defection, the city was filled with tumult
+and consternation: those who wished well to the people made every
+attempt to scale the walls, in order to join it.[2] 6. The senate was
+not less agitated than the rest; some were for violent measures, and
+repelling force by force; others were of opinion that gentler arts
+were to be used, and that even a victory over such enemies would be
+worse than a defeat. At length, it was resolved to send a messenger,
+entreating the people to return home, and declare their grievances;
+promising, at the same time, an oblivion of all that had passed.
+
+7. This message not succeeding, Mene'nias Agrip'pa, one of the wisest
+and best of the senators, was of opinion, that the demands of the
+people were to be complied with. It was resolved, therefore, to enter
+into a treaty, and to make them such offers as should induce them to
+return. 8. Ten commissioners were deputed. The dignity and popularity
+of the ambassadors procured them a very respectful reception among the
+soldiers, and a conference began. They employed all their oratory;
+while Sicin'ius and Lu'cius Ju'nius, who were speakers for the
+soldiery, aggravated their distresses with all that masculine
+eloquence which is the child of nature.
+
+9. The conference had now continued for a long time, when Mene'nius
+Agrip'pa, who had been originally a plebe'ian himself, a shrewd man,
+and who, consequently, knew what kind of eloquence was most likely to
+please the people, addressed them with that celebrated fable of the
+body and the members, which is so finely told by Livy.[3]
+
+10. This fable, the application of which is obvious, had an
+instantaneous effect upon the people. They unanimously cried out, that
+Agrip'pa should lead them back to Rome; and were making preparations
+to follow him, when Lu'cius Junius withheld them; alleging, that
+though they ought gratefully to acknowledge the kind offers of the
+senate, yet they had no safeguard against their future resentments;
+that therefore it was necessary, for the security of the people, to
+have certain officers created annually from among themselves, who
+should have power to give redress to such of them as should be
+injured, and plead the cause of the community. 11. The people, who are
+generally of opinion with the last speaker,[4] highly applauded this
+proposal, with which, however, the commissioners had not power to
+comply; they, therefore, sent to Rome to take the instructions of the
+senate, who, distracted with divisions among themselves, and harassed
+by complaints from without, were resolved to have peace, at whatever
+price it should be obtained; accordingly, as if with one voice, they
+consented to the creation of these new officers, who were called
+_Tribunes[5] of the People_.
+
+12. The tribunes of the people were at first five in number, though
+afterwards their body was increased by five more. They were always
+annually elected by the people, and almost always from their body.
+They at first had their seats placed before the doors of the senate
+house, and, when called in, they were to examine every decree,
+annulling it by the word _Veto_, "I forbid it;" or confirming it by
+signing the letter _T_, which gave it validity. 13. This new office
+being thus instituted, all things were adjusted both on the one side
+and the other, and the people, after having sacrificed to the gods of
+the mountain, returned back once more in triumph to Rome.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the first acts of the dictator?
+
+2. Were his decrees peaceably obeyed?
+
+3. What were his exploits?
+
+4. Were the discontents of the people entirely appeased?
+
+5. How was the news of this defection received?
+
+6. What was its effect on the senate?
+
+7. Was this offer accepted?
+
+8. In what manner was this done, and how were they received?
+
+9. What was the result of this conference?
+
+10. What fable was addressed to the people?
+
+11. What effect did this apology produce?
+
+12. How was this obstacle removed?
+
+13. Who were the tribunes of the people, and what was their authority?
+
+14. Did this new regulation answer the desired end?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The power of the dictator was absolute; he could, of his own will,
+make peace or war, levy forces, lead them forth, disband them, and
+even dispense with the existing laws, at his pleasure, without
+consulting the senate.
+
+[2] The gates had been shut by order of the senate, to prevent further
+defection.
+
+[3] Titus Livius was born at Pad'ua (the ancient Patavi'nus) in the
+year of Rome, 695. He wrote the Roman history, from the foundation of
+the city to the year 744, in 140 books, of which only 35 remain and
+some of them are still imperfect. Though Livy was treated with great
+marks of respect by the emperor Augustus, in whose reign he
+flourished, yet he extolled Pompey so highly, that Augustus used to
+call him a Pompeian: and though he was by no means backward in
+bestowing praises on Brutus and Cassius, the enemies of Augustus, yet
+it did not interrupt their friendship. Livy died at his native city,
+in the fourth year of the reign of Tiberius, aged 76 years.
+
+[4] This is a severe satire upon the judgment of the multitude;
+indeed, it seems intended to show, that when the passions are appealed
+to, the judgment is not much consulted; and therefore, that little
+reliance ought to be placed on acts resulting from popular
+acclamation.
+
+[5] They were called tribunes, because chosen by the tribes. The first
+tribunes were L. Ju'nius Bru'tus, C. Sicin'ius Mellu'tus, Pub'lius
+Licin'ius, C. Licin'ius, and Sp. Ici'lius Ruga.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE CREATION OF THE TRIBUNES, TO THE APPOINTMENT OF THE
+DECEMVIRI--U.C. 260.
+
+  Welcome to Rome, renowned Coriolanus!--_Shakspeare_.
+
+1. During the late separation, all tillage had been entirely
+neglected, and a famine was the consequence the ensuing season. 2. The
+senate did all that lay in their power to remedy the distress; but the
+people, pinched with want and willing to throw the blame on any but
+themselves, ascribed the whole of their distress to the avarice of the
+patricians, who, having purchased all the corn, as was alleged,
+intended to indemnify themselves for the abolition of debts, by
+selling it out to great advantage. 3. But plenty soon after appeased
+them for a time. A fleet of ships, laden with corn, from Sicily, once
+more raised their spirits.
+
+4. But Coriola'nus[1] incurred their resentment, by insisting that the
+corn should not be distributed till the grievances of the senate were
+removed. For this, the tribunes summoned him to a trial before
+the people.
+
+[Illustration: Banishment of Coriola'nus.]
+
+5. When the appointed day was come, all persons were filled with the
+greatest expectations, and a vast concourse from the adjacent country
+assembled and filled the forum. Coriola'nus presented himself before
+the people, with a degree of intrepidity that merited better fortune.
+His graceful person, his persuasive eloquence, and the cries of those
+whom he had saved from the enemy, inclined the auditors to relent. 6.
+But, being unable to answer what was alleged against him to the
+satisfaction of the people, and utterly confounded with a new charge,
+of having embezzled the plunder of _Antium_, the tribunes immediately
+took the votes, and Coriola'nus was condemned to perpetual exile.
+
+7. This sentence against their bravest defender struck the senate with
+sorrow, consternation and regret. Coriola'nus alone, in the midst of
+the tumult, seemed an unconcerned spectator. 8. He returned home,
+followed by the lamentations of the most respectable senators and
+citizens, to take leave of his wife, his children, and his mother,
+Vetu'ria. Thus, recommending all to the care of Heaven, he left the
+city, without followers or fortune, to take refuge with Tullus
+At'tius,[2] a man of great power among the _Volsci_, who took him
+under his protection, and espoused his quarrel.
+
+9. Some pretence was necessary to induce the Volsci to break the
+league which had been made with Rome; and, for this purpose, Tullus
+sent many of his citizens thither, apparently for the purpose of
+seeing some games at that time celebrating; but gave the senate
+private information, that the strangers had dangerous intentions of
+burning the city. 10. This had the desired effect; the senate issued
+an order, that all strangers, whoever they were, should depart from
+Rome before sun-set. 11. This order Tullus represented to his
+countrymen as an infraction of the treaty, and procured an embassy to
+Rome, complaining of the breach, and redemanding all the territories
+belonging to the Volsci, of which they had been violently
+dispossessed; declaring war in case of refusal. This message, however,
+was treated by the senate with contempt. 12. War being, in
+consequence, declared on both sides, Coriola'nus and Tullus were made
+generals of the Volsci, and accordingly invaded the Roman territories,
+ravaging and laying waste all such lands as belonged to the plebeians,
+but letting those of the senators remain untouched. 13. In the mean
+time, the levies went on but slowly at Rome; the two consuls, who were
+re-elected by the people, seemed but little skilled in war, and even
+feared to encounter a general whom they knew to be their superior in
+the field. The allies also showed their fears, and slowly brought in
+their succours: so that Coriola'nus continued to take their towns one
+after the other. 14. Fortune followed him in every expedition, and he
+was now so famous for his victories, that the Volsci left their towns
+defenceless to follow him into the field. The very soldiers of his
+colleague's army came over to him, and would acknowledge no other
+general. 15. Thus finding himself unopposed in the field, and at the
+head of a numerous army, he at length invested the city of Rome
+itself, fully resolved to besiege it. 16. It was then the senate and
+the people unanimously agreed to send deputies to him, with proposals
+for his restoration, in case he would draw off his army. 17.
+Coriola'nus received these proposals at the head of his principal
+officers, and, with the sternness of a general that was to give the
+law, refused their offers.
+
+18. Another embassy was now sent, conjuring him not to exact from his
+native city aught but what became Romans to grant. Coriola'nus,
+however, naturally severe, still persisted in his former demands, and
+granted them only three days for deliberation. 19. In this exigence,
+all that was left to be done was another deputation, still more
+solemn than either of the former, composed of the pontiffs,
+priests, and augurs. These, clothed in their habits of ceremony, and
+with a grave and mournful deportment, issued from the city, and
+entered the camp of the conqueror: but all in vain, they found him
+severe and inflexible.
+
+[Illustration: Coriolanus yielding to the entreaties of his Mother.]
+
+20. When the people saw them return without success, they began to
+give up the commonwealth as lost. Their temples were filled with old
+men, with women and children, who, prostrate at the altars, put up
+their ardent prayers for the preservation of their country. Nothing
+was to be heard but anguish and lamentation; nothing to be seen but
+scenes of affright and distress. 21. At length it was suggested to
+them, that what could not be effected by the intercession of the
+senate, or the adjuration of the priests, might be brought about by
+the tears of a wife, or the commands of a mother. 22. This deputation
+seemed to be approved by all, and even the senate themselves gave it
+the sanction of their authority. Vetu'ria, the mother of Coriola'nus,
+at first hesitated to undertake so pious a work; knowing the
+inflexible temper of her son, and fearing only to show his
+disobedience in a new point of light, by his rejecting the commands of
+a parent; however, she at last undertook the embassy, and set forward
+from the city, accompanied by many of the principal matrons of Rome,
+with Volum'nia his wife, and his two children. 23. Coriola'nus, who at
+a distance discovered this mournful train of females, was resolved to
+give them a denial, and called his officers round him to be witnesses
+of his resolution; but, when told that his mother and his wife were
+among the number, he instantly came down from his tribunal to
+meet and embrace them. 24. At first, the women's tears and embraces
+took away the power of words, and the rough soldier himself, hardy as
+he was, could not refrain, from sharing their distress. Coriola'nus
+now seemed much agitated by contending passions; while his mother, who
+saw him moved, seconded her words by the most persuasive eloquence,
+that of tears: his wife and children hung around him, entreating for
+protection and pity: while the female train, her companions, added
+their lamentations, and deplored their own and their country's
+distress. 25. Coriola'nus for a moment was silent, feeling the strong
+conflict between honour and inclination; at length, as if roused from
+a dream, he flew to raise his mother, who had fallen at his feet,
+crying out, "O, my mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son!" He
+accordingly gave orders to draw off the army, pretending to the
+officers that the city was too strong to be taken. 26. Tullus, who had
+long envied Coriola'nus, was not remiss in aggravating the lenity of
+his conduct to his countrymen. Upon their return, Coriola'nus is said
+to have been slain by an insurrection of the people, and honourably
+buried, after a late and ineffectual repentance.
+
+27. Great and many were the public rejoicings at Rome upon the retreat
+of the Volscian army;[3] but they were clouded soon after by the
+intrigues of Spu'rius Cas'sius, who, wanting to make himself despotic
+by means of the people, was found guilty of a number of crimes, all
+tending towards altering the constitution; and was thrown headlong
+from the Tarpei'an rock,[4] by those very people whose interests he
+had endeavoured to extend.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the consequences of the late separation?
+
+2. What measures were taken to remedy these misfortunes, and to whom
+was the blame of them attributed?
+
+3. What happened to remove the popular discontent?
+
+4. What circumstances raised a fresh commotion?
+
+5. Did Coriolanus obey the summons?
+
+6. What was the issue of the trial?
+
+7. To what sensations did this sentence give rise?
+
+8. What circumstance attended his departure?
+
+9. In what manner did he commence his revenge?
+
+10. Was this information believed?
+
+11. What use did Tullus make of this order?
+
+12. To whom was the conduct of the war committed?
+
+13. Was this invasion vigorously opposed?
+
+14. Was Coriolanus uniformly successful?
+
+15. What did this good fortune induce him to undertake?
+
+16. What measures did the senate adopt on this emergency?
+
+17. How were these proposals received?
+
+18. Were they repeated?
+
+19. What was the next step adopted?
+
+20. Did the Romans boldly resolve to oppose force by force?
+
+21. What new expedient was proposed?
+
+22. Was this proposal adopted?
+
+23. What was the conduct of Coriola'nus on the occasion?
+
+24. Describe this interview.
+
+25. What was the result?
+
+26. Did the Volscians approve of this measure?
+
+27. What followed this happy deliverance?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+Like rigid Cincinnatus, nobly poor.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. The year following, the two consuls of the former year, Man'lius
+and Fa'bius, were cited by the tribunes to appear before the people.
+The Agra'rian law, which had been proposed some time before, for
+equally dividing the lands of the commonwealth among the people, was
+the object invariably pursued, and they were accused of having made
+unjustifiable delays in putting it off.
+
+2. The Agra'rian law was a grant the senate could not think of making
+to the people. The consuls, therefore, made many delays and excuses,
+till at length they were once more obliged to have recourse to a
+dictator; and they fixed upon Quintus Cincinna'tus, a man who had for
+some time, given up all views of ambition, and retired to his little
+farm, where the deputies of the senate found him holding the plough,
+and dressed in the mean attire of a labouring husbandman. 3. He
+appeared but little elevated with the addresses of ceremony, and the
+pompous habits they brought him; and, upon declaring to him the
+senate's pleasure, he testified rather a concern that his aid should
+be wanted. He naturally preferred the charms of a country retirement
+to the fatiguing splendors of office, and only said to his wife,
+as they were leading him away, "I fear, my Atti'lia, that for this
+year our little fields must remain unsown." 4. Then, taking a tender
+leave, he departed for the city, where both parties were strongly
+inflamed against each other. However, he resolved to side with
+neither; but, by a strict attention to the interests of his country,
+instead of gaining the confidence of faction, to seize the esteem of
+all. 5. Thus, by threats and well-timed submission, he prevailed upon
+the tribunes to put off their law for a time, and conducted himself so
+as to be a terror to the multitude whenever they refused to enlist,
+and their greatest encourager whenever their submission deserved it.
+6. Having, by these means, restored that tranquillity to the people
+which he so much loved himself, he again gave up the splendors of
+ambition, to enjoy it with a greater relish on his little farm.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 295.] 7. Cincinna'tus had not long retired from his
+office, when a fresh exigence of the state once more required his
+assistance; and the AE'qui and the Vol'sci, who, although always
+worsted, were still for renewing the war, made new inroads into the
+territories of Rome. 8. Minu'tius, one of the consuls who succeeded
+Cincinna'tus, was sent to oppose them; but being naturally timid, and
+rather more afraid of being conquered than desirous of victory, his
+army was driven into a defile between two mountains, from which,
+except through the enemy, there was no egress. 9. This, however, the
+AE'qui had the precaution to fortify, by which the Roman army was so
+hemmed in on every side, that nothing remained but submission to the
+enemy, famine, or immediate death. 10. Some knights who found means of
+getting away privately through the enemy's camp, were the first that
+brought the account of this disaster to Rome. 11. Nothing could exceed
+the consternation of all ranks of people when informed of it: the
+senate at first thought of the other consul; but not having sufficient
+experience of his abilities, they unanimously turned their eyes upon
+Cincinna'tus, and resolved to make him dictator. 12. Cincinna'tus, the
+only person on whom Rome could now place her whole dependence, was
+found, as before, by the messengers of the senate, labouring in his
+field with cheerful industry. 13. He was at first astonished at the
+ensigns of unbounded power, with which the deputies came to invest
+him; but still more at the approach of the principal of the senate,
+who came out to attend him.
+
+[Illustration: Cincinnatus called to the Dictatorship.]
+
+14. A dignity so unlooked for, however, had no effect upon the
+simplicity or integrity of his manners; and being now possessed of
+absolute power, and called upon to nominate his master of the horse,
+he chose a poor man named Tarqui'tius, one who, like himself, despised
+riches when they led to dishonour. Thus the saving a great nation was
+devolved upon a husbandman taken from the plough, and an obscure
+sentinel found among the dregs of the army. 15. Upon entering the
+city, the dictator put on a serene look, and entreated all those who
+were able to bear arms, to repair, before sunset, to the Cam'pus
+Mar'tius (the place where the levies were made) with necessary arms,
+and provisions for five days. 16. He put himself at the head of these,
+and, marching all night with great expedition, arrived early the next
+day within sight of the enemy. Upon his approach, he ordered his
+soldiers to raise a loud shout, to apprise the consul's army of the
+relief that was at hand. 17. The AE'qui were not a little amazed when
+they saw themselves between two enemies; but still more when they
+perceived Cincinna'tus making the strongest entrenchments beyond them,
+to prevent their escape, and enclosing them as they had enclosed the
+consul. 18. To prevent this, a furious combat ensued; but the AE'qui,
+being attacked on both sides, and unable longer to resist or fly,
+begged a cessation of arms. 19. They offered the dictator his own
+terms: he gave them their lives, and obliged them, in token of
+servitude, to pass under the yoke, which was two spears set upright,
+and another across, in the form of a gallows, beneath which the
+vanquished were to march. Their captains and generals he made
+prisoners of war, being reserved to adorn his triumph. 20. As
+for the plunder of the enemy's camp, that he gave entirely up to his
+own soldiers, without reserving any part for himself, or permitting
+those of the delivered army to have a share. 21. Thus having rescued a
+Roman army from inevitable destruction, having defeated a powerful
+enemy, having taken and fortified their city, and still more, having
+refused any part of the spoil, he resigned his dictatorship, after
+having enjoyed it but fourteen days. The senate would have enriched
+him, but he declined their proffers, choosing to retire once more to
+his farm and his cottage, content with competency and fame.
+
+22. But this repose from foreign invasion did not lessen the tumults
+of the city within. The clamours for the Agra'rian law still
+continued, and still more fiercely, when Sic'cius Denta'tus, a
+plebeian advanced in years, but of an admirable person and military
+deportment, came forward to enumerate his hardships and his merits.
+This old soldier made no scruple of extolling the various achievements
+of his youth; indeed, his merits more than supported his ostentation.
+23. He had served his country in the wars forty years: he had been an
+officer thirty, first a centurion, and then a tribune; he had fought
+one hundred and twenty battles, in which, by the force of his single
+arm, he had saved a multitude of lives; he had gained fourteen
+civic,[5] three mural,[6] and eight golden crowns; besides
+eighty-three chains, sixty bracelets, eighteen gilt spears, and
+twenty-three horse-trappings, whereof nine were for killing the enemy
+in single combat; moreover, he had received forty-five wounds in
+front, and none behind. 24. These were his honours; yet,
+notwithstanding all these, he had never received any share of those
+lands which were won from the enemy, but continued to drag on a life
+of poverty and contempt, while others were possessed of those very
+territories which his valour had won, without any merit to deserve
+them, or ever having contributed to the conquest.[7] 25. A case
+of so much hardship had a strong effect upon the multitude; they
+unanimously demanded that the law might be passed, and that such merit
+should not go unrewarded. It was in vain that some of the senators
+rose up to speak against it, their voices were drowned by the cries of
+the people. 26. When reason, therefore, could no longer be heard,
+passion, as usual, succeeded; and the young patricians, running
+furiously into the throng, broke the balloting urns, and dispersed the
+multitude that offered to oppose them. 27. For this they were, some
+time after, fined by the tribunes; their resolution, however, for the
+present, put off the Agra'rian law.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. On what accusation were Manlius and Fabius cited to appear before,
+the people?
+
+2. What measure did the consuls adopt? Where, and in what employment
+was Cincinnatus found?
+
+3. What effect had this dignity on Cincinnatus?
+
+4. How did he conduct himself?
+
+5. Were his measures successful?
+
+6. Did Cincinnatus continue in office?
+
+7. Was he permitted to continue in retirement?
+
+8. What was the exigence that required his return to office?
+
+9. What prevented the Romans from forcing their way through?
+
+10. How was this news received at Rome?
+
+11. Whom did they resolve to appoint dictator?
+
+12. How was Cincinnatus now employed when the messengers arrived?
+
+13. What was his behaviour on the occasion?
+
+14. How was he affected by this exaltation?
+
+15. What were his first measures?
+
+16. What followed?
+
+17. How were the enemy affected by his approach?
+
+18. What was the consequence?
+
+19. What were the terms of peace?
+
+20. What became of the plunder?
+
+21. What were his rewards for this important service?
+
+22. Was domestic tranquillity the consequence of foreign conquest?
+
+23. What were these achievements?
+
+24. How was he rewarded?
+
+25. What was the consequence of his appeal to the people?
+
+26. Did the people obtain their demand?
+
+27. How was this outrage punished?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] This man's name was originally Ca'ius Mar'cius. He received the
+surname of Coriola'nus as a reward for having, by his valour,
+occasioned the taking of Cori'oli, the capital of the Vol'sci.
+Previous to the occurrence mentioned in the text, he had been
+condemned to death by the tribunes, but saved by the interference of
+his friends.
+
+[2] Tullus At'tius was a most determined enemy to the Romans, and to
+Coriola'nus in particular, for the share he had in humbling the power
+of the Vol'sci. It was probably more from a hope of revenge, by means
+of this valiant soldier, than any noble principle, that he offered him
+his countenance and protection.
+
+[3] The senate commanded a temple to be erected on the spot where the
+interview between Coriola'nus and his mother took place, which saved
+Rome, and dedicated it to maternal influence?
+
+[4] Tarpe'ian Rock, or Tarpei'us Mons, a hill at Rome, about eighty
+feet in perpendicular height, whence the Romans threw down their
+condemned criminals.
+
+[5] A civic crown among the Romans, was made of oaken leaves, and
+given to those who had saved the life of a citizen.
+
+[6] A mural crown was an honorary reward, given by the ancient Romans
+to the soldiers who first scaled the walls of an enemy's city.
+
+[7] "These military toys," said he, "are the only rewards I have
+hitherto received. No lands, no share of the conquered countries.
+Usurpers, without any title but that of a patrician extraction,
+possess them. Is this to be endured? Shall they alone possess the
+fruits of our conquests? The purchase of our blood?"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE CREATION OF THE DECEMVIRI TO THE EXTINCTION OF THAT
+OFFICE.--U.C. 302.
+
+  She's gone, forever gone! The king of terrors
+  Lays his rude hands upon her lovely limbs.
+  And blasts her beauty with his icy breath.--_Dennis_.
+
+1. The commonwealth of Rome had now, for nearly sixty years, been
+fluctuating between the contending orders that composed it, till at
+length each side, as if weary, was willing to respire awhile from the
+mutual exertions of its claims. The citizens, of every rank, began to
+complain of the arbitrary decisions of their magistrates, and wished
+to be guided by a written body of laws which, being known, might
+prevent wrongs, as well as punish them. 2. In this both the senate and
+the people concurred, as hoping that such laws would put an end to the
+commotions that so long had harassed the state. 3. It was thereupon
+agreed that ambassadors should be sent to the Greek cities in Italy,
+and to Athens, to bring home such laws from thence, as, by experience,
+had been found most equitable and useful. For this purpose three
+senators, Posthu'mus, Sulpi'cius, and Man'lius, were fixed upon, and
+galleys assigned to convoy them, agreeably to the majesty of the Roman
+people. 4. While they were upon this commission abroad, a dreadful
+plague depopulated the city at home, and supplied the interval of
+their absence with other anxiety than that of wishes for their return.
+5. In about a year the plague ceased, and the ambassadors returned,
+bringing home a body of laws, collected from the most civilised states
+of Greece and Italy, which, being afterwards formed into ten tables,
+and two more being added, made that celebrated code, called, The Laws
+of the Twelve Tables.[1]
+
+6. The ambassadors were no sooner returned, than the tribunes required
+that a body of men should be chosen to digest their new laws into
+proper form, and to give weight to the execution of them. 7. After
+long debate, whether this choice should not be made from the people,
+as well as the patricians, it was at last agreed that ten of the
+principal senators should be elected, whose power, continuing for
+a year, should be equal to that of kings and consuls, and that without
+any appeal. 8. Thus the whole constitution of the state at once took a
+new form, and a dreadful experiment was about to be tried, of
+governing one nation by laws formed from the manners and customs of
+another.
+
+9. These _Decemviri_, being now invested with absolute power, agreed
+to take the reins of government by turns, each to administer justice
+for a day. 10. For the first year, they wrought with extreme
+application: and their work being finished, it was expected that they
+would be content to give up their office; but, having known the charms
+of power, they were unwilling to resign: they pretended that some laws
+were yet wanting to complete their design, and entreated the senate
+for a continuance in office; which request was readily granted.
+
+11. But they soon threw off the mask of moderation, and, regardless of
+the approbation of the senate or the people, resolved to continue,
+against all order, in the decemvirate. 12. A conduct so tyrannical
+produced discontents, and these were as sure to produce fresh acts of
+tyranny. The city was become almost a desert, with respect to all who
+had any thing to lose, and the rapacity of the decemvirs was then only
+discontinued when they wanted fresh subjects to exercise it upon. 13.
+In this state of slavery, proscription, and mutual distrust, not one
+citizen was found to strike for his country's freedom; these tyrants
+continued to rule without controul, being constantly guarded, not by
+the lictors alone, but by a numerous crowd of dependents, clients, and
+even patricians, whom their vices had confederated round them.
+
+14. In this gloomy situation of the state, the AE'qui and Vol'sci,
+those constant enemies of the Romans, renewed their incursions, and,
+resolving to profit by the intestine divisions of the people, advanced
+within about ten miles of Rome.
+
+15. The decemviri, being in possession of all the military as well as
+of the civil power, divided their army into three parts; whereof one
+continued with Ap'pius in the city, to keep it in awe; the other two
+were commanded by his colleagues, and were led, one against the AE'qui,
+and the other against the Vol'sci. 16. The Roman soldiers had now
+adopted a method of punishing the generals whom they disliked, by
+suffering themselves to be vanquished in the field. They put it
+in practice upon this occasion, and shamefully abandoned their camp
+upon the approach of the enemy, 17. Never was victorious news more
+joyfully received at Rome, than the tidings of this defeat; the
+generals, as is always the case, were blamed for the treachery of
+their men; some demanded that they should be deposed, others cried out
+for a dictator to lead the troops to conquest. 18. Among the rest, old
+Sic'cius Denta'tus, the tribune, spoke his sentiments with his usual
+openness; and, treating the generals with contempt, pointed out the
+faults of their discipline in the camp, and their conduct in the
+field. 19. Ap'pius, in the mean time, was not remiss in observing the
+dispositions of the people. Denta'tus, in particular, was marked out
+for vengeance; and, under pretence of doing him particular honour, he
+was appointed legate, and put at the head of the supplies which were
+sent from Rome, to reinforce the army. 20. The office of legate was
+held sacred among the Romans, as in it was united the authority of a
+general, with the reverence due to the priesthood. 21. Denta'tus, no
+way suspecting the design, went to the camp with alacrity, where he
+was received with all the external marks of respect. But the generals
+soon found means of indulging their desire of revenge. 22. He was
+appointed at the head of a hundred men to go and examine a more
+commodious place for encampment, as he had very candidly assured the
+commanders, that their present situation was wrong. 23. The soldiers,
+however, who were given as his attendants, were assassins; wretches
+who had long been ministers of the vengeance of the decemviri, and who
+had now engaged to murder him, though with all those apprehensions
+which his reputation (for he was called the Roman _Achilles_) might be
+supposed to inspire. 24. With these designs they led him into the
+hollow bosom of a retired mountain, where they began to set upon him
+behind. 25. Denta'tus too late perceived the treachery of the
+decemviri, and was resolved to sell his life as dearly as he could; he
+therefore set his back against a rock, and defended himself against
+those who pressed most closely. Though now grown old, he had still the
+remains of his former valour, and, with his own hand, killed no less
+than fifteen of the assailants, and wounded thirty. 26. The assassins
+now, therefore, terrified at his amazing bravery, showered their
+javelins upon him at a distance, all which he received in his shield
+with undaunted resolution.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Dentatus.]
+
+27. The combat, though so unequal in numbers, was managed for
+some time with doubtful success, till at length the assailants
+bethought themselves of ascending the rock, against which he stood,
+and pouring down stones upon him from above. 28. This succeeded: the
+old soldier fell beneath their united efforts; after having shown, by
+his death, that he owed to his fortitude, and not his fortune, that he
+had come off so many times victorious. 29. The decemviri pretended to
+join in the general sorrow for so brave a man, and decreed him a
+funeral with the first military honours; but their pretended grief,
+compared with their known hatred, only rendered them still more
+detestable to the people.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Of what did the Roman citizens complain, and what did they wish?
+
+2. Was this assented to by the nation at large?
+
+3. What means were adopted for this purpose?
+
+4. What happened during their absence?
+
+5. How long did this calamity last?
+
+6. What steps were taken on the return of the ambassadors?
+
+7. Who were chosen for this purpose?
+
+8. Was this proceeding an important one?
+
+9. In what manner did the decemviri govern?
+
+10. How did they discharge the duties of their office?
+
+11. Did they continue in the conscientious discharge of their duties?
+
+12. What was the consequence of this conduct?
+
+13. Was no patriot to be found bold enough to be a champion in his
+country's cause?
+
+14. What added to the miseries of the Romans?
+
+15. What steps were taken to oppose them?
+
+16. What was the conduct of the Roman soldiers on this occasion?
+
+17. How was this news received at Rome?
+
+18. Who appeared most conspicuous on this occasion?
+
+19. How was this honest sincerity received?
+
+20. Was the office of legate a respectable one?
+
+21. Did Dentatus suspect treachery?
+
+22. What plan of revenge was adopted?
+
+23. What was the character of his attendants?
+
+24. How did they commence their base design?
+
+25. Was Dentatus aware of their treachery, and what resistance did he
+make?
+
+26. Did the assassins boldly engage the hero?
+
+27. What new method of attack did they attempt?
+
+28. Was this plan successful?
+
+29. What was the conduct of the decemviri on this occasion?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  That chastity of look which seems to hang
+  A veil of purest light o'er all her beauties.
+  And, by forbidding, most inflames!--_Young_.
+
+1. But a transaction still more atrocious than the former, served to
+inspire the citizens with a resolution to break all measures of
+obedience, so as at last to restore freedom.
+
+2. Ap'pius, sitting one day on his tribunal to dispense justice, saw a
+maiden of exquisite beauty, aged about fifteen, passing to one of the
+public schools, attended by a matron, her nurse. The charms of the
+damsel, heightened by all the innocence of virgin modesty, caught his
+attention, and fired his heart. The day following, as she passed, he
+found her still more beautiful, and his breast still more inflamed. 3.
+He now, therefore, resolved to obtain the gratification of his
+passion, whatever should be the consequence, and found means to inform
+himself of the maiden's name and family. 4. Her name was Virgin'ia;
+she was the daughter of Virgin'ius, a centurion, then with the army in
+the field, and had been contracted to Icil'ius, formerly a tribune of
+the people, who had agreed to marry her at the end of the present
+campaign.
+
+5. Ap'pius at first resolved to break off this match, and to espouse
+her himself; but the laws of the Twelve Tables had forbidden the
+patricians to intermarry with the plebeians, and he could not infringe
+these, as he was the enactor of them. 6. He determined, therefore, to
+make her his slave. 7. After having vainly tried to corrupt the
+fidelity of her nurse, he had recourse to another expedient, still
+more wicked. He fixed upon one Clau'dius, who had long been the
+minister of his crimes, to assert that the beautiful maid was his
+slave, and to refer the cause to Ap'pius's tribunal for decision. 8.
+Clau'dius behaved exactly according to his instructions; for, taking
+with him a band of ruffians like himself, he entered into the public
+school, where Virginia was found among her female companions, and
+seizing upon her under pretence that she was the daughter of one of
+his slaves, was dragging her away, when he was prevented by the
+people, drawn together by her cries. 9. At length, after the first
+heat of opposition was over, he led the weeping virgin to the tribunal
+of Ap'pius, and there plausibly exposed his pretensions. 10. Clau'dius
+asserted that she was born in his house, of a female slave, who sold
+her to the wife of Virgin'ius, who had been childless. That he had
+credible evidences to prove the truth of what he had advanced; but
+that, until they could come together, it was but reasonable the slave
+should be delivered into his custody, he being her proper master. 11.
+Ap'pius pretended to be struck with the justice of his claim; he
+observed, that if the reputed father himself were present, he might
+indeed be willing to delay the delivery of the maid; but that it was
+not lawful for him, in the present case, to detain her from her
+master. He, therefore, adjudged her to Clau'dius, as his slave, to be
+kept by him till Virgin'ius should arrive, and be able to prove his
+paternity. 12. This sentence was received with loud clamours and
+reproaches by the multitude, particularly by the women, who came round
+the innocent Virgin'ia, desirous to protect her from the judge's fury;
+while Icil'ius, her lover, boldly opposed the decree, and obliged
+Clau'dius to take refuge under the tribunal of the decemvir. 13. All
+things now threatened an open insurrection, when Ap'pius, fearing the
+event, thought proper to suspend his judgment, under pretence of
+waiting the arrival of Virgin'ius, who was then about eleven miles
+from Rome, with the army. 14. The day following was fixed for the
+trial. In the mean time Ap'pius privately sent letters to the general
+to confine Virgin'ius, as his arrival in town might only serve to
+kindle sedition among the people. 15. These letters, however, being
+intercepted by the centurion's friends, they sent him a full relation
+of the design laid against his liberty and the honour of his only
+daughter. 16. Virgin'ius, upon this, pretending the death of a near
+relation, got permission to leave the camp, and hastened to Rome,
+inspired with indignation and revenge. 17. Accordingly, the next
+day, to the astonishment of Ap'pius, he appeared before the tribunal,
+leading his weeping daughter by the hand, both of them habited in deep
+mourning. 18. Clau'dius, the accuser, began by making his demand.
+Virgin'ius next spoke in turn: he represented, that, if he had had
+intentions of adopting a suppositious child, he should have fixed upon
+a boy rather than a girl; that it was notorious to all, that his wife
+had herself nursed this daughter; and that it was surprising such a
+claim should be made after a fifteen years' silence; and not till
+Virginia was become marriageable, and acknowledged to be exquisitely
+beautiful. 19. While the father spoke this, with a stern air, the eyes
+of all were turned on Virgin'ia, who stood trembling, with looks of
+persuasive eloquence and excessive grief, which added weight to his
+remonstrances, and excited compassion. 20. The people, satisfied of
+the cruelty of his case, raised an outcry, expressive of their
+indignation. 21. Ap'pius, fearing that what had been said might have a
+dangerous effect upon the multitude, and under a pretence of being
+sufficiently instructed in the merits of the cause, with rage
+interrupted him. "Yes," said he, "my conscience obliges me to declare,
+that I, myself, am a witness to the truth of the deposition of
+Clau'dius. Most of this assembly know that I was left guardian to him.
+I was early apprised that he had a right to this young slave; but
+public affairs, and the dissensions of the people, have prevented my
+doing him justice. However, it is not now too late; and by the power
+vested in me for the general good, I adjudge Virgin'ia to be the
+property of Clau'dius, the plaintiff. Go, therefore, lictors, disperse
+the multitude, and make room for the master to repossess himself of
+his slave." 22. The lictors, in obedience to his command, drove off
+the throng that pressed round the tribunal; they seized upon
+Virgin'ia, and were delivering her up into the hands of Clau'dius: the
+multitude were terrified and withdrew; and Virgin'ius, who found that
+all was over, seemed to acquiesce in the sentence. 22. He, however,
+mildly entreated of Ap'pius to be permitted to take a last farewell of
+a child whom he had at least considered as his own, and so satisfied,
+he would return to his duty with fresh alacrity. 24. Ap'pius granted
+the favour, upon condition that their endearments should pass in his
+presence. But Virgin'ius was then meditating a dreadful resolution.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Virginia.]
+
+25. The crowd made way, and Virgin'ius, with the most poignant
+anguish, taking his almost expiring daughter in his arms, for a while
+supported her head upon his breast, and wiped away the tears that
+trickled down her cheeks. 26. He most tenderly embraced her, and
+drawing her insensibly to some shops which were on the side of the
+forum, snatched up a butcher's knife: "My dearest lost child," cried
+Virgin'ius, "thus, thus alone is it in my power to preserve your
+honour and your freedom!" So saying, he plunged the weapon into her
+heart. Then drawing it out, reeking with her blood, he held it up to
+Ap'pius: "Tyrant," cried he, "by this blood I devote thy head to the
+infernal gods!" 27. Thus saying, and covered with his daughter's
+blood, the knife remaining in his hand, threatening destruction to
+whomsoever should oppose him, he ran through the city, wildly calling
+upon the people to strike for freedom. By the favour of the multitude
+he then mounted his horse, and rode directly to the camp.
+
+28. He no sooner arrived, followed by a number of his friends, than he
+informed the army of all that had been done, still holding the bloody
+knife in his hand. He asked their pardon and the pardon of the gods,
+for having committed so rash an action, but ascribed it to the
+dreadful necessity of the times. 29. The army, already predisposed to
+revolt by the murder of Denta'tus, and other acts of tyranny and
+oppression, immediately with shouts echoed their approbation, and
+decamping, left the generals behind, to take their station once more
+upon mount Aven'tine, whither they had retired about, forty years
+before. The other army, which had been to oppose the Sab'ines, felt a
+like resentment, and came over in large parties to join them.
+
+30. Ap'pius, in the mean time, did all he could to quell the
+disturbances in the city; but finding the tumult incapable of
+controul, and perceiving that his mortal enemies, Vale'rius and
+Hora'tius, were the most active in opposition, at first attempted to
+find safety by flight; nevertheless, being encouraged by Op'pius, who
+was one of his colleagues, he ventured to assemble the senate, and
+urged the punishment of all deserters. 31. The senate, however, was
+far from giving him the relief he sought for; they foresaw the dangers
+and miseries that threatened the state, in case of opposing the
+incensed army; they therefore despatched messengers to them, offering
+to restore their former mode of government. 32. To this proposal all
+the people joyfully assented, and the army gladly obeying, now
+returned to the city, if not with the ensigns, at least with the
+pleasure of a triumphant entry. 33. Ap'pius and Op'pius both died by
+their own hands in prison. The other eight decemvirs went into exile;
+and Clau'dius, the pretended master of Virgin'ia, was ignominiously
+banished.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Did the Romans tamely submit to the tyranny of the decemviri?
+
+2. Relate the particulars of this transaction.
+
+3. What resolution did Appius form?
+
+4. Who was this maiden?
+
+5. What was Appius's first determination?
+
+6. On what did he next resolve?
+
+7. To what means did he have recourse for the accomplishment of his
+purpose?
+
+8. Did Claudius undertake this base?
+
+9. Was the opposition of the people ultimately successful?
+
+10. How did Claudius attempt to make good his claims?
+
+11. What was the conduct of Appius on this occasion?
+
+12. How was this sentence received?
+
+13. What consequences were likely to ensue, and how were they averted?
+
+14. Was not this pretence a false one?
+
+15. By what means were his designs frustrated?
+
+16. Under what pretence did Virginius obtain leave of absence?
+
+17 What measures did he take on his arrival?
+
+18. How was the trial conducted?
+
+19. How did Virginia support this trying scene?
+
+20. What was the general opinion of the auditors?
+
+21. Did the arguments of Virginius induce Appius to forego his
+iniquitous designs?
+
+22. Were his commands obeyed?
+
+23. What was the request of Virginius?
+
+24. Was this favour granted?
+
+25. Describe this affecting scene?
+
+26. What was the catastrophe?
+
+27. What followed?
+
+28. What use did he make of this dreadful circumstance?
+
+29. What was the effect of his address on the army?
+
+30. How was Appius employed in the mean time?
+
+31. Did the senate second his designs?
+
+32. Did the people accede to this proposal?
+
+33. What was the fate of the tyrants?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+                        From the plough
+  Rose her dictators; fought, o'ercame return'd.
+  Yes, to the plough returned, and nail'd their peers.--_Dyer_.
+
+1. In the mean time, these intestine tumults produced weakness within
+the state, and confidence in the enemy abroad. The wars with the AE'qui
+and the Vol'sci still continued; and, as each year some trifling
+advantage was obtained over the Romans, they, at last, advanced so
+far, as to make their incursions to the very walls of Rome.[2]
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 309]
+
+2. But not the courage only of the Romans, their other virtues also,
+particularly their justice, seemed diminished by these contests.
+
+3. The tribunes of the people now grew more turbulent; they proposed
+two laws: one to permit plebeians to intermarry with the patricians;
+and the other, to permit them to be admitted to the consulship also.
+4. The senators received these proposals with indignation, and seemed
+resolved to undergo the utmost extremities, rather than submit to
+enact these laws. However, finding their resistance only increased the
+commotions of the state, they, at last, consented to pass that
+concerning marriages, hoping that this concession would satisfy the
+people. 5. But they were to be appeased for a very short time only;
+for, returning, to their old custom of refusing to enlist upon the
+approach of an enemy, the consuls were obliged to hold a private
+conference with the chief of the senate, where, after many debates,
+Clau'dius proposed an expedient, as the most probable means of
+satisfying the people in the present conjuncture. 6. This was to
+create six or eight governors in the room of consuls, whereof one
+half, at least, should be patricians. 7. This project, which was, in
+fact, granting what the people demanded, pleased the whole meeting,
+and it was agreed, that the consuls should, contrary to their usual
+custom, begin by asking the opinion of the youngest senator. 8. Upon
+assembling the senate, one of the tribunes accused them of holding
+secret meetings, and managing dangerous designs against the people.
+The consuls, on the other hand, averred their innocence; and to
+demonstrate their sincerity, gave leave to any of the younger members
+of the house to propound their opinions. 9. These remaining silent,
+such of the older senators, as were known to be popular, began by
+observing that the people ought to be indulged in their request; that
+none so well deserved power, as those who were most instrumental in
+gaining it; and that the city could not be free until all were reduced
+to perfect equality. Clau'dius spoke next, and broke out into bitter
+invectives against the people; asserting that it was his opinion that
+the law should not pass. 10. This produced some disturbance among the
+plebeians; at length, Genu'tius proposed, as had been preconcerted,
+that six governors should be annually chosen, with consular authority;
+three from the senate, and three from the people; and that, when the
+time of their magistracy should be expired, it would be seen whether
+they would have the same office continued, or whether the consulship
+should be established upon its former footing. 11. This project was
+eagerly embraced by the people; yet so fickle were the multitude,
+that, though many of the plebeians stood candidates, the choice wholly
+fell upon the patricians who had offered themselves.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 310.]
+
+12. These new magistrates were called Military Tribunes; they were, at
+first, but three: afterwards they were increased to four, and at
+length to six; and they had the power and ensigns of consuls: yet,
+that power being divided among a number, each singly was of less
+authority. 13. The first that were chosen continued in office only
+about three months, the augurs having found something amiss in the
+ceremonies of their election.
+
+14. The military tribunes being deposed, the consuls once more came
+into office; and in order to lighten the weight of business which they
+were obliged to sustain, a new office was created; namely, that of
+Censors, who were to be chosen every fifth, year.[3] 15. Their
+business was to take an estimate of the number and estates of the
+people, and to distribute them into their proper classes: to inspect
+into the lives and manners of their fellow citizens; to degrade
+senators for misconduct; to dismount knights, and to remove plebeians
+from their tribes into an inferior class, in case of misdemeanor. 16.
+The first censors were Papir'ius and Sempro'nius, both patricians; and
+from this order censors continued to be elected for nearly a hundred
+years.
+
+17. This new creation served to restore peace for some time among the
+orders; and a triumph gained over the Vol'scians, by Gega'nius the
+consul, added to the universal satisfaction that reigned among the
+people.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 313.]
+
+18. This calm, however, was but of short continuance; for, some time
+after, a famine pressing hard upon the poor, the usual complaints
+against the rich were renewed; and these, as before, proving
+ineffectual, produced new seditions. 19. The consuls were accused of
+neglect, in not having laid in proper quantities of corn: they,
+however, disregarded the murmurs of the populace, content with using
+every exertion to supply the pressing necessity.[4] 20. But, though
+they did all that could be expected from active magistrates in
+procuring provisions, and distributing them to the poor: yet Spu'rius
+Mae'lius, a rich knight, who had bought up all the corn of Tuscany, by
+far outshone them in liberality. 21. This demagogue, inflamed with a
+secret desire of becoming powerful by the contentions in the state,
+distributed corn in great quantities among the poorer sort each day,
+till his house became the asylum of all such as wished to exchange a
+life of labour for one of lazy dependence. 22. When he had thus gained
+a sufficient number of partisans, he procured large quantities of arms
+to be brought into his house by night, and formed a conspiracy, by
+which he was to obtain the command, while some of the tribunes, whom
+he had found means to corrupt, were to act under him, in seizing
+upon the liberties of his country. 23. Minu'tius soon discovered the
+plot, and, informing the senate, they immediately resolved to create a
+dictator, who should have the power of quelling the conspiracy without
+appealing to the people. 24. Cincinna'tus, who was now eighty years
+old, was chosen once more to rescue his country from impending danger.
+25. He began by summoning Mae'lius to appear, who refused to obey. He
+next sent Aha'la, the master of the horse, to compel his attendance;
+when, meeting him in the forum, Aha'la, on his refusal, killed him
+upon the spot. The dictator applauded the resolution of his officer,
+and commanded the conspirator's goods to be sold, his house to be
+demolished, and his stores to be distributed among the people.[5]
+
+26. The tribunes of the people were much enraged at the death of
+Mae'lius. In order, therefore, to punish the senate at the next
+election, instead of consuls, they insisted upon restoring the
+military tribunes, and the senate were obliged to comply.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 315.]
+
+The next year, however, the government returned to its ancient
+channel, and consuls were chosen.
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was the consequence of those intestine tumults related in the
+preceding section?
+
+2. Was it their courage only that was impaired by them?
+
+3. How did the tribunes conduct themselves?
+
+4. How were these proposals received?
+
+5. Did it answer the desired end?
+
+6. What expedient was resorted to?
+
+7. How was it received?
+
+8. What happened on assembling the senate?
+
+9. Did they avail themselves of this permission, and what farther
+passed on this occasion?
+
+10. Was his opinion agreeable to the people? What new proposition was
+offered by Genutius?
+
+11. Was this plan adopted and acted upon?
+
+12. What were the name, number, and powers of these new magistrates?
+
+13. How long did they continue in office?
+
+14. What government was substituted?
+
+15. What were the duties of the censors?
+
+16. Who were the first censors?
+
+17. What was the consequence of this new creation?
+
+18. Was this satisfaction lasting?
+
+19. How were the consuls affected by it?
+
+20, 21. Through what means did Spurius Manlius obtain credit for being
+more liberal than the consuls? And what was his real object?
+
+22. How did he proceed in his designs against the liberties of his
+country?
+
+23. By what means was the plot frustrated?
+
+24. Who was appointed dictator?
+
+25. What steps did he take?
+
+26. How were these rigorous measures received?
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+  Hence every passion, e'en the proudest, stoop'd
+  To common good; Camillus, thy revenge,
+  Thy glory, Fabius.--_Thomson._
+
+1. The Ve'ians had long been the rivals of Rome: they had even taken
+the opportunity of internal distresses to ravage its territories, and
+had even threatened its ambassadors sent to complain of these
+injuries, with outrage. 2. It seemed, now, therefore, determined that
+the city of Ve'ii, whatever it might cost, should fall; and the Romans
+accordingly sat down regularly before it, and prepared for a long and
+painful resistance. 3. The strength of the place may be inferred from
+the continuance of the siege, which lasted for ten years; during which
+time, the army continued encamped round it, lying, in winter, under
+tents made of the skins of beasts, and, in summer, driving on the
+operations of the attack. 4. Various were the successes, and many were
+the commanders that directed the siege; sometimes all their works were
+destroyed, and many of their men cut off by sallies from the town;
+sometimes they were annoyed by an army of Veians, who attempted to
+bring assistance from without. 5. A siege so bloody seemed to
+threaten depopulation to Rome itself, by a continual drain of its
+forces; so that a law was obliged to be made, for all bachelors to
+marry the widows of the soldiers who were slain. 6. Fu'rius Camil'lus
+was now created dictator, and to him was entrusted the sole power of
+managing the long protracted war. 7. Camil'lus, who, without intrigue
+or solicitation, had raised himself to the first eminence in the
+state, had been made one of the censors some time before, and was
+considered as the head of that office; he was afterwards made a
+military tribune, and had, in this post, gained several advantages
+over the enemy. 8. It was his great courage and abilities in the above
+offices that made him be thought most worthy to serve his country on
+this pressing occasion. 9. Upon his appointment, numbers of the people
+flocked to his standard, confident of success under so experienced a
+commander. 10. Conscious, however, that he was unable to take the city
+by storm, he, with vast labour, opened a passage under ground, which
+led into the very midst of the citadel. 11. Certain thus of success,
+and finding the city incapable of relief, he sent to the senate
+desiring, that all who chose to share in the plunder of Ve'ii, should
+immediately repair to the army. 12. Then, giving his directions how to
+enter at the breach, the city was instantly filled with his legions,
+to the amazement and consternation of the besieged, who, but a moment
+before, had rested in perfect security. 13. Thus, like a second
+Troy,[6] was the city of Ve'ii taken, after a ten years' siege, and,
+with its spoils, enriched the conquerors; while Camil'lus himself,
+transported with the honour of having subdued the rival of his native
+city, triumphed after the manner of the kings of Rome, having his
+chariot drawn by four milk-white horses; a distinction which did not
+fail to disgust the majority of the spectators, as they considered
+those as sacred, and more proper for doing honour to their gods than
+their generals.
+
+14. His usual good fortune attended Camil'lus in another expedition
+against the Falis'ci. He routed their army, and besieged their capital
+city Fale'rii, which threatened a long and vigorous resistance. 15.
+The reduction of this little place would have been scarcely worth
+mentioning in this scanty page, were it not for an action of the
+Roman general, that has done him more credit with posterity than all
+his other triumphs united. 16. A school-master, who had the care of
+the children belonging to the principal men in the city, having found
+means to decoy them into the Roman camp, offered to put them into the
+hands of Camil'lus, as the surest means of inducing the citizens to a
+speedy surrender. 17. The general, struck with the treachery of a
+wretch whose duty it was to protect innocence, and not to betray it,
+for some time regarded the traitor with a stern silence: but, at last,
+finding words, "Execrable villain!" cried the noble Roman, "offer thy
+abominable proposals to creatures like thyself, and not to me; what,
+though we are the enemies of your city, are there not natural ties
+that bind all mankind, which should never be broken? There are duties
+required from us in war, as well as in peace: we fight not against the
+age of innocence, but against men--men who have used us ill indeed;
+but yet, whose crimes are virtues, when compared to thine. Against
+such base acts, let it be my duty to use only the Roman ones--valour
+and arms." 18. So saying, he ordered him to be stript, his hands to be
+tied behind him, and, in that ignominious manner, to be whipped into
+the town by his own scholars. 19. This generous behaviour in Camil'lus
+effected more than his arms could do; the magistrates of the town
+submitted to the senate, leaving to Camil'lus the condition of their
+surrender; who only fined them a sum of money to satisfy the army, and
+received them under the protection, and into the alliance, of Rome.
+
+20. Notwithstanding the veneration which the virtues of Camil'lus had
+excited abroad, they seemed but little adapted to command the respect
+of the turbulent tribunes at home, who raised fresh accusations
+against him every day. 21. To the charge of being an opposer of their
+intended emigration from Rome to Ve'ii, they added that of his having
+concealed a part of the plunder of that city, particularly two brazen
+gates, for his own use; and appointed him a day on which to appear
+before the people. 22. Camil'lus, finding the multitude exasperated
+against him on many accounts, and detesting their ingratitude,
+resolved not to await the ignominy of a trial; but embracing his wife
+and children, prepared to depart from Rome. 23. He had already passed
+as far as one of the gates, unattended and unlamented. There he could
+suppress his indignation no longer, but, turning his face to the
+Capitol, and lifting up his hands to heaven, he entreated all the
+gods, that his countrymen might one day be sensible of their injustice
+and ingratitude. So saying, he passed forward to take refuge at
+Ar'dea, a town at a little distance from Rome, where he afterwards
+learned that he had been fined fifteen thousand ases[7] by the
+tribunes at Rome.
+
+24. The tribunes were not a little pleased with their triumphs over
+this great man; but they soon had reason to repent their injustice,
+and to wish for the assistance of one, who alone was able to protect
+their country from ruin: for now a more terrible and redoubtable enemy
+than the Romans had ever yet encountered, began to make their
+appearance. 25. The Gauls, a barbarous nation, had, about two
+centuries before, made an irruption from beyond the Alps, and settled
+in the northern parts of Italy. They had been invited over by the
+deliciousness of the wines, and the mildness of the climate. 26.
+Wherever they came they dispossessed the original inhabitants, as they
+were men of superior courage, extraordinary stature, fierce in aspect,
+barbarous in their manners, and prone to emigration. 27. A body of
+these, wild from their original habitations, was now besieging
+Clu'sium, a city of Etru'ria, under the conduct of Brennus, their
+king. 28. The inhabitants of Clu'sium, frightened at their numbers,
+and still more at their savage appearance, entreated the assistance,
+or, at least, the mediation of the Romans. 29. The senate, who had
+long made it a maxim never to refuse succour to the distressed, were
+willing, previously, to send ambassadors to the Gauls, to dissuade
+them from their enterprise, and to show the injustice of the
+irruption. 30. Accordingly, three young senators were chosen out of
+the family of the Fabii, to manage the commission, who seemed more
+fitted for the field than the cabinet. 31. Brennus received them with
+a degree of complaisance that argued but little of the barbarian, and
+desiring to know the business of their embassy, was answered,
+according to their instructions, that it was not customary in Italy to
+make war, but on just grounds of provocation, and that they desired to
+know what offence the citizens of Clu'sium had given to the king of
+the Gauls. 32. To this Brennus sternly replied, that the rights of
+valiant men lay in their swords; that the Romans themselves had no
+right to the many cities they, had conquered; and that he had
+particular reasons of resentment against the people of Clu'sium,
+as they refused to part with those lands, which they had neither hands
+to till, nor inhabitants to occupy. 33. The Roman ambassadors, who
+were but little used to hear the language of a conqueror, for a while
+dissembled their resentment at this haughty reply; but, upon entering
+the besieged city, instead of acting as ambassadors, and forgetful of
+their sacred character, they headed the citizens in a sally against
+the besiegers. In this combat Fa'bius Ambus'tus killed a Gaul with his
+own hand, but was discovered in the act of despoiling him of his
+armour. 34. A conduct so unjust and unbecoming excited the resentment
+of Brennus, who, having made his complaint by a herald to the senate,
+and finding no redress, broke up the siege and marched away with his
+conquering army directly for Rome. 35. The countries through which the
+Gauls made their rapid progress, gave up all hopes of safety upon
+their approach; being terrified at their numbers, the fierceness of
+their natures, and their dreadful preparations for war. 36. But the
+rage and impetuosity of this wild people were directed solely against
+Rome. They went on without doing the least injury in their march,
+breathing vengeance only against the Romans. A terrible engagement
+soon after ensued, in which the Romans were defeated near the river
+Al'lia, with the loss of about forty thousand men.[8]
+
+37. Rome, thus deprived of succour, prepared for every extremity. The
+inhabitants endeavoured to hide themselves in the neighbouring towns,
+or resolved to await the conqueror's fury, and end their lives with
+the ruin of their native city.[9] 38. But, more particularly, the
+ancient senators and priests, struck with a religious enthusiasm, on
+this occasion resolved to devote their lives to atone for the crimes
+of the people, and, habited in their robes of ceremony, placed
+themselves in the forum, on their ivory chairs. 39. The Gauls, in the
+mean time, were giving a loose to their triumph, in sharing and
+enjoying the plunder of the enemy's camp. Had they immediately marched
+to Rome, upon gaining the victory, the Capitol would, in all
+probability, have been taken; but they continued two days feasting
+upon the field of battle, and, with barbarous pleasure, exulting
+amidst their slaughtered enemies. 40. On the third day after this easy
+victory, Brennus appeared with all his forces before the city. He was
+at first much surprised to find the gates open to receive him, and the
+walls defenceless; so that he began to impute the unguarded situation
+of the place to a Roman stratagem. After proper precaution, he entered
+the city, and, marching into the forum, beheld there the ancient
+senators sitting in their order, observing a profound silence, unmoved
+and undaunted. 41. The splendid habits, the majestic gravity, and the
+venerable looks of these old men, who, in their time, had all borne
+the highest offices of state, awed the barbarous enemy into reverence;
+they mistook them for the tutelar deities of the place, and began to
+offer blind adoration; till one, more forward than the rest, putting
+forth his hand to stroke the beard of Papyr'ius, an insult the noble
+Roman could not endure, he lifted up his ivory sceptre, and struck the
+savage to the ground. 42. This proved to be a signal for general
+slaughter. Papyr'ius fell first, and all the rest shared his fate
+without mercy or distinction.[10] The fierce invaders pursued their
+slaughter for three days successively, sparing neither sex nor age;
+then, setting fire to the city, burnt every house to the ground.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the conduct of the Veians?
+
+2. What resolution was adopted in consequence?
+
+3. Was Veii a strong place?
+
+4. Did the besieged make a vigorous resistance?
+
+5. What consequences were likely to ensue, and how were they obviated?
+
+6. To whom was the conduct of the war now committed?
+
+7. Who was Camillus?
+
+8. By what means did he attain his present dignity?
+
+9. What was the consequence of his appointment?
+
+10. What plan did he adopt to take the city?
+
+11. How did he next proceed?
+
+12. What followed?
+
+13. What was the consequence of this capture, and how did Camillus
+comport himself?
+
+14. What was Camillus's next exploit?
+
+15. Was this a conquest of importance?
+
+16. Relate the particulars?
+
+17. How was his proposal received?
+
+18. How was the traitor punished?
+
+19. What was the consequence of this conduct?
+
+20. Was Camillus universally respected?
+
+21. What charges were brought against him?
+
+22. Did Camillus abide the event of a trial?
+
+23. Was he resigned to his fate, and whither did he retire?
+
+24. What followed his departure?
+
+25. Who was the enemy?
+
+26. What were the conduct and character of the Gauls?
+
+27. How were they employed at this conjuncture?
+
+28. What measure did the Clusians adopt for their defence?
+
+29. Was their application successful?
+
+30. Who were appointed for this purpose?
+
+31. How were they received?
+
+32. What was the reply of Brennus?
+
+33. What was the conduct of the ambassadors?
+
+34. What was the consequence of this improper conduct?
+
+35. What sensations were excited in the countries through which they
+passed?
+
+36. Did the Gauls commit any ravages on their march?
+
+37. What measures were adopted at Rome?
+
+38. Who more particularly displayed their devotedness on this
+occasion?
+
+39. What use did the Gauls make of their victory?
+
+40. What happened on their arrival before the city?
+
+41. What was the effect of this spectacle?
+
+42. What was the consequence of this boldness?
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+  This is true courage, not the brutal force
+  Of vulgar heroes, but the firm resolve
+  Of virtue and of reason.--_Whitehead._
+
+1. All the hopes of Rome were now placed in the Capitol; every thing
+without that fortress formed an extensive scene of misery, desolation,
+and despair.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 361.]
+
+2. Brennus first summoned it, with threats, to surrender, but in vain;
+then resolving to besiege it in form, hemmed it round with his army.
+The Romans, however, repelled the attempt with great bravery: despair
+had supplied them with that perseverance and vigour which they seemed
+to want when in prosperity.
+
+3. In the meanwhile, Brennus carried on the siege with extreme ardour.
+He hoped to starve the garrison into a capitulation; but they,
+sensible of his intent, although in actual want, caused loaves to be
+thrown into his camp, to convince him of the futility of such
+expectations. 4. His hopes were soon after revived, when some of his
+soldiers came to inform him, that they had discovered footsteps,[11]
+which led up to the rock, by which they supposed the Capitol might be
+surprised. 5. Accordingly, a chosen body of his men were ordered by
+night upon this dangerous service, which, with great labour and
+difficulty, they almost effected. 6. They were got upon the very wall;
+the Roman sentinel was fast asleep; their dogs within gave no signal,
+and all promised an instant victory, when the garrison was awakened by
+the gabbling of some sacred geese, that had been kept in the temple of
+Juno. 7. The besieged soon perceived the imminence of their danger,
+and each, snatching the weapon that first presented itself, ran to
+oppose the assailants. 8. M. Man'lius, a patrician of acknowledged
+bravery, was the first who opposed the foe, and inspired courage by
+his example. He boldly mounted the rampart, and, at one effort, threw
+two Gauls headlong down the precipice; his companions soon came to his
+assistance, and the walls were cleared of the enemy with a most
+incredible celerity.[12]
+
+9. From this time the hopes of the barbarians began to decline, and
+Brennus wished for an opportunity of raising the siege with
+credit.[13] His soldiers had often conferences with the besieged while
+upon duty, and proposals for an accommodation were wished for by the
+common men, before the chiefs thought of a congress. At length, the
+commanders on both sides came to an agreement, that the Gauls should
+immediately quit the city and territories, upon being paid a thousand
+pounds weight of gold.
+
+[Illustration: Manlius defending the Capitol.]
+
+10. This agreement being confirmed by oath on either side, the
+gold was brought forth. But, upon weighing, the Gauls fraudulently
+attempted to kick the beam, of which the Romans complaining, Brennus
+insultingly cast his sword and belt into the scale, crying out that
+the only portion of the vanquished was to suffer. 11. By this reply,
+the Romans saw that they were at the victor's mercy, and knew it was
+in vain to expostulate against any conditions he should please to
+impose. 12. But while they were thus debating upon the payment, it was
+told them that Camil'lus, their old general, was at the head of a
+large army, hastening to their relief, and entering the gates of Rome.
+13. Camil'lus actually appeared soon after, and entering the place of
+controversy, with the air of one who was resolved not to suffer
+imposition, demanded the cause of the contest; of which being
+informed, he ordered the gold to be taken and carried back to the
+Capitol. "For it has ever been," cried he, "the manner with us Romans,
+to ransom our country, not with gold, but with iron; it is I only that
+am to make peace, as being the dictator of Rome, and my sword alone
+shall purchase it." 14. Upon this a battle ensued, the Gauls were
+entirely routed, and such a slaughter followed, that the Roman
+territories were soon cleared of the invaders. Thus, by the bravery of
+Camil'lus, was Rome delivered from its enemy.[14]
+
+15. The city being one continued heap of ruins, except the Capitol,
+and the greatest number of its former inhabitants having gone to take
+refuge in Ve'ii, the tribunes of the people urged for the removal of
+the poor remains of Rome to that city, where they might have houses to
+shelter, and walls to defend them. 16. On this occasion Camil'lus
+attempted to appease them with all the arts of persuasion; observing,
+that it was unworthy of them, both as Romans and men, to desert the
+venerable seat of their ancestors, where they had been encouraged by
+repeated marks of divine approbation, in order to inhabit a city which
+they had conquered, and which wanted even the good fortune of
+defending itself. 17. By these, and such like remonstrances, he
+prevailed upon the people to go contentedly to work; and Rome soon
+began to rise from its ashes.[15]
+
+18. We have already seen the bravery of Man'lius in defending the
+Capitol, and saving the last remains of Rome. For this the people were
+by no means ungrateful. They built him a house near the place where
+his valour was so conspicuous, and appointed him a public fund for his
+support. 19. But he aspired at being more than equal to Camil'lus, and
+to be sovereign of Rome. With this view he laboured to ingratiate
+himself with the populace, paid their debts, and railed at the
+patricians, whom he called their oppressors. 20. The senate was not
+ignorant of his speeches or his designs, and created Corne'lius Cossus
+dictator, with a view to curb the ambition of Man'lius. 21. The
+dictator soon called Man'lius to an account for his conduct. Man'lius,
+however, was too much the darling of the populace to be affected by
+the power of Cossus, who was obliged to lay down his office, and
+Man'lius was carried from confinement in triumph through the city. 22.
+This success only served to inflame his ambition. He now began to talk
+of a division of the lands among the people, insinuated that there
+should be no distinctions in the state; and, to give weight to his
+discourses, always appeared at the head of a large body of the dregs
+of the people, whom largesses had[15] made his followers. 23. The
+city being thus filled with sedition and clamour, the senate had
+recourse to another expedient, which was, to oppose the power of
+Camil'lus to that of the demagogue. Camil'lus, accordingly, being made
+one of the military tribunes, appointed Man'lius a day to answer for
+his life. 24. The place in which he was tried was near the Capitol,
+whither, when he was accused of sedition, and of aspiring to
+sovereignty, he turned his eyes, and pointing to that edifice, put
+them in mind of what he had there done for his country. 25. The
+multitude, whose compassion or whose justice seldom springs from
+rational motives, refused to condemn him, so long as he pleaded in
+sight of the Capitol; but when he was brought from thence to the
+Pe'teline grove, where the Capitol was no longer in view, they
+condemned him to be thrown headlong from the Tarpe'ian rock.[16] 26.
+Thus, the place which had been the theatre of his glory, became that
+of his punishment and infamy. His house, in which his conspiracies had
+been secretly carried on, and which had been built as the reward of
+his valour, was ordered to be razed to the ground, and his family were
+forbidden ever after to assume the name of Man'lius.
+
+27. Thus the Romans went gradually forward, with a mixture of
+turbulence and superstition within their walls, and successful
+enterprises without.
+
+28. With what implicit obedience they submitted to their pontiffs, and
+how far they might be impelled to encounter even death itself, at
+their command, will evidently appear from the behaviour of Cur'tius,
+about this time.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 392.]
+
+Upon the opening of the gulf in the forum, which the augurs affirmed
+would never close till the most precious things in Rome were thrown
+into it, this heroic man, clad in complete armour, and mounted on
+horseback, boldly leaped into the midst, declaring, that nothing was
+more truly valuable than patriotism and military virtue. 29. The gulf,
+say the historians, closed immediately upon this, and Cur'tius was
+seen no more.[17]
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 396]
+
+30. This year died the great Camil'lus, deservedly regretted by all.
+He was styled a second Romulus, the first having founded, and he
+having restored the city. He is said never to have fought a battle
+without gaining a victory; never to have besieged a city without
+taking it. He was a zealous patriot, ever ready to dismiss his just
+resentments for the affronts he received, when the necessities of his
+country required his services.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the state of Rome at this period?
+
+2. What was the next step taken by Brennus, and how did it succeed?
+
+3. In what manner was the siege carried on?
+
+4. Did he consider the attempt as hopeless?
+
+5. What advantage did he take of this information?
+
+6. Was the attempt successful?
+
+7. What was the consequence?
+
+8. Was there any particular instance of valour?
+
+9. What effect had this failure on the mind of Brennus?
+
+10. In what manner was this agreement carried into execution?
+
+11. What inference did the Romans draw from this insolent speech?
+
+12. What agreeable news did they now hear?
+
+13. Was this information correct?
+
+14. What followed?
+
+15. What was the first measure proposed after this deliverance?
+
+16. Was this proposal carried into effect?
+
+17. Were his remonstrances successful?
+
+18. Was the bravery of Manlius rewarded?
+
+19. Was he content with these favours?
+
+20. What measures were taken to oppose his designs?
+
+21. Was this expedient attended with success?
+
+22. What was the conduct of Manlius after this?
+
+23. What farther measures were taken to punish his ambition?
+
+24. What defence did he set up?
+
+25. Was his plea successful?
+
+26. What is remarkable in his punishment?
+
+27. How did the Roman affairs proceed at this time?
+
+28. Relate a memorable instance of the obedience paid by the Romans to
+their pontiffs or priests?
+
+29. What was the consequence of this heroic act?
+
+30. What happened this year, and what was the character of
+Camil'lus?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] These laws were engraven on brass, and hung up in the most
+conspicuous part of the Forum.
+
+[2] They were, however, defeated, first by the consul Vale'rius, and
+next still more decisively by the consuls Quinc'tius and Fu'rius.
+
+[3] The duty of the censors, at first, was merely to perform the
+census, or numbering of the people. It was by degrees that they became
+_Magistri Morum_, or inspectors and regulators of men's lives and
+manners.
+
+[4] They appointed an extraordinary magistrate, under the title of
+_superintendent of provisions_, and the person named for this office,
+L. Minutius, an active and prudent man, immediately sent his agents
+into the neighbouring countries to buy corn; but little, however was
+procured, as Maelius had been beforehand with him. (Liv. l. iv. c. 13,
+14.)
+
+[5] The guilt of Mae'lius was never proved, and no arms were found when
+his house was searched. The charge of aiming at royalty is more than
+absurd; it is morally impossible. He seems to have aimed at opening
+the higher offices of state to the plebeians, and to have looked upon
+the consulship with too eager desire. He fell a sacrifice, to deter
+the plebeians from aiming at breaking up a patrician monopoly of
+power. It is painful to see Cincinna'tus, at the close of a long and
+illustrious life, countenancing, if not suggesting this wanton murder.
+But, as Niebuhr remarks, "no where have characters been more cruel, no
+where has the voice of conscience against the views of faction been so
+defied, as in the aristocratic republics, and not those of antiquity
+only. Men, otherwise of spotless conduct, have frequently shed the
+purest and noblest blood, influenced by fanaticism, and often without
+any resentment, in the service of party."
+
+[6] The account of the siege of Ve'ii is full of improbabilities, and
+the story of the mine is utterly impossible, for without a compass and
+a good plan of the city, such a work could not have been formed. That
+Ve'ii, however, was besieged and taken at this time is very certain,
+but that is the only part of the legend on which we can rely.
+
+[7] The _as_ was a brass coin, about three farthings of our money.
+
+[8] This day was from henceforth marked as unlucky in their calendar,
+and called Allien'sis.
+
+[9] Among others, the Vestals fled from the city, carrying with them
+the two Palladiums and the sacred fire. They took shelter at Caere, a
+town of Etru'ria, where they continued to celebrate their religious
+rites; from this circumstance religious rites acquired the name of
+ceremonies.
+
+[10] This self-devotion was in consequence of a vow made by these
+brave old men, which Fa'bius, the Pontifex Maximus, pronounced in
+their names. The Romans believed that, by thus devoting themselves to
+the internal gods, disorder and confusion were brought among the
+enemy.
+
+[11] These were the footsteps of Pon'tius Comin'ius, who, with great
+prudence and bravery, found means to carry a message from Camil'lus to
+the Romans in the Capi'tol, and to return with the appointment of
+dictator for Camil'lus.
+
+[12] As a reward for this essential service, every soldier gave
+Man'lius a small quantity of corn and a little measure of wine, out of
+his scanty allowance; a present of no mean value in their then
+distressed situation. On the other hand, the captain of the guard, who
+ought to have kept the sentinels to their duty, was thrown headlong
+from the Capitol. In memory of this event, a goose was annually
+carried in triumph on a soft litter, finely adorned; whilst dogs were
+held in abhorrence, and were impaled every year on a branch of elder.
+
+[13] As the Gauls suffered the bodies of the Romans, who were slain in
+their frequent encounters, to lie unburied, the stench of their
+putrefaction occasioned a plague to break out, which carried off great
+numbers of the army of Brennus.
+
+[14] The authenticity of this narrative is more than suspicious.
+Polyb'ius, the most accurate of the Roman historians, says that the
+Gauls carried their old home with them. Sueto'nius confirms this
+account, and adds that it was recovered at a much later period from
+the Galli Seno'nes, by Liv'ius Dru'sus; and that on this occasion
+Dru'sus first became a name in the Livian family, in consequence of
+the victorious general having killed Drau'sus, the Gallic leader.
+
+[15] So little taste, however, for order and beauty, did those display
+who had the direction of the works, that the city, when rebuilt, was
+even less regular than in the time of Romulus.
+
+[16] This account appears so absurd as to be scarcely credible; in
+fact, Manlius was first tried by the "comitia centuriata," and
+acquitted. His second trial was before the "comitia curiata," where
+his enemies, the patricians, alone had the right of voting. See
+Introduction, Chap. III.
+
+[17] Some judicious writers, however, acknowledge that the chasm was
+afterwards filled up with earth and rubbish. (Livy, l. 7. c. 6. Val.
+Maximus, l. 5. c. 6. et alli.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE WARS WITH THE SAMNITES AND THOSE WITH PYRRHUS, TO THE
+BEGINNING OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR; WHEN THE ROMANS BEGAN TO EXTEND
+THEIR CONQUESTS BEYOND ITALY.
+
+  The brave man is not he who feels no fear
+  For that were stupid and irrational;
+  But he, whose noble soul his fear subdues,
+  And bravely dares the danger nature shrinks from.--_Baillie_.
+
+1. The Romans had triumphed over the Sab'ines, the Etru'rians, the
+Latins, the Her'nici, the AE'qui, and the Volsci; and now began to look
+for greater conquests. They accordingly turned their arms against the
+Sam'nites, a people descended from the Sab'ines, and inhabiting a
+large tract of southern Italy, which at this day makes, a considerable
+part of the kingdom of Naples. 2. Vale'rius Cor'vus, and Corne'lius,
+were the two consuls to whose care it first fell to manage this
+dreadful contention between the rivals.
+
+3. Vale'rius was one of the greatest commanders of his time; he was
+surnamed Cor'vus, from the strange circumstance of being assisted by a
+crow in a single combat, in which he killed a Gaul of gigantic
+stature. 4. To his colleague's care it was consigned to lead an army
+to Sam'nium, the enemy's capital, while Cor'vus was sent to relieve
+Cap'ua, the capital of the Capin'ians. 5. Never was a captain more
+fitted for command than he. To a habit naturally robust and athletic,
+he joined the gentlest manners; he was the fiercest, and yet the most
+good-natured man in the army; and, while the meanest sentinel was his
+companion, no man kept them more strictly to their duty; but to
+complete his character, he constantly endeavoured to preserve his
+dignity by the same arts by which he gained it. 6. Such soldiers as
+the Romans then were, hardened by their late adversity, and led on by
+such a general, were unconquerable. The Samnites were the bravest men
+they ever yet had encountered, and the contention between the two
+nations was managed on both sides with the most determined resolution.
+7. But the fortune of Rome prevailed; the Samnites at length fled,
+averring, that they were not able to withstand the fierce looks, and
+the fire-darting eye of the Romans. 8. Corne'lius, however, was not at
+first so fortunate; for having unwarily led his army into a
+defile, he was in danger of being cut off, had not De'cius
+possessed himself of a hill which commanded the enemy; so that the
+Samnites, being attacked on both sides, were defeated with great
+slaughter; not less than thirty thousand of them being left dead upon
+the field.
+
+9. Some time after this victory, the forces stationed at Cap'ua
+mutinying, compelled Quin'tinus, an eminent old soldier, to be their
+leader; and, conducted by their rage, more than by their general, came
+within six miles of the city. 10. So terrible an enemy, almost at the
+gates, not a little alarmed the senate, who immediately created
+Vale'rius dictator, and sent him forth with an army to oppose them.
+11. The two armies were now drawn up against each other, while fathers
+and sons beheld themselves prepared to engage in opposite causes. 12.
+Any other general than Corvus would, perhaps, have brought this civil
+war to extremity; but he, knowing his influence among the soldiery,
+instead of going forward to meet the mutineers in a hostile manner,
+went with the most cordial friendship to embrace, and expostulate with
+his old acquaintances. 13. His conduct had the desired effect.
+Quin'tius, as their speaker, solicited no more than to have their
+defection from their duty forgiven; and for himself, as he was
+innocent of their conspiracy, he had no reason to solicit pardon for
+offences. 14. Thus this defection, which threatened danger to Rome,
+was repaired by the prudence and moderation of a general, whose
+ambition it was to be gentle to his friends, and formidable only to
+his enemies.
+
+15. A war between the Romans and Latins followed soon after. 16. As
+their habits, arms, and language were the same, the exactest
+discipline was necessary to prevent confusion in the engagement.
+Orders, therefore, were issued, that no soldier should leave his ranks
+on pain of death. 17. With these injunctions, both armies were drawn
+out and ready, when Me'tius, the general of the enemy's cavalry,
+pushed forward from his lines, and challenged any knight in the Roman
+army to single combat. 18. For some time there was a general pause, no
+soldier daring to disobey his orders, till Ti'tus Man'lius, son of the
+consul Man'lius, burning with shame to see the whole body of the
+Romans intimidated, boldly advanced against his adversary. 19. The
+soldiers, on both sides, for a while suspended the general engagement,
+to be spectators of this fierce encounter. The two champions drove
+their horses against each other with great violence: Me'tius
+wounded his adversary's horse in the neck; but Man'lius, with better
+fortune, killed that of Me'tius. The Latin general, fallen to the
+ground, for a while attempted to support himself upon his shield; but
+the Roman followed his blows, and laid him dead as he was endeavouring
+to rise; then despoiling him of his armour, returned in triumph to his
+father's tent, where he was preparing for, and giving orders relative
+to, the engagement. 20. However he might have been applauded by his
+fellow-soldiers, being as yet doubtful what reception he should find
+with his father, he came with hesitation, to lay the enemy's spoils at
+his feet, and with a modest air insinuated, that what he had done was
+entirely from a spirit of hereditary virtue. 21. Alas! he was soon
+dreadfully made sensible of his error; when his father, turning away,
+ordered him to be led publicly forth before his army. Being brought
+forward, the consul, with a stern countenance, and yet with tears,
+spoke as follows: "Ti'tus Man'lius, as thou hast regarded neither the
+dignity of the consulship, nor the commands of a father; as thou hast
+destroyed military discipline, and set a pattern of disobedience by
+thy example, thou hast reduced me to the deplorable extremity of
+sacrificing my son or my country. But let us not hesitate in this
+dreadful alternative; a thousand lives were well lost in such a cause;
+nor do I think that thou thyself wilt refuse to die, when thy country
+is to reap the advantage of thy sufferings. Lictor, bind him, and let
+his death be our future example." 22. At this unnatural mandate the
+whole army was struck with horror; fear, for a while, kept them in
+suspense; but when they saw their young champion's head struck off,
+and his blood streaming upon the ground, they could no longer contain
+their execrations and their groans. His dead body was carried forth
+without the camp, and, being adorned with the spoils of the vanquished
+enemy, was buried with all the pomp of military solemnity.
+
+23. In the mean time, the battle began with mutual fury; and as the
+two armies had often fought under the same leaders, they combated with
+all the animosity of a civil war. The Latins chiefly depended on
+bodily strength; the Romans on their invincible courage and conduct.
+24. Forces so nearly matched, seemed only to want the aid of their
+deities to turn the scale of victory; and in fact the augurs had
+foretold, that whatever part of the Roman army should be distressed,
+the commander of that part should devote himself for his country,
+and die as a sacrifice to the immortal gods. Man'lius commanded the
+right wing, and De'cius the left. 25. Both sides fought with doubtful
+success, as their courage was equal; but, after a time, the left wing
+of the Roman army began to give ground. 26. It was then that De'cius
+resolved to devote himself for his country; and to offer his own life,
+as an atonement, to save his army.
+
+27. Thus determined, he called out to Man'lius with a loud voice, and
+demanded his instructions, as he was the chief pontiff, how to devote
+himself, and what form of words he should use. 28. By his directions,
+therefore, being clothed in a long robe, his head covered, and his
+arms stretched forward, standing upon a javelin, he devoted himself to
+the celestial and infernal gods for the safety of Rome. Then arming
+himself, and mounting his horse, he drove furiously into the midst of
+the enemy, striking terror and consternation wherever he came, till he
+fell covered with wounds. 29. In the mean time the Roman army
+considered his devoting himself in this manner, as an assurance of
+success; nor was the superstition of the Latins less powerfully
+influenced by his resolution; a total route began to ensue: the Romans
+pressed them on every side, and so great was the carnage, that
+scarcely a fourth part of the enemy survived the defeat.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Against whom did the Romans next turn their arms?
+
+2. Who were appointed commanders in this war?
+
+3. Who was Valerius?
+
+4. What separate commands were entrusted to the consuls?
+
+5. What was the character of Valerius?
+
+6. What was the character of the hostile armies?
+
+7. To whom did the advantage belong?
+
+8. Was not the division under Cornelius led into a difficulty, and how
+was it extricated?
+
+9. What important event next occurred?
+
+10. How were the senate affected by their approach?
+
+11. What are the peculiar evils attendant on civil wars?
+
+12. What steps did Corvus take on this occasion?
+
+13. What was the consequence of this mildness?
+
+14. What reflection may be drawn from this incident?
+
+15. What was the next occurrence of note?
+
+16. What precautions were necessary in this war?
+
+17. In what way was the discipline of the Romans put to the proof?
+
+18. Was his challenge disregarded?
+
+19. Relate the particulars of the combat?
+
+20. What reception did he expect from his father?
+
+21. What was the consequence of his rashness?
+
+22. How was this sentence received by the army?
+
+23. Did a battle ensue?
+
+24. What was wanting to insure the victory?
+
+25. To whom did success incline?
+
+26 What heroic resolution did Decius make?
+
+27. In what way did he do this?
+
+28. What followed?
+
+29. What effect had this sacrifice on the hostile armies?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+U.C. 431.
+
+  Absurd the fumed advice to Pyrrhus given,
+  More praised than pander'd, specious, but unsound;
+  Sooner that hero's sword the world had quell'd,
+  Than reason, his ambition.--_Young_
+
+1. But a signal disgrace which the Romans sustained about this time,
+in their contest with the Samnites, made a pause in their usual good
+fortune, and turned the scale for a while in the enemy's favour.[1] 2.
+The senate having denied the Samnites peace, Pon'tius, their general,
+was resolved to gain by stratagem, what he had frequently lost by
+force. 3. Accordingly, leading his army into the neighbourhood of a
+defile, called Cau'dium, and taking possession of all its outlets, he
+sent ten of his soldiers, habited like shepherds, with directions to
+throw themselves into the way which the Romans were to march. 4.
+Exactly to his wishes, the Roman consul, Posthu'mius, met them, and
+taking them for what they appeared, demanded the route the Samnite
+army had taken: they, with seeming indifference, replied, that
+they were going to Luce'ria, a town in Apulia, and were then actually
+besieging it. 5 The Roman general, not suspecting the stratagem that
+was laid against him, marched directly by the shortest road, which lay
+through the defile, to relieve that city; and was not undeceived till
+he saw his army surrounded, and blocked up on every side.[2] 6.
+Pon'tius, thus having the Romans entirely in his power, first obliged
+the army to pass under the yoke, after having stript them of all but
+their under garments. He then stipulated, that they should wholly quit
+the territories of the Samnites, and that they should continue to live
+upon the terms of their former confederacy. 7. The Romans were
+constrained to submit to this ignominious treaty, and marched into
+Cap'ua disarmed, half naked, and burning with a desire of _retrieving_
+their lost honour. 8. When the army arrived at Rome, the whole city
+was most sensibly affected at their shameful return; nothing but grief
+and resentment were to be seen, and the whole city was put into
+mourning.
+
+9. This was a transitory calamity; the state had suffered a diminution
+of its glory, but not of its power.[3] The war was carried on as
+usual, for many years; the power of the Samnites declining every day,
+while that of the Romans gained fresh vigour from every victory. 10.
+Under the conduct of Papir'ius Cursor, repeated triumphs were gained.
+Fa'bius Max'imus also had his share in the glory of conquering the
+Samnites; and De'cius, the son of that Decius whom we saw devoting
+himself, for his country about forty years before, followed the
+example of his noble father, and, rushing into the midst of the enemy,
+saved the lives of his countrymen with the loss of his own.[4]
+
+11. The Samnites being driven to the most extreme distress, and unable
+to defend themselves, were obliged to call in the assistance of a
+foreign power, and have recourse to Pyr'rhus, king of Epi'rus,[5]
+to save them from impending ruin. 12. Pyr'rhus, a man of great
+courage, ambition, and power, who had always kept the example of
+Alexan'der, his great predecessor, before his eyes, promised to come
+to their assistance; and, in the mean time, despatched a body of three
+thousand men, under the command of Cin'eas, an experienced soldier,
+and a scholar of the great orator Demos'thenes.[6] 13. Nor did he
+himself remain long behind, but soon after put to sea with three
+thousand horse, twenty thousand foot, and twenty elephants, in which
+the commanders of that time began to place very great confidence. 14.
+However, only a small part of this great armament arrived in Italy
+with him; for many of his ships were dispersed, and some were totally
+lost in a storm.
+
+15. Upon his arrival at Taren'tum,[7] his first care was to reform the
+people whom he came to succour. Observing a total dissoluteness of
+manners in this luxurious city, and that the inhabitants were rather
+occupied with the pleasures of bathing, feasting, and dancing, than
+the care of preparing for war, he gave orders to have all their places
+of public entertainment shut up, and that they should be restrained in
+such amusements as rendered soldiers unfit for battle. 16. In the mean
+time the Romans did all which prudence could suggest, to oppose so
+formidable an enemy; and the consul Laevi'nus was sent with a numerous
+force to interrupt his progress. 17. Pyr'rhus, though his whole army
+was not yet arrived, drew out to meet him; but previously sent an
+ambassador, desiring to be permitted to mediate between the Romans and
+the people of Tarentum. 18. To this Laevi'nus answered, that _he
+neither esteemed him as a mediator, nor feared him as an enemy_: and
+then leading the ambassador through the Roman camp, desired him to
+observe diligently what he saw, and to report the result to his
+master.
+
+19. In consequence of this, both armies approaching, pitched their
+tents in sight of each other, upon the opposite banks of the river
+Ly'ris. Pyr'rhus was always extremely careful in directing the
+situation of his own camp, and in observing that of the enemy. 20.
+Walking along the banks of the river, and surveying the Roman method
+of encamping, he was heard to observe, that these barbarians seemed to
+be no way barbarous, and that he should too soon find their actions
+equal to their resolution. 21. In the mean time he placed a body of
+men in readiness to oppose the Romans, in case they should attempt to
+ford the stream before his whole army was brought together. 22. Things
+turned out according to his expectations; the consul, with an
+impetuosity that marked his inexperience, gave orders for passing the
+river where it was fordable; and the advanced guard, having attempted
+to oppose him in vain, was obliged to retire to the whole body of the
+army. 23. Pyr'rhus being apprised of the enemy's attempt, at first
+hoped to cut off their cavalry, before they could be reinforced by the
+foot, which were not as yet got over; and led on in person a chosen
+body of horse against them. 24. The Roman legions having, with much
+difficulty, advanced across the river, the engagement became general;
+the Greeks fought with a consciousness of their former fame, and the
+Romans with a desire of gaining fresh glory: mankind had seldom seen
+two such differently disciplined armies opposed to each other; nor is
+it to this day determined whether the Greek phalanx, or the Roman
+legion were preferable. 25. The combat was long in suspense; the
+Romans had seven times repulsed the enemy, and were as often driven
+back themselves; but at length, while the success seemed doubtful,
+Pyr'rhus sent his elephants into the midst of the engagement, and
+these turned the scale of victory in his favour. 26. The Romans, who
+had never before encountered creatures of such magnitude, were
+terrified not only at their intrepid fierceness, but at the castles
+that were fastened on their backs, filled with armed men. 27. It was
+then that Pyr'rhus saw the day was his own; and, sending his
+Thessalian cavalry to charge the enemy in disorder, the route became
+general. A dreadful slaughter of the Romans ensued, fifteen thousand
+men being killed on the spot, and eighteen hundred taken prisoners.
+28. Nor were the conquerors in a much better state than the
+vanquished, Pyr'rhus himself being wounded, and thirteen thousand of
+his forces slain. Night coming on, put an end to the slaughter on both
+sides, and Pyr'rhus was heard to exclaim, that one such victory more
+would ruin his whole army. 29. The next day, as he walked to view
+the field of battle, he could not help regarding with admiration the
+bodies of the Romans who were slain. Upon seeing them all with their
+wounds in front, their countenances, even in death, marked with noble
+resolution, and a sternness that awed him into respect, he was heard
+to cry out, in the true spirit of a military adventurer, "Oh! with
+what ease could I conquer the world, had I the Romans for soldiers, or
+had they me for their king!"
+
+30. Pyr'rhus, after this victory, was still unwilling to drive them to
+an extremity, and considering that it was best to treat with an
+humbled enemy, he resolved to send his friend Cin'eas,[8] the orator,
+to negociate a peace; of whom he often asserted, that he had won more
+towns by the eloquence of Cin'eas, than by his own arms. 31. But
+Cin'eas, with all his art, found the Romans incapable of being
+seduced, either by private bribery, or public persuasion; with a
+haughtiness little expected from a vanquished enemy, they insisted
+that Pyr'rhus should evacuate Italy, previous to a commencement of a
+treaty of peace.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Were the Romans uniformly successful?
+
+2. Who resolved to use stratagem, and why?
+
+3. By what means did he effect it?
+
+4. What followed?
+
+5. Was the Roman general deceived by this stratagem?
+
+6. What advantage did the Samnite commander take of the situation of
+the Romans?
+
+7. Were these terms accepted?
+
+8. How was this news received at Rome?
+
+9. Did this event put an end to the war?
+
+10. Who signalized themselves against the Samnites?
+
+11. What measure did the Samnites adopt in this extremity?
+
+12. What was the character of Pyrrhus, and what effort did he make for
+their relief?
+
+13. Did he follow in person?
+
+14. Did this great force arrive in safety?
+
+15. What was his first care?
+
+16. What measures did the Romans adopt?
+
+17. Did Pyrrhus immediately commence hostilities?
+
+18. What answer was returned?
+
+19. What followed?
+
+20. What opinion did Pyrrhus form of the Romans?
+
+21. What were his first measures?
+
+22. Were his precautions justified?
+
+23. In what way did Pyrrhus resist this attack?
+
+24. What is worthy of observation in this engagement?
+
+25. To whom did the victory fall?
+
+26. On what account were the Romans terrified by the appearance of the
+elephants?
+
+27. What completed the route?
+
+28. Was this victory cheaply purchased?
+
+29. What were the sensations of Pyrrhus on viewing the field of
+battle?
+
+30. What measures did he adopt after this victory?
+
+31. Were the arts of Cineas successful?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+                In public life, severe,
+  To virtue still inexorably firm;
+  But when, beneath his low illustrious roof,
+  Sweet peace and happy wisdom smoothed his brow.
+  Not friendship softer was, nor love more kind.--_Thomson._
+
+1. Being frustrated, therefore, in his expectations, Cin'eas returned
+to his master, extolling both the virtues and the grandeur of the
+Romans. The senate, he said, appeared a reverend assembly of
+demi-gods; and the city, a temple for their reception. 2. Of this
+Pyr'rhus soon after became sensible, by an embassy from Rome,
+concerning the ransom and exchange of prisoners. 3. At the head of
+this venerable deputation was Fabri'cius, an ancient senator, who had
+long been a pattern to his countrymen of the most extreme poverty,
+joined to the most cheerful content. 4. Pyr'rhus received this
+celebrated old man with great kindness; and willing to try how far
+fame had been just in his favour, offered him rich presents; but the
+Roman refused. 5. The day after, he was desirous of examining the
+equality of his temper, and ordered one of his largest elephants to be
+placed behind the tapestry, which, upon a signal given, being drawn
+aside, the huge animal raised its trunk above the ambassador's head,
+making a hideous noise, and using other arts to intimidate him. 6. But
+Fabri'cius, with an unchanged countenance, smiled upon the king, and
+told him, that he looked with an equal eye on the terrors of that day,
+as he had upon the allurements of the preceding. 7. Pyr'rhus, pleased
+to find so much virtue in one he had considered as a barbarian, was
+willing to grant him the only favour which he knew could make him
+happy; he released the Roman prisoners, entrusting them to Fabri'cius
+alone, upon his promise, that, in case the senate were determined to
+continue the war, he might reclaim them whenever he thought
+proper.
+
+8. By this time the Roman army was recovered from its late defeat, and
+Sulpi'cius and De'cius, the consuls for the following year, were
+placed at its head.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 474.]
+
+9. The panic which had formerly seized it from the elephants, now
+began to wear off, and both armies met near the city of As'culum,
+pretty nearly equal in numbers. 10. Here again, after a long and
+obstinate fight, the Grecian discipline prevailed. The Romans, pressed
+on every side, particularly by the elephants, were obliged to retire
+to their camp, leaving six thousand men upon the field of battle. 11.
+But the enemy had no great reason to boast of their triumph, as they
+had four thousand slain. Pyr'rhus again observed, to a soldier who was
+congratulating him upon his victory, "Another such a triumph, and I
+shall be undone." This battle finished the campaign. 12. The next
+season began with equal vigour on both sides; Pyr'rhus having received
+new succours from home. 13. While the two armies were approaching, and
+yet but a small distance, from each other, a letter was brought to old
+Fabri'cius, the Roman general, from the king's physician, importing
+that, for a proper reward, he would take him off by poison, and thus
+rid the Romans of a powerful enemy, and a dangerous war. 14.
+Fabri'cius felt all the honest indignation at this base proposal that
+was consistent with his former character; he communicated it to his
+colleague, and instantly gave it as his opinion, that Pyr'rhus should
+be informed of the treachery that was plotted against him. 15.
+Accordingly, letters were despatched for that purpose, informing
+Pyr'rhus of the affair, and alleging his unfortunate choice of friends
+and enemies; that he had trusted and promoted murderers, while he
+directed his resentment against the generous and brave. 16. Pyr'rhus
+now began to find that these bold barbarians were, by degrees,
+schooled into refinement, and would not suffer him to be their
+superior, even in generosity. He received the message with as much
+amazement at their candour, as indignation at his physician's
+treachery. "Admirable Fabri'cius!" cried he, "it would be as easy to
+turn the sun from its course, as thee from the path of honour." 17.
+Then, making the proper inquiry among his servants, and having
+discovered the treason, he ordered his physician to be executed. 18.
+Not to be outdone in magnanimity, he immediately sent to Rome all his
+prisoners without ransom, and again desired to negociate a peace:
+but the Romans still refused, upon any other conditions than had been
+offered before.
+
+19. After an interval of two years, Pyr'rhus, having increased his
+army by new levies, sent one part of it to oppose the march of
+Len'tulus, while he, with the other, went to attack Cu'rius Denta'tus,
+before his colleague could come up. 20. His principal aim was to
+surprise the enemy by night; but unfortunately, passing through woods,
+and the light failing him, his men lost their way; so that at the
+approach of morning, he saw himself in sight of the Roman camp, with
+the enemy drawn out ready to receive him. The vanguard of both armies
+soon met, in which the Romans had the advantage. 21. Soon after, a
+general engagement ensuing, Pyr'rhus, finding the balance of the
+victory turning still against him, had once more recourse to his
+elephants. 22. These, however, the Romans were now too well acquainted
+with, to feel any vain terrors from; and having found that fire was
+the most effectual means to repel them, they caused a number of balls
+to be made, composed of flax and rosin, which were lighted and thrown
+against them as they approached the ranks. 23. The elephants, rendered
+furious by the flame, and boldly opposed by the soldiers, could no
+longer be brought on; but ran back on their own army, bearing down
+their ranks, and filling all places with terror and confusion: thus
+victory, at length, declared in favour of Rome. 24. Pyr'rhus, in vain,
+attempted to stop the flight and slaughter of his troops; he lost not
+only twenty-three thousand of his best soldiers, but his camp was also
+taken. 25. This served as a new lesson to the Romans, who were ever
+open to improvement. They had formerly pitched their tents without
+order; but, by this new capture, they were taught to measure out their
+ground, and fortify the whole with a trench; so that many of their
+succeeding victories are to be ascribed to their improved method of
+encamping.
+
+26. Pyr'rhus, thus finding all hopes fruitless, resolved to leave
+Italy, where he found only desperate enemies, and faithless allies;
+accordingly, calling together the Taren'tines, he informed them that
+he had received assurances from Greece of speedy assistance, and
+desiring them to await the event with tranquillity, the night
+following he embarked his troops, and returned, undisturbed, into his
+native kingdom, with the remains of his shattered forces, leaving
+a garrison in Taren'tum merely to save appearances: and in this manner
+ended the war with Pyr'rhus, after six years' continuance.
+
+27. As for the poor luxurious Taren'tines, who were the original
+promoters of the war, they soon began to find a worse enemy in the
+garrison that was left for their defence, than in the Romans who
+attacked them from without. The hatred between them and Mi'lo, who
+commanded their citadel for Pyr'rhus, was become so great, that
+nothing but the fear of their old inveterate enemies, the Romans,
+could equal it. 28. In this distress they applied to the
+Carthaginians, who, with a large fleet, came and blocked up the port
+of Taren'tum; so that this unfortunate people, once famous through
+Italy for their refinements and pleasures, now saw themselves
+contended for by three different armies, without a choice of a
+conqueror. 29. At length, however, the Romans found means to bring
+over the garrison to their interest; after which they easily became
+masters of the city, and demolished its walls, granting the
+inhabitants liberty and protection.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What report did Cineas give of the Romans?
+
+2. By what means did Pyrrhus become convinced of its truth?
+
+3. Who headed this deputation?
+
+4. What reception did he experience?
+
+5. What farther trial was made of his disposition?
+
+6. What effect did this produce in Fabricius?
+
+7. In what way did Pyrrhus evince his satisfaction?
+
+8. In what state was the Roman army at this time?
+
+9. Where did the rival armies meet?
+
+10. What was the event of the engagement?
+
+11. Did it cost the enemy dear?
+
+12. Was the war continued?
+
+13. What proposal was made to Fabricius?
+
+14. How was this proposal received?
+
+15. How was this done?
+
+16. What effect had this conduct on Pyrrhus?
+
+17. What followed?
+
+18. What return did he make to the Romans?
+
+19. How was this war carried on?
+
+20. What views had he in this, and how did they succeed?
+
+21. What expedient did Pyrrhus have recourse to, to insure the
+victory?
+
+22. How did the Romans endeavour to counteract it?
+
+23. What was the consequence?
+
+24. What loss did Pyrrhus sustain?
+
+25. What advantage did the Romans gain from this victory?
+
+26. What resolution did Pyrrhus form, and how did he effect it?
+
+27. What became of the Tarentines?
+
+28. To whom did they have recourse?
+
+29. How did this terminate?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] An additional instance of the severity with which military
+discipline was maintained among the Romans, happened a short time
+previous to this: L. Papir'ius Cursor, the dictator, having occasion
+to quit the army and repair to Rome, strictly forbade Q. Fa'bius
+Rullia'nus, his master of the horse, to venture a battle in his
+absence. This order Fa'bius disobeyed, and gained a complete victory.
+Instead, however, of finding success a palliation of his offence, he
+was immediately condemned by the stern dictator to expiate his breach
+of discipline by death. In spite of the mutinous disposition of the
+army--in spite of the intercessions and threats, both of the senate
+and people, Papir'ius persisted in his resolution: but what menaces
+and powerful interposition could not obtain, was granted to the
+prayers and tears of the criminal's relatives; and Fa'bius lived to
+fill some of the highest offices of the state, with honour to himself
+and infinite advantage to his country. (Liv. l. 8. c. 30. 35.)
+
+[2] This gives but an indifferent idea of the military skill of those
+ages.
+
+[3] It appears, however, to have suffered a diminution of its honour
+on this occasion, by breaking every article of the treaty of peace
+extorted from Posthu'mius. As some atonement for this breach of faith,
+they delivered Posthu'mius, and those who signed the treaty, into the
+hands of the Samnites, to do with them as they thought fit; but this
+generous people instantly set them at liberty. Liv. l. 9. c. 8-11.
+
+[4] U.C. 447. About this time Appius Claudius, the censor,
+constructed an aqueduct, seven miles long, for supplying Rome with
+water, and that famous road from Rome to Capua, which still remains,
+the admiration of all Europe.
+
+[5] Epi'rus, a country situated between Macedonia, Achaia, and the
+Ionian sea. (Strabo.)
+
+[6] Demos'thenes, famous for his bold and nervous style of oratory,
+flourished at Athens about 320 years before the Christian era.
+
+[7] Taren'tum, now Taren'to, was a town of Calabria, in Italy, situate
+on a bay of the same name, near the mouth of the river Gale'sus: it
+was celebrated for its fine harbour. (Strabo.)
+
+[8] Cin'eas is said to have possessed so retentive a memory, that the
+day after his arrival at Rome, he could salute every senator and
+knight by name.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR, TO THE BEGINNING OF THE
+SECOND, WHEN THE ROMANS BEGAN TO GROW POWERFUL BY SEA.--U.C. 493.
+
+                            In every heart
+  Are sown the sparks that kindle fiery war,
+  Occasion needs but fan them, and they blaze.--_Cowper_.
+
+1. The Romans having destroyed all rival pretensions at home, began to
+pant after foreign conquests. 2. The Carthagin'ians were at that time
+in possession of the greatest part of Sicily, and, like the Romans,
+only wanted an opportunity of embroiling the natives, in order to
+become masters of the whole island. 3. This opportunity at length
+offered. Hi'ero, king of Sy'racuse, one of the states of that island,
+which was as yet unconquered, entreated their aid against the
+Mam'ertines, an insignificant people of the same country, and they
+sent him supplies both by sea and land. 4. The Mam'ertines, on the
+other hand, to shield off impending ruin, put themselves under the
+protection of Rome. 5. The Romans, not thinking the Mam'ertines worthy
+of the name of allies, instead of professing to assist them, boldly
+declared war against Carthage; alleging as a reason, the assistance
+which Carthage had lately sent to the southern parts of Italy against
+the Romans. In this manner a war was declared between two powerful
+states, both too great to continue patient spectators of each other's
+increase.
+
+6. Carthage, a colony of the Phoeni'cians, was built on the coast of
+Africa, near the place where Tunis now stands, about a hundred and
+thirty-seven years before the foundation of Rome. 7. As it had been
+long growing into power, so it had extended its dominions all along
+the coasts: but its chief strength lay in its fleets and commerce. 8.
+Thus circumstanced, these two great powers began what is called the
+First Punic war. The Carthagin'ians were possessed of gold and
+silver, which might be exhausted; the Romans were famous for
+perseverance, patriotism, and poverty, which gathered strength by
+every defeat.
+
+9. But there seemed to be an insurmountable obstacle to the ambitious
+views of Rome, as they had no fleet, or at least none that deserved
+the title; while the Carthagin'ians had the entire command at sea, and
+kept all the maritime towns in obedience.[1] 10. In such a situation,
+under disadvantages which nature seemed to have imposed, any people
+but the Romans would have rested; but nothing could conquer or
+intimidate them. 11. A Carthagin'ian vessel happened to be driven on
+shore, in a storm, and this was sufficient to serve as a model. They
+began to apply themselves to maritime affairs; and though without
+shipwrights to build, or seamen to navigate a fleet, they resolved to
+surmount every obstacle with inflexible perseverance. 12. The consul
+Duil'ius was the first who ventured to sea with his new-constructed
+armament; he proceeded in quest of the enemy, whom he met near the
+Lipari islands; and by means of grappling-irons, he so connected the
+ships of the Carthaginians with his own, that the combat became a sort
+of land-fight. By this manoeuvre, though his own force was far
+inferior to that of the enemy, he gained for Rome her first naval
+triumph, taking from the Carthaginians fifty ships, and what they
+valued still more, the undisturbed sovereignty of the sea. At Rome
+medals were struck and a column was erected in commemoration of the
+victory. This column, called Columna Rostrata, because adorned with
+the beaks of ships, was struck down by lightning in the interval
+between the second and third Punic wars. A new column was erected by
+the Emperor Claudius, and the inscription restored, though probably
+modernized. It still exists in a state of partial preservation.
+
+13. The Romans soon invaded Sicily, and gained some signal successes,
+principally by the aid of their ally, king Hi'ero. On one occasion the
+consul Calati'nus was entrapped by the Carthaginians in a defile, and
+would certainly have been destroyed but for the bravery of the
+military tribune Calpur'nius Flem'ma, who, with three hundred resolute
+men, possessed himself of a neighbouring eminence, and so engaged the
+attention of the Carthaginians, that the Roman army escaped with very
+little opposition. This band of heroes was slaughtered to a man, and
+Calpur'nius himself fell dreadfully wounded, but afterwards recovered,
+and was rewarded with a corona graminis, or crown made of grass. But
+notwithstanding their repeated triumphs, the Romans discovered that
+the conquest of Sicily was only to be obtained by humbling the power
+of Carthage at home. For this reason the senate resolved to carry the
+war into Africa itself, and accordingly they sent Reg'ulus and
+Man'lius, with a fleet of three hundred sail, to make the invasion.
+14. Reg'ulus was reckoned the most consummate warrior that Rome could
+then produce, and a professed example of frugal severity. His
+patriotism was still greater than his temperance: all private passions
+seemed extinguished in him; at least they were swallowed up in one
+great ruling affection, the love of his country. 15. The two generals
+set sail with their fleet, which was the greatest that had ever yet
+left an Italian port, carrying a hundred and forty thousand men. They
+were met by the Carthagin'ians with a fleet equally powerful, and men
+more used to the sea. 16. While the fight continued at a distance, the
+Carthagin'ians seemed successful; but when the Romans came to grapple
+with them, the difference between a mercenary army and one that fought
+for fame, was apparent. 17. The resolution of the Romans was crowned
+with success; the enemy's fleet was dispersed, and fifty-four of their
+vessels taken. 18. The consequence of this victory was an immediate
+descent upon the coast of Africa, and the capture of the city Clu'pea,
+together with twenty thousand men, who were made prisoners of war.
+While Reg'ulus lay encamped here, near the river Bagra'da, he is said
+to have slain a monstrous serpent by the help of his battering
+engines. Its skin, which was one hundred and twenty feet long, was
+sent to Rome and preserved for a long time with great care.
+
+19. The senate being informed of these great successes, and applied to
+for fresh instructions, commanded Man'lius back to Italy, in order to
+superintend the Sicilian war, and directed that Reg'ulus should
+continue in Africa to prosecute his victories there.
+
+[Illustration: The army of Regulus destroying the serpent.]
+
+20. A battle ensued, in which Carthage was once more defeated, and
+17,000 of its best troops were cut off. This fresh victory contributed
+to throw them into the utmost despair; for more than eighty of their
+towns submitted to the Romans. 21. In this distress, the
+Carthagin'ians, destitute of generals at home, were obliged to send to
+Lacedae'mon, offering the command of their armies to Xantip'pus, a
+general of great experience, who undertook to conduct them.
+
+22. This general began by giving the magistrates proper instructions
+for levying their men; he assured them that their armies were hitherto
+overthrown, not by the strength of the enemy, but by the ignorance of
+their own commanders; he, therefore, required a ready obedience to his
+orders, and assured them of an easy victory. 23. The whole city seemed
+once more revived from despondence by the exhortations of a single
+stranger, and soon from hope grew into confidence. 24. This was the
+spirit the Grecian general wished to excite in them; so that when he
+saw them thus ripe for the engagement, he joyfully took the field. 25.
+The Lacedaemo'nian made the most skilful disposition of his forces; he
+placed his cavalry in the wings; he disposed the elephants at proper
+intervals, behind the line of the heavy-armed infantry, and bringing
+up the light-armed troops before, he ordered them to retire through
+the line of infantry, after they had discharged their weapons. 26. At
+length both armies engaged; after a long and obstinate resistance the
+Romans were overthrown with dreadful slaughter, the greatest part of
+their army destroyed, and Reg'ulus himself taken prisoner. 27.
+Several other distresses of the Romans followed soon after. They lost
+their fleet in a storm, and Agrigen'tum, their principal town in
+Sicily, was taken by Karth'alo, the Carthagin'ian general. They built
+a new fleet, which shared the fate of the former; for the mariners, as
+yet unacquainted with the Mediterranean shores, drove upon quicksands,
+and soon after the greater part perished in a storm.[2]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What did the Romans now desire?
+
+2. What state afforded them an opportunity for this purpose?
+
+3. Were their wishes gratified, and how?
+
+4. What measures did the Mamertines adopt?
+
+5. Did the Romans afford them the assistance they requested?
+
+6. Where was Carthage situated, and when was it built?
+
+7. Was it a powerful state?
+
+8. Had the Romans or the Carthaginians the means most likely to insure
+success?
+
+9. Were Rome and Carthage on an equal footing in other respects?
+
+10. Did the Romans attempt to overcome this obstacle?
+
+11. What assisted their endeavours?
+
+12. Who was their first naval commander, and what was his success?
+
+13. What were the means adopted to conquer Sicily?
+
+14. What was the character of Regulus?
+
+15. What was the amount of the force on both sides?
+
+16. On what side did the advantage lie?
+
+17. With whom did the victory remain?
+
+18. What was the consequence of this victory?
+
+19. What were the orders of the senate?
+
+20. What was the next event deserving notice, and its consequences?
+
+21. To what expedient were the Carthaginians obliged to have recourse?
+
+22. What were the first acts of this general?
+
+23. What were the effects his arrival produced?
+
+24. What was the consequence?
+
+25. In what way was the Carthaginian army drawn up?
+
+26. What was the event of the battle?
+
+27. What other disasters did the Romans encounter?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  Who has not heard the Fulvian heroes sung
+  Dentatus' scars, or Mutius' flaming hand?
+  How Manlius saved the capitol? the choice
+  Of steady Regulus?--_Dyer._
+
+1. The Carthagin'ians being thus successful, were desirous of a new
+treaty for peace, hoping to have better terms than those insisted upon
+by Reg'ulus. They supposed that he, whom they had now for four years
+kept in a dungeon, confined and chained, would be a proper solicitor.
+It was expected that, being wearied with imprisonment and bondage, he
+would gladly endeavour to persuade his countrymen to a discontinuance
+of the war which prolonged his captivity. 2. He was accordingly sent
+with their ambassadors to Rome, under a promise, previously exacted
+from him, to return in case of being unsuccessful. He was even given
+to understand that his life depended upon the success of his
+negociation.
+
+3. When this old general, together with the ambassadors of Carthage,
+approached Rome, numbers of his friends came out to meet him, and
+congratulate him on his return. 4. Their acclamations resounded
+through the city; but Reg'ulus refused, with settled melancholy, to
+enter the gates. In vain he was entreated on every side to visit once
+more his little dwelling, and share in that joy which his return had
+inspired. He persisted in saying that he was now a slave belonging to
+the Carthagin'ians, and unfit to partake in the liberal honours of his
+country. 5. The senate assembling without the walls, as usual, to give
+audience to the ambassadors, Reg'ulus opened his commission as he had
+been directed by the Carthagin'ian council, and their ambassadors
+seconded his proposals. 6. The senate themselves, who were weary of a
+war which had been protracted above fourteen years, were no way
+disinclinable to a peace. It only remained for Reg'ulus himself to
+give his opinion. 7. When it came to his turn to speak, to the
+surprise of the whole, he gave his voice for continuing the war. 8. So
+unexpected an advice not a little disturbed the senate: they pitied as
+well as admired a man who had used such eloquence against his private
+interest, and could conclude upon a measure which was to
+terminate in his own ruin. 9. But he soon relieved their embarrassment
+by breaking off the treaty, and by rising, in order to return to his
+bonds and his confinement. 10. In vain did the senate and his dearest
+friends entreat his stay; he still repressed their solicitations.
+Marcia, his wife, with her children, vainly entreated to be permitted
+to see him: he still obstinately persisted in keeping his promise; and
+though sufficiently apprised of the tortures that awaited his return,
+without embracing his family, or taking leave of his friends, he
+departed with the ambassadors for Carthage.
+
+11. Nothing could equal the fury and the disappointment of the
+Carthagin'ians, when they, were informed by their ambassadors that
+Regulus, instead of hastening a peace, had given his opinion for
+continuing the war. 12. They accordingly prepared to punish his
+conduct with the most studied tortures. His eye-lids were cut off, and
+he was remanded to prison. After some days, he was again brought out
+from his dark and dismal dungeon, and exposed with, his face opposite
+the burning sun. At last, when malice was fatigued studying all the
+arts of torture, he was put into a sort of barrel, stuck full of
+spikes, and in this painful position he continued till he died.
+
+13. Both sides now took up arms with more than former animosity. At
+length, Roman perseverance was crowned with success; and one victory
+followed on the back of another. Fa'bius Bu'teo, the consul, once more
+showed them the way to naval victory, by defeating a large squadron of
+the enemy's ships; but Luta'tius Cat'ulus gained a victory still more
+complete, in which the power of Carthage seemed totally destroyed at
+sea, by the loss of a hundred and twenty ships. 14. This loss
+compelled the Carthagin'ians again to sue for peace, which Rome
+thought proper to grant; but still inflexible in its demands, exacted
+the same conditions which Reg'ulus had formerly offered at the gates
+of Carthage. 15. These were, that they should lay down a thousand
+talents of silver, to defray the charge of the war, and should pay two
+thousand two hundred more within ten years; that they should quit
+Sicily, with all such islands as they possessed near it; that they
+should never make war against the allies of Rome, nor come with any
+vessels of war within the Roman dominions; and lastly, that all their
+prisoners and deserters should be delivered up without ransom.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 513.]
+
+16. To these hard conditions, the Carthagin'ians, now exhausted,
+readily subscribed; and thus ended the first Punic war, which had
+lasted twenty-four years; and, in some measure, had drained both
+nations of their resources.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the Carthaginians now desirous of obtaining?
+
+2. Was Regulus employed for this purpose?
+
+3. How was Regulus received by the Romans?
+
+4. What was the conduct of Regulus on this occasion?
+
+5. How did the negociation commence?
+
+6. Were the Romans inclined for peace?
+
+7. What was the opinion of Regulus?
+
+8. What was the effect of this advice?
+
+9. How did Regulus put an end to their embarrassment?
+
+10. Could he not be prevailed on to remain at Rome?
+
+11. How did the Carthaginians receive an account of his conduct?
+
+12. In what way did they punish him?
+
+13. With what success was the war continued?
+
+14. What was the consequence of this loss?
+
+15. What were these terms?
+
+16. Were they agreed to? What was the duration of the first Punic war?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The vessels in which they had hitherto transported their troops,
+were principally hired from their neighbours the Locrians, Tarentines,
+&c. It is certain that the Romans had ships of war before this period;
+but from the little attention they had hitherto paid to naval affairs,
+they were, probably, badly constructed and ill managed.
+
+[2] The Romans considering these two disasters as indications of the
+will of the gods that they should not contend by sea, made a decree
+that no more than fifty galleys should, for the future, be equipped.
+This decree, however, did not continue long in force.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE END OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR TO THE END OF THE SECOND.
+
+  Spain first he won, the Pyrenieans pass'd,
+  And sleepy Alps, the mounds that nature cast;
+  And with corroding juices, as he went,
+  A passage through the living rocks he rent,
+  Then, like a torrent rolling from on high,
+  He pours his headlong rage on Italy.--_Juvenal_.
+
+1. The war being ended between the Carthagin'ians and Romans, a
+profound peace ensued, and in about six years after, the temple of
+Ja'nus was shut for the second time since the foundation of the
+city.[1] 2. The Romans being thus in friendship with all nations, had
+an opportunity of turning to the arts of peace; they now began to have
+a relish for poetry, the first liberal art which rises in every
+civilized nation, and the first also that decays. 3. Hitherto they had
+been entertained only with the rude drolleries of their lowest
+buffoons, who entertained them with sports called Fescen'nine, in
+which a few debauched actors invented their own parts, while raillery
+and indecency supplied the place of humour. 4. To these a composition
+of a higher kind succeeded, called satire; a sort of dramatic poem, in
+which the characters of the great were particularly, pointed out, and
+made an object of derision to the vulgar.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 514.]
+
+5. After these, came tragedy and comedy, which were borrowed from the
+Greeks: indeed, the first dramatic poet of Rome, whose name was
+Liv'ius Andronicus, was a native of one of the Greek colonies in
+southern Italy. 6. The instant these finer kinds of composition
+appeared, this great people rejected their former impurities with
+disdain. From thenceforward they laboured upon the Grecian model; and
+though they were never able to rival their masters in dramatic
+composition, they soon surpassed them in many of the more soothing
+kinds of poetry. Elegiac, pastoral, and didactic compositions began to
+assume new beauties in the Roman language; and satire, not that rude
+kind of dialogue already mentioned, but a nobler sort, was all their
+own.
+
+7. While they were thus cultivating the arts of peace, they were not
+unmindful of making fresh preparations for war; intervals of ease
+seemed to give fresh vigour for new designs, rather than relax their
+former intrepidity.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 527.]
+
+8. The Illyr'ians were the first people upon whom they tried their
+strength. That nation happened to make depredations upon some of the
+trading subjects of Rome, which being complained of to Teuta, the
+queen of the country, she, instead of granting redress, ordered the
+ambassadors, who were sent to demand restitution, to be murdered. 9. A
+war ensued, in which the Romans were victorious; most of the Illy'ric
+towns were surrendered to the consuls, and a peace at last concluded,
+by which the greatest part of the country was ceded to Rome; a yearly
+tribute was exacted for the rest, and a prohibition added, that the
+Illyr'ians should not sail beyond the river Lissus with more than two
+barks, and those unarmed.
+
+10. The Gauls were the next people that incurred the displeasure of
+the Romans. 11. A time of peace, when the armies were disbanded, was
+the proper season for new irruptions; accordingly, these barbarians
+invited fresh forces from beyond the Alps, and entering Etru'ria,
+wasted all with fire and sword, till they came within about three
+days' journey of Rome. 12. A praetor and a consul were sent to
+oppose them, who, now instructed in the improved arts of war, were
+enabled to surround the Gauls. 13. It was in vain that those hardy
+troops, who had nothing but courage to protect them, formed two fronts
+to oppose their adversaries; their naked bodies and undisciplined
+forces were unable to withstand the shock of an enemy completely
+armed, and skilled in military evolutions. 14. A miserable slaughter
+ensued, in which forty thousand were killed, and ten thousand taken
+prisoners. 15. This victory was followed by another, gained by
+Marcel'lus, in which he killed Viridoma'rus, their king, with his own
+hand. 16. These conquests forced them to beg for peace, the conditions
+of which served greatly to enlarge the empire. Thus the Romans went on
+with success; retrieved their former losses, and only wanted an enemy
+worthy of their arms to begin a new war.
+
+17. The Carthagin'ians had made peace solely because they were no
+longer able to continue the war. They, therefore, took the earliest
+opportunity of breaking the treaty, and besieged Sagun'tum, a city of
+Spain, which had been in alliance with Rome; and, though desired to
+desist, prosecuted their operations with vigour. 18. Ambassadors were
+sent, in consequence, from Rome to Carthage, complaining of the
+infraction of their articles, and required that Han'nibal, the
+Carthagin'ian general, who had advised this measure, should be
+delivered up: which being refused, both sides prepared for a second
+Punic war.
+
+19. The Carthaginians trusted the management of it to Han'nibal. 20.
+This extraordinary man had been made the sworn foe of Rome, almost
+from his infancy; for, while yet very young, his father brought him
+before the altar, and obliged him to take an oath, that he would never
+be in friendship with the Romans, nor desist from opposing their
+power, until he or they should be no more. 21. On his first appearance
+in the field, he united in his own person the most masterly method of
+commanding, with the most perfect obedience to his superiors. Thus he
+was equally beloved by his generals, and the troops he was appointed
+to lead. 22. He was possessed of the greatest courage in opposing
+danger, and the greatest presence of mind in retiring from it. No
+fatigue was able to subdue his body, nor any misfortune to break his
+spirit; he was equally patient of heat and cold, and he took
+sustenance merely to content nature, not to delight his appetite.
+He was the best horseman and the swiftest runner, of the time. 23.
+This great general, who is considered as the most skilful commander of
+antiquity, having overrun all Spain, and levied a large army composed
+of various nations, resolved to carry the war into Italy itself, as
+the Romans had before carried it into the dominions of Carthage. 24.
+For this purpose, leaving Hanno with a sufficient force to guard his
+conquests in Spain, he crossed the Pyrene'an mountains into Gaul, with
+an army of fifty thousand foot, and nine thousand horse. He quickly
+traversed that country, which was then wild and extensive, and filled
+with nations that were his declared enemies.
+
+25. In vain its forests and rivers appeared to intimidate; in vain the
+Rhone, with its rapid current, and its banks covered with enemies, or
+the Dura branched out into numberless channels, opposed his way; he
+passed them all with undaunted spirit, and in ten days arrived at the
+foot of the Alps, over which he was to explore a new passage into
+Italy. 26. It was in the midst of winter when this astonishing project
+was undertaken. The season added new horrors to the scene. The
+prodigious height and tremendous steepness of these mountains, capped
+with snow; the people barbarous and fierce, dressed in skins, and with
+long shaggy hair, presented a picture that impressed the beholders
+with astonishment and terror. 27. But nothing was capable of subduing
+the courage of the Carthaginian general. At the end of fifteen days,
+spent in crossing the Alps, he found himself in the plains of Italy,
+with about half his army; the other half having died of cold, or been
+cut off by the natives.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the consequence of the conclusion of the first Punic war?
+
+2. What advantages did the Romans derive from this interval of peace?
+
+3. What species of entertainment had they hitherto enjoyed?
+
+4. What succeeded these low buffooneries?
+
+5. What was the next species, and from whom was it borrowed?
+
+6. Did their former amusements still continue to please?
+
+7. Were the Romans attentive only to the arts of peace?
+
+8. Who first incurred their resentment, and what was their offence?
+
+9. What was the consequence?
+
+10. Who next incurred the displeasure of the Romans? 11. What was
+their offence, and what favourable opportunity did they choose?
+
+12. What steps were taken to oppose them?
+
+13. Did the Gauls make any effectual resistance?
+
+14. What was the result of the battle?
+
+15. Did this victory decide the contest?
+
+16. What advantages occurred to the Romans from this war?
+
+17. Were the Carthaginians sincere in their overture for peace?
+
+18. What was the consequence of this refusal?
+
+19. To whom was the conduct of the war committed by the Carthaginians?
+
+20. What rendered Hannibal particularly eligible to this post?
+
+21. Was he a favourite with the army?
+
+22. Describe his corporeal and mental qualifications?
+
+23. What resolution did he adopt?
+
+24. What measures did he take for that purpose?
+
+25. Was he not deterred by the dangers of the way?
+
+26. What rendered this passage peculiarly difficult?
+
+27. Did these horrors render the attempt unsuccessful?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  With Hannibal I cleft yon Alpine rocks.
+  With Hannibal choked Thrasymene with slaughter;
+  But, O the night of Cannae's raging field!
+  When half the Roman senate lay in blood.--_Young_.
+
+1. As soon as it was known at Rome, that Han'nibal, at the head of an
+immense army, was crossing the Alps, the senate sent Scip'io to oppose
+him; the armies met near the little river Tici'nus, and the Roman
+general was obliged to retreat with considerable loss. 2. In the mean
+time, Han'nibal, thus victorious, took the most prudent precautions to
+increase his army; giving orders always to spare the possessions of
+the Gauls, while depredations were committed upon those of Rome; and
+this so pleased that simple people, that they declared for him in
+great numbers, and flocked to his standard with alacrity.
+
+3. The second battle was fought upon the banks of the river Tre'bia.
+4. The Carthaginian general, being apprised of the Roman impetuosity,
+of which he availed himself in almost every engagement, had sent off a
+thousand horse, each with a foot soldier behind, to cross the river,
+to ravage the enemy's country, and provoke them to engage. The Romans
+quickly routed this force. Seeming to be defeated, they took the
+river, and were as eagerly pursued by Sempro'nius, the consul. No
+sooner had his army attained the opposite bank, than he perceived
+himself half-conquered, his men being fatigued with wading up to their
+arm-pits, and quite benumbed by the intense coldness of the water
+5. A total route ensued; twenty-six thousand of the Romans were either
+killed by the enemy, or drowned in attempting to repass the river. A
+body of ten thousand men were all that survived; who, finding
+themselves enclosed on every side, broke desperately through the
+enemy's ranks, and fought, retreating, till they found shelter in the
+city of Placentia.
+
+6. The third defeat the Romans sustained was at the lake of
+Thrasyme'ne, near to which was a chain of mountains, and between these
+and the lake, a narrow passage leading to a valley that was embosomed
+in hills. It was upon these hills that Han'nibal disposed his best
+troops and it was into this valley that Flamin'ius, the Roman general,
+led his men to attack him. 7. A disposition every way so favourable
+for the Carthaginians, was also assisted by accident; for a mist
+rising from the lake, kept the Romans from seeing their enemies; while
+the army upon the mountains, being above its influence, saw the whole
+disposition of their opponents. 8. The fortune of the day was such as
+might be expected from the conduct of the two generals. The Roman army
+was slaughtered, almost before they could perceive the enemy that
+destroyed them. About fifteen thousand Romans, with Flamin'ius
+himself, fell in the valley, and six thousand more were obliged to
+yield themselves prisoners of war.
+
+9. Upon the news of this defeat, after the general consternation was
+allayed, the senate resolved to elect a commander with absolute
+authority, in whom they might repose their last and greatest
+expectations. 10. The choice fell upon Fa'bius Max'imus, a man of
+great courage, with a happy mixture of caution. 11. He was apprised
+that the only way to humble the Carthaginians at such a distance from
+home, was rather by harassing than fighting. For this purpose, he
+always encamped upon the highest grounds, inaccessible to the enemy's
+cavalry. Whenever they moved, he watched their motions, straitened
+their quarters, and cut off their provisions.
+
+12. By these arts, Fa'bius had actually, at one time, enclosed
+Han'nibal among mountains, where it was impossible to winter, and from
+which it was almost impracticable to extricate his army without
+imminent danger. 13. In this exigence, nothing but one of those
+stratagems of war, which only men of great abilities invent, could
+save him. 14. He ordered a number of small faggots and lighted torches
+to be tied to the horns of two thousand oxen, which should be
+driven towards the enemy. These, tossing their heads, and funning up
+the sides of the mountain, seemed to fill the whole neighbouring
+forest with fire; while the sentinels that were placed to guard the
+approaches to the mountain, seeing such a number of flames advancing
+towards their posts, fled in consternation, supposing the whole body
+of the enemy was in arms to overwhelm them. 15. By this stratagem
+Han'nibal drew off his army, and escaped through the defiles that led
+beneath the hills, though with considerable damage to his rear.
+
+16. Fa'bius, still pursuing the same judicious measures, followed
+Han'nibal in all his movements, but at length received a letter from
+the senate, recalling him to Rome, on pretence of a solemn sacrifice,
+requiring his presence. 17. On his departure from the army, he
+strictly charged Minu'tius, his general of the horse, not to hazard an
+engagement in his absence. This command he disobeyed, and Fa'bius
+expressed his determination to punish so flagrant a breach of military
+discipline. 18. The senate, however, favouring Minu'tius, gave him an
+equal authority with the dictator. 19. On the arrival of Fa'bius at
+the camp, he divided the army with Minu'tius, and each pursued his own
+separate plan. 20. By artful management, Han'nibal soon brought the
+troops of the latter to an engagement, and they would have been cut
+off to a man, had not Fa'bius sacrificed his private resentment to the
+public good, and hastened to the relief of his colleague. 21. By their
+united forces Han'nibal was repulsed, and Minu'tius, conscious of his
+rashness, resigned the supreme command into the hands of the dictator.
+
+22. On the expiration of his year of office, Fa'bius resigned, and
+Taren'tius Varro was chosen to the command. 23. Varro was a man sprung
+from the dregs of the people, with nothing but confidence and riches
+to recommend him. 24. With him was joined AEmil'ius Paulus, of a
+disposition entirely opposite; experienced, in the field, cautious in
+action, and impressed with a thorough contempt for the abilities of
+his plebeian colleague.
+
+25. The Romans finding themselves enabled to bring a competent force
+into the field, being almost ninety thousand strong, now again
+resolved to meet Han'nibal, who was at this time encamped near the
+village of Cannae, with a wind in his rear, that, for a certain season,
+blows constantly one way, which, raising great clouds of dust
+from the parched plains behind, he knew must greatly distress an
+approaching enemy. In this situation he waited the coming of the
+Romans with an army of forty thousand foot, and half that number of
+cavalry. 26. The consuls soon appeared to his wish, dividing their
+forces into two parts, and agreeing to take the command each day by
+turns. 27. On the first day of their arrival, AEmil'ius was entirely
+averse to engaging. The next day, however, it being Varro's turn to
+command, he, without asking his colleague's concurrence, gave the
+signal for battle: and passing the river Au'fidus, that lay between
+both armies, put his forces in array. 28. The battle began with the
+light-armed infantry; the horse engaged soon after; but the cavalry
+being unable to stand against those of Numid'ia, the legions came up
+to reinforce them. It was then that the conflict became general; the
+Roman soldiers endeavoured, in vain, to penetrate the centre, where
+the Gauls and Spaniards fought; which Han'nibal observing, he ordered
+part of those troops to give way, and to permit the Romans to embosom
+themselves within a chosen body of his Africans, whom he had placed on
+their wings, so as to surround them; upon that a terrible slaughter of
+the Romans ensued, fatigued with repeated attacks of the Africans, who
+were fresh and vigorous. 29. At last the rout became general in every
+part of the Roman army; the boastings of Varro were now no longer
+heard: while AEmil'ius, who had been wounded by a slinger, feebly led
+on his body of horse, and did all that could be done to make head
+against the enemy. 30. Unable to sit on horseback, he was forced to
+dismount. It was in these deplorable circumstances, that one
+Len'tulus, a tribune of the army, flying from the enemy, who at some
+distance pursued him, met AEmil'ius, sitting upon a stone, covered with
+blood and wounds, and waiting for the coming up of the pursuers. 31.
+"AEmil'ius," cried the generous tribune, "you, at least, are guiltless
+of this day's slaughter; take my horse and fly." "I thank thee,
+Len'tulus," cried the dying consul, "all is over, my part is chosen.
+Go, and tell the senate to fortify Rome against the approach of the
+conqueror. Tell Fa'bius, that AEmil'ius, while living, ever remembered
+his advice; and now, dying, approves it." 32. While he was yet
+speaking, the enemy approached; and Len'tulus at some distance saw the
+consul expire, feebly fighting in the midst of hundreds. 33. In this
+battle the Romans lost fifty thousand men, and so many knights,
+that it is said that Han'nibal sent three bushels of gold rings to
+Carthage, which those of this order wore on their fingers.[2]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What measures were adopted by the Romans when they heard of
+Hannibal's approach?
+
+2. What precautions did Hannibal take?
+
+3. Where was the next battle fought?
+
+4. What was the stratagem employed by Hannibal?
+
+5. What followed?
+
+6. Where was the next engagement?
+
+7. Was this a judicious disposition of the Roman general?
+
+8. What was the result?
+
+9. What expedient did the senate adopt on this occasion?
+
+10. Who was chosen to this office?
+
+11. What method of fighting did he adopt?
+
+12. What was the success of this plan?
+
+13. Was his situation hopeless?
+
+14. Describe his stratagem and its consequences?
+
+15. Did it answer his purpose?
+
+16. Was Fabius continued in office?
+
+17, 18. Of what disobedience was Minutius guilty? Was he punished?
+
+19. How was the army divided?
+
+20, 21. What plan did Fabius pursue? How was its superiority proved?
+
+22, 23, 24. Who succeeded Fabius? What was his character, and that of
+his colleague?
+
+25. How were the Carthaginians posted at Cannae?
+
+26, 27. How did the consuls behave? How did Varro act?
+
+28. What were the circumstances of the engagement?
+
+29. How did the battle terminate?
+
+30. What was the fate of AEmilius?
+
+31. What generous offer was made by Lentulus?
+
+32. Did the consul accept the tribune's offer?
+
+33. Was the loss of the Romans severe?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+                  The storming Hannibal
+  In vain the thunder of the battle rolled.
+  The thunder of the battle they returned
+  Back on his Punic shores.--_Dyer_.
+
+1. When the first consternation was abated after this dreadful blow,
+the senate came to a resolution to create a dictator, in order to give
+strength to their government. 2. A short time after Varro arrived,
+having left behind him the wretched remains of his army. As he had
+been the principal cause of the late calamity, it was natural to
+suppose, that the senate would severely reprimand the rashness of his
+conduct. But far otherwise! The Romans went out in multitudes to meet
+him; and the senate returned him thanks that he had not despaired of
+the safety of Rome. 3. Fa'bius, who was considered as the shield, and
+Marcellus, as the sword of Rome, were appointed to lead the armies:
+and though Hannibal once more offered them peace, they refused it, but
+upon condition that he should quit Italy--a measure similar to that
+they had formerly insisted upon from Pyrrhus.
+
+4. Han'nibal finding the impossibility of marching directly to Rome,
+or willing to give his forces rest after so mighty a victory, led them
+to Cap'ua, where he resolved to winter. 5. This city had long been
+considered as the nurse of luxury, and the corrupter of all military
+virtue. 6. Here a new scene of pleasure opened to his barbarian
+troops: they at once gave themselves up to intoxication; and from
+being hardy veterans, became infirm rioters.
+
+7. Hitherto we have found this great man successful; but now we are to
+reverse the picture, and survey him struggling with accumulated
+misfortunes, and, at last, sinking beneath them.
+
+8. His first loss was at the siege of Nola, where Marcel'lus, the
+praetor, made a successful sally. He some time after attempted to raise
+the siege of Cap'ua, attacked the Romans in their trenches, and was
+repulsed with considerable loss. He then made a feint to besiege Rome,
+but finding a superior army ready to receive him, was obliged to
+retire. 9. For many years he fought with varied success; Marcel'lus,
+his opponent, sometimes gaining, and sometimes losing the advantage,
+without coming to any decisive engagement.
+
+10. The senate of Carthage at length came to a resolution of
+sending his brother As'drubal to his assistance, with a body of forces
+drawn out of Spain. 11. As'drubal's march being made known to the
+consuls Liv'ius and Nero, they went against him with great expedition;
+and, surrounding him in a place into which he was led by the treachery
+of his guides, they cut his whole army to pieces. 12. Han'nibal had
+long expected these succours with impatience; and the very night on
+which he had been assured of his brother's arrival, Nero ordered
+As'drubal's head to be cut off, and thrown into his brother's camp.
+13. The Carthaginian general now began to perceive the downfall of
+Carthage; and, with a sigh, observed to those about him, that fortune
+seemed fatigued with granting her favours.
+
+14. In the mean time, the Roman arms seemed to be favoured in other
+parts; Marcel'lus took the city of Syr'acuse, in Sicily, defended by
+the machines and the fires of Archime'des,[3] the mathematician. 15.
+The inhabitants were put to the sword, and among the rest, Archime'des
+himself, who was found, by a Roman soldier, meditating in his study.
+16. Marcel'lus, the general, was not a little grieved at his death. A
+love of literature at that time began to prevail among the higher
+ranks at Rome. Marcel'lus ordered Archime'des to be honourably buried,
+and a tomb to be erected to his memory.
+
+17. As to their fortunes in Spain, though for a while doubtful, they
+soon recovered their complexion under the conduct of Scip'io
+Africa'nus, who sued for the office of proconsul to that kingdom, at a
+time when every one else was willing to decline it. 18. Scip'io, now
+no more than twenty-four years old, had all the qualifications
+requisite for forming a great general, and a good man; he united
+courage with tenderness, was superior to Hannibal in the arts of
+peace, and almost his equal in those of war. 19. His father had been
+killed in Spain, so that he seemed to have an hereditary claim to
+attack that country. He, therefore, appeared irresistible, obtaining
+many great victories, yet subduing more by his generosity,
+mildness, and benevolent disposition, than by the force of arms.[4]
+
+20. He returned with an army from the conquest of Spain, and was made
+consul at the age of twenty-nine. It was at first supposed he intended
+meeting Hannibal in Italy, and that he would attempt driving him from
+thence: but he had formed a wiser plan, which was, to carry the war
+into Africa; and, while the Carthaginians kept an army near Rome, to
+make them tremble for their own capital.
+
+21. Scip'io was not long in Africa without employment; Hanno opposed
+him, but was defeated and slain. Sy'phax, the usurper of Numid'ia, led
+up a large army against him. 22. The Roman general, for a time,
+declined fighting, till finding an opportunity, he set fire to the
+enemy's tents, and attacking them in the midst of the confusion,
+killed forty thousand, and took six thousand prisoners.
+
+23. The Carthaginians, terrified at their repeated defeats, and at the
+fame of Scip'io's successes, determined to recall Hannibal, their
+great champion, out of Italy, in order to oppose the Romans at home.
+Deputies were accordingly despatched with a positive command for him
+to return and oppose the Roman general, who at that time threatened
+Carthage with a siege. 24. Nothing could exceed the regret and
+disappointment of Hannibal; but he obeyed the orders of his infatuated
+country with the submission of the meanest soldier; and took leave of
+Italy with tears, after having kept possession of its most beautiful
+parts above fifteen years.
+
+25. Upon his arrival at Leptis, in Africa, he set out for Adrume'tum,
+and at last approached Za'ma, a city about seventy-five miles from
+Carthage. 26. Scip'io, in the mean time, led his army to meet him,
+joined by Massinis'sa, with six thousand horse; and to show his rival
+how little he feared his approach, sent back the spies which were
+sent to explore his camp, having previously shown them the whole, with
+directions to inform Hannibal of what they had seen. 27. The
+Carthaginian general, conscious of his inferiority, endeavoured to
+discontinue the war by negociation, and desired a meeting with.
+Scip'io to confer upon terms of peace; to which the Roman general
+assented. 28. But after a long conference, both sides parting
+dissatisfied, they returned to their camps, to prepare for deciding
+the controversy by the sword. 29. Never was a more memorable battle
+fought, whether we regard the generals, the armies, the two states
+that contended, or the empire that was in dispute. The disposition
+Hannibal made of his men, is said to be superior to any even of his
+former arrangements. 30. The battle began with the elephants on the
+side of the Carthaginians, which being terrified at the cries of the
+Romans, and wounded by the slingers and archers, turned upon their
+drivers, and caused much confusion in both wings of their army, where
+the cavalry were placed. 31. Being thus deprived of the assistance of
+the horse, in which their greatest strength consisted, the heavy
+infantry joined on both sides; but the Romans being stronger of body,
+the Carthaginians gave ground. 32. In the mean time, Massinissa, who
+had been in pursuit of their cavalry, returning and attacking them in
+the rear, completed their-defeat. A total rout ensued, twenty thousand
+men were killed, and as many taken prisoners. 33. Hannibal, who had
+done all that a great and undaunted general could perform, fled with a
+small body of horse to Adrume'tum; fortune seeming to delight in
+confounding his ability, his valour, and experience.
+
+34. This victory brought on a peace. The Carthaginians, by Hannibal's
+advice, submitted to the conditions which the Romans dictated, not as
+rivals, but as sovereigns. 35. By this treaty the Carthaginians were
+obliged to quit Spain, and all the islands in the Mediterranean. They
+were bound to pay ten thousand talents in fifty years; to give
+hostages for the delivery of their ships and their elephants; to
+restore to Massanis'sa all the territories that had been taken from
+him; and not to make war in Africa but by the permission of the
+Romans. Thus ended the second Punic war, seventeen years after it had
+begun.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. By what measure did the senate attempt to retrieve this disaster?
+
+2. Did Varro venture to return, and what was his reception?
+
+3. Who were appointed to carry on the war?
+
+4. What was Hannibal's next step?
+
+5. What was the character of this city?
+
+6. What was the consequence to the Carthaginian army?
+
+7. Was Hannibal uniformly successful?
+
+8. What was his first reverse?
+
+9. What happened to him afterwards?
+
+10. What resolution did the senate of Carthage adopt?
+
+11. Did he effect a junction with his brother?
+
+12. Was Hannibal apprised of these intended succours?
+
+13. What inference did Hannibal draw from this?
+
+14. Were the Romans successful in other parts?
+
+15. What was the fate of its inhabitants?
+
+16. Was his loss deplored?
+
+17. What was the success of the Romans in Spain?
+
+18. What was the character of Scipio?
+
+19. What rendered him particularly eligible for this command?
+
+20. Were his exploits confined to Spain?
+
+21. Had he any formidable opposition to encounter?
+
+22. What was the conduct of Scipio?
+
+23. What measures did the Carthaginians have recourse to on this
+occasion?
+
+24. Was Hannibal pleased at his recall?
+
+25. Whither did he repair on his arrival in Africa?
+
+26. What was the conduct of Scipio?
+
+27. Was Hannibal desirous of continuing hostilities?
+
+28. What was the result?
+
+29. Was the battle of consequence?
+
+30. How did it commence?
+
+31. What followed?
+
+32. What completed the defeat of the Carthaginians?
+
+33. What became of Hannibal?
+
+34. What was the result of the victory?
+
+35. What were the conditions of the treaty?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The first was in the reign of Numa.
+
+[2] Hannibal has been blamed for not having marched to Rome
+immediately after this victory; but his army was by no means adequate
+to the siege of the city; and the allies of the Romans would have been
+able to curtail his quarters and intercept his convoys. He was,
+besides, badly provided with provisions and the munitions of war, both
+of which he could procure by invading Campania, the course which he
+actually pursued.
+
+[3] This great man was equal to an army for the defence of the place.
+He invented engines which threw enormous stones against the Romans,
+hoisted their ships in the air, and then dashed them against the rocks
+beneath, and dismounted their battering engines. He also set fire to
+some of the Roman ships by the use of reflectors, or looking-glasses,
+directing the sun's rays from a great number of them on the same spot
+at the same time.
+
+[4] During his command in Spain, a circumstance occurred which has
+contributed more to the fame and glory of Scipio than all his military
+exploits. At the taking of New Carthage, a lady of extraordinary
+beauty was brought to Scipio, who found himself greatly affected by
+her charms. Understanding, however, that she was betrothed to a
+Celtibe'rian prince, named Allu'cius, he generously resolved to
+conquer his rising passion, and sending for her lover, restored her
+without any other recompence than requesting his friendship to the
+republic. Her parents had brought a large sum of money for her ransom,
+which they earnestly entreated Scipio to accept; but he generously
+bestowed it on Allu'cius, as the portion of his bride. (Liv. l. xxvi.
+c. 50.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+     Beauteous Greece,
+  Torn from her joys, in vain, with languid arm,
+  Half raised her lusty shield.--_Dyer_.
+
+1. While the Romans were engaged with Hannibal, they carried on also a
+vigorous war against Philip, king of Ma'cedon, not a little incited
+thereto by the prayers of the Athe'nians; who, from once controlling
+the powers of Persia, were now unable to defend themselves. The
+Rho'dians with At'talus, king of Per'gamus, also entered into the
+confederacy against Philip. 2. He was more than once defeated by
+Galba, the consul. He attempted to besiege Athens, but the Romans
+obliged him to raise the siege. He tried to take possession of the
+Straits of Thermop'ylae, but was driven from thence by Quin'tus
+Flamin'ius, with great slaughter. He attempted to take refuge in
+Thes'saly, where he was again defeated, with considerable loss, and
+obliged to beg a peace, upon condition of paying a thousand talents.
+3. Peace with Philip gave the Romans an opportunity of showing their
+generosity, by restoring liberty to Greece.
+
+4. Antio'chus, king of Syria, was next brought to submit to the Roman
+arms: after embassies on the one side and on the other, hostilities
+were commenced against him five years after the conclusion of the
+Macedo'nian war. 5. After many mistakes and great misconduct, he
+attempted to obtain a peace, by offering to quit all his places in
+Europe, and such in Asia as professed alliance to Rome. 6. But it was
+now too late; Scip'io perceived his own superiority, and was resolved
+to avail himself of it. 7. Antio'chus, thus driven into resistance,
+for some time retreated before the enemy, till, being pressed hard,
+near the city of Magnesia he was forced to draw out his men, to the
+number of seventy thousand foot, and twelve thousand horse.
+
+8. Scip'io opposed him with forces as much inferior in number, as they
+were superior in courage and discipline. Antio'chus, therefore, was in
+a short time entirely defeated; his own chariots, armed with scythes,
+being driven back upon his men, contributed much to his overthrow. 9.
+Being thus reduced to the last extremity, he was glad to procure peace
+from the Romans, upon their own terms; which were, to pay fifteen
+thousand talents; to quit his possessions in Europe, and in Asia, on
+the hither side of Mount Taurus; to give twenty hostages, as pledges
+of his fidelity; and to deliver up Hannibal, the inveterate enemy of
+Rome, who had taken refuge at his court.
+
+10. In the mean time Hannibal, whose destruction was one of the
+articles of this extorted treaty, endeavoured to avoid the threatened
+ruin. 11. This consummate general had long been a wanderer, and an
+exile from his ungrateful country. He had taken refuge at the court of
+Antio'chus who, at first, gave him a sincere welcome, and made
+him admiral of his fleet, in which station he showed his usual
+skill in stratagem.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Hannibal]
+
+12. But he soon sunk in the Syrian's esteem for projecting schemes
+which that monarch had neither genius to understand, nor talents to
+execute. 13. Sure, therefore, to find no safety or protection, he
+departed by stealth; and, after wandering for a time among the petty
+states, which had neither power nor generosity to protect him, he took
+refuge at the court of Pru'sias, king of Bythin'ia. 14. In the mean
+time, the Romans, with a vindictive spirit utterly unworthy of them,
+sent AEmil'ius, one of their most celebrated generals, to demand him of
+this king; who, fearing the resentment of Rome, and willing to
+conciliate their friendship by this breach of hospitality, ordered a
+guard to be placed upon Hannibal, with an intent to deliver him up.
+15. The poor old general, thus implacably persecuted from one country
+to another, and finding every method of safety cut off, determined to
+die. He, therefore, desired one of his followers to bring him poison;
+and drinking it, he expired as he had lived, with intrepid bravery.
+
+[Sidenote: U. C 513]
+
+16. A second Macedo'nian war was soon after proclaimed against
+Per'seus, the son of that Philip who had been obliged to beg peace of
+the Romans. 17. Perseus, in order to secure the crown, had murdered
+his brother Deme'trius; and, upon the death of his father, pleased
+with the hopes of imaginary triumphs, made war against Rome. 18,
+During the course of this war, which continued about three years,
+opportunities were offered him of cutting off the Roman army; but
+being ignorant how to take advantage of their rashness, he spent the
+time in empty overtures for peace. 19. At length AEmil'ius gave
+him a decisive overthrow. He attempted to procure safety by flying
+into Crete: but being abandoned by all, he was obliged to surrender
+himself, and to grace the splendid triumph of the Roman general.[1]
+
+20. About this time Massinis'sa, the Numidian, having made some
+incursions into a territory claimed by the Carthaginians, they
+attempted to repel the invasion. 21. This brought on a war between
+that monarch and them; while the Romans, who pretended to consider
+this conduct of theirs as an infraction of the treaty, sent to make a
+complaint. 22. The ambassadors who were employed upon this occasion,
+finding the city very rich and flourishing, from the long interval of
+peace which it had now enjoyed for nearly fifty years, either from
+motives of avarice to possess its plunder, or from fear of its growing
+greatness, insisted much on the necessity of a war, which was soon
+after proclaimed, and the consuls set out with a thorough resolution
+utterly to demolish Carthage.
+
+The territory thus invaded by Massinis'sa, was Tysca, a rich province,
+undoubtedly belonging to the Carthaginians. One of the ambassadors
+sent from Rome was the celebrated Cato, the censor, who, whatever his
+virtues may have been, appears to have imbibed an inveterate hatred to
+Carthage. For, on whatever subject he debated in the senate, he never
+failed to conclude in these words, "I am also of opinion that Carthage
+should be destroyed." The war, however, which had broken out in Spain,
+and the bad success of the Roman arms in that quarter, for some time
+delayed the fate of that devoted city; and it might, perhaps, have
+stood much longer, had not some seditious demagogues incited the
+populace to insult the Roman ambassador, and to banish those senators
+who voted for peace.
+
+To account for the apparent pusillanimity of the Carthaginians, it is
+necessary to observe, that they had suffered repeated defeats in their
+war with Massinis'sa; and that fifty thousand of their troops, after
+having been blocked up in their camp till from want they were obliged
+to submit to the most humiliating conditions, were inhumanly massacred
+by Gulus'sa, the son of the Numidian king. The Romans chose this
+distressing juncture to declare war against them.
+
+As one proof of their sincere desire for peace, they had
+previously delivered up to the Romans all their arms and warlike
+engines, of which they possessed prodigious magazines; thus leaving
+themselves still more defenceless than before.
+
+23. The wretched Carthaginians, finding that the conquerors would not
+desist from making demands, while the vanquished had any thing to
+give, attempted to soften the victors by submission; but they received
+orders to leave the city, which was to be levelled with the ground.
+24. This severe command they received with all the distress of a
+despairing people: they implored for a respite from such a hard
+sentence: they used tears and lamentations; but finding the consuls
+inexorable, they departed with a gloomy resolution, prepared to suffer
+the utmost extremities, and fight to the last for their seat of
+empire.
+
+25. Those vessels, therefore, of gold and silver, which their luxury
+had taken such pride in, were converted into arms. The women parted
+also with their ornaments, and even cut off their hair to be converted
+into strings for the bowmen. As'drubal, who had been lately condemned
+for opposing the Romans, was now taken from prison to head their army;
+and such preparations were made, that when the consuls came before the
+city, which they expected to find an easy conquest, they met with such
+resistance as quite dispirited their forces and shook their
+resolution. 26. Several engagements were fought before the walls, with
+disadvantage to the assailants; so that the siege would have been
+discontinued, had not Scip'io AEmilia'nus, the adopted son of
+Africa'nus, who was now appointed to command it, used as much skill to
+save his forces after a defeat, as to inspire them with fresh hopes of
+a victory. 27. But all his arts would have failed, had he not found
+means to seduce Phar'nes, the master of the Carthaginian horse, who
+came over to his side. The unhappy townsmen soon saw the enemy make
+nearer approaches; the wall which led to the haven was quickly
+demolished; soon after the forum itself was taken, which offered to
+the conquerors a deplorable spectacle of houses nodding to their fall,
+heaps of men lying dead, hundreds of the wounded struggling to emerge
+from the carnage around them, and deploring their own and their
+country's ruin. The citadel soon after surrendered at discretion. 28.
+All now but the temple was subdued, and that was defended by deserters
+from the Roman army, and those who had been most forward to undertake
+the war. These expected no mercy, and finding their condition desperate,
+set fire to the building, and voluntarily perished in the flames. This
+was the end of one of the most renowned cities in the world, for arts,
+opulence, and extent of dominion; it had rivalled Rome for above a
+hundred years, and, at one time, was thought to have the superiority.
+
+[Illustration: Destruction of Carthage.]
+
+29. The conquest of Carthage was soon followed by many others. The
+same year Corinth, one of the noblest cities of Greece, was levelled
+to the ground. Scip'io also having laid siege to Numan'tia, the
+strongest city in Spain, the wretched inhabitants, to avoid falling
+into the hands of the enemy, fired the city, over their own heads; and
+all, to a man, expired in the flames. Thus Spain became a Roman
+province, and was governed thenceforward by two annual praetors.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. With whom were the Romans at war besides Carthage, and who assisted
+in it?
+
+2. What was the success of Philip in this war?
+
+3. What was the consequence of peace with Philip?
+
+4. Who next fell under the displeasure of the Romans?
+
+5. What was the result?
+
+6. Were his offers accepted?
+
+7. Did Antiochus boldly face the Romans?
+
+8. What were the strength and character of the Roman army, and what
+the result of the battle?
+
+9. Was he able to make further resistance?
+
+10. Was Hannibal delivered up?
+
+11. What occasioned Hannibal to put himself in the power of Antiochus?
+
+12. Was this kindness lasting?
+
+13. Whither did he next betake himself?
+
+14. Was he in safety at this court?
+
+15. How did Hannibal escape his persecution?
+
+16. Against whom did the Romans next direct their arms?
+
+17. What occasioned it?
+
+18. Was Perseus a skilful general?
+
+19. What was the result of the war?
+
+20. What farther happened about this time?
+
+21. What was the consequence?
+
+22. Was this misunderstanding peaceably accommodated?
+
+23. By what means did the Carthaginians endeavour to avert their fate?
+
+24. Did they obey these orders?
+
+25. What extraordinary efforts were made for the defence of the city?
+
+26. Were the Romans successful in their attempts?
+
+27. Describe the progress of the siege.
+
+28. Was the city now completely in the power of the Romans?
+
+29. What other conquests were made by the Romans?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] From this time, Macedon became a Roman province.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE TO THE END OF THE SEDITION OF THE
+GRACCHI.--U.C. 621.
+
+  Seldom is faction's ire in haughty minds
+  Extinguished but by death; it oft, like flame
+  Suppressed, breaks forth again, and blazes higher.--_May._
+
+1. The Romans being now left without a rival, the triumphs and the
+spoils of Asia introduced a taste for splendid expense, and this
+produced avarice and inverted ambition. 2. The two Gracchi were the
+first who saw this strange corruption among the great, and resolved to
+repress it, by renewing the Licinian law, which had enacted that no
+person in the state should possess above five hundred acres of land.
+3. Tibe'rius Gracchus, the elder of the two, was, both for the
+advantages of his person and the qualities of his mind, very different
+from Scipio, of whom he was the grandson. He seemed more ambitious of
+power than desirous of glory; his compassion for the oppressed was
+equal to his animosity against the oppressors; but unhappily his
+passions, rather than his reason, operated even in his pursuits
+of virtue; and these always drove him beyond the line of duty. 4. This
+was the disposition of the elder Gracchus, who found the lower orders
+of people ready to second all his proposals. 5. The above law, though
+at first carried on with proper moderation, greatly disgusted the
+rich, who endeavoured to persuade the people that the proposer only
+aimed at disturbing the government, and throwing all things into
+confusion. 6. But Gracchus, who was a man of the greatest eloquence of
+his time, easily wiped off these impressions from the minds of the
+people, already irritated by their wrongs, and at length the law was
+passed.
+
+7. The death of At'talus, king of Per'gamus, furnished Gracchus with a
+new opportunity of gratifying the meaner part of the people at the
+expense of the great. 8. This king had by his last will made the
+Romans his heirs; and it was now proposed, that the money so left
+should be divided among the poor, in order to furnish them with proper
+utensils for cultivating the lands which became theirs by the late law
+of partition. 9. This caused still greater disturbances than before,
+and the senate assembled upon the occasion, in order to concert the
+most proper methods of securing these riches to themselves, which they
+now valued above the safety of the commonwealth. 10. They had numerous
+dependents, who were willing to give up liberty for plenty and ease.
+These, therefore, were commanded to be in readiness to intimidate the
+people, who expected no such opposition, and who were now attending to
+the harangues of Gracchus in the capitol. 11. Here, as a clamour was
+raised by the clients of the great on one side, and by the favourers
+of the law on the other, Gracchus found his speech entirely
+interrupted, and begged in vain to be attended to; till at last,
+raising his hand to his head, to intimate that his life was in danger,
+the partisans of the senate gave out that he wanted a diadem. 12. In
+consequence of this an universal uproar spread itself through all
+ranks of the people; the corrupt part of the senate were of opinion
+that the consul should defend the commonwealth by force of arms; but
+this prudent magistrate declining such violence, Scip'io Nas'ica,
+kinsman to Gracchus, immediately rose up, and preparing himself for
+the contest, desired that all who would defend the dignity and
+authority of the laws, should follow him. 13. Upon this, attended by a
+large body of senators and clients armed with clubs, he went directly
+to the Capitol, striking down all who ventured to resist.
+
+14. Tibe'rius Gracchus, perceiving by the tumult that his life was in
+danger, endeavoured to fly; and throwing away his robe to expedite his
+escape, attempted to get through the throng; but happening to fall
+over a person already on the ground, Sature'ius, one of his colleagues
+in the tribuneship, who was of the opposite faction, struck him dead
+with a piece of a seat; and not less than three hundred of his hearers
+shared the same fate, being killed in the tumult. 15. Nor did the
+vengeance of the senate rest here, but extended to numbers of those
+who seemed to espouse his cause; many of them were put to death, many
+were banished, and nothing was omitted to inspire the people with an
+abhorrence of his pretended crimes. Soon after the death of Gracchus a
+rebellion broke out in Sicily among the slaves, who, exasperated by
+the cruelties exercised upon them by their masters, revolted, and
+having seized Enna, chose one Eunus for their king. This new monarch
+gained considerable advantages over the Romans, took the strong city
+of Tauromin'ium, and protracted the war upwards of six years. At
+length he was completely defeated by the consul Rupil'ius, and his
+followers slaughtered or executed: as for Eunus, he died in prison.
+
+16. Ca'ius Gracchus was but twenty-one upon the death of Tibe'rius his
+brother; and as he was too young to be much dreaded by the great, so
+he was at first unwilling to incur their resentment by aims beyond his
+reach; he therefore lived in retirement, unseen and forgotten. 17.
+But, while he thus seemed desirous of avoiding popularity, he was
+employed in his solitude in the study of eloquence, which was the
+surest means to obtain it. 18. At length, when he thought himself
+qualified to serve his country, he offered himself a candidate for the
+_quaestorship_ to the army in Sardin'ia, which he easily obtained. His
+valour, affability, and temperance in this office were remarked by
+all. 19. The king of Numid'ia sending a present of corn to the Romans,
+ordered his ambassadors to say, that it was a tribute to the virtues
+of Ca'ius Gracchus. 20. This the senate treated with scorn, and
+ordered the ambassadors to be treated with contempt, as ignorant
+barbarians, which so inflamed the resentment of young Gracchus, that
+he immediately came from the army to complain of the indignity thrown
+upon his reputation, and to offer himself for the tribuneship of the
+people. 21. It was then that this youth, who had been hitherto
+neglected, proved a more formidable enemy than even his brother
+had been. Notwithstanding the warmest opposition from the senate, he
+was declared tribune by a very large majority; and he now prepared for
+the career which his brother had run before him.
+
+22. His first effort was to have Pompil'ius, one of the most
+inveterate of his brother's enemies, cited before the people; but
+rather than stand the event of a trial, he chose to go into voluntary
+banishment. 23. He next procured an edict, granting the freedom of the
+city to the inhabitants of La'tium, and soon after to all the people
+on the hither side of the Alps. 24. He afterwards fixed the price of
+corn at a moderate standard, and procured a monthly distribution of it
+among the people. 25. He then proceeded to an inspection into the late
+corruptions of the senate; in which the whole body being convicted of
+bribery, extortion, and the sale of offices (for at that time a total
+degeneracy seemed to have taken place,) a law was made, transferring
+the power of judging corrupt magistrates from the senate to the
+knights, which made a great alteration in the constitution.
+
+26. Gracchus, by these means, being grown not only popular, but
+powerful, was become an object at which the senate aimed all their
+resentment. 27. But he soon found the populace a faithless and
+unsteady support. They began to withdraw all their confidence from
+him, and to place it upon Drusus, a man insidiously set up against him
+by the senate. 28. It was in vain that he revived the Licin'ian law in
+their favour, and called up several of the inhabitants of the
+different towns of Italy to his support; the senate ordered all to
+depart from Rome, and even sent one stranger to prison whom Gracchus
+had invited to live with him, and honoured with his table and
+friendship. 29. To this indignity was shortly after added a disgrace
+of a more fatal tendency; for, standing for the tribuneship a third
+time, he was rejected. It was supposed that the officers, whose duty
+it was to make the return, were bribed to reject him, though fairly
+chosen.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What consequences followed this great prosperity of the Roman arms?
+
+2. Who first resolved to repress the corruption which had taken place
+in the manners of the people?
+
+3. What was the character of Tiberius Gracchus?
+
+4. Had he any influence with the people?
+
+5. How was the Licinian law received?
+
+6. Did the people believe them?
+
+7. What furthered his views?
+
+8. What advantages occurred to the Romans by his death?
+
+9. What was the effect of this will?
+
+10. What measures did they adopt for this purpose?
+
+11. What was the consequence of their interference?
+
+12. Was this insinuation believed?
+
+13. Did Scipio use violence?
+
+14. What was the fate of Gracchus and his friends?
+
+15. Were his enemies satisfied with this vengeance?
+
+16. What became of Caius Gracchus in the mean time?
+
+17. Was he really desirous of avoiding popularity?
+
+18. In what way did he bring himself into notice?
+
+19. What proof of esteem was given him?
+
+20. How was this compliment received?
+
+21. What was the consequence of this resentment?
+
+22. What was his first effort?
+
+23. What was his next act?
+
+24. What was the next?
+
+25. What followed?
+
+26. What was the consequence of these acts?
+
+27. Did he find steady friends?
+
+28. Were his measures of precaution successful?
+
+29. What farther indignities did he experience?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  Say, Romans, whence so dire a fury rose,
+  To glut with Latin blood your barbarous foes?
+  Could you in wars like these provoke your fate?
+  Wars, where no triumphs on the victors wait?--_Rowe's Lucan_.
+
+1. It was now seen that the fate of Gracchus was resolved on.
+Opim'ius, the consul, was not contented with the protection of the
+senate, the knights, and a numerous retinue of slaves and clients; he
+ordered a body of Candians, who were mercenaries in the Roman service,
+to follow and attend him. 2. Thus guarded, and conscious of the
+superiority of his forces, he insulted Gracchus whereever he met him,
+doing all in his power to produce a quarrel, in which he might have a
+pretence for despatching his enemy in the fray. 3. Gracchus avoided
+all recrimination, and, as if apprised of the consul's designs, would
+not even wear any arms for his defence. 4. His friend Ful'vius
+Flaccus, however, a zealous tribune, was not so remiss, but resolved
+to oppose party against party, and for this purpose brought up several
+countrymen to Rome, who came under pretence of desiring
+employment. 5. When the day for determining the controversy was
+arrived, the two parties, early in the morning, attended at the
+Capitol, where, while the consul was sacrificing, according to custom,
+one of the lictors taking up the entrails of the beast that was slain
+in order to remove them, could not forbear crying out to Flac'cus and
+his party, "Make way, ye factious citizens, for honest men." 6. This
+insult so provoked, the party to whom it was addressed, that they
+instantly fell upon him, and pierced him to death with the instruments
+they used in writing, which they then happened to have in their hands.
+7. This murder caused a great disturbance in the assembly. Gracchus,
+who saw the consequences that were likely to ensue, reprimanded his
+party for giving his enemies such advantage over him; and now prepared
+to lead his followers to Mount Av'entine. 8. It was there he learned,
+that a proclamation had been made by the consuls, that whosoever
+should bring either his head, or that of Flaccus, should receive its
+weight in gold as a reward. 9. It was to no purpose that he sent the
+youngest son of Flaccus, who was yet a child, with proposals for an
+accommodation. The senate and the consuls, who were sensible of their
+superiority, rejected all his offers, and resolved to punish his
+offence with nothing less than death; and they offered pardon also to
+all who should leave him immediately. 10. This produced the desired
+effect; the people fell from him by degrees, and left him with very
+inferior forces. 11. In the meantime, Opim'ius, the consul, who
+thirsted for slaughter, leading his forces up to Mount Av'entine, fell
+in among the crowd with ungovernable fury. A terrible slaughter of the
+scarcely resisting multitude ensued, and not less than three thousand
+citizens were slain upon the spot. 12. Flaccus attempted to find
+shelter in a ruinous cottage; but, being discovered, was slain, with
+his eldest son. Gracchus, at first, retired to the temple of Dian'a,
+where he resolved to die by his own hand, but was prevented by two of
+his faithful friends and followers, Pompo'nius and Lucin'ius, who
+forced him to seek safety by flight. Thence he made the best of his
+way across a bridge that led from the city, still attended by his two
+generous friends, and a Grecian slave, whose name was Philoc'rates.
+13. But his pursuers still pressed upon him from behind, and when come
+to the foot of the bridge, he was obliged to turn and face the enemy.
+His two friends were soon slain, defending him against the crowd; and
+he was forced to take refuge, with his slave, in a grove beyond
+the Ti'ber, which had long been dedicated to the Furies. 14. Here,
+finding himself surrounded on every side, and no way left of escaping,
+he prevailed upon his slave to despatch him. The slave immediately
+after killed himself, and fell down upon the body of his beloved
+master. The pursuers coming up, cut off the head of Gracchus, and
+placed it for a while as a trophy on a spear. 15. Soon after, one
+Septimule'ius carried it home, and taking out the brain artfully
+filled it with lead, in order to increase its weight, and then
+received of the consul seventeen pounds of gold as his recompence.
+
+16. Thus died Cai'us Gracchus. He is usually impeached by historians,
+as guilty of sedition; but from what we see of his character, the
+disturbance of public tranquillity was rather owing to his opposers
+than to him; so that, instead of calling the tumults of that time the
+sedition of the Gracchi, we should rather call them the sedition of
+the senate against the Gracchi; since the efforts of the latter were
+made in vindication of a law to which the senate had assented; and the
+designs of the former were supported by an extraneous armed power from
+the country, that had never before meddled in the business of
+legislation, and whose introduction gave a most irrecoverable blow to
+the constitution. 17. Whether the Gracchi were actuated by motives of
+ambition or of patriotism, in the promulgation of the law, it is
+impossible to determine; but from what appears, justice was on their
+side, and all injury on that of the senate. 18. In fact, this body was
+now changed from that venerable assembly, which we have seen
+overthrowing Pyr'rhus and Hannibal, as much by their virtues as their
+arms. They were now only to be distinguished from the rest of the
+people by their superior luxuries; and ruled the commonwealth by the
+weight of an authority gained from riches and mercenary dependents.
+19. The venal and the base were attached to them from motives of
+self-interest; and they who still ventured to be independent, were
+borne down, and entirely lost in an infamous majority. 20. In short,
+the empire at this period came under the government of a hateful
+aristocracy; the tribunes, who were formerly accounted protectors of
+the people, becoming rich themselves, and having no longer opposite
+interests from those of the senate, concurred in their oppressions;
+for the struggle was not now between patricians and plebeians, who
+only nominally differed, but between the rich and the poor. 21.
+The lower orders of the state being by these means reduced to a degree
+of hopeless subjection, instead of looking after liberty, only sought
+for a leader; while the rich, with all the suspicion of tyrants,
+terrified at the slightest appearance of opposition, entrusted men
+with uncontrollable power, from whom they had not strength to withdraw
+it when the danger was over. 22. Thus both parties of the state
+concurred in giving up their freedom; the fears of the senate first
+made the dictator, and the hatred of the people kept him in his
+office. Nothing can be more dreadful to a thinking mind than the
+government of Rome from this period, till it found refuge under the
+protection of Augus'tus.[1]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What appearances now threatened the life of Gracchus?
+
+2. How did he commence hostilities?
+
+3. How did Gracchus attempt to divert the storm?
+
+4. Were his friends equally prudent?
+
+5. What unhappy incident increased the animosity?
+
+6. How was this insult revenged?
+
+7. What was the consequence of this outrage?
+
+8. What news did he hear on his arrival?
+
+9. Did he attempt to conciliate his enemies, and were his attempts
+successful?
+
+10. Was this offer accepted?
+
+11. What was the conduct of the consul?
+
+12. What was the fate of the chiefs?
+
+13. Did Gracchus effect his escape?
+
+14. Did he fall into the hands of his enemies?
+
+15. What artifice did avarice contrive?
+
+16.' Was the conduct of Gracchus deserving of praise or blame?
+
+17. By what motives were the Gracchi supposed to be actuated?
+
+18. What was the character of the senate at this period?
+
+19. What was the character of their adherents?
+
+20. What was the nature of their government?
+
+31. What concurred to perpetuate this tyranny?
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] From the death of Gracchus until the first consulship of Marius,
+Rome was governed by a venal and profligate oligarchy, formed from a
+coalition of the most powerful families. Shame was unknown to this
+body; the offices of state were openly sold to the highest bidder,
+redress of grievances was to be obtained only by paying a heavier sum
+for vengeance than the oppressor would give for impunity: advocacy of
+popular rights was punished as treason, and complaints were treated as
+criminal acts of sedition. The young patricians, under such a system,
+became the scourge of the state, for nothing remained safe from their
+violence or their lust, when the monopoly of judicial office by their
+friends and relatives insured them impunity for every excess, however
+flagrant or disgraceful.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE SEDITION OF GRACCHUS TO THE PERPETUAL DICTATORSHIP OF SYLLA,
+WHICH WAS THE FIRST STEP TOWARDS THE RUIN OF THE COMMONWEALTH.--U.C.
+634.
+
+  By brutal Marius, and keen Sylla, first
+  Effused the deluge dire of civil blood,
+  Unceasing woes began.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. While the Romans were in this state of deplorable corruption at
+home, they nevertheless were very successful in their transactions
+with foreign powers.
+
+2. Among other victories, a signal one was gained over Jugur'tha, king
+of Numid'ia. He was grandson to Massinis'sa, who sided with Rome
+against Hannibal, and educated with the two young princes, who were
+left to inherit the kingdom. 3. Being superior in abilities to both,
+and greatly in favour with the people, he murdered Hiemp'sal, the
+eldest son, but Adher'bal, the younger, escaped, and fled to the
+Romans for succour. 4. Jugur'tha, sensible how much avarice and
+injustice had crept into the senate, sent his ambassadors to Rome with
+large presents, which so successfully prevailed, that the senate
+decreed him half the kingdom thus acquired by murder and usurpation,
+and sent ten commissioners to divide it between him and Adher'bal. 5.
+The commissioners, of whom Opim'ius, the enemy of Gracchus, was one,
+willing to follow the example which the senate had set them, were also
+bribed to bestow the richest and most populous parts of that kingdom
+upon the usurper. 6. But Jugur'tha resolved to possess himself of the
+whole: and willing to give a colour to his ambition, he only made, in
+the beginning, incursions in order to provoke reprisals, which he knew
+how to convert into seeming aggression. 7. This scheme failing, he
+resolved to throw off the mask, and besieging Adher'bal in Cirta, his
+capital, he at length got him into his power, and murdered him. 8. The
+Roman people, who had still some generosity remaining, unanimously
+complained of this treachery, and procured a decree that Jugur'tha
+should be summoned in person before them, to give an account of all
+such as had accepted bribes. 9. Jugur'tha made no difficulty of
+throwing himself upon the clemency of Rome; but not giving the
+people satisfaction, he had orders to depart the city.[1] 10. In the
+meantime, Alba'nus, the consul, was sent with an army to follow him,
+who giving up the direction of it to Au'lus, his brother; a person who
+was every way unqualified for the command, the Romans were compelled
+to hazard a battle upon disadvantageous terms; and the whole army, to
+avoid being cut to pieces, was obliged to pass under the yoke.
+
+11. In this condition Metel'lus, the succeeding consul, found affairs
+upon his arrival in Numid'ia; officers in whom the soldiers had no
+confidence, an army without discipline, and an enemy ever watchful and
+intriguing. 12. However, by his great attention to business, and by
+integrity that shuddered at corruption, he soon began to retrieve the
+affairs of Rome, and the credit of the army. In the space of two
+years, Jugur'tha was overthrown in several battles, forced out of his
+own dominions, and constrained to beg a peace. 13. Thus all things
+promised Metel'lus a happy termination of the war; but he was
+frustrated in his expectations by the intrigues of Ca'ius Ma'rius, his
+lieutenant, who came in to reap that harvest of glory which the
+other's industry had sown. 14. Ca'ius Ma'rius was born in a village
+near Apin'ium, of poor parents, who gained their living by their
+labour. As he had been bred up in a participation of their toils, his
+manners were as rude as his countenance was frightful. He was a man of
+extraordinary stature, incomparable strength, and undaunted bravery.
+
+15. When Metel'lus was obliged to solicit at Rome for a continuance of
+his command, Ma'rius, whose ambition knew no bounds, was resolved to
+obtain it for himself, and thus gain all the glory of putting an end
+to the war. 16. To that end he privately inveighed against Metel'lus
+by his emissaries at Rome, and having excited a spirit of discontent
+against him, he had leave granted him to go there to stand for the
+consulship, which he obtained, contrary to the expectation and
+interest of the nobles.
+
+17. Marius, being thus invested with the supreme power of managing the
+war, showed himself every way fit for the commission. His vigilance
+was equal to his valour, and he quickly made himself master of the
+cities which Jugur'tha had yet remaining in Numid'ia.[2] 18. This
+unfortunate prince, finding himself unable to make opposition singly
+was obliged to have recourse for assistance to Bocchus, king of
+Maurita'nia, to whose daughter he was married. A battle soon after
+ensued, in which the Numid'ians surprised the Roman camp by night, and
+gained a temporary advantage. However, it was but of short
+continuance, for Ma'rius soon after overthrew them in two signal
+engagements, in one of which not less than ninety thousand of the
+African army were slain. 19. Bocchus now finding the Romans too
+powerful to be resisted, did not think it expedient to hazard his own
+crown, to protect that of his ally; he, therefore, determined to make
+peace, upon whatever conditions he might obtain it; and accordingly
+sent to Rome, imploring protection. 20. The senate received the
+ambassadors with their usual haughtiness, and without complying with
+their request, granted the suppliant, not their friendship, but their
+pardon. Notwithstanding, after some time, he was given to understand,
+that the delivering up of Jugur'tha to the Romans would, in some
+measure, conciliate their favour, and soften their resentment. 21. At
+first the pride of Bocchus struggled against such a proposal; but a
+few interviews with Sylla reconciled him to this treacherous measure,
+and Jugur'tha was given up, being drawn into an ambuscade by the
+specious pretences of his ally, who deluded him by desiring a
+conference; and being made a prisoner, he was loaded with chains, and
+carried by Ma'rius to Rome, a deplorable instance of blighted
+ambition. 22. He did not long survive his overthrow, being condemned
+by the senate to be starved to death in prison, a short time after he
+had been made to adorn the triumph of the conqueror.[3]
+
+23. Ma'rius, by this and two succeeding victories over the Gauls,
+having become very formidable to distant nations in war, became soon
+after much more dangerous to his fellow-citizens in peace. 24. The
+strength which he had given to the popular party every day grew more
+conspicuous, and the Italians, being frustrated by the intrigues of
+the senate in their aims of gaining the freedom of Rome, resolved upon
+obtaining by force, what was refused them as a favour. This gave rise
+to the Social War, in which most of the states of Italy entered into a
+confederacy against Rome, in order to obtain a redress of their
+grievances.
+
+25. After a lapse of two years, this war having continued to rage with
+doubtful success, the senate began to reflect that, whether conquered
+or conquerors, the power of the Romans was in danger of being
+destroyed. 26. To soften, therefore, their compliance by degrees, they
+began by giving the freedom of the city to such of the Italian states
+as had not revolted. They then offered it to such as would lay down
+their arms. 27. This unexpected bounty had its effect; the allies,
+with mutual distrust, offered each a separate treaty; the senate took
+them one by one into favour, but gave the freedom of the city in such
+a manner, that, not being empowered to vote until all the other tribes
+had given their suffrages, they had very little weight in the
+constitution.
+
+28. This destructive war being concluded, the senate began to think of
+turning their arms against Mithrida'tes, the most powerful and warlike
+monarch of the east.[4] 29. For this expedition Ma'rius had long been
+preparing, but Sylla had interest enough to get himself appointed to
+the expedition. Ma'rius, however, tried all his arts with the people
+to get his appointment reversed; and the command of the army, intended
+to oppose Mithrida'tes, was ordered to be transferred from Sylla to
+Ma'rius. 30. In consequence of this, Ma'rius immediately sent officers
+from Rome, to take the command in his name. But instead of being
+obeyed, the officers were slain, and Sylla was entreated by the army
+to lead them directly to take signal vengeance upon all his enemies at
+Rome.
+
+31. Accordingly, his soldiers entered the city sword in hand, as
+a place taken by storm. Ma'rius and Sulpi'cius, at the head of a
+tumultuary body of their partisans, attempted to oppose their
+entrance; and the citizens themselves, who feared the sackage of the
+place, threw down stones and tiles from the houses upon the intruders.
+32. So unequal a conflict lasted longer than could have been expected;
+at length Ma'rius and his party were obliged to seek safety by flight,
+after having vainly offered liberty to the slaves who would assist
+them.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. Was this internal degeneracy of the Roman people accompanied by ill
+success abroad?
+
+2. What signal victory did they obtain, and who was Jugurtha?
+
+3. By what means did he obtain the crown?
+
+4. How did he propitiate the Romans?
+
+5. How did these commissoners? discharge their trust?
+
+6. Was Jugurtha satisfied with this allotment?
+
+7. Did this answer his purpose?
+
+8. Did the Romans suffer this treachery to pass unpunished?
+
+9. Did Jugurtha obey this summons?
+
+10. Were hostilities commenced against him, and what was the result?
+
+11. What was the condition of the army when Metellus assumed the
+command?
+
+12. Did this deplorable state continue?
+
+13. Did Metellus enjoy the fruits of his victories?
+
+14. Who was Caius Marius?
+
+15. What resolution did he adopt?
+
+16. By what artifices did he succeed in his design?
+
+17. What was the conduct of Marius in his new command?
+
+18. To whom did Jugurtha have recourse in his extremity?
+
+19. Did Bocchus continue to befriend Jugurtha?
+
+20. Was his request complied with?
+
+21. Did Bocchus submit to this condition?
+
+22. What became of Jugurtha after this?
+
+23. How did Marius conduct himself after his victories?
+
+24. What was the consequence of his attempts at popularity?
+
+25. Was this war of long continuance?
+
+26. What measure did the senate adopt to end it?
+
+27. What was the consequence of this measure?
+
+28. Against whom did the senate next turn their arms?
+
+29. Who was appointed to command this expedition?
+
+30. What was the consequence of this order?
+
+31. Did Sylla comply with their request?
+
+32. What was the issue of the contest?
+
+[Illustration: Marius sitting among the Ruins of Carthage.]
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+                      It is a vain attempt
+  To bind th' ambitious and unjust by treaties.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. Sylla, now finding himself master of the city, began by modelling
+the laws so as to favour his outrages; while Ma'rius, driven out of
+Rome and declared a public enemy at the age of seventy, was obliged to
+save himself, unattended and on foot, from the pursuit of those who
+sought his life. 2. After having wandered for some time in this
+deplorable condition, he found every day his dangers increase, and his
+pursuers making nearer advances. In this distress he concealed himself
+in the marshes of Mintur'nae, where he continued a night up to the chin
+in a quagmire. 3. At break of day he left this dismal place, and made
+towards the seaside, in hopes of finding a ship to facilitate his
+escape; but being known and discovered by some of the inhabitants, he
+was conducted to a neighbouring town, with a halter round his neck,
+without clothes, and covered with mud; and in this condition was sent
+to prison. 4. The governor of the place, willing to conform to the
+orders of the senate, soon after sent a Cim'brian slave to despatch
+him; but the barbarian no sooner entered the dungeon for this purpose
+than he stopped short, intimidated by the dreadful visage and awful
+voice of the fallen general, who sternly demanded if he had the
+presumption to kill Ca'ius Ma'rius? The slave, unable to reply, threw
+down his sword, and rushing back from the prison, cried
+out, that he found it impossible to kill him! 5. The governor,
+considering the fear of the slave as an omen in the unhappy exile's
+favour, gave him his freedom; and, commending him to his fortune,
+provided him with a ship to convey him from Italy. 6. He was forced by
+a tempest on the coast of Sicily. A Roman quaestor, who happened to be
+there, resolved to seize him; and he lost sixteen of his crew, who
+were killed in their endeavours to cover his retreat to the ship. He
+afterwards landed in Africa, near Carthage, and, overwhelmed with
+melancholy, sat himself down amongst the ruins of that desolate place.
+He soon, however had orders from the praetor to retire. 7. Marius, who
+remembered his having once served this very man in necessity, could
+not suppress his indignation at finding ingratitude every where: and,
+preparing to obey, bid the messenger tell his master, that he had seen
+Ma'rius sitting among the ruins of Carthage; intimating the greatness
+of his fall, by the desolation that was around him. 8. He once more
+embarked, and not knowing where to land without encountering an enemy,
+he spent the winter at sea, expecting every hour the return of a
+messenger from his son, whom he had sent to solicit protection from
+the African prince, Mandras'tal. 9. After long expectation, instead of
+the messenger, his son himself arrived, having escaped from the
+inhospitable court of that monarch, where he had been kept, not as a
+friend, but as a prisoner, and had returned just time enough to
+prevent his father from sharing the same fate. 10. In this situation
+they were informed that Cinna, one of their party who had remained at
+Rome, had put himself at the head of a large army, collected out of
+the Italian states, who had espoused his cause. Nor was it long before
+they joined their forces at the gates of Rome. Sylla was at that time
+absent in his command against Mithri'dates. 11. Cinna marched into the
+city; but Ma'rius stopped, and refused to enter, alleging, that having
+been banished by a public decree, it was necessary to have another to
+authorise his return. It was thus that he desired to give his
+meditated cruelties the appearance of justice; and while he was about
+to destroy thousands, to pretend an implicit veneration for the laws.
+12. An assembly of the people being called, they began to reverse his
+banishment; but they had scarcely gone through three of the tribes,
+when, incapable of restraining his desire of revenge, he entered the
+city at the head of his guards, and massacred all who had been
+obnoxious to him, without remorse or pity. 13. Several who sought to
+propitiate the tyrant's rage, were murdered by his command in his
+presence; many even of those who had never offended him were put to
+death; and, at last, even his own officers never approached him but
+with terror. 14. Having in this manner satiated his revenge, he next
+abrogated all the laws which were enacted by his rival, and then made
+himself consul with Cinna. 15. Thus gratified in his two favourite
+passions, vengeance and ambition, having once saved his country, and
+now deluged it with blood, at last, as if willing to crown the pile of
+slaughter which he had made, with his own body, he died the month
+after, not without suspicion of having hastened his end. 16. In the
+mean time these accounts were brought to Sylla, who had been sent
+against Mithrida'tes, and who was performing many signal exploits
+against him; hastily concluding a peace, therefore, he returned home
+to take vengeance on his enemies at Rome. 17. Nothing could intimidate
+Cinna from attempting to repel his opponent. Being joined by Car'bo,
+(now elected in the room of Vale'rius, who had been slain) together
+with young Ma'rius, who inherited all the abilities and the ambition
+of his father, he determined to send over part of the forces he had
+raised in Dalma'tia to oppose Sylla before he entered Italy. Some
+troops were accordingly embarked; but being dispersed by a storm, the
+others that had not yet put to sea, absolutely refused to go. 18. Upon
+this, Cinna, quite furious at their disobedience, rushed forward to
+persuade them to their duty. In the mean time one of the most mutinous
+of the soldiers being struck by an officer, returned the blow, and was
+apprehended for his crime. This ill-timed severity produced a tumult
+and a mutiny through the whole army; and, while Cinna did all he could
+to appease it, he was run through the body by one of the crowd. 19.
+Scip'io, the consul, who commanded against Sylla, was soon after
+allured by proposals for a treaty; but a suspension of arms being
+agreed upon, Sylla's soldiers went into the opposite camp, displaying
+those riches which they had acquired in their expeditions, and
+offering to participate with their fellow-citizens, in case they
+changed their party. 20. In consequence of this the whole army
+declared unanimously for Sylla; and Scip'io scarcely knew that he was
+forsaken and deposed, till he was informed of it by a party of the
+enemy, who, entering his tent, made him and his son prisoners.
+
+21. In this manner both factions, exasperated to the highest
+degree, and expecting no mercy on either part, gave vent to their fury
+in several engagements. The forces on the side of young Ma'rius, who
+now succeeded his father in command, were the most numerous, but those
+of Sylla better united, and more under subordination. 22. Carbo, who
+commanded for Ma'rius in the field, sent eight legions to Praenes'te,
+to relieve his colleague, but they were met by Pompey, afterwards
+surnamed the Great, in a defile, who slew many of them, and dispersed
+the rest. Carbo soon after engaged Metel'lus, but was overcome, with
+the loss of ten thousand slain, and six thousand taken prisoners. 23.
+In consequence, Urba'nus, one of the consuls, killed himself, and
+Carbo fled to Africa, where, after wandering a long time, he was at
+last delivered up to Pompey, who, to please Sylla, ordered him to be
+beheaded. 24. Sylla, now become undisputed master of his country,
+entered Rome at the head of his army. Happy, had he supported in peace
+the glory which he had acquired in war; or, had he ceased to live when
+he ceased to conquer!
+
+25. Eight thousand men, who had escaped the general carnage,
+surrendered themselves to the conqueror; he ordered them to be put
+into the Villa Pub'lica, a large house in the Campus Mar'tius; and, at
+the same time, convoked the senate: there, without discovering the
+least emotion, he spoke with great fluency of his own exploits, and,
+in the mean time, gave private directions that all those wretches whom
+he had confined, should be slain. 26. The senate, amazed at the horrid
+outcries of the sufferers, at first thought that the city was given up
+to plunder; but Sylla, with an unembarrassed air, informed them, that
+it was only some criminals who were punished by his order, and that
+the senate ought not to make themselves uneasy at their fate. 27. The
+day after he proscribed forty senators, and sixteen hundred knights;
+and after an intermission of two days, forty senators more, with an
+infinite number of the richest citizens. 28. He next resolved to
+invest himself with the dictatorship, and that for a perpetuity; and
+thus uniting all civil as well as military power in his own person, he
+thought he might thence give an air of justice to every oppression.
+29. Thus he continued to govern with capricious tyranny, none daring
+to resist his power, until, contrary to the expectation of all
+mankind, he laid down the dictatorship, after having held it not quite
+three years.
+
+[Illustration: Sylla reproaching the little image of Apollo with his
+defeat.]
+
+30 After this, he retired into the country, and abandoned himself to
+debauchery; but he did not long survive his abdication; he was seized
+with a horrible distemper, and died a loathsome and mortifying object,
+and a melancholy proof of the futility of human ambition.[5]
+
+The character of Sylla exhibits a singular compound of great and mean
+qualities. Superstition was one of its features. It is said that
+having suffered a defeat in the course of the Social War, in Italy, he
+drew from his bosom a little image of Apollo, which he had stolen from
+the temple of Delphi, and had ever since carried about him when
+engaged in war. Kissing it with great devotion, he expostulated with
+the god, for having brought him to perish dishonourably, with his
+countrymen, at the gates of his native city, after having raised him
+by many victories to such a height of glory and greatness.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the first acts of Sylla?
+
+2. What became of Marius?
+
+3. To what dangers was he exposed?
+
+4. Was an attempt made on his life?
+
+5. How did the governor treat the fugitive general?
+
+6. What ingratitude was shown to Marius?
+
+7. What was his reply?
+
+8. From what African prince did he ask aid?
+
+9. Was it granted?
+
+10. What opportunity was taken by the Marian party to renew the
+struggle?
+
+11. To what scruple did Marius pretend?
+
+12. What proves it a pretence?
+
+13. What cruelties were practised by Marius?
+
+14. What laws did he change? 15. How did Marius die?
+
+16. How did Sylla act when he learned the news of the change?
+
+17. What caused a tumult in Cinna's army?
+
+18. How did it end?
+
+19. What artifice was practised on Scipio?
+
+20. What was the result?
+
+21. Describe the relative condition of the rival forces?
+
+22. Did Pompey obtain any victory?
+
+23. What was the consequence?
+
+24. Which faction finally prevailed?
+
+25. What massacre was perpetrated by Sylla?
+
+26. How did he excuse it? 27. Were these his only cruelties?
+
+28. What magistracy did Sylla usurp?
+
+29. How did he govern?
+
+30. In what manner did the tyranny of Sylla terminate?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] So astonished was Jugur'tha at the mercenary disposition
+discovered by the Romans, that he is said to have exclaimed, on
+leaving the city, "Oh, Rome! thou wouldst thyself be sold, could a
+chapman be found to purchase thee."
+
+[2] It has been said with great truth, that "the wicked have no
+friends." Jugur'tha experienced this. Bomil'car, who professed the
+warmest attachment to Jugur'tha, was gained over by the proconsul
+Metel'lus to persuade his master, that submission to the Romans was
+absolutely necessary. Jugur'tha accordingly sent an embassy to the
+proconsul, professing his readiness to submit to any terms. Upon this
+he was required to send to the Romans 200,000 pounds weight of silver,
+all his elephants, a certain number of horses and arms, and all
+deserters. The king complied exactly with these hard conditions; but
+after thus weakening his resources, he found himself still obliged to
+continue the war, or submit to such farther impositions as would have
+endangered, not only his crown, but his life.
+
+[3] Never did any one more deservedly suffer than this treacherous and
+cruel man.
+
+[4] This king incurred the resentment of the Romans by making war on
+some of their allies, and by putting Op'pius and Aquil'ius to death.
+Upbraiding the Romans with their avarice and corruption, he caused
+melted gold to be poured down the throat of the latter.
+
+[5] Two events, important in the history of Rome, occurred about this
+time. Serto'rius, a Roman general, in Spain, had rebelled against the
+government of Syl'la, and defeated every army sent against him, till
+Pompey took the command; and even then the result appeared doubtful,
+till Serto'rius, being assassinated by his own officers put an end to
+the war. Spar'tacus, a gladiator, having escaped from confinement, and
+assembled a number of his followers, commenced what is called the
+second Servile War. His army gradually increasing, he became a
+formidable enemy to the Roman state; overthrew the praetors and consuls
+sent against him; but was at length defeated by Crassus, and the
+remains of his army cut in pieces by Pompey, who met them on his
+return from Spain.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+FROM THE PERPETUAL DICTATORSHIP OF SYLLA TO THE TRIUMVIRATE OF CAESAR,
+POMPEY, AND CRASSUS.--U.C. 680.
+
+
+  With Tully she her wide reviving light
+  To senates holds, a Catiline confounds.
+  And saves awhile from Caesar sinking Rome.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. Upon the death of Sylla, the jealousies of Pompey and Crassus, the
+two most powerful men in the empire, began to excite fresh
+dissensions. Pompey was the most beloved general, but Crassus the
+richest man in Rome.
+
+2. The first opportunity that was offered of discovering their mutual
+jealousy, was upon disbanding their troops. Neither chose to begin; so
+that the most fatal consequences were likely to arise from their
+dissension. At length Crassus, stifling his resentment, laid down his
+command; and the other followed his example immediately after. 3.
+The next trial between them was, who should be foremost in obtaining
+the favour of the people. Crassus entertained the populace at a
+thousand tables, distributed corn to the families of the poor, and fed
+the greatest part of the citizens for nearly three months. Pompey, on
+the other hand, laboured to abrogate the laws made against the
+authority of the people by Sylla; restored to the knights the power of
+judging, which had been formerly granted them by Gracchus; and gave
+back to the tribunes all their former privileges. 4. Thus each gave
+his private aims an appearance of zeal for the public good; so that
+what was in reality ambition in both, took with one the name of
+liberality; with the other, that of a love of freedom.
+
+5. An expedition, in which Pompey cleared the Mediterranean, which was
+infested by pirates, having added greatly to his reputation, the
+tribunes of the people hoped it would be easy to advance their
+favourite still higher. 6. Man'lius, therefore, one of the number,
+preferred a law, that all the armies of the empire, the government of
+Asia, and the management of the war which was renewed against
+Mithrida'tes, should be committed to Pompey alone. The law passed,
+with little opposition, and the decree was confirmed.
+
+7. Being thus appointed to the command of that important war, he
+departed for Asia. 8. Mithrida'tes had been obliged by Lucul'lus to
+take refuge in Lesser Armenia, and thither that general was preparing
+to follow him, when his whole army abandoned him; so that it remained
+for Pompey to terminate the war, which he effected with great ease and
+expedition, adding a large extent of dominion to the Roman empire, and
+returning to Rome in triumph at the head of his conquering army.
+
+9. But the victories of Pompey rather served to heighten the glory
+than to increase the power of Rome; they made it more a glaring object
+of ambition, and exposed its liberties to greater danger. Those
+liberties, indeed, seemed devoted to ruin on every side; for, even
+while he was pursuing his conquests abroad, Rome was at the verge of
+ruin from a conspiracy at home. 10. This conspiracy was projected and
+carried on by Ser'gius Cat'iline, a patrician by birth, who resolved
+to build his own power on the downfall of his country. 11. He was
+singularly formed, both by art and nature, to conduct a conspiracy: he
+was possessed of courage equal to the most desperate attempts, and of
+eloquence to give a colour to his ambition: ruined in his
+fortunes, profligate in his manners, vigilant in pursuing his aims, he
+was insatiable after wealth, only with a view to lavish it on his
+guilty pleasures. 12. Cat'iline having contracted debts in consequence
+of such an ill-spent life, was resolved to extricate himself from them
+by any means, however unlawful. Accordingly, he assembled about thirty
+of his debauched associates, and informed them of his aims, his hopes,
+and his settled plans of operations. 13. It was resolved among them,
+that a general insurrection should be raised throughout Italy, the
+different parts of which he assigned to different leaders. Rome was to
+be fired at several places at once; and Cat'iline, at the head of an
+army raised in Etru'ria, was, in the general confusion, to possess
+himself of the city, and massacre all the senators. Len'tulus, one of
+his profligate assistants, who had been praetor, or judge in the city,
+was to preside in their general councils; Cethe'gus, a man who
+sacrificed the possession of great present power to the hopes of
+gratifying his revenge against Cicero,[1] was to direct the massacre
+through the city; and Cas'sius was to conduct those who fired it.
+
+14. But the vigilance of Ci'cero being the chief obstacle to their
+designs, Catiline was very desirous to see him taken off before he
+left Rome; upon which two knights of the company undertook to kill him
+the next morning in his bed, in an early visit, on pretence of
+business. 15. But the meeting was no sooner over, than Ci'cero had
+information of all that passed in it; for, by the intrigues of a woman
+named Ful'via, he had gained over Cu'rius, her lover, one of the
+conspirators, to send him a punctual account of all their
+deliberations. 16. Having taken proper precautions to guard himself
+against the designs of his morning visitors, who were punctual to the
+appointment, he next took care to provide for the defence of the city;
+when, assembling the senate, he consulted what was best to be done in
+such a time of danger.
+
+[Illustration: Curius, disclosing Catiline's conspiracy to Fulvia.]
+
+17. The first step taken was to offer considerable rewards for farther
+discoveries, and then to prepare for the defence of the state.
+18. Cat'iline, to show how well he could dissemble, or justify any
+crime, went boldly to the senate, declaring his innocence;[2] but,
+when confronted by the eloquence of Ci'cero, he hastily withdrew,
+declaring aloud, that since he was denied a vindication of himself,
+and driven headlong into rebellion by his enemies, he would extinguish
+the flame which was raised about him in universal ruin. 19. After a
+short conference with Len'tulus and Cethe'gus, he left Rome by night,
+with a small retinue, to hasten towards Etru'ria, where Man'lius, one
+of the conspirators, was raising an army to support him.[3]
+
+20. In the mean time Ci'cero took proper precautions to secure all
+those of the conspiracy who remained in Rome. Len'tulus, Cethe'gus,
+Cas'sius, and several others, were put into confinement; and soon
+after strangled in prison.
+
+21. While his associates were put to death in the city, Cat'iline had
+raised an army of twelve thousand men, of which a fourth part only
+were completely armed, the rest being furnished with such weapons as
+chance afforded; darts, lances, and clubs. 22. He refused, at first,
+to enlist slaves, who flocked to him in great numbers, trusting to the
+strength of the conspiracy; but upon the approach of the consul, who
+was sent against him, and upon the arrival of the news that his
+confederates were put to death, the face of affairs altered. 23.
+His first attempt, therefore, was, by long marches, to make his escape
+over the Appenines into Gaul; but in this his hopes were disappointed;
+all the passes being guarded by an army superior to his own. 24. Being
+thus hemmed in on every side, and seeing all things desperate, with
+nothing left him but either to die or conquer, he resolved to make one
+vigorous effort against that army which pursued him. Anto'nius, the
+consul, being sick, the command devolved upon Petrei'us, who, after a
+fierce and bloody action in which he lost a considerable part of his
+best troops, put Cat'iline's forces to the rout, and destroyed his
+whole army.[4]
+
+25. The extinction of this conspiracy seemed only to leave an open
+theatre for the ambition of the great men to display itself in. Pompey
+was now returned in triumph from conquering the east, as he had before
+been victorious in Europe and Africa.
+
+26. Crassus was the richest man in Rome, and next to Pompey, possessed
+the greatest authority; his party in the senate was even greater than
+that of his rival, and the envy raised against him was less. He and
+Pompey had long been disunited by an opposition of interests and of
+characters; however, it was from a continuance of their mutual
+jealousies that the state was in some measure to expect its future
+safety. 27. It was in this situation of things that Julius Caesar, who
+had lately gone, as praetor, into Spain, and had returned with great
+riches and glory, resolved to convert their mutual jealousy to his own
+advantage. 28. This celebrated man was descended from popular and
+illustrious ancestors. He warmly espoused the side of the people, and
+shortly after the death of Sylla, procured the recall of those whom
+Sylla had banished. He had all along declared for the populace against
+the senate, and became their most favourite magistrate. 29. This
+consummate statesman began by offering his services to Pompey,
+promising to assist him in getting all his acts passed,
+notwithstanding the senate's opposition. Pompey, pleased at the
+acquisition of a person of so much merit, readily granted him his
+confidence and protection. 30. He next applied to Crassus, who, from
+former connections, was disposed to become still more nearly his
+friend. 31. At length, finding them not averse to an union of
+interests, he took an opportunity of bringing them together; and,
+remonstrating with them on the advantages as well as the necessity of
+a reconciliation, he had art enough to persuade them to forget former
+animosities. 32. A combination was thus formed, by which they agreed
+that nothing should be done in the commonwealth without their mutual
+concurrence and approbation. This was called the first Trium'virate,
+by which we find the constitution weakened by a new interest which had
+not hitherto taken place, very different from that of the senate or
+the people, and yet dependent on both.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What followed on the death of Sylla?
+
+2. What first discovered their mutual jealousy?
+
+3. What was the next trial between them?
+
+4. Under what pretences did they hide their real views?
+
+5. What farther raised the reputation of Pompey?
+
+6. What means were had recourse to for this purpose?
+
+7, 8. What was the state of the war in Asia?
+
+9. What were the consequences of Pompey's victories?
+
+10. Who was the author, and what was the object of this conspiracy?
+
+11. What was the character of Catiline?
+
+12. What occasioned this conspiracy?
+
+13. How was it to be carried into execution?
+
+14. What was the chief obstacle to its accomplishment, and how was
+this obstacle to be removed?
+
+15. Was Cicero informed of their proceedings?
+
+16. What precautions did he take in consequence?
+
+17. What was the first step taken?
+
+18. What was the conduct of Catiline on this occasion?
+
+19. Did he continue in Rome?
+
+20. Did the other conspirators escape?
+
+21. How was Catiline employed in the mean time?
+
+22. Had he a fair prospect of success?
+
+23. Did he boldly face his opponents?
+
+24. What followed?
+
+25. Did the extinction of this conspiracy give peace to Rome?
+
+26. Who were the contending parties, and what was the consequence of
+this dissension?
+
+27. Who profited by these jealousies?
+
+28. Who was Julius Caesar, and by what means did he acquire popularity?
+
+29. What was his first step towards power?
+
+30. To whom did he next apply?
+
+31. What consequence resulted from his application?
+
+32. What agreement was entered into by them, and what were they
+called?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Ci'cero, the first of Roman orators, as Demos'thenes was of the
+Greek, was born at Arpin'um, a town of the Volsci, and studied under
+the most celebrated orators and philosophers of Greece. His style of
+eloquence was copious, highly ornamented, and addressed more to the
+passions than to the judgment of his hearers. He was consul at the
+time of Cat'iline's conspiracy; and, for his eminent services in
+detecting and frustrating it, was honoured with the title of Pater
+Patriae.
+
+[2] On his entrance, the senators near whom he attempted to seal
+himself, quitting their places, left him quite alone.
+
+[3] On his arrival, he assumed all the insignia of a supreme
+magistrate being preceded by lictors carrying the axes and fasces.
+
+[4] Cataline himself, finding his affairs desperate, threw himself
+into the midst of the enemy, and there found the death he sought.
+(Sallust.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE, TO THE DEATH OF
+POMPEY.--U.C. 694.
+
+  How happy was I, in my lawful wars
+  In Germany, in Gaul, and Brittany!
+  When every night with pleasure I set down
+  What the day ministered; then sleep came sweetly.
+                    _Beaumont and Fletcher_.
+
+1. The first thing that Caesar did, upon forming the Trium'virate, was
+to avail himself of the interest of his confederates to obtain the
+consulship. 2. The senate had still some influence left; and though
+they were obliged to concur in choosing him, yet they gave him for a
+colleague one Bib'ulus, whom they supposed would be a check upon his
+power. 3. But the opposition was too strong for even superior
+abilities to resist; so that Bib'ulus, after a slight attempt in
+favour of the senate, remained inactive. 4. Caesar began his schemes
+for empire by ingratiating himself with the people; he procured a law
+for dividing certain lands in Campa'nia among such of the poor
+citizens as had at least three children. This proposal was just enough
+in itself, and it was criminal only from the views of the proposer.
+
+5. Having thus strengthened himself at home, he deliberated with his
+confederates about sharing the foreign provinces of the empire. 6. The
+partition was soon made: Pompey chose Spain; for, being fatigued with
+conquest, and satiated with military fame, he was willing to take his
+pleasures at Rome. Crassus chose Syria; which province, as it had
+hitherto enriched the generals who had subdued it, would, he hoped,
+gratify him in this his favourite pursuit. To Caesar were left the
+provinces of Gaul, composed of fierce and powerful nations, most of
+them unsubdued, and the rest only professing a nominal subjection. 7.
+As this was appointing him rather to conquer than command, the
+government was granted him for five years, as if by its continuance to
+compensate for its danger.
+
+8. It would be impossible, in this narrow compass, to enumerate the
+battles Caesar fought, and the states he subdued, in his expeditions
+into Gaul and Britain, which continued eight years.
+
+[Illustration: Caesar landing in Britain.]
+
+9. The Helvetians[1] were the first that were brought into subjection,
+with the loss of nearly two hundred thousand men; those who
+remained after the carnage were sent by Caesar in safety to the forests
+whence they had issued.[2] 10. The Germans, with Ariovis'tus at their
+head, were next cut off, to the number of eighty thousand, their
+monarch himself narrowly escaping in a little boat across the Rhine.
+The Belgae[3] suffered such a terrible overthrow, that marshes and
+rivers were rendered impassable from the heaps of slain. 11. The
+Ner'vians,[4] who were the most warlike of those barbarous nations,
+made head for a short time, and fell upon the Romans with such fury,
+that their army was in danger of being utterly routed; but Caesar
+himself, hastily catching up a buckler, rushed through his troops into
+the midst of the enemy; by which means he so turned the fate of the
+day, that the barbarians were all cut off to a man. 12. The Celtic
+Gauls were next brought under subjection. After them, the Sue'vi, the
+Mena'pii, and all the nations from the Mediterranean to the British
+sea. 13. Thence, stimulated by the desire of conquest, he crossed over
+into Britain, upon pretence that the natives had furnished his enemies
+with continual supplies. 14. Upon approaching the shores, he found
+them covered with men to oppose his landing, and his forces were in
+danger of being driven back, till the standard-bearer of the
+tenth legion boldly leapt ashore, and being well assisted by Caesar,
+the natives were put to flight. 15. The Britons being terrified at
+Caesar's power, sent to desire a peace, which was granted them, and
+some hostages delivered. A storm, however, soon after destroying great
+part of his fleet, they resolved to take advantage of the disaster,
+and marched against him with a powerful army. But what could naked
+undisciplined troops do against forces that had been exercised under
+the greatest generals, and hardened by the conquest of the greatest
+part of the world? Being overthrown, they were obliged once more to
+sue for peace. Caesar granted it, and returned to the continent.
+
+16. While Caesar was thus increasing his reputation and riches abroad,
+Pompey, who remained in Rome, steadily co-operated with his ambition,
+and advanced his interests, while he vainly supposed he was forwarding
+his own. By this means Caesar was continued five years longer in Gaul.
+17. Nor was Pompey roused from his lethargy till the fame of that
+great commander's valour, riches, and humanity, began to make him
+suspect they would soon eclipse his own. 18. He now therefore did all
+in his power to diminish Caesar's reputation; obliging the magistrates
+not to publish any letters they received till he had diminished the
+credit of them, by spreading disadvantageous reports. 19. One or two
+accidents, also, helped to widen the separation; namely, the death of
+Julia,[5] Pompey's wife, who had not a little contributed to improve
+the harmony that subsisted between them; and the destruction of
+Crassus, who had conducted the war against the Parthians with so
+little prudence, that he suffered them to get the advantage of him in
+almost every skirmish; when, incapable of extricating himself, he fell
+a sacrifice to his own rashness in trusting himself to a perfidious
+enemy.[6]
+
+It was at this period that T. Maurius Milo, being a candidate for the
+office of consul, during the heat of the canvassing happened, when
+riding into the country, to meet Clodius, a turbulent man, who
+favoured his opponent.
+
+[Illustration: Exposure of Clodius's body in the Forum.]
+
+The meeting was accidental, but a skirmish between their
+attendants drew on a contest which terminated in the death of
+Clodius. The body was brought into Rome where it was exposed, all
+covered with blood and wounds, to the view of the populace, who
+flocked around it in crowds to lament the miserable fate of their
+leader. The next day the mob, headed by a kinsman of the deceased,
+carried the body, with the wounds exposed, into the forum; and the
+enemies of Milo, addressing the crowd with inflammatory speeches,
+wrought them up to such a frenzy that they carried the body into the
+senate-house, and, tearing up the benches and tables, made a funeral
+pile, and, together with the body, burnt the house itself, and then
+stormed the house of Milo, but were repulsed. This violence, and the
+eloquence of Cicero in his defence, saved Milo from the punishment
+which he had good reason to fear for the assassination of Clodius.
+
+20. Caesar, who now began to be sensible of the jealousies of Pompey,
+took occasion to solicit for the consulship, together with a
+prolongation of his government in Gaul, desirous of trying whether
+Pompey would thwart or promote his pretensions. 21. In this Pompey
+seemed to be quite inactive; but, at the same time, privately employed
+two of his creatures, who alleged in the senate that the laws did not
+permit a person who was absent to offer himself as a candidate for
+that high office. 22. Pompey's view in this was to allure Caesar from
+his government, in order to stand for the consulship in person. 23.
+Caesar, however, perceiving his artifice, chose to remain in his
+province, convinced that while he headed an army devoted to him, he
+could give law as well as magistrates to the state.
+
+24. The senate, which was devoted to Pompey, because he had for some
+time attempted to defend them from the encroachments of the people,
+ordered home the two legions which were in Caesar's army belonging to
+Pompey, as it was pretended, to oppose the Parthians, but in reality
+to diminish Caesar's power. 25. Caesar saw their motive: but as his
+plans were not yet ripe for execution, he sent them home in pursuance
+of the orders of the senate, having previously attached the officers
+to him by benefits, and the soldiers by bounties. 26. The next step
+the senate took, was to recall Caesar from his government, as his time
+was very near expiring. But Cu'rio, his friend in the senate, proposed
+that Caesar should not leave his army till Pompey had set him the
+example. 27. This for a while perplexed Pompey; however, during the
+debate, one of the senate declaring that Caesar had passed the Alps,
+and was marching with his whole army directly towards Rome, the
+consul, immediately quitting the senate, went with his colleagues to a
+house where Pompey at that time resided. He there presented him with a
+sword, commanding him to march against Caesar, and fight in defence of
+the commonwealth. 28. Pompey declared he was ready to obey, but with
+an air of pretended moderation added, that it was only in case more
+gentle expedients could not be employed. 29. Caesar, who was instructed
+in all that passed, though he was still in Gaul, was willing to give
+his aims all the appearance of justice. He agreed to lay down his
+employment when Pompey should do the same. But the senate rejected his
+propositions, blindly confident of their power, and relying on the
+assurances of Pompey. Caesar, still unwilling to come to an open
+rupture with the state, at last was content to ask the government of
+Illyr'ia, with two legions; but this also was refused him. 30. Finding
+all attempts at an accommodation fruitless, and conscious, if not of
+the goodness of his cause, at least of the goodness of his troops, he
+began to draw them down towards the confines of Italy; and passing the
+Alps with his third legion, stopped at Raven'na, whence he once more
+wrote to the consuls, declaring that he was ready to resign all
+command in case Pompey would do so. 31. On the other hand, the senate
+decreed, that Caesar should lay down his government, and disband
+his forces within a limited time; and, if he refused obedience, that
+he should be declared an enemy to the commonwealth.
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was Caesar's first act after the Triumvirate had been formed?
+
+2. Whom did the senate appoint as Caesar's colleague, and why?
+
+3. Had Bibulus any controul over Caesar?
+
+4. How did Caesar commence his schemes?
+
+5. How did he farther promote his views?
+
+6. How were the provinces allotted?
+
+7, 8. Was Caesar's a desirable allotment?
+
+9. Who were the first that submitted to Caesar's arms?
+
+10. Who were the next?
+
+11. Who made the most formidable resistance?
+
+12. What other nations were subdued by Caesar?
+
+13. Did these conquests content him?
+
+14. What opposition did he experience on the British coast?
+
+15. What followed this defeat?
+
+16. In what way were Caesar's views promoted?
+
+17. Did not Pompey suspect his intentions?
+
+18. When undeceived, what measures did he pursue?
+
+19. What contributed to widen the breach?
+
+20. How did Caesar ascertain the disposition of Pompey towards him?
+
+21. Did Pompey take an active part?
+
+22. What was Pompey's view in this?
+
+23. Did Caesar fall into the snare?
+
+24. Which side did the senate favour?
+
+25. Did Caesar give up the legions?
+
+26. What was the next step they took?
+
+27. What was the consequence of this proposal?
+
+28. Did Pompey obey this command?
+
+29. What was Caesar's conduct on this occasion?
+
+30. How did he next proceed?
+
+31. What measure did the senate adopt?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  On him thy hate, on him thy curse bestow.
+  Who would persuade thee Caesar is thy foe;
+  And since to thee I consecrate my toil,
+  Oh! favour thou my cause, and on thy soldier smile.--_Lucan._
+
+1. Caesar, however, seemed no way disturbed at these violent
+proceedings; the night before his intended expedition into Italy, he
+sat down to table cheerfully, conversing with his friends on subjects
+of literature and philosophy; and apparently disengaged from every
+ambitious concern. After some time, rising up, he desired the
+company to make themselves joyous in his absence, and that he would be
+with them in a moment: in the mean time, having ordered his chariot to
+be prepared, he immediately set out, attended by a few friends, for
+Arim'inum, a city upon the confines of Italy, whither he had
+despatched a part of his army the morning before. 2. This journey by
+night, which was very fatiguing, he performed with great diligence,
+sometimes walking, and sometimes on horseback; till at the break of
+day, he came up with his army, which consisted of about five thousand
+men, near the Ru'bicon, a little river which separates Italy from
+Gaul, and which marked the limits of his command. 3. The Romans had
+ever been taught to consider this river as the sacred boundary of
+their domestic empire. 4. Caesar, therefore, when he advanced at the
+head of his army to the side of it, stopped short upon the bank, as if
+impressed with terror at the greatness of his enterprise. He could not
+pass it without transgressing the laws; he therefore pondered for some
+time in fixed melancholy, looking and debating with himself whether he
+should venture in. "If I pass this river," said he to one of his
+generals, "what miseries shall I bring upon my country! and if I now
+stop short I am undone." 5. After a pause he exclaimed, "Let us go
+where the gods and the injustice of our enemies call us." Thus saying,
+and renewing all his former alacrity, he plunged in, crying out, "The
+die is cast." His soldiers followed him with equal promptitude, and
+having passed the Ru'bicon, quickly arrived at Arim'inum, and made
+themselves masters of the place without any resistance.
+
+6. This unexpected enterprise excited the utmost terror in Rome; every
+one imagining that Caesar was leading his army to lay the city in
+ruins. At the same time were to be seen the citizens flying into the
+country for safety, and the inhabitants of the country coming to seek
+shelter in the city. 7. In this universal confusion, Pompey felt all
+that repentance and self-condemnation, which must necessarily arise
+from the remembrance of having advanced his rival to his present pitch
+of power: wherever he appeared, many of his former friends were ready
+to tax him with his supineness, and sarcastically to reproach his
+ill-grounded presumption. 8. "Where is now," cried Favo'nius, a
+ridiculous senator of this party, "the army that is to rise at your
+command? let us see if it will appear by stamping."[7] Cato
+reminded him of the many warnings he had given him; which, however, as
+he was continually boding nothing but calamities, Pompey might very
+justly be excused from attending to. 9. Being at length wearied with
+these reproaches, which were offered under colour of advice, he did
+all that lay in his power to encourage and confirm his followers: he
+told them that they should not want an army, for that he would be
+their leader. He confessed, indeed, that he had all along mistaken
+Caesar's aims, judging only from what they ought to have been; however,
+if his friends were still inspired with the love of freedom, they
+might yet enjoy it in whatever place their necessities should happen
+to conduct them. 16. He let them know that their affairs were in a
+very promising situation: that his two lieutenants were at the head of
+a very considerable army in Spain, composed of veteran troops that had
+made a conquest of the east: besides these, there were infinite
+resources, both in Asia and Africa, together with the succours they
+were sure to receive from all the kingdoms that were in alliance with
+Rome. 11. This speech served in some measure to revive the hopes of
+the confederacy. The greatest part of the senate, his private friends
+and dependents, with all those who expected to make their fortunes by
+espousing his cause, agreed to follow him. But being in no capacity to
+resist Caesar at Rome, he resolved to lead his forces to Cap'ua, where
+the two legions that served under Caesar in Gaul were stationed.
+
+12. Caesar in the mean time, after having vainly attempted to bring
+Pompey to an accommodation, resolved to pursue him into Cap'ua before
+he could collect his forces. Accordingly, he marched on to take
+possession of the cities that lay between him and his rival, not
+regarding Rome, which he knew would fall of course to the conqueror.
+
+13. Corfin'ium was the first city that attempted to stop the rapidity
+of his march. It was defended by Domi'tius, who had been appointed by
+the senate to succeed him in Gaul. Caesar quickly invested it; and
+though Domi'tius sent frequently to Pompey, exhorting him to come and
+raise the siege, he was at length obliged to endeavour to escape
+privately. 14. His intentions being divulged, the garrison resolved to
+consult their own safety by delivering him up to the besiegers. Caesar
+readily accepted their offers, but kept his men from immediately
+entering the town. 15. After some time, Len'tulus the consul, who was
+one of the besieged, came out to implore forgiveness for himself and
+the rest of his confederates, putting Caesar in mind of their ancient
+friendship, and acknowledging the many favours he had received at his
+hands. 16. To this Caesar, who would not wait the conclusion of his
+speech, generously replied, that he came into Italy not to injure the
+liberties of Rome and its citizens, but to restore them. 17. This
+humane reply being quickly carried into the city, the senators and the
+knights, with their children, and some officers of the garrison, came
+out to claim the conqueror's protection, who, just glancing at their
+ingratitude, gave them their liberty, with permission to go
+wheresoever they should think proper. 18. But while he dismissed the
+leaders, he took care upon this, as upon all other occasions, to
+attach the common soldiers to his interest, sensible that he might
+stand in need of the army; but that while he lived, the army could
+never stand in need of a commander.
+
+19. Pompey, who was unable to continue in Rome, having intelligence of
+what had passed upon this occasion, retreated to Brundu'sium, where he
+resolved to stand a siege, in order to retard the enemy, until the
+forces of the empire should be united to oppose him. 20. His aim in
+this succeeded to his wish; and after having employed Caesar for some
+time in a fruitless siege, he privately carried his forces over to
+Dyrrach'ium, where the consul had levied a body of troops for his
+assistance. 21. However, though he made good his escape, he was
+compelled to leave all Italy at the mercy of his rival, without a town
+or an army that had strength to oppose his progress.
+
+22. Caesar, who could not follow Pompey for want of shipping, went back
+to Rome, to take possession of the public treasures, which his
+opponent, by a most unaccountable oversight, had neglected to take
+with him. 23. Upon his coming up to the door of the treasury,
+Metel'lus, the tribune, who guarded it, refused to let him pass; but
+Caesar, with emotion, laying his hand upon his sword, threatened to
+strike him dead. "Know, young man," cried he, "it is easier to do this
+than say it." This menace had its effect; Metel'lus retired, and
+Caesar took out of the treasury three hundred thousand pounds weight of
+gold, and an immense quantity of silver.
+
+24. Having thus provided for continuing the war, he departed from
+Rome, resolved to subdue Pompey's lieutenants, Afra'nius and
+Petrei'us, who had been long in Spain at the head of a veteran army,
+which had ever been victorious. 25. Caesar, however, who knew the
+abilities of its present commanders, jocosely said, as he was
+preparing to march, "I am going to fight an army without a general,
+and return to fight a general without an army."
+
+26. The first conflict which he had with Afra'nius and Petrei'us was
+rather unfavourable. It was fought near the city of Ilerda,[8] and
+both sides claimed the honour of the victory. But, by various
+stratagems, he reduced them at last to such extremity of hunger and
+drought, that they were obliged to yield at discretion. 27. Clemency
+was his favourite virtue; he dismissed them all with the kindest
+professions, and then sent them home to Rome loaded with shame, and
+with obligations to publish his virtues, and confirm the affections of
+his adherents. 28. Thus, in the space of about forty days, he became
+master of Spain, and returned again victorious to Rome. The citizens
+on this occasion received him with fresh demonstrations of joy, and
+created him dictator and consul. But the first of these offices he
+laid down when he had held it eleven days.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. How did Caesar conduct himself on the night previous to his intended
+journey to Italy?
+
+2. Did he accomplish his journey in safety?
+
+3. What rendered this little river of consequence?
+
+4. Did Caesar pass it without hesitation?
+
+5. How did he determine?
+
+6. What effect was produced at Rome by this enterprise?
+
+7. How was Pompey affected by it?
+
+8. What taunting expressions were used on this occasion?
+
+9. What was Pompey's conduct in reply?
+
+10. How did he represent the state of affairs?
+
+11. What was the consequence of this statement?
+
+12. How was Caesar employed in the mean while?
+
+13. What city first arrested his progress?
+
+14. Did he succeed in his endeavour?
+
+15. What attempt was made to incline Caesar to mercy?
+
+16. What was Caesar's reply?
+
+17. What was the consequence of this reply?
+
+18. Did he dismiss the soldiers likewise?
+
+19. Whither did Pompey retreat, and with what view?
+
+20. Did he succeed in his aims?
+
+21. What was the consequence of his retreat?
+
+22. Did Caesar follow Pompey?
+
+23. Was he opposed in his attempt?
+
+24. What was his next enterprise?
+
+25. What was Caesar's opinion of these commanders?
+
+26. Were they easily conquered?
+
+27. What use did he make of his victory?
+
+28. What was the duration of this campaign, and what were its
+consequences?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+                      O war! what art thou?
+  At once the proof and scourge of man's fall'n state!
+  After the brightest conquest, what appears
+  Of all thy glories? for the vanquish'd, chains!
+  For the proud victors, what? Alas! to reign
+  O'er desolated nations.--_H. More_.
+
+1. While Caesar was thus employed, Pompey was active in making
+preparations in Epi'rus and Greece to oppose him. 2. All the monarchs
+of the East had declared in his favour, and sent very large supplies.
+He was master of nine effective Italian legions, and had a fleet of
+five hundred large ships, under the conduct of Bib'ulus, an active and
+experienced commander. Added to these, he was supplied with large sums
+of money, and all the necessaries for an army, from the tributary
+provinces round him. 3. He had attacked Antony and Dolabel'la, who
+commanded for Caesar in that part of the empire, with such success,
+that the former was obliged to fly, and the latter was taken prisoner.
+Crowds of the most distinguished citizens and nobles from Rome came
+every day to join him. He had at one time above two hundred senators
+in his camp, among whom were Ci'cero and Ca'to, whose approbation of
+his cause was equivalent to an army.
+
+4. Notwithstanding these preparations, Caesar shipped off five of his
+twelve legions at Brundu'sium, and fortunately steered through the
+midst of his enemies, timing it so well that he made his passage in
+one day.
+
+[Illustration: Caesar embarking in a fishing boat.]
+
+5. Still, however, convinced that the proper time for making proposals
+for a peace was after gaining advantage, he sent one Ru'fus, whom he
+had taken prisoner, to effect an accommodation with Pompey,
+offering to refer all to the senate and people of Rome; but Pompey
+once more rejected the overture, considering the people of Rome too
+much in Caesar's interest to be relied on.
+
+6. Pompey had been raising supplies in Macedo'nia when he was first
+informed of Caesar's landing upon the coast of Epi'rus: he now resolved
+immediately to march to Dyrrach'ium, in order to cover that place from
+Caesar's attempts, as all his ammunition and provisions were deposited
+there. 7. The first place where both armies came in sight of each
+other was on the opposite banks of the river Ap'sus; and as both were
+commanded by the two greatest generals then in the world; the one
+renowned for his conquests in the East, and the other celebrated for
+his victories over the western parts of the empire, a battle was
+eagerly desired by the soldiers on either side. 8. But neither of the
+generals was willing to hazard it upon this occasion: Pompey could not
+rely upon his new levies; and Caesar would not venture an engagement
+till he was joined by the rest of his forces.
+
+9. Caesar had waited some time with extreme impatience for the coming
+up of the remainder of his army, and even ventured alone in an open
+fishing-boat to hasten its arrival; but he was driven back by a
+storm.[9] 10. However, his disappointment was soon relieved by an
+information of the landing of the troops at Apollo'nia; he,
+therefore, decamped in order to meet them; and to prevent Pompey, with
+his army, from engaging them on their march, as he lay on that side of
+the river where the succours had been obliged to come on shore.
+
+11. Pompey, being compelled to retreat, led his forces to Aspara'gium,
+where he was sure of being supplied with every thing necessary for his
+army, by the numerous fleets which he employed along the coasts of
+Epi'rus: there he pitched his camp upon a tongue of land (as mariner's
+express it) that jutted into the sea, where also was a small shelter
+for his ships. 12. In this place, being most advantageously situated,
+he began immediately to intrench his camp; which Caesar perceiving, and
+finding that he was not likely soon to quit so advantageous a post,
+began also to intrench behind him. 13. As all beyond Pompey's camp
+towards the land side was hilly and steep, Caesar built redoubts upon
+the hills, stretching from shore to shore, and then caused lines of
+communication to be drawn from hill to hill, by which he blocked up
+the camp of the enemy. 14. He hoped by this blockade to force his
+opponent to a battle, which he ardently desired, and which the other
+with equal industry declined. Thus both sides continued for some time
+employed in designs and stratagems, the one to annoy and the other to
+defend. 15. Caesar's men daily carried on their works to straiten the
+enemy; those of Pompey, having the advantage of numbers, did the same
+to enlarge themselves, and severely galled the enemy by their slingers
+and archers. 16. Caesar, however, was indefatigable; he caused blinds
+or mantalets to be made of the skins of beasts, to cover his men while
+at work; he cut off all the water that supplied the enemy's camp, and
+the forage from the horses, so that there remained no more subsistence
+for them. 17. But Pompey at last resolved to break through his lines,
+and gain some other part of the country more convenient for
+encampment. Accordingly, having informed himself of the condition of
+Caesar's fortifications from some deserters who came over to him, he
+ordered the light infantry and archers on board his ships to attack
+Caesar's entrenchments by sea, where they were least defended. 18. This
+was done with such effect, that though Caesar and his officers used
+their utmost endeavours to hinder Pompey's designs, yet by means of
+reiterated attempts, he at last effected his purpose of extricating
+his army from its present camp, and of encamping in another place
+by the sea, where he had the convenience both of forage and shipping.
+19. Caesar being thus frustrated in his views of blocking up the enemy,
+and perceiving the loss he had sustained, resolved at last to force
+Pompey to a battle, though upon disadvantageous terms. 20. The
+engagement began by attempting to cut off a legion which was posted in
+a wood; and this brought on a general battle. The conflict was for
+some time carried on with great ardour, and with equal fortune; but
+Caesar's army being entangled in the entrenchments of the old camps
+lately abandoned, began to fall into disorder; upon which Pompey
+pressing his advantage, they at last fled with precipitation. Great
+numbers perished in the trenches and on the banks of the river, or
+were pressed to death by their fellows. 21. Pompey pursued his success
+to the very camp of Caesar; but either from surprise, under the
+suddenness of his victory, or fearful of an ambuscade, he with drew
+his troops into his own camp, and thus lost an opportunity of
+completing his victory.
+
+22. After this defeat, which was by no means decisive, Caesar marched,
+with all his forces united in one body, directly to Gom'phi, a town in
+the province of Thes'saly. But the news of his defeat at Dyr'rachium
+had reached this place before him; the inhabitants, therefore, who had
+before promised him obedience, now changed their minds, and, with a
+degree of baseness equal to their imprudence, shut their gates against
+him. 23. Caesar was not to be injured with impunity. Having represented
+to his soldiers the great advantage of forcing a place so very rich,
+he ordered the scaling ladders to be got ready, and causing an assault
+to be made, proceeded with such vigour that, notwithstanding the
+height of the walls, the town was taken in a few hours. 24. Caesar left
+it to be plundered, and, without delaying his march, went forward to
+Metrop'olis, another town of the same province, which yielded at his
+approach. By this means he soon became possessed of all Thes'saly,
+except Laris'sa, which was garrisoned by Scip'io, with his legion who
+commanded for Pompey. 25. During this interval, Pompey's officers
+continually soliciting their commander to come to a battle, he, at
+length, resolved to renounce his own judgment in compliance with those
+about him, and gave up all schemes of prudence for those dictated by
+avarice and passion. 26. Advancing, therefore, into Thes'saly, within
+a few days after the taking of Gom'phi, he drew down upon the
+plains of Pharsa'lia, where he was joined by Scip'io, his lieutenant,
+and the troops under his command. There, waiting the coming of Caesar,
+he resolved to engage, and, by a single battle, decide the fate of
+kingdoms.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. How was Pompey engaged at this time?
+
+2. What advantages did he possess?
+
+3. What farther contributed to give him hopes of success?
+
+4. Was Caesar discouraged by these formidable preparations?
+
+5. Was he resolutely bent on hostilities?
+
+6. What was Pompey's first measure?
+
+7. Where did the armies first come in sight of each other?
+
+8. Was an immediate engagement the consequence?
+
+9. Was this junction soon effected?
+
+10. What was the consequence?
+
+11. What was Pompey's next measure?
+
+12. Did he remain long in this place?
+
+13. What means did Caesar adopt to distress the enemy?
+
+14. What did he promise himself from the adoption of this plan?
+
+15. How were both armies employed?
+
+16. What was the conduct of Caesar on this occasion?
+
+17. How did Pompey frustrate his designs?
+
+18. Was he successful in his attempts?
+
+19. What was Caesar's resolution on this occasion?
+
+20. By what means did he effect this?
+
+21. Did Pompey make the most of his victory?
+
+22. Whither did Caesar betake himself, and what was the consequence of
+his defeat?
+
+23. Did he quietly submit to this insult?
+
+24. What revenge did he take?
+
+25. How did Pompey act on this occasion?
+
+26. Where was this great contest about to be decided?
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+  Each had proposed an empire to be won;
+  Had each once known a Pompey for his son,
+  Had Caesar's soul informed each private breast.
+  A fiercer fury could not be expressed.--_Lucan_.
+
+1. Caesar had employed all his art for some time in sounding the
+inclinations of his men; and finding his army once more resolute and
+vigorous, he advanced towards the plains of Pharsa'lia, where Pompey
+was encamped.
+
+2. The approach of two armies, composed of the best and bravest troops
+in the world, together with the greatness of the prize for which they
+contended, filled every mind with anxiety, though with different
+expectations. 3. Pompey's army, being most numerous, turned all their
+thoughts to the enjoyment of the victory; Caesar's considered only the
+means of obtaining it; Pompey's army depended upon their numbers, and
+their many generals; Caesar's upon their discipline, and the conduct of
+their single commander. 4. Pompey's partisans hoped much from the
+justice of their cause; Caesar's alleged the frequent proposals which
+they had made for peace without effect. Thus the views, hopes and
+motives of both seemed different, whilst their hatred and ambition
+were the same. 5. Caesar, who was ever foremost in offering battle, led
+out his army to meet the enemy; but Pompey, either suspecting his
+troops, or dreading the event, kept his advantageous situation at the
+foot of the hill near which he was posted. 6. Caesar, unwilling to
+attack him at a disadvantage, resolved to decamp the next day, hoping
+to weary out his antagonist, who was not a match for him in sustaining
+the fatigues of duty. 7. Accordingly the order for marching was given,
+and the tents were struck, when word was brought him that Pompey's
+army had now quitted their intrenchments, and advanced farther into
+the plain than usual; so that he might engage them at less
+disadvantage. 8. Upon this he caused his troops to halt, and, with a
+countenance of joy, informed them that the happy time was at last
+come, which they had so long wished for, and which was to crown their
+glory, and terminate their fatigues. He then drew up his troops in
+order, and advanced towards the place of battle. 9. His forces did not
+amount to above half those of Pompey; the army of the one was about
+forty-five thousand foot, and seven thousand horse: that of the other
+not exceeding twenty-two thousand foot, and about a thousand horse.
+10. This disproportion, particularly in the cavalry, had filled Caesar
+with apprehensions; he therefore had some days before picked out the
+strongest and nimblest of his foot soldiers, and accustomed them to
+fight between the ranks of his cavalry. By their assistance, his
+thousand horse was a match for Pompey's seven thousand, and had
+actually got the better in a skirmish that happened between them some
+days before.
+
+11. Pompey, on the other hand, had a strong expectation of success; he
+boasted that he could put Caesar's legions to flight without striking a
+single blow; presuming that as soon as the armies formed, his cavalry,
+on which he placed his greatest expectations, would out-flank and
+surround the enemy. In this disposition Pompey led his troops to
+battle. 12. As the armies approached, the two generals went from rank
+to rank, encouraging their men, exciting their hopes, and lessening
+their apprehensions. 13. Pompey represented to his men that the
+glorious occasion which they had long besought him to grant was now
+before them. "What advantages," said he, "could you wish, that you are
+not now possessed of. Your numbers, your vigour, a late victory, all
+assure us of a speedy and an easy conquest of those harassed and
+broken troops, composed of men worn out with age, and impressed with
+the terrors of a recent defeat; but there is still a stronger bulwark
+for our protection than the superiority of our strength; and that is,
+the justice of our cause. You are engaged in the defence of liberty
+and of your country; you are supported by its laws, and followed by
+its magistrates; the world are spectators of your conduct, and wish
+you success: on the contrary, he whom you oppose is a robber, an
+oppressor of his country, already nearly sunk with the consciousness
+of his crimes, as well as the ill success of his arms. Show then, on
+this occasion, all that ardour and detestation of tyranny which should
+animate Romans, and do justice to mankind."
+
+14. Caesar, on his part, went among his men with that steady serenity
+for which he was so much admired in the midst of danger. He insisted
+on nothing so strongly, as his frequent and unsuccessful endeavours
+for peace. He spoke with terror of the blood he was about to shed, and
+pleaded the necessity that urged him to it. He deplored the many brave
+men that were to fall on both sides, and the wounds of his country,
+whoever might be victorious. 15. His soldiers answered only with looks
+of ardour and impatience. He gave the signal to begin. The word on
+Pompey's side was, "Her'cules the Invincible:" that on Caesar's,
+"Ve'nus the Victorious." 16. There was no more space between both
+armies than to give room for the charge: Pompey therefore ordered his
+men to receive the first shock without moving from their places,
+expecting the enemy's ranks to be put into disorder. Caesar's soldiers
+were now rushing on with their usual impetuosity, when, perceiving the
+enemy motionless, they all stopt short, as if by general consent, and
+halted in the midst of their career. 17. A terrible pause ensued, in
+which both armies continued to gaze upon each other with mutual terror
+and dreadful serenity. At length, Caesar's men having taken breath, ran
+furiously upon the enemy, first discharging their javelins, and
+then drawing their swords. The same method was observed by Pompey's
+troops, who as firmly sustained the attack. His cavalry also were
+ordered to charge at the very onset, which, with the multitude of
+archers and slingers, soon obliged Caesar's men to give ground. 18.
+Caesar instantly ordered the six cohorts, that were placed as a
+reinforcement, to advance, and to strike at the enemy's faces. 19.
+This had its desired effect: Pompey's cavalry, that were just before
+sure of the victory, received an immediate check. The unusual method
+of fighting pursued by the cohorts, their aiming entirely at the
+visages of the assailants, and the horrible disfiguring wounds they
+made, all contributed to intimidate them so much, that instead of
+defending their persons, they endeavoured only to save their
+faces.[10] 20. A total rout ensued; they fled to the neighbouring
+mountains, while the archers and slingers, who were thus abandoned,
+were cut to pieces. 21. Caesar now commanded the cohorts to pursue
+their success, and charge Pompey's troops upon the flank: this charge
+the enemy withstood for some time with great bravery, till Caesar
+brought up his third line, which had not yet engaged. 22. Pompey's
+infantry being thus doubly attacked, in front by fresh troops, and in
+the rear by the victorious cohorts, could no longer resist, but fled
+to their camp. The flight began among the strangers. Pompey's right
+wing still valiantly maintained their ground. 23. Caesar, however,
+convinced that the victory was certain, with his usual clemency cried
+out to pursue the strangers, but to spare the Romans; upon which they
+all laid down their arms and received quarter. The greatest slaughter
+was among the auxiliaries, who fled on all sides. 24. The battle had
+now lasted from break of day till noon, and the weather was extremely
+hot; nevertheless, the conquerors remitted not their ardour, being
+encouraged by the example of a general, who thought his victory
+incomplete till he should become master of the enemy's camp.
+Accordingly, marching on foot at their head, he called upon them to
+follow and strike the decisive blow. 25. The cohorts which were left
+to defend the camp, for some time made a formidable resistance;
+particularly a great number of Thra'cians and other barbarians, who
+were appointed for that purpose; but nothing could resist the
+ardour of Caesar's victorious army; the enemy were at last driven from
+the trenches, and compelled to fly to the mountains.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was the state of Caesar's army immediately before the battle of
+Pharsalia?
+
+2. What effect had the approaching event on the minds of men?
+
+3. What were the respective advantages of each army?
+
+4. On what did they principally build their hopes?
+
+5. Who was the first to offer battle?
+
+6. How did Caesar act on this occasion?
+
+7. What followed?
+
+8. What effect had this intelligence on Caesar's plan?
+
+9. Of what number of troops were each of the armies composed?
+
+10. What did Caesar consider necessary to be done to remedy this
+dis-proportion?
+
+11. What were Pompey's expectations and boasts?
+
+12. What was the conduct of the generals?
+
+13. Repeat Pompey's address to his troops?
+
+14. How did Caesar encourage his men?
+
+15. What effect had this speech, and what was the word on both sides?
+
+16. In what manner did the attack commence?
+
+17. Describe the progress of the battle?
+
+18. What means did Caesar adopt to prevent a defeat?
+
+19. Was this measure successful?
+
+20. What was the consequence?
+
+21. What were Caesar's farther commands?
+
+22. What followed?
+
+23. What use did Caesar make of his victory?
+
+24. Did not fatigue abate the ardour of Caesar's troops?
+
+25. Did they attempt to defend the camp?
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+  Sad Pompey's soul uneasy thoughts infest,
+  And his Cornelia pains his anxious breast,
+  To distant Lesbos fain he would remove.
+  Far from the war, the partner of his love.--_Lucan._
+
+1. Caesar, seeing the field and camp strewed with his fallen
+countrymen, was strongly affected at the melancholy prospect, and
+cried out to one that stood near him, "They would have it so." 2. In
+the camp, every object presented fresh instances of the blind
+presumption and madness of his adversaries. On all sides were to be
+seen tents adorned with ivy and myrtle, couches covered with purple,
+and sideboards loaded with plate. Every thing gave proof of the
+highest luxury, and seemed rather the preparatives for a banquet, or
+the rejoicings for a victory, than dispositions for a battle. 3. A
+camp so richly furnished would have engaged the attention of any
+troops but Caesar's; but there was still something to be done, and he
+permitted them not to pursue any other object than their enemies. 4. A
+considerable body having retired to the adjacent mountains, he
+prevailed on his soldiers to join him in the pursuit, in order to
+oblige these to surrender. He began by inclosing them with a line
+drawn at the foot of the mountain; but they quickly abandoned a post
+which was untenable for want of water, and endeavoured to reach the
+city of Laris'sa. 5. Caesar, leading a part of his army by a shorter
+way, intercepted their retreat. However, these unhappy fugitives again
+found protection from a mountain, at the foot of which ran a rivulet
+that supplied them with water. 6. Night approaching, Caesar's men were
+almost spent, and fainting with their incessant toil since morning;
+yet still he prevailed upon them to renew their labours, and cut off
+the rivulet that supplied the defendants. 7. The fugitives, thus
+deprived of all hopes of succour or subsistence, sent deputies to the
+conqueror, offering to surrender at discretion. During this interval
+of negociation, a few senators that were among them, took the
+advantage of the night to escape, and the rest, next morning, gave up
+their arms, and experienced the conqueror's clemency. In fact, he
+addressed them with great gentleness, and forbade the soldiers to
+offer violence, or to take any thing from them. 8. Thus Caesar gained
+the most complete victory that had ever been obtained; and by his
+great clemency after the battle, seemed to have deserved it. His loss
+amounted only to two hundred men; that of Pompey to fifteen thousand;
+twenty-four thousand men surrendered themselves prisoners of war, and
+the greatest part of these entered into Caesar's army, and were
+incorporated with the rest of his forces. 9. To the senators and Roman
+knights, who fell into his hands, he generously gave liberty to retire
+wherever they thought proper; and as for the letters which Pompey had
+received from those who wished to be thought neutral, Caesar burnt them
+all without reading, as Pompey had done on a former occasion. 10. Thus
+having performed all the duties of a general and a statesman, he sent
+for the legions which had passed the night in camp, to relieve those
+which had accompanied him in the pursuit, and arrived the same day at
+Laris'sa.
+
+11. As for Pompey, who had formerly shown such instances of courage
+and conduct, when he saw his cavalry routed, on which he had placed
+his sole dependence, he absolutely lost his reason. 12. Instead of
+thinking how to remedy this disorder by rallying such troops as fled,
+or by opposing fresh forces to stop the progress of the conqueror,
+being totally amazed by this first blow, he returned to the camp, and
+in his tent waited the issue of an event which it was his duty to have
+directed, not to follow. There he remained for some moments
+speechless, till being told that the camp was attacked--"What!" says
+he, "are we pursued to our very intrenchments?" when, immediately
+quitting his armour for a habit more suited to his circumstances, he
+fled on horseback to Laris'sa: thence, perceiving that he was not
+pursued, he slackened his pace, giving way to all the agonizing
+reflections which his deplorable situation must naturally suggest. 13.
+In this melancholy manner he passed along the vale of Tempe, and
+pursuing the course of the river Pe'neus, at last arrived at a
+fisherman's hut; here he passed the night, and then went on board a
+little bark, keeping along the sea-shore, till he descried a ship of
+some burden, which seemed preparing to sail. In this he embarked; the
+master of the vessel still paying him that homage which was due to his
+former station.
+
+14. From the mouth of the river Pe'neus he sailed to Amphip'olis,
+where, finding his affairs desperate, he steered to Les'bos, to take
+with him his wife Corne'lia, whom he had left there, at a distance
+from the dangers and distresses of war. 15. She, who had long
+flattered herself with the hopes of victory, now felt the agonizing
+reverse of fortune: she was desired by the messenger, whose tears more
+than his words proclaimed her unspeakable misfortunes, to hasten away
+if she expected to see Pompey, who had but one ship, and even that not
+his own. 16. Her grief, which before was violent, became now
+insupportable: she fainted, and lay without signs of life. At length
+recovering, and reflecting that it was no time for vain lamentations,
+she fled through the city to the seaside.
+
+17. Pompey received and embraced her, and in silent despair supported
+her in his arms. "Alas!" said Corne'lia, "you who, before our
+marriage, appeared in these seas as the commander of five hundred
+sail, are now reduced to make your escape in a single vessel. Why come
+you in search of an unfortunate woman? Why was I not left to a
+fate which now you are under the necessity of sharing with me? Happy
+for me had I executed, long since, my design of quitting this life!
+But fatally have I been reserved to add to Pompey's sorrows."
+
+[Illustration: Death of Pompey.]
+
+18. Pompey instanced the uncertainty of all human affairs, and
+endeavoured by every argument to give her comfort; then, taking her
+under his protection, he continued his course, stopping no longer than
+was necessary for a supply of provisions at the ports which occurred
+in his passage. 19. He now determined upon applying to Ptol'emy, king
+of Egypt, to whose father he had been a considerable benefactor.
+Ptol'emy was yet a minor, and had not the government in his own hands,
+but was under the direction of an administration. 20. His council
+insidiously contrived that Pompey should be invited on shore, and
+murdered before he should come into the king's presence. Achil'las,
+commander of the forces, and Septim'ius, a Roman, who had formerly
+been a centurion in Pompey's army, undertook to carry the treacherous
+design into execution. Attended by three or four more, they put off in
+a little bark, and rowed to Pompey's ship, that lay about a mile from
+the shore.
+
+21. Pompey now took leave of Corne'lia, repeating to her a verse of
+Soph'ocles, signifying, that "he who trusts his freedom to a tyrant,
+from that moment becomes a slave." He then gave his hand to Achil'las,
+and, with only two of his own attendants, stepped into the bark. 22.
+The frantic Corne'lia hung over the side of the deck, weeping and
+exclaiming against his separation from her. "Alas!" said she,
+"whither art thou going?"
+
+  He spoke; but she, unmoved at his commands,
+  Thus loud exclaiming, stretch'd her eager hands;
+  "Whither, inhuman! whither art thou gone?
+  Still must I weep our common griefs alone?"
+                                        ROWE'S LUCAN.
+
+In wild astonishment she followed him with her eyes, and uttering to
+the winds her fruitless lamentations.
+
+23. The mariners, regardless of her sorrows, rowed towards land,
+without a word passing among them, till Pompey, by way of breaking
+silence, looking at Septim'ius, whose face he recollected. "Methinks,
+friend," said he, "you once served under me." Septim'ius noticing
+these words only by a contemptuous nod of the head, Pompey betook
+himself to a paper, on which he had minuted a speech intended to be
+made to the king, and began reading it. In this manner they approached
+the shore; whilst Corne'lia, whose insufferable sorrow had never let
+her lose sight of her husband, began to conceive hopes, perceiving
+that the people on the strand crowded down along the coast as if eager
+to receive him. 24. Alas! these hopes were soon destroyed. At the
+instant that Pompey rose, supporting himself upon his freedman's arm,
+Septim'ius stabbed him in the back, and Achil'las instantly seconded
+the blow. 25. Pompey, perceiving his death inevitable, calmly disposed
+himself to meet it with decency; and covering his face with his robe,
+without a word resigned himself to his fate. 26. At this horrid sight,
+Corne'lia and her attendants shrieked, so as to be heard to the very
+shore. But the danger they were in allowing no time to look on, they
+immediately set sail, and, the wind proving favourable, fortunately
+escaped the pursuit of the Egyptian galleys. 27. In the mean time,
+Pompey's murderers, having taken off his head, embalmed it for a
+present to Caesar, whilst the body was thrown naked on the strand, and
+exposed to the view of those whose curiosity was to be satisfied. 28.
+But his faithful freedman, Philip, still kept near it; and when the
+crowd dispersed, he washed it in the sea, and looking round for
+materials to burn it, perceived the wrecks of a fishing-boat, of which
+he composed a pile. 29. While he was thus piously employed, he was
+accosted by an old Roman soldier, who had served under Pompey in his
+youth. "Who art thou?" said he  "that art making these humble
+preparations for Pompey's funeral?"--"One of his freedmen," answered
+Philip.--"Alas," replied the soldier, "permit me to share with you the
+honour of this sacred action. Among all the miseries of my exile, it
+will be my last sad comfort, that I have been able to assist at the
+funeral of my old commander, and to touch the body of the bravest
+general that ever Rome produced."
+
+30. Thus were the last rites performed to Pompey. But his ashes
+(according to Plutarch) were carefully collected, and carried to
+Corne'lia, who deposited them at his villa near Alba, in Italy. 31. We
+are told, too, that the Egyptians afterwards erected a monument to
+him, on the spot on which his funeral pile had been raised, with an
+inscription to this purpose:--"How poor a tomb covers the man who once
+had temples erected to his honour!"
+
+32. From Pompey's death we may date the extinction of the republic.
+From this period the senate was dispossessed of its power; and Rome
+henceforward was never without master.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. How was Caesar affected by the result of the battle?
+
+2. What appearance did Pompey's camp present?
+
+3. Did Caesar's troops immediately begin to plunder?
+
+4. What became of the fugitives?
+
+5. Did they succeed in the attempt?
+
+6. Were the labours of Caesar's soldiers now at an end?
+
+7. What effect had this on the fugitives?
+
+8. Was this victory of importance, and what was the loss on both
+sides?
+
+9. In what manner did Caesar behave to the vanquished?
+
+10. What followed?
+
+11. What was the conduct of Pompey on this occasion?
+
+12. Mention your reasons for this assertion?
+
+13. Proceed in relating farther particulars?
+
+14. Whither did he next steer his course?
+
+15, 16. What effect had the tidings on Cornelia?
+
+17. Relate what passed at their interview?
+
+18. How did Pompey attempt to comfort her?
+
+19. What determination did he now form? 20. What was his intended
+reception?
+
+21. Did Pompey fall into the snare?
+
+22. Was his separation from his wife a painful one?
+
+23. What passed in the boat?
+
+24. Were Cornelia's hopes well founded?
+
+25. Did Pompey resist this treacherous attack?
+
+26. Was Cornelia a witness to this horrid transaction?
+
+27. How was the body of Pompey treated?
+
+28. Had he no friend to perform the last offices for him?
+
+29. By whom was he assisted?
+
+30. What became of his remains?
+
+31. What respect did the Egyptians afterwards pay to his memory?
+
+32. What was the face of affairs after Pompey's death?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The inhabitants of the country now called Switzerland.
+
+[2] The Helvetians, finding their country too narrow for their
+increased population, had determined on emigration. Being denied by
+Caesar a passage through his province, hostilities commenced, which
+terminated us above. (Caesar de Bel. Gal.)
+
+[3] Inhabitants of the country between the Rhine and the Loire.
+
+[4] Inhabitants of the modern province of Hainault.
+
+[5] She was the daughter of Caesar.
+
+[6] Crassus was inveigled into the power of Surena, the Parthian
+general, under the pretence of treating for peace. His head was cut
+off and sent to Orodes, the king of Parthia, who poured molten gold
+down his throat.
+
+[7] This alludes to a boasting speech made some time before by Pompey,
+when he told the senate not to be alarmed at the news of Caesar's
+approach, for that he had only to stamp, and an army would rise at his
+command.
+
+[8] Now Lerida in Catalonia.
+
+[9] It was on this occasion that he encouraged the master of the
+vessel, to whom he had not before made himself known, with these
+memorable words--"Fear nothing, for thou carriest Caesar and all his
+fortunes."
+
+[10] Caesar calls the young patricians that composed Pompey's cavalry
+"pretty young dancers."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF THE COMMONWEALTH TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE
+FIRST EMPEROR, AUGUSTUS.--U.C. 706.
+
+                    When our ear is pierced
+  With the sad notes which mournful beauty yields,
+  Our manhood melts in sympathizing tears.--_Fenton_.
+
+1. Caesar has been much celebrated for his good fortune, but his
+abilities seem equal to the highest success. He possessed shining
+qualities, tarnished by ambition only. His talents were such as would
+have rendered him victorious at the head of any army; and he would
+have governed in any republic that had given him birth. 2. Having now
+gained a most complete victory, his success seemed only to increase
+his activity, and inspire him with fresh resolution to face new
+dangers. He determined, therefore, to pursue his last advantage, and
+follow Pompey to whatever country he had retired; convinced that,
+though he might gain new triumphs, he should never enjoy security
+until his rival was in his power.
+
+3. Accordingly, losing no time, he set sail for Egypt, and arrived at
+Alexandria with about four thousand men: a very inconsiderable force
+to keep so powerful a kingdom under subjection. 4. The first accounts
+he received were of Pompey's miserable end; and soon after, one of the
+murderers came with his head and his ring, as a most grateful present
+to the conqueror. 5. But Caesar had too much humanity to be pleased
+with so horrid a spectacle--with the sad remains of the man he once
+loved; his partner in power. He turned from it with disgust; and,
+after a short pause, gave vent to his pity in a flood of tears. He
+ordered the head to be burned with the most costly perfumes, and
+placed the ashes in a temple, which he built and dedicated to the
+goddess Nem'esis, the avenger of cruel and inhuman deeds.
+
+6. It should seem that the Egyptians, by this time, had some hopes of
+breaking off all alliance with the Romans, which they considered, as
+in fact it was, only another name for subjection. They first took
+offence at Caesar's carrying the ensigns of Roman power before him as
+he entered the city. Photi'nus also treated him with great disrespect,
+and even attempted his life. 7. Caesar, however, concealed his
+resentment till he had a force sufficient to punish his treachery;
+sending, therefore, privately, for the legions which he had formerly
+enrolled for Pompey's service, as being the nearest to Egypt, he, in
+the mean time, pretended to repose an entire confidence in the king's
+ministers, making great entertainments, and assisting at the
+conferences of the philosophers, who were numerous at Alexandria. 8.
+However, he soon changed his manner, when he found himself in no
+danger from the ministers' attempts: and declared, that, being a Roman
+consul, it was his duty to settle the succession of the Egyptian
+crown.
+
+9. There were at that time two pretenders to the crown of Egypt;
+Ptol'emy, the acknowledged king, and the celebrated Cleopa'tra, his
+sister, to whom, by the custom of the country, he was married; and
+who, by his father's will, shared jointly in the succession. 10. Not
+contented with the participation of power, Cleopa'tra aimed at
+governing alone; but being opposed in her views by the Roman senate,
+who confirmed her brother's title to the crown, she was banished into
+Sy'ria, with Arsin'oe, her younger sister. 11. Caesar gave her new
+hopes of aspiring to the kingdom, and sent both to her and her brother
+to plead their cause before him. But Photi'nus, the young king's
+guardian, disdaining to accept this proposal, backed his refusal by
+sending an army of twenty thousand men to besiege him in Alexandria.
+12. Caesar bravely repulsed the enemy; but finding the city of too
+great extent to be defended by so small an army as his, he retired to
+the palace, which commanded the harbour, and there purposed to make
+his stand. 13. Achil'las, who commanded the Egyptians, attacked him
+with great vigour, and aimed at making himself master of the fleet
+that lay before the palace. 14. Caesar, however, too well knew the
+importance of those ships in the hands of an enemy; and therefore
+burnt them all, in spite of every effort to prevent him. He next
+possessed himself of the isle of Pha'ros, by which he was enabled to
+receive supplies; and, in this situation, determined to withstand the
+united force of the Egyptians.[1]
+
+15. In the mean time, Cleopa'tra, having heard of the present turn in
+her favour, resolved to depend on Caesar's patronage for gaining the
+government, rather than on her own forces. But no arts, as she justly
+conceived, were so likely to influence Caesar as the charms of her
+person, which were irresistible. 16. She was now in the bloom of youth
+and beauty, while every feature borrowed grace from the lively turn of
+her temper. To the most enchanting address she joined the most
+harmonious voice. With all these accomplishments, she possessed a
+great share of the learning of the times, and could give audience to
+the ambassadors of seven different nations without an interpreter. 17.
+The difficulty was, how to gain admission to Caesar, as her enemies
+were in possession of all the avenues that led to the palace. For this
+purpose she went on board a small vessel, and, in the evening, landed
+near the palace; where, being wrapt up in a coverlet, she was carried
+as a bundle of clothes into the very presence of Caesar. 18. Her
+address instantly struck him; her wit and understanding fanned the
+flame; but her affability entirely brought him over to second her
+claims.
+
+19. While Cleopa'tra was thus employed in forwarding her own views,
+her sister, Arsin'oe was also strenuously engaged in the camp, in
+pursuing a separate interest. She had found means, by the assistance
+of one Gan'ymede, her confidant, to make a large division in the
+Egyptian army in her favour; and, soon after, by one of those sudden
+revolutions which are common in barbarian camps to this day, she
+caused Achil'las to be murdered, and Gan'ymede to take the command in
+his stead, and to carry on the siege with greater vigour than before.
+20. Gan'ymede's principal effort was by letting in the sea upon those
+canals which supplied the palace with fresh water; but this
+inconvenience Caesar remedied by digging a great number of wells. His
+next endeavour was to prevent the junction of Caesar's twenty-fourth
+legion, which he twice attempted in vain. He soon after made himself
+master of a bridge which joined the isle of Pha'ros to the
+continent, from which post Caesar was resolved to dislodge him. 21. In
+the heat of the action, some mariners, partly through curiosity, and
+partly through ambition, came and joined the combatants; but, being
+seized with a panic, instantly fled, and spread a general terror
+through the army. All Caeesar's endeavours to rally his forces were in
+vain, the confusion was past remedy, and numbers were drowned or put
+to the sword in attempting to escape. 22. Now, therefore, seeing the
+irremediable disorder of his troops, he fled to a ship, in order to
+get to the palace that was just opposite; but he was no sooner on
+board, than such crowds entered after him, that being apprehensive of
+the ship's sinking, he jumped into the sea, and swam two hundred paces
+to the fleet which lay before the palace, all the time holding his
+Commentaries in his left hand above the water, and his coat of mail in
+his teeth.
+
+23. The Alexandrians, finding their efforts to take the palace
+ineffectual, endeavoured at least to get their king out of Caesar's
+power, as he had seized upon his person in the beginning of their
+disputes. For this purpose they made use of their customary arts of
+dissimulation, professing the utmost desire of peace, and only wanting
+the presence of their lawful prince to give a sanction to the treaty.
+24. Caesar was sensible of their perfidy, but concealed his suspicions,
+and gave them their king, as he was under no apprehensions from the
+abilities of a boy. Ptol'emy, however, the instant he was set at
+liberty, instead of promoting the peace, made every effort to give
+vigour to his hostilities.
+
+25. In this manner was Caesar hemmed in for some time by an artful and
+insidious enemy, and surrounded with almost insurmountable
+difficulties; but he was at last relieved from this mortifying
+situation by Mithrida'tes Pergame'nus, one of his most faithful
+partizans, who came with an army to his assistance. This general
+marched into Egypt, took the city of Pelu'sium, repulsed the Egyptian
+army with loss, and, at last, joining with Caesar, attacked their camp
+with a great slaughter of the Egyptians. Ptol'emy himself, attempting
+to escape on board a vessel, was drowned by the ship's sinking. 26.
+Caesar thus became master of all Egypt, without any farther opposition.
+He appointed Cleopa'tra, with her younger brother, who was then an
+infant, joint governors, according to the intent of their father's
+will, and drove out Arsin'oe, with Gan'ymede, to banishment.
+
+27. Having thus given away kingdoms, he now, for a while, seemed
+to relax from the usual activity of his conduct, being captivated with
+the charms of Cleopa'tra. Instead of quitting Egypt to go and quell
+the remains of Pompey's party, he abandoned himself to his pleasures,
+passing whole nights in feasting with the young queen. He even
+resolved on attending her up the Nile, into Ethiopia; but the brave
+veterans, who had long followed his fortune, boldly reprehended his
+conduct, and refused to be partners in so infamous an expedition. 23.
+Thus at length roused from his lethargy, he resolved to prefer the
+call of ambition to that of love; and to leave Cleopa'tra, in order to
+oppose Pharna'ces, the king of Bosphorus, who had made some inroads
+upon the dominions of Rome in the East.
+
+29. This prince, who had cruelly deposed his father, the great
+Mithrida'tes, being ambitious of conquering those dominions, seized
+upon Arme'nia and Col'chis, and overcame Domit'ius, who had been sent
+against him. 30. Upon Caesar's march to oppose him, Pharna'ces, who was
+as much terrified at the name of the general as at the strength of his
+army, laboured, by all the arts of negociation, to avert the impending
+danger. 31. Caesar, exasperated at his crimes and ingratitude, at first
+dissembled with the ambassadors; and using all expedition, fell upon
+the enemy unexpectedly, and, in a few hours, obtained an easy and
+complete victory. Pharna'ces attempting to take refuge in his capital,
+was slain by one of his own commanders--a just punishment for his
+former parricide. Caesar achieved this conquest with so much ease, that
+in writing to a friend at Rome, he expressed the rapidity of his
+victory in three words, "VENI, VIDI, VICI."[2] A man so accustomed to
+conquest might, perhaps, think a slight battle scarcely worth a long
+letter; though it is more probable that these memorable words were
+dictated rather by vanity than indifference.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the abilities and character of Caesar?
+
+2. Did he rest satisfied with his present successes?
+
+3. Whither did he steer his course?
+
+4. What occurred on his arrival?
+
+5. Was Caesar pleased with this spectacle?
+
+6. What was the conduct of the Egyptians towards Caesar?
+
+7. Did Caesar resent this conduct?
+
+8. Did he continue this appearance of confidence?
+
+9. Who were at this time the sovereigns of Egypt?
+
+10. What rendered Caesar's interference necessary?
+
+11. Was this interference agreeable to the Egyptians?
+
+12. How did Caesar conduct himself on this occasion?
+
+13. Was the attack formidable?
+
+14. How did Caesar prevent the designs of the enemy?
+
+15. What was the conduct of Cleopatra?
+
+16. What attractions did she possess?
+
+17. What obstacles presented themselves, and how were they overcome?
+
+18. Was Caesar captivated by her charms?
+
+19. What measures did Arsinoe pursue?
+
+20. What attempts did the enemy make to annoy Caesar, and how were they
+frustrated?
+
+21. What unlucky accident occasioned the miscarriage of Caesar's
+design?
+
+22. How did Caesar escape?
+
+23. What did the Alexandrians next attempt?
+
+24. Did Caesar comply with their wishes?
+
+25. How was Caesar delivered from this dangerous situation?
+
+26. What was the consequence of this victory?
+
+27. Did Caesar pursue his career of victory?
+
+28. What was the consequence of this boldness?
+
+29. What farther cause of offence had Pharnaces given?
+
+30. Did Pharnaces boldly oppose the invader?
+
+31. Did he succeed?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  Oh, my friends,
+  How is the toil of fate, the work of ages,
+  The Roman empire fallen! Oh, cursed ambition!
+  Fallen into Caesar's hand: our great forefathers
+  Had left him nought to conquer but his country.--_Addison's Cato._
+
+1. Caesar, having settled affairs in this part of the empire, embarked
+for Italy, where he arrived sooner than his enemies could expect, but
+not before his presence there was absolutely required. 2. During his
+absence, he had been created consul for five years, dictator for one
+year, and tribune of the people for life. 3. But Antony, who in the
+mean time governed for him in Rome, had filled the city with riot and
+debauchery, and many commotions ensued, which nothing but the arrival
+of Caesar could appease. 4. By his moderation and humanity he soon
+restored tranquillity to the city, scarcely making any distinction
+between those of his own and the opposite party. 5. Having, by gentle
+means, restored his authority at home, he prepared to march into
+Africa, where Pompey's party had found time to rally under Scipio
+and Cato, assisted by Juba, king of Maurita'nia; and, with his usual
+diligence, landed with a small party in Africa, while the rest of his
+army followed him. 6. Scipio coming to a battle soon after, received a
+complete and final overthrow, with little, or no loss on the side of
+the victor. Juba, and Petrei'us his general, killed each other in
+despair. Scipio, attempting to escape by sea into Spain, fell in among
+the enemy, and was slain; so that of all the generals of that undone
+party, Cato was now the only one that remained.
+
+7. This extraordinary man, whom prosperity could not elate, nor
+misfortunes depress, having retired into Africa, after the battle of
+Pharsa'lia, had led the wretched remains of Pompey's army through
+burning deserts, and tracts infested with serpents of various
+malignity, and was now in the city of Utica, which he had been left to
+defend. 8. In love, however, with the show of Roman government, Cato
+had formed the principal citizens into a senate, and conceived a
+resolution of holding out the town. But the enthusiasm for liberty
+subsiding among his followers, he was resolved no longer to force men
+to be free, who seemed naturally prone to slavery. 9. He now,
+therefore, desired some of his friends to save themselves by sea, and
+bade others submit to Caesar's clemency; observing, that, as to
+himself, he was at last victorious. After this, supping cheerfully
+among his friends, he retired to his apartment, where he behaved with
+unusual tenderness to his son, and to all his friends. When he came
+into his bed-chamber, laying himself down, he took up Plato's Dialogue
+on the Immortality of the Soul, and read for some time. Casting his
+eyes to the head of his bed, he wondered much not to see his sword
+there, which had been conveyed away by his son's order while they were
+at supper. Calling to one of his domestics to know what was become of
+it, and receiving no answer, he resumed his studies; and some time
+after asked again for his sword. When he had done reading, and
+perceived that nobody obeyed him, he called for his domestics one
+after the other, and with a peremptory air again demanded his sword.
+10. His son, with tears, besought him to change his resolution; but,
+receiving a stern reprimand, desisted from his persuasions. His sword
+being at length brought to him, he seemed satisfied, and cried out,
+"Now, again, I am master of myself." He took up the book again, which
+having pursued, he fell into a sound sleep. Upon awaking, he
+called to one of his freedmen to know if his friends were embarked, or
+if any thing yet remained that could be done to serve them. The
+freedman, assuring him that all was quiet, was ordered to leave the
+room. Cato no sooner found himself alone, than, seizing his sword, he
+stabbed himself below his chest. The blow not despatching him, he fell
+from his bed and overturned a table, on which he had been drawing some
+geometrical figures. At the noise of the fall, his servants shrieked,
+and his son and friends immediately flew to the room. They found him
+weltering in his blood, with his bowels appearing through the wound.
+11. The surgeon, perceiving that his intestines were not wounded, was
+replacing them; but Cato recovering himself, and understanding their
+intention was to preserve his life, forced the surgeon from him, and,
+with a fierce resolution, tore out his bowels and expired.
+
+12. Upon the death of Cato, the war in Africa being completed, Caesar
+returned in such triumph to Rome, as if he had abridged all his former
+triumphs only to increase the splendour of this. The citizens were
+astonished at the magnificence of the procession, and at the number of
+the countries he had subdued. 13. It lasted four days: the first was
+for Gaul, the second for Egypt, the third for his victories in Asia,
+and the fourth for that over Juba in Africa. His veteran soldiers,
+scarred with wounds, and now laid up for life, followed their
+triumphant general, crowned with laurels, and conducted him to the
+Capitol. 14. To every one of those he gave a sum equivalent to about a
+hundred and fifty pounds sterling, double that sum to the centurions,
+and four times as much to the superior officers. The citizens also
+shared his bounty: to every one he distributed ten bushels of corn,
+ten pounds of oil, and a sum of money equal to about two pounds
+sterling. After this he entertained the people at above twenty
+thousand tables, treated them with combats of gladiators, and filled
+Rome with a concourse of spectators from every part of Italy.
+
+15. The people, intoxicated with pleasure, thought their freedom too
+small a return for such benefits. They seemed eager only to find out
+new modes of homage, and unusual epithets of adulation for their great
+enslaver. He was created, by a new title, _Magis'ter Mo'rum_, or
+Master of the Morals of the People. He received the title of Emperor
+and father of his country. His person was declared sacred; and, in
+short, upon him alone were devolved for life all the great
+dignities of the state. 16. It must be owned, that so much power could
+never have been entrusted to better keeping. He immediately began his
+empire by repressing vice and encouraging virtue. He committed the
+power of judicature to the senators and knights alone; and by many
+sumptuary laws restrained the scandalous luxuries of the rich. He
+proposed rewards to all such as had many children, and took the most
+prudent method of re-peopling the city, which had been exhausted in
+the late commotions.
+
+17. Having thus restored prosperity once more to Rome, he again found
+himself under a necessity of going into Spain to oppose an army which
+had been raised there under the two sons of Pompey, and Labie'nus his
+former general. 18. He proceeded in this expedition with his usual
+celerity, and arrived in Spain before the enemy thought him yet
+departed from Rome. Cne'ius Pompey, and Sextus, Pompey's sons,
+profiting by their unhappy father's example, resolved, as much as
+possible, to protract the war; so that the first operations of the two
+armies were spent in sieges and fruitless attempts to surprise each
+other. 19. However, Caesar, after taking many cities from the enemy,
+and pursuing his adversary with unwearied perseverance, at last
+compelled him to come to a battle upon the plain of Munda. 20. Pompey
+drew up his men, by break of day, upon the declivity of a hill, with
+great exactness and order. Caesar drew up likewise in the plains below;
+and after advancing a little way from his trenches, ordered his men to
+make a halt, expecting the enemy to come down from the hill. This
+delay made Caesar's soldiers begin to murmur; while Pompey's with full
+vigour poured down upon them, and a dreadful conflict ensued. 21. The
+first shock was so dreadful, that Caesar's men, who had hitherto been
+used to conquer, now began to waver. Caesar was never in so much danger
+as now; he threw himself several times into the very thickest of the
+battle. "What," cried he, "are you going to give up to a parcel of
+boys your general, who is grown grey in fighting at your head?" 22.
+Upon this, his tenth legion exerted themselves with more than usual
+bravery; and a party of horse being detached by Labie'nus from the
+camp in pursuit of a body of Numid'ian cavalry, Caesar cried aloud that
+they were flying. This cry instantly spread itself through both
+armies, exciting the one as much as it depressed the other. 23. Now,
+therefore, the tenth legion pressed forward, and a total rout soon
+ensued. Thirty thousand men were killed on Cne'ius Pompey's side,
+and amongst them Labie'nus, whom Caesar ordered to be buried with the
+funeral honours of a general officer. Cne'ius Pompey escaped with a
+few horsemen to the seaside; but finding his passage intercepted by
+Caesar's lieutenant, he was obliged to seek for a retreat in an obscure
+cavern. He was quickly discovered by some of Caesar's troops, who
+presently cut off his head, and brought it to the conqueror. His
+brother Sextus, however, concealed himself so well, that he escaped
+all pursuit; and afterwards, from his piracies, became noted and
+formidable to the people of Rome.
+
+24. Caesar, by this last blow, subdued all his avowed enemies; and the
+rest of his life was employed for the advantage of the state. He
+adorned the city with magnificent buildings; he rebuilt Carthage and
+Corinth, sending colonies to both cities: he undertook to level
+several mountains in Italy, to drain the Pontine marshes near Rome;
+and he designed to cut through the Isthmus of Peloponne'sus. 25. Thus,
+with a mind that could never remain inactive, he pondered mighty
+projects and schemes, beyond the limits of the longest life; but the
+greatest of all was his intended expedition against the Parthians, by
+which he designed to revenge the death of Crassus, who having
+penetrated too far into their country, was overthrown, taken prisoner,
+and put to a cruel death, by having molten gold poured down his
+throat, as a punishment for his former avarice. From Parthia, Caesar
+intended to pass through Hyrca'nia, and enter Scyth'ia, along the
+banks of the Caspian sea; then to open a way through the immeasurable
+forests of Germany into Gaul, and so to return to Rome. These were the
+aims of ambition; but the jealousy of a few individuals put an end to
+them all.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was Caesar's next step?
+
+2. What honours were awarded him in his absence?
+
+3. What was the conduct of his deputy?
+
+4. How did he put an end to these disturbances?
+
+5. What was his next enterprise?
+
+6. What was the success of the campaign?
+
+7. How was Cato situated?
+
+8. What measure had he pursued?
+
+9. When all hope had forsaken him, what was his conduct?
+
+10. Was no effort made to change his resolution, and what
+followed?
+
+11. Was the wound mortal?
+
+12. What happened after the death of Cato?
+
+13. Describe the triumph.
+
+14. Was not Caesar extremely liberal?
+
+15. What returns were made for this extraordinary liberality?
+
+16. Was he deserving of these honours?
+
+17. Was he destined to pass the rest of his life in tranquillity?
+
+18. Describe the opening of the campaign?
+
+19. Were the sons of Pompey successful in their attempts?
+
+20. What were the dispositions of the two armies?
+
+21. What memorable expression did the danger of the conflict draw from
+Caesar?
+
+22. What was the consequence of this exclamation?
+
+23. What was the result of the battle?
+
+24. In what manner did Caesar employ himself at this time?
+
+25. What were his most important resolutions?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+  O mighty Caesar! dost thou lie so low?
+  Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils,
+  Shrunk to this little measure?--_Shakspeare._
+
+1. Caesar having been made perpetual dictator, and received from the
+senate accumulated honours, it began to be rumoured that he intended
+to make himself king. In fact, he was possessed of the power; but the
+people, who had an aversion to the name, could not bear his assuming
+the title. 2. Whether he really designed to assume that empty honour,
+must for ever remain a secret; but certain it is, that the
+unsuspecting openness of his conduct created something like confidence
+in the innocence of his intentions. 3. When informed by those about
+him of the jealousies of many who envied his power, he was heard to
+say, that he would rather die once by treason, than live continually
+in the apprehension of it. When advised by some to beware of Brutus,
+in whom he had for some time reposed the greatest confidence, he
+opened his breast, all scarred with wounds, saying, "Do you think
+Brutus cares for such poor pillage as this?" and, being one night at
+supper, as his friends disputed among themselves what death was
+easiest, he replied, "That which is most sudden and least foreseen."
+But, to convince the world how little he apprehended from his enemies,
+he disbanded his Spanish guards, and thus facilitated the enterprise
+against his life.
+
+4. A deep conspiracy was now laid against him, into which no less than
+sixty senators entered. They were still the more formidable, as the
+generality of them were of his own party; and, having been raised
+above other citizens, felt more strongly the weight of a single
+superior.
+
+[Illustration: Brutus and Cassius conspiring against Caesar.]
+
+At the head of this conspiracy were Brutus, whose life Caesar had
+spared after the battle of Pharsalia, and Cassius, who was pardoned
+soon after; both praetors for the present year. 5. Brutus made it his
+chief glory to have descended from that Brutus who first gave liberty
+to Rome. The passion for freedom seemed to have been transmitted to
+him with the blood of his ancestors. But, though he detested tyranny,
+yet could he not forbear loving the tyrant from whom he had received
+the most signal benefits.
+
+6. The conspirators, to give a colour of justice to their proceedings,
+put off the execution of their design to the ides of March,[3] the day
+on which Caesar was to be offered the crown. 7. The augurs had foretold
+that this day would be fatal to him. The night preceding he heard his
+wife, Calphur'nia, lamenting in her sleep. Being awakened, she
+confessed to him, that she dreamt of his being assassinated in her
+arms. 8. These omens, in some measure, began to change his intention
+of going to the senate; but one of the conspirators coming in,
+prevailed upon him to keep his resolution, telling him of the reproach
+that would attend his staying at home till his wife should have lucky
+dreams, and of the preparations that were made for his appearance. 9.
+As he went along to the senate, a slave who hastened to him with
+information of the conspiracy, attempted to come near him, but was
+prevented by the crowd. Artemido'rus, a Greek philosopher, who had
+discovered the whole plot, delivered him a memorial, containing the
+heads of his information; but Caesar gave it, with other papers, to one
+of his secretaries, without reading, as was visual in matters of this
+nature. Having at length entered the senate-house, where the
+conspirators were prepared to receive him, he met one Spuri'na, an
+augur, who had foretold his danger, to whom he said smiling, "Well,
+Spuri'na, the ides of March are come."--"Yes," replied the augur, "but
+they are not yet gone." 10. No sooner had he taken his place, than the
+conspirators approached, under pretence of saluting him: Cimber, who
+was one of them, in a suppliant posture, pretended to sue for his
+brother's pardon, who had been banished by Caesar's order. The
+conspirators seconded him with great earnestness; and Cimber, seeming
+to sue with still greater submission, took hold of the bottom of his
+robe; holding him, so as to prevent his rising. 11. This was the
+signal agreed on; when Casca, who was behind, instantly stabbed him in
+the shoulder, Caesar sprung around, and, with the steel of his tablet,
+wounded him in the arm. The conspirators were all alarmed; when, being
+inclosed round, he received a second stab, from an unseen hand, in the
+breast; while Cassius wounded him in the face. He still defended
+himself with great vigour, rushing among them, and throwing down such
+as opposed him, till he saw Brutus among the conspirators, who, coming
+up, struck his dagger into his thigh. 12. Caesar, from that moment,
+thought no more of defending himself; but, looking upon Brutus, cried
+out, "_Et tu Brute!_"--And you too, O Brutus! Then covering his head,
+and spreading his robe before him, in order to fall with decency, he
+sunk down at the base of Pompey's statue: after having received three
+and twenty wounds, from those whom he vainly supposed he had disarmed
+by his benefits.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 709.]
+
+13. Caesar was killed in his fifty-sixth year, and about fourteen years
+after he had begun the conquest of the world.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Julius Caesar.]
+
+14. If we examine his history, we shall be at a loss whether most
+to admire his great abilities, or his wonderful fortune. To pretend to
+say, that from the beginning he planned the subjection of his native
+country, is doing no great credit to his well-known penetration, as a
+thousand obstacles lay in his way, which fortune, rather than conduct,
+was to surmount; no man, therefore, of his sagacity, would have begun
+a scheme in which the chances of succeeding were so many against him.
+It is most probable that, like all very successful men, he made the
+best of every occurrence; and his ambition rising with his good
+fortune, from at first being content with humbler aims, he at last
+began to think of governing the world, when he found scarcely any
+obstacle to oppose his designs. Such is the disposition of man, whose
+cravings after power are then most insatiable when he enjoys the
+greatest share.[4]
+
+16. As soon as the conspirators had despatched Caesar, they retired to
+the Capitol, and guarded its accesses by a body of gladiators which
+Brutus had in pay.
+
+17. The friends of the late dictator now began to find that this was
+the time for coming into greater power than before, and for satisfying
+their ambition under the pretence of promoting justice: of this number
+was Antony. 18. He was a man of moderate abilities, of excessive
+vices, ambitious of power only because it gave his pleasures a
+wider range to riot in; but skilled in war, to which he had been
+trained from his youth.[5] He was consul for this year, and resolved,
+with Lep'idus, who like himself was fond of commotions, to seize this
+opportunity of gaining a power which Caesar had died for usurping.
+Lep'idus, therefore, took possession of the Forum,[6] with a band of
+soldiers at his devotion; and Antony, being consul, was permitted to
+command them. 19. Their first step was to possess themselves of
+Caesar's papers and money, and the next to assemble the senate. 20.
+Never had this august assembly been convened upon so delicate an
+occasion, as to determine whether Caesar had been a legal magistrate,
+or a tyrannical usurper; and whether those who killed him merited
+rewards or punishments. Many of them had received all their promotions
+from Caesar, and had acquired large fortunes in consequence of his
+appointments: to vote him an usurper, therefore, would be to endanger
+their property; and yet, to vote him innocent, might endanger the
+state. In this dilemma they seemed willing to reconcile extremes; they
+approved all the acts of Caesar, and yet granted a general pardon to
+the conspirators.
+
+21. This decree was very far from giving Antony satisfaction, as it
+granted security to a number of men who were the avowed enemies of
+tyranny, and who would be foremost in opposing his schemes of
+restoring absolute power. As, therefore, the senate had ratified all
+Caesar's acts without distinction, he formed a plan of making him rule
+when dead as imperiously as he had done when living. 22. Being
+possessed of Caesar's books of accounts, he so far gained over his
+secretary as to make him insert whatever he thought proper. By these
+means, great sums of money, which Caesar would never have bestowed,
+were distributed among the people; and every man who had any seditious
+designs against the government was there sure to find a gratuity. 23.
+Things being in this situation, Antony demanded of the senate that
+Caesar's funeral obsequies should be performed. This they could not
+decently forbid, as they had never declared him a tyrant:
+accordingly, the body was brought forth into the Forum with the utmost
+solemnity; and Antony, who charged himself with these last duties of
+friendship, began his operations upon the passions of the people by
+the prevailing motives of private interest. 24. He first read to them
+Caesar's will, in which he made Octavius, his sister's grandson, his
+heir, permitting him to take the name of Caesar, and bequeathed him
+three parts of his private fortune; which, in case of his death,
+Brutus was to have inherited. To the Roman people were left the
+gardens which he possessed on the other side of the Tiber; and to
+every citizen three hundred sesterces. Unfolding Caesar's bloody robe,
+pierced by the daggers of the conspirators, he observed to them the
+number of stabs in it. He also displayed a waxen image, representing
+the body of Caesar, all covered with wounds. 25. The people could no
+longer retain their indignation, but unanimously cried out for
+revenge, and ran, with flaming brands from the pile, to set fire to
+the houses of the conspirators. In this rage of resentment, meeting
+with one Cinna, whom they mistook for another of the same name that
+was in the conspiracy, they tore him in pieces. 26. The conspirators
+themselves, however, being well guarded, repulsed the multitude with
+no great trouble; but perceiving the general rage of the people, they
+thought it safest to retire from the city.
+
+27. In the mean time, Antony, who had excited this flame, resolved to
+make the most of the occasion. But an obstacle to his ambition seemed
+to arise from a quarter in which he least expected it, namely, from
+Octa'vius, afterwards called Augus'tus, who was the grand-nephew and
+adopted son of Caesar. A third competitor also for power appeared in
+Lep'idus, a man of some authority and great riches. 28. At first, the
+ambition of these three seemed to threaten fatal consequences to each
+other; but, uniting in the common cause, they resolved to revenge the
+death of Caesar, and dividing their power, they formed what is called
+the Second Triumvirate.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What design was Caesar supposed to entertain?
+
+2. Was this rumour well founded?
+
+3. When hints of danger were given him, what was his conduct?
+
+4. What was the consequence of this imprudence?
+
+5. What was the character of Brutus?
+
+6. What time was fixed for the conspiracy to take place?
+
+7. Had Caesar any intimations of his danger?
+
+8. Was he at all influenced by them?
+
+9. Were no other attempts made to warn him of his approaching fate?
+
+10. In what way did the conspirators commence their attempt?
+
+11. What followed?
+
+12. What was the consequence of this?
+
+13. What was Caesar's age?
+
+14. Did Caesar plan the conquest of his country from the first?
+
+15. By what means did he accomplish it?
+
+16. How did the conspirators escape the vengeance of the people?
+
+17. What advantage was taken of this event?
+
+18. What was the character of Antony, and what resolution did he form?
+
+19. What were his first acts?
+
+20. How were the seriate situated on this occasion?
+
+21. Was Antony satisfied with this decree?
+
+22. How did he accomplish this?
+
+23. What was his next measure?
+
+24. By what means did he effect his purpose?
+
+25. What was the consequence of this artful conduct?
+
+26. Did the conspirators fall victims to their fury?
+
+27. Had Antony no rivals in his attempts to acquire power?
+
+28. What was the result of this rivalship?
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+  Come, Antony, and young Octavius, come,
+  Revenge yourself alone on Cassius,
+  For Cassius is aweary of the world.--_Shakspeare._
+
+1. The meeting of these three usurpers of their country's freedom, was
+upon a little island of the river Rhenus.[7] Their mutual suspicions
+were the cause of their meeting in a place where they had no fear of
+treachery; for, even in their union, they could not divest themselves
+of mutual diffidence. 2. Lep'idus first entered; and, finding all
+things safe, made the signal for the other two to approach. At their
+first meeting, after saluting each other, Augustus began the
+conference, by thanking Antony for putting Dec'imus Brutus to death;
+who, being abandoned by his army, had been taken, as he was
+endeavouring to escape into Macedo'nia, and was beheaded by Antony's
+soldiers. 3. They then entered upon the business that lay before them,
+without any retrospection to the past.
+
+[Illustration: The Second Triumvirate preparing their Proscription
+List.]
+
+Their conference lasted three days; and, in this period, they
+settled a division of the government, and determined the fate of
+thousands. 4. The result of this conference was, that the supreme
+authority should be lodged in their hands, under the title of the
+Trium'virate, for the space of five years; that Antony should have
+Gaul; Lep'idus, Spain, and Augustus, Africa and the Mediterranean
+islands. As for Italy, and the eastern provinces, they were to remain
+in common, until their general enemy should be subdued; and, among
+other articles of union, it was agreed that all their enemies should
+be destroyed, of which each presented a list. 5. In these were
+comprised, not only the enemies but the friends of the Trium'virate,
+since the partisans of the one were found among the opposers of the
+other. Thus Lep'idus gave up his brother AEmil'ius Paulus to the
+vengeance of his colleague; Antony permitted the proscription of his
+uncle Lucius; and Augustus delivered up the great Ci'cero, who was
+assassinated shortly after by Antony's command.[8]
+
+6. In the mean time Brutus and Cassius, the principal of the
+conspirators against Caesar, being compelled to quit Rome, went into
+Greece, where they persuaded the Roman students at Athens to declare
+in the cause of freedom; then parting, the former raised a powerful
+army in Macedonia, while the latter went into Syria, where he soon
+became master of twelve legions, and reduced his opponent, Dolabella,
+to such straits as to force him to lay violent hands on himself. 7.
+Both armies joined at Smyr'na: the sight of such a formidable force
+began to revive the declining spirits of the party, and to reunite the
+two generals still more closely, between whom there had been, some
+time before, a slight misunderstanding. In short, having quitted Italy
+like distressed exiles, without having one soldier or one town that
+owned their command, they now found themselves at the head of a
+flourishing army, furnished with every necessary for carrying on the
+war, and in a condition to support a contest on which the empire of
+the world depended.
+
+8. It was in this flourishing state of their affairs that the
+conspirators formed a resolution of marching against Cleopatra, who
+had made great preparations to assist their opponents. 9. However,
+they were diverted from this purpose by information that Augustus and
+Antony were now upon their march, with forty legions, to oppose them.
+Brutus, therefore, moved to have their army pass over into Greece and
+Macedonia, and there meet the enemy: but Cassius so far prevailed as
+to have the Rho'dians and Ly'cians first reduced, who had refused
+their usual contributions. 10. This expedition was immediately put in
+execution, and extraordinary contributions were thus raised, the
+Rho'dians having scarcely anything left them but their lives. The
+Ly'cians suffered still more severely; for having shut themselves up
+in their capital town Nanthus, they defended the place against Brutus
+with so much fury, that neither his arts nor entreaties could prevail
+upon them to surrender. [11]. At length, the town being set on fire by
+their attempting to burn the works of the Romans, Brutus, instead of
+laying hold of this opportunity to storm the place, made every effort
+to preserve it, entreating his soldiers to try all means of
+extinguishing the fire; but the desperate frenzy of the citizens
+was not to be mollified. 12. Far from thinking themselves obliged to
+the generous enemy for the efforts which they made to save them, they
+resolved to perish in the flames. Instead of extinguishing, therefore,
+they did all in their power to augment the fire, by throwing in wood,
+dry reeds, and all kinds of fuel. 13. Nothing could exceed the
+distress of Brutus upon seeing the townsmen thus resolutely bent on
+destroying themselves. He rode about the fortifications, stretching
+out his hands to the Xan'thians, and conjuring them to have pity on
+themselves and their city; but, insensible to his expostulations, they
+rushed into the flames with desperate obstinacy, and the whole soon
+became a heap of undistinguishable ruin. 14. At this horrid spectacle
+Brutus melted into tears, offering a reward to every soldier who
+should bring him a Ly'cian alive. The number of those whom it was
+possible to save from their own fury amounted to no more than one
+hundred and fifty. 15. Some writers, however, affirm that the town was
+burnt to the ground, and the inhabitants destroyed, by the command of
+Brutus; and that those who surrendered at discretion, he deprived of
+all their public and private property.
+
+16. Brutus and Cassius met once more at Sardis where they resolved to
+have a private conference together. They shut themselves up in the
+first convenient house, with express orders to their servants to give
+admission to no one. 17. Brutus began by reprimanding Cassius for
+having disposed of offices for money, which should ever be the reward
+of merit, and for having overtaxed the tributary states. Cassius
+repelled the imputation of avarice with the more bitterness, as he
+knew the charge to be groundless. The debate grew warm; till, from
+loud speaking, they burst into tears. 18. Their friends, who were
+standing at the door, overheard the increasing vehemence of their
+voices, and began to tremble for the consequences, till Favo'nius, who
+valued himself upon a cynical boldness, that knew no restraint,
+entering the room with a jest, calmed their mutual animosity. 19.
+Cassius was ready enough to forego his anger, being a man of great
+abilities, but of an uneven disposition; not averse to pleasure in
+private company, and, upon the whole, of morals not quite correct. But
+the conduct of Brutus was perfectly steady. An even gentleness, a
+noble elevation of sentiment, a strength of mind over which neither
+vice nor pleasure could have an influence, and an inflexible firmness
+in the cause of justice, composed the character of this great
+man. 20. After their conference night coming on, Cassius invited
+Brutus and his friends to an entertainment, where freedom and
+cheerfulness, for a while, took place of political anxiety, and
+softened the severity of wisdom. Upon retiring home it was that Brutus
+thought he saw a spectre in his tent. 21. He naturally slept but
+little, and was capable of bearing want of rest by long habit and
+great sobriety. He never allowed himself to sleep in the daytime, as
+was common in Rome; and only gave so much of the night to repose as
+could barely renew the functions of nature. But now, oppressed with
+various cares, he allowed himself a still shorter time after his
+nightly repast; and, waking about midnight, generally read or studied
+till morning. 22. It was in the dead of night, says Plutarch, when the
+whole camp was perfectly quiet, that Brutus was thus employed; reading
+by a lamp that was just expiring. On a sudden he thought he heard a
+noise, as if somebody was approaching, and looking towards the door,
+perceived it open. A gigantic figure of frightful aspect stood before
+him, and continued to gaze upon him with silent severity. 23. Brutus
+is reported to have asked, "Art thou a daemon or a mortal? and why
+comest thou to me?" "Brutus," answered the phantom, "I am thy evil
+genius--thou shalt see me again at Philippi."[9] "Well, then," replied
+Brutus, without being discomposed, "we shall meet again." Upon this
+the phantom vanished; when Brutus, calling to his servants, asked if
+they had seen anything; to which they answering in the negative, he
+resumed his studies. 24. Struck with so strange an occurrence, he
+mentioned it to Cassius, who rightly considered it as the effect of an
+imagination disordered by vigilance and anxiety. 25. Brutus appeared
+satisfied with this solution; and as Antony and Augustus were now
+advanced into Macedonia, he and his colleague passed over into Thrace,
+and drew near to Philippi, where the forces of the Trium'viri were
+posted to receive them.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Where was the first meeting of the Triumvirate, and why was it
+chosen?
+
+2. What precautions did they take?
+
+3. What farther was done?
+
+4. What was the result of the conference?
+
+5. Who were the proscribed?
+
+6. What became of Brutus and Cassius?
+
+7. What effect had this success on the minds of their party?
+
+8. What was their first resolution?
+
+9. Did they put it in execution?
+
+10. What was the consequence to the Rhodians and Lycians?
+
+11. What unfortunate accident hastened the fate of the town?
+
+12. Did they not second the efforts of Brutus?
+
+13. By what means did Brutus attempt to divert them from their
+purpose?
+
+14, 15. By what method did he endeavour to save some of the Lycians?
+
+16. Where did Brutus and Cassius meet, and what ensued?
+
+17. Was their interview an amicable one?
+
+18. Did no one interpose?
+
+19. What were the characters of these great men?
+
+20. What happened after the conference?
+
+21. What were the peculiar habits of Brutus?
+
+22. What happened to him while thus employed?
+
+23. What conversation passed between them?
+
+24. Did he mention the circumstance to any one?
+
+25. Did Brutus assent to this opinion, and what followed?
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+  I dare assure you that no enemy
+  Shall ever take alive the noble Brutus.--_Shakspeare_.
+
+1. Mankind now began to regard the approaching armies with terror and
+suspense. The empire of the world depended upon the fate of a battle.
+From victory, on the one side, they had to expect freedom; on the
+other, a sovereign with absolute command. 2. Brutus was the only man
+who looked upon these great events with calmness and tranquillity.
+Indifferent as to success, and satisfied with having done his duty, he
+said to one of his friends, "If I am victorious, I shall restore
+liberty to my country: if not, by dying, I shall myself be delivered
+from slavery. My condition is fixed; I run no hazards." 3. The
+republican army consisted of fourscore thousand foot, and twenty
+thousand horse. The army of the Trium'viri amounted to a hundred
+thousand foot and thirteen thousand horse. 4. Thus complete on both
+sides, they met and encamped near each other upon the plains of
+Philip'pi. Near the town were two little hills, about a mile distant
+from each other; upon these hills, Brutus and Cassius fixed their
+camps, and kept up a free communication, which mutually defended each
+other. 5. In this commodious situation they could act as they thought
+proper, and give battle just when it was thought to their advantage to
+engage. Behind was the sea, which furnished them with all kinds of
+provisions; and, at twelve miles distance, the island of Thasos, which
+served them for a general magazine. 6. The Trium'viri, on the other
+hand, were encamped on the plain below, and were obliged to bring
+provisions from fifteen leagues' distance; so that their scheme and
+interest were to forward a battle as soon as possible. This they
+offered several times, drawing out their men from the camp, and
+provoking the enemy to engage. 7. On the contrary, the enemy contented
+themselves with drawing up their troops at the head of their camps,
+without descending to the plain. This resolution of postponing the
+battle, was the chance that the republican army had for victory; and
+Cassius, sensible of his advantage, resolved to harass rather than
+engage the enemy. 8. But Brutus, who began to suspect the fidelity of
+some of his officers, used all his influence to persuade Cassius to
+change his resolution. "I am impatient," said he, "to put an end to
+the miseries of mankind; and in this I hope to succeed whether I
+conquer or fall." 9. His wishes were soon gratified; for Antony's
+soldiers having, with great labour, made a road through the marsh
+which lay to the left of Cassius's camp, by that means opened a
+communication with the island of Thasos, which lay behind him. Both
+armies, after several attempts to possess themselves of this road,
+resolved at length to come to a general engagement. 10. This, however,
+was contrary to the advice of Cassius, who found himself forced, as
+Pompey had formerly been, to expose the liberty of Rome to the hazard
+of a battle. On the ensuing morning, the two generals gave the signal
+for engaging, and conferred together a little while before the battle
+began. 11. Cassius desired to be informed how Brutus intended to act
+in case they should be unsuccessful. To this Brutus replied,
+"Formerly, in my writings, I condemned the death of Cato, and
+maintained, that avoiding calamities by suicide is an insolent attempt
+against Heaven, that allotted them: but I have altered my opinion; I
+have given up my life to my country, and I think I have a right to my
+own way of ending it.[10] I am resolved, therefore, to change a
+miserable being here for a better hereafter, if fortune turn against
+me." 12. "My friend," cried Cassius, embracing him, "now may we
+venture to face the enemy; for either we shall be conquerors, or we
+shall have no cause to fear those that be so." 13. Augustus being
+sick, the forces of the Triumviri were commanded by Antony alone, who
+began the engagement by a victorious attack upon the lines of Cassius.
+Brutus, on the other side, made a dreadful irruption on the army of
+Augustus, and drove forward with so much intrepidity, that he broke
+them upon the very first charge. Upon this, he penetrated as far as
+the camp, and slaughtering those that were left for its defence, his
+troops immediately began to plunder. 14. In the mean time, however,
+the lines of Cassius were forced, and his cavalry put to flight. There
+was no effort that this unfortunate general did not exert to make his
+infantry stand; stopping those that fled, and himself seizing the
+colours to rally them. But the valour of an individual was
+insufficient to inspire a timorous army. 15. At length, despairing of
+success, Cassius retired to his tent and killed himself. Brutus was
+soon informed of the defeat of Cassius, and in a little time after, of
+his death; scarcely able to restrain the excess of his grief for a man
+whom he lamented as the last of the Romans.
+
+16. Brutus, now become sole general, assembled the dispersed troops of
+Cassius, and animated them with fresh hopes of victory. As they had
+lost their all from the plundering of their camp, he promised two
+thousand denarii to each man to make them amends. 17. Inspired with
+new ardour, they admired the liberality of their general, and, with
+loud shouts, proclaimed his intrepidity. Still, however, he wanted
+confidence to face the adversary, who offered him battle the ensuing
+day. His aim was to starve the enemy, who were in extreme want of
+provisions, from their fleet having been lately defeated. 18. But his
+single opinion was overruled by the army, who now grew every day more
+confident of their strength, and more arrogant to their general. At
+last, therefore, after a respite of twenty days, he was obliged to
+comply with their solicitations to try the fate of a battle. Both
+armies were drawn out, and they remained a long while opposite
+to each other without offering to engage. It is said, that he himself
+had lost much of his ardour by having again seen, or fancied that he
+saw, the spectre, in the night preceding. However, he encouraged his
+men, and gave the signal for battle. As usual, he had the advantage
+where he commanded in person; bearing down the enemy at the head of
+his infantry, and supported by his cavalry, making great slaughter.
+19. But the forces which had belonged to Cassius were seized with a
+panic, and communicating their terror to the rest, the whole army at
+last gave way. Brutus, surrounded by the most valiant of his officers,
+fought long with amazing valour. The son of Cato, and the brother of
+Cassius, fell fighting by his side. At last, he was obliged to yield
+to necessity, and fled. 20. In the mean time, the two Triumviri,
+assured of victory, expressly ordered that the general should by no
+means be suffered to escape. Thus the whole body of the enemy being
+intent on the person of Brutus alone, his capture seemed inevitable.
+21. In this deplorable exigence, Lucil'ius, his friend, resolved, by
+his own death, to effect his general's delivery. 22. Seeing a body of
+Thracian horse closely pursuing Brutus, and just upon the point of
+taking him, he boldly threw himself in their way, telling them that
+_he_ was Brutus. The Thra'cians overjoyed with so great a prize,
+immediately despatched some of their companions with the news of their
+success to the army. 23. Upon this, the ardour of the pursuit abating,
+Antony marched out to meet his prisoner, either to hasten his death,
+or insult his misfortunes. He was followed by a great number of
+officers and soldiers, some silently deploring the fate of so virtuous
+a man, others reproaching that mean desire of life far which he
+consented to undergo captivity. 24. Antony now seeing the Thracians
+approach, began to prepare himself for the interview; but the faithful
+Lucilius, advancing with a cheerful air--"It is _not_ Brutus," said
+he, "that is taken; fortune has not yet had the power of committing so
+great an outrage upon virtue. As for my life, it is well lost in
+preserving his honour; take it, for I have deceived you." Antony,
+struck with so much fidelity, pardoned him, loaded him with benefits,
+and honoured him with his friendship.
+
+25. In the mean time, Brutus, with a small number of friends, passed
+over a rivulet; and night coming on, sat down under a rock, which
+concealed him from the pursuit of the enemy. After taking breath, and
+casting his eyes to heaven, he repeated a line from Eurip'ides,
+containing a wish to the gods, "That guilt should not pass in this
+life without punishment." To this he added another from the same poet:
+"O unhappy virtue! I have worshipped thee as a real good; but thou art
+a vain empty name, and the slave of fortune." He then called to mind,
+with great tenderness, those whom he had seen perish in battle. 26. He
+sent out one Statil'ius to give him information of those that
+remained; but Statil'ius never returned, being killed by a party of
+the enemy's horse. Brutus, judging rightly of his fate, now resolved
+to die likewise; and entreated those who stood round him to give him
+their last sad assistance: but they all refused so melancholy a
+service. 27. He then retired aside with his friend Strato, requesting
+him to perform the last office of friendship. Upon Strato's refusal,
+he ordered one of his slaves to execute what he so ardently desired;
+but Strato crying out, "that it never should be said that Brutus, in
+his last extremity, stood in need of a slave for want of a friend,"
+turned aside his head, and presenting the sword's point, Brutus threw
+himself upon it, and immediately expired, in the forty-third year of
+his age. A.U. 711.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What great event was now depending?
+
+2. What were Brutus's feelings on this occasion?
+
+3. What was the respective strength of the armies?
+
+4. Where did they meet and encamp?
+
+5. What were the advantages of this situation?
+
+6. Were the Triumviri equally well situated?
+
+7. Were the enemy equally ready to engage?
+
+8. What induced Brutus to combat this resolution?
+
+9. Did he obtain his wish?
+
+10. Did Cassius wish to engage?
+
+11. What passed between the generals on this occasion?
+
+12. What was the reply of Cassius?
+
+13. What happened at the commencement of the battle?
+
+14. Was Cassius equally successful?
+
+15. What did he do in his extremity, and what effect had it on Brutus?
+
+16. Did Brutus attempt to recover the victory?
+
+17. What followed?
+
+18. Were his intentions agreeable to his troops, and what was the
+consequence?
+
+19. What decided the victory against him?
+
+20. What orders were issued by the Triumviri or this occasion?
+
+21. By whom was his deliverance attempted?
+
+22. How did he accomplish this?
+
+23. What was the consequence?
+
+24. Relate the circumstances of their interview?
+
+25. What happened to Brutus in the mean time?
+
+26. How did he attempt to gain intelligence, and what followed his
+disappointment?
+
+27. Relate the manner of his death?
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+  But anxious cares already seized the queen;
+  She fed within her veins a flame unseen:
+  The hero's valour, acts, and birth, inspire
+  Her soul with love, and fan the secret fire.--_Dryden_.
+
+1. From the moment of Brutus's death, the Trium'viri began to act as
+sovereigns, and to divide the Roman dominions among them as their own
+by right of conquest. 2. However, though there were apparently three
+who participated all power, yet, in fact, only two were actually
+possessed of it, since Lep'idus was admitted at first merely to curb
+the mutual jealousy of Antony and Augustus, and was possessed neither
+of interest in the army, nor authority among the people. 3. Their
+earliest care was to punish those whom they had formerly marked for
+vengeance. Horten'sius, Dru'sus, and Quintil'ius Va'rus, all men of
+the first rank in the commonwealth, either killed themselves or were
+slain. A senator and his son were ordered to cast lots for their
+lives, but both refused; the father voluntarily gave himself up to the
+executioner, and the son stabbed himself before his face. Another
+begged to have the rites of burial after his death: to which Augus'tus
+replied, "that he would soon find a grave in the vultures that would
+devour him." 4. But chiefly the people lamented to see the head of
+Brutus sent to Rome to be thrown at the foot of Caesar's statue. His
+ashes, however, were sent to his wife Portia, Cato's daughter, who,
+following the examples of both her husband and father, killed herself,
+by swallowing coals. 5. It is observed, that of all those who had a
+hand in the death of Caesar, not one died a natural death.
+
+6. The power of the Triumviri being thus established upon the ruin of
+the commonwealth, they now began to think of enjoying that homage to
+which they had aspired. 7. Antony went into Greece to receive the
+flattery of that refined people, and spent some time at A'thens,
+conversing with the philosophers, and assisting at their disputes in
+person.
+
+[Illustration: Antony with Cleopatra In Egypt]
+
+Thence he passed over into Asia, where all the monarchs of the
+east, who acknowledged the Roman power, came to pay him their
+obedience; while the fairest princesses strove to gain his favour by
+the greatness of their presents or the allurements of their beauty. 8.
+In this manner he proceeded from kingdom to kingdom, attended by a
+succession of sovereigns, exacting contributions, distributing
+favours, and giving away crowns with capricious insolence. He
+presented the kingdom of Cappado'cia to Sy'senes, in prejudice of
+Ariara'thes, only because he was pleased with the beauty of Glaph'yra,
+the mother of the former. He settled Herod in the kingdom of Judea,
+and supported him. But among all the sovereigns of the east, who
+depended upon Antony, Cleopatra, the celebrated queen of Egypt, was
+the most distinguished.
+
+9. It happened that Sera'pion, her governor in the isle of Cyprus, had
+formerly furnished some succours to Cassius and the conspirators; and
+it was thought proper she should answer for his conduct. Accordingly,
+having received orders from Antony to clear herself of the imputation
+of infidelity, she readily complied, equally conscious of the goodness
+of her cause and the power of her beauty. 10. She was now in her
+twenty-seventh year, and consequently had improved those allurements
+by art, which in earlier age are seldom attended to Her address and
+wit were still farther heightened; and though there were some women in
+Rome that were her equals in beauty, none could rival her in the
+powers of conversation; 11. Antony was in Tarsus, a city of Cili'cia,
+when Cleopatra resolved to attend his court in person. She sailed down
+the river Cydnus to meet him, with the most sumptuous pageantry. The
+stern of her galley was covered with gold, its sails were purple
+silk, its oars silver, and they kept time to the sound of flutes and
+cymbals. She exhibited herself reclining on a couch spangled with
+stars of gold, and such other ornaments as poets and painters had
+usually ascribed to Venus. On each side were boys like cupids, fanning
+her by turns, while beautiful nymphs, dressed like Nereids and Graces,
+were placed at proper distances around her: the sweets that were
+burning on board her galley perfumed the banks of the river as she
+passed, while an infinite number of people gazed upon the exhibition
+with delight and admiration. 12. Antony soon became captivated with
+her beauty, and found himself unable to defend his heart against that
+passion which proved the cause of his future misfortunes. When
+Cleopa'tra had thus secured her power, she set out on her return to
+Egypt. Antony, quitting every other object, presently hastened after
+her, and there gave himself up to all that case and softness to which
+his vicious heart was prone, and which that luxurious people were able
+to supply.
+
+13. While he remained thus idle in Egypt, Augustus, who took upon him
+to lead back the veteran troops, and settle them in Italy, was
+assiduously employed in providing for their subsistence. 14. He had
+promised them lands at home, as a recompense for their past services;
+but they could not receive their new grants without turning out the
+former inhabitants. 15. In consequence of this, multitudes of women,
+with their children in their arms, whose tender years and innocence
+excited compassion, daily filled the temples and the streets with
+their lamentations. Numbers of husbandmen and shepherds came to
+deprecate the conqueror's intention, or to obtain a habitation in some
+other part of the world. 16. Among this number was Virgil, the poet,
+to whom mankind owe more obligations than to a thousand conquerors,
+who, in an humble manner, begged permission to retain his patrimonial
+farm. 17. Virgil obtained his request;[11] but the rest of his
+countrymen at Mantua,[12] and Cremo'na, were turned out without mercy.
+
+18. Italy and Rome now felt the most extreme miseries.  The
+insolent soldiers plundered at will; while Sextus Pompey, being master
+of the sea, cut off all foreign communication, and prevented the
+people from receiving their usual supplies of corn. To these mischiefs
+were added the commencement of another civil war. 19. Fulvia, the wife
+of Antony, whom he had left behind at Rome, felt for some time all the
+rage of jealousy, and resolved to try every method of bringing back
+her husband from Cleopa'tra. 20. She considered a breach with Augustus
+as the only probable means of rousing him from his lethargy; and,
+accordingly, with the assistance of Lucius, her brother-in-law, she
+began to sow the seeds of dissension. The pretext was, that Antony
+should have a share in the distribution of lands as well as Augustus.
+21. This produced negotiations between them, and Augustus offered to
+make the veterans themselves umpires in this dispute. Lucius refused
+to acquiesce; and being at the head of more than six legions, mostly
+composed of such as were dispossessed of their lands, he resolved to
+compel Augustus to accept of whatever terms he should offer. Thus a
+new war was excited between Augustus and Antony; or, at least, the
+generals of Antony assumed the sanction of his name. 22. Augustus was
+victorious; Lucius was hemmed in between two armies, and constrained
+to retreat to Peru'sia, where he was closely besieged by the opposite
+party. He made many desperate sallies, and Fulvia did all in her power
+to relieve him, but without success, so that, being at last reduced to
+extremity by famine, he delivered himself up to the mercy of the
+conqueror. Augustus received him honourably, and generously pardoned
+him and all his followers.[13]
+
+23. Antony having heard of his brother's overthrow, and of his wife
+being compelled to leave Italy, was resolved to oppose Augustus. He
+accordingly sailed at the head of a considerable fleet, and had an
+interview with Fulvia at Athens. 24. He much blamed her for
+occasioning the late disorders, testified the utmost contempt for her
+person, and, leaving her upon her death-bed, hastened into Italy to
+fight Augustus. They both met at Brundu'sium, and it was now thought
+that the flames of civil war were going to blaze out once more. 25.
+The forces of Antony were numerous, but mostly newly raised;
+however, he was assisted by Sextus Pompei'us, who, in those
+oppositions of interest, was daily coming into power. Augustus was at
+the head of those veterans who had always been irresistible, but who
+seemed no way disposed to fight against Antony, their former general.
+26. A negociation was therefore proposed, and a reconciliation was
+effected: all offences and affronts were mutually forgiven; and, to
+cement the union, a marriage was concluded between Antony and Octavia,
+the sister of Augustus. 27. A new division of the Roman empire was
+made between them; Augustus was to have command of the West--Antony of
+the East; while Lepidus was obliged to content himself with the
+provinces in Africa. As for Sextus Pompei'us, he was permitted to
+retain all the islands he already possessed, together with
+Peloponnesus; he was also granted the privilege of demanding the
+consulship, though absent, and of discharging that office by a friend.
+It was stipulated to leave the sea open, and to pay the people what
+corn was due out of Sicily. Thus a general peace was concluded, to the
+great satisfaction of the people, who now expected an end to all their
+calamities.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What ensued on the death of Brutus?
+
+2. Were the triumviri possessed of equal power?
+
+3. What were their first measures?
+
+4. By what were the people most affected?
+
+5. What observation has been made on these events?
+
+6. What was the consequence of the establishment of their power?
+
+7. Whither did Antony betake himself for that purpose?
+
+8. How was he employed?
+
+9. By what means did Cleopatra incur his displeasure?
+
+10. What personal advantages did she possess?
+
+11. Did she appear before Antony as an humble suppliant?
+
+12. What was the result of the interview?
+
+13. How was Augustus employed in the mean time?
+
+14. What recompense had he promised these troops?
+
+15. What was the consequence of this tyranny?
+
+16. What remarkable person was among the sufferers?
+
+17. Was his request granted?
+
+18. What was the state of Italy at this time?
+
+19. What occasioned it?
+
+20. What did she consider as the most probable means of reclaiming
+him?
+
+21. Were terms of accommodation offered and accepted?
+
+22. What was the event of the war?
+
+23. What was Antony's conduct on the occasion?
+
+24. Did he approve of his wife's proceedings?
+
+25. Were the two armies of nearly equal strength?
+
+26. What was the consequence?
+
+27. What further measures were adopted?
+
+
+SECTION VII.
+
+  _Octavia_. --You have been his ruin.
+  Who made him cheap at Rome, but Cleopatra?
+  Who made him scorned abroad, but Cleopatra?
+  At Actium who betrayed him? Cleopatra.--_Dryden_.
+
+1. The only obstacle to the ambition of Augustus was Antony, whom he
+resolved to remove; and for that purpose rendered his character at
+Rome as contemptible as he possibly could. In fact, Antony's conduct
+did not a little contribute to promote the endeavours of his ambitious
+partner. 2. He had marched against the Parthians with a prodigious
+army, but was forced to return with the loss of the fourth part of his
+forces, and all his baggage.
+
+3. However, Antony seemed quite regardless of contempt: alive only to
+pleasure, and totally disregarding the business of the state, he spent
+his whole time in the company of Cleopatra, who studied every art to
+increase his passion and vary his entertainments. 4. Few women have
+been so much celebrated for the art of giving novelty to pleasure, and
+making trifles important. Still ingenious in filling up the time with
+some new strokes of refinement, she was at one time a queen, then a
+_bac'chanal_, and sometimes a huntress. 5. Not contented with sharing
+with her all the delights which Egypt could afford, Antony was
+resolved to enlarge his sphere of luxury, by granting her some of
+those kingdoms which belonged to the Roman empire. He gave her all
+Pheni'cia, Celo-Syria, and Cy'prus, with a great part of Cili'cia,
+Ara'bia, and Jude'a, gifts which he had no right to bestow, but which
+he pretended to grant in imitation of Hercules. 6. This complication
+of vice and folly at last totally exasperated the Romans, and
+Augus'tus, willing to take the advantage of their resentment, took
+care to exaggerate all his defects. 7. At length, when he found the
+people sufficiently irritated against him, he resolved to send
+Octa'via, who was then at Rome, to Antony, as if with a view of
+reclaiming her husband; but, in fact, to furnish a sufficient pretext
+for declaring war against him, as he knew she would be dismissed with
+contempt.
+
+8. Antony was now in the city of Leucop'olis, revelling with
+Cleopatra, when he heard that Octa'via was at Athens, upon her journey
+to visit him. This was very unwelcome news both to him and Cleopa'tra;
+the latter, fearing the charms of her rival, endeavoured to convince
+Antony of the strength of her passion, by her sighs, her looks, and
+well-feigned melancholy. He frequently caught her in tears, which she
+seemingly attempted to hide, and of which she appeared extremely
+reluctant to tell him the cause. 9. These artifices, together with the
+ceaseless flattery and importunity of her creatures, prevailed so much
+on Antony's weakness, that he commanded Octa'via to return home
+without seeing her; and still more to exasperate the people of Rome,
+he resolved to repudiate her, and take Cleopa'tra as his wife. 10. He
+accordingly assembled the people of Alexandria in the public theatre,
+where was raised an alcove of silver, under which were placed two
+thrones of gold, one for himself, and the other for Cleopa'tra. There
+he seated himself, dressed as Bacchus, while Cleopatra sat beside him,
+clothed in the ornaments and attributes of I'sis, the principal deity
+of the Egyptians. 11. On that occasion he declared her queen of all
+the countries which he had already bestowed upon her, while he
+associated Caesa'rio, her son by Caesar, as her partner in the
+government. To the two children of himself by her, he gave the title
+of King of Kings, with very extensive dominions; and, to crown his
+absurdities, he next sent a minute account of his proceedings to the
+two consuls at Rome.
+
+12. In the mean time, Augustus had a sufficient pretext for declaring
+war, and informed the senate of his intentions. However, he deferred
+the execution of his design for a while, being then employed in
+quelling an insurrection of the Illy'rians. 13. The following year was
+chiefly taken up in preparations against Antony, who, perceiving his
+intentions, remonstrated to the senate, that he had many causes of
+complaint against his colleague, who had seized upon Sicily without
+affording him a share; alleging that he had also dispossessed
+Lep'idus, and kept to himself the province he had commanded; and that
+he had divided all Italy among his own soldiers, leaving nothing to
+recompense those in Asia. 14. To this complaint Augustus was content
+to make a sarcastic answer, implying that it was absurd to complain of
+his distribution of a few trifling districts in Italy, when Antony,
+having conquered Par'thia might now reward his soldiers with
+cities and provinces.[14] 15. This sarcasm provoked him to send his
+army without delay into Europe, to meet Augustus, while he and
+Cleopa'tra followed to Sa'mos,[15] in order to prepare for carrying on
+the war with vigour. 16. When arrived there, it was ridiculous enough
+to behold the odd mixture of preparations for pleasure and for war. On
+one side, all the kings and princes from Egypt to the Euxine Sea had
+orders to send him supplies of men, provisions, and arms; on the
+other, comedians, dancers, buffoons, and musicians, were ordered to
+attend him.
+
+17. His delay at Sa'mos, and afterwards at A'thens, where he carried
+Cleopa'tra to receive new honours, proved extremely favourable to the
+arms of Augustus, who was at first scarcely in a situation to oppose
+him, had he gone into Italy; but he soon found time to put himself in
+a condition for carrying on the war, and shortly after declared it
+against him in form. At length both sides found themselves in
+readiness to begin, and their armies were suitable to the greatness of
+the empire for which they contended. 18. The one was followed by all
+the forces of the East; the other drew after him all the strength of
+the West. Antony's force composed a body of one hundred thousand foot,
+and twelve thousand horse, while his fleet amounted to five hundred
+ships of war. Augustus mustered but eighty thousand foot, but equalled
+his adversary in the number of cavalry; his fleet was but half as
+numerous as Antony's; however, his ships were better built, and manned
+with better soldiers.
+
+19. The great decisive engagement, which was a naval one, was fought
+near Ac'tium,[16] a city of Epi'rus, at the entrance of the gulf of
+Ambra'cia. Antony ranged his ships before the mouth of the gulf; and
+Augustus drew up his fleet in opposition. Neither general assumed any
+fixed station to command in, but went about from ship to ship,
+wherever his presence was necessary. In the mean time the two land
+armies, on the opposite sides of the gulf, were drawn up, only as
+spectators of the engagement, and couraged the fleets, by their
+shouts, to engage. 20. The battle began on both sides after a manner
+not practised upon former occasions. The prows of their vessels were
+armed with brazen beaks, with which it was usual to drive furiously
+against each other; but Antony's ships being large, unwieldy, and
+badly manned, were incapable of the necessary swiftness, while those
+of Augustus, from the lightness of their construction, were fearful of
+the rude encounter: the battle, therefore, rather resembled a land
+fight, the ships being brought alongside each other. They fought with
+great ardour, without advantage on either side, except from a small
+appearance of disorder in the centre of Antony's fleet. 21. But, all
+on a sudden, Cleopa'tra determined the fortune of the day. She was
+seen flying from the engagement with her sixty sail, struck, perhaps,
+with the terrors natural to her sex; and, to increase the general
+amazement, Antony himself precipitately followed, leaving his fleet at
+the mercy of the conquerors; while the army on land submitted, being
+thus abandoned by their general.
+
+22. When Cleopa'tra fled, Antony pursued her in a quinquireme,[17] and
+coming alongside her ship, entered it without any desire of seeing
+her. She was in the stern, and he went to the prow, where he remained
+silent and melancholy. In this manner he continued three whole days,
+during which, either through indignation or shame, he neither saw nor
+spoke to Cleopa'tra. The queen's female attendants, however,
+reconciled them, and every thing went on as before. 23. Still he had
+the consolation to suppose his army continued faithful to him, and
+accordingly despatched orders to conduct it into Asia. But he was soon
+undeceived when he arrived in Africa, where he was informed of their
+submission to his rival.[18] 24. This so transported him with rage,
+that with difficulty he was prevented from killing him self. At
+length, at the entreaty of his friends, he returned to Alexandria. 25.
+Cleopa'tra seemed to retain that fortitude in her misfortunes, which
+had utterly abandoned her admirer. Having amassed considerable riches,
+by means of confiscations and other acts of violence, she formed a
+very singular and unheard of project.
+
+[Illustration: Sea-fight, near Actium.]
+
+26. This was to convey her whole fleet over the Isthmus of Su'ez into
+the Red Sea, and thereby save herself, with all her treasures, in
+another region beyond the power of Rome. 27. Some of her vessels were
+actually transported thither, pursuant to her orders; but the Arabians
+having burnt them, and Antony dissuading her from the design, she
+abandoned it for the more improbable scheme of defending Egypt against
+the conqueror. 28. She omitted nothing in her power to put this in
+practice, and made all kinds of preparations for war, hoping, at
+least, by these means to obtain better terms from Augustus. In fact,
+she had been more in love with Antony's fortune than his person; and
+if she could have fallen upon any method of saving herself, though
+even at his expense, there is little doubt but she would have embraced
+it with gladness. 29. She had still hopes from the power of her
+charms, though she was almost arrived at the age of forty: and was
+desirous of trying upon Augustus those arts which had already been so
+successful. Thus, in three embassies which were sent from Antony to
+Augustus in Asia, the queen had always her secret agents, charged with
+proposals in her name. Antony desired no more than that his life might
+be spared, and to have the liberty of passing the remainder of his
+days in obscurity. To these requests Augustus made no reply. 30.
+Cleopa'tra also sent him public proposals in favour of her children;
+but at the same time privately resigned to him her crown, with all the
+ensigns of royalty. To the queen's public proposal no answer was
+given; to her private offer he replied by giving her assurances of his
+favour, in case she would send away Antony, or put him to death. 31.
+These private negociations were not so concealed but they came to the
+knowledge of Antony, whose jealousy and rage every occurrence now
+contributed to heighten. He built a small solitary house upon a mole
+in the sea, and shut himself up, a prey to those passions that are the
+tormentors of unsuccessful tyranny. There he passed his time; shunning
+all commerce with man kind, and professing to imitate Timon,[19] the
+man-hater. 32. However, his furious jealousy drove him from this
+retreat into society; for hearing that Cleopa'tra had secret
+conferences with one Thyrsus, an emissary from Augustus, he seized
+upon him, ordered him to be cruelly scourged, and sent him back to his
+patron. At the same time he sent letters by him importing that Thyrsus
+had been chastised for insulting a man in misfortunes; but withal he
+gave Augustus permission to revenge himself by scourging Hippar'chus,
+Antony's freedman, in the same manner. The revenge, in this case,
+would have been highly pleasing to Antony, as Hippar'chus had left
+him, to join the fortunes of his more successful rival.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What obstacle remained to the ambition of Augustus, and how did he
+attempt its removal?
+
+2. How was Antony at this time employed?
+
+3. Did he keenly feel his misfortune?
+
+4. Was she eminently skilled in the art of pleasing?
+
+5. Was not Antony lavish in his favours to her?
+
+6. What was the consequence of this folly?
+
+7. By what means did he seek a quarrel?
+
+8. How was this measure approved by Antony and Cleopatra?
+
+9. What imprudent resolutions did he adopt?
+
+10. Did he do this publicly?
+
+11. What farther favours did he bestow on her?
+
+12. Did Augustus immediately commence hostilities?
+
+13. What complaints did Antony make of Augustus?
+
+14. Did Augustus notice these accusations?
+
+15. What effect had his reply on Antony?
+
+16. Were these military preparations formidable?
+
+17. What advantages did Antony offer Augustus?
+
+18. What was the respective strength of the armies?
+
+19. Describe the preparations for this great conflict?
+
+20. Was the engagement well contested?
+
+21. What extraordinary circumstance decided its fate?
+
+22. Did he reproach Cleopatra for her timidity?
+
+23. Had Antony any resources left?
+
+24. How did he receive this news?
+
+25. How did Cleopatra act in this exigence?
+
+26. What was this project?
+
+27. Was it put in execution?
+
+28. How did she attempt this, and with what views?
+
+29. What farther hopes had she of favour?
+
+30. What proposals did she make, and how were they received?
+
+31. Was Antony aware of these negociations?
+
+32. Did he persist in thus secluding himself?
+
+
+SECTION VIII.
+
+  O sun, thy uprise I shall see no more:
+  Fortune and Antony part here.--_Shakspeare_.
+
+1. Augustus advanced with another army against Pellu'sium,[20] which,
+by its strong situation, might have retarded his progress for some
+time. But the governor of the city, either wanting courage to defend
+it, or previously instructed by Cleopa'tra to give it up, permitted
+him to take possession; so that Augus'tus had now no obstacle in his
+way to Alexan'dria, whither he marched with all expedition. 2. Antony,
+upon his arrival, sallied out to oppose him, fighting with
+desperation, and putting the enemy's cavalry to flight. 3. This slight
+advantage once more revived his declining hopes; and, being naturally
+vain, he re-entered Alexan'dria in triumph. Then going, armed as he
+was, to the palace, and embracing Cleopa'tra, he presented to her a
+soldier who had distinguished himself in the engagement. 4. The queen
+rewarded him very magnificently, presenting him with a helmet and
+breastplate of gold. With these, however, the soldier deserted in the
+night to the other army, prudently resolving to secure his riches by
+keeping on the strongest side. 5. Antony, not able to bear this
+defection without fresh indignation, resolved to make a bold expiring
+effort by sea and land; but previously offered to fight his
+adversary in single combat. Augus'tus, however, too well knew the
+inequality of their situations to comply with this forlorn proposal;
+he, therefore, coolly replied, "Antony has ways enough to die besides
+in single combat."
+
+6. The next day, he posted the few troops he had remaining upon a
+rising ground near the city, whence he sent orders to his galleys to
+engage the enemy. There he waited to be a spectator of the combat; and
+at first he had the satisfaction to see them advance in good order. 7.
+But his joy was soon turned into rage, when he beheld his ships only
+saluting those of Augus'tus, and both fleets uniting together and
+sailing back into the harbour, and at the same time his cavalry
+deserting him. He tried, however, to lead on his infantry; but these
+were easily vanquished, and he himself compelled to return into the
+town. 8. His fury was now ungovernable, crying out as he passed that
+he was betrayed by Cleopa'tra, and delivered up to those who, for her
+sake alone, were his enemies. In these suspicions he was not deceived;
+for it was by secret orders from the queen that the fleet passed over
+to the enemy.
+
+9. Cleopa'tra had for a long while dreaded the effects of Antony's
+jealousy; and had some time before prepared a method of obviating the
+effects of any sudden sallies it might produce. 10. Near the temple of
+Isis she had erected a building, which was seemingly designed for a
+sepulchre. Hither she moved her treasure and most valuable effects,
+covering them with torches, fagots, and other combustible matter. 11.
+This sepulchre she designed to answer a double purpose, as well to
+screen her from the sudden resentments of Antony, as to make Augustus
+believe that she would burn all her treasure, in case he refused
+proper terms of capitulation. Here, therefore, she retired from
+Antony's fury--shutting the fortified gates, and giving orders to have
+it reported that she was dead. 12. This news soon reached Antony, and
+it recalled all his former love and tenderness. Subject to every gust
+of passion, and each of them in the extreme, he now lamented her death
+with the same violence that he had just before seemed to desire it.
+"Miserable man!" exclaimed he, "what is there now worth living for?
+since all that could soothe or soften my cares is departed! O
+Cleopa'tra! our separation does not so much afflict me, as the
+disgrace I suffer, in permitting a woman to instruct me in the ways of
+dying."
+
+[Illustration: Death of Eros.]
+
+13. He now called to him one of his freedmen, named Eros, whom he
+had engaged, by oath, to kill him, whenever fortune should drive him
+to this last resource, and commanded him to perform his promise. This
+faithful follower drew his sword, as if going instantly to strike the
+blow, when, turning his face, he plunged it into his own bosom, and
+dropped at his master's feet. 14. Antony, for a while, hung over his
+faithful servant, charmed with his fidelity. Then snatching up the
+sword he stabbed himself in the belly, and fell backward upon a couch.
+15. The wound was mortal; yet the blood stopping, he recovered his
+spirits, and earnestly conjured those who were come into the room to
+put an end to his life; but they all fled, seized with fright and
+horror. 16. He continued in this miserable condition till he was
+informed by one of the queen's secretaries, that his mistress was
+still alive, and begged that he would suffer himself to be transported
+to the monument where she was. He was accordingly brought to the
+sepulchre; but Cleopa'tra, attended by her two women only, durst by no
+means permit the gate to be opened, but from the window threw down
+cords, with which, with great difficulty, they drew him up. 17.
+Antony, bathed in his blood, held out his hands to Cleopa'tra, and
+faintly endeavoured to raise himself from the couch on which he had
+been laid. The queen gave way to sorrow, tore her clothes, beat her
+breast, and kissing the wound of which he was dying, called him her
+husband, her lord, her emperor. 18. Antony entreated her to moderate
+the transports of her grief, and to preserve her life, if she could be
+able to do it with honour. "As for me, lament not my
+misfortunes," he said; "but congratulate me upon the happiness which I
+have enjoyed; I have lived the greatest and most powerful of men; and
+though I fall, my fate is not ignominious; _a Roman myself, I am, at
+last, by a Roman overcome_" Having thus said, he expired.
+
+19. Proculei'us now made his appearance by command of Augus'tus, who
+had been informed of Antony's desperate conduct. He was sent to try
+all means of getting Cleopa'tra into his power. 20. Augustus had a
+double motive for his solicitude on this occasion; one was--to prevent
+her destroying the treasures she had taken with her into the tomb; the
+other--to preserve her person, as an ornament to grace his triumph.
+21. Cleopa'tra, however, was upon her guard, and rejected any
+conference with Proculei'us, except through the gate, which was well
+secured. At length, having procured a ladder, he, with two of
+Augustus's soldiers, entered by the same window through which Antony
+had been drawn up. Cleopa'tra, perceiving what had happened, drew a
+poinard, that hung at her girdle, to stab herself; but Proculei'us
+forced it from her. 22. Augustus, pleased to find her in his power,
+sent Epaphrodi'tus to bring her to his palace, and to watch her with
+the utmost circumspection. He was ordered to use her, in every
+respect, with that deference and submission which were due to her
+rank, and to do every thing in his power to render her captivity
+tolerable.
+
+23. Though kings and generals made interest for Antony's body, in
+order to pay the last honours to it, this consolation was reserved for
+Cleopa'tra. She alone was permitted to have the honour of granting
+Antony the rites of burial, and was furnished with every thing
+becoming his dignity to receive, or her love to offer. 24. Yet still
+she languished under her new confinement. Her many losses, her frantic
+sorrow, the blows which she had given her bosom, produced a fever,
+which she wished to increase. She resolved, by abstaining from
+nourishment, to starve herself to death, under the pretence of a
+regimen necessary for her disorder. 25. But Augus'tus, being made
+acquainted with the real motive by her physicians, began to threaten
+her, with regard to the safety of her children, in case she should
+perish. The fear of being the cause of their death was a motive she
+could not resist. Cleopa'tra, therefore, allowed herself to be treated
+as was thought proper, and she recovered.
+
+26. In the mean time Augustus made his entry into Alexandria, taking
+care to mitigate the fears of the inhabitants,  by conversing
+familiarly with Ar'cus, a philosopher, and a native of the place. The
+citizens, however, trembled at his approach. And when he placed
+himself upon the tribunal, they prostrated themselves, with their
+faces to the ground, before him, like criminals who waited the
+sentence for their execution. 27. Augus'tus presently ordered them to
+rise, telling them that three motives induced him to pardon them: his
+respect for Alexander, who was the founder of their city; his
+admiration of its beauty; and his friendship for Ar'cus, their fellow
+citizen. 28. Two only of particular note were put to death upon this
+occasion; Antony's eldest son, Antyl'lus, and Caesa'rio, the son of
+Julius Caesar, both betrayed into his hands by their respective tutors,
+who themselves suffered for their perfidy shortly after. As for the
+rest of Cleopa'tra's children, he treated them with great gentleness,
+leaving them to the care of those who were intrusted with their
+education, to whom he gave orders to provide them with every thing
+suitable to their birth. 29. Cleopa'tra, being recovered, Augus'tus
+visited her in person: she received him lying on a couch; but, upon
+his entering the apartment, rose up, habited in a loose robe, and
+prostrated herself before him. Her misfortunes had given an air of
+severity to her features; her hair was dishevelled, her voice
+trembling, her complexion pale, and her eyes swollen with weeping;
+yet, still, her natural beauty seemed to gleam through the distresses
+that surrounded her; and the grace of her motions, and the alluring
+softness of her looks, still bore testimony to the former power of her
+charms. 30. Augus'tus raised her with his usual complaisance, and,
+desiring her to sit, placed himself beside her. 31. Cleopa'tra had
+been prepared for this interview, and made use of every art to
+propitiate the conqueror. She tried apologies, entreaties and
+allurements, to obtain his favour and soften his resentment. She began
+by attempting to justify her conduct; but when her skill failed
+against manifest proofs, she turned her defence into supplications.
+She reminded him of Caesar's humanity to those in distress; she read
+some of his letters to her, full of tenderness, and expatiated upon
+the intimacy that subsisted between them. "But of what service," cried
+she, "are now all his benefits to me! Why did I not die with him! Yet,
+still he lives--methinks I see him still before me! he revives in
+you." 32. Augus'tus, who was no stranger to this method of address,
+remained firm against all attacks; answering with a cold
+indifference which obliged her to give her attempts a different
+turn. 33. She now addressed his avarice, presenting him with an
+inventory of her treasure and jewels. This gave occasion to a very
+singular scene, that may serve to show that the little decorums of
+breeding were then by no means attended to as in modern times. 34. One
+of her stewards having alleged, that the inventory was defective, and
+that she had secreted a part of her effects, she fell into the most
+extravagant passion, started from her couch, and snatching him by the
+hair, gave him repeated blows on the face. Augus'tus, smiling at her
+indignation, led her to the couch, and desired her to be pacified. To
+this she replied, that it was insufferable to be insulted in the
+presence of one whom she so highly esteemed. "And admitting," cried
+she, "that I have secreted a few ornaments, am I to blame, when they
+are reserved, not for myself, but for Liv'ia and Octa'via, whom I hope
+to make my intercessors with you?" 35. The apology, which intimated a
+desire of living, was not disagreeable to Augustus, who politely
+assured her she was at liberty to keep whatever she had reserved, and
+that in everything she should be indulged to the height of her
+expectations. He then took leave, and departed, imagining he had
+reconciled her to life, and to the indignity of being shown in the
+intended triumph, which he was preparing for his return to Rome; but
+in this he was deceived. 36. Cleopa'tra had all this time corresponded
+with Dolabel'la, a young Roman of high birth in the camp of Augustus,
+who, from compassion, or perhaps from stronger motives, was interested
+in her misfortunes. By him she was secretly informed that Augustus
+determined to send her and her children, within three days, to Rome,
+to grace his triumphant entry. 37. She, at length, therefore,
+determined upon dying; but first throwing herself upon Antony's
+coffin, bewailed her captivity, and renewed her protestations not to
+survive him. Having bathed, and ordered a sumptuous banquet, she
+attired herself in the most splendid manner. After partaking of the
+banquet, she commanded all, except her two women, to leave the
+apartment. She had contrived to have an asp secretly conveyed to her
+in a basket of fruit, and then wrote to Augustus, to inform him of her
+fatal purpose, desiring to be buried in the same tomb with Antony. 38.
+Augustus, upon receiving the letter, instantly despatched messengers
+in hopes to stop the fulfilment of her intentions; but they arrived
+too late.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Cleopatra.]
+
+Upon entering the chamber, they beheld Cleopa'tra lying dead upon
+her couch, arrayed in royal robes. Near her, I'ras, one of her
+faithful attendants, was stretched at the feet of her mistress; and
+Char'mion,[21] the other, scarcely alive, was settling the diadem upon
+Cleopa'tra's head. "Alas!" cried one of the messengers, "is this well
+done, Charmion?" "Yes," replied she, "it is well done--such a death
+become a glorious queen, descended from a race of glorious ancestors."
+Pronouncing these words, she dropped and expired with her much loved
+mistress.[22]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What new conquest was achieved by Augustus?
+
+2. What was Antony's conduct on his arrival?
+
+3. Was he elated by this slight success?
+
+4. How was he rewarded, and in what manner did he evince his
+gratitude?
+
+5. What were Antony's feelings and conduct on the occasion?
+
+6. Did he attempt farther hostilities?
+
+7. Was this satisfaction well founded?
+
+8. How was he affected by this ill success?
+
+9. Was Cleopatra prepared for these misfortunes?
+
+10. What precautions had she taken?
+
+11 What was her design in building this sepulchre?
+
+12. Was Antony affected by this news?
+
+13. What followed?
+
+14. Did Antony persist in his purpose?
+
+15. Did he immediately expire?
+
+16. Had he another interview with Cleopatra?
+
+17, 18. Relate the particulars of this interview?
+
+19. How did Augustus act on this occasion?
+
+20. Why was Augustus anxious to preserve this life of Cleopatra?
+
+21. Did he obtain ready admittance to her, and what was the
+consequence?
+
+22. How was she treated?
+
+23. By whom were the last honours paid to Antony?
+
+24. Did this kindness reconcile her to her situation?
+
+25. By what means did Augustus overcome her resolution?
+
+26. What circumstance attended the entrance of Augustus into
+Alexandria?
+
+27. Were their fears realized?
+
+28. Who fell victims on the occasion?
+
+29. Did Augustus visit Cleopatra, and how was he received?
+
+30. What was his conduct towards her?
+
+31. How did Cleopatra conduct herself at this interview?
+
+32. Was Augustus moved by her artifices?
+
+33. Mention her next attempt and its consequence.
+
+34. Relate the particulars.
+
+35. Was the apology accepted?
+
+36. With whom did Cleopatra correspond, and what did she learn?
+
+37. What resolution did she form, and how did she accomplish it?
+
+38. Did not Augustus attempt to prevent her resolution, and was he
+successful?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] In this contest the famous Alexan'drian library, consisting, it is
+said, of 700,000 volumes, was accidentally burnt.
+
+[2] I came, I saw, I conquered.
+
+[3] The Romans divided their months into three parts; namely, Calends,
+Nones, and Ides; all which they reckoned backwards. The Ides were
+always eight in number. The Nones sometimes four, at others six. The
+Calends varied according to the length of the month, and also with the
+Nones, as they were four or six. The Calends always began on the first
+of every month, and were counted backwards to the Ides, which fell on
+the 15th of March, May, July, and October; and on the 13th of other
+months; so that the Nones began on the 5th of each month when four,
+and on the 7th when six in number. The Nones, therefore, always ended
+on the 2d day of the month.
+
+[4] Though Caesar's ambition led him to usurp a power to which the
+Romans were not willing to submit, it appears that he used it with
+unexampled moderation. He was beloved and revered by the people,
+honoured and almost adored by his friends, and esteemed and admired
+even by his enemies. Absolute power could not have been in better
+hands.
+
+[5] It was the general opinion of the conspirators that Antony should
+be cut off with Caesar; but Brutus pleaded for and obtained his safety.
+This kindness was ill repaid.
+
+[6] The Forum was a public place at Rome, where lawyers and orators
+made their speeches in matters of property of the state, or in
+criminal cases.
+
+[7] Now the Rheno, which runs through Bologna and falls into the Po.
+
+[8] It is impossible to paint the horrors of this dreadful
+proscription. Nothing was to be seen but blood and slaughter; the
+streets were covered with dead bodies; the heads of the most
+illustrious senators were exposed on the rostra, and their bodies left
+to be devoured by dogs and birds of prey; three hundred senators, and
+above two thousand knights, besides a vast number of others of
+considerable rank, fell victims on this occasion. Many noble instances
+of fidelity were displayed by slaves at this terrible conjuncture,
+several chose rather to die on the rack, in the most exquisite
+torments, than betray the place where their masters were concealed.
+
+[9] A city on the confines of Macedonia, noted for the battle between
+Brutus and Cassius, and Mark Antony and Augustus, B.C. 42; and also
+the Epistle of Paul to the people of Philip'pi.
+
+[10] This is very erroneous reasoning: suicide is, no doubt a heinous
+crime: but Brutus appears to have been governed by his apprehension of
+danger, instead of being convinced by the sober dictates of his
+judgment.
+
+[11] On showing the order for the restoration of his property, he was
+nearly killed by the centurion who was in possession, and escaped only
+by swimming across a river. To these melancholy events he alludes in
+his first Eclogue.
+
+[12] Mantua was a very ancient town, supposed to be older than Rome.
+It is still called Mantua, and is the capital of a duchy of the same
+name.
+
+[13] He, however, displayed his usual cruelty towards the inhabitants,
+causing three hundred senators to be sacrificed at an altar erected to
+the memory of Julius Caesar, and delivering up the city to plunder and
+the flames.
+
+[14] The severity of this sarcasm lay in its being directly contrary
+to truth, as Antony had been defeated by the Par'thians.
+
+[15] Samos, a celebrated island in the Archipel'ago. It has been
+rendered famous for the worship and a temple of Juno, with a noted
+Asylum. Its capital was of the same name, and is memorable for the
+birth of Pythag'oras.
+
+[16] Actium is famous for a temple of Apollo.
+
+[17] A galley with five banks of oars.
+
+[18] They continued unshaken in their fidelity for seven days after
+the battle of Actium, notwithstanding the advantageous offers made
+them by Augustus, in hopes Antony would return and put himself at
+their head, but finding themselves disappointed, and abandoned by
+their principal officers, they at length surrendered.
+
+[19] Ti'mon, the misanthrope, was born near Athens, B.C. 420. He
+declared himself the enemy of the human race, and had a companion
+named Apeman'tus, who possessed a similar disposition. The latter
+asking him one day why he paid such respect to Alcibi'ades, "It is,"
+said the churl, "because I foresee he will prove the ruin of the
+Athe'nians, my countrymen."(Plutarch.)
+
+[20] A strong city of Egypt.
+
+[21] Pronounced Kar'mion.
+
+[22] Cleopatra was forty years old at the time of her death, and had
+wed twelve years with Antony.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+  Happy Augustus! who so well inspired,
+  Couldst throw thy pomp and royalties aside.
+  Attentive to the wise, the great of soul.
+  And dignify thy mind. Thrice glorious days.
+  Auspicious to the muses!--_Dyer_.
+
+1. By the death of Antony, Augus'tus having become master of the Roman
+empire, returned to Rome in triumph; where, by feasts and magnificent
+shows, he began to obliterate the impressions of his former cruelty;
+and thenceforward resolved to secure, by his clemency, a throne, the
+foundations of which were laid in blood. 2. He was now at the head of
+the most extensive empire that mankind had ever beheld. The former
+spirit of the Romans, and those characteristic marks that
+distinguished them from others, were now totally lost. The city was
+inhabited by a concourse from all the countries of the world; and
+being consequently divested of all just patriotic principles, perhaps
+a monarchy is the best form of government that could be found to
+unite its members. 3. However, it was very remarkable, that during
+these long contentions among themselves, and these horrid devastations
+by civil war, the state was daily growing more formidable and
+powerful, and completed the destruction of all the kings who presumed
+to oppose it.
+
+4. The first care of Augus'tus was to assure himself of the friends of
+Antony; to which end he publickly reported that he had burnt all
+Antony's letters and papers without reading them, convinced that,
+while any thought themselves suspected, they would be fearful of even
+offering him their friendship.
+
+5. He had gained the kingdom by his army, but he resolved to govern it
+by the senate. This body, though greatly fallen from its ancient
+splendor, he knew to be the best constituted, and most remarkable for
+wisdom and justice. To the senate, therefore, he gave the chief power
+in the administration of his government, while he himself secured the
+fidelity of the people and the army by donatives, and acts of favour.
+6. By these means the odium of severity fell upon the senate, and the
+popularity of pardon was solely his own. Thus restoring splendor to
+the senate and discountenancing corruption, he pretended to reserve to
+himself a very moderate share of authority, to which none could
+object: namely, power to compel all ranks of the state to do their
+duty. 7. This was, in fact, reserving absolute dominion in his own
+hands; but the misguided people began to look upon his moderation with
+astonishment: they considered themselves as restored to their former
+freedom, except the capacity of promoting sedition; and the senate
+supposed their power re-established in all things but their tendency
+to injustice. It was even said that the Romans, by such a government,
+lost nothing of the happiness that liberty could produce, and were
+exempt from all the misfortunes it could occasion. 8. This observation
+might have some truth under such a monarch as Augustus now appeared to
+be; but they were afterwards taught to change their sentiments under
+his successors, when they found themselves afflicted with all the
+punishments that tyranny could inflict, or sedition make necessary.
+
+9. After having established this admirable order, Augustus found
+himself agitated by different passions; and considered, a long time,
+whether he should keep the empire, or restore the people to their
+ancient liberty. 10. But he adopted the advice of Maece'nas,
+which was, to continue in power: and he was afterwards swayed by him
+on every occasion. By the advice of that minister, he became gentle,
+affable, and humane: he encouraged men of learning, and gave them much
+of his time and his friendship. These in their turn relieved his most
+anxious hours, and circulated his praise throughout the empire.
+
+11. Thus having given peace and happiness to his subjects, and being
+convinced of the attachment of all orders of the state to his person,
+he resolved upon impressing the people with an idea of his
+magnanimity, by making a show of resigning his authority. 12. To this
+end, having previously instructed his creatures in the senate how to
+act, he addressed them in a studied speech, importing the difficulty
+of governing so extensive an empire; a task to which, he said, none
+but the immortal gods were equal. He modestly urged his own inability,
+though impelled by every motive to undertake it; and then, with a
+degree of seeming generosity, freely gave up all that power which his
+arms had gained, and which the senate had confirmed, giving them to
+understand, that the true spirit of the Romans was not lost in him.
+13. This speech operated upon the senate variously, as they were more
+or less in the secret. Many believed the sincerity of his conduct as
+an act of heroism unequalled by any thing that had hitherto appeared;
+others, though ignorant of his motives, distrusted his designs. Some
+there were, who, having greatly suffered during the popular
+commotions, were fearful of their being renewed; but the majority, who
+were properly instructed by his ministers, frequently attempted to
+interrupt him while speaking, and received his proposals with
+pretended indignation. 14. These unanimously besought him not to
+resign the administration; and, upon his continuing to decline their
+request, they in a manner compelled him to comply. However, that his
+person might be in greater security, they immediately decreed that the
+pay of his guard should be doubled. 15. On the other hand, that he
+might seem to make concessions on his side, he permitted the senate to
+govern the weak, internal provinces, while the most powerful
+provinces, and those that required the greatest armies for their
+defence, were taken entirely under his own command. Over these he
+assumed the government for ten years only, leaving the people still in
+hopes of regaining their ancient freedom; at the same tune, however,
+laying his measures so well,  that his government was renewed
+every ten years, to his death.
+
+16. This show of resignation only served to confirm him in the empire,
+and in the hearts of the people. New honours were heaped upon him. He
+was now first called Augustus (a name I have hitherto used as that by
+which he is best known in history.) A laurel was ordered to be planted
+at his gates. That house was called the palace wherever he made his
+abode. He was confirmed in the title of father of his country, and his
+person declared sacred and inviolable. 17. In short, flattery seemed
+on the rack to find out new modes of pleasing him; but, though he
+despised the arts of the senate, he permitted their homage, well
+knowing that, among mankind, titles produce a respect which enforces
+authority.
+
+18. Upon entering into his tenth consulship, the senate, by oath,
+approved of all his acts, and set him wholly above the power of the
+laws. They, some time after, offered to swear not only to all the laws
+he had made, but such as he should make for the future. 19. It was
+customary with fathers, upon their death-beds, to command their
+children to carry oblations to the Capitol, with an inscription, that
+at the day of their deaths they left Augustus in health. It was
+determined that no man should be put to death on such days as the
+emperor entered the city. Upon a dearth of provisions, the people
+entreated him to accept of the dictatorship; but he would by no means
+assume the title of dictator, which had been abolished by law.
+
+20. An accumulation of titles and employments did not in the least
+diminish his assiduity in fulfilling the duties of each. Several very
+wholesome edicts were passed by his command, tending to suppress
+corruption in the senate, and licentiousness in the people. 21. He
+ordained that none should exhibit a show of gladiators without an
+order from the senate; and then not oftener than twice a year, nor
+with more than a hundred and twenty at a time. This law was extremely
+necessary at so corrupt a period of the empire, when armies of these
+unfortunate men were brought at once upon the stage, and compelled to
+fight, often, till half of them were slain. 22. It had been usual also
+with the knights, and women of the first distinction, to exhibit
+themselves as dancers upon the theatre; he ordered that not only
+these, but their children and grand-children should be restrained from
+such exercises for the future. 23. He fined many that had refused
+to marry at a certain age, and rewarded such as had many children. He
+enacted that the senators should be held in great reverence; adding to
+their dignity what he had taken from their power. 24. He made a law,
+that no man should have the freedom of the city without a previous
+examination into his merit and character. He appointed new rules and
+limits to the manumission of slaves, and was himself very strict in
+the observance of them. With regard to dramatic performers, of whom he
+was very fond, he severely examined their morals, not allowing
+licentiousness in their lives, nor indecency in their actions. Though
+he encouraged the athletic exercises, he would not permit women to be
+present at them. 25. In order to prevent bribery in suing for offices,
+he took considerable sums of money from the candidates by way of
+pledge; and if any indirect practices were proved against them, they
+were obliged to forfeit all. 26. Slaves had been hitherto disallowed
+to confess anything against their own masters; but he abolished the
+practice, and first sold the slave to another, which altering the
+property, his examination became free. 27. These and other laws, all
+tending to extirpate vice or deter from crimes, gave the manners of
+the people another complexion; and the rough character of the Roman
+soldier was now softened into that of the refined citizen.[1]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was the consequence of the death of Antony?
+
+2. What was the character of the Roman people at this time?
+
+3. Did these convulsions weaken the empire?
+
+4. What was the first care of Augustus?
+
+5. In what way did he propose to govern?
+
+6. What were the consequences of this conduct?
+
+7. What advantages did the Romans fancy they enjoyed?
+
+8. Was this observation correct?
+
+9. What conflicting passions agitated the mind of Augustus?
+
+10. Whose advice did he adopt, and what was that advice?
+
+11. What artifice did he employ to confirm his power?
+
+12. How did he make his intentions known?
+
+13. What effect was produced by this proposal?
+
+14. What was their conduct on this occasion?
+
+15. What farther artifices did he employ?
+
+16. What were the consequences of this affected moderation?
+
+17. Was he imposed upon by these arts?
+
+18. What farther instances of abject servility did the senate display?
+
+19. What else was done to his honour?
+
+20. Did these honours render him remiss?
+
+21. What salutary law did he enact?
+
+22. What next?
+
+23. What regulations concerning marriage, and respect to senators, did
+he enforce?
+
+24. How did he improve the morals of the people?
+
+25. How did he prevent bribery?
+
+26. By what means did he promote justice?
+
+27. What was the consequence of these regulations?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  The death of those distinguished by their station,
+  But by their virtue more, awakes the mind
+  To solemn dread, and strikes a saddening awe.--_Young_.
+
+1. Augustus, by his own example, tended greatly to humanize his
+fellow-citizens; for being placed above all equality, he had nothing
+to fear from condescension. He was familiar with all, and suffered
+himself to be reprimanded with the most patient humility. Though, by
+his sole authority, he could condemn or acquit whomsoever he thought
+proper, he gave the laws their proper course, and even pleaded for
+persons he desired to protect. 2. When the advocate for Pri'mus[2]
+desired to know, with an insolent air, what brought Augustus into
+court, the emperor calmly replied, "The public good." When one of his
+veteran soldiers entreated his protection, Augustus bid him apply to
+an advocate. "Ah!" replied the soldier, "it was not by proxy that I
+served you at the battle of Ac'tium." Augustus was so pleased that he
+pleaded his cause and gained it for him. One day a petition was
+presented to him with so much awe as to displease him. "Friend," cried
+he, "you seem as if you were offering something to an elephant rather
+than to a man; be bolder." 3. Once as he was sitting in judgment,
+Maece'nas perceiving that he was inclined to be severe, and not being
+able to get to him through the crowd, he threw a paper into his lap,
+on which was written, "Arise, executioner!" Augustus read it without
+displeasure, and immediately rising, pardoned those whom he was
+disposed to condemn. 4. But what most of all showed a total
+alteration, was his treatment of Corne'lius Cinna, Pompey's grandson.
+This nobleman had entered into a conspiracy against him: Augustus sent
+for the other conspirators, reprimanded them, and dismissed them. But
+resolving to mortify Cinna by the greatness of his generosity--"I have
+twice," says he, "given you your life, as an enemy and as a
+conspirator: I now give you the consulship; let us therefore be
+friends for the future; let us contend only in showing whether my
+confidence or your fidelity shall be victorious."
+
+5. In the practice of such virtues he passed a long reign. In fact, he
+seemed the first Roman who aimed at gaining a character by the arts of
+peace, and who obtained the affections of the soldiers without any
+military talents of his own: nevertheless, the Roman arms, under his
+lieutenants, were crowned with success.
+
+6. But he had uneasiness of a domestic nature that distressed him. He
+had married Liv'ia, the wife of Tibe'rius Nero, by the consent of her
+husband, when she was six months advanced in her pregnancy. She was an
+imperious woman, and, conscious of being beloved, controlled him at
+her pleasure. 7. She had two sons, Tibe'rius the elder, and Dru'sus,
+who was born three months after she had been married to Augustus, and
+who was thought to be his own son. The elder of these, Tibe'rius, whom
+he afterwards adopted, and who succeeded him in the empire, was a good
+general, but of a suspicious and obstinate temper, and of a conduct so
+turbulent and restless, that he was at last exiled for five years to
+the island of Rhodes, where he chiefly spent his time in a retired
+manner, conversing with the Greeks, and addicting himself to
+literature, of which, however he afterwards made but a bad use.
+
+8. But the greatest affliction that Augustus experienced was from the
+conduct of his daughter Julia, whom he had by Scribo'nia, his former
+wife. Julia, whom he married to his general Agrip'pa, and afterwards
+to Tibe'rius, set no bounds to her misconduct. She was arrived at that
+excess of wickedness, that the very court where her father presided
+was not exempt from her infamies. 9. Augustus, at first, had thoughts
+of putting her to death: but, after consideration, he banished her to
+Pandata'ria.[3] He ordered that no person should come near her
+without his permission, and sent her mother Scribo'nia along with her,
+to bear her company. When any one attempted to intercede for Julia,
+his answer was, "that fire and water should sooner unite than he with
+her." 10. Augustus, having survived most of his contemporaries, at
+length, in the seventy-fourth year of his age, began to think of
+retiring from the fatigues of state, and of constituting Tibe'rius his
+partner in the throne. He desired the senate to salute him no longer
+at the palace, nor take it amiss, if, for the future, he could not
+converse with them, as formerly.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 762.]
+
+11. From that time Tibe'rius was joined in the government of the
+provinces with him, and invested with nearly the same authority.
+However, Augustus could not entirely forsake the administration, which
+habit had rendered a source of pleasure; and he still continued a
+watchful guardian, and showed himself, to the last, a lover of his
+people. 12. Finding it now, therefore, very inconvenient to come to
+the senate, by reason of his age, he desired to have twenty
+privy-counsellors assigned him for a year; and it was decreed, that
+whatever measures were resolved upon by them and the consuls, should
+have entirely the force of a law. 13. He seemed apprehensive of his
+approaching end, for he made his will, and delivered it to the vestal
+virgins. He then solemnized the census, or numbering the people, whom
+he found to amount to four millions one hundred and thirty-seven
+thousand; which shows Rome to be equal to four of the greatest cities
+of modern times. 14. While these ceremonies were performing, in the
+midst of a mighty concourse of people in the Cam'pus Mar'tius, it is
+said that an eagle flew round the emperor several times, and,
+directing its flight to a neighbouring temple, perched over the name
+of Agrippa: this omen was, by the augurs, conceived to portend the
+death of the emperor. 15. Shortly after, having accompanied Tibe'rius
+in his march into Illyr'ia, he was taken ill. Returning thence, he
+sent for Tibe'rius and his most intimate friends. A few hours before
+his death he ordered a looking-glass to be brought, and his hair to be
+adjusted with more than usual care. He then addressed his friends,
+whom he beheld surrounding his bed, and desired to know whether he had
+properly played his part in life; to which, being answered in the
+affirmative, he cried out with his last breath, "Then give me your
+applause." Thus, at the age of seventy-six, after reigning forty-four
+years, he expired in the arms of Liv'ia, bidding her remember
+their marriage and their last farewell.[4]
+
+16. The death of the emperor caused inexpressible grief throughout the
+whole empire. It was, by some, supposed that his wife Liv'ia had some
+hand in hastening it, with a view to procure the succession more
+speedily for her son. However this was, she took care, for a time, to
+keep the important event concealed, by guarding all the passages to
+the palace; sometimes giving out that he was recovered, and then
+pretending a relapse. At length, having settled the succession to her
+mind, she published the emperor's death; and at the same time, the
+adoption of Tibe'rius to the empire. 17. The emperor's funeral was
+performed with great magnificence. The senators being in their places,
+Tibe'rius, on whom that care devolved, pronounced a consolatory
+oration. After this his will was read, wherein he made Tibe'rius and
+Liv'ia his heirs. 18. He was studious of serving his country to the
+very last, and the sorrow of the people seemed equal to his assiduity.
+It was decreed, that all the women should mourn for him a whole year.
+Temples were erected to him, divine honours were allowed him, and one
+Nume'rius At'ticus, a senator, willing to convert the adulation of the
+times to his own benefit, received a large sum of money for swearing
+that he saw him ascending into heaven; so that no doubt remained among
+the people concerning his divinity.
+
+19. Such were the honours paid to Augustus, whose power began in the
+slaughter, and terminated in the happiness of his subjects; so that it
+was said of him, "that it had been good for mankind if he had never
+been born, or if he had never died." 20. It is possible that the
+cruelties exercised in his triumvirate were suggested by his
+colleagues. In the case of Caesar's death, he might think that revenge
+was virtue. Certain it is, that severities were necessary to restore
+public tranquillity; for, until the Roman spirit should be eradicated,
+no monarchy could be secure. 21. He indulged his subjects in the
+appearance of a republic, while he made them really happy in the
+effects of a most absolute monarchy, administered with the most
+consummate prudence. In this last quality he seems to have excelled
+most monarchs; and indeed, could we separate Octavius from Augustus,
+he was one of the most faultless princes in history. 22. About this
+time our Saviour was born in Jude'a.[5]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the general conduct of Augustus?
+
+2. Mention some instances of his moderation?
+
+3. What farther instance of his moderation is on record?
+
+4. How did he most decidedly show the alteration in his disposition?
+
+5. In what was he particularly remarkable?
+
+6. Was he happy in domestic life?
+
+7. What family had she, and what was the character of her son?
+
+8. Had he no other domestic trials?
+
+9. In what way was she punished?
+
+10. Was the reign of Augustus of considerable length?
+
+11. Did he associate Tiberius with him in the government?
+
+12. By what means did he lighten the burden of government?
+
+13. By what measure did he prepare for his approaching end?
+
+14. What omen portended his death?
+
+15. How did he meet his end?
+
+16. How were the people affected by his death, and why was it for a
+time concealed?
+
+17. How was his funeral celebrated?
+
+18. What honours were decreed him?
+
+19. Were those honours deserved?
+
+20. What excuses may be made for his early cruelties?
+
+21. By what means did he secure his power?
+
+22. What remarkable event happened in his reign?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+                              Thy acts,
+  Thy fame, Germanicus, will long outlive
+  The venomed shafts of envy; and the praise
+  Of patriot tongues shall follow thee in death.--_Clarke._
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 762. A.D. 10.]
+
+1. Tibe'rius was fifty-six years old when he took upon him the
+government of the Roman empire. He had lived in a state of profound
+dissimulation under Augustus, and was not yet hardy enough to show
+himself in his real character. In the beginning of his reign nothing
+appeared but prudence, generosity, and clemency.[6] 2. But the
+successes of his nephew, German'icus, son of his late brother Dru'sus,
+over the Germans, first brought his natural disposition to light, and
+discovered the malignity of his mind without disguise. 3. He was
+hardly settled on his throne, when he received intelligence that the
+legions in Panno'nia, hearing of the death of Augustus, and desirous
+of novelty, had revolted; but these were soon quieted, and
+Percen'nius, their leader, slain. 4. A commotion in Germany was
+attended with much more important consequences. The legions in that
+part of the empire were conducted by German'icus, a youth of most
+admirable qualities, who had been at the late emperor's request,
+adopted, in order to succeed to the empire. These forces had taken the
+opportunity of his absence to revolt, and now began to affirm that the
+whole Roman empire was in their power, and that its principal grandeur
+was owing to the success of their arms; when German'icus returned,
+therefore, they unanimously resolved to choose him emperor. 5. This
+general was the darling of the soldiers, and almost idolized, so that
+he might, with very little difficulty, have raised himself to the
+highest dignity in the state; but his duty prevailed over his
+ambition; he rejected their offers with the utmost indignation, and
+used the most indefatigable endeavours to quell the sedition. This he
+effected, though with extreme hazard, by cutting off many of the
+principal revolters, and then by leading the troops against the
+Germans, who were considered as the common enemies of the empire.
+
+6. Tiberius was as much pleased with the loyalty of German'icus, as he
+was distressed at his superior popularity; his success, also,
+immediately after, against the Germans, still more excited the
+emperor's envy and private disgust. He overthrew the enemy in several
+battles, subduing many wild and extensive countries. 7. These
+victories, however, only served to inflame the emperor's jealousy: and
+every virtue in the general now became a new cause of offence. This
+dislike began to appear by Tiberius's making use of every pretence to
+draw German'icus from the legions: but he was obliged to postpone his
+purpose on account of a domestic insurrection made in Italy by one
+Cle'mens, whom he put to death by a private execution in a secret
+apartment of the palace.
+
+9. Having thus got rid of his domestic enemy, he turned his thoughts
+to the most specious means of bringing home German'icus from the
+legions in Germany. He began by procuring him a triumph for his late
+victories, and when writing to him to return in order to enjoy those
+honours which the senate had decreed; adding, that he had reaped
+enough of glory in a country to which he had been sent nine times, and
+been each time victorious; concluding, that so great a number of
+triumphs was sufficient; and the most signal vengeance which could be
+inflicted on this turbulent people was to permit them to continue
+their intestine divisions. 10. German'icus was met on his return, many
+miles from the city, by a vast multitude, who received him with marks
+of adoration rather than respect. The gracefulness of his person; his
+triumphal chariot, in which were carried his five children; and the
+recovered standards of the army of Va'rus, threw the people into a
+phrenzy of joy and admiration.[7]
+
+11. German'icus was now appointed to a new dignity. He departed from
+Rome on an expedition to the east, carrying with him his wife
+Agrippi'na, and his children. 12. But Tibe'rius, to restrain his
+power, had sent Cne'ius Pi'so governor into Syr'ia. This Pi'so was a
+person of furious and headstrong temper, and, in every respect, fit to
+execute those fatal purposes for which he was designed. 13. His
+instructions were, to oppose German'icus upon every occasion, to
+excite hatred against him, and even to procure his death if an
+opportunity should offer. He accordingly took every opportunity of
+abusing German'icus; and taxed him with diminishing the Roman glory,
+by his peculiar protection of the Athe'nians. 14. German'icus
+disregarded his invectives, being more intent on executing the
+business of his commission, than on counteracting the private designs
+of Pi'so. 15. Piso, however, and his wife Planci'na, who is recorded
+as a woman of an implacable and cruel disposition, continued to defame
+him. German'icus opposed only patience and condescension to all their
+invectives, and, with that gentleness which was peculiar to him,
+repaid their resentments by courtesy. 16. He was not ignorant of their
+motives, and was rather willing to evade than oppose their
+enmity. He, therefore, took a voyage into Egypt, under pretence of
+viewing the celebrated antiquities of that country; but, in reality,
+to avoid the machinations of Pi'so, and those of his wife, which were
+still more dangerous. 17. Upon his return he fell sick, and, whether
+from a mind previously alarmed, or from more apparent marks of
+treachery, he sent to let Pi'so know, that he broke off all further
+connections. Growing daily worse, his death appeared to be inevitable.
+18. Finding his end approaching, he addressed his friends, who stood
+around his bed, to the following effect: "Had my death been natural, I
+might have reason to complain of being thus snatched away from all the
+endearments of life, at so early an age; but my complaints are
+aggravated, in falling the victim of Pi'so's and Planci'na's
+treachery. Let the emperor, therefore, I conjure you, know the manner
+of my death, and the tortures I suffer. Those who loved me when
+living--those who even envied my fortune--will feel some regret, when
+they hear of a soldier, who had so often escaped the rage of the
+enemy, falling a sacrifice to the treachery of a woman. Plead then my
+cause before the people--you will be heard with pity--and if my
+murderers should pretend to have acted by command, they will either
+receive no credit or no pardon." 19. As he spoke these words, he
+stretched forth his hand, which his weeping friends tenderly pressing,
+most earnestly vowed that they would lose their lives rather than
+their revenge. The dying prince, then turning to his wife, conjured
+her, by her regard to his memory, and by all the bonds of nuptial
+love, to submit to the necessity of the times, and to evade the
+resentment of her more powerful enemies by not opposing it.[8] 20.
+Nothing could exceed the distress of the whole empire, upon hearing of
+the death of German'icus, and the people of Rome seemed to set no
+bounds to it. 21. In this universal confusion, Pi'so seemed marked for
+destruction. He and his wife stood charged with the death of
+German'icus, by giving him a slow poison. Indeed, even the emperor
+himself, with his mother Liv'ia, incurred a share of the general
+suspicion. 22. This was soon after greatly increased by the arrival of
+Agrippi'na, the widow of German'icus, a woman of invincible courage,
+and in high esteem for her virtue. She appeared bearing the urn
+containing the ashes of her husband, and, attended by all her
+children, went to the tomb of Augustus. 23. When she approached the
+city, she was met by the senate and people of Rome, both with
+acclamations and expressions of sorrow. The veteran soldiers, who had
+served under German'icus, gave the sincerest testimonies of their
+concern. The multitude, while the ashes were depositing, regarded the
+ceremony in profound silence; but presently broke out into loud
+lamentations, crying out, The commonwealth is now no more.
+
+24. Tibe'rius permitted the accusation of Pi'so, though he was justly
+supposed to be merely the instrument of his own vengeance. This
+general was accused before the senate of the death of German'icus, and
+of other crimes.
+
+25. He put an end to his trial, which had been drawn out to a great
+length, by committing suicide.[9] His wife Planci'na, who was
+universally believed to be most culpable, escaped punishment by the
+interest of Liv'ia.
+
+26. Tibe'rius, having now no object of jealousy to keep him in awe,
+began to pull off the mask, and appear more in his natural character
+than before. 27. In the beginning of his cruelties, he took into his
+confidence Seja'nus, a Roman knight, who found out the method of
+gaining his affection by the most refined degree of dissimulation, and
+was an overmatch for his master in his own arts.[10] It is not well
+known whether he was the adviser of all the cruelties that ensued; but
+certain it is, that from the beginning of his ministry, Tibe'rius
+seemed to become more fatally suspicious.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What were the age and character of Tiberius on his accession?
+
+2. What first showed him in his true colours?
+
+3. What was the first news he heard?
+
+4. Was there not a more formidable revolt?
+
+5. Did Germanicus accept this dignity?
+
+6. Did Tiberius properly appreciate this conduct?
+
+7. Was he pleased with his success?
+
+8. How did this appear?
+
+9. What followed this execution?
+
+10. How was Germanicus received?
+
+11. How was he next employed?
+
+12. What restraints were imposed on him?
+
+13. What were Piso's instructions, and how did he execute them?
+
+14. How did Germanicus act on the occasion?
+
+15. Did Piso persevere in his base attempts?
+
+16. Was Germanicus aware of their design?
+
+17. What happened on his return?
+
+18. Repeat his speech on his death-bed.
+
+19. What farther passed on this occasion?
+
+20. Was his untimely end lamented?
+
+21. Who incurred the popular hatred on this occasion?
+
+22. How was this increased?
+
+23. What honours were paid her?
+
+24. Was the tyrant's vile agent rewarded for his services?
+
+25. What was the issue?
+
+26. How did Tiberius conduct himself after this?
+
+27. Who was his prime minister?
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+  Some ask for envied power; which public hate
+  Pursues, and hurries headlong to their fate;
+  Down go the titles; and the statue crowned,
+  Is by base hands in the next river drowned.--_Juvenal_.
+
+1. Seja'nus began his administration by using all his address to
+persuade Tiberius to retire to some agreeable retreat, remote from
+Rome; from this he expected many advantages, since there could be no
+access to the emperor but through him. 2. The emperor, either
+prevailed upon by his persuasions, or pursuing the natural turn of his
+temper, left Rome and went into Campa'nia, under pretence of
+dedicating temples to Ju'piter and Augustus. Growing weary, however,
+of places where mankind might follow him with their complaints and
+distresses, he withdrew himself into the delightful island of Ca'preae;
+and buried in this retreat, gave himself up to abandoned pleasures,
+regardless of the miseries of his subjects. 3. From this time he
+became more cruel, and Seja'nus increased his distrusts. Secret spies
+and informers were placed in all parts of the city, who converted the
+most harmless actions into subjects of offence. 4. In consequence of
+this, Ne'ro and Dru'sus, the children of German'icus, were declared
+enemies to the state, and afterwards starved to death in prison;
+while Agrippi'na, their mother, was sent into banishment. Sabi'nus,
+Asin'ius, Gal'lus, and Syria'eus, were, upon slight pretences,
+condemned and executed. 5. In this manner Seja'nus proceeded, removing
+all who stood between him and the empire; and every day increasing his
+confidence with Tibe'rius, and his power with the senate. The number
+of his statues exceeded even those of the emperor; people swore by his
+fortune, in the same manner as they would have done had he been upon
+the throne; and he was more dreaded than even the tyrant who actually
+enjoyed the empire. 6. But the rapidity of his rise seemed only
+preparatory to the greatness of his downfall. All we know of his first
+disgrace with the emperor is, that Sati'rus Secun'dus was the man who
+had the boldness to accuse him of treason; and Anto'nia, the mother of
+German'icus, seconded the accusation. 7. The senate, who had long been
+jealous of his power, and dreaded his cruelty, immediately took this
+opportunity of going beyond the orders of Tibe'rius; instead of
+sentencing him to imprisonment, they directed his execution.[11] 8.
+Whilst he was conducting to his fate, the people loaded him with
+insult and execration; pursued him with sarcastic reproaches; and
+threw down his statues. He himself was strangled by the executioner.
+
+9. His death only lighted up the emperor's rage for farther
+executions. Planci'na, the wife of Pi'so, and others, were put to
+death for being attached to Seja'nus. He began to grow weary of single
+executions, and gave orders that all the accused should be put to
+death together, without further examination. The whole city was, in
+consequence, filled with slaughter and mourning. 10. When one
+Carnu'lius killed himself, to avoid the torture, "Ah!" cried
+Tibe'rius, "how has that man been able to escape me!" When a prisoner
+had earnestly entreated that he would not defer his death: "Know,"
+said the tyrant, "I am not sufficiently your friend to shorten your
+torments."
+
+11. In this manner he lived, odious to the world, and troublesome to
+himself; an enemy to the lives of others, a tormentor of his own.[12]
+At length, in the 22d year of his reign, he began to feel the
+approaches of dissolution, and his appetite totally forsook him. 12.
+He now, therefore, found it was time to think of a successor, and
+fixed upon Calig'ula:[13] willing, perhaps, by the enormity of
+Calig'ula's conduct, with which he was well acquainted, to lessen the
+obloquy of his own.
+
+13. Still, however, he seemed desirous to avoid his end; and strove,
+by change of place, to cut off the inquietude of his own reflections.
+He left his favourite island, and went upon the continent; and at
+last, fixed at the promontory of Mise'num.[14] There he fell into
+faintings, which all believed to be fatal. 14. Calig'ula supposing him
+actually dead, caused himself to be acknowledged by the Praetorian
+soldiers,[15] and went forth from the emperor's apartment amidst the
+applauses of the multitude; when, all of a sudden, he was informed
+that the emperor was likely to recover. 15. This unexpected account
+filled the whole court with terror and alarm; every one who had before
+been earnestly testifying his joy, now reassumed his pretended sorrow,
+and forsook the new emperor, through a feigned solicitude for the fate
+of the old. 16, Calig'ula seemed thunderstruck; he preserved a gloomy
+silence, expecting nothing but death, instead of the empire at which
+he aspired. 17. Marco, however, who was hardened in crimes, ordered
+that the dying emperor should be despatched, by smothering him with
+pillows; or, as some will have it, by poison. Thus died Tibe'rius in
+the seventy-eighth year of his age, after reigning twenty-two
+years.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 780 A.D. 37.]
+
+18. It was in the eighteenth year of this emperor's reign that Christ,
+(after having spent two years in the public ministry, instructing the
+multitude in the way of salvation,) was crucified; as if the universal
+depravity of mankind wanted no less a sacrifice than this to reclaim
+them. Pi'late sent to Tibe'rius an account of Christ's passion,
+resurrection, and miracles, and the emperor made a report of the whole
+to the senate, desiring that Christ might be accounted a god by the
+Romans. 19. But the senate, displeased that the proposal had not come
+first from themselves, refused to allow of his apotheosis; alleging an
+ancient law, which gave them the superintendence in all matters of
+religion. They even went so far as to command, by an edict, that all
+Christians should leave the city; but Tibe'rius, by another edict,
+threatened death to such as should accuse them; by which means they
+continued unmolested during the rest of his reign.
+
+20. The vices of Calig'ula were concealed under the appearance of
+virtue in the beginning of his reign. In less than eight months,
+however, every trace of moderation and clemency vanished; while
+furious passions, unexampled avarice, and capricious cruelty, reigned
+uncontrolled; and pride, impiety, lust, and avarice, appeared in all
+their native deformity.
+
+21. Calig'ula's pride first appeared in his assuming to himself the
+title of ruler; which was usually granted only to kings. He would also
+have taken the crown and diadem, had he not been advised, that he was
+already superior to all the monarchs of the world. 22. Not long after
+he assumed divine honours, and gave himself the names of such
+divinities as he thought most agreeable to his nature. For this
+purpose he caused the heads of the statues of Jupiter, and some other
+gods, to be struck off, and his own to be put in their places. He
+frequently seated himself between Castor and Pollux, and ordered that
+all who came to this temple to worship should pay their adorations
+only to himself. 23. However, such was the extravagant inconsistency
+of this unaccountable idiot, that he changed his divinity as often as
+he changed his clothes; being at one time a male deity, at another a
+female; sometimes Jupiter or Mars; and not unfrequently Venus or
+Diana. 24. He even built and dedicated a temple to his own divinity,
+in which his statue of gold was every day dressed in robes similar to
+those which he himself wore, and worshipped by crowds of adorers.
+His priests were numerous; the sacrifices made to him were of the most
+exquisite delicacies that could be procured; and the dignity of the
+priesthood was sought by the most opulent men of the city. However, he
+admitted his wife and his horse to that honour; and to give a
+finishing stroke to his absurdities, became a priest to himself. 25.
+His method of assuming the manners of a deity was not less ridiculous;
+he often went out at full moon, and courted it in the style of a
+lover. He employed many inventions to imitate thunder, and would
+frequently defy Jupiter, crying out with a speech of Homer, "Do you
+conquer me, or I will conquer you." He frequently pretended to
+converse in whispers with the statue of Jupiter, and usually seemed
+angry at its replies, threatening to send it back into Greece, whence
+it came. Sometimes, however, he would assume a better temper, and seem
+contented that Jupiter and he should dwell together in amity.
+
+26. Of all his vices, prodigality was the most remarkable, and that
+which in some measure gave rise to the rest. The luxuries of former
+emperors were simplicity itself when compared to those which he
+practised. He contrived new ways of bathing, when the richest oils and
+most precious perfumes were lavished with the utmost profusion. His
+luxuries of the table were of immense value, and even jewels, as we
+are told, were dissolved in his sauces. He sometimes had services of
+pure gold presented before his guests, instead of meat, observing that
+a man should be an economist or an emperor.
+
+27. The manner in which he maintained his horse will give some idea of
+his domestic extravagance. He built a stable of marble, and a manger
+of ivory; and whenever the animal, which he called Incita'tus, was to
+run in the race, he placed sentinels near its stable, the night
+preceding, to prevent its slumbers from being broken.[16]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was the first measure of Sejanus?
+
+2. Did the emperor yield to his persuasions?
+
+3. What consequences ensued from this measure?
+
+4. Who were the first sufferers?
+
+5. Did Sejanus increase his influence?
+
+6. Was this elevation permanent?
+
+7. To what punishment was he condemned?
+
+8. What occurred at his execution?
+
+9. Was this the only victim to the cruelty of Tiberius?
+
+10. How did Tiberius aggravate his cruelties?
+
+11. Did these cruelties long continue?
+
+12. How did he act on this?
+
+13. Was he resigned to his fate?
+
+14. What followed on this?
+
+15. How was this news received?
+
+16. Did Caligula boldly meet the consequences?
+
+17. How was this averted?
+
+18. What highly remarkable event happened in this reign?
+
+19. Was his desire gratified?
+
+20. What was the conduct of Caligula on this occasion?
+
+21. By what acts did he display his pride?
+
+22. Did his arrogance carry him farther than this?
+
+23. Under what name did he assume divine honours?
+
+24. Of what farther absurdities was he guilty?
+
+25. Relate other follies of his?
+
+26. What was his principal vice?
+
+27. Give an instance of his domestic extravagance?
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+  For him no prayers are poured, no paeans sung,
+  No blessings chanted from a nation's tongue.--_Brereton._
+
+1. The impiety, however, of Calig'ula was but subordinate to his
+cruelties. He slew many of the senate, and afterwards cited them to
+appear. He cast great numbers of old and infirm men to the wild
+beasts, to free the state from such unserviceable citizens. He usually
+fed his wild beasts with the bodies of those wretches whom he
+condemned; and every tenth day sent off numbers of them to be thus
+devoured, which he jocosely called clearing his accounts. One of those
+who was thus exposed, crying out that he was innocent,[17] Calig'ula
+ordered him to be taken up, his tongue to be cut out, and then
+thrown into the amphitheatre as before. 2. He took delight in killing
+men with slow tortures, that, as he expressed it, they might feel
+themselves dying, being always present at such executions himself,
+directing the duration of the punishment, and mitigating the tortures
+merely to prolong them. 3. In fact, he valued himself for no quality
+more than his unrelenting temper, and inflexible severity, when he
+presided at an execution. 4. Upon one occasion, being incensed with
+the citizens, he wished that the Roman people had but one neck, that
+he might dispatch them at one blow.
+
+5. Such insupportable and capricious cruelties produced many secret
+conspiracies against him; but they were for a while deferred upon
+account of his intended expedition against the Germans and Britons.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 793. A.D. 41]
+
+6. For this purpose he caused numerous levies to be made, and talked
+with so much resolution, that it was universally believed he would
+conquer all before him. 7. His march perfectly indicated the
+inequality of his temper; sometimes it was so rapid that the cohorts
+were obliged to leave their standards behind them; at other times it
+was so slow, that it more resembled a pompous procession than a
+military expedition. 8. In this disposition he would cause himself to
+be carried on a litter, on eight men's shoulders, and ordered all the
+neighbouring cities to have their streets well swept and watered, that
+he might not be annoyed with dust. 9 However, all these mighty
+preparations ended in nothing. Instead of conquering Britain, he
+merely gave refuge to one of its banished princes; and this he
+described, in his letter to the senate, as taking possession of the
+whole island. 10. Instead of conquering Germany, he only led his army
+to the seashore in Gaul: there, disposing his engines and warlike
+machines with great solemnity, and drawing up his men in order of
+battle, he went on board his galley, with which coasting along, he
+commanded his trumpets to sound, and the signal to be given as if for
+an engagement. 11. His men, who had previous orders, immediately fell
+to gathering the shells that lay upon the shore into their helmets, as
+their spoils of the conquered ocean, worthy of the palace and the
+capitol. 12. After this doughty expedition, calling his army together,
+like a general after victory, he harangued them in a pompous manner,
+and highly extolled their achievements; then, distributing money among
+them, and congratulating them upon their riches, he dismissed them,
+with orders to be joyful: and, that such exploits should not pass
+without a memorial, he ordered a lofty tower to be erected by the
+seaside.[18]
+
+13. Cassius Cher'ea, a tribune of the Praetorian bands, was the person
+who at last freed the world from this tyrant. Besides the motives
+which he had in common with other men, he had received repeated
+insults from Calig'ula, who took all occasions of turning him into
+ridicule, and impeaching him with cowardice, merely because he
+happened to have an effeminate voice. Whenever Cher'ea came to demand
+the watch-word from the emperor, according to custom, he always gave
+him either Venus, Adonis, or some such, implying softness and
+effeminacy.
+
+14. Cher'ea secretly imparted his design to several senators and
+knights, whom he knew to have received personal injuries from
+Calig'ula. While these were deliberating upon the most certain and
+speedy method of destroying the tyrant, an unexpected incident gave
+new strength to the conspiracy. 15. Pempe'dius, a senator of
+distinction, being accused before the emperor of having spoken of him
+with disrespect, the informer cited one Quintil'ia, an actress, to
+confirm the accusation. 16. Quintil'ia, however, was possessed of a
+degree of fortitude not frequently found even in the other sex. She
+denied the fact with obstinacy; and, being put to the torture, bore
+the severest tortures of the rack with unshaken constancy. 17. Indeed,
+so remarkable was her resolution, that though acquainted with all the
+particulars of the conspiracy, and although Cher'ea was the person
+appointed to preside at her torture, she revealed nothing; on the
+contrary, when she was led to the rack, she trod upon the toe of one
+of the conspirators, intimating at once her knowledge of their
+conspiracy, and her resolution not to divulge it. 18. Thus she
+suffered, until all her limbs were dislocated; and, in that deplorable
+state, was presented to the emperor, who ordered her a gratuity for
+what she had endured.
+
+19. Cher'ea could no longer contain his indignation, at being thus
+made the instrument of a tyrant's cruelty. After several deliberations
+of the conspirators, it was at last resolved to attack him during the
+Palatine games, which lasted four days,[19] and to strike the
+blow when his guards should not have the opportunity to defend him.
+20. The first three days of the games passed. Cher'ea began to
+apprehend that deferring the completion of the conspiracy might be the
+means of divulging it; he even dreaded that the honour of killing the
+tyrant might fall to the lot of some other person bolder than himself.
+At last he resolved to defer the execution of his plot only to the day
+following, when Calig'ula should pass through a private gallery, to
+some baths near the palace.
+
+21. The last day of the games was more splendid than the rest; and
+Calig'ula seemed more sprightly and condescending than usual. He
+enjoyed the amusement of seeing the people scramble for the fruits and
+other rarities by his order thrown among them, being no way
+apprehensive of the plot formed for his destruction. 22. In the mean
+time the conspiracy began to transpire: and, had he any friends
+remaining, it could not have failed of being discovered. A senator who
+was present, asking one of his acquaintance if he had heard any thing
+new, and the other replying in the negative, said "you must know, that
+this day will be represented the death of a tyrant." The other
+immediately understood him, but desired him to be cautious. 23. The
+conspirators waited many hours with extreme anxiety; and Calig'ula
+seemed resolved to spend the whole day without any refreshment. So
+unexpected a delay exasperated Cher'ea; and, had he not been
+restrained, he would suddenly have perpetrated his design in the midst
+of all the people. 24. At that instant, while he was hesitating,
+Aspore'nus,[20] one of the conspirators, persuaded Calig'ula to go to
+the bath, and take some slight refreshment, that he might the better
+enjoy the rest of the entertainment. 25. The emperor, rising up, the
+conspirators used every precaution to keep off the throng, and to
+surround him themselves, under pretence of great assiduity. Upon his
+entering a little vaulted gallery that led to the bath, Cher'ea struck
+him to the ground with his dagger, crying out, "Tyrant, think
+upon this." The other conspirators closed in upon him; and while
+the emperor was resisting, and crying out that he was not yet dead,
+they dispatched him with thirty wounds.
+
+26. Such was the merited death of Calig'ula, in the 29th year of his
+age, after a short reign of not four years. His character may be
+summed up in the words of Sen'eca; namely, "Nature seemed to have
+brought him forth, to show what mischief could be effected by the
+greatest vices supported by the greatest authority."
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Of what enormities was Caligula guilty?
+
+2. How did he heighten his cruelties?
+
+3. On what did he chiefly value himself?
+
+4. What monstrous wish did he express?
+
+5. What was the consequence of such atrocities?
+
+6. What preparations did he make?
+
+7. How did his disposition display itself on this occasion?
+
+8. How did he sometimes travel?
+
+9. What exploits did he perform?
+
+10. Did he not make a show of some great enterprise?
+
+11. How did it end?
+
+12. Of what farther follies was he guilty?
+
+13. By whom was he assassinated, and by what provocations was his fate
+hastened?
+
+14. Were others made privy to the design?
+
+15. Relate this incident.
+
+16. Did Quintilia confirm the accusation?
+
+17. What rendered this resolution more remarkable?
+
+18. What was the result?
+
+19. Was the _crisis_ much longer deferred?
+
+20. Was this resolution put in practice?
+
+21. Was Caligula at all apprehensive of what was in agitation?
+
+22. Was the secret inviolably kept?
+
+23. How was the design nearly frustrated?
+
+24. What induced Caligula to alter his intention?
+
+25. Relate the manner of his death.
+
+26. Repeat the summary of his character as given by Seneca.
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+U.C. 794.--A.D. 42.
+
+                                 Old as I am,
+  And withered as you see these war-worn limbs,
+  Trust me, they shall support the mightiest load
+  Injustice dares impose.--_Mason's Caractacus_.
+
+1. As soon as the death of Calig'ula was made public it produced the
+greatest confusion. The conspirators, who only aimed at destroying a
+tyrant, without attending to the appointment of a successor, had
+all sought safety by retiring to private places. 2. Some soldiers
+happening to wander about the palace, discovered Clau'dius,
+Calig'ula's uncle, lurking in a secret place where he had hid himself.
+Of this person, who had hitherto been despised for his imbecility,
+they resolved to make an emperor: and accordingly they carried him
+upon their shoulders to the camp, where they proclaimed him at a time
+when he expected nothing but death.
+
+3. Clau'dius was now fifty years old. The complicated diseases of his
+infancy had, in some measure, affected all the faculties of his mind
+as well as body, and he seemed, both in public and domestic life,
+incapable of conducting himself with propriety.[21]
+
+4. The commencement of his reign, however, as had been the case with
+all the bad emperors, gave the most promising hopes. It began by an
+act of oblivion for all former words and actions, and by disannulling
+all the cruel edicts of Calig'ula. 5. He showed himself more moderate
+than his predecessors with regard to titles and honours. He forbade
+all persons, under severe penalties, to sacrifice to him, as they had
+done to Calig'ula. He was assiduous in hearing and examining
+complaints; and frequently administered justice in person with great
+mildness. To his solicitude for the internal advantages of the state,
+he added that of a watchful guardianship over the provinces. He
+restored Jude'a to Her'od Agrip'pa,[22] which Calig'ula had taken from
+Her'od Antipas, his uncle, the man who had put John the Baptist to
+death, and who was banished by order of the present emperor.[23]
+
+[Illustration: Triumph of Claudius.]
+
+6. He even undertook to gratify the people by foreign conquest.
+The Britons, who had for nearly a hundred years been left in quiet
+possession of their own island, began to seek the mediation of Rome,
+to quell their intestine commotions. 7. The principal man who desired
+to subject his native country to the Roman dominion, was one Ber'icus,
+who persuaded the emperor to make a descent upon the island,
+magnifying the advantages that would attend the conquest of it. 8. In
+pursuance of his advice, therefore, Plau'tius, the praetor, was ordered
+to go into Gaul, and make preparations for this great expedition. At
+first, indeed, his soldiers seemed backward to embark, declaring that
+they were unwilling to make war beyond the limits of the world; for so
+they judged Britain to be. However, they were at last persuaded to go,
+and the Britons were several times overthrown.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 46.]
+
+9. These successes soon after induced Claud'ius to go into Britain in
+person, under pretence that the natives were still seditious, and had
+not delivered up some Roman fugitives, who had taken shelter among
+them. 10. However, this exhibition seemed rather calculated for show
+than service: the time he continued in Britain, which was in all but
+sixteen days, was more taken up in receiving homage than extending his
+conquests. 11. Great rejoicings were made upon his return to Rome: the
+senate decreed him a splendid triumph; triumphal arches were erected
+to his honour, and annual games instituted to commemorate his
+victories. 12. In the mean time the war was vigorously prosecuted by
+Plau'tius, and his lieutenant Vespasian, who, according to
+Sueto'nius, fought thirty battles, and reduced a part of the island
+into the form of a Roman province.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 51]
+
+13. However, this war broke out afresh under the government of
+Osto'rius, who succeeded Plau'tius. The Britons, either despising him
+for want of experience, or hoping to gain advantages over a person
+newly come to command, rose up in arms, and disclaimed the Roman
+power. 14. The Ice'ni, who inhabited Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, and
+Huntingdonshire; the Can'gi, in Wiltshire and Somersetshire; and the
+Brigan'tes, in Yorkshire, &c. made a powerful resistance, though they
+were at length overcome; but the Silu'res, or inhabitants of South
+Wales, under their king Carac'tacus, were the most formidable
+opponents the Roman generals had ever yet encountered. 15. This brave
+barbarian not only made a gallant defence, but often claimed a
+doubtful victory. He, with great conduct, removed the seat of war into
+the most inaccessible parts of the country, and for nine years kept
+the Romans in continued alarm.
+
+16. Upon the approach of Osto'rius, however, Carac'tacus, finding
+himself obliged to come to a decisive engagement, addressed his
+countrymen with calm resolution, telling them that this battle would
+either establish their liberty, or confirm their servitude; that they
+ought to remember the bravery of their ancestors, by whose valour they
+were delivered from taxes and tribute; and that this was the time to
+show themselves equal to their progenitors. 17. But nothing that
+undisciplined valour could perform availed against the conduct of the
+Roman legions. After an obstinate fight, the Britons were entirely
+routed: the wife and daughter of Carac'tacus were taken prisoners; and
+he himself, seeking refuge from Cartisman'dua, queen of the
+Brigan'tes, was treacherously delivered up to the conquerors. 18. When
+he was brought to Rome, nothing could exceed the curiosity of the
+people to behold a man who had, for so many years, braved the power of
+the empire. Carac'tacus testified no marks of base dejection. When he
+was led through the streets, and observed the splendor of every object
+around him--"Alas!" cried he, "how is it possible that people
+possessed of such magnificence at home, could think of envying
+Carac'tacus a humble cottage in Britain!" 19. When he was brought
+before the emperor, while the other prisoners sued for pity with the
+most abject lamentations, Carac'tacus stood before the tribunal with
+an intrepid air, and though he was willing to accept of pardon,
+was not mean enough to sue for it. "If," said he, "I had yielded
+immediately, and without opposing you, neither would my fortune have
+been remarkable, nor your glory memorable; you could not have been
+victorious, and I had been forgotten. If now, therefore, you spare my
+life, I shall continue a perpetual example of your clemency."
+Clau'dius generously pardoned him, and Osto'rius was decreed a
+triumph.
+
+20. In the beginning of his reign Clau'dius gave the highest hopes of
+a happy continuance; but he soon began to lessen his care for the
+public, and to commit to his favourites all the concerns of the
+empire. This prince, weak from his infancy, was little able, when
+called to govern, to act but under the direction of others. 21. One of
+his chief instructors was his wife Messa'lina: whose name is become a
+common appellation for women of abandoned character. By her was
+Clau'dius urged on to commit cruelties, which he considered only as
+wholesome severities; while her crimes became every day more
+notorious, and exceeded what had ever been in Rome. For her crimes and
+enormities, however, she, together with her accomplice Cai'us Sil'ius,
+suffered that death they both had so justly deserved.
+
+22. Clau'dius afterwards married Agrippi'na, the daughter of his
+brother German'icus, a woman of a cruel and ambitious spirit, whose
+only aim being to procure the succession of Nero, her son by a former
+marriage, she treated Claudius with such haughtiness, that he was
+heard to declare, when heated with wine, that it was his fate to smart
+under the disorders of his wives, and to be their executioner. 23.
+This expression sunk deep in her mind, and engaged all her faculties
+to prevent the blow; she therefore resolved not to defer a deed which
+she had meditated long before, which was to poison him. She for some
+time debated within herself in what quantity the poison should be
+administered, as she feared that too strong a dose would discover the
+treachery, while one too weak would fail of its effect. 24. At length
+she determined upon a poison of singular efficacy to destroy his
+intellects, and yet not suddenly to terminate his life; it was given
+among mushrooms, a dish the emperor was particularly fond of. 25.
+Shortly after he had eaten, he dropped down insensible; but this
+caused no alarm, as it was usual with him to eat till he had stupified
+his facilities, and been obliged to be carried from the table to his
+bed. 26. His constitution, however, seemed to overcome the
+effects of the potion; but Agrippi'na resolving to make sure of him,
+directed a wretch of a physician, her creature, to introduce a
+poisoned feather into his throat, under pretence of making him vomit,
+and thus to dispatch him, which had its intended effect. Thus died
+Clau'dius the First, the complicated diseases of whose infancy seemed
+to have affected and perverted all the faculties of his mind. He was
+succeeded by Nero, the son of Agrippi'na by her first husband. Nero
+had been adopted by Clau'dius.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What happened on the death of Caligula?
+
+2. Who was appointed his successor?
+
+3. What was the character of Claudius?
+
+4. How did he conduct himself?
+
+5. By what farther acts did he distinguish his accession?
+
+6. Did he adopt any warlike measure?
+
+7. By whom was he persuaded to interfere?
+
+8. Who was sent into that country, and what occurred in consequence?
+
+9. What resolution did Claudius form?
+
+10. Did he perform any memorable exploits?
+
+11. Was his return celebrated?
+
+12. Was the war in Britain now at an end?
+
+13. Did this finish the war?
+
+14. Who were the most formidable adversaries of the Romans?
+
+15. How did he distinguish himself?
+
+16. By what means did he strengthen the courage of his troops?
+
+17. Were his efforts successful?
+
+18. What happened on his arrival in Rome?
+
+19. What was his behaviour before the emperor?
+
+20. Did Claudius continue to govern well?
+
+21. Who was the chief instigator of his cruelties?
+
+22. Who was the second wife of Claudius, and what was her conduct
+towards him?
+
+23. What was the consequence of this unguarded expression?
+
+24. On what did she at length resolve?
+
+25. What effect did it produce?
+
+26. Did he recover?
+
+[Illustration: Rome set on fire, by order of Nero.]
+
+
+SECTION VII.
+
+U.C. 793--A.D. 55.
+
+  That so, obstructing those that quenched the fire,
+  He might at once destroy rebellious Rome.--_Lee_.
+
+1. Nero, though but seventeen years old, began his reign with the
+general approbation of mankind. He appeared just, liberal, and humane.
+When a warrant for the execution of a criminal was brought to be
+signed, he would cry out with compassion, "Would to heaven that I had
+never learned to write!"
+
+2. But as he increased in years, his native disposition began to show
+itself. The execution of his mother Agrippi'na was the first alarming
+instance he gave of his cruelty. After attempting to get her drowned
+at sea, he ordered her to be put to death in her palace; and coming to
+gaze upon the dead body, was heard to say, that he had never thought
+his mother so handsome a woman.
+
+The manner of his attempt to drown her was extremely singular. He
+caused a vessel to be constructed that, by withdrawing some bolts,
+would separate in the open sea, and thus give her death the appearance
+of a shipwreck. Agrippi'na, naturally suspicious, at first refused to
+go on board; but, lulled into security by the artful blandishments of
+her son, she embarked. The attempt was made; but Agrippi'na was taken
+up by some fisher-boats, and conveyed to her own villa. The very great
+calmness of the sea prevented the possibility of its being
+considered as an accident. Agrippi'na, however, dissembled her
+suspicions, and informed the emperor of her wonderful escape. Three
+years after the death of his mother, he murdered his tutor Burrhus,
+and also his wife Octavia, a young princess of admirable virtue and
+beauty that he might marry the infamous Poppae'a.
+
+3. The mounds of virtue being thus broken down, Nero gave a loose to
+appetites that were not only sordid, but inhuman. There was a sort of
+odd contrast in his disposition: for while he practised cruelties
+sufficient to make the mind shudder with horror, he was fond of those
+amusing arts which soften and refine the heart. He was particularly
+addicted, even from childhood, to music, and not totally ignorant of
+poetry; chariot-driving was his favourite pursuit; and all these he
+frequently exhibited in public.
+
+4. Happy had it been for mankind, had he confined himself to these;
+and contented with being contemptible, sought not to become formidable
+also. His cruelties exceeded all his other extravagancies. 5. A great
+part of the city of Rome was consumed by fire in his time, and to him
+most historians ascribe the conflagration. It is said that he stood
+upon a high tower, during the continuance of the flames, enjoying the
+sight, and singing, in a theatrical manner to his harp, verses upon
+the burning of Troy. Of the fourteen quarters into which Rome was
+divided, only four remained entire. None were permitted to lend
+assistance towards extinguishing the flames; and several persons were
+seen setting fire to the houses, alleging that they had orders for so
+doing. 6. However this be, the emperor used every art to throw the
+odium of so detestable an action from himself, and fix it upon the
+Christians, who were at that time gaining ground in Rome.
+
+7. Nothing could be more dreadful than the persecution raised against
+them upon this false accusation. Some were covered with the skins of
+wild beasts, and, in that disguise, devoured by the dogs; some were
+crucified, and others burnt alive. "When the day was not sufficient
+for their tortures, the flames in which, they perished," says
+Ta'citus, "served to illuminate the night:" while Nero, dressed in the
+habit of a charioteer, regaled himself with a view of their tortures
+from his gardens, and entertained the people at one time with their
+sufferings, at another with the games of the circus. 8. In this
+persecution St. Paul was beheaded, and St. Peter crucified, with his
+head downwards; a mode of death he chose, as being more dishonourable
+than that of his divine master. Upon the ruins of the demolished
+city, Nero founded a palace, which he called his Golden House. It
+contained within its inclosure, artificial lakes, large wildernesses,
+spacious parks, gardens, orchards, vineyards, &c. &c. The entrance of
+the stately edifice was sufficiently lofty to admit a colossal statue
+of Nero, 120 feet high. The galleries, erected on three rows of tall
+pillars, were each a mile in length. The palace itself was tiled with
+gold (probably gilding), the walls covered with the same metal, and
+richly adorned with precious stones and mother-of-pearl: and the
+ceiling of one of the banqueting rooms represented the firmament beset
+with, stars, turning about incessantly night and day, and showering
+sweet waters on the guests.
+
+9. A conspiracy formed against Nero, by Piso, a man of great power and
+integrity, which was prematurely discovered, opened a train of
+suspicions that destroyed many of the principal families in Rome. 10.
+The two most remarkable personages who fell on this occasion, were
+Sen'eca[24], the philosopher, and Lucan the poet, his nephew.
+
+Epicha'ris, a woman of infamous character, who by some means was
+implicated in the conspiracy, deserves to be mentioned as an instance
+of female fortitude. She was condemned to the torture, but the united
+force of racks, stripes and fire, could not extort a word from her.
+The next day she was conducted in a chair to be tortured afresh, (for
+her limbs were so mangled and disjointed, that she could not stand,)
+she hung herself with her girdle to the top of the chair, voluntarily
+suspending the whole weight of her body to the noose: thus a woman
+once a slave, cheerfully endured the most exquisite torture, and even
+death, to save persons she scarcely knew, and from whom she had never
+received any favours.
+
+Nero, either having real testimony, or else hating him for his
+virtues, sent a tribune to Sen'eca[24], informing him that he was
+suspected as an accomplice. The tribune found the philosopher at table
+with Pauli'na, his wife; and informing him of his business, Sen'eca
+replied without emotion, that his welfare depended upon no man; that
+he had never beenaccustomed to indulge the errors of the emperor,
+and would not do it now. 11. When this answer was brought to Nero, he
+demanded whether Sen'eca seemed afraid to die; the tribune replying
+that he did not appear in the least terrified; "Then go to him again,"
+cried the emperor, "and give him my orders to die." Accordingly he
+sent a centurion to Sen'eca, signifying that it was the emperor's plea
+sure that he should die. Sen'eca seemed no way discomposed, but
+displayed the fortitude of conscious integrity. He endeavoured to
+console his wife, and exhorted her to a life of persevering virtue.
+12. She seemed resolved, however, not to survive him, and pressed her
+request to die with him so earnestly, that Sen'eca, who had long
+looked upon death as a benefit, at last gave his consent; and the
+veins of both their arms were opened at the same time. 13. As Sen'eca
+was old, and much enfeebled by the austerities of his life, the blood
+flowed but slowly; so that he caused the veins of his legs and thighs
+to be opened also. His pains were long and violent, but they were not
+capable of repressing his fortitude or his eloquence. He dictated a
+discourse to two secretaries, which was read with great avidity after
+his death, but which has since perished in the lapse of time. 14. His
+agonies being now drawn out to a great length, he at last demanded
+poison from his physician; but this also failed of its effect, his
+body being already exhausted, and incapable of exciting its operation.
+He was from this carried into a warm bath, which only served to
+prolong his sufferings; at length, therefore, he was put in a stove,
+the vapour of which quickly dispatched him. 15. In the mean time his
+wife, Pauli'na, having fallen into a swoon with the loss of blood, had
+her arms bound up by her domestics, and by this means survived her
+husband for some years; but by her conduct during the rest of her
+life, she seemed never to forget her affection and his example.
+
+16. The death of Lucan was not less remarkable. After he had lost a
+great quantity of blood from the veins of his arms, perceiving his
+hands and legs already dead, while the vital parts still continued
+warm and vigorous, he called to mind the description of his own poem
+of the Pharsa'lia, of a person dying in similar circumstances, and
+expired while he was repeating the passage.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 817. A.D. 66.]
+
+17. The death of C. Petro'nius, about this time, is too remarkable to
+be passed over in silence. This person, whom some historians suppose
+to be the author of the piece entitled T. Petro'nii Arbi'tri
+Saty'ricon, was an Epicu'rean, both in principle and practice. In a
+court like that of Nero, he was esteemed for his refinements in
+luxury, and became the emperor's tutor in this exquisite art. 18.
+Accused of being privy to Piso's conspiracy, he was committed to
+prison. Petro'nius, who could not endure the anxiety of suspense,
+resolved upon putting himself to death, by causing his veins to be
+opened. 19. In the mean time, he conversed with his friends, not upon
+maxims of philosophy, or grave subjects, but upon such topics as had
+amused his gayest revels. He listened while they recited the lightest
+poems; and by no action, no word, no circumstance, showed the
+perplexity of a dying person. 20. Shortly after him, Numi'cius
+Thermus, Bare'a Sora'nus, and Pe'tus Thra'sea, were put to death. The
+valiant Cor'bulo, who had gained Nero so many victories over the
+Parthians, followed next. Nor did the empress Poppae'a herself escape.
+21. At length human nature grew weary of bearing her persecutor; and
+the whole world seemed to rouse, as if by common consent, to rid the
+earth of a monster.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was Nero's conduct at the commencement of his reign?
+
+2. Did this disposition continue?
+
+3. What was there peculiar in his disposition?
+
+4. Were these his greatest faults?
+
+5. Of what heinous crime is he accused?
+
+6. On whom was the odium of this barbarous action cast?
+
+7. What was the consequence to these unhappy men?
+
+8. What eminent persons suffered on this occasion?
+
+9. Did not these cruelties give birth to conspiracies?
+
+10. What persons of note suffered in consequence?
+
+11. Did this defence save his life?
+
+12. Were his exhortations effectual?
+
+13. Relate the circumstances of Seneca's death?
+
+14. Were not other means resorted to?
+
+15. Did not Paulina survive him?
+
+16. Describe the death of Lucan.
+
+17. What other victim of Nero's cruelty deserves mention?
+
+18. What brought him into danger?
+
+19. How did he meet death?
+
+20. Were not other illustrious persons sacrificed?
+
+21. Were these cruelties committed with impunity?
+
+
+SECTION VIII.
+
+  O breath of public praise,
+  Short-lived and vain; oft gained without desert,
+  As often lost unmerited: composed
+  But of extremes---_Havard._
+
+1. Ser'vius Galba, at that time governor of Spain, was remarkable for
+his wisdom in peace, and his courage in war; but as a display of
+talents under corrupt princes is dangerous, he, for some years, had
+seemed to court obscurity and an inactive life. 2. Willing, however,
+to rid his country of the monster that now occupied the throne, he
+accepted the invitation of Vindex, to march with an army towards Rome.
+3. From the moment he declared against Nero, the tyrant considered
+himself as fallen. He received the account as he was at supper, and
+instantly struck with terror, overturned the table with his foot,
+breaking two crystal vases of immense value. He fell into a swoon, and
+on his recovery tore his clothes and struck his head, crying out,
+"that he was utterly undone." 4. He now called for the assistance of
+Locus'ta, a woman famous in the art of poisoning, to furnish him with
+the means of death; but being prevented in this, and the revolt
+becoming general, he went in person from house to house; but the doors
+were shut against him. Being reduced to a state of desperation, he
+desired that one of his favourite gladiators might dispatch him; but
+even in this request not one would obey. "Alas," cried he, "have I
+neither friend nor enemy?" then running desperately forth, he seemed
+resolved to plunge headlong into the Ti'ber. 5. But his courage failed
+him; he made a sudden stop, as if willing to re-collect his reason,
+and asked for some sacred place where he might reassume his courage,
+and meet death with becoming fortitude. 6. In this distress, Pha'on,
+one of his freedmen, offered him his country-house, about four miles
+distant, where he might for some time remain concealed. Nero accepted
+the offer; and, with his head covered, hiding his face with his
+handkerchief, he mounted on horseback, attended by four of his
+domestics, of whom the wretched Sporus was one. 7. His journey, though
+short, was crowded with adventures. An earthquake gave him the first
+alarm. The lightning from heaven next flashed in his face. Round him
+he heard nothing but confused noises from the camp, the cries of the
+soldiers imprecating a thousand evils upon his head. 8. A traveller,
+meeting him on the way, cried, "Those men are in pursuit of Nero."
+Another asked him if there was any news of Nero in the city. His horse
+taking fright at a dead body that lay near the road, he dropped
+his handkerchief, when a soldier addressing him by name, he quitted
+his horse, and forsaking the highway, entered a thicket that led
+towards the back part of Pha'ron's house, making the best of his way
+among the reeds and brambles with which the place was overgrown. 9.
+During this interval, the senate, finding the Praeto'rian guards had
+taken part with Galba, declared him emperor, and condemned Nero to
+die, _mo're majo'rum;_ that is, according to the rigour of the ancient
+laws. 10. When he was told of the resolution of the senate, he asked
+what was meant by being punished according to the rigour of the
+ancient laws? To this it was answered, that the criminal was to be
+stripped naked, his head fixed in a pillory, and in that posture he
+was to be scourged to death. 11. Nero was so terrified at this, that
+he seized two poniards, which he had brought with him: after examining
+their points, he returned them, however, to their sheaths, pretending
+that the fatal moment was not yet arrived. 12. He then desired Sporus
+to begin the lamentations which were used at funerals; he next
+entreated that one of his attendants would die, to give him courage by
+his example, and afterwards began to reproach his own cowardice,
+crying out, "Does this become Nero? Is this trifling well-timed?
+No!--let me be courageous!" In fact, he had no time to spare; for the
+soldiers who had been sent in pursuit of him, were just then
+approaching the house. 13. Upon hearing, therefore, the sound of the
+horses' feet, he set a dagger to his throat, with which, by the
+assistance of Epaphrod'itus, his freedman and secretary, he gave
+himself a mortal wound. 14. However, he was not yet dead when one of
+the centurions, entering the room and pretending that he came to his
+relief, attempted to stop the blood with his cloak. But Nero,
+regarding him with a stern countenance, said, "It is now too late! Is
+this your fidelity?" Upon which, with his eyes fixed and frightfully
+staring, he expired; exhibiting, even after death, a ghastly spectacle
+of innoxious tyranny. 15. He reigned thirteen years, seven months, and
+twenty-eight days, and died in the thirty-second year of his age.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 820, A.D. 69]
+
+16. Galba was seventy-two years old when he was declared emperor, and
+was then in Spain with his legions. He soon found that his being
+raised to the throne was but an inlet to new disquietudes. 17. He
+seemed to have three objects in view: to curb the insolence of the
+soldiers; to punish those vices which had risen to an enormous
+height in the last reign; and to replenish the exchequer, which had
+been drained by the prodigality of his predecessors. 18. However,
+permitting himself to be governed by favourites, he at one time showed
+himself severe and frugal; at another remiss and prodigal; condemning
+some illustrious persons without any hearing, and pardoning others,
+though guilty. In consequence of this, seditions were kindled, and
+factions promoted. 19. Galba was sensible that, besides his age, his
+want of an heir rendered him less respected: he resolved, therefore,
+to adopt a person whose virtues might deserve such advancement, and
+protect his declining age from danger; but his favourites wished to
+give him an heir of their own choosing; so that there arose a great
+contention among them upon this occasion. 20. Otho made earnest
+application for himself, alleging the great services he had done the
+emperor, as being the first man of note who came to his assistance
+when he declared against Nero. 21. However, Galba, being fully
+resolved to consult the public good alone, rejected his suit; and, on
+a day appointed, ordered Piso Lucia'nus to attend him. The character
+given by historians of Piso is, that he was every way worthy of the
+honour designed him. 22. Taking this youth by the hand, Galba adopted
+him to succeed in the empire, giving him the most wholesome lessons
+for guiding his future conduct. Piso showed that he was highly
+deserving this distinction, in all his deportment there appeared such
+modesty, firmness, and equality of mind as bespoke him rather capable
+of discharging than ambitious of obtaining his present dignity. 23.
+But the army and the senate did not seem equally disinterested upon
+this occasion; they had been so long used to bribery and corruption,
+that they could now bear no emperor who was not in a capacity of
+satisfying their avarice. The adoption, therefore, of Piso, was coldly
+received; for his virtues were no recommendation in a time of
+universal depravity. 24. Otho, who had long been a favourite of Galba,
+and hoped to be adopted a successor in the empire, finding himself
+disappointed, and stimulated by the immense load of debt which he had
+contracted by his riotous way of living, resolved upon obtaining the
+empire by force, since he could not do it by peaceable succession.
+Having corrupted the fidelity of the army, he stole secretly from the
+emperor while he was sacrificing, and, assembling the soldiers,
+he, in a short speech, urged the cruelties and the avarice of
+Galba. 25. Finding his invectives received with universal shouts by
+the army, he entirely threw off the mask, and avowed his intention of
+dethroning him. The soldiers being ripe for sedition, immediately
+seconded his views, and taking Otho upon their shoulders, declared him
+emperor; and to strike the citizens with terror, carried him, with
+their swords drawn, into the camp.
+
+26. Soon after, finding Galba in some measure deserted by his
+adherents, the soldiers rushed in upon him, trampling under foot the
+crowds of people that then filled the forum. 27. Galba seeing them
+approach, seemed to recollect all his former fortitude; and bending
+his head forward, bid the assassins strike it off, if it were for the
+good of the people. 28. The command was quickly obeyed. The soldier
+who struck it off stuck it upon the point of a lance, and
+contemptuously carried it round the camp; his body remaining unburied
+in the streets till it was interred by one of his slaves. His short
+reign of seven months was as illustrious by his own virtues as it was
+contaminated by the vices of his favourites, who shared in his
+downfall.
+
+29. Otho, who was now elected emperor, began his reign by a signal
+instance of clemency, in pardoning Marius Celsus, who had been highly
+favoured by Galba; and not content with barely forgiving, he advanced
+him to the highest honours, asserting that "fidelity deserved every
+reward."
+
+30. In the mean time, the legions in Lower Germany having been
+purchased by the large gifts and specious promises of Vitel'lius their
+general, were at length induced to proclaim him emperor; and,
+regardless of the senate, they declared that they had an equal right
+to appoint to that high station, with the cohorts at Rome.
+
+31. Otho departed from Rome with all haste to give Vitel'lius battle.
+The army of Vitel'lius, which consisted of seventy thousand men, was
+commanded by his generals Va'lens and Cecin'na, he himself remaining
+in Gaul, in order to bring up the rest of his forces. Both sides
+hastened to meet each other with so much animosity and precipitation,
+that three considerable battles were fought in the space of three
+days, in all of which Otho and the Romans had the advantage. 32. These
+successes, however, were but of short continuance, for Va'lens and
+Cecin'na, who had hitherto acted separately, joining their forces, and
+strengthening their armies with fresh supplies, resolved to come
+to a general engagement. Otho's forces were partially over thrown
+at Bedria'cum, a village near Cremo'na, in Lombardy, in Italy; and
+though he had still numerous armies at his devotion, he killed himself
+shortly after, having reigned three months and five days, and was
+succeeded by Vitel'lius.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the character of Sergius Galba?
+
+2. Did he at length emerge from his obscurity?
+
+3. Was he formidable to Nero?
+
+4. What was the conduct of Nero on this emergency?
+
+5. Did he actually do so?
+
+6. Was his request complied with?
+
+7. What befell him by the way?
+
+8. What farther happened?
+
+9. What occurred in the interval?
+
+10. How did Nero receive this intelligence?
+
+11. Did he resolve to await this terrible punishment?
+
+12. How did he contrive to put off the fatal moment?
+
+13. What at length put an end to this irresolution?
+
+14. Was he dead when the soldiers arrived?
+
+15. How long did he reign?
+
+16. What was the age of Galba on his accession?
+
+17. What were his principal views?
+
+18. Was his conduct regular and consistent?
+
+19. What important measure did he adopt?
+
+20. Who was the chief candidate on the occasion?
+
+21. Was he chosen?
+
+22. Was Piso the chosen successor, and what was his character?
+
+23. Was this adoption generally approved?
+
+24. Did not Otho attempt to set him aside?
+
+25. Was he favourably received?
+
+26. Did Galba suppress this rebellion?
+
+27. What was his behaviour on the occasion?
+
+28. Was this command obeyed, and what treatment did Galba experience?
+
+29. How did Otho commence his reign?
+
+30. Did he reign without a rival?
+
+31. What was the consequence of this rivalship?
+
+32. Was Otho finally successful?
+
+
+SECTION IX.
+
+A.D. 70.
+
+  Afflicted Israel shall sit weeping down,
+  Fast by the stream where Babel's waters run;
+  Their harps upon the neighbouring willows hung.
+  Nor joyous hymn encouraging their tongue.
+  Nor cheerful dance their feet; with toil oppressed,
+  Their wearied limbs aspiring but to rest.--_Prior._
+
+1. Vitel'lius was declared emperor by the senate, and received the
+marks of distinction which were now accustomed to follow the
+appointments of the strongest side.
+
+2. He had been accustomed from his youth to dissipation and applause.
+Caligula was pleased with his skill in driving a chariot; Claudius
+loved him because he was a great gamester; and he gained the favour of
+Nero by wishing him to sing publicly in the theatre. Upon his arrival
+at Rome, he entered the city, not as a place he came to govern with
+justice, but as a town that was become his own by the laws of
+conquest.
+
+3. Vitel'lius soon gave himself up to all kinds of luxury and
+profuseness; but gluttony was his favourite vice. His entertainments,
+seldom indeed at his own cost, were prodigiously expensive. He
+frequently invited himself to the tables of his subjects; in the same
+day breakfasting with one, dining with another, and supping with a
+third. 4. By such vices and by enormous cruelties, he became a burthen
+to himself, and odious to all mankind. Having become insupportable to
+the inhabitants of Rome, the legions of the east unanimously resolved
+to make Vespa'sian emperor.
+
+Vespa'sian was by no means of an illustrious family, his father being
+only a collector of the tax called quadragesima. Nor was his conduct,
+previous to his accession to the imperial throne, calculated to do him
+honour, as he was guilty of the meanest flattery and servility to
+ingratiate himself with men in power. Yet, as a general, he was
+indefatigable in his duties, and of unquestionable valour; abstemious
+in his diet, and plain in his dress. On attaining to the imperial
+dignity he appears to have laid aside every vice except avarice. His
+elevation neither induced him to assume arrogant and lofty airs, nor
+to neglect those friends who had shown themselves deserving of
+his favour.
+
+[Illustration: Coliseum.]
+
+Desirous of convincing the world that he owed his good fortune to
+merit alone, he disdained to court the soldiers by largesses; in
+short, he displayed a nobleness of disposition worthy of the most
+illustrious birth, and befitting the exalted station to which he had
+arrived. This prince was the founder of the noble amphitheatre, called
+the Coliseum, which remains to this day. Twelve thousand Jewish
+captives were employed in its erection, and it was capable of
+containing 80,000 spectators seated, and 30,000 standing. It is now in
+ruins.
+
+5. During the preparations against him, Vitel'lius, though buried in
+sloth and luxury, resolved to make an effort to defend the empire; and
+his chief commanders, Va'lens and Cecin'na, were ordered to make all
+possible preparations to resist the invaders. 6. The first army that
+entered Italy with a hostile intention was under the command of
+Anto'nius Pri'mus, who was met by Cecin'na, near Cremo'na. A battle
+was expected to ensue; but a negociation taking place, Cecin'na was
+prevailed upon to change sides, and declared for Vespa'sian.[25] His
+army, however, quickly repented of what they had done, and,
+imprisoning their general, attacked Anto'nius, though without a
+leader. 7. The engagement continued the whole night; and in the
+morning, after a short repast, both armies engaged a second time; when
+the soldiers of Anto'nius saluting the rising sun, according to
+custom, the Vitel'lians supposed that they had received new
+reinforcements, and betook themselves to flight, with the loss of
+thirty thousand men.
+
+8. In the mean time, Vitel'lius made offers to Vespa'sian of resigning
+the empire in his favour, provided his life were spared, and a
+sufficient revenue allotted for his support. In order to enforce this
+proposal, he issued from his palace in deep mourning, with all his
+domestics weeping round him. 9. He then went to offer the sword of
+justice to Cecil'ius, the consul, which he refusing, the abject
+emperor prepared to lay down the ensigns of empire in the Temple of
+Concord; but being interrupted by some who cried out, that he himself
+was Concord, he resolved, upon so weak an encouragement, still to
+maintain his power, and immediately prepared for his defence.
+
+10. During this fluctuation of counsels, one Sabi'nus, who had advised
+Vitel'lius to resign, perceiving his desperate situation, resolved, by
+a bold step, to favour Vespa'sian; and accordingly seized upon the
+capitol. But he was premature in his attempt; for the soldiers of
+Vitel'lius attacked him with great fury; and prevailing by their
+numbers, soon laid that beautiful building in ashes. 11. During this
+dreadful conflagration, Vitel'lius was feasting in the palace of
+Tibe'rius, and beheld all the horrors of the assault with
+satisfaction. 12. Sabi'nus was taken prisoner, and shortly after
+executed by the emperor's command. Young Domi'tian, his nephew, who
+was afterwards emperor, escaped by flight, in the habit of a priest;
+and the rest, who survived the fire, were put to the sword.
+
+13. But Anto'nius, Vespa'sian's commander, being arrived before the
+walls of the city, the forces of Vitel'lius resolved upon defending it
+to the utmost extremity. It was attacked with fury; while the army
+within, sallying out upon the besiegers, defended it with equal
+obstinacy. The battle lasted the whole day; the besieged were driven
+back into the city, and a dreadful slaughter made of them in the
+streets which they vainly attempted to defend.
+
+14. Vitel'lius was soon found hidden in an obscure corner, whence he
+was taken by a party of the conquering soldiers. Still, however,
+desirous of adding a few hours to his miserable life, he begged to be
+kept in prison till the arrival of Vespa'sian at Rome, pretending that
+he had secrets of importance to discover. 15. But his entreaties were
+vain; the soldiers binding his hands behind him, and throwing a halter
+round his neck, led him along, half naked, into the public forum,
+loading him with all the bitter reproaches their malice could suggest,
+or his cruelty might deserve. At length, being come to the place of
+punishment, they put him to death with blows: and then dragging the
+dead body through the streets with a hook, they threw it, with
+all possible ignominy, into the river Tiber.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 70.]
+
+16. Vespa'sian was now declared emperor by the unanimous consent both
+of the senate and the army; and dignified with all those titles which
+now followed rather the power than the merit of those who were
+appointed to govern. 17. Having continued some months at Alexan'dria,
+in Egypt, where it is said he cured a blind man and a cripple by
+touching them, he set out for Rome. Giving his son, Ti'tus, the
+command of the army that was to lay siege to Jerusalem, he himself
+went forward, and was met many miles from Rome by all the senate, and
+the inhabitants, who gave the sincerest testimony of their joy, in
+having an emperor of such great and experienced virtue. 18. Nor did he
+in the least disappoint their expectations; as he showed himself
+equally assiduous in rewarding merit and pardoning his adversaries; in
+reforming the manners of the citizens, and setting them the best
+example in his own.
+
+19. In the mean time Titus carried on the war against the Jews with
+vigour. This obstinate and infatuated people had long resolved to
+resist the Roman power, vainly hoping to find protection from heaven,
+which their impieties had utterly offended. 20. Their own historian
+represents them as arrived at the highest pitch of iniquity; while
+famines, earthquakes, and prodigies, all conspired to forebode their
+approaching ruin. 21. Nor was it sufficient that heaven and earth
+seemed combined against them; they had the most bitter dissensions
+among themselves, and were divided into two parties, who robbed and
+destroyed each other with impunity: constantly pillaging, yet boasting
+their zeal for the religion of their ancestors.
+
+22. At the head of one of these parties was an incendiary, whose name
+was John. This fanatic affected sovereign power, and filled the whole
+city of Jeru'salem, and all the towns around, with tumult and pillage.
+In a short time a new faction arose, headed by one Si'mon, who,
+gathering together multitudes of robbers and murderers who had fled to
+the mountains, attacked many cities and towns, and reduced all Idume'a
+under his power. 23. Jeru'salem, at length, became the theatre in
+which these two demagogues exercised their mutual animosity: John was
+possessed of the temple, while Si'mon was admitted into the city; both
+equally enraged against each other; while slaughter and devastation
+were the consequence of their pretensions. Thus did a city
+formerly celebrated for peace and unity, become the seat of tumult and
+confusion.
+
+24. In this miserable situation, Ti'tus began his operations within
+six furlongs of Jeru'salem, during the feast of the passover, when the
+place was filled with an infinite multitude of people, who had come
+from all parts to celebrate that great solemnity. 25. The approach of
+the Romans produced a temporary reconciliation between the contending
+factions within the city; so that they unanimously resolved to oppose
+the common enemy, and decide their domestic quarrels at a more
+convenient season. 26. Their first sally, which was made with much
+fury and resolution, put the besiegers into great disorder, and
+obliged them to abandon their camp, and fly to the mountains; however,
+rallying immediately after, the Jews were forced back into the city,
+while Ti'tus, in person, showed surprising instances of valour and
+conduct.
+
+27. The city was strongly fortified with three walls on every side,
+except where it was fenced by precipices. Ti'tus began by battering
+down the outward wall, which, after much fatigue and danger, he
+effected; in the mean time showing the greatest clemency to the Jews,
+and offering them repeated assurances of pardon. Five days after the
+commencement of the siege, Ti'tus broke through the second wall; and
+though driven back by the besieged, he recovered his ground, and made
+preparations for battering the third wall, which was their last
+defence. 28. But first he sent Jose'phus, their countryman, into the
+city, to exhort them to yield; who using all his eloquence to persuade
+them, was answered only with scoffs and reproaches. 29. The siege was
+now therefore carried on with greater vigour than before; formidable
+engines for throwing darts and stones were constructed, and as quickly
+destroyed by the enemy. At length it was resolved in council to
+surround the whole city with a trench, and thus prevent all relief and
+all succours from abroad. 30. This, which was quickly executed, seemed
+no way to intimidate the Jews. Though famine, and pestilence its
+necessary attendant, began now to make the most horrid ravages among
+them, yet this desperate people still resolved to hold out. 31. Ti'tus
+now cut down all the woods within a considerable distance of the city;
+and causing more batteries to be raised, he at length beat down the
+wall, and in five days entered the citadel by force. 32. The Jews,
+however, continued to deceive themselves with absurd expectations,
+while many false prophets deluded the multitude, by declaring that
+they should soon have assistance from God. The heat of the battle was
+now gathered round the inner wall of the temple, while the defendants
+desperately combatted from the top. 33. Ti'tus was desirous of saving
+this beautiful structure; but a soldier casting a brand into some
+adjacent buildings, the fire communicated to the temple; and
+notwithstanding the utmost endeavours on both sides, the whole edifice
+was quickly consumed. 34. The sight of the temple in ruins effectually
+served to damp the ardour of the Jews. They now began to suppose that
+heaven had forsaken them, while their cries and lamentations echoed
+from the adjacent mountains. Even those who were almost expiring,
+lifted up their dying eyes to bewail the loss of their temple, which
+they valued more than life itself. 35. The most resolute, however,
+still endeavoured to defend the upper and stronger part of the city,
+named Sion; but Ti'tus, with his battering engines, soon made himself
+entire master of the place. 36. John and Simon were taken from the
+vaults where they had concealed themselves; the former was condemned
+to perpetual imprisonment, and the latter reserved to grace the
+conqueror's triumph. The greatest part of the populace were put to
+the sword; and the city was, after a six month's siege, entirely
+razed, and its site ploughed up; so that according to our Saviour's
+prophecy, not one stone remained upon another. Those who perished in
+this siege amounted to about a million; the captives to almost a
+hundred thousand.[26]
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Who succeeded Otho?
+
+2. In what way did he assume the sovereignty?
+
+3. How did he conduct himself in his new station?
+
+4. What were the consequences of this conduct?
+
+5. Did Vitellius tamely submit to his rival?
+
+6. Who first commenced hostilities?
+
+7. What followed?
+
+8. What was the conduct of Vitellius on this occasion?
+
+9. What farther measures did he adopt?
+
+10. Were the friends of Vespasian idle at this juncture?
+
+11. How was Vitellius engaged at the time of this disaster?
+
+12. What became of Sabinus?
+
+13. What was the consequence of this success on the part of Vitellius?
+
+14. What became of the fallen emperor?
+
+15. Was his request granted?
+
+16. Did Vespasian quietly succeed?
+
+17. What were his first measures?
+
+18. Were they disappointed in their expectations?
+
+19. What was the state of the Jewish war?
+
+20. What was the state of the Jewish nation?
+
+21. Were they united among themselves?
+
+22. Who were at the head of these factions?
+
+23. What was the chief theatre of their enormities?
+
+24. At what remarkable season did Titus commence his attack?
+
+25. What effect did this attack produce?
+
+26. Did the Jews bravely defend their city?
+
+27. What progress did Titus make in the siege?
+
+28. Did he make no attempt to persuade the Jews to surrender?
+
+29. What measures were then adopted?
+
+30. Did these formidable measures terrify the Jews?
+
+31. By what means did Titus gain the city?
+
+32. Was all opposition now at an end?
+
+33. Was the temple destroyed?
+
+34. What effect did this sad event produce?
+
+35. Were there none who attempted farther resistance?
+
+36. What became of the inhabitants and their chiefs?
+
+
+SECTION X.
+
+  This world, 'tis true.
+  Was made for Caesar--but for Titus too;
+  And which more blest? who chain'd his country, say,
+  Or, he whose virtue sigh'd to lose a day!--_Pope_.
+
+1. Upon the taking of Jerusalem, the soldiers would have crowned Titus
+as conqueror; but he modestly refused the honour, alleging, that he
+was only an instrument in the hand of heaven, that manifestly declared
+its wrath against the Jews. 2. At Rome, however, all men's mouths were
+filled with the praises of the conqueror, who had not only showed
+himself an excellent general, but a courageous combatant. His return,
+therefore, in triumph, with Vespa'sian his father, was marked with all
+the magnificence and joy in the power of men to express. All things
+that were esteemed valuable or beautiful were brought to adorn this
+great occasion. 3. Among the rich spoils were exposed vast quantities
+of gold, taken out of the temple; but the Book of the Holy Law was not
+the least remarkable among the magnificent profusion. 4. This was the
+first time that ever Rome saw the father and the son triumphant
+together. A triumphal arch was erected upon this occasion, on which
+were described the victories of Titus over the Jews; and it remains
+almost entire to this day.
+
+5. Few emperors have received a better character from historians than
+Vespasian; yet his numerous acts of generosity and magnificence could
+not preserve his character from the imputation of rapacity and
+avarice; for it is well known that he descended to some very unusual
+and dishonourable imposts.
+
+6. Having reigned ten years, beloved by his subjects, and deserving
+their affection, he was seized with an indisposition at Campa'nia,
+which he perceived would be fatal. 7. Finding his end approaching, he
+exerted himself, and cried out, "An emperor ought to die standing;"
+whereupon, raising himself upon his feet, he expired in the arms of
+those who sustained him.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 79.]
+
+8. Titus was joyfully received as emperor, and began his reign with
+the practice of every virtue that became a sovereign and a man. During
+the life of his father, there had been many imputations against him
+both for cruelty, lust, and prodigality; but upon his exaltation to
+the throne, he seemed to have entirely taken leave of his former
+vices, and became an example of the greatest moderation and humanity.
+9. His first step towards gaining the affections of his subjects, was
+the moderating of his passions, and bridling his inclinations. 10. He
+discarded those who had been the ministers of his pleasures, though he
+had formerly taken great pains in the selection. 11. This moderation,
+added to his justice and generosity, procured him the love of all good
+men, and the appellation of the _Delight of Mankind_; which all his
+actions seemed calculated to insure.
+
+12. Ti'tus took particular care to punish all informers, false
+witnesses, and promoters of dissension. Wretches who had their rise in
+the licentiousness and impunity of former reigns, were now become so
+numerous, that their crimes called loud for punishment. 13. Of these
+he daily made public example, condemning them to be scourged in the
+public streets, dragged through the theatre, and then banished into
+the uninhabited parts of the empire, or sold as slaves. 14. His
+courtesy and readiness to do good have been celebrated even by
+Christian writers; his principal rule being, not to send away a
+petitioner dissatisfied. One night, recollecting that he had done
+nothing beneficial to mankind during the day, he cried out, "I have
+lost a day!" A sentence too remarkable not to be had in remembrance.
+
+15. In the first year of his reign, an eruption of Mount
+Vesu'vius overwhelmed many towns,[27] throwing its ashes into
+countries more than a hundred miles distant. Upon this memorable
+occasion, Pliny, the naturalist, lost his life; being impelled by too
+eager a curiosity to observe the eruption, he was suffocated in the
+flames. 16. This and other disasters were, in some measure,
+counterbalanced by the successes in Britain, under Agrico'la. This
+excellent general, having been sent into Britain towards the latter
+end of Vespasian's reign, showed himself equally expert in quelling
+the refractory, and civilizing those who had formerly submitted to the
+Roman power. 17. The Ordovi'ces, or inhabitants of North Wales, were
+the first that were subdued. He then made a descent upon the isle of
+An'glesey, which surrendered at discretion. 18. Having thus rendered
+himself master of the whole country, he took every method to restore
+discipline to his whole army, and to introduce politeness among those
+whom he had conquered. He exhorted them, both by advice and example,
+to build temples, theatres, and stately houses. He caused the sons of
+their nobility to be instructed in the liberal arts, and to be taught
+the Latin language; and induced them to imitate the Roman modes of
+dress and living. 19. Thus, by degrees, this barbarous people began to
+assume the luxurious manners of their conquerors, and even to
+outdo them in all the refinements of sensual pleasure. 20. Upon
+account of the successes in Britain, Titus was saluted Impera'tor[28]
+for the fifteenth time; but he did not long survive this honour, being
+seized with a violent fever at a little distance from Rome. He expired
+shortly after, but not without suspicion of treachery from his brother
+Domi'tian, who had long wished to govern. He died in the forty-first
+year of his age, having reigned two years, two months, and twenty
+days.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 81.]
+
+21. The beginning of Domi'tian's reign was universally acceptable to
+the people, as he appeared equally remarkable for his clemency,
+liberality and justice.[29] 22. But he soon began to show the natural
+deformity of his mind. Instead of cultivating literature, as his
+father and brother had done, he neglected all kinds of study,
+addicting himself wholly to meaner pursuits, particularly archery and
+gaming. 23. He was so very expert an archer, that he would frequently
+cause one of his slaves to stand at a great distance, with his hand
+spread as a mark, and would shoot his arrows with such exactness, as
+to stick them all between his fingers. 24. He instituted three sorts
+of contests to be observed every five years, in music, horsemanship
+and wrestling; but at the same time he banished all philosophers and
+mathematicians from Rome. 25. No emperor before him entertained the
+people with such various and expensive shows. During these diversions
+he distributed great rewards, sitting as president himself, adorned
+with a purple robe and crown, with the priests of Ju'piter, and the
+college of Fla'vian priests about him. 26. The meanness of his
+occupations in solitude, was a just contrast to his exhibitions of
+public ostentation. He usually spent his hours of retirement in
+catching flies, and sticking them through with a bodkin; so that one
+of his servants, being asked if the emperor were alone, answered, that
+he had not so much as a fly to bear him company. 27. His vices seemed
+every day to increase, and his ungrateful treatment of Agrico'la
+afforded a convincing proof of his natural malevolence. 28.
+Domi'tian was always particularly fond of obtaining a military
+reputation, and therefore felt jealous of it in others. He had marched
+some time before into Gaul, upon a pretended expedition against the
+Catti, a people of Germany, and without even seeing the enemy,
+resolved to have the honour of a triumph upon his return to Rome. For
+that purpose he purchased a number of slaves, whom he dressed in
+German habits, and at the head of this miserable procession he entered
+the city, amid the apparent acclamations and concealed contempt of all
+his subjects.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. How did Titus conduct himself after this important conquest?
+
+2. How was he received at Rome?
+
+3. What were the most remarkable among the spoils?
+
+4. What peculiarity attended this triumph?
+
+5. What was the character of Vespasian?
+
+6. How many years did Vespasian reign?
+
+7. Did he not display great resolution at the hour of death?
+
+8. How did Titus commence his reign?
+
+9. By what means did he gain the love of his subjects?
+
+10. What sacrifices did he make for this purpose?
+
+11. Did he succeed in his views?
+
+12. What class of delinquents met his most decided disapprobation?
+
+13. What punishment was inflicted on them?
+
+14. What were his chief virtues?
+
+15. What remarkable event occurred in this reign, and what eminent
+personage became its victim?
+
+16. By what successes was this disaster counterbalanced?
+
+17. What were his first enterprizes?
+
+18. What methods did he take to civilize the conquered countries?
+
+19. Were his measures successful?
+
+20. Did Titus long enjoy the glory of this conquest?
+
+21. How did Domitian commence his reign?
+
+22. Did he persevere in his meritorious conduct?
+
+23. In what exercise did he excel?
+
+24. Did he encourage the arts and sciences?
+
+25. Was he magnificent in his exhibitions?
+
+26. How did he employ himself in private?
+
+27. Did time render him less vicious?
+
+28. By what means did he attempt to acquire military fame?
+
+
+SECTION XI.
+
+                 What wretch would groan
+  Beneath the galling load of power, or walk
+  Upon the slippery pavements of the great!--_Somerville._
+
+1. The success of Agric'ola in Britain affected Domit'ian, with an
+extreme degree of envy. This excellent general pursued the advantages
+which he had already obtained; he subdued the Caledo'nians, and
+overcame Gal'gacus, the British chief, who commanded an army of thirty
+thousand men; afterwards sending out a fleet to scour the coast, he
+discovered Great Britain to be an island. He likewise discovered and
+subdued the Orkneys; and thus reduced the whole into a civilized
+province of the Roman empire. 2. When the account of these successes
+was brought to Domitian, he received it with a seeming pleasure, but
+real uneasiness. He thought Agric'ola's rising reputation a tacit
+reproach upon his own inactivity; and instead of attempting to
+emulate, he resolved to suppress the merits of his services. 3. He
+ordered him, therefore, external marks of approbation, and took care
+that triumphal ornaments, statues, and other honours should be decreed
+him; but at the same time he removed him from his command, under a
+pretence of appointing him to the government of Syria. 4. By these
+means Agric'ola surrendered up his province to Sallus'tius Lucul'lus,
+but soon found that Syria was otherwise disposed of. Upon his return
+to Rome, which was privately and by night, he was coolly received by
+the emperor; and dying some time after in retirement, it was generally
+supposed that his end was hastened by Domi'tian's direction.
+
+5. Domi'tian soon found the want of so experienced a commander, in the
+many irruptions of the barbarous nations that surrounded the empire.
+The Sarma'tians in Europe, joined with those of Asia, made a
+formidable invasion, at once destroying a whole legion, and a general
+of the Romans. The Da'cians, under the conduct of Dece'balus, their
+king, made an irruption, and overthrew the Romans in several
+engagements. 6. At last, however, the barbarians were repelled, partly
+by force, and partly by the assistance of money, which only served to
+enable them to make future invasions with greater advantage. 7. But in
+whatever manner the enemy might have been repelled, Domi'tian was
+resolved not to lose the honours of a triumph. He returned in great
+splendour to Rome; and, not contented with thus triumphing twice
+without a victory, he resolved to take the surname of German'icus,
+for his conquests over a people with whom he never contended.
+
+8. In proportion as the ridicule increased against him, his pride
+seemed every day to demand greater homage. He would permit his statues
+to be made only of gold and silver; he assumed to himself divine
+honours; and ordered that all men should address him by the same
+appellations which they gave to the Divinity. 9. His cruelty was not
+inferior to his arrogance; he caused numbers of the most illustrious
+senators and others to be put to death, upon the most trifling
+pretences. One AE'lius La'ma was condemned and executed only for
+jesting, though there was neither novelty nor poignancy in his humour.
+Occea'nus was murdered only for celebrating the nativity of O'tho.
+Pomposia'nus shared the same fate, because it was foretold by an
+astrologer that he should be emperor. Sallus'tius Lucul'lus his
+lieutenant in Britain, was destroyed only for having given his name to
+a new sort of lances of his own invention. Ju'nius Rus'ticus died for
+publishing a book, in which he commended Thra'sea and Pris'cus, two
+philosophers, who opposed Vespa'sian's coming to the throne.
+
+10. Lu'cius Anto'nius, governor of Upper Germany, knowing how much the
+emperor was detested at home, resolved upon striking for the throne;
+and accordingly assumed the ensigns of imperial dignity. 11. As he was
+at the head of a formidable army, his success remained a long time
+doubtful; but a sudden overflow of the Rhine dividing his army, he was
+set upon at that juncture by Norman'dus, the emperor's general, and
+totally routed. The news of this victory, we are told, was brought to
+Rome by supernatural means, on the same day that the battle was
+fought. 12. Domi'tian's severity was greatly increased by this
+short-lived success. In order to discover the accomplices of the
+adverse party, he invented new tortures: sometimes cutting off the
+hands--at other times thrusting fire into the bodies of those whom he
+suspected of being his enemies. 13. In the midst of these severities,
+he aggravated his guilt by hypocrisy--never pronouncing sentence
+without a preamble full of gentleness and mercy. The night before he
+crucified the comptroller of his household, he treated him with the
+most flattering marks of friendship, and ordered him a dish of meat
+from his own table. He carried Areti'nus Cle'mens with him in his own
+litter the day he resolved upon his death. 14. He was particularly
+terrible to the senate and nobility, the whole body of whom he
+frequently threatened to extirpate entirely. At one time he surrounded
+the senate-house with his troops, to the great consternation of the
+senators. At another, he resolved to amuse himself with their terrors
+in a different manner. 15. Having invited them to a public
+entertainment, he received them all very formally at the entrance of
+his palace, and conducted them into a spacious hall, hung round with
+black, and illuminated by a few melancholy lamps, that diffused no
+more light than was just sufficient to show the horrors of the place.
+All around were to be seen coffins, with the names of each of the
+senators written upon them, together with other objects of terror, and
+instruments of execution. 16. While the company beheld all these
+preparations with silent agony, several men having their bodies
+blackened, each with a drawn sword in one hand, and a flaming torch in
+the other, entered the hall, and danced round them. 17. After some
+time, when, from the knowledge of Domi'tian's capricious cruelty, the
+guests expected nothing less than instant death, the doors were set
+open, and one of the servants came to inform them, that the emperor
+gave all the company leave to withdraw.
+
+18. His cruelties were rendered still more odious by his avarice. 19.
+The last part of the tyrant's reign was more insupportable than any of
+the preceding. Ne'ro exercised his cruelties without being a
+spectator; but a principal part of the Roman miseries, during his
+reign, was to behold the stern air and fiery visage of the tyrant,
+which he had armed against sensibility by continued intemperance,
+directing the tortures, and maliciously pleased with adding poignance
+to every agony.
+
+20. But a period was soon to be put to this monster's cruelties. Among
+the number of those whom he at once caressed and suspected, was his
+wife, Domi'tia, whom he had taken from AE'lius La'ma, her former
+husband. 21. It was the tyrant's method to put down the names of all
+such as he intended to destroy, in his tablets, which he kept about
+him with great circumspection. Domi'tia fortunately happening to get a
+sight of them, was struck at finding her own name in the catalogue of
+those destined to destruction. 22. She showed the fatal list to
+Norba'nus and Petro'nius, praefects of the praetorian bands, who found
+themselves among the number of devoted victims; as likewise to
+Steph'anus, the comptroller of the household, who came into the
+conspiracy with alacrity. They fixed upon the eighteenth day of
+September for the completion of their great attempt. 23. Upon the
+emperor's preparing to go to the bath on the morning of that day,
+Petro'nius his chamberlain came to inform him that Steph'anus desired
+to speak upon an affair of the utmost importance. The emperor having
+given orders that his attendants should retire, Steph'anus entered
+with his hand in a scarf, which he had worn thus for some days, the
+better to conceal a dagger, as none were permitted to approach the
+emperor with arms. 24. He began by giving information of a pretended
+conspiracy, and exhibited a paper, in which the particulars were
+specified. While Domi'tian was reading the contents with eager
+curiosity, Steph'anus drew his dagger and struck him with much
+violence; but the wound not being mortal, Domi'tian caught hold of the
+assassin and threw him upon the ground, calling out for assistance.
+But Parthe'nius, with his freedman, a gladiator, and two subaltern
+officers, now coming in, they ran furiously upon the emperor and
+dispatched him: Steph'anus, however, was slain by the guards, but the
+other conspirators escaped in the tumult.
+
+25. It is rather incredible, what some writers relate concerning
+Apollo'nius Tyane'us, who was then at Ephesus. This person, whom some
+call a magician, and some a philosopher, but who more probably was
+only an impostor, was, just at the minute in which Domi'tian was
+slain, lecturing in one of the public gardens of the city; but
+stopping short, on a sudden he cried out, "Courage, Steph'anus, strike
+the tyrant!" then, after a pause, "Rejoice, my friends, the tyrant
+dies this day;--this day do I say?--the very moment in which I kept
+silence he suffered for his crimes! He dies!"
+
+26. Many prodigies are said to have portended his death; and if the
+Roman historians are to be credited, more preternatural appearances
+and predictions announced this event, than its importance
+deserved.[30] The truth seems to be, that a belief in omens and
+prodigies was again become prevalent, as the people were evidently
+relapsing into pristine barbarity, ignorance being ever the proper
+soil for a harvest of imposture.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What advantages did Agricola gain in Britain?
+
+2. How did Domitian receive the account of Agricola's success?
+
+3. In what way did the emperor treat him?
+
+4. To whom did Agricola surrender up his province?
+
+5. What nations afterwards made irruptions into the Roman provinces?
+
+6. By what means were the barbarians at length repelled?
+
+7. What surname did Domitian assume?
+
+8. To what extravagance did his pride lead him?
+
+9. What trifling pretexts were made use of by Domitian to put to death
+some of the most illustrious Romans?
+
+10. Who now assumed the ensigns of the imperial dignity?
+
+11. By what general was Lucius Antonius defeated?
+
+12. What new cruelties were resorted to by the emperor?
+
+13. By what hypocritical conduct was he distinguished?
+
+14. To whom was he particularly terrible?
+
+15, 16, 17. What terrific ceremonies did he invent on one occasion?
+
+18. Was the result fatal to them?
+
+19. Did not his cruelties become still more insupportable at the
+latter part of his reign?
+
+20. Who was among the number that he at the same time caressed and
+suspected?
+
+21. Whose name did Domitia discover among his list of victims?
+
+22. To whom did she show the fatal list, and what was resolved on?
+
+23. What means were used by Stephanus to assassinate the emperor?
+
+24. Relate the particulars of the assassination.
+
+25. What exclamation is Apollonius Tyaneus said to have made at
+Ephesus, at the time of Domitian's death?
+
+26. Did not the Romans relapse into their pristine state of barbarity
+about this period?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] In his sixth consulship Augustus commanded a census to be made,
+when there was found the astonishing number of 4,060,000 inhabitants
+in Rome, which was fifty miles in circumference.
+
+[2] M. Primus, while governor of Macedon, had made an irruption into
+the country of the Odrysians; for this he was prosecuted, and pleaded
+that it was by the emperor's orders. Augustus denying this, L. Murena
+put the impudent question to him mentioned in the text.
+
+[3] An island on the coast of Lucania, in Italy; now called Santa
+Maria.
+
+[4] The date of Augustus's reign is here reckoned from the death of
+Antony, when he became sole monarch; but if it be reckoned from his
+first coming into power, soon after the death of Julius Caesar, it is
+nearly 56 years. Augustus carried on his wars principally by his
+lieutenants, but he went personally into Spain and Gaul. His bravery,
+however, has been greatly called in question, and many flagrant
+instances of his cowardice recorded. How true they may be is not easy
+to determine.
+
+[5] The temple of Janus was now shut for the third time since the
+foundation of the city.
+
+[6] He began his reign, however, with the murder of Agrippa Posthumus,
+the grandson of Augustus.
+
+[7] Varus had been surprised by the Germans, defeated, and his whole
+army cut to pieces. Augustus was so grieved at this disgrace and loss,
+that, for a long time, he wore mourning, and frequently was heard to
+cry out, in the agony of his grief, "Restore me my legions, Varus."
+
+[8] Germanicus died in the 34th year of his age, and was universally
+mourned for, not only by the Roman people, but by the princes in
+alliance with Rome, and even by the proud monarch of Parthia. (Suet.
+l. 4. c. 5.)
+
+[9] He was found in the morning with his throat cut, and his sword
+lying by him; but whether this was done by his own hand, or by the
+orders of Tiberius, is not known. (Tacitus.)
+
+[10] Sejanus, though simply a Roman knight, was descended from an
+illustrious family, and was, in the very beginning of Tiberius's
+reign, associated with his father in the command of the praetorian
+guards. By removing these from their usual quarters in the city, and
+uniting them in one body in a camp, he laid the foundation of that
+power, which they afterwards usurped, of disposing of the empire at
+their pleasure.
+
+[11] To such a pitch of meanness were the Roman senators arrived, that
+when the emperor's letter arrived, the senators, thinking it contained
+orders for bestowing on Sejanus the tribunitial power, crowded around
+him, each striving to be foremost in congratulating him on his new
+dignity; but they no sooner learned the real contents of the fatal
+letter than all forsook him; even those who sat near him removed to
+another part of the house, lest they should be accounted his friends.
+(Dio.) The populace likewise broke in pieces those very statues which,
+a few hours before, they had adored.
+
+[12] It has been well said of Tiberius, "This great prince--this
+sovereign of Rome--with his numerous armies, his praetorian bands, and
+his unlimited power, was in hourly fear of secret assassins,
+incessantly prompted by his own apprehensions; with all the eclat of
+empire, the most miserable being in his dominions. His power, indeed,
+was unlimited, but so was his misery; the more he made others suffer,
+the faster he supplied his own torments. Such was his situation and
+life, and such were the natural consequences of the abuse of power."
+
+[13] He was so named from _caliga_, a sort of military boot which he
+usually wore.
+
+[14] A promontory, port, and town in Italy, near Naples.
+
+[15] The Praetorian bands were instituted by Augustus, to guard his
+person, and maintain his authority. Under bold and warlike emperors,
+they were kept in tolerable subjection: but when the reins of
+government were held by feeble hands, they became the disturbers,
+instead of preservers, of the public peace; and, at length, deposed
+and set up emperors at their pleasure.
+
+[16] Some still more extraordinary accounts are given of this horse:
+it is said that he appointed it a house, furniture, and kitchen, in
+order to treat all its visitors with proper respect. Sometimes he
+invited Incita'tus to his own table, and presented it with gilt oats,
+and wine in a golden cup. He would often swear, "by the safety of his
+horse!" and it is even said that it was his intention to have
+appointed it to the consul-ship, had not his death prevented it.
+
+[17] One day on visiting the amphitheatre, finding there were no
+criminals condemned to fight with wild beasts, he ordered numbers of
+the spectators to be thrown to them, previously causing their tongues
+to be cut out, that they might not, by their cries, disturb his
+inhuman diversions.
+
+[18] It is said that the tower which stands at the entry of the port
+of Bologne, called La tour d'ordre, is that built by Calig'ula on this
+occasion.
+
+[19] Palatine games were so called from their being celebrated on the
+Palatine Hill, which was the most considerable of the seven hills on
+which Rome was built. This was the first hill occupied by Rom'ulus,
+and where he fixed his residence, and kept his court; as also did
+Tul'lus, Hostil'ius, Augus'tus, and all the succeeding emperors; and
+hence it is that the residence of princes is called Palatium or
+Palace.
+
+[20] He is by some called Am'pronus.
+
+[21] His mother Anto'nia, used to call him a human monster; and his
+nephew, Calig'ula, when he had butchered many of his kindred, saved
+him merely for a laughing-stock. The kindest word Agustus gave him was
+that of Misel'lus, (poor wretch.) This example was followed by others.
+If he happened to come to table when the guests had taken their
+places, no one showed him the least civility; and when he slept, as he
+sometimes did, after meals, they would divert themselves by throwing
+the stones of fruit at him, or by wakening him with a blow of a rod or
+whip.
+
+[22] Her'od Agrip'pa was the grandson of Herod the Great; who, at the
+birth of our Saviour, caused all the infants of Bethlehem to be
+massacred, in hopes that he would fall in the number. Her'od Agrip'pa
+to please the Jews, also persecuted the Christians; and put to death
+St. James the Great.
+
+[23] He put to death Cher'ea and some others of the murderers of his
+nephew.
+
+[24] Sen'eca, a celebrated philosopher, and a son of Sen'eca the
+orator, was born at Corduba, in Spain, A.D. 8. This town was also the
+birthplace of his father. (Strabo and Lucan.) Corduba was founded by
+the Romans, B.C. 150, and in process of time it became the residence
+of the Moorish kings, and where they continued till their expulsion
+into Africa. It was in the vicinity of this city that Caesar fought his
+last battle with the sons of Pompey.
+
+[25] Vespasian was at that time conducting the war in Jude'a, in Asia.
+
+[26] The destruction of Jerusalem happened in the year of our Lord 70.
+
+[27] Hercula'neum, Pompe'ii, &c. This eruption happened August 24,
+A.D. 79. These towns, after having been buried under the lava for more
+than 1600 years, were discovered in the beginning of the last century:
+Hercula'neum, in 1713, about 24 feet under ground, by labourers
+digging a well, and Pompe'ii 40 years after, about 12 feet below the
+surface; and from the houses and streets which, in a great measure,
+remain perfect, have been drawn busts, statues, manuscripts,
+paintings, &c. which contribute much to enlarge our notions concerning
+the ancients, and develope many classical obscurities. (Mala.) In the
+year following this dreadful eruption, a fire happened at Rome, which
+consumed the capitol, the pantheon, the library of Augustus, the
+theatre of Pompey, and a great many other buildings. In the ruins of
+Hercula'neum there have lately been found loaves which were baked
+under the reign of Titus, and which still bear the baker's mark,
+indicating the quality of the flour, which was probably prescribed by
+the regulation of the police. There have also been found utensils of
+bronze, which, instead of being tinned, like ours, are all silvered;
+the ancients doubtless preferred this method, as more wholesome and
+more durable. The excavations at Pompe'ii continue to furnish the
+royal museum at Naples with all kinds of valuable objects: some
+buildings have lately been discovered at Pompe'ii, remarkable for the
+richness of their architecture. At Paggo'ia, another town buried by
+the lava from Vesuvius, some sepulchres have been found, which are
+stated to be magnificently adorned with sculpture of the finest kind.
+
+[28] Impera'tor, a title of honour among the Romans, conferred on
+victorious generals by their armies, and afterwards by the senate.
+
+[29] It is a remarkable fact, that the most odious tyrants that ever
+sat on the Roman throne, commenced their reigns with a display of all
+the virtues that adorn humanity: on the contrary, Augustus, who was
+truly the father of his people, began his reign with cruelties that
+afforded but a melancholy presage of his future administration.
+
+[30] In the reign of Domi'tian, a violent persecution raged against
+the Christians. During this persecution St. John was confined to the
+Isle of Patmos, in the Archipelago, where he wrote the Apoc'alypse, or
+Revelation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS OF ROME.
+
+  These slaves, whom I have nurtur'd, pamper'd, fed.
+  And swoln with peace, and gorg'd with plenty, till
+  They reign themselves--all monarchs in their mansions.
+  Now swarm forth in rebellion, and demand
+  His death, who made their lives a jubilee.--_Byron_.
+
+1. When it was publicly known that Domi'tian[1] was slain, the senate
+began to load his memory with every reproach. His statues were
+commanded to be taken down, and a decree was made, that all his
+inscriptions should be erased, his name struck out of the registers of
+fame, and his funeral obsequies omitted. 2. The people, who now
+took but little part in the affairs of government, looked on his death
+with indifference; the soldiers alone, whom he had loaded with
+favours, and enriched by largesses, sincerely regretted their
+benefactor.
+
+3. The senate, therefore, resolved to provide a successor before the
+army could have an opportunity of taking the appointment upon itself,
+and Cocce'ius Ner'va was chosen to the empire the same day on which
+the tyrant was slain. 4. He is said to have been of an illustrious
+family in Spain, and above sixty-five years old when he was called to
+the throne, an elevation which he owed solely to his virtues,
+moderation, respect to the laws, and the blameless tenor of his life.
+
+5. The people, long accustomed to tyranny, regarded Nerva's gentle
+reign with rapture, and even gave to his imbecility (for his humanity
+was carried too far for justice) the name of benevolence. 6. Upon
+coming to the throne he solemnly swore, that no senator of Rome should
+be put to death by his command during his reign, though guilty of the
+most heinous crimes. 7. This oath he so religiously observed, that
+when two senators had conspired his death, he used no kind of severity
+against them; but, sending for them to let them see he was not
+ignorant of their designs, he carried them with him to the public
+theatre; there presenting each a dagger, he desired them to strike,
+assuring them that he should make no resistance. 8. He had so little
+regard for money, that when one of his subjects found a large
+treasure, and wrote to the emperor for instructions how to dispose of
+it, he received for answer, that he might use it; the finder however
+replying, that it was a fortune too large for a private person to use,
+Nerva, admiring his honesty, wrote him word that then he might abuse
+it.[2]
+
+9. A sovereign of such generosity and mildness was not, however,
+without his enemies. Vigil'ius Ru'fus, who had opposed his accession,
+was not only pardoned, but made his colleague in the consulship.
+Calpur'nius Cras'sus also, with some others, formed a conspiracy to
+destroy him; but Nerva was satisfied with banishing those who were
+culpable, though the senate were for inflicting more rigorous
+punishments. 10. But the most dangerous insurrection was that of
+the praetorian bands, who, headed by Caspa'rius Olia'nus, insisted upon
+revenging the late emperor's death, whose memory was still dear to
+them, from his frequent liberalities. 11. Nerva, whose kindness to
+good men rendered him more obnoxious to the vicious, did all in his
+power to stop the progress of this insurrection; he presented himself
+to the mutinous soldiers, and laying bare his bosom, desired them to
+strike there rather than be guilty of so much injustice. 12. The
+soldiers, however, paid no regard to his remonstrances; but seizing
+upon Petro'nius and Parthe'nius, slew them in the most ignominious
+manner. Not content with this, they even compelled the emperor to
+approve of their sedition, and to make a speech to the people, in
+which he thanked the cohorts for their fidelity.
+
+13. So disagreeable a constraint upon the emperor's inclinations was
+in the end attended with the most happy effects, as it caused the
+adoption of Trajan[3] to succeed him; for, perceiving that in the
+present turbulent disposition of the times, he stood in need of an
+assistant in the empire, setting aside all his own relations, he fixed
+upon Ul'pius Tra'jan, an utter stranger to his family, who was then
+governor in Upper Germany, as his successor. 14. About three months
+after this, having put himself into a violent passion with one
+Reg'ulus, a senator, he was seized with a fever of which he died,
+after a reign of one year, four months, and nine days.
+
+15. He was the first foreigner that ever reigned in Rome, and justly
+reputed a prince of great generosity and moderation. He is also
+celebrated for his wisdom, though with less reason; the greatest
+instance given of it during his reign, being the choice of his
+successor.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 851. A.D. 98.]
+
+16. On hearing of the death of Nerva, Trajan prepared to come to Rome
+from Germany, where he was governor. He received upon his arrival a
+letter from Plu'tarch, the philosopher, who had the honour of being
+his master, to the following purport:--"Since your merits and not your
+importunities, have advanced you to the empire, permit me to
+congratulate you on your virtues, and my own good fortune. If your
+future government proves answerable to your former worth, I shall
+be happy; but if you become worse for power, yours will be the danger,
+and mine the ignominy of your conduct. The errors of the pupil will be
+charged upon his instructor. Sen'eca is reproached for the enormities
+of Nero; and Soc'rates and Quintil'ian have not escaped censure for
+the misconduct of their respective scholars. But you have it in your
+power to make me the most honoured of men, by continuing what you are.
+Retain the command of your passions; and make virtue the rule of all
+your actions. If you follow these instructions, then will I glory in
+having presumed to give them: if you neglect what I advise, then will
+this letter be my testimony that you have not erred through the
+counsel and authority of Plu'tarch." I insert this letter, because it
+is a striking picture of this great philosopher's manner of addressing
+the best of princes.
+
+17. This good monarch's application to business, his moderation
+towards his enemies, his modesty in exaltation, his liberality to the
+deserving, and his frugal management of the resources of the state,
+were the subjects of panegyric among his contemporaries, and continue
+to be the admiration of posterity.
+
+18. The first war he was engaged in after his coming to the throne was
+with the Da'cians, who, during the reign of Domi'tian, had committed
+numberless ravages upon the provinces of the empire. To revenge these,
+he raised a powerful army, and with great expedition marched into
+those barbarous countries, where he was vigorously opposed by
+Deceb'alus, the Da'cian king, who for some time withstood his boldest
+efforts. 19. At length, however, this monarch being constrained to
+come to a general battle, and no longer able to protract the war, was
+routed with great slaughter. The Roman soldiers upon this occasion
+wanting linen to bind up their wounds, the emperor tore his own robes
+to supply them. 20. This victory compelled the enemy to sue for peace,
+which they obtained upon very disadvantageous terms; their king coming
+into the Roman camp, and acknowledging himself a vassal of the Roman
+empire.
+
+21. Upon Trajan's return, after the usual triumphs and rejoicings, he
+was surprised with an account that the Da'cians had renewed
+hostilities. Deceb'alus, their king, was a second time adjudged an
+enemy to the Roman state, and Tra'jan again entered his dominions. 22.
+In order to be enabled to invade the enemy's territories at pleasure,
+he undertook a most stupendous work, which was no less than
+building a bridge across the Dan'ube. 23. This amazing structure,
+which was built over a deep, broad, and rapid river, consisted of more
+than twenty-two arches; the ruins, which remain to this day, show
+modern architects how far they were surpassed by the ancients, both in
+the greatness and boldness of their designs. 24. Upon finishing this
+work, Tra'jan continued the war with great vigour, sharing with the
+meanest of his soldiers the fatigues of the campaign, and continually
+encouraging them to their duty by his own example. 25. By these means,
+notwithstanding the country was spacious and uncultivated, and the
+inhabitants brave and hardy, he subdued the whole, and added the
+kingdom of Da'cia as a province to the Roman empire. Deceb'alus made
+some attempts to escape; but being surrounded, he slew himself. 26.
+These successes seemed to advance the empire to a greater degree of
+splendor than it had hitherto acquired. Ambassadors came from the
+interior parts of India, to congratulate Trajan on his successes, and
+solicit his friendship. On his return, he entered Rome in triumph, and
+the rejoicings for his victories lasted a hundred and twenty days.
+
+27. Having given peace and prosperity to the empire, he was loved,
+honoured, and almost adored. He adorned the city with public
+buildings; he freed it from such men as lived by their vices; he
+entertained persons of merit with familiarity; and so little did he
+fear his enemies, that he could scarcely be induced to suppose he had
+any.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. How was the account of Domitian's death received?
+
+2. Was he regretted by any description of his subjects?
+
+3. What consequences ensued from this regret?
+
+4. Who was Cocceius Nerva?
+
+5. Was his government acceptable to the people?
+
+6. What afforded a presage of his future mild administration?
+
+7. Did he keep this oath inviolate?
+
+8. Was Nerva avaricious?
+
+9. Was his reign free from disturbances?
+
+10. Were all conspiracies repressed from this time?
+
+11. Did Nerva exert himself to quell it?
+
+12. Were his endeavours successful?
+
+13. What important consequences ensued from these commotions?
+
+14. What occasioned his death?
+
+15. What was his character?
+
+16. How did Trajan act on his accession, and what advice did he
+receive?
+
+17. What sentiments did his subjects entertain of their new emperor?
+
+18. With whom did he commence hostilities?
+
+19. What was the event of the campaign?
+
+20. What was the consequence of this victory?
+
+21. Did peace continue long?
+
+22. What great undertaking did he accomplish in this expedition?
+
+23. Was it a difficult work?
+
+24. What followed the building of the bridge?
+
+25. What was the event of this second campaign?
+
+26. What advantages arose from this conquest?
+
+27. Did Trajan suffer prosperity to make him neglectful of his duties?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  With fatal heat impetuous courage glows.--_Johnson_.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 860. A.D. 107.]
+
+1. It had been happy for Trajan's memory, had he shown equal clemency
+to all his subjects; but about the ninth year of his reign, he was
+persuaded to look upon the Christians with a suspicious eye, and great
+numbers of them were put to death by popular tumults and judicial
+proceedings. 2. However, the persecution ceased after some time; for
+the emperor, finding that the Christians were an innocent and
+inoffensive people, suspended their punishments.
+
+3. During this emperor's reign there was a dreadful insurrection of
+the Jews in all parts of the empire. This wretched people, still
+infatuated, and ever expecting some signal deliverance, took the
+advantage of Tra'jan's expedition to the east, to massacre all the
+Greeks and Romans whom they could get into their power. 4. This
+rebellion first began in Cyre'ne, a Roman province in Africa; from
+thence the flame extended to Egypt, and next to the island of Cyprus.
+Dreadful were the devastations committed by these infatuated people,
+and shocking the barbarities exercised on the unoffending inhabitants.
+5. Some were sawn asunder, others cast to wild beasts, or made to kill
+each other, while the most unheard-of torments were invented and
+exercised on the unhappy victims of their fury. Nay, to such a pitch
+was their animosity carried, that they actually ate the flesh of their
+enemies, and even wore their skins. 6. However, these cruelties were
+of no long duration: the governors of the respective provinces making
+head against their tumultuous fury, caused them to experience the
+horrors of retaliation, and put them to death, not as human beings,
+but as outrageous pests of society. In Cy'prus it was made capital for
+any Jew to set foot on the island.
+
+7. During these bloody transactions, Tra'jan was prosecuting his
+successes in the east, where he carried the Roman arms farther than
+they had ever before penetrated; but resolving to visit Rome once
+more, he found himself too weak to proceed in his usual manner. He
+therefore determined to return by sea; but on reaching the city of
+Seleu'cia, he died of an apoplexy, in the sixty-third year of his age,
+after a reign of nineteen years, six months, and fifteen days.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 117.]
+
+8. A'drian, the nephew of Trajan, was chosen to succeed him. He began
+his reign by pursuing a course opposite to that of his predecessor,
+taking every method of declining war, and promoting the arts of peace.
+His first care was to make peace with the Par'thians, and to restore
+Chos'roes, for he was satisfied with preserving the ancient limits of
+the empire, and seemed no way ambitious of extensive conquest.
+
+9. A'drian was one of the most remarkable of the Roman emperors for
+the variety of his endowments. He was highly skilled in all the
+accomplishments both of body and mind. He composed with great beauty,
+both in prose and verse, he pleaded at the bar, and was one of the
+best orators of his time. 10. Nor were his virtues fewer than his
+accomplishments. His moderation and clemency appeared by pardoning the
+injuries which he had received when he was yet but a private man. One
+day meeting a person who had formerly been his most inveterate
+enemy--"My good friend," said he, "you have escaped; for I am made
+emperor." He was affable to his friends, and gentle to persons of
+meaner stations; he relieved their wants, and visited them in
+sickness; it being his constant maxim, that he had been elected
+emperor, not for his own good, but for the benefit of mankind at
+large.
+
+11. These virtues were, however, contrasted by vices of considerable
+magnitude; or rather, he wanted strength of mind to preserve his
+rectitude of character without deviation.
+
+12. He was scarcely settled on the throne, when several of the
+northern barbarians began to devastate the frontier provinces of the
+empire. These hardy nations, who now found the way to conquer by
+issuing from their forests, and then retiring on the approach of
+a superior force, began to be truly formidable to Rome. 13. A'drian
+had thoughts of contracting the limits of the empire, by giving up
+some of the most remote and least defensible provinces; in this,
+however, he was overruled by friends, who wrongly imagined that an
+extensive frontier would intimidate an invading enemy. 14. But though
+he complied with their remonstrances, he broke down the bridge over
+the Dan'ube, which his predecessor had built, sensible that the same
+passage which was open to him, was equally convenient to the
+incursions of his barbarous neighbours.
+
+15. Having staid a long time at Rome, to see that all things were
+regulated and established for the safety of the public, he prepared to
+make a progress through his whole empire. 16. It was one of his
+maxims, that an emperor ought to imitate the sun, which diffuses
+warmth and vigour over all parts of the earth. He, therefore, took
+with him a splendid court, and a considerable force, and entered the
+province of Gaul, where he caused the inhabitants to be numbered. 17.
+From Gaul he went into Germany, thence to Holland, and afterwards
+passed over into Britain; where, reforming many abuses, and
+reconciling the natives to the Romans, he, for the better security of
+the southern parts of the kingdom, built a wall of wood and earth,
+extending from the river E'den, in Cumberland, to the Tyne, in
+Northumberland, to prevent the incursions of the Picts, and other
+barbarous nations of the north. 18. From Britain, returning through
+Gaul, he directed his journey to Spain, his native country, where he
+was received with great joy. 19. Returning to Rome, he continued there
+for some time, in order to prepare for his journey into the east,
+which was hastened by a new invasion of the Par'thians. His approach
+compelling the enemy to peace, he pursued his travels without
+molestation. He visited the famous city of Athens; there making a
+considerable stay, he was initiated into the Eleusin'ian mysteries,
+which were accounted the most sacred in the Pagan mythology, and took
+upon him the office of archon or chief magistrate. 20. In this place,
+also, he remitted the severity of the Christian persecution. He was
+even so far reconciled to their sect, as to think of introducing
+Christ among the number of the gods. 21. From thence he crossed over
+into Africa, and spent much time in reforming abuses, regulating the
+government, deciding controversies, and erecting magnificent
+buildings. Among the rest, he ordered Carthage[4] to be rebuilt,
+calling it after his own name, Adrian'ople.[5] 22. Again he returned
+to Rome; travelled a second time into Greece; passed over into Asia
+Minor; from thence into Syr'ia; gave laws and instructions to all the
+neighbouring kings; entered Pal'estine, Arabia, and Egypt, where he
+caused Pompey's tomb, that had been long neglected, and almost covered
+with sand, to be repaired and beautified. 23. He gave orders for the
+rebuilding of Jerusalem; which was performed with great expedition by
+the assistance of the Jews, who now began to conceive hopes of being
+restored to their long lost kingdom. 24. But these expectations only
+served to aggravate their calamities: for, being incensed at the
+privileges which were granted the Pagan worshippers in their new city,
+they fell upon the Romans and Christians that were dispersed
+throughout Jude'a, and unmercifully put them all to the sword. 25.
+A'drian, sending a powerful body of men against them, obtained many
+signal, though bloody victories, over the insurgents. The war was
+concluded in two years, by the demolition of above one thousand of
+their best towns, and the destruction of nearly six hundred thousand
+men in battle.
+
+26. Having thus effectually quelled this dangerous insurrection, he
+banished all those who remained in Judea; and by a public decree
+forbade them to come within view of their native soil. But he was soon
+after alarmed by a dangerous irruption of the barbarous nations to the
+northward of the empire; who, entering Me'dia with great fury and
+passing through Arme'nia, carried their devastations as far as
+Cappado'cia. Preferring peace, however, upon any terms, to an
+unprofitable war, A'drian bought them off by large sums of money; so
+that they returned peaceably into their native wilds, to enjoy their
+plunder, and to meditate fresh invasions.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Was Trajan uniformly merciful?
+
+2. Was the persecution of long duration?
+
+3. What remarkable event happened in this reign?
+
+4. Where did the rebellion principally rage?
+
+5. What were these barbarities?
+
+6. Were no steps taken to repress this insurrection?
+
+7. How was Trajan employed at this time, and what was his end?
+
+8. Who succeeded him?
+
+9. What was the character of Adrian?
+
+10. Was he a virtuous character?
+
+11. Were not his virtues counterbalanced?
+
+12. By whom was the empire now invaded?
+
+13. What wise measure did Adrian contemplate?
+
+14. What remarkable edifice did he destroy?
+
+15. Was he attentive to the concerns of the empire?
+
+16. Why did he do this?
+
+17. What places did he next visit?
+
+18. Whither did he next proceed?
+
+19. Mention his further progress, and the incidents that occurred.
+
+20. Was he merciful to the Christians?
+
+21. Whither did he next repair, and how did he employ himself?
+
+22. Proceed in the description of his route.
+
+23. Did he not favour the Jews?
+
+24. Did they profit by this favourable disposition in the emperor?
+
+25. Was this cruelty punished?
+
+26. What followed this dangerous insurrection?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+  Trajan and he,[6] with the mild sire and son
+  His son of virtue; eased awhile mankind;
+  And arts revived beneath their gentle beam.--_Thomson_.
+
+1. Having spent thirteen years in travelling and reforming the abuses
+of the empire, A'drian at last resolved to end his fatigues at Rome.
+2. Nothing could be more grateful to the people than his resolution of
+coming to reside for the rest of his days among them; they received
+him with the loudest demonstrations of joy; and though he now began to
+grow old and unwieldy, he remitted not the least of his former
+assiduity and attention to the public welfare. 3. His chief amusement
+was in conversing with the most celebrated men in every art and
+science, frequently asserting, that he thought no kind of knowledge
+inconsiderable, or to be neglected, either in his private or public
+capacity. 4. He ordered the knights and senators never to appear in
+public, but in the proper habits of their orders. He forbade
+masters to kill their slaves, as had been before allowed; but
+ordained that they should be tried by the laws. 5. He still further
+extended the lenity of the laws to those unhappy men, who had long
+been thought too mean for justice: if a master was found killed in his
+house, he would not allow all his slaves to be put to the torture as
+formerly, but only such as might have perceived and prevented the
+murder.
+
+6. In such employments he spent the greatest part of his time; but at
+last finding the duties of his station daily increasing, and his own
+strength proportionally upon the decline, he resolved on adopting a
+successor, and accordingly chose Antoni'nus to that important station.
+
+7. While he was thus careful in providing for the future welfare of
+the state, his bodily infirmities became so insupportable, that he
+vehemently desired some of his attendants to dispatch him. 8.
+Antoni'nus, however, would by no means permit any of the domestics to
+be guilty of so great an impiety, but used all the arts in his power
+to reconcile the emperor to sustain life. 9. His pain daily
+increasing, he was frequently heard to cry out, "How miserable a thing
+it is to seek death, and not to find it!" After enduring some time
+these excruciating tortures, he at last resolved to observe no
+regimen, saying, that kings sometimes died merely by the multitude of
+their physicians. 10. This conduct served to hasten that death he
+seemed so ardently to desire; and it was probably joy upon its
+approach which dictated the celebrated stanzas that are so well
+known;[7] and while repeating which he expired, in the sixty-second
+year of his age, after a prosperous reign of twenty-one years and
+eleven months.
+
+11. Titus Antoni'nus, his successor, was born at Lavin'ium, near Rome,
+but his ancestors came originally from Nismes, in Gaul. His father was
+a nobleman, who had enjoyed the highest honours of the empire.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 891]
+
+At the time of his succeeding to the throne he was above fifty years
+old, and had passed through many of the most important offices of the
+state with great integrity and application. 12. His virtues in private
+life were no way impaired by his exaltation, as he showed himself one
+of the most excellent princes for justice, clemency, and moderation;
+his morals were so pure, that he was usually compared to Numa, and was
+surnamed the Pious, both for his tenderness to his predecessor
+A'drian, when dying, and his particular attachment to the religion of
+his country.
+
+13. He was an eminent rewarder of learned men, to whom he gave large
+pensions and great honours, collecting them around him from all parts
+of the world. 14. Among the rest, he sent for Apollo'nius, the famous
+stoic philosopher, to instruct his adopted son, Mar'cus Aure'lius.
+Apollo'nius being arrived, the emperor desired his attendance; but the
+other arrogantly answered, that it was the scholar's duty to wait upon
+the master, not the master upon the scholar. 15. To this reply,
+Antoni'nus only returned with a smile, "That it was surprising how
+Apollo'nius, who made no difficulty of coming from Greece to Rome,
+should think it hard to walk from one part of Rome to another;" and
+immediately sent Mar'cus Aure'lius to him.[8] 16. While the good
+emperor was thus employed in making mankind happy, in directing their
+conduct by his own example, or reproving their follies by the keenness
+of rebuke, he was seized with a violent fever, and ordered his friends
+and principal officers to attend him. 17. In their presence he
+confirmed the adoption of Mar'cus Aure'lius; then commanding the
+golden statue of Fortune, which was always in the chamber of the
+emperors, to be removed to that of his successor, he expired in the
+seventy-fourth year of his age, after a prosperous reign of
+twenty-two years and almost eight months.[9]
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 914.]
+
+18. Mar'cus Aure'lius, though left sole successor to the throne, took
+Lu'cius Ve'rus as his associate and equal, in governing the state. 19.
+Aure'lius was the son of An'nius Ve'rus, of an ancient and illustrious
+family, which claimed its origin from Nu'ma. Lu'cius Ve'rus was the
+son of Com'modus, who had been adopted by A'drian, but died before he
+succeeded to the throne. 20. Aure'lius was as remarkable for his
+virtues and accomplishments, as his partner in the empire was for his
+ungovernable passions and debauched morals. The one was an example of
+the greatest goodness and wisdom; the other of ignorance, sloth, and
+extravagance.
+
+21. The two emperors were scarcely settled on the throne, when the
+empire was attacked on every side, from the barbarous nations by which
+it was surrounded. The Cat'ti invaded Germany and Rhoe'tia, ravaging
+all with fire and sword; but were repelled by Victori'nus. The Britons
+likewise revolted, but were repressed by Capur'nius. 22. But the
+Parthians, under their king Volog'esus, made an irruption still more
+dreadful than either of the former; destroying the Roman legions in
+Arme'nia; then entering Syria, they drove out the Roman governor, and
+filled the whole country with terror and confusion. To repel this
+barbarous eruption, Ve'rus went in person, being accompanied by
+Aure'lius part of the way.
+
+23. Ve'rus, however, proceeded no farther than An'tioch, and there
+gave an indulgence to every appetite, rioting in excesses unknown even
+to the voluptuous Greeks; leaving all the glory of the field to his
+lieutenants, who were sent to repress the enemy. 24. These, however,
+fought with great success; for in the four years that the war lasted,
+the Romans entered far into the Parthian country, and entirely subdued
+it; but upon their return their army was wasted to less than half its
+original number by pestilence and famine. 25. This, however, was no
+impediment to the vanity of Ve'rus, who resolved to enjoy the honours
+of a triumph, so hardly earned by others. Having appointed a king over
+the Arme'nians, and finding the Parthians entirely subdued, he assumed
+the titles of Arme'nius and Parthi'cus; and on his return to Rome, he
+partook of a triumph with Aure'lius, which was solemnized with great
+pomp and splendour.
+
+26. While Ve'rus was engaged in this expedition, Aure'lius was
+sedulously intent upon distributing justice and happiness to his
+subjects at home. He first applied himself to the regulation of
+public affairs, and to the correcting of such faults as he found in
+the laws and policy of the state. 27. In this endeavour he showed a
+singular respect for the senate, often permitting them to determine
+without appeal; so that the commonwealth seemed in a manner once more
+revived under his equitable administration. 28. Besides, such was his
+application to business, that he often employed ten days together on
+the same subject, maturely considering it on all sides, and seldom
+departing from the senate-house till the assembly was dismissed by the
+consul. 29. But he was daily mortified with accounts of the enormities
+of his colleague; being repeatedly assured of his vanity and
+extravagance. 30. However, feigning himself ignorant of these
+excesses, he judged marriage to be the best method of reclaiming him;
+and, therefore, sent him his daughter Lucil'la, a woman of great
+beauty, whom Ve'rus married at Antioch. 31. But even this was found
+ineffectual, for Lucil'la proved of a disposition very unlike her
+father; and, instead of correcting her husband's extravagances only
+contributed to inflame them. 32. Aure'lius still hoped that, upon the
+return of Ve'rus to Rome, his presence would keep him in awe, and that
+happiness would at length be restored to the state. In this he was
+also disappointed. His return seemed fatal to the empire; for his army
+carried back the plague from Par'thia, and disseminated the infection
+into the provinces through which it passed.
+
+33. Nothing could exceed the miserable state of things upon the return
+of Ve'rus. In this horrid picture were represented an emperor, unawed
+by example or the calamities surrounding him, giving way to unheard-of
+crimes; a raging pestilence spreading terror and desolation through
+all parts of the western world; earthquakes, famines, inundations,
+almost unexampled in history; the products of the earth through all
+Italy devoured by locusts; the barbarous nations around the empire
+taking advantage of its various calamities, and making their
+irruptions even into Italy itself. 34. The priests doing all they
+could to put a stop to the miseries of the state, by attempting to
+appease the gods, vowing and offering numberless sacrifices;
+celebrating all the sacred rites that had ever been known in Rome. 35.
+To crown the whole, these enthusiasts, as if the impending calamities
+had not been sufficient, ascribed the distresses of the state to the
+impieties of the Christians. A violent persecution ensued in all
+parts of the empire; and Justin Martyr, Polycarp'us, and a prodigious
+number of less note, suffered martyrdom.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Did Adrian enjoy repose from this time?
+
+2. Was this resolution agreeable to the people?
+
+3. How did he amuse himself?
+
+4. What new edicts did he issue?
+
+5. Did he not ameliorate the condition of slaves?
+
+6. Was he still equal to the fatigues of the empire?
+
+7. Were not his sufferings great?
+
+8. Were his wishes complied with?
+
+9. Were these arts successful?
+
+10. What was the consequence of this conduct?
+
+11. Who was his successor?
+
+12. Did he preserve his virtue on his exaltation?
+
+13. Was he a favourer of learning?
+
+14. What anecdote is related of one of these?
+
+15. What was the emperor's reply?
+
+16. Did he experience a long and prosperous reign?
+
+17. Whom did he appoint as his successor?
+
+18. Was Marcus Aurelius sole emperor?
+
+19. Who were Aurelius and Lucius Verus?
+
+20. Were their characters similar?
+
+21. Was their reign peaceable?
+
+22. Was there not a more formidable invasion still?
+
+23. Did Verus show himself worthy of the trust?
+
+24. Were they successful?
+
+25. Did Verus appear to feel this misfortune?
+
+26. How was Aurelius employed in the mean time?
+
+27. Did he do this solely by his own authority?
+
+28. Was he hasty in his decisions?
+
+29. Was he acquainted with the follies of his colleague?
+
+30. How did he attempt his reformation?
+
+31. Was this effectual?
+
+32. What farther hopes did Aurelius entertain?
+
+33. What was the state of the empire at this period?
+
+34. What were the means made use of to avert these calamities?
+
+35. To whom were they imputed?
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+  And wise Aurelius, in whose well-taught mind,
+  With boundless power unbounded virtue join'd.
+  His own strict judge, and patron of mankind.--_Pope._
+
+1. In this scene of universal tumult, desolation and distress, there
+was nothing left but the virtues and the wisdom of one man to restore
+tranquillity and happiness to the empire. 2. Aure'lius began his
+endeavours by marching against the Marcoman'ni and Qua'di, taking
+Ve'rus with him, who reluctantly left the sensual delights of Rome for
+the fatigues of a camp. 3. They came up with the Marcoman'ni near the
+city of Aquile'ia, and after a furious engagement, routed their whole
+army; then pursuing them across the Alps, overcame them in several
+contests; and, at last, entirely defeating them, returned into Italy
+without any considerable loss.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 022 A.D. 169.]
+
+4. As the winter was far advanced, Ve'rus was determined on going to
+Rome, in which journey he was seized with an apoplexy that put an end
+to his life, at the age of thirty-nine, having reigned in conjunction
+with Aure'lius nine years.
+
+5. Aure'lius, who had hitherto sustained the fatigues of governing,
+not only an empire, but his colleague, began to act with greater
+diligence, and more vigour than ever. After thus subduing the
+Marcoman'ni, he returned to Rome, where he resumed his attempts to
+benefit mankind by a farther reformation.
+
+6. But his good endeavours were soon interrupted by a renewal of the
+former wars. In one of the engagements that ensued, he is said to have
+been miraculously relieved when his army was perishing with thirst, by
+the prayers of a Christian legion[10] which had been levied in his
+service; for we are told, that there fell such a shower of rain, as
+instantly refreshed the fainting army. The soldiers were seen holding
+their mouths and their helmets towards heaven, to catch the water
+which came so wonderfully to their relief. 7. The same clouds which
+served for their rescue, discharged so terrible a storm of hail,
+accompanied with thunder, against the enemy, as astonished and
+confused them. By this unlooked-for aid, the Romans, recovering
+strength and courage, renewed the engagement with fresh vigour, and
+cut the enemy to pieces. 8. Such are the circumstances of an event,
+acknowledged by Pagan as well as Christian writers; only with this
+difference, that the latter ascribe the miracle to their own, the
+former to the prayers of their emperor. However this be, Aure'lius
+seemed so sensible of miraculous assistance, that he immediately
+relaxed the persecution against the Christians, and wrote to the
+senate in their favour.
+
+9. Soon after this event, Avid'ius Cas'sius, one of the generals
+who had fought with such success against the Parthians, assumed the
+imperial purple, but was shortly after killed in an engagement. When
+his head was brought to Aure'lius, he expressed great sorrow, turned
+his eyes away, and caused it to be honourably interred, complaining
+that he had been robbed of an opportunity of showing mercy. On being
+blamed for his too great lenity to the relatives and friends of
+Cas'sius, he sublimely replied, "We have not lived nor served the gods
+so ill, as to think that they would favour Cas'sius."
+
+10. He usually called philosophy his mother, in opposition to the
+court, which he considered as his step-mother. He also frequently
+said, "the people are happy whose kings are philosophers." He was,
+independent of his dignity, one of the most considerable men then
+existing; and, though he had been born in the meanest station, his
+merits as a writer (for his works remain to this day) would have
+insured him immortality.
+
+11. Having thus restored prosperity to his subjects, and peace to
+mankind, news was brought him that the Scyth'ians, and other barbarous
+nations of the north, were up in arms, and invading the empire. 12. He
+once more, therefore, resolved to expose his aged person in the
+defence of his country, and made speedy preparations to oppose
+them.--He went to the senate, and desired to have money out of the
+public treasury. He then spent three days in giving the people
+lectures on the regulation of their lives; and, having finished,
+departed upon his expedition, amidst the prayers and lamentations of
+his subjects. Upon going to open his third campaign, he was seized at
+Vienna with the plague, which stopped his farther progress. Nothing,
+however, could abate his desire of being beneficial to mankind. 14.
+His fears for the youth and unpromising disposition of Com'modus, his
+son and successor, seemed to give him great uneasiness. He therefore
+addressed his friends and the principal officers that were gathered
+round his bed, expressing his hope, that as his son was now losing his
+father, he would find many in them. 15. While thus speaking, he was
+seized with a weakness which stopped his utterance, and brought on
+death. He died in the fifty-ninth year of his age, having reigned
+nineteen years. It seemed as if the glory and prosperity of the empire
+died with this greatest of the Roman emperors.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. To whom did the Romans look for a restoration of the tranquillity
+of the empire?
+
+2. Against whom did Aurelius march, and who accompanied him?
+
+3. Where did they come up with the Marcomanni, and what was the result
+of the engagement?
+
+4. What was the fate of Verus?
+
+5. How did Aurelius act on his return to Rome?
+
+6. What miraculous event was ascribed to the prayers of a Christian
+legion?
+
+7. How did it operate on the enemy?
+
+8. Did not Aurelius, in consequence, interest himself in favour of the
+Christians?
+
+9. What reply did Aurelius make to these who blamed him for his lenity
+to the friends of Cassius?
+
+10. What sayings are recorded of him, and what was his character?
+
+11. What news was brought to Aurelius soon after peace had been
+restored?
+
+12. In what way did he occupy himself previous to his departure to
+oppose the enemy?
+
+13. At what place was he seized with the plague?
+
+14. What seemed to give him great uneasiness?
+
+15. How old was Aurelius when he died, and how many years had he
+reigned?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Domi'tian was the last of those emperors commonly called the
+Twelve Caesars.
+
+[2] Nerva, the most remarkable man in Rome for his virtues, recalled
+all the Christians who had been banished or had emigrated under the
+persecution of Domi'tian.
+
+[3] It was customary among the Romans, for a person destitute of a son
+to adopt one from another family; and the son thus adopted became
+immediately invested with the same rights and privileges as if he had
+been born to that station; but he had no longer any claim on the
+family to which he originally belonged.
+
+[4] Car'thage, the celebrated capital of Africa Pro'pria, was built by
+the Tyr'ians, under Dido. This city, the mistress of Spain, Si'cily,
+and Sardin'ia, was long the rival of Rome, till it was totally
+destroyed by Scip'io the Second, surnamed Africa'nus, B.C. 147. In its
+height of prosperity, it contained upwards of 700,000 inhabitants.
+
+[5] This must be distinguished from Adrian'ople, the second city of
+European Turkey, which was founded about A.M. 2782, and repaired by
+the emperor Adrian, A.D. 122. Hence, its name.
+
+[6] The poet here alludes to Titus, whom he has before been
+commending; his actions are described in Chap. XXII. Sect X.
+
+[7] These stanzas are--
+
+  Animula, vagula, blandula,
+  Hospes, comesque corporis
+  Quae nonc abibis in loca,
+  Pallidula, rigida, nudula?
+  Nec, ut soles, dabis jocos.
+
+Thus imitated by Prior:
+
+    Poor little pretty fluttering thing,
+      Must we no longer live together?
+    And dost thou prune thy trembling wing
+      To take thy flight thou know'st not whither?
+    Thy hum'rous vein, thy pleasing folly,
+      Lie all neglected, all forgot;
+  And pensive, wav'ring, melancholy,
+      Thou dread'st and hop'st thou know'st not what
+
+[8] Antoni'nus being made a model of wisdom and virtue, he was as much
+respected by foreigners as by his own people?
+
+[9] This emperor was remarkably favourable to the Christians, and
+wrote thus to his governors in Asia:--"If any one shall, for the
+future, molest the Christians, and accuse them merely on account of
+their religion, let the person who is arraigned be discharged, though
+he is found to be a Christian, and the accuser be punished according
+to the rigour of the law."
+
+[10] Legion, a body of soldiers in the Roman army, consisting of 300
+horse and 4000 foot. Figuratively, an army, a military force, or a
+great number.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM COMMODUS TO THE TRANSFERRING OF THE SEAT OF EMPIRE UNDER
+CONSTANTINE, FROM ROME TO CONSTANTINOPLE.--U.C. 933. A.D. 180.
+
+  O name of country, once how sacred deem'd!
+  O sad reverse of manners, once esteem'd!
+  While Rome her ancient majesty maintain'd,
+  And in his capitol while Jove imperial reign'd.--_Horace_.
+
+1. The merits of Aurelius procured Commodus an easy accession to the
+throne.[1] He was acknowledged emperor by the army, by the senate and
+people, and afterwards by all the provinces.
+
+2. But his whole reign was a tissue of wantonness and folly, cruelty
+and injustice, rapacity and corruption. So strong a similitude was
+there between his conduct and that of Domi'tian, that a reader might
+imagine he was going over the history of the same reign. 3. He spent
+the day in feasting, and the night in the most abominable
+wickedness. He would sometimes go about the markets in a frolic, with
+small wares, as a petty chapman; sometimes he affected to be a
+horse-courser; at other times he drove his own chariot, in a slave's
+habit. Those he promoted resembled himself, being the companions of
+his pleasures, or the ministers of his cruelties.
+
+4. If any person desired to be revenged on an enemy, by bargaining
+with Com'modus for a sum of money, he was permitted to destroy him in
+any manner he thought proper. He commanded a person to be cast to the
+wild beasts for reading the life of Calig'ula in Sueto'nius. He
+ordered another to be thrown into a burning furnace, for accidentally
+overheating his bath. He would sometimes, when he was in a pleasant
+humour, cut off men's noses, under pretence of shaving their beards;
+and yet he was himself so jealous of all mankind, that he thought it
+necessary to be his own barber.
+
+5. At length, upon the feast of Janus, resolving to fence before the
+people, as a common gladiator, three of his friends remonstrated with
+him upon the indecency of such behaviour: these were Lae'tus, his
+general; Elec'tus, his chamberlain; and Mar'cia, of whom he always
+appeared excessively fond. 6. Their advice was attended with no other
+effect than that of exciting him to resolve upon their destruction. 7.
+It was his method, like that of Domi'tian, to set down the names of
+all such as he intended to put to death in a roll, which he carefully
+kept by him. However, at this time, happening to lay the roll on his
+bed, while he was bathing a another room, it was taken up by a little
+boy whom he passionately loved. The child, after playing with it some
+time brought it to Mar'cia, who was instantly alarmed at the contents.
+8. She immediately discovered her terror to Lae'tus and Elec'tus, who,
+perceiving their dangerous situation, instantly resolved upon the
+tyrant's death. 9. After some deliberation, it was agreed to dispatch
+him by poison; but this not succeeding, Mar'cia hastily introduced a
+young man, called Narcis'sus, whom she prevailed upon to assist in
+strangling the tyrant. Com'modus died in the thirty-first year of his
+age, after an impious reign of twelve years and nine months.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 945. A.D. 192.]
+
+10. Such were the secrecy and expedition with which Com'modus was
+assassinated, that few were acquainted with the real circumstances of
+his death. His body was wrapt up as a bale of useless furniture,
+and carried through the guards, most of whom were either drunk or
+asleep.
+
+11. Hel'vius Per'tinax, whose virtues and courage rendered him worthy
+of the most exalted station, and who had passed through many changes
+of fortune, had been previously fixed upon to succeed him. When,
+therefore, the conspirators repaired to his house, to salute him
+emperor, he considered it as a command from the emperor Com'modus for
+his death. 12. Upon Lae'tus entering his apartment, Per'tinax, without
+any show of fear, cried out, that for many days he had expected to end
+his life in that manner, wondering that the emperor had deferred it so
+long. He was not a little surprised when informed of the real cause of
+their visit; and being strongly urged to accept of the empire, he at
+last complied. 13. Being carried to the camp, Per'tinax was proclaimed
+emperor, and soon after was acknowledged by the senate and citizens.
+They then pronounced Com'modus a parricide, an enemy to the gods, his
+country, and all mankind; and commanded that his corpse should rot
+upon a heap of dirt. 14. In the mean time they saluted Per'tinax as
+emperor and Caesar, with numerous acclamations, and cheerfully took the
+oaths of obedience. The provinces soon after followed the example of
+Rome; so that he began his reign with universal satisfaction to the
+whole empire, in the sixty-eighth year of his age.
+
+15. Nothing could exceed the justice and wisdom of this monarch's
+reign, during the short time it continued. But the praetorian soldiers,
+whose manners he attempted to reform, having been long corrupted by
+the indulgence and profusion of their former monarch, began to hate
+him for his parsimony, and the discipline he had introduced among
+them. 16. They therefore resolved to dethrone him; and accordingly, in
+a tumultuous manner, marched through the streets of Rome, entered his
+palace without opposition, where a Tungrian soldier struck him dead
+with a blow of his lance. 17. From the number of his adventures he was
+called the tennis-ball of fortune; and certainly no man ever went
+through such a variety of situations with so blameless a character. He
+reigned but three months.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 954. A.D. 201]
+
+18. The soldiers having committed this outrage, made proclamation,
+that they would sell the empire to whoever would purchase it at the
+highest price. 19. In consequence of this proclamation, two
+bidders were found, namely, Sulpicia'nus and Did'ius. The former
+a consular person, prefect of the city, and son-in-law to the late
+emperor Per'tinax. The latter a consular person likewise, a great
+lawyer, and the wealthiest man in the city. 20. Sulpicia'nus had
+rather promises than treasure to bestow. The offers of Did'ius, who
+produced immense sums of ready money, prevailed. He was received into
+the camp, and the soldiers instantly swore to obey him as emperor. 21.
+Upon being conducted to the senate-house, he addressed the few that
+were present in a laconic speech, "Fathers, you want an emperor, and I
+am the fittest person you can choose." The choice of the soldiers was
+confirmed by the senate, and Did'ius was acknowledged emperor, in the
+fifty-seventh year of his age. 22. It should seem, by this weak
+monarch's conduct when seated on the throne, that he thought the
+government of an empire rather a pleasure than a toil. Instead of
+attempting to gain the hearts of his subjects, he gave himself up to
+ease and inactivity, utterly regardless of the duties of his station.
+He was mild and gentle indeed, neither injuring any, nor expecting to
+be injured. 23. But that avarice by which he became opulent, still
+followed him in his exaltation; so that the very soldiers who elected
+him soon began to detest him, for qualities so opposite to a military
+character. 24. The people also, against whose consent he was chosen,
+were not less his enemies. Whenever he issued from his palace, they
+openly poured forth their imprecations against him, crying out, that
+he was a thief, and had stolen the empire. 25. Did'ius, however,
+patiently bore all their reproach, and testified his regard by every
+kind of submission. 26. Soon after Seve'rus, an African by birth,
+being proclaimed by his army, began his reign by promising to revenge
+the death of Per'tinax.
+
+27. Did'ius upon being informed of his approach towards Rome, obtained
+the consent of the senate to send him ambassadors, offering to make
+him a partner in the empire. 28. But Seve'rus rejected this offer,
+conscious of his own strength, and of the weakness of the proposer.
+The senate appeared to be of the same sentiment; and perceiving the
+timidity and weakness of their present master, abandoned him. 29.
+Being called together, as was formerly practised in the times of the
+commonwealth, by the consuls, they unanimously decreed, that Did'ius
+should be deprived of the empire, and that Severus should be
+proclaimed in his stead. They then commanded Did'ius to be slain, and
+sent messengers for this purpose to the palace, who, having found
+him, with a few friends that still adhered to his interest, they
+struck off his head.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Did Commodus succeed peaceably?
+
+2. Did he imitate his father's virtues?
+
+3. Mention some of his follies?
+
+4. Mention some of his wanton cruelties?
+
+5. Who remonstrated with him on this conduct?
+
+6. What effect did this remonstrance produce?
+
+7. How was this discovered?
+
+8. What was the consequence?
+
+9. How was it affected?
+
+10. Were the circumstances of his death generally known?
+
+11. Who succeeded him?
+
+12. Did Pertinax discover any signs of fear?
+
+13. What ensued on his compliance?
+
+14. Was he acceptable to the Roman people?
+
+15. How did he govern?
+
+16. What was the consequence?
+
+17. By what appellation was he distinguished, and why?
+
+18. How was the imperial purple next disposed of?
+
+19. Who were the candidates?
+
+20. Who was the successful candidate?
+
+21. Was he acknowledged by the senate?
+
+22. What was his conduct as emperor?
+
+23. What gained him the hatred of the soldiers?
+
+24. Was he a favourite of the people?
+
+25. How did Didius bear this?
+
+26. What new competitor for the throne appeared?
+
+27. How did Didius act on this occasion?
+
+28. Was his offer accepted?
+
+29. What was the event?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  There's nought so monstrous but the mind of man,
+  In some conditions, may be brought to approve;
+  Theft, sacrilege, treason, and parricide,
+  When flattering opportunity enticed,
+  And desperation drove, have been committed
+  By those who once would start to hear them named.--_Lillo_.
+
+1. Seve'rus having overcome Niger, A.D. 194, and Albinus, A.D. 198,
+who were his competitors for the empire, assumed the reins of
+government, uniting great vigour with the most refined policy; yet his
+African cunning was considered as a singular defect in him. 2. He is
+celebrated for his wit, learning, and prudence; but execrated for
+his perfidy and cruelty. In short, he seemed equally capable of
+the greatest acts of virtue, and the most bloody severities. 3. He
+loaded his soldiers with rewards and honours, giving them such
+privileges as strengthened his own power, while they destroyed that of
+the senate; for the soldiers, who had hitherto showed the strongest
+inclination to an abuse of power, were now made arbiters of the fate
+of emperors. 4. Being thus secure of his army he resolved to give way
+to his natural desire of conquest, and to turn his arms against the
+Parthians, who were then invading the frontiers of the empire. 5.
+Having, therefore, previously given the government of domestic policy
+to one Plau'tian, a favourite, to whose daughter he married his son
+Caracal'la, he set out for the east, and prosecuted the war with his
+usual expedition and success. 6. He compelled submission from the king
+of Arme'nia, destroyed several cities of Ara'bia Felix, landed on the
+Parthian coast, took and plundered the famous city of Ctes'iphon,
+marched back through Pal'estine and Egypt, and at length returned to
+Rome in triumph. 7. During this interval, Plau'tian, who was left to
+direct the affairs of Rome, began to think of aspiring to the empire
+himself. Upon the emperor's return, he employed a tribune of the
+praetorian cohorts, of which he was commander, to assassinate him, and
+his son Caracal'la. 8. The tribune informed Seve'rus of his
+favourite's treachery. He at first received the intelligence as an
+improbable story, and as the artifices of one who envied his
+favourite's fortune. However, he was at last persuaded to permit the
+tribune to conduct Plau'tian to the emperor's apartments to be a
+testimony against himself. 9. With this intent the tribune went and
+amused him with a pretended account of his killing the emperor and his
+son; desiring him, if he thought fit to see them dead, to go with him
+to the palace. 10. As Plau'tian ardently desired their death, he
+readily gave credit to the relation, and, following the tribune, was
+conducted at midnight into the innermost apartments of the palace. But
+what must have been his surprise and disappointment, when, instead of
+finding the emperor lying dead, as he expected, he beheld the room
+lighted up with torches, and Seve'rus surrounded by his friends,
+prepared in array to receive him. 11. Being asked by the emperor, with
+a stern countenance, what had brought him there at that unseasonable
+time, he ingenuously confessed the whole, entreating forgiveness
+for what he had intended. 12. The emperor seemed inclined to pardon;
+but Caracal'la, his son, who from the earliest age showed a
+disposition to cruelty, ran him through the body with his sword. 13.
+After this, Seve'rus spent a considerable time in visiting some cities
+in Italy, permitting none of his officers to sell places of trust or
+dignity, and distributing justice with the strictest impartiality. He
+then undertook an expedition into Britain, where the Romans were in
+danger of being destroyed, or compelled to fly the province. After
+appointing his two sons, Caracal'la and Ge'ta, joint successors in the
+empire, and taking them with him, he landed in Britain, A.D. 208, to
+the great terror of such as had drawn down his resentment. 14. Upon
+his progress into the country, he left his son Ge'ta in the southern
+part of the province, which had continued in obedience, and marched,
+with his son Caracal'la, against the Caledo'nians. 15. In this
+expedition, his army suffered prodigious hardships in pursuing the
+enemy; they were obliged to hew their way through intricate forests,
+to drain extensive marshes, and form bridges over rapid rivers; so
+that he lost fifty thousand men by fatigue and sickness. 16. However,
+he surmounted these inconveniences with unremitting bravery, and
+prosecuted his successes with such vigour, that he compelled the enemy
+to beg for peace; which they did not obtain without the surrender of a
+considerable part of their country. 17. It was then that, for its
+better security, he built the famous wall, which still goes by his
+name, extending from Solway Frith on the west, to the German Ocean on
+the east. He did not long survive his successes here, but died at
+York, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, after an active, though
+cruel reign of about eighteen years.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C.964 A.D.211]
+
+18. Caracal'la and Ge'ta, his sons, being acknowledged as emperors by
+the army, began to show a mutual hatred to each other, even before
+their arrival at Rome. But this opposition was of no long continuance;
+for Caracal'la, being resolved to govern alone, furiously entered
+Ge'ta's apartment, and, followed by ruffians, slew him in his mother's
+arms. 19. Being thus sole emperor, he went on to mark his course with
+blood. Whatever was done by Domi'tian or Ne'ro, fell short of this
+monster's barbarities.[2]
+
+[Illustration: Massacre of the Alexandrians.]
+
+20. His tyrannies at length excited the resentment of Macri'nus, the
+commander of the forces in Mesopota'mia who employed one Mar'tial, a
+man of great strength, and a centurion of the guards, to dispatch him.
+21. Accordingly, as the emperor was riding out one day, near a little
+city called Carrae, he happened to withdraw himself privately, upon a
+natural occasion, with only one page to hold his horse. This was the
+opportunity Mar'tial had so long and ardently desired: when, running
+to him hastily, as if he had been called, he stabbed the emperor in
+the back, and killed him instantly. 22. Having performed this hardy
+attempt, he, with apparent unconcern, returned to his troop; but,
+retiring by insensible degrees, he endeavoured to secure himself by
+flight. His companions, however, soon missing him, and the page giving
+information of what had been done, he was pursued by the German horse,
+and cut in pieces.
+
+23. During the reign of this execrable tyrant, which continued six
+years, the empire was every day declining; the soldiers were entirely
+masters of every election; and as there were various armies in
+different parts, so there were as many interests opposed to each
+other.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C.970 A.D.217]
+
+24. The soldiers, after remaining without an emperor two days, fixed
+upon Macri'nus, who took all possible methods to conceal his being
+privy to Caracal'la's murder. The senate confirmed their choice
+shortly after; and likewise that of his son, Diadumenia'nus, whom he
+took as partner in the empire. 25. Macri'nus was fifty-three
+years old when he entered upon the government. He was of obscure
+parentage; some say by birth a Moor, who, by the mere gradation of
+office, being made first prefect of the praetorian bands, was now, by
+treason and accident, called to fill the throne.
+
+26. He was opposed by the intrigues of Mosa, and her grandson
+Heliogaba'lus; and being conquered by some seditious legions of his
+own army, he fled to Chalcedon,[3] where those who were sent in
+pursuit overtook him, and put him to death, together with his son
+Diadumenia'nus, after a short reign of one year and two months.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C.971 A.D.218]
+
+27. The senate and citizens of Rome being obliged to submit, as usual,
+to the appointment of the army, Heliogaba'lus ascended the throne at
+the age of fourteen. His short life was a mixture of effeminacy, lust,
+and extravagance. 28. He married six wives in the short space of four
+years, and divorced them all. He was so fond of the sex, that he
+carried his mother with him to the senate-house, and demanded that she
+should always be present when matters of importance were debated. He
+even went so far as to build a senate-house for women, appointing them
+suitable orders, habits and distinctions, of which his mother was made
+president. 29. They met several times; all their debates turned upon
+the fashions of the day, and the different formalities to be used at
+giving and receiving visits. To these follies he added cruelty and
+boundless prodigality; he used to say, that such dishes as were
+cheaply obtained were scarcely worth eating.
+
+30. However, his soldiers mutinying, as was now usual with them, they
+followed him to his palace, pursuing him from apartment to apartment,
+till at last he was found concealed in a closet. Having dragged him
+from thence through the streets, with the most bitter invectives, and
+dispatched him, they attempted once more to squeeze his pampered body
+into a closet; but not easily effecting this, they threw it into the
+Tiber, with heavy weights, that none might afterwards find it, or give
+it burial. This was the ignominious death of Heliogaba'lus, in the
+eighteenth year of his age, after a detestable reign of four
+years.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Who succeeded Didius Julianus?
+
+2. What was the character of Severus?
+
+3. By what means did he strengthen his power?
+
+4. What were his first acts?
+
+5. To whom did he commit the government in his absence?
+
+6. What were his exploits?
+
+7. How did Plautian conduct himself in this important post?
+
+8. How was this treachery discovered?
+
+9. How was this effected?
+
+10. Did Plautian fall into the snare?
+
+11. How did he act on the occasion?
+
+12. Was he pardoned?
+
+13. How did Severus next employ himself?
+
+14. What were his first measures in Britain?
+
+15. Was it a difficult campaign?
+
+16. Did he overcome these difficulties?
+
+17. What famous work did he execute, and where did he die?
+
+18. Who succeeded him, and how did the two emperors regard each
+other?
+
+19. What was the conduct of Caracalla on thus becoming sole
+emperor?
+
+20. Were these cruelties tamely suffered?
+
+21. How was this effected?
+
+22. Did the assassin escape?
+
+23. What was the state of the empire during this reign?
+
+24. Who succeeded Caracalla?
+
+25. Who was Macrinus?
+
+26. By whom was he opposed, and what was his fate?
+
+27. How did Heliogabalus govern?
+
+28. Give a few instances of his folly?
+
+29. Did they enter into his views, and of what farther follies and vices
+was he guilty?
+
+30. What was his end?
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+  I know that there are angry spirits
+  And turbulent mutterers of stifled treason,
+  Who lurk in narrow places, and walk out
+  Muffled, to whisper curses in the night;
+  Disbanded soldiers, discontented ruffians,
+  And desperate libertines who brawl in taverns.--_Byron_.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 975 A.D. 222]
+
+1. Heliogaba'lus was succeeded by Alexander, his cousin-german,[4]
+who, being declared emperor without opposition, the senate, with their
+usual adulation, were for conferring new titles upon him; but he
+modestly declined them all. 2. To the most rigid justice he added the
+greatest humanity. He loved the good, and was a severe reprover of the
+lewd and infamous. His accomplishments were equal to his virtues. He
+was an excellent mathematician, geometrician, and musician; he
+was equally skilful in painting and sculpture; and in poetry few of
+his time could equal him. In short, such were his talents, and such
+the solidity of his judgment, that though but sixteen years of age, he
+was considered equal in wisdom to a sage old man.
+
+3. About the thirteenth year of his reign the Upper Germans, and other
+northern nations, began to pour down in immense swarms upon the more
+southern parts of the empire. They passed the Rhine and the Danube
+with such fury, that all Italy was thrown into the most extreme
+consternation. 4. The emperor, ever ready to expose his person for the
+safety of his people, made what levies he could, and went in person to
+stem the torrent, which he speedily effected. It was in the course of
+his successes against the enemy that he was cut off by a mutiny among
+his own soldiers. He died in the twenty-ninth year of his age, after a
+prosperous reign of thirteen years and nine days.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C.988 A.D.235]
+
+5. The tumults occasioned by the death of Alexander being appeased,
+Max'imin, who had been the chief promoter of the sedition, was chosen
+emperor. 6. This extraordinary man, whose character deserves a
+particular attention, was born of very obscure parentage, being the
+son of a poor herdsman of Thrace. He followed his father's humble
+profession, and had exercised his personal courage against the robbers
+who infested that part of the country in which he lived. Soon after,
+his ambition increasing, he left his poor employment and enlisted in
+the Roman army, where he soon became remarkable for his great
+strength, discipline, and courage. 7. This gigantic man, we are told,
+was eight feet and a half high; he had strength corresponding to his
+size, being not more remarkable for the magnitude than the symmetry of
+his person. His wife's bracelet usually served him for a thumb ring,
+and his strength was so great that he was able to draw a carriage
+which two oxen could not move. He could strike out the teeth of a
+horse with a blow of his fist, and break its thigh with a kick. 8. His
+diet was as extraordinary as his endowments: he generally ate forty
+pounds weight of flesh every day, and drank six gallons of wine,
+without committing any debauch in either. 9. With a frame so athletic,
+he was possessed of a mind undaunted in danger, neither fearing nor
+regarding any man. 10. The first time he was made known to the emperor
+Seve'rus, was while he was celebrating games on the birth day of
+his son Ge'ta. He overcame sixteen in running, one after the other; he
+then kept up with the emperor on horseback, and having fatigued him in
+the course, he was opposed to seven of the most active soldiers, and
+overcame them with the greatest ease. 11. These extraordinary exploits
+caused him to be particularly noticed; he had been taken into the
+emperor's body guard, and by the usual gradation of preferment came to
+be chief commander. In this situation he had been equally remarkable
+for his simplicity, discipline, and virtue; but, upon coming to the
+empire, he was found to be one of the greatest monsters of cruelty
+that had ever disgraced power; fearful of nothing himself, he seemed
+to sport with the terrors of all mankind.
+
+12. However, his cruelties did not retard his military operations,
+which were carried on with a spirit becoming a better monarch. He
+overthrew the Germans in several battles, wasted all their country
+with fire and sword for four hundred miles together, and formed a
+resolution of subduing all the northern nations, as far as the ocean.
+13. In these expeditions, in order to attach the soldiers more firmly
+to him, he increased their pay; and in every duty of the camp he
+himself took as much pains as the meanest sentinel in his army,
+showing incredible courage and assiduity. In every engagement, where
+the conflict was hottest, Max'imin was seen fighting in person, and
+destroying all before him; for, being bred a barbarian, he considered
+it his duty to combat as a common soldier, while he commanded as a
+general.
+
+14. In the mean time his cruelties had so alienated the minds of his
+subjects, that secret conspiracies were secretly aimed against him.
+None of them, however, succeeded, till at last his own soldiers, long
+harassed by famine and fatigue, and hearing of revolts on every side,
+resolved to terminate their calamities by the tyrant's death. 15. His
+great strength, and his being always armed, at first deterred them
+from assassinating him; but at length the soldiers, having made his
+guards accomplices in their designs, set upon him while he slept at
+noon in his tent, and without opposition slew both him and his son,
+whom he had made his partner in the empire. 16. Thus died this most
+remarkable man, after an usurpation of about three years, in the
+sixty-fifth year of his age. His assiduity when in a humble station,
+and his cruelty when in power, serve to evince, that there are some
+men whose virtues are fitted for obscurity, as there are others
+who only show themselves great when placed in an exalted station.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 991. A.D. 238.]
+
+17. The tyrant being dead, and his body thrown to dogs and birds of
+prey, Pupie'nus and Balbie'nus, who had usurped the imperial purple,
+continued for some time emperors, without opposition. 18. But,
+differing between themselves, the praetorian soldiers, who were the
+enemies of both, set upon them in their palace, at a time when their
+guards were amused with seeing the Capit'oline games; and dragging
+them from the palace towards the camp, slew them both, leaving their
+dead bodies in the street, as a dreadful instance of unsuccessful
+ambition.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 991. A.D. 238.]
+
+19. In the midst of this sedition, as the mutineers were proceeding
+along, they by accident met Gor'dian, the grandson of him who was
+slain in Africa: him they declared emperor on the spot. 20. This
+prince was but sixteen years old when he began to reign, but his
+virtues seemed to compensate for his want of experience. His principal
+aims were to unite the opposing members of government, and to
+reconcile the soldiers and citizens to each other. 21. The army,
+however, began as usual to murmur; and their complaints were artfully
+fomented by Philip, an Arabian, who was praetorian prefect, and aspired
+to the sovereignty. Things thus proceeded from bad to worse. 22.
+Philip was at first made equal to Gor'dian in the command of the
+empire; shortly after he was invested with the sole power; and at
+length, finding himself capable of perpetrating his long meditated
+cruelty, Gor'dian was by his order slain, in the twenty-second year of
+his age, after a successful reign of nearly six years.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Who succeeded Heliogabalus?
+
+2. What was his character?
+
+3. Was his reign peaceable?
+
+4. How did Alexander act on the occasion?
+
+5. Who succeeded Alexander?
+
+6. Who was Maximin?
+
+7. Describe his person.
+
+8. What farther distinguished him?
+
+9. Was his mind proportioned to his body?
+
+10. How did he attract the notice of Severus?
+
+11. By what means did he attain rank in the army?
+
+12. Was he equally a terror to his foreign enemies?
+
+13. By what means did he gain the confidence of his soldiers?
+
+14. What effect had his cruelties on the minds of his subjects?
+
+15. How did they accomplish their purpose?
+
+16. How long did he reign, and what inference may be drawn from his
+conduct?
+
+17. Who next mounted the imperial throne?
+
+18. What was their end?
+
+19. Who succeeded Pupienus and Balbienus?
+
+20. What were the character and views of this prince?
+
+21. Was his administration approved of by all?
+
+22. Did Philip accomplish his ambitious design?
+
+
+SECTION IV. U.C. 996.--A.D. 243.
+
+  What rein can hold licentious wickedness,
+  When down the hill he holds his fierce career--_Shakspeare_.
+
+1. Philip having thus murdered his benefactor, was so fortunate as to
+be immediately acknowledged emperor by the army. Upon his exaltation
+he associated his son, a boy of six years of age, as his partner in
+the empire; and, in order to secure his power at home, made peace with
+the Persians, and marched his army towards Rome. 2. However, the army
+revolting in favour of De'cius, his general, and setting violently
+upon him, one of his sentinels at a blow cut off his head, or rather
+cleft it asunder, separating the under jaw from the upper. He died in
+the forty-fifth year of his age, after a short reign of about five
+years.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1001. A.D. 248.]
+
+3. De'cius was universally acknowledged as his successor. His activity
+and wisdom seemed, in some measure, to stop the hastening decline of
+the Roman empire. The senate seemed to think so highly of his merits,
+that they voted him not inferior to Tra'jan; and indeed he appeared in
+every instance to consult their dignity, and the welfare of all the
+inferior ranks of people. 4. But no virtues could now prevent the
+approaching downfall of the state; the obstinate disputes between the
+Pagans and the Christians within the empire, and the unceasing
+irruptions of barbarous nations from without, enfeebled it beyond the
+power of remedy. 5. He was killed in an ambuscade of the enemy, in the
+fiftieth year of his age, after a short reign of two years and six
+months.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1004. A.D. 251.]
+
+6. Gal'lus, who had betrayed the Roman army, had address enough to get
+himself declared emperor by that part of it which survived the
+defeat; he was forty-five years old when he began to reign, and
+was descended from an honourable family in Rome. 7. He was the first
+who bought a dishonourable peace from the enemies of the state,
+agreeing to pay a considerable annual tribute to the Goths, whom it
+was his duty to repress. He was regardless of every national calamity,
+and was lost in debauchery and sensuality. The Pagans were allowed a
+power of persecuting the Christians through all parts of the state. 8.
+These calamities were succeeded by a pestilence from heaven, that
+seemed to have spread over every part of the earth, and continued
+raging for several years, in an unheard-of manner; as well as by a
+civil war, which followed shortly after between Gallus and his general
+AEmilia'nus, who, having gained a victory over the Goths, was
+proclaimed emperor by his conquering army. 9. Gallus hearing this,
+soon roused from the intoxications of pleasure, and prepared to oppose
+his dangerous rival: but both he and his son were slain by AEmilia'nus,
+in a battle fought in Mossia. His death was merited, and his vices
+were such as to deserve the detestation of posterity. He died in the
+forty-seventh year of his age, after an unhappy reign of two years and
+four months, in which the empire suffered inexpressible calamities.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1006. A.D. 253.]
+
+10. The senate refused to acknowledge the claims of AEmilia'nus; and an
+army that was stationed near the Alps chose Vale'rian, who was their
+commander, to succeed to the throne. 11. He set about reforming the
+state with a spirit that seemed to mark a good and vigorous mind. But
+reformation was now grown almost impracticable. 12. The Persians under
+their king Sapor, invading Syr'ia, took the unfortunate Vale'rian
+prisoner, as he was making preparations to oppose them; and the
+indignities as well as the cruelties, which were practised upon this
+unhappy monarch, thus fallen into the hands of his enemies, are almost
+incredible. 13. Sapor, we are told, used him as a footstool for
+mounting his horse; he added the bitterness of ridicule to his
+insults, and usually observed, that an attitude like that to which
+Vale'rian was reduced, was the best statue that could be erected in
+honour of his victory. 14. This horrid life of insult and sufferance
+continued for seven years; and was at length terminated by the cruel
+Persian commanding his prisoner's eyes to be plucked out, and
+afterwards causing him to be flayed alive.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1012. A.D. 259.]
+
+15. When Vale'rian was taken prisoner, Galie'nus, his son, promising
+to revenge the insult, was chosen emperor, being then about
+forty-one years old. However, it was soon discovered that he sought
+rather the splendours than the toils of empire; for, after having
+overthrown Ingen'uus, who had assumed the title of emperor, he sat
+down, as if fatigued with conquest, and gave himself up to ease and
+luxury. 16. At this time, no less than thirty pretenders were seen
+contending with each other for the dominion of the state, and adding
+the calamities of civil war to the rest of the misfortunes of this
+devoted empire. These are usually mentioned in history by the name of
+the thirty tyrants. 17. In this general calamity, Galie'nus, though at
+first seemingly insensible, was at length obliged for his own security
+to take the field, and led an army to besiege the city of Milan, which
+had been taken by one of the thirty usurping tyrants. In this
+expedition he was slain by his own soldiers: Mar'tian, one of his
+generals, having conspired against him.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1021. A.D. 268.]
+
+18. Fla'vius Clau'dius being nominated to succeed, was joyfully
+accepted by all orders of the state, and his title confirmed by the
+senate and the people. 19. He was a man of great valour and conduct,
+having performed the most excellent services against the Goths, who
+had long continued to make irruptions into the empire; but, after a
+great victory over that barbarous people, he was seized with a
+pestilential fever at Ser'mium in Panno'nia, of which he died, to the
+great regret of his subjects, and the irreparable loss of the Roman
+empire.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1023. A.D. 270.]
+
+20. Upon the death of Clau'dius, Aure'lian was acknowledged by all the
+states of the empire, and assumed the command with a greater share of
+power than his predecessors had enjoyed for a long time before. 21.
+This active monarch was of mean and obscure parentage in Da'cia, and
+about fifty-five years old at the time of his coming to the throne. He
+had spent the early part of his life in the army, and had risen
+through all the gradations of military rank. He was of unshaken
+courage and amazing strength. He, in one engagement, killed forty of
+the enemy with his own hand; and at different times above nine
+hundred. In short, his valour and expedition were such, that he was
+compared to Julius Caesar; and, in fact, only wanted mildness and
+clemency to be every way his equal. 22. Among those who were compelled
+to submit to his power, was the famous Zeno'bia, queen of Palmy'ra. He
+subdued her country, destroyed her city, and took her prisoner.
+Longi'nus, the celebrated critic, who was secretary to the queen, was
+by Aure'lian's order put to death. Zeno'bia was reserved to grace his
+triumph; and afterwards was allotted such lands, and such an income,
+as served to maintain her in almost her former splendour. 23. But the
+emperor's severities were at last the cause of his own destruction.
+Mnes'theus, his principal secretary, having been threatened by him for
+some fault which he had committed, formed a conspiracy against him,
+and as the emperor passed, with a small guard, from Ura'clea, in
+Thrace, towards Byzan'tium, the conspirators set upon him at once and
+slew him, in the sixtieth year of his age, after a very active reign
+of almost five years.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1028. A.D. 275.]
+
+24. After some time the senate made choice of Ta'citus, a man of great
+merit, and no way ambitious of the honours that were offered him,
+being at that time seventy-five years old. 25. A reign begun with much
+moderation and justice, only wanted continuance to have made his
+subjects happy: but after enjoying the empire about six months, he
+died of a fever in his march to oppose the Persians and Scyth'ians,
+who had invaded the eastern parts of the empire. 26. During this short
+period the senate seemed to have possessed a large share of authority,
+and the histories of the times are liberal of their praises to such
+emperors as were thus willing to divide their power.
+
+27. Upon the death of Ta'citus, his half-brother took upon himself the
+title of emperor, in Cile'sia: but being twice defeated by Pro'bus, he
+killed himself in despair, when the whole army, as if by common
+consent, cried out that Pro'bus should be emperor. 28. He was then
+forty-four years old; was born of noble parentage, and bred a soldier.
+He began early to distinguish himself for his discipline and valour:
+being frequently the first man that scaled the walls, or that burst
+into the enemy's camp. He was equally remarkable for single combat,
+and for having saved the lives of many eminent citizens. Nor were his
+activity and courage when elected to the empire less apparent than in
+his private station. 29. Every year now produced new calamities to the
+state; and fresh irruptions on every side threatened universal
+desolation. Perhaps at this time no abilities, except those of
+Pro'bus, were capable of opposing such united invasions. 30. However,
+in the end, his own mutinous soldiers, taking their opportunity, as he
+was marching into Greece, seized and slew him, after he had reigned
+six years and four months with general approbation. He was
+succeeded by Ca'rus.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Did Philip succeed without opposition?
+
+2. Was his reign of long duration?
+
+3. What was the character of Decius?
+
+4. Did he restore the empire to its former grandeur?
+
+5. What was his end?
+
+6. Who succeeded him?
+
+7. What was his character?
+
+8. What farther calamities distinguished this reign?
+
+9. What effect had this news on Gallus?
+
+10. Who succeeded Gallus?
+
+11. What were his first acts and their effects?
+
+12. What disaster befel him?
+
+13. How was he treated in captivity?
+
+14. Did he long survive this cruelty?
+
+15. Who succeeded him?
+
+16. Was Galienus the only pretender to the throne?
+
+17. What measures did Galienus adopt on this?
+
+18. Who succeeded Galienus?
+
+19. What were his character and end?
+
+20. Who succeeded Claudius?
+
+21. Who was Aurelian?
+
+22. Over whom did he triumph?
+
+23. What occasioned his destruction?
+
+24. Who succeeded Aurelian?
+
+25. Did he govern well?
+
+26. What distinguished his reign?
+
+27. Who succeeded Tacitus?
+
+28. What were the qualifications of Probus?
+
+29. What was the state of the empire at this time?
+
+30. What was the end of Probus?
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+U.C. 1035.--A.D. 282.
+
+  Forbid it, gods! when barbarous Scythians come
+  From their cold north to prop declining Rome.
+  That I should see her fall, and sit secure at home.--_Lucan_.
+
+1. Ca'rus, who was praetorian prefect to the deceased emperor, was
+chosen by the army to succeed him; and he, to strengthen his
+authority, united his two sons, Cari'nus and Nume'rian, with him in
+command; the elder of whom was as much sullied by his vices, as the
+younger was remarkable for his virtues, his modesty, and courage.
+
+2. The next object of Ca'rus was to punish the murderers of
+Pro'bus, and procure public tranquillity. Several nations of the west
+having revolted, he sent his son Cari'nus against them, and advanced
+himself against the Sarma'tians, whom he defeated, with the loss of
+sixteen thousand men killed, and twenty thousand prisoners. Soon after
+this he entered Persia, and removed to Mesopota'mia. Vera'nes the
+second, king of Persia, advancing against him, was defeated, and lost
+Ctes'iphon, his capital. This conquest gained Ca'rus the surname of
+Per'sieus; but he had not enjoyed it long, when he was struck dead, by
+lightning, in his tent, with many of his attendants, after a reign of
+about sixteen months. Upon the death of Ca'rus, the imperial power
+devolved on his sons Cari'nus and Nume'rian, who reigned jointly. In
+the first year of their accession, having made peace with the
+Persians, Cari'nus advanced against Ju'lian, who had caused himself to
+be proclaimed in Vene'tia,[5] and whom he defeated; when he returned
+again into Gaul.
+
+3. Cari'nus was at this time in Gaul, but Nume'rian, the younger son,
+who accompanied his father in his expedition was inconsolable for his
+death, and brought such a disorder upon his eyes, with weeping, that
+he was obliged to be carried along with the army, shut up in a close
+litter. 4. The peculiarity of his situation, after some time, excited
+the ambition of A'per, his father-in-law, who supposed that he could
+now, without any great danger, aim at the empire himself. He therefore
+hired a mercenary villain to murder the emperor in his litter; and,
+the better to conceal the fact, gave out that he was still alive, but
+unable to endure the light. 5. The offensive smell, however, of the
+body, at length discovered the treachery, and excited an universal
+uproar throughout the whole army. 6. In the midst of this tumult,
+Diocle'sian, one of the most noted commanders of his time, was chosen
+emperor, and with his own hand slew A'per, having thus, as it is said,
+fulfilled a prophecy, that Diocle'sian should be emperor after he had
+slain a boar.[6]
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1057. A.D. 284.]
+
+7. Diocle'sian was a person of mean birth; he received his name from
+Dio'clea, the town in which he was born, and was about forty years old
+when he was elected to the empire. He owed his exaltation entirely to
+his merit; having passed through all the gradations of office with
+sagacity, courage, and success.
+
+8. In his time, the northern hive, as it was called poured down
+its swarms of barbarians upon the Roman empire. Ever at war with the
+Romans, they issued forth whenever that army that was to repress their
+invasions was called away; and upon its return, they as suddenly
+withdrew into their cold, barren, and inaccessible retreats, which
+themselves alone could endure. 9. In this manner the Scyth'ians,
+Goths, Sarma'tians, Ala'ni, Car'sii, and Qua'di, came down in
+incredible numbers, while every defeat seemed but to increase their
+strength and perseverance. 10. After gaining many victories over
+these, and in the midst of his triumphs, Diocle'sian and Maxim'ian,
+his partners in the empire, surprised the world by resigning their
+dignities on the same day, and both retiring into private stations.
+11. In this manner Diocle'sian lived some time, and at length died
+either by poison or madness, but by which of them is uncertain. His
+reign of twenty years was active and useful; and his authority, which
+was tinctured with severity, was adapted to the depraved state of
+morals at that time.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1057. A.D. 304.]
+
+12. Upon the resignation of the two emperors, the two Caesars, whom
+they had before chosen, were universally acknowledged as their
+successors, namely, Constan'tius Chlo'rus, so called from the paleness
+of his complexion, a man virtuous, valiant, and merciful; and
+Gele'rius, who was brave, but brutal, incontinent and cruel. 13. As
+there was such a disparity in their tempers, they readily agreed, upon
+coming into full power, to divide the empire. Constan'tius was
+appointed to govern the western parts, and died at York, in Britain,
+A.D. 396, appointing Con'stantine, his son, as his successor.
+Gale'rius was seized with a very extraordinary disorder, which baffled
+the skill of his physicians, and carried him off.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1064. A.D. 311.]
+
+14. Con'stantine, afterwards surnamed the Great, had some competitors
+at first for the throne.--Among the rest was Maxen'tius, who was at
+that time in possession of Rome, and a stedfast assertor of Paganism.
+15. It was in Constantine's march against that usurper, we are told,
+that he was converted to Christianity, by a very extraordinary
+appearance. 16. One evening, the army being on its march towards Rome,
+Constantine was intent on various considerations upon the fate of
+sublunary things, and the dangers of his approaching expedition.
+Sensible of his own incapacity to succeed without divine assistance,
+he employed his meditations upon the opinions that were then
+agitated among mankind, and sent up his ejaculations to heaven to
+inspire him with wisdom to choose the path he should pursue. As the
+sun was declining, there suddenly appeared a pillar of light in the
+heavens, in the fashion of a cross, with this inscription, EN TOTTO
+NIKA, IN THIS OVERCOME. 17. So extraordinary an appearance did not
+fail to create astonishment, both in the emperor and his whole army,
+who reflected on it as their various dispositions led them to believe.
+Those who were attached to Paganism, prompted by their aruspices,
+pronounced it to be a most inauspicious omen, portending the most
+unfortunate events; but it made a different impression on the
+emperor's mind; who, as the account goes, was farther encouraged by
+visions the same night. 18. He, therefore, the day following, caused a
+royal standard to be made, like that which he had seen in the heavens,
+and commanded it to be carried before him in his wars, as an ensign of
+victory and celestial protection. After this he consulted with the
+principal teachers of Christianity, and made a public avowal of that
+holy religion.
+
+19. Con'stantine having thus attached his soldiers to his interest,
+who were mostly of the Christian persuasion, lost no time in entering
+Italy, with ninety thousand foot and eight thousand horse, and soon
+advanced almost to the very gates of Rome. Maxen'tius advanced from
+the city with an army of a hundred and seventy thousand foot, and
+eighteen thousand horse. 20. The engagement was fierce and bloody,
+till the cavalry of the latter being routed, victory declared upon the
+side of his opponent, and he himself was drowned in his flight by the
+breaking down of a bridge, as he attempted to cross the Tiber.
+
+21. In consequence of this victory, Con'stantine entered the city, but
+disclaimed all the praises which the senate and people were ready to
+offer; and ascribed his successes to a superior power. He even caused
+the cross, which he was said to have seen in the heavens, to be placed
+at the right hand of all his statues, with this inscription: "That
+under the influence of that Victorious Cross, Con'stantine had
+delivered the city from the yoke of tyrannical power, and had restored
+the senate, and people of Rome to their ancient authority." He
+afterwards ordained that no criminal should, for the future, suffer
+death upon the cross, which had formerly been the most usual way of
+punishing slaves convicted of capital offences. 22. Edicts were soon
+after issued, declaring that the Christians should be eased of
+all their grievances, and received into places of trust and authority.
+
+23. Things continued in this state for some time. Con'tantine
+contributing every thing in his power to the interest of religion, and
+the revival of learning, which had long been upon the decline, and was
+almost wholly extinct in his dominions. 24. But, in the midst of these
+assiduities, the peace of the empire was again disturbed by the
+preparations of Maxim'ian, who governed in the east; and who, desirous
+of a full participation of power, marched against Licin'ius with a
+very numerous army. 25. In consequence of this step, after many
+conflicts, a general engagement ensued, in which Maxim'ian suffered a
+total defeat; many of his troops were cut to pieces, and those that
+survived submitted to the conqueror. Having, however, escaped the
+general carnage, he put himself at the head of another army, resolving
+to try the fortune of the field; but his death prevented the design.
+26. As he died by a very extraordinary kind of madness, the
+Christians, of whom he was the declared enemy, did not fail to ascribe
+his end to a judgment from heaven. But this was the age in which false
+opinions and false miracles made up the bulk of every history.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. Who succeeded Probus?
+
+2. Mention the actions of Carus, and the manner of his death.
+
+3. How were his sons affected by this catastrophe?
+
+4. What was the consequence?
+
+5. How was this atrocious act discovered?
+
+6. Did Aper reap the reward of his treachery?
+
+7. Who was Dioclesian?
+
+8. By whom was the empire now invaded?
+
+9. Were they effectually repelled?
+
+10. What remarkable event now occurred?
+
+11. What was the end of Dioclesian?
+
+12. Who succeeded Dioclesian and Maximian?
+
+13. How did they conduct the administration?
+
+14. Did Constantine succeed without any opposition?
+
+15. Did not a remarkable occurrence happen about this time?
+
+16. Repeat the particulars.
+
+17. What effect had this appearance on the emperor and his men?
+
+18. What orders did he issue in consequence?
+
+19. What was the respective strength of the hostile armies?
+
+20. What was the result of the engagement?
+
+21. What use did Constantine make of his victory?
+
+22. What edicts did he publish on the occasion?
+
+23. How was Constantine employed after this?
+
+24. Did the peace long continue?
+
+25. What was the consequence?
+
+26. To what was his death ascribed?
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+                     A crown? what is it?
+  It is to bear the miseries of a people!
+  To hear their murmurs, feel their discontents,
+  And sink beneath a load of splendid care!
+  To have your best success ascribed to Fortune.
+  And Fortune's failures all ascribed to you!
+  It is to sit upon a joyless height,
+  To every blast of changing fate exposed!
+  Too high for hope! too great for happiness!--_H. More_.
+
+1. Con'stantine and Licin'ius thus remaining undisputed possessors of,
+and partners in the empire, all things promised a peaceable
+continuance of friendship and power. 2. However, it was soon found
+that the same ambition that aimed after a part, would be content with
+nothing less than the whole. Pagan writers ascribe the rupture between
+these two potentates to Con'stantine; while the Christians, on the
+other hand, impute it wholly to Licin'ius. 3. Both sides exerted all
+their power to gain the ascendancy; and at the head of very formidable
+armies came to an engagement near Cy'balis, in Panno'nia. 4.
+Con'stantine, previous to the battle, in the midst of his Christian
+bishops, begged the assistance of heaven; while Licin'ius, with equal
+zeal, called upon the Pagan priests to intercede with the gods in
+their favour. 5. The success was on the side of truth. Con'stantine,
+after experiencing an obstinate resistance, became victorious, took
+the enemy's camp, and after some time compelled Licin'ius to sue for a
+truce, which was agreed upon. 6. But this was of no long continuance;
+for, soon after, the war breaking out afresh, the rivals came once
+more to a general engagement, and it proved decisive. Licin'ius was
+entirely defeated, and pursued by Con'stantine into Nicome'dia, where
+he surrendered himself up to the victor; having first obtained an oath
+that his life should be spared, and that he should be permitted to
+pass the remainder of his days in retirement. 7. This, however,
+Con'stantine shortly after broke; for either fearing his designs, or
+finding him actually engaged in fresh conspiracies, he commanded him
+to be put to death, together with Mar'tian, his general, who some time
+before had been created Caesar.
+
+8. Con'stantine being thus become sole monarch, resolved to establish
+Christianity on so sure a basis that no new revolution should shake
+it. He commanded that, in all the provinces of the empire, the orders
+of the bishops should he implicitly obeyed. He called also a general
+council, in order to repress the heresies that had already crept
+into the church, particularly that of A'rius. 9. To this council, at
+which he presided in person, repaired about three hundred and eighteen
+bishops, besides a multitude of presbyters and deacons; who all,
+except about seventeen, concurred in condemning the tenets of A'rius,
+who, with his associates, was banished into a remote part of the
+empire.
+
+10. Thus he restored universal tranquillity to his dominions, but was
+not able to ward off calamities of a more domestic nature. As the
+wretched historians of this period are entirely at variance with each
+other, it is not easy to explain the motives which induced him to put
+his wife Faus'ta, and his son Cris'pus, to death.
+
+11. But it is supposed, that all the good he did was not equal to the
+evil the empire sustained by his transferring the imperial seat from
+Rome to Byzan'tium, or Constantino'ple, as it was afterwards called.
+12. Whatever might have been the reasons which induced him to this
+undertaking; whether it was because he was offended at some affronts
+he had received at Rome, or that he supposed Constantino'ple more in
+the centre of the empire, or that he thought the eastern parts more
+required his presence, experience has shown that they were all weak
+and groundless. 13. The empire had long before been in a most
+declining state: but this, in a great measure, gave precipitation to
+its downfall. After this, it never resumed its former splendour, but,
+like a flower transplanted into a foreign clime, languished by
+degrees, and at length sunk into nothing.
+
+14. At first, his design was to build a city, which he might make the
+capital of the world: and for this purpose he made choice of a
+situation at Chal'cedon, in Asia Minor; but we are told that, in
+laying out the ground plan, an eagle caught up the line, and flew with
+it over to Byzan'tium, a city which lay on the opposite side of the
+Bosphorus. 15. Here, therefore, it was thought expedient to fix the
+seat of empire; and, indeed, nature seemed to have formed it with all
+the conveniences, and all the beauties which might induce power to
+make it the seat of residence.
+
+16. It was situated on a plain, that rose gently from the water: it
+commanded that strait which unites the Mediterranean with the Euxine
+sea, and was furnished with all the advantages which the most
+indulgent climate could bestow.
+
+[Sidenote: U.C. 1084. A.D. 330.]
+
+17. The city, therefore, he beautified with the most magnificent
+edifices; he divided it into fourteen regions; built a capitol,
+an amphitheatre, many churches, and other public works; and having
+thus rendered it equal to the magnificence of his first idea, he
+dedicated it in a very solemn manner to the God of martyrs; and in
+about two years after repaired thither with his whole court.
+
+18. This removal produced no immediate alteration in the government of
+the empire. The inhabitants of Rome, though with reluctance, submitted
+to the change; nor was there, for two or three years, any disturbance
+in the state, until at length the Goths, finding that the Romans had
+withdrawn all their garrisons along the Danube, renewed their inroads,
+and ravaged the country with unheard-of cruelty. 19. Con'stantine,
+however, soon repressed their incursions, and so straitened them, that
+nearly a hundred thousand of their number perished by cold and hunger.
+
+20. Another great error ascribed to him is, the dividing the empire
+among his sons. Con'stantine, the emperor's eldest son, commanded in
+Gaul and the western provinces; Constan'tius, the second, governed
+Africa and Illyr'icum; and Con'stans, the youngest, ruled in Italy.
+21. This division of the empire still further contributed to its
+downfall; for the united strength of the state being no longer brought
+to repress invasion, the barbarians fought with superior numbers, and
+conquered at last, though often defeated. When Con'stantine was above
+sixty years old, and had reigned about thirty, he found his health
+decline.
+
+22. His disorder, which was an ague, increasing, he went to
+Nicome'dia, where, finding himself without hopes of a recovery, he
+caused himself to be baptised. He soon after received the sacrament,
+and expired.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the state of the empire at this period?
+
+2. Was this peace lasting, and by whom was it broken?
+
+3. Was the contest likely to be vigorous?
+
+4. In what way did the two emperors prepare for the conflict?
+
+5. What was the result?
+
+6. Was this truce religiously observed?
+
+7. Did Constantine fulfil his engagement?
+
+8. What was Constantine's resolution on becoming sole monarch, and
+what steps did he take?
+
+9. By whom was it attended, and what was the result?
+
+10. Was he happy in his domestic relations? 11. Was the removal
+of the seat of the empire beneficial to the state?
+
+12. Were his reasons for doing so well grounded?
+
+13. What was the consequence?
+
+14. What was his original intention, and what induced him to alter it?
+
+15. Was it a Convenient spot?
+
+16. Describe its situation.
+
+17. What alteration did he make, and to whom was it dedicated?
+
+18. What was the immediate effect of this transfer?
+
+19. Were they vigorously opposed?
+
+20. Of what error is Constantine accused besides?
+
+21. What was the consequence of this division?
+
+22. Relate the particulars of his death.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Com'modus was the first emperor that was born in his father's
+reign, and the second that succeeded his father in the empire.
+
+[2] Being offended by the Alexan'drians, he commanded them to be put
+to the sword without distinction of sex, age, or condition; every
+house was filled with carcases, and the streets were obstructed with
+dead bodies; this was merely in revenge for some lampoons they had
+published against him.
+
+[3] A city of Bithyn'ia, in Asia Minor, opposite to Constantinople.
+
+[4] A Term generally applied to the children of brothers or sisters.
+
+[5] Now called Venice.
+
+[6] A'per signifies a boar.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Dr. Goldsmith having concluded his History too abruptly, it has been
+thought advisable to cancel his last Chapter, and substitute the
+following brief notice of the events which occurred from the death of
+Constantine to the final extinction of the Empire of the West._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF CONSTANTINE TO THE RE-UNION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+UNDER THEODOSIUS THE GREAT.
+
+                        Talents, angel bright.
+  If wanting worth, are shining instruments
+  In false ambition's hands, to finish faults
+  Illustrious, and give infamy renown.--_Young_.
+
+1. The character of the prince who removed the seat of empire and made
+a complete revolution in the civil and religious institutions of his
+country, is naturally one on which the opinions of historians are
+divided, according to their sentiments respecting the great changes
+that he effected. The heathen writers describe him as a monster of
+tyranny; the Christian fathers are anxious to conceal his faults and
+exaggerate his virtues, as if the nature of Christianity was in some
+degree affected by the character of its first and greatest patron. The
+truth is, that the character of Constantine, like that of other great
+conquerors, varied with the circumstances of his life. While engaged
+in the contest for empire, while employed in making unparalleled
+political changes, he displayed the fortitude of a hero, and wisdom of
+a legislator; but when complete success reduced him to inactivity,
+when his vigorous mind was no longer stimulated by fear or hope,
+prosperity roused all his bad passions by affording an opportunity for
+their indulgence; and the virtues which had insured victory
+disappeared when there was no longer any stimulus to rouse them into
+action. The fourteen years of profound peace that preceded the
+emperor's death, form a period of great external splendour, but of
+real and rapid decay; the court was distinguished at once by avarice
+and prodigality; the money raised by heavy taxes, unknown in former
+ages, was lavished on unworthy favourites or wasted in idle
+exhibitions of magnificence. 2. A mind relaxed by prosperity is
+peculiarly open to suspicion; the ears of the monarch were greedily
+lent to every tale brought to him by malignant spies and informers;
+such encouragement increased the number of those wretches; every
+street and almost every house in the capital, contained some one ever
+on the watch to pick up any unguarded expression which might be
+distorted into treason or sedition. It was not likely that a monarch
+who had consented to the murder of his own son, on the most groundless
+charges, would be more merciful to those who had no natural claims
+upon his forbearance; execution followed execution with fearful
+rapidity, until the bonds of society were broken, and every man
+dreaded his neighbour, lest by misinterpreting a word or look, he
+should expose him to the indiscriminate cruelty of the sovereign.
+
+3. The example of their father's tyranny produced an effect on the
+minds of his sons, which no education, however excellent or judicious,
+could remove. Pious Christian pastors, learned philosophers, and
+venerable sages of the law, were employed to instruct the three
+princes, Constanti'ne, Constan'tius, and Con'stans; but the effects of
+their labours never appeared in the lives of their pupils.
+
+4. For some reasons which it is now impossible to discover, the great
+Constantine had raised two of his nephews to the rank of princes, and
+placed them on an equality with his own children. Before the emperor's
+body was consigned to the tomb, this impolitic arrangement brought
+destruction on the entire Flavian family. A forged scroll was produced
+by the bishop of Nicome'dia, purporting to be Constantine's last will,
+in which he accused his brothers of having given him poison, and
+besought his sons to avenge his death. 5. Constan'tius eagerly
+embraced such an opportunity of destroying the objects of his
+jealousy; his two uncles, seven of his cousins, the patrician
+Opta'lus, who married the late emperor's sister, and the prefect
+Abla'vius, whose chief crime was enormous wealth, were subjected to a
+mock trial, and delivered to the executioner. Of so numerous a
+family Gal'lus and Julian alone were spared; they owed their
+safety to their concealment, until the rage of the assassins had
+abated. 6. After this massacre, the three brothers, similar in name,
+and more alike in crime, proceeded to divide their father's dominions:
+Constantine took for his share the new capital and the central
+provinces; Thrace and the East were assigned to Constan'tius;
+Con'stans received Italy, Africa, and the western Illy'ricum.
+
+7. The weakness produced by this division encouraged the enemies of
+the Romans, whom the dread of Constantine's power had hitherto kept
+quiet, to take up arms. Of these the most formidable was Sa'por king
+of Persia. 8. The abilities of Sapor showed that he merited a throne;
+he had scarcely arrived at maturity when he led an army against Tha'ir
+king of Arabia, who had harassed Persia during his minority; the
+expedition was completely successful. Tha'ir was slain, and the
+kingdom subdued. The young conqueror did not abuse his victory; he
+treated the vanquished with such clemency, that the Arabs gave him the
+title of _Doulacnaf_ or protector of the nation.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 338.]
+
+9. On the death of Constantine, Sa'por invaded the eastern provinces
+of the Roman empire; he was vigorously opposed by Constan'tius, and
+the war was protracted during several years with varying fortune. At
+the battle of Sin'gara, the Romans surprised the Persian camp, but
+were in their turn driven from it with great slaughter by the troops
+which Sapor had rallied. The eldest son of the Persian king was,
+however, brought off as a prisoner by the Romans, and the barbarous
+Constan'tius ordered him to be scourged, tortured, and publicly
+executed. 10. Though Sa'por had been victorious in the field, he
+failed in his chief design of seizing the Roman fortresses in
+Mesopota'mia; during twelve years he repeatedly besieged Ni'sibis,
+which had been long the great eastern bulwark of the empire, but was
+invariably baffled by the strength of the place, and the valour of the
+garrison. At length both parties became wearied of a struggle which
+exhausted their resources, and new enemies appearing, they resolved to
+conclude a peace. Sa'por returned home to repel an invasion of the
+Scythians; Constan'tius, by the death of his two brothers, found
+himself involved in a civil war which required his undivided
+attention.
+
+11. Constan'tine had scarcely been seated on his throne, when he
+attempted to wrest from Con'stans some of the provinces which had
+been assigned as his portion. He rashly led his army over the Julian
+Alps, and devastated the country round Aquile'ia where, falling into
+an ambuscade, he perished ingloriously. Con'stans seized on the
+inheritance of the deceased prince, and retained it during ten years,
+obstinately refusing to give any share to his brother Constan'tius.
+12. But the tyranny of Con'stans at last became insupportable.
+Magnen'tius, an enterprising general, proclaimed himself emperor, and
+his cause was zealously embraced by the army. Con'stans was totally
+unprepared for this insurrection; deserted by all except a few
+favourites, whom dread of the popular hatred they had justly incurred
+prevented from desertion, he attempted to escape into Spain, but was
+overtaken at the foot of the Pyrenees, and murdered. 13. The
+prefectures of Gaul and Italy cheerfully submitted to the usurpation
+of Magnen'tius; but the legions of Illyr'icum elected their general,
+Vetra'nio, emperor, and his usurpation was sanctioned by the princess
+Constanti'na, who, regardless of her brother's rights, placed the
+diadem upon his head with her own hands. 14. The news of these events
+hastened the return of Constan'tius to Europe; on his arrival at the
+capital, he received embassies from the two usurpers, offering terms
+of accommodation; he rejected the terms of Magnen'tius with disdain,
+but entered into a negociation with Vetra'nio. The Illyrian leader,
+though a good general, was a bad politician; he allowed himself to be
+duped by long discussions, until the greater part of his army had been
+gained over by Constan'tius; he then consented to a personal
+interview, and had the mortification to see his soldiers, with one
+accord, range themselves under the banners of their lawful sovereign.
+Vetra'nio immediately fell at the feet of Constan'tius, and tendered
+his homage, which was cheerfully accepted; he was not only pardoned,
+but rewarded; the city of Pru'sa, in Bythnia, was allotted to him as a
+residence, and a pension assigned for his support. 15. The war against
+Magnen'tius was maintained with great obstinacy, but at first with
+little success; the emperor was confined in his fortified camp, while
+the troops of the usurper swept the surrounding country, and captured
+several important posts. Constan'tius was so humbled, that he even
+proposed a treaty, but the terms on which Magnen'tius insisted were so
+insulting, that the emperor determined to encounter the hazard of a
+battle. Scarcely had he formed this resolution, when his army was
+strengthened by the accession of Sylva'nus, a general of some
+reputation, who, with a large body of cavalry, deserted from the
+enemy.
+
+16. The decisive battle between the competitors for the empire, was
+fought under the walls of Mur'sa, a city on the river Drave.
+Magnen'tius attempted to take the place by storm, but was repulsed;
+and almost at the same moment, the imperial legions were seen
+advancing to raise the siege. The army of Magnen'tius consisted of the
+western legions that had already acquired fame in the wars of Gaul;
+with battalions of Germans and other barbarous tribes, that had of
+late years been incorporated with the regular forces. In addition to
+the imperial guards, Constan'tius had several troops of those oriental
+archers, whose skill with the bow was so justly celebrated; but far
+the most formidable part of his army were his mail-clad cuirassiers,
+whose scaly armour, and ponderous lances, made their charge almost
+irresistible. The cavalry on the emperor's left wing commenced the
+engagement, and broke through the Gallic legions in the first charge;
+the hardy veterans again rallied, were again charged, and again
+broken; at length, before they could form their lines, the light
+cavalry of the second rank rode, sword in hand, through the gaps made
+by the cuirassiers, and completed their destruction. Meantime, the
+Germans and barbarians stood exposed, with almost naked bodies, to the
+destructive shafts of the oriental archers; whole troops, stung with
+anguish and despair, threw themselves into the rapid stream of the
+Drave, and perished. Ere the sun had set, the army of Magnen'tius was
+irretrievably ruined; fifty-four thousand of the vanquished were
+slain, and the loss of the conquerors is said to have been even
+greater.
+
+17. From this battle the ruin of the Roman empire may be dated; the
+loss of one hundred thousand of its best and bravest soldiers could
+not be repaired, and never again did any emperor possess a veteran
+army equal to that which fell on the fatal plains of Mur'sa. The
+defeat of Magnen'tius induced the Italian and African provinces to
+return to their allegiance; the Gauls, wearied out by the exactions
+which distress forced the usurper to levy, refused to acknowledge his
+authority, and at length his own soldiers raised the cry of "God save
+Constan'tius." To avoid the disgrace of a public execution,
+Magnen'tius committed suicide, and several members of his family
+imitated his example. The victor punished with relentless severity all
+who had shared in the guilt of this rebellion; and several who had
+been compelled to join in it by force shared the fate of those by
+whom it had been planned.
+
+18. The Roman, empire was now once more united under a single monarch;
+but as that prince was wholly destitute of merit, his victory served
+only to establish the reign of worthless favourites. Of these the most
+distinguished was the chamberlain, Euse'bius, whose influence was so
+great that he was considered the master of the emperor; and to whose
+instigation many of the crimes committed by Constan'tius must be
+attributed.
+
+19 Gal'lus and Ju'lian, who had escaped in the general massacre of the
+Flavian family, were detained as prisoners of state in a strong
+castle, which had once been the residence of the kings of Cappado'cia.
+Their education had not been neglected, and they had been assigned a
+household proportionate to the dignity of their birth. At length the
+emergencies of the state compelled Constan'tius to nominate an
+associate in the government of the empire; and Gal'lus now in the
+twenty-fifth year of his age, was summoned from his retirement,
+invested with the title of Caesar, and married to the princess
+Constan'tina. 20. The latter circumstance proved his ruin; stimulated
+by the cruel ambition of his wife, he committed deeds of tyranny,
+which alienated the affections of his subjects, and acts bordering on
+treason, that roused the jealousy of Constan'tius. He was summoned to
+appear at the imperial court to explain his conduct, but was seized on
+his journey, made a close prisoner, and transmitted to Po'la a town in
+Ist'ria, where he was put to death.
+
+21. Julian, the last remnant of the Flavian family, was, through the
+powerful intercession of the empress, spared, and permitted to
+pursue his studies in Athens. In that city, where the Pagan philosophy
+was still publicly taught, the future emperor imbibed the doctrines of
+the heathens, and thus acquired the epithet of Apostate, by which he
+is unenviably known to posterity. Julian was soon recalled from his
+retirement, and elevated to the station which his unfortunate brother
+had enjoyed. His investiture with the royal purple took place at
+Milan, whither Constantius had proceeded to quell a new insurrection
+in the western provinces.
+
+22. Before the emperor returned to the east, he determined to revisit
+the ancient capital; and Rome, after an interval of more than thirty
+years, became for a brief space the residence the sovereign. He
+signalized his visit by presenting to the city an obelisk, which at a
+vast expense he procured to be transported from Egypt. 23. The
+renewed efforts of the Persians and other enemies of the empire in the
+East, recalled Constan'tius to Constantinople, while Julian was
+employed in driving from Gaul the barbarous tribes by which it had
+been invaded. The conduct of the young Caesar, both as a soldier and a
+statesman, fully proved that literary habits do not disqualify a
+person from discharging the duties of active life; he subdued the
+enemies that devastated the country, and forced them to seek refuge in
+their native forests; he administered the affairs of state with so
+much wisdom, temperance, and equity, that he acquired the enthusiastic
+love of his subjects, and richly earned the admiration of posterity.
+24. The unexpected glory obtained by Julian, awakened the jealousy of
+Constan'tius; he sent to demand from him a large body of forces, under
+the pretence that reinforcements were wanting in the East; but the
+soldiers refused to march, and Julian, after some affected delays,
+sanctioned their disobediance. A long negociation, in which there was
+little sincerity on either side, preceded any hostile step; both at
+length began to put their armies in motion, but the horrors of civil
+war were averted by the timely death of Constan'tius, who fell a
+victim to fever, aggravated by his impatience, at a small village near
+Tar'sus in Cili'cia.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the character of Constantine the Great?
+
+2. Did any evil result from the employment of spies?
+
+3. In what manner were the sons of Constantine educated?
+
+4. What conspiracy was formed against part of the imperial family?
+
+5. Did any of the Flavian family escape from the massacre?
+
+6. How was the empire divided between the sons of Constantine?
+
+7. Who was the most formidable enemy of the empire?
+
+8. How did the king of Persia behave in the Arabian war?
+
+9. What were the chief events in the war between Sapor and
+Constantius? 10. How were Sapor and Constantius forced to make peace?
+
+11. What was the fate of the younger Constantine?
+
+12. By whom was Constans dethroned?
+
+13. What parties embraced the cause of Vetranio?
+
+14. How did Constantius treat the Illyrian general?
+
+15. Was Magnentius deserted by any of his forces?
+
+16. What were the circumstances of the battle of Mursa?
+
+17. What important results were occasioned by this great battle?
+
+18. Who was the prime minister of Constantius?
+
+19. Whom did the emperor select as an associate?
+
+20. How was Gallus brought to an untimely end?
+
+21. Where was Julian educated?
+
+22. Did Constantius visit Rome?
+
+23. How did Julian conduct himself in Gaul?
+
+24. What led to the war between Julian and Constantius?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+  To him, as to the bursting levin,
+  Brief, bright, resistless course was given,
+  Till burst the bolt on yonder shore,
+  Burn'd, blaz'd, destroy'd--and was no more.--_Scott_.
+
+1. Julian was in his thirty-second year when by the death of his
+cousin he became undisputed sovereign of the Roman empire; his worst
+error was his apostacy from Christianity; he hated the religion he had
+deserted, and laboured strenuously to substitute in its place an idle
+system which combined the most rational part of the old heathen system
+with the delusive philosophy of the schools. Vanity was his besetting
+sin; he chose to be considered a philosopher rather than a sovereign,
+and to acquire that title he thought fit to reject the decencies of
+this life, and the best guide to that which is to come. A treatise is
+extant from Julian's pen, in which he expatiates with singular
+complacency on the filth of his beard, the length of his nails, and
+the inky blackness of his hands, as if cleanliness was inconsistent
+with the philosophic character! In every other respect, the conduct of
+Julian merits high praise; he was just, merciful, and tolerant; though
+frequently urged to become a persecutor, he allowed his subjects that
+freedom of opinion which he claimed for himself, unlike Constan'tius,
+who, having embraced the Arian heresy, treated his Catholic subjects
+with the utmost severity. 2. But, though Julian would not inflict
+punishment for a difference of opinion, he enacted several
+disqualifying laws, by which he laboured to deprive the Christians of
+wealth, of knowledge, and of power; he ordered their schools to be
+closed, and he jealously excluded them from all civil and military
+offices. 3. To destroy the effects of that prophecy in the Gospel to
+which Christians may appeal as a standing miracle in proof of
+revelation,--the condition of the Jews,--Julian determined to rebuild
+the temple of Jerusalem, and restore the children of Israel to the
+land of their fathers. Historians worthy of credit inform us, that his
+plan was defeated by a direct miraculous interposition, and there are
+few historical facts supported by more decisive testimony; but even if
+the miracle be denied, the prophecy must be considered as having
+received decisive confirmation, from the acknowledged fact, that the
+emperor entertained such a design, and was unable to effect its
+accomplishment.
+
+[Illustration: Julian the Apostate, ordering the Christian schools to
+be closed.]
+
+4. The mutual hatred of the Pagans and Christians would probably have
+rekindled the flames of civil war, had not Julian fallen in an
+expedition against the Persians. 5. The emperor triumphantly advanced
+through the dominions of Sa'por as far as the Ti'gris; but the
+Asiatics, though defeated in the field, adopted means of defence more
+terrible to an invader than arms. They laid waste the country,
+destroyed the villages, and burned the crops in the Roman line of
+march; a burning sun weakened the powers of the western veterans, and
+when famine was added to the severity of the climate, their sufferings
+became intolerable. 6. With a heavy heart Julian at last gave orders
+to commence a retreat, and led his exhausted soldiers back over the
+desert plains which they had already passed with so much difficulty.
+The retrograde march was terribly harassed by the light cavalry of the
+Persians, a species of troops peculiarly fitted for desultory warfare.
+The difficulties of the Romans increased at every step, and the
+harassing attacks of their pursuers became more frequent and more
+formidable; at length, in a skirmish which almost deserved the name of
+a battle, Julian was mortally wounded, and with his loss the Romans
+dearly purchased a doubtful victory.
+
+7. In the doubt and dismay which followed the death of Ju'lian, a few
+voices saluted Jo'vian, the first of the imperial domestics, with the
+title of emperor, and the army ratified the choice. The new sovereign
+successfully repelled some fresh attacks of the Persians, but
+despairing of final success, he entered into a treaty with
+Sa'por, and purchased a peace, or rather a long truce of thirty years,
+by the cession of several frontier provinces.
+
+[Illustration: Jovian issuing the edict in favour of Christianity.]
+
+8. The first care of Jo'vian was to fulfil the stipulated articles;
+the Roman garrisons and colonies so long settled in the frontier towns
+that they esteemed them as their native soil, were withdrawn; and the
+Romans beheld with regret the omen of their final destruction in the
+first dismemberment of the empire. The first edict in the new reign
+contained a repeal of Julian's disqualifying laws, and a grant of
+universal toleration. This judicious measure at once showed how
+ineffectual had been the efforts of the late emperor to revive the
+fallen spirit of paganism; the temples were immediately deserted, the
+sacrifices neglected, the priests left alone at their altars; those
+who, to gratify the former sovereign assumed the dress and title of
+philosophers, were assailed by such storms of ridicule, that they laid
+aside the designation, shaved their beards, and were soon
+undistinguished in the general mass of society. 9. Jo'vian did not
+long survive this peaceful triumph of Christianity; after a reign of
+eight months, he was found dead in his bed, having been suffocated by
+the mephitic vapours which a charcoal fire extracted from the fresh
+plaster, on the walls of his apartment.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 364.]
+
+10. During ten days the Roman empire remained without a sovereign, but
+finally the soldiers elevated to the imperial purple, Valentinian, the
+son of count Gratian, an officer of distinguished merit. He chose as
+his associate in the government his brother Valens, whose only claim
+seems to have rested on fraternal affection; to him he entrusted the
+rich prefecture of the East, while he himself assumed the
+administration of the western provinces, and fixed the seat of his
+government at Milan. 11. Though in other respects cruel, Valentinian
+was remarkable for maintaining a system of religious toleration; but
+Valens was far from pursuing such a laudable course. He had imbibed
+the errors of Arius, and bitterly persecuted all who remained faithful
+to the Catholic doctrines. By this unwise conduct he provoked a
+formidable rebellion, which was headed by Proco'pius, an able general,
+whom unjust persecution had stimulated to revolt. 12. The success of
+the usurper was at first so great, that Va'lens was ready to yield up
+his throne; but being dissuaded from this inglorious resolution, he
+entrusted the conduct of the war to the aged prefect Sallust, who had
+twice refused the imperial diadem. The followers of Proco'pius soon
+deserted to those leaders whose names were endeared to their
+recollections by the remembrance of former glories; and the
+unfortunate leader, forsaken by all, was made prisoner and delivered
+to the executioner.
+
+13. In the mean time, Valenti'nian was engaged in a desperate warfare
+with the German and other barbarous nations, who had recovered from
+the losses which they had suffered under Ju'lian. On every frontier of
+the western empire hordes of enemies appeared, eager for plunder,
+regardless of their own lives, and merciless to those of others. 14.
+The Picts and Scots rushed from the mountains of Caledo'nia upon the
+colonies of North Britain, and devastated the country with fire and
+sword, almost to the walls of London. The task of quelling these
+incursions was entrusted to the gallant Theodo'sius, and the event
+proved that Valentinian could not have made a better choice. In the
+course of two campaigns, the invaders were driven back to their
+forests, and a Roman fleet sweeping the coasts of Britain, made them
+tremble for the safety of their own retreats.
+
+15. The success of the emperor against the Saxons, the Franks, the
+Alleman'ni[1], the Qua'di, and other tribes on the Rhine and Danube,
+was not less conspicuous than that of Theodo'sius in Britain. 16. The
+Qua'di, humbled by a severe defeat, sent ambassadors to deprecate his
+displeasure; but while Valenti'nian was angrily upbraiding the
+deputies for their unprovoked hostility, he ruptured a blood-vessel
+and died almost instantaneously. He was succeeded by his sons Gra'tian
+and Valenti'nian II.
+
+17. A much more important change took place in the eastern world; the
+first admission of the barbarian tribes into the empire, which
+they finally destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: The body of Valens, found upon the field of battle.]
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 376.]
+
+The nation of the Goths had been from remote ages settled on the banks
+of the Danube, and were by that river divided into two nations, the
+Ostrogoths on the east, and the Visigoths on the west. They had for
+many years enjoyed the blessings of profound peace under the
+government of their king Herman'ric, when they were suddenly alarmed
+by the appearance of vast hordes of unknown enemies on their northern
+and eastern frontiers. These were the Huns, a branch of the great
+Mongolian race, which, from the earliest time, had possessed the vast
+and wild plains of Tartary. Terrified by the numbers, the strength,
+the strange features and implacable cruelty of such foes, the Goths
+deserted their country, almost without attempting opposition, and
+supplicated the emperor Va'lens to grant them a settlement in the
+waste lands of Thrace. This request was cheerfully granted, and the
+eastern empire was supposed to be strengthened by the accession of a
+million of valiant subjects, bound both by interest and gratitude to
+protect its frontiers.
+
+18. But the avarice of Va'lens and his ministers defeated these
+expectations; instead of relieving their new subjects, the Roman
+governors took advantage of their distress to plunder the remains of
+their shattered fortunes, and to reduce their children to slavery.
+Maddened by such oppression, the Goths rose in arms, and spread
+desolation over the fertile plains of Thrace. Va'lens summoned his
+nephew, Gratian, to his assistance; but before the emperor of the west
+arrived, he imprudently engaged the Goths near Adrianople, and with
+the greater part of his army fell on the field. 19. This was the
+most disastrous defeat which the Romans had sustained for several
+centuries; and there was reason to dread that it would encourage a
+revolt of the Gothic slaves in the eastern provinces, which must
+terminate in the ruin of the empire. To prevent such a catastrophe,
+the senate of Constantinople ordered a general massacre of these
+helpless mortals, and their atrocious edict was put into immediate
+execution. 20. The Goths attempted to besiege both Adrianople and
+Constantinople, but, ignorant of the art of attacking fortified
+places, they were easily repelled; but they however succeeded in
+forcing their way through the Thracian mountains, and spread
+themselves over the provinces to the west, as far as the Adriatic sea
+and the confines of Italy. The march of the emperor Gratian had been
+delayed by the hostility of the Alleman'ni, whom he subdued in two
+bloody engagements; but as he advanced towards Adrianople, fame
+brought the news of his uncle's defeat and death, which he found
+himself unable to revenge.
+
+21. Feeling that the affairs of the East required the direction of a
+mind more energetic than his own, he determined to invest with the
+imperial purple, Theodo'sius, the son of that general who had rescued
+Britain from the barbarians. How great must have been his confidence
+in the fidelity of his new associate, who had a father's death to
+revenge; for the elder Theodo'sius, notwithstanding his splendid
+services, had fallen a victim to the jealous suspicions of the
+emperor!
+
+22. The reign of Theodo'sius in the East lasted nearly sixteen years,
+and was marked by a display of unusual vigour and ability. He broke
+the power of the Goths by many severe defeats, and disunited their
+leading tribes by crafty negociations. But the continued drain on the
+population, caused by the late destructive wars, compelled him to
+recruit his forces among the tribes of the barbarians, and a change
+was thus made in the character and discipline of the Roman army, which
+in a later age produced the most calamitous consequences. The
+exuberant zeal, which led him to persecute the Arians and the pagans,
+occasioned some terrible convulsions, which distracted the empire, and
+were not quelled without bloodshed. He, however, preserved the
+integrity of the empire, and not a province was lost during his
+administration.
+
+23. The valour which Gratian had displayed in the early part of his
+life, rendered the indolence and luxury to which he abandoned himself,
+after the appointment of Theodo'sius, more glaring. The general
+discontent of the army induced Max'imus, the governor of Britain, to
+raise the standard of revolt, and, passing over to the continent, he
+was joined by the greater part of the Gallic legions. When this
+rebellion broke out Gratian was enjoying the sports of the field in
+the neighbourhood of Paris, and did not discover his danger until it
+was too late to escape. He attempted to save his life by flight, but
+was overtaken by the emissaries of the usurper, near Lyons, and
+assassinated. 24. Theodo'sius was induced to make peace with Max'imus,
+on condition that the latter should content himself with the
+prefecture of Gaul, and should not invade the territories of the
+younger Valentin'ian. 25. Ambition hurried the faithless usurper to
+his ruin; having by perfidy obtained possession of the passes of the
+Alps, he led an overwhelming army into Italy, and Valenti'nian, with
+his mother Justi'na, were scarcely able, by a hasty flight, to escape
+to the friendly court of Theodo'sius.
+
+26. The emperor of the East readily embraced the cause of the
+fugitives; the numerous troops of barbarian cavalry which he had taken
+into pay, enabled him to proceed with a celerity which baffled all
+calculation. 27. Before Maximus could make any preparations for his
+reception, Theodosius had completely routed his army, and was already
+at the gates of Aquilei'a, where the usurper had taken refuge. The
+garrison, secretly disinclined to the cause of Maximus, made but a
+faint resistance, the town was taken, and the unfortunate ruler led as
+a captive into the presence of his conqueror, by whom he was delivered
+to the executioner.
+
+Theodo'sius, having re-established the authority of the youthful
+Valentin'ian, returned home. But the emperor of the West did not long
+enjoy his restored throne; he was murdered by Arbogas'tes, his prime
+minister, who dreaded that the abilities displayed by the young prince
+would enable him, when arrived to maturity, to shake off the authority
+of an unprincipled servant. 28. The assassin was afraid himself to
+assume the purple, but he procured the election of Euge'nius, a man
+not wholly unworthy of empire. Theodo'sius was called by these events
+a second time to Italy; he passed the Alps, but found his further
+progress impeded by the judicious disposition which Arbogas'tes had
+made of his forces. Defeated in his first attack, Theodo'sius renewed
+the engagement on the following day, and being aided by the seasonable
+revolt of some Italian legions, obtained a complete victory.
+Euge'nius was taken prisoner, and put to death by the soldiers.
+Arbogas'tes, after wandering some time in the mountains, lost all hope
+of escape, and terminated his life by suicide.
+
+29. The empire was thus once more reunited under the government of a
+single sovereign; but he was already stricken by the hand of death.
+The fatigues of the late campaign proved too much for a constitution
+already broken by the alternate pleasures of the palace and the toils
+of the camp; four months after the defeat of Euge'nius, he died at
+Milan, universally lamented.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What was the character of Julian?
+
+2. To what disqualifications did he subject the Christians?
+
+3. How was Julian frustrated in his attempt to weaken the prophetic
+evidence of Christianity?
+
+4. How was a civil contest between the Pagans and Christians averted?
+
+5. What success had Julian in the Persian invasion?
+
+6. How did Julian die?
+
+7. Who succeeded Julian?
+
+8. What were the most important occurrences in the reign of Jovian?
+
+9. What caused Jovian's death?
+
+10. Who were the successors of Jovian?
+
+11. How did Valens provoke a revolt?
+
+12. By what means was the rebellion of Procopius suppressed?
+
+13. What barbarous nations attacked the Roman empire?
+
+14. In what state was Britain at this period?
+
+15. Over what enemies did the emperor triumph?
+
+16. What occasioned the death of Valentinian?
+
+17. What caused the introduction of the Goths into the Roman empire?
+
+18. How did the imprudence of Valens cause his destruction?
+
+19. What atrocious edict was issued by the senate of Constantinople?
+
+20. How was Gratian prevented from avenging his uncle's death?
+
+21. To whom did Gratian entrust the eastern provinces?
+
+22. How did Theodosius administer the government of the East?
+
+23. By whom was Gratian deposed and slain?
+
+24. On what conditions did Theodosius make peace with Maximus?
+
+25. Were these conditions observed?
+
+26. How did the war between Theodosius and Maximus terminate?
+
+27. Did Valentinian long survive his restoration?
+
+28. How did Theodosius act on the news of Valentinian's murder?
+
+29. What caused the death of Theodosius?
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] From this powerful tribe Germany is still called, by the French,
+_Allemagne_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+FROM THE DEATH OF THEODOSIUS TO THE SUBVERSION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE.
+
+  With eye of flame, and voice of fear,
+  He comes, the breaker of the spear,
+  The scorner of the shield!--_Anon._
+
+1. The memory of their father's virtues protected the feeble youth of
+Arca'dius and Hono'rius, the sons of Theodo'sius; by the unanimous
+consent of mankind, they were saluted emperors of the East and West,
+and between them was made the final and permanent division of the
+Roman empire. Though both parts were never re-united under a single
+ruler, they continued for several centuries to be considered as one
+empire, and this opinion produced important consequences even in a
+late period of the middle ages. The dominions of Arca'dius extended
+from the lower Danube to the confines of Ethiopia and Persia;
+including Thrace, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. Hono'rius, a
+youth in his eleventh year, received the nominal sovereignty of Italy,
+Africa, Gaul, Spain, and Britain, with the provinces of No'ricum,
+Panno'nia, and Dalma'tia. The great and martial prefecture of
+Illyr'icum was divided equally between the two princes, the boundary
+line of whose dominions consequently nearly coincided with that which
+separates the Austrian states from the Turkish provinces. 2. The
+Western empire, to the history of which we must now confine ourselves,
+though equal to the Eastern in extent, wealth, and population, was
+incomparably weaker, and already appeared rapidly tending to decay.
+The Caledonians in Britain, and the German tribes on the northern
+frontiers, harassed the imperial troops by frequent incursions; on the
+east, the Goths were hourly becoming more formidable, and the African
+provinces were threatened by the Moors. 3. The internal state of the
+empire furnished little ground for hope that these various enemies
+could be subdued; the principle of union no longer existed; the proud
+title of Roman citizen was an empty name, Rome itself had ceased to be
+the metropolis, and was now only protected by the memory of her former
+greatness.
+
+4. Stil'icho, a general of superior abilities, and a statesman of
+profound wisdom, acted as the guardian of Hono'rius. He was descended
+from the perfidious race of the Vandals, and unfortunately possessed,
+in an eminent degree, the cunning, treachery, and cruelty that
+characterised his nation. The administration of the Eastern empire was
+entrusted by Arca'dius, to Rufi'nus, who possessed all the bad
+qualities of Stil'icho without his redeeming virtues. The ministers of
+the two empires hated each other most cordially, and each secretly
+sought to remove his powerful rival; but the superior craft of
+Stil'icho, and his great influence over the soldiers, made him
+conqueror. 5. He was ordered to lead into the East a fair proportion
+of the army which Theodo'sius had assembled, and in obedience to the
+requisition, he marched towards Constantinople, at the head of the
+Gothic legions. The approach of his great rival with a powerful army
+alarmed the timid Rufi'nus; he obtained a peremptory edict from
+Arca'dius, commanding Stil'icho to return to Italy, and the
+promptitude with which the order was obeyed lulled the Eastern
+minister into fatal negligence. The troops arrived near
+Constantinople, under the guidance of Gai'nas a Gothic leader, and the
+emperor, accompanied by his minister, came out to welcome and review
+the soldiers. As Rufi'nus rode along the ranks, endeavouring to
+conciliate favour by studied courtesy, the wings gradually advanced,
+and enclosed the devoted victim within the fatal circle of their arms.
+Before he was aware of his danger, Gai'nas gave the signal of death; a
+soldier rushing forward plunged his sword into his breast, and the
+bleeding corpse fell at the very feet of the alarmed emperor. 6. His
+mangled body was treated with shocking indignity, and his wife and
+daughter would have shared his fate, had they not placed themselves
+under the protection of religion, and sought refuge in the sanctuary.
+
+7. Stil'icho derived no advantage from this crime which he had
+planned, but not executed; Arca'dius chose for his new minister,
+Eutro'pius, one of his servants, and Gai'nas declared himself the
+determined enemy of his former general.
+
+8. The national hatred between the Greeks and the Romans was excited
+by the rival ministers, and thus at a moment when union alone would
+delay ruin, the subjects of Arca'dius and Hono'rius were induced to
+regard each other not only as foreigners, but as enemies. 9. The
+revolt of Gil'do, in Africa, under the pretence of transferring his
+allegiance from the Western to the Eastern empire, was sanctioned by
+the court of Constantinople. Such an event was peculiarly alarming, as
+Italy at the time imported most of the corn necessary to the
+subsistence of the people, from the African provinces. The vigour of
+Stil'icho warded off the danger; he sent a small but veteran army
+into Africa, before which Gildo's hosts of unarmed and undisciplined
+barbarians fled almost without a blow. The usurper was taken and
+executed; his partizans were persecuted with merciless impolicy.
+
+10. The Goths, who had remained quiet during the reign of the great
+Theodo'sius, disdained submission to his unwarlike successors; under
+the pretence that the subsidy prudently paid them by the late emperor
+was withheld, they raised the standard of revolt, and chose for their
+leader Al'aric, the most formidable enemy that the Romans had hitherto
+encountered. Instead of confining his depredations to the northern
+provinces, already wasted by frequent incursions, Alaric resolved to
+invade Greece, where the din of arms had not been heard for centuries.
+11. The barbarian encountered little or no resistance, the memorable
+pass of Thermop'ylae was abandoned by its garrison; Athens purchased
+inglorious safety by the sacrifice of the greater part of its wealth;
+the Corinthian isthmus was undefended, and the Goths ravaged without
+opposition the entire Peloponne'sus. Unable to protect themselves, the
+Greeks sought the aid of Stilicho, and that great leader soon sailed
+to their assistance; he inflicted a severe defeat on the Goths, but
+neglected to improve his advantages; and before he could retrieve his
+error, news arrived that the faithless court of Constantinople had
+concluded a treaty of peace with Al'aric. Stilicho, of course,
+returned to Italy; while the eastern emperor, with incomprehensible
+folly, nominated the Gothic leader, master-general of eastern
+Illyr'icum.
+
+12. Italy soon excited the ambition and cupidity of Alaric; he
+determined to invade that country, and, after surmounting all
+impediments, appeared with his forces before the imperial city of
+Milan. The feeble Hono'rius would have fled with his effeminate court
+into some remote corner of Gaul, had not the indignant remonstrances
+of Stil'icho induced him to remain, until he could assemble forces
+sufficient to protect the empire. For this purpose the brave general
+hurried into Gaul, assembled the garrisons from the frontier towns,
+recalled a legion from Britain, and strengthened his forces by taking
+several German tribes into pay. 13. But before Stil'icho could return,
+the empire had been brought to the very brink of ruin; Hono'rius,
+affrighted by the approach of the Goths, fled from Milan to As'ta, and
+was there closely besieged. When the town was on the point of
+capitulating, the emperor was saved by the opportune arrival of
+Stil'icho, before whom Alaric retired. He was closely pursued, and the
+armies of the Romans and barbarians came to an engagement nearly on
+the same ground where Marius had so many years before defeated the
+Cimbri. 14. The Goths were completely beaten, and a second victory
+obtained over them near Vero'na seemed to insure the deliverance of
+Italy; but Al'aric was still formidable, and the favourable terms
+granted him by Stil'icho, proved, that in the opinion of that general,
+the Gothic king, though defeated, was unconquered.
+
+15. The late invasion so alarmed the timid Hono'rius, that he resolved
+to fix his residence in some remote and strong fortress; and for this
+purpose he selected Raven'na, an ancient city, but which had not
+previously obtained notoriety. 16. Before Italy had recovered from the
+terrors of the Gothic invasion, a new host of barbarians rushed from
+the shores of the Baltic, bore down before them all opposition in
+Germany and Gaul; and had passed the Alps, the Po, and the Apennines,
+ere an army could be assembled to resist them. 17. Radagai'sus, the
+leader of these hordes, was a more formidable enemy even than Alaric;
+the Goths had embraced Christianity, and their fierce passions were in
+some degree moderated by the mild precepts of the gospel; but
+Radagai'sus was a stranger to any religion but the cruel creed of his
+fathers, which taught that the favour of the gods could only be
+propitiated by human sacrifices. 18. The wealthy city of Florence was
+besieged by the barbarians, but its bishop, St. Ambrose, by his
+zealous exhortations, and by holding out the hope of divine
+assistance, prevented the garrison from yielding to despair. Stil'icho
+a second time earned the title of the deliverer of Italy; Radagai'sus
+was defeated and slain; but the remains of his forces escaped into
+Gaul, and spread desolation over that entire province, from which the
+garrisons had been withdrawn for the defence of Italy. 19. An usurper,
+named Constantine, about this time appeared in Britain, and soon
+established his minority both in Gaul and Spain, which had been
+virtually deserted by the emperor. Al'aric offered his services to
+repress the rebellion, and to purchase either his assistance or his
+forbearance, a large subsidy was voted to him by the senate, through
+the influence of Stil'icho. 20. But the reign of this great man was
+drawing fast to a close; Olym'pius, a miserable favourite, who owed
+his first elevation to Stil'icho, filled the emperor's mind with
+suspicion, and a secret resolution to destroy the minister was
+adopted. 21. By exciting the jealousy of the legions against the
+auxiliary forces that Stil'icho employed, Olym'pius was enabled to
+gain the army to his side, and the last great supporter of the Roman
+name fell by the swords of those soldiers whom he had so often led to
+victory. His friends, including the best and bravest generals of the
+army, shared his fate; many of them were racked, to extort from them a
+confession of a conspiracy which never existed; and their silence
+under the tortures at once proved their own innocence and that of
+their leader.
+
+_Questions for Examination_.
+
+1. What division was made of the Roman empire between the sons of
+Theodosius?
+
+2. By what enemies was the Western empire assailed?
+
+3. What was the internal condition of the state?
+
+4. To what ministers did the emperors trust the administration?
+
+5. How did Stilicho prevail over Rufinus?
+
+6. What instances of savage cruelty were exhibited by the murderers of
+Rufinus?
+
+7. Did Stilicho derive any advantage from the death of his rival?
+
+8. What rivalry broke out between the subjects of the eastern and
+western empire?
+
+9. How did the revolt of Gildo in Africa end?
+
+10. Why did the Goths attack the eastern empire?
+
+11. How did the Gothic invasion of Greece end?
+
+12. Did the western emperor display any courage when Italy was
+invaded?
+
+13. How was Honorius saved from ruin?
+
+14. Was this defeat destructive of the Gothic power?
+
+15. Where did Honorius fix the seat of his government?
+
+16. What new hordes invaded Italy?
+
+17. Why were the northern barbarians more formidable than the Goths?
+
+18. How was Florence saved?
+
+19. On what occasion was a subsidy voted to Alaric?
+
+20. Who conspired against Stilicho?
+
+21. In what manner was Stilicho slain?
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+      Time's immortal garlands twine
+  O'er desolation's mournful shrine.
+  Like youth's embrace around decline.--_Malcolm_.
+
+1. Al'aric, posted on the confines of Italy, watched the distractions
+of the peninsula with secret joy; he had been unwisely irritated by
+the delay of the subsidy which had formerly been promised him,
+and when payment was finally refused, he once more led his followers
+into Italy.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 408.]
+
+2. The feeble successors of Stil'icho had made no preparations for
+resistance; they retired with their master into the fortress of
+Raven'na, while the Goths, spreading ruin in their march, advanced to
+the very walls of Rome. Six hundred years had now elapsed since an
+enemy had appeared to threaten THE ETERNAL CITY; a worse foe than
+Hannibal was now at their gates, and the citizens were more disabled
+by luxury from attempting a defence, than their ancestors had been by
+the carnage of Can'nae.[1] 3. The strength of the walls deterred the
+Goth from attempting a regular siege, but he subjected the city to a
+strict blockade. Famine, and its usual attendant, pestilence, soon
+began to waste the miserable Romans; but even the extreme of misery
+could not induce them to sally forth, and try their fortune in the
+field. They purchased the retreat of Al'aric by the sacrifice of their
+wealth; and the victorious Goth formed his winter quarters in Tuscany,
+where his army was reinforced by more than forty thousand of his
+countrymen who had been enslaved by the Romans.
+
+4. The presence of a victorious leader, with one hundred thousand men,
+in the very centre of Italy, ought to have taught the imperial court
+at Raven'na prudence and moderation; but such was their incredible
+folly that they not only violated their engagements with Al'aric, but
+added personal insult to injury. Rome was once more besieged, and as
+Al'aric had seized the provisions at Os'tia, on which the citizens
+depended for subsistence, the Romans were forced to surrender at
+discretion. 5. At the instigation of the Gothic king, At'talus, the
+prefect of the city, was invested with the imperial purple, and
+measures were taken to compel Hono'rius to resign in his favour. But
+At'talus proved utterly unworthy of a throne, and after a brief reign
+was publicly degraded; the rest of his life was passed in obscurity
+under the protection of the Goths. 6. A favourable opportunity of
+effecting a peace was now offered, but it was again insolently
+rejected by the wretched Hono'rius, and a herald publicly proclaimed
+that in consequence of the guilt of Al'aric, he was for ever excluded
+from the friendship and alliance of the emperor.
+
+7. For the third time Al'aric proceeded to revenge the insults of
+the emperor on the unfortunate city of Rome. The trembling senate made
+some preparations for defence but they were rendered ineffectual by
+the treachery of a slave, who betrayed one of the gates to the Gothic
+legions. That city which had been for ages the mistress of the world,
+became the prey of ruthless barbarians, who spared, indeed, the
+churches and sanctuaries, but placed no other bound to their savage
+passions. For six successive days the Goths revelled in the sack of
+the city; at the end of that period they followed Al'aric to new
+conquests and new devastations. 8. The entire south of Italy rapidly
+followed the fate of the capital, and Al'aric determined to add Sicily
+to the list of his triumphs. Before, however, his army could pass the
+Strait, he was seized with an incurable disease, and his premature
+death protracted for a season the existence of the Western empire.[2]
+9. Al'aric was succeeded by his brother Adol'phus, who immediately
+commenced negociations for a treaty; the peace was cemented by a
+marriage between the Gothic king and Placid'ia, the sister of the
+emperor. The army of the invaders evacuated Italy, and Adol'phus,
+leading his soldiers into Spain, founded the kingdom of the Visigoths.
+10. Adolphus did not long survive his triumphs; Placid'ia returned to
+her brother's court, and was persuaded to bestow her hand on
+Constan'tius, the general who had suppressed the rebellion of
+Constan'tine. Britain, Spain, and part of Gaul had been now
+irrecoverably lost; Constan'tius, whose abilities might have checked
+the progress of ruin, died, after the birth of his second child;
+Placid'ia retired to the court of Constantinople, and at length
+Hono'rius, after a disgraceful reign of twenty-eight years, terminated
+his wretched life.
+
+11. The next heir to the throne was Valenti'nian, the son of
+Placid'ia; but John, the late emperor's secretary, took advantage of
+Placid'ia's absence in the east, to seize on the government. The
+court of Constantinople promptly sent a body of troops against the
+usurper, and John was surprised and taken prisoner at Raven'na. 12.
+Valenti'nian III., then in the sixth year of his age, was proclaimed
+emperor, and the regency entrusted to his mother, Placid'ia. The two
+best generals of the age, AE'tius and Bon'iface, were at the head of
+the army, but, unfortunately, their mutual jealousies led them to
+involve the empire in civil war.
+
+13. Bon'iface was recalled from the government of Africa through the
+intrigues of his rival, and when he hesitated to comply, was
+proclaimed a traitor. Unfortunately the African prefect, unable to
+depend on his own forces, invited the Vandals to his assistance.
+Gen'seric, the king of that nation, passed over from Spain, which his
+barbarous forces had already wasted, and the African provinces were
+now subjected to the same calamities that afflicted the rest of the
+empire. 14. Bon'iface became too late sensible of his error; he
+attempted to check the progress of the Vandals, but was defeated, and
+Africa finally wrested from the empire. He returned to Italy, and was
+pardoned by Placid'ia; but the jealous AE'tius led an army to drive
+his rival from the court; a battle ensued, in which AE'tius was
+defeated; but Bon'iface died in the arms of victory. Placid'ia was at
+first determined to punish AE'tius as a rebel; but his power was too
+formidable, and his abilities too necessary in the new dangers that
+threatened the empire; he was not only pardoned, but invested with
+more than his former authority.
+
+15. The hordes of Huns that had seized on the ancient territory of the
+Goths, had now become united under the ferocious At'tila, whose
+devastations procured him the formidable name of "The Scourge of God."
+The Eastern empire, unable to protect itself from his ravages,
+purchased peace by the payment of a yearly tribute, and he directed
+his forces against the western provinces, which promised richer
+plunder. He was instigated also by secret letters from the princess
+Hono'ria, the sister of the emperor, who solicited a matrimonial
+alliance with the barbarous chieftain. AE'tius being supported by the
+king of the Goths, and some other auxiliary forces, attacked the Huns
+in the Catalaunian plains, near the modern city of Chalons in France.
+16. After a fierce engagement the Huns were routed, and it was not
+without great difficulty that At'tila effected his retreat. The
+following year he invaded Italy with more success; peace, however, was
+purchased by bestowing on him the hand of the princess Hono'ria,
+with an immense dowry. Before the marriage could be consummated,
+At'tila was found, dead in his bed, having burst a blood-vessel during
+the night.
+
+17. The brave AE'tius was badly rewarded by the wretched emperor for
+his eminent services; Valentinian, yielding to his cowardly
+suspicions, assassinated the general with his own hand. 18. This crime
+was followed by an injury to Max'imus, an eminent senator, who, eager
+for revenge, joined in a conspiracy with the friends of AE'tius; they
+attacked the emperor publicly, in the midst of his guards, and slew
+him.
+
+19. The twenty years which intervened between the assassination of
+Valentinian, and the final destruction of the Western empire, were
+nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. 20. Even in the
+age of Cicero, when the empire of Rome, seemed likely to last for
+ever, it was stated by the augurs that the _twelve vultures_ seen by
+Romulus,[3] represented the _twelve centuries_ assigned for the fatal
+period of the city. This strange prediction, forgotten in ages of
+peace and prosperity, was recalled to the minds of men when events, at
+the close of the twelfth century, showed that the prophecy was about
+to be accomplished. It is not, of course, our meaning, that the
+ominous flight of birds, the prophetic interpretation, and its almost
+literal fulfilment, were any thing more than an accidental
+coincidence; but, it must be confessed, that it was one of the most
+remarkable on record.
+
+21. Maximus succeeded to the imperial throne, and found that the first
+day of his reign was the last of his happiness. On the death of his
+wife, whose wrongs he had so severely revenged, he endeavoured to
+compel Eudox'ia, the widow of the murdered emperor, to become his
+spouse. In her indignation at this insulting proposal, Eudox'ia did
+not hesitate to apply for aid to Gen'seric, king of those Vandals that
+had seized Africa; and the barbarian king, glad of such a fair
+pretence, soon appeared with a powerful fleet in the Tiber. 22.
+Max'imus was murdered in an insurrection, occasioned by these tidings;
+and Gen'seric, advancing to Rome, became master of the city, which
+was, for fourteen days pillaged by the Moors and Vandals. Eudox'ia had
+reason to lament her imprudent conduct; she was carried off a captive
+by the ferocious Vandal, along with her two daughters, the last
+of the family of the great Theo'dosius and many thousand Romans were
+at the same time dragged into slavery.
+
+23. The army in Gaul saluted their general, Avi'tus, emperor, and the
+Roman senate and people at first acquiesced in the choice. Rut Avi'tus
+was soon found unfit to hold the reins of power at a time of so much
+danger and difficulty; the senate, influenced by Ri'cimer, the
+commander of the barbarian auxiliaries, voted his deposition. He died
+shortly after, whether by disease or violence is uncertain.
+
+24. The powerful Ri'cimer now placed upon the throne Ju'lian
+Majo'rian, who united in an eminent degree the qualities of a brave
+soldier and a wise statesman. The coasts of Italy had long been wasted
+by Gen'seric, king of the Vandals, and in order to put an end to their
+incursions, the emperor determined to attack the pirates in Africa,
+the seat of their power. The judicious preparations which he made were
+disconcerted by treason; Ri'cimer, who had hoped to rule the empire
+while Majo'rian enjoyed the empty title of monarch, was disappointed
+by the abilities which the new emperor displayed. Some of his
+creatures betrayed the Roman fleet to the torches of the Vandals; and
+Ri'cimer took advantage of the popular discontent occasioned by this
+disaster, to procure the dethronement of his former friend. Majo'rian
+died five years after his deposition, and the humble tomb which
+covered his remains was consecrated by the respect and gratitude of
+succeeding generations.
+
+25. Ri'cimer's next choice was more prudent; at his instigation the
+obsequious senate raised to the throne Lib'ius Sev'erus, of whom
+history records little more than his elevation, and his death, which
+occurred in the fifth year after his election. During the nominal
+reign of Sev'erus and the interregnum that followed, the entire power
+of the state was possessed by Ri'cimer, whom barbarian descent alone
+prevented from being acknowledged emperor. He was unable, however, to
+protect Italy from the devastations of the Vandals; and to obtain the
+aid of Le'o, the Eastern emperor, he was forced to acknowledge
+Anthe'mius, who was nominated to the throne of the West by the court
+of Constantinople.
+
+[Illustration: Fall of Constantinople.]
+
+26. The perfidious Ricimer soon became dissatisfied with Anthe'mius,
+and raised the standard of revolt. Marching to Rome he easily became
+master of the city, and Anthe'mius was slain in the tumult. The
+unhappy Romans were again subjected to all the miseries that military
+licentiousness could inflict; for forty days Ricimer exulted in the
+havoc and ruin of the imperial city; but a disease, occasioned by
+excessive intemperance, seized on his vitals, and death freed Rome
+from the tyrant.
+
+27. Olyb'ius, the successor of Anthe'mius, dying after a short reign
+of three months, Glyce'rius, an obscure soldier, assumed the purple at
+Raven'na, but was soon dethroned by Ju'lius Ne'pos, whom the court of
+Constantinople supported. A treaty by which the most faithful
+provinces of Gaul were yielded to the Visigoths, produced so much
+popular discontent, that Ores'tes, a general of barbarian auxiliaries,
+was encouraged to revolt, and Ne'pos, unable to defend the throne,
+abdicated, and spent the remainder of his unhonoured life in
+obscurity.
+
+[Sidenote: A.D. 476.]
+
+28. Ores'tes placed the crown on the head of his son Rom'ulus
+Momyl'lus, better known in history by the name of Augus'tulus. He was
+the last of the emperors; before he had enjoyed his elevation many
+months, he was dethroned by Odoa'cer, a leader, of the barbarian
+troops, and banished to a villa that once belonged to the wealthy
+Lucul'lus, where he was supported by a pension allowed him by the
+conqueror[4]. 29. Odoa'cer assumed the title of king of Italy, but
+after a reign of fourteen years, he was forced to yield to the
+superior genius of Theod'oric, king of the Ostrogoths, under whose
+prudent government Italy enjoyed the blessings of peace and
+prosperity, to which the country had been long a stranger.
+
+30. Thus finally fell the Roman empire of the west, while that of the
+east survived a thousand years, notwithstanding its fierce internal
+dissensions, which alone would have sufficed to destroy any other; and
+the hosts of barbarians by which it was assailed. The almost
+impregnable situation of its capital, whose fate usually decides that
+of such empires, joined to its despotism, which gave unity to the
+little strength it retained, can alone explain a phenomenon
+unparalleled in the annals of history. At length, on the 29th of May,
+1453, Constantinople was taken by Mohammed the Second, and the
+government and religion established by the great Constantine, trampled
+in the dust by the Moslem conquerors.
+
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What induced Alaric to invade Italy a second time?
+
+2. Did the emperor and his ministers make adequate preparations for
+resistance?
+
+3. How was Alaric induced to raise the siege of Rome?
+
+4. Why did Alaric besiege Rome a second time?
+
+5. Whom did the Goths make emperor?
+
+6. What favourable opportunity of making peace did Honorius lose?
+
+7. By what means did the Goths become masters of Rome?
+
+8. Where did Alaric die?
+
+9. What events marked the reign of Adolphus?
+
+10. What remarkable persons died nearly at the same time?
+
+11. What was the fate of the usurper John?
+
+12. To whom was the government entrusted during Valentinian's
+minority?
+
+13. By whom were the Vandals invited to Africa?
+
+14. What was the fate of Boniface?
+
+15. How were the Huns instigated to invade Italy?
+
+16. Under what circumstances did Attila die?
+
+17. Of what great crimes was Valentinian III. guilty?
+
+18. How was Valentinian slain?
+
+19. 20. What strange prophecy was now about to be fulfilled?
+
+21. What terminated the brief reign of Maximus?
+
+22. Had Eudoxia reason to lament her invitation to the Vandals?
+
+23. Why was the emperor Avitus dethroned?
+
+24. How did Ricimer procure the deposition of Majorian?
+
+25. What changes followed on the death of Majorian?
+
+26. How did Ricimer terminate his destructive career?
+
+27. What changes took place after the death of Arthemius?
+
+28. Who was the last Roman emperor?
+
+29. What kingdoms were founded on the ruins of the western empire?
+
+20. How was the existence of the eastern empire prolonged?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] See Chapter xv. Sect. ii.
+
+[2] The ferocious character of the barbarians was displayed in the
+funeral of their chief. The unhappy captives were compelled to divert
+the stream of the river Busenti'nus, which washed the walls of
+Consen'tia, (now Cosenza, in farther Cala'bria, Italy,) in the bed of
+which the royal sepulchre was formed: with the body were deposited
+much of the wealth, and many of the trophies obtained at Rome. The
+river was then permitted to return to its accustomed channel, and the
+prisoners employed in the work were inhumanly massacred, to conceal
+the spot in which the deceased hero was entombed. A beautiful poem on
+this subject, entitled, The Dirge of Alaric the Visigoth, has
+appeared, which is attributed to the honourable Edward Everett.
+
+[3] See Chapter i.
+
+[4] See Chapter xxvii.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+HISTORICAL NOTICES OF THE DIFFERENT BARBAROUS TRIBES THAT AIDED IN
+DESTROYING THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
+
+  Lo! from the frozen forests of the north,
+  The sons of slaughter pour in myriads forth!
+  Who shall awake the mighty? Will thy woe,
+  City of thrones, disturb the world below?
+  Call on the dead to hear thee! let thy cries
+  Summon their shadowy legions to arise,
+  Array the ghosts of conquerors on thy walls
+  Barbarians revel in their ancient halls!
+  And their lost children bend the subject knee,
+  Amidst the proud tombs and trophies of the free!--_Anon._
+
+1. We have already mentioned that the barbarous nations which joined
+in the destruction of the Roman empire, were invited to come within
+its precincts through the weakness or folly of successive sovereigns
+who recruited their armies from those hardy tribes, in preference to
+their own subjects, enervated by luxury and indolence. The grants of
+land, and the rich donations by which the emperors endeavoured to
+secure the fidelity of these dangerous auxiliaries, encouraged them to
+regard the Roman territories as their prey; and being alternately the
+objects of lavish extravagance and wanton insult, their power was
+increased at the same time that their resentment was provoked. 2.
+Towards the close of the year 406, the Vandals, the Suevi, and the
+Alans, first sounded the tocsin of invasion, and their example was
+followed by the Goths, the Burgundians, the Alleman'ni, the Franks,
+the Huns, the Angli, the Saxons, the Heruli, and the Longobar'di, or
+Lombards. The chief of these nations, with the exception of the Huns
+were of German origin. It is not easy in every instance to discover
+the original seat of these several tribes, and trace their successive
+migrations, because, being ignorant of letters, they only retained
+some vague traditions of their wanderings.
+
+THE VANDALS AND ALANS
+
+3. This tribe was, like the Burgundians and Lombards, a branch of the
+ancient Sue'vi, and inhabited that part of Germany which lies between
+the Elbe and the Vis'tula. Being joined by some warriors from
+Scandinavia, they advanced towards the south, and established
+themselves in that part of Da'cia which included the modern province
+of Transylva'nia, and part of Hungary. Being oppressed in their
+new settlement by the Goths, they sought the protection of Constantine
+the Great, and obtained from him a grant of lands in Pannonia, on
+condition of their rendering military service to the Romans. 4. About
+the commencement of the fifth century, they were joined by the ALANS,
+a people originally from mount Cau'casus, and the ancient Scythia: a
+branch of which having settled in Sarma'tia, near the source of the
+Borysthenes _(Dnieper)_, had advanced as far as the Danube, and there
+made a formidable stand against the Romans. In their passage through
+Germany, the Vandals and Alans were joined by a portion of the Suevi,
+and the confederate tribes entering Gaul, spread desolation over the
+entire country.
+
+5. From thence the barbarians passed into Spain and settled in the
+province, from them named Vandalu'sia, since corrupted to Andalusia.
+On the invitation of Count Boniface, the Vandals proceeded from Spain
+to Africa, where they founded a formidable empire. After remaining
+masters of the western Mediterranean for nearly a century, the eastern
+emperor Justinian sent a formidable force against them under the
+command of the celebrated Belisa'rius. This great leader not only
+destroyed the power of these pirates, but erased the very name of
+Vandals from the list of nations.
+
+THE GOTHS.
+
+6. The Goths, the most powerful of these destructive nations, are said
+to have come originally from Scandina'via; but when they first began
+to attract the notice of historians, we find them settled on the banks
+of the Danube. Those who inhabited the districts towards the east, and
+the Euxine sea, between the Ty'ras _(Dniester)_ the Borys'thenes
+_(Dnieper)_ and the Tan'ais _(Don)_ were called Ostrogoths; the
+Visigoths extended westwards over ancient Dacia, and the regions
+between the Ty'ras, the Danube, and the Vistula.
+
+7. Attacked in these vast countries by the Huns, as has been mentioned
+in a preceding chapter, some were subjugated, and others compelled to
+abandon their habitations. They obtained settlements from the
+emperors, but being unwisely provoked to revolt, they became the most
+formidable enemies of the Romans. After having twice ravaged Italy and
+plundered Rome, they ended their conquests by establishing themselves
+in Gaul and Spain.
+
+8. The Spanish monarchy of the Visigoths, which in its flourishing
+state comprised, besides the entire peninsula, the province of
+Septima'nia (_Langucaoc_) in Gaul, and Mauritania, Tingeta'na,
+(_north-western Africa_) on the opposite coasts of the Mediterranean,
+lasted from the middle of the fifth to the commencement of the eighth
+century, when it was overthrown by the Moors. 9. The Thuringians, whom
+we find established in the heart of Germany, in the middle of the
+fifth century, appear to have been a branch of the Visigoths.
+
+THE FRANKS.
+
+10. A number of petty German tribes having entered into a confederacy
+to maintain their mutual independence, took the name of Franks, or
+Freemen. The tribes which thus associated, principally inhabited the
+districts lying between the Rhine and the Weser, including the greater
+part of Holland and Westphalia. 11. In the middle of the third
+century, they invaded Gaul, but were defeated by Aurelian, who
+afterwards became emperor. In the fourth, and towards the beginning of
+the fifth century, they permanently established themselves as a
+nation, and gave the name of _Francia_, or _France_, to the provinces
+lying between the Rhine, the Weser, the Maine, and the Elbe; but about
+the sixth century that name was transferred to ancient Gaul, when it
+was conquered by the Franks.
+
+THE ALLEMANNI.
+
+12. The Alleman'ni were another confederation of German tribes, which
+took its name from including a great variety of nations. It is
+scarcely necessary to remark, that the name is compounded of the words
+_all_ and _man_ which still continue unchanged in our language. Their
+territories extended between the Danube, the Rhine, and the Maine, and
+they rendered themselves formidable to the Romans by their frequent
+inroads into Gaul and Italy during the third and fourth centuries.
+
+THE SAXONS AND ANGLES.
+
+13. The Saxons began to be conspicuous about the close of the second
+century. They were then settled beyond the Elbe, in modern Holstein;
+having for their neighbours the ANGLI, or ANGLES, inhabiting Sleswick.
+These nations were early distinguished as pirates, and their
+plundering expeditions kept the shores of western Europe in constant
+alarm. Being invited by the Britons to assist in repelling the
+invasions of the Picts, they subdued the southern part of the island,
+which has ever since retained the name of England, from its conquerors
+the An'gli. When the Franks penetrated into Gaul, the Saxons passed
+the Elbe, and seizing on the vacated territory, gave the name of
+Saxony to ancient France.
+
+THE HUNS.
+
+14. The Huns were the most ferocious and sanguinary of the barbarians.
+They seem to have been originally Kalmuck or Mongolian Tartars, and,
+during the period of their supremacy, seem never to have laid aside
+the savage customs which they brought from their native deserts. 15.
+After having expelled the Goths from the banks of the Danube, they
+fell upon the eastern empire, and compelled the court of
+Constantinople to pay them tribute. They then, under the guidance of
+Attila, invaded Italy, and after devastating the peninsula, captured
+and plundered Rome. After the death of Attila, the Huns were broken up
+into a number of petty states, which maintained their independence
+until the close of the eighth century, when they were subdued by
+Charlemagne.
+
+THE BURGUNDIANS.
+
+16. The Burgundians were originally inhabitants of the countries
+situated between the Oder and the Vistula. They followed nearly the
+track of the Visigoths, and at the beginning of the fifth century had
+established themselves on the Upper Rhine and in Switzerland. On the
+dissolution of the empire, they seized on that part of Gaul, which
+from them retains the name of Burgundy.
+
+THE LOMBARDS, THE GEPIDAE, AND THE AVARS.
+
+17. The Lombards, more properly called Longo-bardi, from the length of
+their beards, are supposed by some to have been a branch of the
+Sue'vi, and by others to have migrated from Scandina'via. They joined
+with the Avars, a fierce Asiatic people, in attacking the Gep'idae,
+then in possession of that part of Dacia lying on the left bank of the
+Danube, but who are supposed to have come thither from some more
+northern country. The Avars and Lombards triumphed, but the former
+soon turned their arms against their allies, and compelled them to
+seek new habitations. 18. About the middle of the sixth century they
+invaded Italy, which the Eastern emperors had just before wrested
+from the Turks, and made themselves masters of the northern part;
+which has since borne the name of Lombardy.
+
+THE SLA'VI.
+
+19. These were the last of the barbarian hordes, and are not mentioned
+by any author before the sixth century. They first appeared in the
+east of Europe, and spreading themselves over the central provinces,
+occupied the greater part of the countries that now constitute the
+dominions of Austria. The Sla'vi warred chiefly against the Eastern
+empire, and their contest with the Grecian forces on the Danube, in
+the sixth and seventh centuries, shook the throne of Constantinople.
+The VENE'DI and the AN'TES were tribes of the Slavi.
+
+THE NORMANS.
+
+20. The piratical inhabitants of Norway and Denmark were called by the
+Franks, Normans, or, Men of the North; in Ireland they were named
+Ostmen, or, Men of the East. Their depredations began to attract
+notice early in the seventh century, but did not become formidable
+before the ninth: when they obtained possession of that part of France
+now called Normandy. In the two following centuries they wrested
+England from the Saxons, and established kingdoms in Sicily and
+southern Italy.
+
+THE BULGARIANS.
+
+21. The Bulgarians were of Scythian or Tartar origin, and became
+formidable to the Eastern empire in the latter part of the seventh
+century. In the beginning of the ninth, Cruni'nus, their king,
+advanced to the gates of Constantinople; but the city proving too
+strong, he seized Adrianople, and returned home loaded with booty. The
+successors of Cruni'nus did not inherit his abilities, and the
+Bulgarians soon sunk into comparative insignificance.
+
+THE SARACENS MOORS AND TURKS.
+
+22. In concluding this chapter, it may be proper to give some account
+of the subverters of the Eastern empire, and of their irruption into
+Europe. The Arabs, called in the middle ages Saracens, are supposed to
+be descended from Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar. During all
+the changes of dynasties and empires in the eastern and western
+world, they retained their independence, though almost constantly at
+war with the surrounding states. "Their hand was against every man,
+and every man's hand was against them." In the beginning of the
+seventh century, Mohammed, a native of Mecca, descended from a noble
+family, laid claim to the title of a prophet, and being aided by a
+renegade Christian, formed a religious system, which, after
+encountering great opposition, was finally adopted by the principal
+tribes of Arabia. The successors of Mohammed, called Caliphs, resolved
+to propagate the new religion by the sword, and conquered an empire,
+more extensive than that of the Romans had been. The entire of central
+and southern Asia, including Persia, India, and the provinces of the
+Eastern empire owned their sway; northern Africa was soon after
+subdued, and in the beginning of the eighth century, the Saracenic
+Moors established their dominion in Spain. 23. It is probable, even,
+that all Europe would have submitted to their yoke, if the French
+hero, Charles Martel,[1] had not arrested their victorious career, and
+defeated their numerous armies on the plains of _Poitiers_, A.D.
+732.[2]
+
+24. The empire of the Caliphs soon declined from its original
+splendour, and its ruin finally proceeded from the same cause that
+produced the downfall of Rome, the employment of barbarian
+mercenaries. The soldiers levied by the Caliphs, were selected from
+the Tartar tribes that had embraced the religion of Mohammed; they
+were called Turcomans or Turks, from Turkistan, the proper name of
+western Tartary. These brave, but ferocious warriors, soon wrested the
+sceptre from the feeble caliphs, and completed the conquest of western
+Asia. The crusades for a time delayed the fate of the Greek empire,
+but finally the Turks crossed the Hellespont, and having taken
+Constantinople, (A.D. 1453,) established their cruel despotism over
+the fairest portion of Europe.
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. How were the barbarians first brought into the Roman empire?
+
+2. When did the first great movement of the Northern tribes take
+place?
+
+3. Where did the Vandals first settle?
+
+4. From whence did the Alans come?
+
+5. In what countries did the Vandals establish their power?
+
+6. Where did we first find the Goths settled?
+
+7. To what countries did the Goths remove?
+
+8. How long did the kingdom of the Visigoths continue?
+
+9. What branch of the Goths settled in Germany?
+
+10. From what did the Franks derive their name?
+
+11. Which was the ancient, and which the modern France?
+
+12. What is the history of the Allemanni?
+
+13. In what countries did the Saxons and Angles settle?
+
+14. Whence did the Huns come?
+
+15. How far did their ravages extend?
+
+16. What territory did the Burgundians seize?
+
+17. How did the alliance between the Lombards and Avars injure the
+former people?
+
+18. Where was the kingdom of the Lombards established?
+
+19. What is told respecting the Slavi?
+
+20. Who were the Normans?
+
+21. What is the history of the Bulgarians?
+
+22. What great conquests were achieved by the Arabs under Mohammed and
+his successors?
+
+23. By whom was the Saracenic career of victory checked?
+
+24. How was the empire of the Turks established?
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] See Taylor's History of France.
+
+[2] Here also the heroic Black Prince took John, king of France,
+prisoner. See Taylor's France.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+THE PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+  Waft, waft, ye winds, his story,
+    And you, ye oceans, roll,
+  Till, like a sea of glory,
+    It spreads from pole to pole.--_Heber_.
+
+1. Judea became a Roman province some years before the birth of Jesus
+Christ, and the Jews, who had hitherto been conspicuous for their
+attachment to their native land, were induced, by the spirit of trade,
+to spread themselves over the empire. 2. The exclusive nature of their
+religion kept them in a marked state of separation from their fellow
+subjects; the worshipper of Osi'ris scrupled not to offer sacrifices
+to Jupiter; the Persian, the Indian, and the German, bowed before the
+Roman altars; but the sons of Abraham refused to give the glory of
+their God to graven images, and were regarded by their idolatrous
+neighbours at first with surprise, and afterwards with contempt. 3.
+The appearance of the Messiah in Palestine, and the miraculous
+circumstances of his life, death, and resurrection, did not fill the
+world with their fame, because his preaching was principally addressed
+to his countrymen, the first object of his mission being "the lost
+sheep of the house of Israel."
+
+4. The disciples, after their Divine Master was taken from them,
+proceeded to fulfil his last commandments, by preaching the gospel "to
+every nation," and an opportunity of spreading its blessings was
+afforded by Jewish synagogues having been previously established in
+most of the great cities through the empire. Independent of the
+sustaining providence of its Almighty Author, there were many
+circumstances that facilitated the progress and prepared the way for
+the final triumph of Christianity. 5. In the first place, Paganism had
+lost its influence; men secretly laughed at the fabulous legends about
+Jupiter and Rom'ulus, the sacrifices had become idle forms, and the
+processions a useless mockery. Philosophers had not scrupled to cover
+with ridicule the whole system of Heathenism, and there were not a few
+who professed themselves Atheists. 6. Without some system of religion
+society cannot exist; for a sanction stronger than human laws is
+necessary to restrain the violence of passion and ardent desires. The
+innate feeling that our existence is not dependent on our mortal
+frame, disposes men to search for some information respecting a future
+state; the heathen system was at once obscure and absurd; the
+philosophers avowedly spoke from conjecture; but by the Gospel, "life
+and immortality were brought to light." 7. The influence of a purer
+faith was discernible in the lives and actions of the first
+Christians; they lived in an age of unparalleled iniquity and
+debauchery, yet they kept themselves "unspotted from the world;" those
+who were once conspicuous for violence, licentiousness, and crime,
+became, when they joined the new sect, humble, temperate, chaste, and
+virtuous; the persons who witnessed such instances of reformation were
+naturally anxious to learn something of the means by which so great a
+change had been effected. 8. A fourth cause was, that Christianity
+offered the blessings of salvation to men of every class; it was its
+most marked feature, that "to the poor the gospel was preached," and
+the wretch who dared not come into the pagan temple, because he had no
+rich offering to lay upon the altar, was ready to obey the call of him
+who offered pardon and love "without money and without price."
+
+9. In the course of the first century of the Christian era churches
+were established in the principal cities of the empire, but more
+especially in Asia Minor; and the progress of Christianity, which had
+been at first disregarded, began to attract the notice of the ruling
+powers. Too indolent to investigate the claims of Christianity,
+and by no means pleased with a system which condemned their vices, the
+Roman rulers viewed the rapid progress of the new religion with
+undisguised alarm. The union of the sacerdotal and magisterial
+character in the Roman policy, added personal interest to the motives
+that urged them to crush this rising sect; and the relentless Ne'ro at
+length kindled the torch of persecution. 10. But "the blood of the
+martyrs proved the seed of the Church;" the constancy with which they
+supported the most inhuman tortures, their devotion and firm reliance
+on their God in the moments of mortal agony, increased the number of
+converts to a religion which could work such a moral miracle.
+Persecution also united the Christians more closely together, and when
+the reign of terror ended with the death of Nero, it was found that
+Christianity had derived additional strength from the means taken to
+insure its destruction.
+
+11. The successive persecutions inflicted by the policy or the bigotry
+of the following emperors had precisely the same results; and at
+length the Christians had acquired such strength, that their aid, as a
+body, became a matter of importance in contests for the empire.
+
+12. The mild administration of Constantino, while he was only prefect
+of Gaul, the protection which he afforded to the Christians, and the
+favour that he showed to their religion, induced them to aid him with
+all their might in his struggle for the throne. Brought thus into
+contact with the professors of the new doctrine, Constantine was
+induced to examine the foundations of its high claims--perfect
+conviction was the result, and on his accession to the imperial
+purple, the Christian church was legally established. 13. During the
+reign of the apostate Julian, Christianity was discouraged, but not
+persecuted; his premature death, however, removed the last impediment
+to its final triumph, which was consummated in the reign of the great
+Theodo'sius. 14. Under that emperor the last vestiges of the pagan
+worship were destroyed, its idols overthrown, its altars demolished,
+and its temples closed. The world had become ripe for such a
+revolution, as the temples had been long before almost universally
+abandoned.
+
+15. Since that period Christianity has prevailed in Europe, and formed
+the great bond of the social happiness and the great source of the
+intellectual eminence enjoyed in that quarter of the globe. Let us
+hope that the exertions now made to diffuse its blessings over
+the benighted portions of the earth will prove successful, and that
+"peace and happiness, truth and justice, religion and piety" will
+prevail from pole to pole.
+
+_Questions for Examination._
+
+1. What was the state of the Jews at the coming of Christ?
+
+2. How were the Jews preserved separate from other nations?
+
+3. What probable cause may be assigned for the neglect of the
+Christian miracles?
+
+4. How did the dispersion of the Jews afford an opportunity for the
+propagation of Christianity?
+
+5. What was the state of paganism when Christianity was first
+preached?
+
+6. What great mystery is brought to light by the gospel?
+
+7. How did the lives of the first Christians contribute to the rapid
+progress of Christianity?
+
+8. To what class of people was the gospel more particularly addressed?
+
+9. What induced the rulers of the Roman empire to persecute
+Christianity?
+
+10. Was Christianity crushed by persecution?
+
+11. What proves the great strength early acquired by Christians?
+
+12. By whom was Christianity legally established?
+
+13. Under whose government did it receive a slight check?
+
+14. When were the last vestiges of paganism abolished?
+
+15. What have been the political effects of the establishment of
+Christianity?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+  CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX.
+
+  B.C.
+
+  1230 (Supposed) Pelasgic migration to Italy.
+
+  1184 (Supposed) Arrival of AEneas in Latium.
+
+  753  (Supposed) foundation of the city of Rome.
+
+  750  Union of the Romans and Sabines.
+
+  716  Death of Romulus.
+
+  714  Virtuous Administration of Numa.
+
+  671  Accession of Tullus Hostilius.
+
+  665  Duel between the Horatii and Curiatii--Destruction of Alba.
+
+  639  Accession of Ancus Martius.
+
+  616  {---- ---- Tarquinius Priscus.
+       {The Augurs acquire importance in the state.
+
+  578  {Death of Tarquinius Priscus.
+       {Accession of Servius Tullius.
+       {The establishment of the Centuries.
+
+  534  {Murder of Servius Tullius.
+       {Accession of Tarquinius Superbus.
+       {Gabii taken by stratagem.
+
+  509  {Expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus.
+       {Establishment of Consuls.
+
+  508  {Conspiracy for the restoration of the Tarquinii.
+       {Death of Brutus.
+
+  507  War with Porsenna.
+
+  498  Lartius the first Dictator created.
+
+  493  {The Roman populace retire to Mons Sacer.
+       {Tribunes of the people appointed.
+
+  487  {Exile of Coriolanus.
+       {Rome besieged by Coriolanus.
+       {His retreat and death.
+
+  484  Condemnation and death of Cassius.
+
+  459  First Dictatorship of Cincinnatus.
+
+  457  Second ditto.
+
+  454  The Romans send to Athens for Solon's laws.
+
+  451  The laws of the Twelve Tables--The Decemviri.
+
+  449  The expulsion of the Decemviri.
+
+  443  Military Tribunes chosen instead of Consuls.
+
+  442  The Censorship instituted.
+
+  439  Maelius murdered by Ahala.
+
+  406  The siege of Veii begun.
+
+  396  Veii taken by Camillus.
+
+  391  The Gauls invade Italy.
+
+  390  {The battle of Allia. Rome sacked by the Gauls.
+       {The Gauls defeated by Camillus.
+
+  383  Manlius put to death on a charge of treason.
+
+  361  Curtius devotes himself in the Forum.
+
+  342  Beginning of the Samnite war.
+
+  339  {Manlius puts his son to death for disobedience.
+       {Decius devotes himself for his country.
+
+  320  A Roman army forced to surrender to the Samnites in the
+         Caudine Forks.
+
+  280  Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, invades Italy.
+
+  272  ---- finally defeated by Curius Dentatus.
+
+  270  Tarentum surrendered to the Romans.
+
+  264  Commencement of the first Punic war.
+
+  260  The Carthaginian fleet defeated by Duilius.
+
+  256  Regulus defeated by Xantippus.
+
+  252  Regulus sent to negociate peace. His death.
+
+  241  End of the first Punic war.
+
+  234  {The temple of Janus shut, and Rome at peace, for
+          the first time since the death of Numa.
+       {Literature cultivated at Rome.
+
+  229  War with the Illyrians.
+
+  225  {The Gauls invade Italy a second time.
+       {---- ---- are defeated by Marcellus, who
+       gains the spolia opima.
+
+  218  {The second Punic war begins.
+       {Hanniball invades Italy.
+       {Battle of the Ticenus.
+       { ----  of the Trebia.
+
+  217  ---- of the lake Thrasymene.
+
+  216  ---- of Cannae.
+
+  214  The Romans begin an auxiliary war against Philip of Macedon.
+
+  212  Syracuse taken by Marcellus.
+
+  207  Asdrubal defeated and slain.
+
+  202  Battle of Zama and end of the second Punic war.
+
+  197  Philip conquered by the Romans.
+
+  192  The Romans wage war against Antiochus.
+
+  189  Death of Hannibal.
+
+  171  Commencement of the second Macedonian war.
+
+  168  Macedon became a Roman province.
+
+  149  The third Punic war begins.
+
+  147  Carthage destroyed by Scipio, and Corinth by Munimius.
+
+  132  Sedition of Trius Gracchus.
+
+  126  Revolt of the slaves in Sicily.
+
+  122  Seditions of Caius Gracchus.
+
+  121  Murder of Caius Gracchus. Persecution of the popular party.
+
+  111  The Jugurthine war begins, and lasts five years.
+
+  91   The social war begins, and lasts three years.
+
+  89   The Mithridatic war begins, and lasts twenty-six years.
+
+  88   The civil war between Marius and Sylla.
+
+  86   {Cruelties of Marius.
+       {Death of Marius.
+
+  82   Sylla created dictator.
+
+  78   Death of Sylla.
+
+  73   The insurrection of the slaves under Spartacus  _note_.
+
+  66   Mithridates conquered by Pompey.
+
+  63   Catiline's conspiracy detected.
+
+  60   The first Triumvirate. Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus.
+
+  55   Caesar invades Britain.
+
+  53   Crassus slain in Parthia.
+
+  50   Civil war between Caesar and Pompey.
+
+  48   {The battle of Pharsalia.
+       {Death of Pompey.
+
+  47   Alexandria taken by Caesar.
+
+  46   {The war in Africa.
+       {Death of Cato.
+
+  45   {The war in Spain.
+       {The battle of Munda.
+
+  44   Caesar murdered in the senate house.
+
+  43   {Formation of the second Triumvirate--Antony.
+          Octavius (Augustus) and Lepidus.
+       {The Proscription.  The murder of Cicero.
+
+  42   The battle of Philippi.
+
+  32   Octavius (Augustus) and Antony prepare for war.
+
+  31   The battle of Actium.
+
+  30   {The death of Antony.
+       {Alexandria surrendered.
+       {Death of Cleopatra.
+
+  27   The title of Augustus given to Octavius.
+
+  A.D.
+
+  4    Birth of JESUS CHRIST (four years before the vulgar era).
+
+  14   Death of Augustus.
+
+  19   Death of Germanicus by poison.
+
+  26   The retreat of Trius to Capreae.
+
+  31   Disgrace and downfall of Sejanus.
+
+  33   The Crucifixion.
+
+  37   The Accession of Caligula.
+
+  41   Caligula murdered by Cherea.
+
+  43   Claudius invades Britain.
+
+  51   Caractacus carried captive to Rome.
+
+  54   Nero succeeds Claudius.
+
+  59   Nero murders his mother.
+
+  64   First general persecution of the Christians.
+
+  65   Seneca, Lucan, and others, executed for conspiracy.
+
+  68   Suicide of Nero. Accession of Galba.
+
+  69   {Death of Galba.
+       {Defeat and death of Otho.
+       {Defeat and death of Vitellius. Accession of Vespasian.
+
+  70   Siege and capture of Jerusalem.
+
+  79   {Death of Vespasian. Accession of Titus.
+       {Eruption of Vesuvius: destruction of Herculaneum.
+
+  81   Death of Titus. Accession of Domitian.
+
+  88   The Dacian war.
+
+  96   {Assassination of Domitian.
+       {Accession of Nerva.
+
+  98   Death of Nerva. Accession of Trajan.
+
+  107  Third general persecution of the Christians.
+
+  117  Death of Trajan. Accession of Adrian.
+
+  121  A wall to restrain the incursions of the Picts
+        and Scots erected in Britain by Adrian.
+
+  131  Great rebellion of the Jews.
+
+  136  Death of Adrian. Accession of Antoninus Pius.
+
+  161  Accession of Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus.
+
+  162  The Parthian war.
+
+  169  The war with the Marcomanni.
+
+  180  {Death of Marcus Aurelius.
+       {Accession of Commodus.
+
+  192  {Commodus murdered by Marcia and Laetus.
+       {Assassination of Pertinax.
+
+  200  {Roman empire offered for sale.
+       {Severus subdues the Parthians.
+
+  211  Death of Severus at York. Accession of Caracalla and Geta.
+
+  217  Assassination of Caracalla.
+
+  218  Accession of Heliogabalus.
+
+  222  {His miserable death.
+       {Accession of Alexander Severus.
+
+  235  Death of Alexander. Maximin elected emperor.
+
+  236  Assassination of Maximin.
+
+  238  Accession of Gordian.
+
+  244  His murder by Philip.
+
+  248  Philip killed by his soldiers: succeeded by Decius.
+
+  251  Decius slain in an ambuscade: succeeded by Gallus.
+
+  254  Death of Gallus: a disputed succession.
+
+  270  Accession of Aurelian.
+
+  275  Brief reign of Tacitus.
+
+  282  Assassination of the emperor Probus.
+
+  284  Accession of Dioclesian.
+
+  304  The reign of Constantius and Galerius.
+
+  312  Victory of Constantino over Maxentius.
+
+  319  Favour showed to the Christians.
+
+  324  Defeat of Licinius.
+
+  325  Legal establishment of Christianity.
+
+  328  The seat of government removed from Rome to
+        Byzantium, which city from thenceforward takes
+        the name of Constantinople, from the
+        emperor Constantine.
+
+  337  {Death of Constantine, and division of
+         the empire among his sons.
+       {Destruction of the Flavian Family.
+
+  338  War between Constantius and Sapor.
+
+  340  Constantine the younger defeated and slain by his
+        brother Constans.
+
+  350  Constans killed by Magnentius.
+
+  351  Magnentius totally defeated at the fatal battle of Mursa.
+
+  354  Gallas put to death by Constantius.
+
+  360  The civil war between Constantius and Julian
+         prevented by the death of the former.
+
+  362  Julian's attempt to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem defeated.
+
+  363  Death of Julian in the Persian war. Brief reign of Jovian.
+
+  364  The empire divided between Valenlinian and Valens.
+
+  376  {The Goths permitted to settle in Thrace.
+       {First appearance of the Huns in Europe.
+
+  378  The emperor Valens defeated by the Goths at Adrianople.
+
+  379  Theodosius becomes emperor of the East.
+
+  388  The usurper Maximus defeated and slain.
+
+  392  Reunion of the Eastern and Western empires, under Theodosius.
+
+  395  Death of Theodosius, and final separation of the
+        Eastern and Western empires.
+
+  398  Revolt of Gildo in Africa.
+
+  405  Stilicho obtains two victories over the Goths.
+
+  406  The Vandals and Alans settle in Gaul.
+
+  408  Alaric, king of the Goths, besieges Rome.
+
+  410  Rome taken and plundered by the Goths.
+
+  412  Beginning of the Vandal kingdom in Spain.
+
+  415  Commencement of the kingdom of the Visigoths.
+
+  423  Death of Honorius. Accession of Valentinian.
+
+  430  The Vandals invited to Africa by count Boniface.
+
+  447  The Huns under the guidance of Attila, ravage Europe.
+
+  449  The Britons, deserted by the Romans, invite the Sarons and Angles
+         to their assistance.
+
+  455  Rome taken and plundered by Genseric, the king of the African
+         Vandals.
+
+  476  Augustulus, the last emperor of the West deposed, Odoacer takes
+         the title of king of Italy.
+
+  453  Subversion of the Eastern empire.
+
+
+  THE END
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO.,
+
+PUBLISH
+
+MITCHELL'S AMERICAN SYSTEM
+
+OF
+
+STANDARD SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY,
+
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+
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+
+The series comprise the following works, viz.
+
+MITCHELL'S PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY. MITCHELL'S INTERMEDIATE GEOGRAPHY.
+MITCHELL'S SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS. MITCHELL'S ATLAS OF OUTLINE MAPS.
+MITCHELL'S KEY TO THE STUDY OF THE MAPS. MITCHELL'S ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY
+AND ATLAS. MITCHELL'S ANCIENT ATLAS. MITCHELL'S BIBLICAL AND
+SABBATH-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. MITCHELL'S HIGH-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.
+_(Preparing.)_ MITCHELL'S VIEW OF THE HEAVENS.
+
+ONE VOLUME QUARTO, HANDSOMELY ILLUSTRATED. _(Preparing.)_
+
+MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.
+
+There are no works published in this country that are more in demand, or
+that have a wider circulation than those of Mr. Mitchell. There are
+upwards of 350,000 copies of his geographical works sold annually, and
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+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE SERIES
+
+MITCHELL'S PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY.
+
+SECOND REVISED EDITION.
+
+AN EASY INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY.
+
+DESIGNED FOR THE INSTRUCTION OF CHILDREN IN SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.
+
+Illustrated by 120 Engravings and 14 coloured Maps.
+
+BY S. AUGUSTUS MITCHELL.
+
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+
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+are exhibited, California, Utah, &c., and proper attention given to all
+political changes up to the present time.
+
+MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+MITCHELL'S INTERMEDIATE OR SECONDARY GEOGRAPHY.
+
+A SYSTEM OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY;
+
+Comprising a Description of the present state of the World, and its five
+great Divisions,
+
+AMERICA, EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA, AND OCEANICA,
+
+WITH THEIR SEVERAL EMPIRES, KINGDOMS, STATES, TERRITORIES, ETC.
+
+ILLUSTRATED BY FORTY MAPS AND NUMEROUS WOOD-CUT ENGRAVINGS.
+
+Designed for the instruction of Youth in Schools and Families.
+
+BY S. AUGUSTUS MITCHELL.
+
+Mitchell's Intermediate Geography, the last published book of the
+series, has been before the public but a short time, yet it has been
+extensively introduced and is now largely used in public and private
+schools throughout the Union. It has been adopted independently, or in
+connection with other numbers of the series, by the Public School
+Directors of the cities of
+
+  New York,    Philadelphia,   Baltimore,
+  Washington,  St. Louis,      Albany,
+  Rochester,   Cleveland,      Syracuse,
+  Utica,       Schenectady,    Oswego, &c. &c.
+
+By numerous county boards in the various States, and a great number of
+the towns and villages of the whole country.
+
+MITCHELL'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.
+
+This work is designed to occupy a medium place between the Author's
+Primary, and the well known School Geography and Atlas, of which last
+book it contains about two-thirds of the amount of matter.
+
+Like the Primary Geography, the Map Questions are upon the same or
+opposite page to the map itself, so that in no case have the leaves to
+be turned to find an answer to the question.
+
+Superior excellence is claimed for this book, on account of the natural
+and progressive order of the lessons,--of the conciseness and
+truthfulnes of the descriptive matter,--of the number, correctness, and
+uniform excellence of the Maps,--from the fact that the book is
+faithfully revised as often as political changes in our own or other
+countries require it,--that the pronunciations of the difficult
+geographical names are given,--and finally, on account of the superior
+mechanical execution of the work.
+
+As a specimen of numerous recommendations the publishers have received,
+they submit the following:
+
+_Copy of a petition of the Public School Teachers of the City of Troy,
+New York, addressed to the Board of Education of said city._
+
+GENTLEMEN,--Having examined Mitchell's Intermediate and Primary
+Geographies, and faithfully compared them with Smith's, in regard to
+accuracy of definitions, reliability of topography, and faithfulness of
+the descriptive part, we, the undersigned, teachers, are respectively of
+opinion that the interests of your public schools require that the
+former geographies be substituted, to be used in our schools in the room
+of the latter, and we respectfully request that this change may be made.
+
+_Signed,_
+
+    EDWARD WILSON, JR.
+    HENRY ROBBINS,
+    HORACE BACON,
+    P.W. ROBERTSON,
+    N.H. BENSON,
+    P.S. CRANDALL,
+    JNO. PRENTICE,
+    J.A. PETERS,
+    ROXANA CARMICHAEL,
+    RICHARD DAVIDSON.
+
+  _Principals of the Public Schools of the City of Troy._
+
+
+
+HISTORICAL SERIES.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+PINNOCK'S HISTORICAL SERIES.
+
+PINNOCK'S ENGLAND.
+
+REVISED EDITION.
+
+PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND,
+
+FROM THE INVASION OF JULIUS CAESAR
+
+TO THE DEATH OF GEORGE THE II.
+
+WITH A CONTINUATION TO THE YEAR 1845:
+
+WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION;
+
+BESIDES A VARIETY OF VALUABLE INFORMATION ADDED THROUGHOUT THE WORK,
+
+Consisting of Tables of Contemporary Sovereigns and eminent Persons,
+copious Explanatory Notes, Remarks on the Politics, Manners and
+Literature of the Age, and an Outline of the Constitution.
+
+ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
+
+FORTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, CORRECTED AND REVISED FROM THE THIRTY-FIFTH
+ENGLISH EDITION.
+
+BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D., OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN,
+
+Author of a Manual of Ancient and Modern History, &c. &c.
+
+HISTORICAL SERIES.
+
+PINNOCK'S FRANCE,
+
+HISTORY OF FRANCE AND NORMANDY, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE
+REVOLUTION OF 1848,
+
+WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION,
+
+BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D., OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN,
+
+Author of a Manual of Ancient and Modern History, &c. &c., and Editor of
+Pinnock's Improved editions of Goldsmith's Greece, Rome, and England.
+
+ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
+
+FIRST AMERICAN FROM THE THIRD ENGLISH EDITION.
+
+PINNOCK'S ROME,
+
+REVISED EDITION,
+
+PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ROME,
+
+TO WHICH IS PREFIXED
+
+AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF ROMAN HISTORY,
+
+AND A GREAT VARIETY OF INFORMATION THROUGHOUT THE WORK,
+
+ON THE MANNERS, INSTITUTIONS, AND ANTIQUITIES OF THE ROMANS;
+
+WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION.
+
+TWENTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, FROM THE NINETEENTH LONDON EDITION, IMPROVED
+
+BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D.,
+
+WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS BY ATHERTON AND OTHERS.
+
+PINNOCK'S GREECE,
+
+REVISED EDITION,
+
+PINNOCK'S IMPROVED EDITION OF DR. GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE,
+REVISED, CORRECTED, AND VERY CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED, BY THE ADDITION OF
+SEVERAL NEW CHAPTERS, AND NUMEROUS USEFUL NOTES.
+
+WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION AT THE END OF EACH SECTION.
+
+TWENTY-FIFTH AMERICAN, FROM THE NINETEENTH LONDON EDITION, IMPROVED
+
+BY W.C. TAYLOR, LL.D.,
+
+WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY ATHERTON AND OTHERS.
+
+HISTORICAL SERIES.
+
+Pinnock's England, Greece, Rome, and France, have become school
+classics. In order to make this series more complete, the volumes have
+been revised by that well-known historian, W.C. Taylor, LL.D., of
+Trinity College, Dublin.
+
+The popularity of these books is almost without a parallel. Teachers
+unacquainted with them, will on examination give them a decided
+preference to any other historical series published.
+
+_From the Pennsylvania Inquirer, Philadelphia_.
+
+PINNOCK'S GOLDSMITH'S GREECE, ROME, AND ENGLAND.--The popularity of
+these histories is almost without a parallel among our school books.
+Their use is co-extensive with the English language, and their names are
+familiar to all who have received an English education. But if permitted
+to remain as they came from the hands of the author, they would soon be
+antiquated; for not only is the stream of modern history flowing onward,
+but numerous scholars are constantly making researches into that of
+ancient times. These works are therefore frequently revised, and thus
+the labours of successive individuals are added to those of the gifted
+man who wrote them. The present edition is quite an improvement on the
+former ones. Several important matters which had before been omitted,
+have been introduced into the text, numerous notes and several new cuts
+have been added, and every chapter commences with one or more well
+selected poetical lines, which express the subject of the chapter, and
+will assist the memory as well as improve the taste of the student. We
+feel assured that these additions will increase the reputation which
+these works have hitherto so deservedly sustained.
+
+_From_ JOHN M. KEAGY, _Friends' Academy, Philadelphia._
+
+I consider Pinnock's edition of Goldsmith's History of England as the
+best edition of that work which has as yet been published for the use of
+schools. The tables of contemporary sovereigns and eminent persons, at
+the end of each chapter, afford the means of many useful remarks and
+comparisons with the history of other nations. With these views, I
+cheerfully recommend it as a book well adapted to school purposes.
+
+_From_ MR. J.F. GOULD, _Teacher, Baltimore._
+
+Having examined Pinnock's improved edition of Dr. Goldsmith's History of
+Rome, I unhesitatingly say, that the style and elegance of the language,
+the arrangement of the chapters, and the questions for examination,
+render it, in my estimation, a most valuable school book:--I therefore
+most cheerfully recommend it to teachers, and do confidently trust that
+it will find an extensive introduction into the schools of our country.
+
+HISTORICAL SERIES.
+
+_From the New York Evening Post._
+
+A well written and authentic History of France possesses unusual
+interest at the present time. It becomes especially valuable when, as in
+the present case, it has been prepared with questions as a text-book for
+common schools and seminaries, by a scholar so accomplished as Dr.
+Taylor. The work has passed through three editions in England. The
+American editor has added one chapter on the late revolutions, bringing
+the history down to 1848, and has added to its value by illustrations
+throughout, portraying the costume and the principal events of the
+reigns of which it treats.
+
+This treatise goes back to the origin of the Celtic race, or the
+Cimbrians, as the offspring of Gomer, peopling the north and east of
+Europe on the one hand, and to the descendants of Cush--under the names
+of Scythians, Tartars, Goths, and Scots, warlike, wandering tribes, on
+the other, tracing the migrations of the latter till they drove the
+Celts westward, and the Rhine forms the boundary between the two
+nations. From the Gauls it goes on to the reign of the Franks,
+Charlemagne, the Carlovingian race, the history of Normandy, and the
+history of France from the first crusade through its lines of monarchies
+and its revolutions, to 1848. The style is clear and forcible, and from
+the compactness of the work, forming, as it does, a complete chain of
+events in a most important part of the history of Europe, it will be
+found interesting and valuable for general readers, or as a text-book in
+our schools. It is comprised in 444 pages, 12mo., and contains a
+chronological index and genealogy of the kings of France.
+
+Want of space prevents us from inserting all the recommendations
+received: we however present the names of the following gentlemen, who
+have given their recommendations to the Histories:
+
+  SIMEON HART, Jr., _Farmington, Conn._
+  REV. D.R. AUSTIN, _Principal of Monmouth Academy, Monson, Mass._
+  T.L. WRIGHT, A.M., _Prin. E. Hartford Classical and English School._
+  REV. N.W. FISKE, A.M., _Professor Amherst College, Mass._
+  E.S. SNELL, A.M., _Professor Amherst College, Mass._
+  REV. S. NORTH, _Professor Languages, Hamilton College, N.Y._
+  W.H. SCRAM, A.M., _Prin. Classical and English Academy, Troy, N.Y._
+  JAMES F. GOULD, _Principal of Classical School, Baltimore._
+  A.B. MYERS, _Principal of Whitehall, Academy, New York._
+  HORACE WEBSTER, _Professor Geneva College, N.Y._
+  W.C. FOWLER, _Professor Middlebury College, Vermont._
+  B.S. NOBLE, _Bridgeport, Conn._
+  REV. S.B. HOWE, _Late President of Dickenson College._
+  B.F. JOSLIN, _Professor Union College, N.Y._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Pinnock's Improved Edition of Dr.
+Goldsmith's History of Rome, by Oliver Goldsmith
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME ***
+
+***** This file should be named 16387.txt or 16387.zip *****
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