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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/16354-8.txt b/16354-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e34f13c --- /dev/null +++ b/16354-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4521 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 620, +November 19,1887, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 620, November 19,1887 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July 24, 2005 [EBook #16354] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 620 + + + + +NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 18, 1997 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIV., No. 620. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ARCHITECTURE--Bristol Cathedral--The history and description of + this ancient building, with large illustration.--1 illustration. 9904 + +II. BIOGRAPHY--Oliver Evans and the Steam Engine.--The work of this + early pioneer, hitherto but slightly recognized at his true + worth as an inventor. 9896 + +III. CHEMISTRY--The Chemistry of the Cotton Fiber--By Dr. BOWMAN--An + interesting investigation, showing the variation in composition + in different cottons. 9909 + + Synthesis of Styrolene. 9910 + + Notes on Saccharin. 9910 + + Alcohol and Turpentine. 9910 + +IV. ENGINEERING--Auguste's Endless Stone Saw--A valuable improvement, + introducing the principle of the band saw, and producing a + horizontal cut--10 illustrations. 9896 + +V. ELECTRICITY.--A Current Meter--The Jehl & Rupp meter for + electricity described--1 illustration. 9903 + + Mix & Genest's Microphone Telephone--The new telephone recently + adopted by the imperial post office department of Germany--3 + illustrations. 9902 + + Storage Batteries for Electric Locomotion--By A. RECKENZAUN--A + valuable paper on this subject, giving historical facts and + working figures of expense, etc. 9903 + + The Telemeter System--By R.F. UPTON--The system of Ö.L. Clarke, + of New York, as described before the British Association--A + valuable tribute to an American inventor--1 illustration. 9900 + +VI. METALLURGY.--The Newbery-Vautin Chlorination Process--A new + process of extracting gold from its ores, with details of the + management of the process and apparatus--1 illustration. 9907 + +VII. MISCELLANEOUS.--A Gigantic Load of Lumber--The largest barge + load of lumber ever shipped--The barge Wahnapitę and her + appearance as loaded at Duluth--1 illustration. 9907 + + Apparatus for Exercising the Muscles--An appliance for use by + invalids requiring to exercise atrophied limbs--1 illustration. 9908 + + Practical Education.--A plea for the support of manual training + schools. 9906 + + Waves--The subject of ocean waves fully treated--An interesting + _resume_ of our present knowledge of this phenomenon of + fluids. 9906 + +VIII. NAVAL ENGINEERING--The New Spanish Armored Cruiser Reina + Regente.--Illustration and full description of this recent + addition to the Spanish navy.--1 illustration. 9895 + + The Spanish Torpedo Boat Azor--Illustration and note of speed, + etc., of this new vessel--1 illustration. 9895 + +IX. OPHTHALMOLOGY--The Bull Optometer--An apparatus for testing + the eyesight.--The invention of Dr George J. Bull.--3 + illustrations. 9908 + +X. SANITATION AND HYGIENE--The Sanitation of Towns--By J. GORDON, + C.E.--A presidential address before the Leicester meeting of + the Society of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors + of England. 9909 + +XI. TECHNOLOGY--A New Monster Revolving Black Ash Furnace and the + Work Done with It--By WATSON SMITH--The great furnace of the + Widnes Alkali Company described, with results and features of + its working--4 illustrations. 9900 + + Apparatus Used for Making Alcohol for Hospital Use during the + Civil War between the States--By CHARLES K. GALLAGHER--A curiosity + of war times described and illustrated.--1 illustration. 9900 + + Confederate Apparatus for Manufacturing Saltpeter for Ammunition + --By CHARLES K. GALLAGHER--Primitive process for extracting + saltpeter from earth and other material--1 illustration. 9900 + + Electrolysis and Refining of Sugar--A method of bleaching sugar + said to be due to ozone produced by electric currents acting on + the solution--1 illustration. 9903 + + Improvements in the Manufacture of Portland Cement--By FREDERICK + RANSOME, A.I.C.E.--An important paper recently read before the + British Association, giving the last and most advanced methods + of manufacture. 9901 + + Roburite, the New Explosive--Practical tests of this substance, + with special application to coal mining. 9897 + + The Mechanical Reeling of Silk.--An advanced method of treating + silk cocoons, designed to dispense with the old hand winding of + the raw silk.--3 illustrations. 9898 + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SPANISH TORPEDO BOAT AZOR. + + +[Illustration: THE SPANISH TORPEDO BOAT AZOR.] + +The Azor was built by Yarrow & Co., London, is of the larger class, +having a displacement of 120 tons, and is one of the fastest boats +afloat. Her speed is 24½ miles per hour. She has two tubes for +launching torpedoes and three rapid firing Nordenfelt guns. She lately +arrived in Santander, Spain, after the very rapid passage of forty +hours from England. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE NEW SPANISH ARMORED CRUISER REINA REGENTE. + + + +[Illustration: THE NEW SPANISH ARMORED CRUISER REINA REGENTE.] + +The new armored cruiser Reina Regente, which has been built and +engined by Messrs. James & George Thomson, of Clydebank, for the +Spanish government, has recently completed her official speed trials +on the Clyde, the results attained being sufficient to justify the +statement made on her behalf that she is the fastest war cruiser in +the world. She is a vessel of considerable size, the following being +her measurements: Length over all, 330 ft., and 307 ft. between +perpendiculars; breadth, 50½ ft.; and her draught is 20 ft., giving a +displacement of 5,000 tons, which will be increased to 5,600 tons when +she is fully equipped. + +This vessel belongs to the internally protected type of war cruisers, +a type of recent origin, and of which she is the largest example yet +built. The internal protection includes an armored deck which consists +of steel plates ranging from 3-1/8 in. in thickness in the flat center +to 4¾ in. at the sloping sides of the deck. This protective deck +covers the "vitals" of the ship, the machinery, boilers, etc. Then +there is a very minute subdivision in the hull of the ship, there +being, in all, 156 water-tight compartments, 83 of which are between +the armored deck and the one immediately above it, or between wind and +water. Most of these compartments are used as coal bunkers. Of the +remainder of the water-tight compartments, 60 are beneath the armor. +Throughout her whole length the Reina Regente has a double bottom, +which also extends from side to side of the ship. In order to keep the +vessel as free of water as possible, there have been fitted on board +four 14 in. centrifugal pumps, all of which are connected to a main +pipe running right fore and aft in the ship, and into which branches +are received from every compartment. These pumps are of the "Bon +Accord" type, and were supplied by Messrs. Drysdale & Co., Glasgow. + +Not being weighted by massive external armor, the Reina Regente is +unusually light in proportion to her bulk, and in consequence it has +been rendered possible to supply her with engines of extraordinary +power. They are of the horizontal triple expansion type, driving twin +screws, and placed in separate water-tight compartments. The boilers, +four in number, are also in separate compartments. Well above the +water line there are two auxiliary boilers, which were supplied by +Messrs. Merryweather, London, and are intended for raising steam +rapidly in cases of emergency. These boilers are connected with all +the auxiliary engines of the ship, numbering no fewer than +forty-three. + +The engines have been designed to indicate 12,000 horse power, and on +the trial, when they were making 110 revolutions per minute, they +indicated considerably upward of 11,000 horse power, the bearings all +the while keeping wonderfully cool, and the temperature of the engine +and boiler rooms being never excessive. The boilers are fitted with a +forced draught arrangement giving a pressure of 1 in. of water. In the +official run she attained a speed equal to 21 knots (over 24 miles) +per hour, and over a period of four hours an average speed of 20.72 +knots per hour was developed, without the full power of the engines +being attained. The average steam pressure in the boilers was 140 lb. +per square inch. In the course of some private trials made by the +builders, the consumption of coal was tested, with the result that +while the vessel was going at a moderate speed the very low +consumption of 14 lb. of coal per indicated horse power per hour was +reached. The vessel is capable of steaming 6,000 knots when there is a +normal supply of coal in her bunkers, and when they are full there is +sufficient to enable her to steam 13,000 knots. + +The Reina Regente will be manned by 50 officers and a crew of 350 men, +all of whom will have their quarters on the main deck. Among her +fittings and equipment there are three steam lifeboats and eight other +boats, five of Sir William Thomson's patent compasses, and a complete +electric light installation, the latter including two powerful search +lights, which are placed on the bridge. All parts of the vessel are in +communication by means of speaking tubes. In order to enable the +vessel to turn speedily, she is fitted with the sternway rudder of +Messrs. Thomson & Biles. This contrivance is a combination of a +partially balanced rudder with a rudder formed as a continuation of +the after lines of a ship. The partial balance tends to reduce the +strains on the steering gear, and thereby enables the rudder area to +be increased without unduly straining the gear. + +When fitted out for actual service, this novel war cruiser will have a +most formidable armament, consisting of four 24 centimeter Hontorio +guns (each of 21 tons), six 12 centimeter guns (also of the Hontorio +type), six 6 pounder Nordenfelt guns, fourteen small guns, and five +torpedo tubes--one at the stern, two amidships, and two at the bow of +the ship. + +It is worthy of note that this war cruiser was constructed in fifteen +months, or three months under the stipulated contract time; in fact, +the official trial of the vessel took place exactly eighteen months +from the signing of the contract. Not only is this the fastest war +cruiser afloat, but her owners also possess in the El Destructor what +is probably the simplest torpedo catcher afloat, a vessel which has +attained a speed of 22½ knots, or over 26 miles, per hour. +--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +OLIVER EVANS AND THE STEAM ENGINE. + + +A correspondent of the New York _Times_, deeming that far too much +credit has been given to foreigners for the practical development of +the steam engine, contributes the following interesting _resume_: + +Of all the inventions of ancient or modern times none have more +importantly and beneficently influenced the affairs of mankind than +the double acting high pressure steam engine, the locomotive, the +steam railway system, and the steamboat, all of which inventions are +of American origin. The first three are directly and the last +indirectly associated with a patent that was granted by the State of +Maryland, in 1787, being the very year of the framing of the +Constitution of the United States. In view of the momentous nature of +the services which these four inventions have rendered to the material +and national interests of the people of the United States, it is to be +hoped that neither they nor their origin will be forgotten in the +coming celebration of the centennial of the framing of the +Constitution. + +The high pressure steam engine in its stationary form is almost +ubiquitous in America. In all great iron and steel works, in all +factories, in all plants for lighting cities with electricity, in +brief, wherever in the United States great power in compact form is +wanted, there will be found the high pressure steam engine furnishing +all the power that is required, and more, too, if more is demanded, +because it appears to be equal to every human requisition. But go +beyond America. Go to Great Britain, and the American steam +engine--although it is not termed American in Great Britain--will be +found fast superseding the English engine--in other words, James +Watt's condensing engine. It is the same the world over. On all the +earth there is not a steam locomotive that could turn a wheel but for +the fact that, in common with every locomotive from the earliest +introduction of that invention, it is simply the American steam engine +put on wheels, and it was first put on wheels by its American +inventor, Oliver Evans, being the same Oliver Evans to whom the State +of Maryland granted the before mentioned patent of 1787. + +He is the same Oliver Evans whom Elijah Galloway, the British writer +on the steam engine, compared with James Watt as to the authorship of +the locomotive, or rather "steam carriage," as the locomotive was in +those days termed. After showing the unfitness of Mr. Watt's low +pressure steam engine for locomotive purposes, Mr. Galloway, more than +fifty years ago, wrote: "We have made these remarks in this place in +order to set at rest the title of Mr. Watt to the invention of steam +carriages. And, taking for our rule that the party who first attempted +them in practice by mechanical arrangements of his own is entitled to +the reputation of being their inventor, Mr. Oliver Evans, of America, +appears to us to be the person to whom that honor is due." He is the +same Oliver Evans whom the _Mechanics' Magazine_, of London, the +leading journal of its kind at that period, had in mind when, in its +number of September, 1830, it published the official report of the +competitive trial between the steam carriages Rocket, San Pariel, +Novelty, and others on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. + +In that trial the company's engines developed about 15 miles in an +hour, and spurts of still higher speed. The _Magazine_ points to the +results of the trial, and then, under the heading of "The First +Projector of Steam Traveling," it declares that all that had been +accomplished had been anticipated and its feasibility practically +exemplified over a quarter of a century before by Oliver Evans, an +American citizen. The _Magazine_ showed that many years before the +trial Mr. Evans had offered to furnish steam carriages that, on level +railways, should run at the rate of 300 miles in a day, or he would +not ask pay therefor. The writer will state that this offer by Mr. +Evans was made in November, 1812, at which date not a British steam +carriage had yet accomplished seven miles in an hour. + +In 1809 Mr. Evans endeavored to establish a steam railway both for +freight and passenger traffic between New York and Philadelphia, +offering to invest $500 per mile in the enterprise. At the date of his +effort there was not a railway in the world over ten miles long, nor +does there appear to have been another human being who up to that date +had entertained even the thought of a steam railway for passenger and +freight traffic. In view of all this, is it at all surprising that the +British _Mechanics' Magazine_ declared Oliver Evans, an American, to +be the first projector of steam railway traveling? In 1804 Mr. Evans +made a most noteworthy demonstration, his object being to practically +exemplify that locomotion could be imparted by his high pressure steam +engine to both carriages and boats, and the reader will see that the +date of the demonstration was three years before Fulton moved a boat +by means of Watt's low pressure steam engine. The machine used +involved the original double acting high pressure steam engine, the +original steam locomotive, and the original high pressure steamboat. +The whole mass weighed over twenty tons. + +Notwithstanding there was no railway, except a temporary one laid over +a slough in the path, Mr. Evans' engine moved this great weight with +ease from the southeast corner of Ninth and Market streets, in the +city of Philadelphia, one and a half miles, to the River Schuylkill. +There the machine was launched into the river, and the land wheels +being taken off and a paddle wheel attached to the stern and connected +with the engine, the now steamboat sped away down the river until it +emptied into the Delaware, whence it turned upward until it reached +Philadelphia. Although this strange craft was square both at bow and +stern, it nevertheless passed all the up-bound ships and other sailing +vessels in the river, the wind being to them ahead. The writer repeats +that this thorough demonstration by Oliver Evans of the possibility of +navigation by steam was made three years before Fulton. But for more +than a quarter of a century prior to this demonstration Mr. Evans had +time and again asserted that vessels could be thus navigated. He did +not contend with John Fitch, but on the contrary tried to aid him and +advised him to use other means than oars to propel his boat. But Fitch +was wedded to his own methods. In 1805 Mr. Evans published a book on +the steam engine, mainly devoted to his form thereof. In this book he +gives directions how to propel boats by means of his engine against +the current of the Mississippi. Prior to this publication he +associated himself with some citizens of Kentucky--one of whom was the +grandfather of the present Gen. Chauncey McKeever, United States +Army--the purpose being to build a steamboat to run on the +Mississippi. The boat was actually built in Kentucky and floated to +New Orleans. The engine was actually built in Philadelphia by Mr. +Evans and sent to New Orleans, but before the engine arrived out the +boat was destroyed by fire or hurricane. The engine was then put to +sawing timber, and it operated so successfully that Mr. Stackhouse, +the engineer who went out with it, reported on his return from the +South that for the 13 months prior to his leaving the engine had been +constantly at work, not having lost a single day! + +The reader can thus see the high stage of efficiency which Oliver +Evans had imparted to his engine full 80 years ago. On this point Dr. +Ernst Alban, the German writer on the steam engine, when speaking of +the high pressure steam engine, writes: "Indeed, to such perfection +did he [Evans] bring it, that Trevithick and Vivian, who came after +him, followed but clumsily in his wake, and do not deserve the title +of either inventors or improvers of the high pressure engine, which +the English are so anxious to award to them.... When it is considered +under what unfavorable circumstances Oliver Evans worked, his merit +must be much enhanced; and all attempts made to lessen his fame only +show that he is neither understood nor equaled by his detractors." + +The writer has already shown that there are bright exceptions to this +general charge brought by Dr. Alban against British writers, but the +overwhelming mass of them have acted more like envious children than +like men when speaking of the authorship of the double acting high +pressure steam engine, the locomotive, and the steam railway system. +Speaking of this class of British writers, Prof. Renwick, when +alluding to their treatment of Oliver Evans, writes: "Conflicting +national pride comes in aid of individual jealousy, and the writers of +one nation often claim for their own vain and inefficient projectors +the honors due to the successful enterprise of a foreigner." Many of +these writers totally ignore the very existence of Oliver Evans, and +all of them attribute to Trevithick and Vivian the authorship of the +high pressure steam engine and the locomotive. Yet, when doing so, all +of them substantially acknowledge the American origin of both +inventions, because it is morally certain that Trevithick and Vivian +got possession of the plans and specifications of his engine. Oliver +Evans sent them to England in 1794-5 by Mr. Joseph Stacy Sampson, of +Boston, with the hope that some British engineer would approve and +conjointly with him take out patents for the inventions. Mr. Sampson +died in England, but not until after he had extensively exhibited Mr. +Evans' plans, apparently, however, without success. After Mr. +Sampson's death Trevithick and Vivian took out a patent for a high +pressure steam engine. This could happen and yet the invention be +original with them. + +But they introduced into Cornwall a form of boiler hitherto unknown in +Great Britain, namely, the cylindrical flue boiler, which Oliver Evans +had invented and used in America years before the names of Trevithick +and Vivian were associated with the steam engine. Hence, they were +charged over fifty years ago with having stolen the invention of Mr. +Evans, and the charge has never been refuted. Hence when British +writers ignore the just claims of Oliver Evans and assert for +Trevithick and Vivian the authorship of the high pressure steam engine +and the locomotive, they thereby substantially acknowledge the +American origin of both inventions. They are not only of American +origin, but their author, although born in 1755, was nevertheless an +American of the second generation, seeing that he was descended from +the Rev. Dr. Evans Evans, who in the earlier days of the colony of +Pennsylvania came out to take charge of the affairs of the Episcopal +Church in Pennsylvania. + +The writer has thus shown that with the patent granted by the State of +Maryland to Oliver Evans in 1787 were associated--first, the double +acting high pressure steam engine, which to-day is the standard steam +engine of the world; second, the locomotive, that is in worldwide use; +third, the steam railway system, which pervades the world; fourth, the +high pressure steamboat, which term embraces all the great ocean +steamships that are actuated by the compound steam engine, as well as +all the steamships on the Mississippi and its branches. + +The time and opportunity has now arrived to assert before all the +world the American origin of these universally beneficent inventions. +Such a demonstration should be made, if only for the instruction of +the rising generation. Not a school book has fallen into the hands of +the writer that correctly sets forth the origin of the subject matter +of this paper. He apprehends that it is the same with the books used +in colleges and universities, for otherwise how could that parody on +the history of the locomotive, called "The Life of George Stephenson, +Railway Engineer," by Samuel Smiles, have met such unbounded success? +To the amazement of the writer, a learned professor in one of the most +important institutions of learning in the country did, in a lecture, +quote Smiles as authority on a point bearing on the history of the +locomotive! It is true that he made amends by adding, when his lecture +was published, a counter statement; but that such a man should have +seriously cited such a work shows the widespread mischief done among +people not versed in engineering lore by the admirably written romance +of Smiles, who as Edward C. Knight, in his Mechanical Dictionary, +truly declares, has "pettifogged the whole case." If, as Prof. Renwick +intimates, "conflicting national pride" has led the major part of +British writers to suppress the truth as to the origin of the high +pressure steam engine, the locomotive, and the steam railway system, +surely true national pride should induce the countrymen of Oliver +Evans to assert it. In closing this paper the writer will say, for the +information of the so-called "practical" men of the country, or, in +other words, those men whose judgment of an invention is mainly guided +by its money value, that Poor's Manual of Railroads in the United +States for 1886 puts their capital stock and their debts at over +$8,162,000,000. The value of the steamships and steamboats actuated by +the high pressure steam engine the writer has no means of +ascertaining. Neither can he appraise the factories and other plants +in the United States--to say nothing of the rest of the world--in +which the high pressure steam engine forms the motive power. + + * * * * * + + + + +AUGUSTE'S ENDLESS STONE SAW. + + +It does not seem as if the band or endless saw should render the same +services in sawing stone as in working wood and metals, for the +reason that quite a great stress is necessary to cause the advance of +the stone (which is in most cases very heavy) against the blade. Mr. +A. Auguste, however, has not stopped at such a consideration, or, +better, he has got round the difficulty by holding the block +stationary and making the blade act horizontally. Fig. 1 gives a +general view of the apparatus; Fig. 2 gives a plan view; Fig. 3 is a +transverse section; Fig. 4 is an end view; Figs. 5, 6, and 7 show +details of the water and sand distributer; and Figs. 8, 9, and 10 show +the pulleys arranged for obtaining several slabs at once. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW.] + +[Illustration: FIGS. 3 and 4 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW.] + +[Illustration: FIGS. 5 through 10 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW.] + +The machine is wholly of cast iron. The frame consists of four +columns, A, bolted to a rectangular bed plate, A', and connected above +by a frame, B, that forms a table for the support of the transmission +pieces, as well as the iron ladders, _a_, and the platform, _b_, that +supports the water reservoirs, C, and sand receptacles, C'. + +Between the two columns at the ends of the machine there are two +crosspieces, D and D', so arranged that they can move vertically, like +carriages. These pieces carry the axles of the pulleys, P and P', +around which the band saw, S, passes. In the center of the bed plate, +A', which is cast in two pieces connected by bolts, there are ties to +which are screwed iron rails, _e_, which form a railway over which the +platform car, E, carrying the stone is made to advance beneath the +saw. + +The saw consists of an endless band of steel, either smooth or +provided with teeth that are spaced according to the nature of the +material to be worked. It passes around the pulleys, P and P', which +are each encircled by a wide and stout band of rubber to cause the +blade to adhere, and which are likewise provided with two flanges. Of +the latter, the upper one is cast in a piece with the pulley, and the +lower one is formed of sections of a circle connected by screws. The +pulley, P, is fast, and carries along the saw; the other, P', is +loose, and its hub is provided with a bronze socket (Figs. 1 and 4). +It is through this second pulley that the blade is given the desired +tension, and to this effect its axle is forged with a small disk +adjusted in a frame and traversed by a screw, _d'_, which is +maneuvered through a hand wheel. The extremities of the crosspieces, D +and D', are provided with brass sockets through which the pieces slide +up and down the columns, with slight friction, under the action of the +vertical screws, _g_ and _g'_, within the columns. + +A rotary motion is communicated to the four screws simultaneously by +the transmission arranged upon the frame. To this effect, the pulley, +P, which receives the motion and transmits it to the saw, has its +axle, _f_, prolonged, and grooved throughout its length in order that +it may always be carried along, whatever be the place it occupies, by +the hollow shaft, F, which is provided at the upper extremity with a +bevel wheel and two keys placed at the level of the bronze collars of +its support, G. The slider, D, is cast in a piece with the pillow +block that supports the shaft, _f_, and the bronze bushing of this +pillow block is arranged to receive a shoulder and an annular +projection, both forged with the shaft and designed to carry it, as +well as the pulley, P, keyed to its extremity. Now the latter, by its +weight, exerts a pressure which determines a sensible friction upon +the bushing through this shoulder and projection, and, in order to +diminish the same, the bushing is continuously moistened with a +solution of soap and water through the pipe, _g_, which runs from the +reservoir, G'. + +The saw is kept from deviating from its course by movable guides +placed on the sliders, D and D'. These guides, H and H', each consist +of a cast iron box fixed by a nut to the extremity of the arms, _h_ +and _h'_, and coupled by crosspieces, _j_ and _j'_, which keep them +apart and give the guides the necessary rigidity. + +The shaft, _m_, mounted in pillow blocks fixed to the left extremity +of the frame, receives motion from the motor through the pulley, _p_, +at the side of which is mounted the loose pulley, _p_. This motion is +transmitted by the drum, M, and the pulley, L, to the shaft, _l_, at +the other extremity. This latter is provided with a pinion, _l'_, +which, through the wheel, F', gives motion to the saw. The shaft, _m_, +likewise controls the upward or downward motion of the saw through the +small drums, N and _n_, and the two pairs of fast and loose pulleys, +N' and _n'_. This shaft, too, transmits motion (a very slow one) to +the four screws, _g_ and _g'_, in the interior of the columns, and the +nuts of which are affixed to the sliders, D and D'. To this effect, +the shaft, _q_, is provided at its extremities with endless screws +that gear with two wheels, _q_', with helicoidal teeth fixed near the +middle of two parallel axes, _r_, running above the table, B, and +terminating in bevel wheels, _r'_, that engage with similar wheels +fixed at the end of the screws, _g_ and _g'_. + +The car that carries the block to the saw consists of a strong frame, +E, mounted upon four wheels. This frame is provided with a pivot and a +circular track for the reception of the cast iron platform, E', which +rests thereon through the intermedium of rollers. Between the +rails, _e_, and parallel with them, are fixed two strong screws, _e'_, +held by supports that raise them to the bottom of the car frame, so +that they can be affixed thereto. When once the car is fastened in +this way, the screws are revolved by means of winches, and the block +is thus made to advance or recede a sufficient distance to make the +lines marked on its surface come exactly opposite the saw blade. + +In sawing hard stones, it is necessary, as well known, to keep up a +flow of water and fine sand upon the blade in order to increase its +friction. Upon two platforms, _b_, at the extremities of the machine, +are fixed the water reservoir, C, and the receptacles, C', containing +fine sand or dry pulverized grit stone. As may be seen from Figs. 5 +and 6, the bottom of the sand box, C', is conical and terminates in a +hopper, T, beneath which is adjusted a slide valve, _t_, connected +with a screw that carries a pulley, T'. By means of this valve, the +bottom of the hopper may be opened or closed in such a way as to +regulate the flow of the sand at will by acting upon the pulley, T', +through a chain, _t'_, passing over the guide pulley, _t²_. A rubber +tube, _u_, which starts from the hopper, runs into a metal pipe, U, +that descends to the guide, H, with which it is connected by a collar. +Under the latter, this pipe terminates in a sphere containing a small +aperture to allow the sand to escape upon an inclined board provided +with a flange. At the same time, through the rubber tube, _c_, coming +from the reservoir, C, a stream of water is directed upon the board in +order to wet the sand. + +As the apparatus with but a single endless saw makes but two kerfs at +once, Mr. Auguste has devised an arrangement by means of which several +blades may be used, and the work thus be expedited. + +Without changing the general arrangements, he replaces the pulleys, P +and P', by two half drums, V and V' (Figs. 8, 9, and 10), which are +each cast in a piece with the crosspieces, D² and D³, designed to +replace D and D', and, like them, sliding up and down the columns, A, +of the frame. Motion is transmitted to all the saw blades by a cog +wheel, X, keyed to the vertical shaft, _f_, and gearing with small +pinions, _x_, which are equally distant all around, and which +themselves gear with similar pinions forming the radii of a succession +of circles concentric with the first. All these pinions are mounted +upon axles traversing bronze bearings within the drum, which, to this +effect, is provided with slots. The axles of the pinions are prolonged +in order to receive rollers, _x'_, surrounded with rubber so as to +facilitate, through friction, the motion of all the blades running +between them. + +The other drum, V', is arranged in the same way, except that it is not +cast in a piece with the carriage, D³, but is so adjusted to it that +a tension may be exerted upon the blades by means of the screw, _d_, +and its hand wheel. + +Through this combination, all the blades are carried along at once in +opposite directions and at the same speed.--_Publication +Industrielle._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ROBURITE, THE NEW EXPLOSIVE. + + +A series of experiments of great interest and vital importance to +colliery owners and all those engaged in mining coal has been carried +out during the last ten days in the South Yorkshire coal field. The +new mines regulation act provides that any explosible used in coal +mines shall either be fired in a water cartridge or be of such a +nature that it cannot inflame firedamp. This indeed is the problem +which has puzzled many able chemists during the last few years, and +which Dr. Roth, of Berlin, claims to have solved with his explosive +"roburite." We recently gave a detailed account of trials carried out +at the School of Military Engineering, Chatham, to test the safety and +strength of roburite, as compared with gun cotton, dynamite, and +blasting gelatine. The results were conclusive of the great power of +the new explosive, and so far fully confirmed the reports of the able +mining engineer and the chemical experts who had been sent to Germany +to make full inquiries. These gentlemen had ample opportunity of +seeing roburite used in the coal mines of Westphalia, and it was +mainly upon their testimony that the patents for the British empire +were acquired by the Roburite Explosive Company. + +It has, however, been deemed advisable to give practical proof to +those who would have to use it, that roburite possesses all the high +qualities claimed for it, and hence separate and independent trials +have been arranged in such representative collieries as the +Wharncliffe Silkstone, near Sheffield, Monk Bretton, near Barnsley, +and, further north, in the Durham coal field, at Lord Londonderry's +Seaham and Silksworth collieries. Mr. G.B. Walker, resident manager of +the Wharncliffe Colliery Company, had gone to Germany as an +independent observer--provided with a letter of introduction from the +Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs--and had seen the +director of the government mines at Saarbruck, who gave it as his +opinion that, so far as his experience had gone, the new explosive was +a most valuable invention. Mr. Walker was so impressed with the great +advantages of roburite that he desired to introduce it into his own +colliery, where he gladly arranged with the company to make the first +coal mining experiments in this country. These were recently carried +out in the Parkgate seam of the Wharncliffe Silkstone colliery, under +the personal superintendence of the inventor, Dr. Roth, and in the +presence of a number of colliery managers and other practical men. + +In all six shots were fired, five of which were for the purpose of +winning coal, while the sixth was expressly arranged as a "blowout +shot." The roburite--which resembles nothing so much as a common +yellow sugar--is packed in cartridges of about 4½ in. in length and 1½ +in. in diameter, each containing about 65 grammes (one-seventh of a +pound) inclosed in a waterproof envelope. By dividing a cartridge, any +desired strength of charge can be obtained. The first shot had a +charge of 90 grammes (one-fifth of a pound) placed in a hole drilled +to a depth of about 4 ft. 6 in., and 1¾ in. in diameter. All the +safety lamps were carefully covered, so that complete darkness was +produced, but there was no visible sign of an explosion in the shape +of flame--not even a spark--only the dull, heavy report and the noise +made by the displaced coal. A large quantity of coal was brought +down, but it was considered by most of the practical men present to be +rather too much broken. The second shot was fired with a single +cartridge of 65 grammes, and this gave the same remarkable results as +regards absence of flame, and, in each case, there were no noxious +fumes perceivable, even the moment after the shot was fired. This +reduced charge gave excellent results as regards coal winning, and one +of the subsequent shots, with the same weight of roburite, produced +from 10 to 11 tons of coal in almost a solid mass. + +It has been found that a fertile cause of accidents in coal mines is +insufficient tamping, or "stemming," as it is called in Yorkshire. +Therefore a hole was bored into a strong wall of coal, and a charge of +45 grammes inserted, and very slightly tamped, with the view of +producing a flame if such were possible. This "blowout" shot is so +termed from the fact of its being easier for the explosion to blow out +the tamping, like the shot from a gun, than to split or displace the +coal. The result was most successful, as there was no flash to relieve +the utter darkness. + +The second set of experiments took place on October 24 last, in the +Monk Bretton colliery, near Barnsley, of which Mr. W. Pepper, of +Leeds, is owner. This gentleman determined to give the new explosive a +fair and exhaustive trial, and the following programme was carried out +in the presence of a very large gathering of gentlemen interested in +coal mining. The chief inspector of mines for Yorkshire and +Lincolnshire, Mr. F.N. Wardell, was also present, and the Roburite +Explosives Company was represented by Lieut.-General Sir John Stokes, +K.C.B., R.E., chairman, and several of the directors. + +1. _Surface Experiments._--A shot fired on the ground, exposed. This +gave no perceptible flame (70 grammes of roburite was the charge in +these experiments). + +2. A shot fired on the ground, bedded in fine coal dust. No flame nor +ignition of the coal dust was perceptible. + +3. A shot fired suspended in a case into which gas was conducted, and +the atmospheric air allowed to enter so as to form an explosive +mixture. The gas was not fired. + +4. A shot fired in a boiler flue 16 ft. by 2 ft. 8 in., placed +horizontally, in which was a quantity of fine coal dust kept suspended +in the air by the action of a fan. No flame nor ignition of the coal +dust took place. + +5. A shot fired as above, except that an explosive mixture of gas and +air was flowing into the boiler tube in addition to the coal dust. +That this mixture was firedamp was proved by the introduction of a +safety lamp, the flame of which was elongated, showing what miners +call the "blue cap." There was no explosion of the gas or sign of +flames. + +6. A shot of roburite fired in the boiler tube without any gas or +suspended coal dust. The report was quite as loud as in the preceding +case; indeed, to several present it seemed more distinct. + +7. A shot of ½ lb. gunpowder was fired under the same condition as No. +5, i.e., in an explosive mixture of gas and air with coal dust. The +result was most striking, and appeared to carry conviction of the +great comparative safety of roburite to all present. Not only was +there an unmistakable explosion of the firedamp, with very loud +report, and a vivid sheet of flame, but the gas flowing into the far +end of the boiler tube was ignited and remained burning until turned +off. + +_In the Pit._--1. A 2 in. hole was drilled 4 ft. 6 in. deep into coal, +having a face 7 yards wide, fast at both ends, and holed under for a +depth of 8 ft., end on, thickness of front of coal to be blown down 2 +ft. 10 in., plus 9 in. of dirt. This represented a most difficult +shot, having regard to the natural lines of cleavage of the coal--a +"heavy job" as it was locally termed. The charge was 65 grammes of +roburite, which brought down a large quantity of coal, not at all too +small in size. No flame was perceptible, although all the lamps were +carefully covered. + +2. A 2 in. hole drilled 4 ft. 6 in. into the side of the coal about 10 +in. from the top, fast ends not holed under, width of space 10 ft. +This was purposely a "blowout" shot. The result was again most +satisfactory, the charge exploding in perfect darkness. + +3. A "breaking up" shot placed in the stone roof for "ripping," the +hole being drilled at an angle of 35 deg. or 40 deg. This is intended +to open a cavity in the perfectly smooth roof, the ripping being +continued by means of the "lip" thus formed. The charge was 105 +grammes (nearly 4 oz), and it brought down large quantities of stone. + +4. A "ripping" shot in the stone roof, hole 4 ft. 6 in. deep, width of +place 15 ft. with a "lip" of 2 ft. 6 in. This is a strong stone +"bind," and very difficult to get down. The trial was most successful, +a large heap of stone being brought down and more loosened. + +5. A second "blowout" shot, under the conditions most likely to +produce an accident in a fiery mine. A 2 in. hole, 4 ft. 6 in. deep, +was drilled in the face of the coal near the roof, and charged with +105 grammes of roburite. A space of 6 in. or 8 in. was purposely left +between the charge and the tamping. The hole was then strongly tamped +for a distance of nearly 2 ft. The report was very loud, and a +trumpet-shaped orifice was formed at the mouth of the hole, but no +flame or spark could be perceived, nor was any inconvenience caused by +the fumes, even the instant after the explosion. + +_Further Experiments at Wharncliffe Colliery._--On Tuesday, October +25, some very interesting surface trials were arranged with great care +by Mr. Walker. An old boiler flue was placed vertically, and closed at +top by means of a removable wooden cover, the interior space being +about 72 cubic feet. A temporary gasometer had been arranged at a +suitable distance by means of a paraffin cask having a capacity of 6 +cubic feet suspended inside a larger cask, and by this means the +boiler was charged with a highly explosive mixture of gas and air in +the proportion of 1 to 12. + +1. A charge of gunpowder was placed in the closed end of a piece of +gas pipe, and strongly tamped, so as to give the conditions most +unfavorable to the ignition of the firedamp. It was, however, ignited, +and a loud explosion produced, which blew off the wooden cover and +filled the boiler tube with flame. + +2. Under the same conditions as to firedamp, a charge of roburite was +placed on a block of wood inside the boiler, totally unconfined except +by a thin covering of coal dust. When exploded by electricity, as in +the previous case, no flame was produced, nor was the firedamp +ignited. + +3. The preceding experiment was repeated with the same results. + +4. A charge of blasting gelatine, inserted in one of Settle's water +cartridges, was suspended in the boiler tube and fired with a +fulminate of mercury detonator in the usual manner. The gelatine did +not, however, explode, the only report being that of the detonator. +After a safe interval the unexploded cartridge was recovered, or so +much of it as had not been scattered by the detonator, and the +gelatine was found to be frozen. This fact was also evident from an +inspection of other gelatine dynamite cartridges which had been stored +in the same magazine during the night. This result, although not that +intended, was most instructive as regards the danger of using +explosives which are liable to freeze at such a moderate temperature, +and the thawing of which is undoubtedly attended with great risk +unless most carefully performed. Also, the small pieces of the +gelatine or dynamite, when scattered by the explosion of the +detonator, might cause serious accident if trodden upon.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MECHANICAL REELING OF SILK. + + +When automatic machinery for thread spinning was invented, English +intelligence and enterprise were quick to utilize and develop it, and +thus gained that supremacy in textile manufacture which has remained +up to the present time, and which will doubtless long continue. The +making of the primary thread is the foundation of all textile +processes, and it is on the possibility of doing this by automatic +machinery that England's great textile industries depend. The use of +highly developed machinery for spinning cotton, wool, and flax has +grown to be so much a part of our conception of modern life, as +contrasted with the times of our grandfathers, as often to lead to the +feeling that a complete and universal change has occurred in all the +textile industries. This is, however, not the case. There is one great +textile industry--one of the most staple and valuable--still in the +primitive condition of former times, and employing processes and +apparatus essentially the same as those known and employed before such +development had taken place. We mean the art of silk reeling. The +improvements made in the production of threads of all other materials +have only been applied to silk in the minor processes for utilizing +waste; but the whole silk trade and manufacture of the world has, up +to this time, been dependent for its raw silk threads upon apparatus +which, mechanically speaking, is nearly or quite as primitive as the +ancient spinning wheels. Thousands of operatives are constantly +employed in forming up these threads by hand, adding filament by +filament to the thread as required, while watching the unwinding from +the cocoon of many miles of filament in order to produce a single +pound of the raw silk thread, making up the thread unaided by any +mechanical device beyond a simple reel on which the thread is wound as +finished, and a basin of heated water in which the cocoons are placed. + +Viewed from any standpoint to which we are accustomed, this state of +things is so remarkable that we are naturally led to the belief that +there must be some special causes which tended to retard the +introduction of automatic machinery, and these are not far to seek. +The spinning machinery employed for the production of threads, other +than those of raw silk, may be broadly described as consisting of +devices capable of taking a mass of confused and comparatively short +fibers, laying them parallel with one another, and twisting them into +a cylindrical thread, depending for its strength upon the friction and +interlocking of these constituent fibers. + +This process is radically different from that employed to make a +thread of raw silk, which consists of filaments, each several thousand +feet long, laid side by side, almost without twist, and glued together +into a solid thread by means of the "gum" or glue with which each +filament is naturally coated. If this radical difference be borne in +mind, but very little mechanical knowledge is required to make it +evident that the principle of spinning machinery in general is utterly +unsuited to the making up of the threads of raw silk. Since spinning +machinery, as usually constructed for other fibers, could not be +employed in the manufacture of raw silk, and as the countries where +silk is produced are, generally speaking, not the seat of great +mechanical industries, where the need of special machinery would be +quickly recognized and supplied, silk reeling (the making of raw silk) +has been passed by, and has never become an industrial art. It +remained one of the few manual handicrafts, while yet serving as the +base of a great and staple industry of worldwide importance. + +There is every reason to suppose that we are about to witness a +transformation in the art of silk reeling, a change similar to that +which has already been brought about in the spinning of other threads, +and of which the consequences will be of the highest importance. For +some years past work has been done in France in developing an +automatic silk-reeling machine, and incomplete notes concerning it +have from time to time been published. That the accounts which were +allowed to reach the outer world were incomplete will cause no +surprise to those who know what experimental work is--how easily and +often an inventor or pioneer finds himself hampered by premature +publication. The process in question has now, however, emerged from +the experimental state, and is practically complete. By the courtesy +of the inventor we are in a position to lay before our readers an +exact analysis of the principles, essential parts, and method of +operation of the new silk-reeling machine. As silk reeling is not +widely known in England, it will, however, be well to preface our +remarks by some details concerning the cocoon and the manner in which +it is at present manufactured into raw silk, promising that if these +seem tedious, the labor of reading them will be amply repaid by the +clearer understanding of the new mechanical process which will be the +result. + +The silkworm, when ready to make its cocoon, seeks a suitable support. +This is usually found among the twigs of brush placed for the purpose +over the trays in which the worms have been grown. At first the worm +proceeds by stretching filaments backward and forward from one twig to +another in such manner as to include a space large enough for the +future cocoon. When sufficient support has thus been obtained, the +worm incloses itself in a layer of filaments adhering to the support +and following the shape of the new cocoon, of which it forms the +outermost stratum. After having thus provided a support and outlined +the cocoon, the worm begins the serious work of constrution. The +filament from its silk receiver issues from two small spinnarets +situated near its jaws. Each filament, as it comes out, is coated with +a layer of exceedingly tenacious natural gum, and they at once unite +to form a single flattened thread, the two parts lying side by side. +It is this flat thread, called the "baye" or "brin," which serves as +the material for making the cocoon, and which, when subsequently +unwound, is the filament used in making up the raw silk. While +spinning, the worm moves its head continually from right to left, +laying on the filament in a succession of lines somewhat resembling +the shape of the figure eight. As the worm continues the work of +making its cocoon, the filament expressed from its body in the manner +described is deposited in nearly even layers all over the interior of +the wall of the cocoon, which gradually becomes thicker and harder. +The filament issuing from the spinnarets is immediately attached to +that already in place by means of the gum which has been mentioned. +When the store of silk in the body of the worm is exhausted, the +cocoon is finished, and the worm, once more shedding its skin, becomes +dormant and begins to undergo its change into a moth. It is at this +point that its labors in the production of silk terminate and those of +man begin. A certain number of the cocoons are set aside for +reproduction. + +In southern countries the reproduction of silkworms is a vast industry +to which great attention is given, and which receives important and +regular aid from the government. It is, however, quite distinct from +the manufacturing industry with which at present we have to do. The +cocoons to be used for reeling, i.e., all but those which are +reserved for reproduction, are in the first place "stifled," that is +to say, they are put into a steam or other oven and the insect is +killed. The cocoons are then ready for reeling, but those not to be +used at once are allowed to dry. In this process, which is carried on +for about two months, they lose about two-thirds of their weight, +representing the water in the fresh chrysalis. The standard and dried +cocoons form the raw material of the reeling mills, or filatures, as +they are called on the Continent. Each filature endeavors as far as +possible to collect, stifle, and dry the cocoons in its own +neighborhood; but dried cocoons, nevertheless, give rise to an +important commerce, having its center at Marseilles. The appearance of +the cocoon is probably well known to most of our readers. Industrially +considered, the cocoon may be divided into three parts: (1) The floss, +which consists of the remains of the filaments used for supporting the +cocoon on the twigs of the brush among which it was built and the +outside layer of the cocoon, together with such ends and parts of the +thread forming the main part of the shell as have become broken in +detaching and handling the cocoon; (2) the shell of the cocoon, which +is formed, as has been described, of a long continuous filament, which +it is the object of the reeler to unwind and to form up into threads +of raw silk; and (3) the dried body of the chrysalis. + +We shall first describe the usual practice of reeling, which is as +follows: The cocoons are put into a basin of boiling water, on the +surface of which they float. They are stirred about so as to be as +uniformly acted upon as possible. The hot water softens the gum, and +allows the floss to become partially detached. This process is called +"cooking" the cocoons. When the cocoons are sufficiently cooked, they +are subjected to a process called "beating," or brushing, the object +of which is to remove the floss. + +As heretofore carried on, this brushing is a most rudimentary and +wasteful operation. It consists of passing a brush of heather or broom +twigs over the floating cocoons in such manner that the ends of the +brush come in contact with the softened cocoons, catch the floss, and +drag it off. In practice it happens that the brush catches the sound +filaments on the surface of the cocoon as well as the floss, and, as a +consequence, the sound filament is broken, dragged off, and wasted. In +treating some kinds of cocoons as much as a third of the silk is +wasted in this manner, and even in the best reeling, as at present +practiced, there is an excessive loss from this cause. At the present +low price of cocoons this waste is not as important as it was some +time ago, when cocoons were much dearer; but even at present it +amounts to between fifteen and twenty millions of francs per annum in +the silk districts of France and Italy alone. In France the cooking +and brushing are usually done by the same women who reel, and in the +same basins. In Italy the brushing is usually done by girls, and often +with the aid of mechanically rotated brushes, an apparatus which is of +doubtful utility, as, in imitating the movement of hand brushing, the +same waste is occasioned. + +After the cocoons are brushed they are, in the ordinary process, +cleaned by hand, which is another tedious and wasteful operation +performed by the reeler, and concerning which we shall have more to +say further on. Whatever may be the preparatory operations, they +result in furnishing the reeler with a quantity of cocoons, each +having its floss removed, and the end of the filament ready to be +unwound. Each reeler is provided with a basin containing water, which +may be heated either by a furnace or by steam, and a reel, upon which +the silk is wound when put in motion by hand or by power. In civilized +countries heating by steam and the use of motive power is nearly +universal. The reeler is ordinarily seated before the reel and the +basin. The reeler begins operations by assembling the cocoons in the +basin, and attaching all the ends to a peg at its side. She then +introduces the ends of the filaments from several cocoons into small +dies of agate or porcelain, which are held over the basin by a +support. + +The ends so brought in contact stick together, owing to the adhesive +substance they naturally contain, and form a thread. To wring out the +water which is brought up with the ends, and further consolidate the +thread, it is so arranged as to twist round either itself or another +similar thread during its passage from the basin to the reel. This +process is called "croisure," and is facilitated by guides or small +pulleys. Having made the croisure, which consists of about two hundred +turns, the operator attaches the end of a thread to the reel, +previously passing it through a guide fixed in a bar, which moves +backward and forward, so as to distribute the thread on the reel, +forming a hank about three inches wide. + +The reel is now put into movement, and winds the thread formed by the +union of the filaments. It is at this moment that the real +difficulties of the reeler begin. She has now to maintain the size and +regularity of the thread as nearly as possible by adding new filaments +at the proper moment. The operation of adding an end of a filament +consists of throwing it in a peculiar manner on the other filaments +already being reeled, so that it sticks to them, and is carried up +with them. We may mention here that this process of silk reeling can +be seen in operation at the Manchester exhibition. + +It is only after a long apprenticeship that a reeler succeeds in +throwing the end properly. The thread produced by the several +filaments is itself so fine that its size cannot readily be judged by +the eye, and the speed with which it is being wound renders this even +more difficult. But, in order to have an idea of the size, the reeler +watches the cocoons as they unwind, counts them, and, on the +hypothesis that the filament of one cocoon is of the same diameter as +that of another, gets an approximate idea of the size of the thread +that she is reeling. But this hypothesis is not exact, and the +filament being largest at the end which is first unwound, and tapering +throughout its whole length, the result is that the reeler has not +only to keep going a certain number of cocoons, but also to appreciate +how much has been unwound from each. + +If the cocoons are but slightly unwound, there must be fewer than if a +certain quantity of silk has been unwound from them. Consequently +their number must be constantly varying in accordance with their +condition. These facts show that the difficulty of maintaining +regularity in a thread is very great. Nevertheless, this regularity is +one of the principal factors of the value of a thread of "grege," and +this to such an extent that badly reeled silks are sold at from twenty +to twenty-five francs a kilogramme less than those which are +satisfactorily regular. + +The difficulty of this hand labor can be still better understood if it +be remembered that the reeler being obliged to watch at every moment +the unwinding of each cocoon, in order to obtain one pound of well +reeled silk, she must incessantly watch, and without a moment of +distraction, the unwinding of about two thousand seven hundred miles +of silk filaments. For nine pounds of silk, she reels a length of +filament sufficient to girdle the earth. The manufacturer, therefore, +cannot and must not depend only on the constant attention that each +reeler should give to the work confided to her care. He is obliged to +have overseers who constantly watch the reelers, so that the defects +in the work of any single reeler, who otherwise might not give the +attention required by her work, will not greatly diminish the value +either of her own work or that of several other reelers whose silk is +often combined to form a single lot. In addition to the ordinary hand +labor, considerable expense is thus necessitated for the watching of +the reelers. + +Enough has now been said, we think, to give a good idea of silk +reeling, as usually practiced, and to show how much it is behind other +textile arts from a mechanical point of view. To any one at all +familiar with industrial work, or possessing the least power of +analysis or calculation, it is evident that a process carried on in +so primitive a manner is entirely unsuitable for use in any country in +which the conditions of labor are such as to demand its most +advantageous employment. In the United States, for instance, or in +England, silk reeling, as a great national industry, would be out of +the question unless more mechanical means for doing it could be +devised. The English climate is not suitable for the raising of +cocoons, and in consequence the matter has not attracted very much +attention in this country. But America is very differently situated. +Previous to 1876 it had been abundantly demonstrated that cocoons +could be raised to great advantage in many parts of that country. The +only question was whether they could be reeled. In fact, it was stated +at the time that the question of reeling silk presented a striking +analogy to the question of cotton before the invention of the "gin." +It will be remembered that cotton raising was several times tried in +the United States, and abandoned because the fiber could not be +profitably prepared for the market. The impossibility of competing +with India and other cheap labor countries in this work became at +least a fact fully demonstrated, and any hope that cotton would ever +be produced in America was confined to the breasts of a few +enthusiasts. + +As soon, however, as it was shown that the machine invented by Eli +Whitney would make it possible to do this work mechanically, the +conditions were changed; cotton raising become not only possible, but +the staple industry of a great part of the country; the population was +rapidly increased, the value of real estate multiplied, and within a +comparatively short time the United States became the leading cotton +country of the world. For many years much more cotton has been grown +in America than in all the other countries of the world combined; and +it is interesting to note that both the immense agricultural wealth of +America and the supply required for the cotton industry of England +flow directly from the invention of the cotton gin. + +Attention was turned in 1876 to silk raising, and it was found that +all the conditions for producing cocoons of good quality and at low +cost were most favorable. It was, however, useless to raise cocoons +unless they could be utilized; in a word, it was seen that the country +needed silk-reeling machinery in 1876, as it had needed cotton-ginning +machinery in 1790. Under these conditions, Mr. Edward W. Serrell, Jr., +an engineer of New York, undertook the study of the matter, and soon +became convinced that the production of such machinery was feasible. +He devoted his time to this work, and by 1880 had pushed his +investigations as far as was possible in a country where silk reeling +was not commercially carried on. He then went to France, where he has +since been incessantly engaged in the heart of the silk-reeling +district in perfecting, reducing to practice, and applying his +improvements and inventions. The success obtained was such that Mr. +Serrell has been enabled to interest many of the principal silk +producers of the Continent in his work, and a revolution in silk +reeling is being gradually brought about, for, strangely enough, he +found that the work which he had undertaken solely for America was of +equal importance for all silk-producing countries. + +We have described the processes by which cocoons are ordinarily cooked +and brushed, these being the first processes of the filature. Instead +of first softening the gum of the cocoons and then attacking the floss +with the points of a brush, Mr. Serrell places the cocoons in a +receptacle full of boiling water, in which by various means violent +reciprocating or vortex currents are produced. The result is that by +the action of the water itself and the rubbing of the cocoons one +against the other the floss is removed, carrying with it the end of +the continuous filament without unduly softening the cocoon or +exposing any of the more delicate filament to the rough action of the +brush, as has hitherto been the case. The advantages of this process +will be readily understood. In brushing after the ordinary manner, the +point of the brush is almost sure to come into contact with and to +break some of the filament forming the body of the cocoon. When this +occurs, and the cocoon is sent to be reeled, it naturally becomes +detached when the unwinding reaches the point at which the break +exists. It then has to be sent back, and the end of the filament +detached by brushing over again, when several layers of filament are +inevitably caught by the brush and wasted, and very probably some +other part of the filament is cut. This accounts for the enormous +waste which occurs in silk reeling, and to which we have referred. Its +importance will be appreciated when it is remembered that every pound +of fiber thus dragged off by the brush represents a net loss of about +19s. at the present low prices. + +The mechanical details by which Mr. Serrell carries out this process +vary somewhat according to the nature of the different cocoons to be +treated. In one type of machine the water is caused to surge in and +out of a metal vessel with perforated sides; in another a vertical +brush is rapidly raised and lowered, agitating the water in a basin, +without, however, actually touching the cocoons. After a certain +number of strokes the brush is automatically raised, when the ends of +the filaments are found to adhere to it, having been swept against it +by the scouring action of the water. The cleaning of the cocoons is +performed by means of a mechanism also entirely new. In the brushing +machinery the floss is loosened and partially detached from the +cocoon. The object of the cleaning machine is to thoroughly complete +the operation. To this end the cocoons are floated under a plate, and +the floss passed up through a slot in the latter. A rapid to and fro +horizontal movement is given to the plate, and those cocoons from +which the floss has been entirely removed easily give off a few inches +of their filament, and allow themselves to be pushed on one side, +which is accomplished by the cocoons which still have some floss +adhering to them; because these latter, not being free to pay off, are +drawn up to the slot in the plate, and by its motion are rapidly +washed backward and forward in the water. This washing soon causes all +the cocoons to be freed from the last vestiges of floss without +breaking the filament, and after about twenty seconds of movement they +are all free and clean, ready for reeling. + +We have now to explain the operation of the machine by which the +thread is formed from the prepared cocoon. At the risk of some +repetition, however, it seems necessary to call attention to the +character of the work itself. In each prepared cocoon are about a +thousand yards of filament ready to pay off, but this filament is +nearly as fine as a cobweb and is tapering. The object is to form a +thread by laying these filaments side by side in sufficient number to +obtain the desired size. For the threads of raw silk used in commerce, +the sizes vary, so that while some require but an average of three +filaments, the coarsest sizes require twenty-five or thirty. It being +necessary keep the thread at as near the same size as possible, the +work required is, in effect, to add an additional cocoon filament to +the thread which is being wound whenever this latter has tapered down +to a given size, or whenever one of the filaments going to form it has +become detached. Those familiar with cotton spinning will understand +what is meant when it is said that the reeling is effectively a +"doubling" operation, but performed with a variable number of ends, so +as to compensate for the taper of the filaments. In reeling by hand, +as has been said, the size of the silk is judged, as nearly as +possible, by a complex mental operation, taking into account the +number, size, and state of unwinding of the cocoons. It is impossible +to do this mechanically, if for no other reason than this, that the +cocoons must be left free to float and roll about in the water in +order to give off their ends without breaking, and any mechanical +device which touched them would defeat the object of the machine. The +only way in which the thread can be mechanically regulated in silk +reeling is by some kind of actual measurement performed after the +thread has left the cocoons. The conditions are such that no direct +measurement of size can be made, even with very delicate and expensive +apparatus; but Mr. Serrell discovered that, owing to the great +tenacity of the thread in proportion to its size, its almost absolute +elastic uniformity, and from the fact that it could be stretched, two +or three per cent. without injury, it was possible to measure its size +indirectly, but as accurately as could be desired. As this fact is the +starting point of an entirely new and important class of machinery, we +may explain with considerable detail the method in which this +measurement is performed. Bearing in mind that the thread is of +uniform quality, it is evident that it will require more force to +stretch a coarse thread by a given percentage of its length than it +will to stretch one that is finer. Supposing the thread is uniform in +quality but varying in size, the force required to stretch it varies +directly with the size or sectional area of the thread itself. In the +automatic reeling machine this stretch is obtained by causing the +thread to take a turn round a pulley of a given winding speed, and +then, after leaving this pulley, to take a turn around a second pulley +having a somewhat greater winding speed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1 THE MECHANICAL REELING OF SILK.] + +By this means the thread which is passing from one pulley to the other +is stretched by an amount equal to the difference of the winding speed +of the two pulleys. In the diagram (Fig. 2) the thread passes, as +shown by the arrows, over the pulley, P, and then over the pulley, P¹, +the latter having a slightly greater winding speed. Between these +pulleys it passes over the guide pulley, G. This latter is supported +by a lever hinged at S, and movable between the stops, TT¹. W is an +adjustable counterweight. When the thread is passed over the pulleys +and guided in this manner, the stretch to which it is subjected tends +to raise the guide and lever, so that the latter will be drawn up +against the stop, T¹, when the thread is so coarse that the effort +required to stretch it is sufficient to overcome the weight of the +guide pulley and the adjustable counterweight. But as the thread +becomes finer, which, in the case of reeling silk, happens either from +the tapering of the filaments or the dropping off of a cocoon, a +moment arrives when it is no longer strong enough to keep up the lever +and counterweight. These then descend, and the lever touches the lower +stop, T. It will be readily seen that the up and down movements of the +lever can be made to take place when the thread has reached any +desired maximum or minimum of size, the limits being fixed by suitably +adjusting the counterweight. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +In the automatic reeling machine this is the method employed for +regulating the supply of cocoons. The counterweight being suitably +adjusted, the lever falls when the thread has become fine enough to +need another cocoon. The stop, T, and the lever serve as two parts of +an electric contact, so that when they touch each other a circuit is +completed, which trips a trigger and sets in motion the feed apparatus +by which a new cocoon is added. In practice the two drums or pulleys +are mounted on the same shaft, D (Fig. 1), difference of winding speed +being obtained by making them of slightly different diameters. + +The lever is mounted as a horizontal pendulum, and the less or greater +stress required according to the size to be reeled is obtained by +inclining its axis to a less or greater degree from the vertical. An +arrangement is also adopted by which the strains existing in the +thread when it arrives at the first drum are neutralized, so far as +their effect upon the lever is concerned. This is accomplished by +simply placing upon the lever an extra guide pulley, L¹, upon the side +opposite to that which corresponds to the guide shown in the diagram, +Fig. 2. + +An electric contact is closed by a slight movement of the lever +whenever the thread requires a new filament of cocoon, and broken +again when the thread has been properly strengthened. It is evident +that a delicate faller movement might be employed to set the feed +mechanism in motion instead of the electric circuit, but, under the +circumstances, as the motion is very slight and without force, being, +in fact, comparable to the swinging of the beam of a balance through +the space of about the sixteenth of an inch, it is simpler to use a +contact. + +The actual work of supplying the cocoons to the running thread is +performed as follows: The cleaned cocoons are put into what is called +the feeding basin, B1 (Fig. 1), a receptacle placed alongside of the +ordinary reeling basin, B, of a filature. A circular elevator, E, into +which the cocoons are charged by a slight current of water, lifts them +over one corner of the reeling basin and drops them one by one through +an aperture in a plate about six inches above the water of the reeling +basin. + +The end of the filament having been attached to a peg above the +elevator, it happens that when a cocoon has been brought into the +corner of the reeling basin, the filament is strung from it to the +edge of the hole in the plate in such a position as to be readily +seized by a mechanical finger, K (Fig. 3), attached to a truck +arranged to run backward and forward along one side of the basin. This +finger is mounted on an axis, and has a tang projecting at right +angles to the side of the basin, so that the whole is in the form of a +bell crank mounted on the truck. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +There are usually four threads to each basin. When neither one of them +needs an additional cocoon, the finger of the distributing apparatus +remains, holding the filament of the cocoon at the corner of the basin +where it has been dropped. When a circuit is closed by the weakening +of any one of the threads, an electromagnetic catch is released, and +the truck with its finger is drawn across the basin by a weight. At +the same time the stop shown dotted in Fig. 3 is thrown out opposite +to the thread that needs strengthening. This stop strikes the tang of +the finger, and causes the latter to be thrown out near to the point +at which the filaments going to make up the weakened thread are being +drawn from the cocoons. Here the new filament is attached to the new +running thread by a kind of revolving finger, J, called in France a +"lance-bout." This contrivance takes the place of the agate of the +ordinary filature, and is made up, essentially, of the following +parts: + +(1) A hollow axis, through the inside of which the thread passes +instead of going through the hole of an agate. This hollow axis is +furnished, near its lower end, with a ridge which serves to support a +movable portion turning constantly round the axis. (2) A movable +portion turning constantly round the axis. (3) A finger or hook +fastened on the side of the movable portion and revolving with it. +This hook, in revolving, catches the filament brought up by the finger +and serves it on to the thread. + +Such are the principal parts of the automatic reeling machine. +Although the fact that this machine is entirely a new invention has +necessitated a somewhat long explanation, its principal organs can +nevertheless be summed up in a few words: (1) A controlling drum which +serves to give the thread a constant elongation; (2) a pulley mounted +on a pivot which closes an electric current every time that the thread +becomes too fine, and attains, in consequence, its minimum strength, +in other words, every time that a fresh cocoon is needed; (3) +electromagnets with the necessary conducting wires; (4) the feeding +basin; (5) distributing finger and stops; and (6) the lance-bout. + +Our illustration, Fig. 1, shows diagrammatically a section through the +cocoon frame and reel. The thread is composed of three, four, or more +filaments, and after passing through the lance-bout, it travels as +shown by the arrows. At first it is wound round itself about two +hundred times, then passed over a fixed guide pulley, and over a +second guide pulley lower down fixed to the frames which carry the +lance-bouts, then up through the twist and over the smaller of the +pulleys, D. Taking one complete turn, it is led round the guide +pulley, L, from there round the larger of the pulleys, D, round the +second guide pulley, L¹, then back to the large wheel, and over a +fixed guide pulley across to the reeling frame. Power is supplied to +the latter by means of a friction clutch, and to insure even winding +the usual reciprocating motion of a guide is employed. The measuring +apparatus is pivoted at F, and by raising or lowering the nuts at the +end of the bar the required inclination is given. + +We had recently an opportunity of examining the whole of this +machinery in detail, and seeing the process of silk reeling in actual +operation, Mr. Serrell having put up a complete set of his machines in +Queen Victoria Street, London. Regarded simply as a piece of ingenious +mechanism, the performance of these machines cannot fail to be of the +highest interest to engineers, the reeling machine proper seeming +almost endowed with human intelligence, so perfectly does it work. +But, apart from the technical perfection, Mr. Serrell's improvements +are of great importance as calculated to introduce the silk-reeling +industry in this country on a large scale, while at the same time its +effect upon India as a silk-growing country will be of equal +importance.--_Industries._ + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS USED FOR MAKING ALCOHOL FOR HOSPITAL USE DURING THE +CIVIL WAR BETWEEN THE STATES.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Read at the Cincinnati meeting of the American + Pharmaceutical Association.] + +By CHARLES K. GALLAGHER, Washington, N.C. + + +A is an ordinary farm boiler or kettle, with an iron lid securely +bolted on; B, a steam pipe ending in a coil within a trough, D. C, D, +two troughs made of gum logs, one inverted over the other, securely +luted and fastened together by clamps and wedges. The "beer" to be +distilled was introduced at E and the opening closed with a plug. The +distillate--"low wine"--was collected at F, and redistilled from a set +of similar troughs not shown in above figure, and heated by a +continuation of the steam coil from D. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +CONFEDERATE APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING SALTPETER FOR +AMMUNITION. + +By CHARLES K. GALLAGHER, Washington, N.C. + + +Any convenient number of percolators, made of rough boards, arranged +over a trough after the style of the old fashioned "lye stand," +similar to the figure. Into these was placed the earth scraped from +around old tobacco barns, from under kitchens and smokehouses. Then +water or water and urine was poured upon it until the mass was +thoroughly leached or exhausted. The percolate was collected in a +receptacle and evaporated, the salt redissolved, filtered, again +evaporated, and crystallized from the mother water. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TELEMETER SYSTEM. + +By F.R. UPTON. + + +In this paper, read before the British Association, the author +explained that the "Telemeter System," invented by C.L. Clarke, of New +York, is a method by which the slow movement of a revolving hand of +any indicating instrument may be reproduced by the movement of a +similar hand at a distant place, using electricity to convey the +impulse. The primary hand moves until it makes electrical contact, +thus sending an impulse. It is here that all previous methods have +failed. This contact should be absolute and positive, for if it is +not, the receiver will not work in unison. The contact could often be +doubled by the jarring of the instrument, thus making the receiver +jump twice. Clarke has overcome this defect by so arranging his +mechanism that the faintest contact in the primary instrument closes +two platinum points in multiple arc with it, thus making a firm and +positive contact, which is not disturbed by any jar on the primary +contact. This gives the instruments a positive start for the series of +operations, instead of the faint contact which would be given, for +example, by the light and slowly moving hand of a metallic +thermometer. The other trouble with previous methods was that the +contact points would corrode, and, in consequence of such corrosion, +the instrument would fail to send impulses. Corrosion of the contacts +is due to breaking the circuit slowly on a small surface. This is +entirely remedied by breaking the circuit elsewhere than at the +primary contact, using a quick motion, and also by giving this +breaking contact large surface and making it firm. The instrument, as +applied to a thermometer, is made as follows: From the free end of the +light spiral of a metallic thermometer fixed at the other end, an arm, +C, is attached, the end of which moves over an arc of a circle when +the temperature varies. This end carries on either side of its +extremity platinum contacts which, when the thermometer is at rest, +lie between two other platinum points, A B, carried on radial arms. +Any variation in temperature brings a point on the thermometer arm in +contact with one of these points, and thus gives the initial start to +the series of operations without opposing any friction to the free +motion of the instrument. The first result is the closing of a short +circuit round the initial point of contact, so that no current flows +through it. Then the magnets which operate one set of pawls come into +play. The two contact points are attached to a toothed wheel in which +the pawls play, and these pawls are so arranged that they drive the +wheel whenever moved by their magnets; thus the primary contact is +broken. + +[Illustration] + +In the receiver there is a similar toothed wheel carrying the hand of +the indicating instrument, and actuated at the same moment as the +transmitter. The primary contacts are so arranged that the contact is +made for each degree of temperature to be indicated. This series of +operations leaves the instruments closed and the pawls home in the +toothed wheel. To break the circuit another wire and separate set of +contacts are employed. + +These are arranged on the arms carrying the pawls, and so adjusted +that no contact is made until after the toothed wheel has moved a +degree, when a circuit is closed and a magnet attracts an armature +attached to a pendulum. This pendulum, after starting, breaks the +circuit of the magnets which hold the pawls down, as well as of the +short-circuiting device. As the pendulum takes an appreciable time to +vibrate, this allows all the magnets to drop back, and breaks all +circuits, leaving the primary contacts in the same relation as at +first. The many details of the instruments are carefully worked out. +All the contacts are of a rubbing nature, thus avoiding danger from +dirt, and they are made with springs, so as not to be affected by jar. + +The receiving instruments can be made recorders also by simple +devices. Thus, having only a most delicate pressure in the primary +instrument, a distinct ink record may be made in the receiver, even +though the paper be rough and soft. The method is applicable to steam +gauges, water indicators, clocks, barometers, etc., in fact, to any +measuring instrument where a moving hand can be employed. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE AND THE WORK DONE WITH IT. + +By WATSON SMITH, Lecturer in Chemical Technology in the Victoria +University, etc. + + +The Widnes Alkali Company, limited, to which I am indebted for +permission to describe this latest addition to a family of revolving +black ash furnaces, of late not only increasing in number, but also +individual size, has kindly allowed my friend, Mr. H. Baker, to +photograph the great revolver in question, and I have pleasure now in +throwing on the screen a picture of it, and also one of a revolver of +ordinary size, so as to render a comparison possible. The revolver of +ordinary size measures at most 18½ ft. long, with a diameter of 12½ +ft. The boiling down pans connected with such a furnace measure 60 ft. +in length. Each charge contains four tons of salt cake, and some of +these revolvers get through 18 tons of salt cake per day and consume +13 cwt. of coal per ton of cake decomposed. + +With regard to the larger revolver, it may be just said that the +Widnes Alkali Company has not at once sprung to the adoption of a +furnace of the immense size to be presently given, but in 1884 it +erected a revolver only about 3 ft. to 4 ft. short of the length of +that one, and having two discharging holes. The giant revolving +furnace to be described measures in length 30 ft. and has a diameter +of 12 ft. 6 in. Inside length is 28 ft. 6 in., with a diameter of 11 +ft. 4 in. It is lined with 16,000 fire bricks and 120 fire-clay blocks +or breakers, weighing each 1¼ cwt. The bricks weigh per 1,000 about +four tons. The weight of salt cake per charge (i.e., contained in +each charge of salt cake, limestone, mud, and slack) is 8 tons 12 cwt. +For 100 tons of salt cake charged, there are also charged about 110 +tons of lime mud and limestone and 55 tons of mixing slack. In a week +of seven days about 48 charges are worked through, weighing of raw +materials about 25 _tons per charge_. The total amount of salt cake +decomposed weekly is about 400 tons, and may be reckoned as yielding +240 tons of 60 per cent. caustic soda. As regards fuel used for +firing, this may be put down as 200 tons per week, or about 10 cwt. +per ton of salt cake decomposed. Also with regard to the concentration +of liquor from 20° Tw. to 50° Tw., there is sufficient of such +concentrated liquor evaporated down to keep three self-fired caustic +pots working, which are boiled at a strength of 80° Tw. Were it not +for this liquor, no less than seven self-fired pots would be required +to do this work, showing a difference of 80 tons of fuel. + +[Illustration: A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE. (2 Figures.) ] + +The question may be asked, "Why increase the size of these huge pieces +of apparatus?" The answer, I apprehend, is that owing to competition +and reduction of prices, greater efforts are necessary to reduce +costs. With automatic apparatus like the black ash revolver, we may +consider no very sensible addition of man power would be needed, in +passing from the smallest sized to the largest sized revolver. Then, +again, we may, reckoning a certain constant amount of heat lost per +each revolver furnace of the small size, consider that if we doubled +the size of such revolver, we should lose by no means double the +amount of heat lost with the small apparatus; but only the same as +that lost in the small furnace _plus_ a certain fraction of that +quantity, which will be smaller the better and more efficient the +arrangements are. Then, again, there is an economy in iron plate for +such a large revolver; there is economy in expense on the engine power +and on fuel consumed, as well as in wear and tear. + +Just to mention fuel alone, we saw that with an ordinary large sized +revolver, the coal consumption was 13 cwt. per ton of salt cake +decomposed in the black ash process; but with the giant revolver we +have been describing, that consumption is reduced to 10 cwt. per ton +of cake decomposed. + +[Illustration: A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE. (2 Figures.)] + +The question will be probably asked, How is it possible to get a flame +from one furnace to carry through such a long revolver and do its work +in fusing the black ash mixture effectively from one end to the other? +The furnace employed viewed in front looks very like an ordinary +revolver fireplace, but at the side thereof, in line with the front of +the revolver, at which the discharge of the "crude soda" takes place, +there are observed to be three "charging holes," rather than doors, +through which fuel is charged from a platform directly into the +furnace through those holes. + +The furnace is of course a larger one than furnaces adjusted to +revolvers of the usual size. But the effect of one charging door in +front and three at the side, which after charging are "banked" up with +coal, with the exception of a small aperture above for admission of +air, is very similar to that sometimes adopted in the laboratory for +increasing heating effect by joining several Bunsen lamps together to +produce one large, powerful flame. In this case, the four charging +holes represent, as it were, the air apertures of the several Bunsen +lamps. Of course the one firing door at front would be totally +inadequate to supply and feed a fire capable of yielding a flame that +would be adequate for the working of so huge a revolver. As an effort +of chemical engineering, it is a very interesting example of what +skill and enterprise in that direction alone will do in reducing +costs, without in the least modifying the chemical reactions taking +place.--_Journal Soc. Chem. Industry._ + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A paper recently read before the British + Association.] + +By FREDERICK RANSOMS, A.I.C.E. + + +So much has been said and written on and in relation to Portland +cement that further communications upon the subject may appear to many +of the present company to be superfluous. But is this really so? The +author thinks not, and he hopes by the following communication, to +place before this meeting and the community at large some facts which +have up to the present time, or until within a very recent date, been +practically disregarded or overlooked in the production of this very +important and valuable material, so essential in carrying out the +great and important works of the present day, whether of docks and +harbors, our coast defenses, or our more numerous operations on land, +including the construction of our railways, tunnels, and bridges, +aqueducts, viaducts, foundations, etc. The author does not propose to +occupy the time of this meeting by referring to the origin or the +circumstances attendant upon the early history of this material, the +manufacture of which has now assumed such gigantic proportions--these +matters have already been fully dealt with by other more competent +authorities; but rather to direct the attention of those interested +therein to certain modifications, which he considers improvements, by +means of which a large proportion of capital unnecessarily involved in +its manufacture may be set free in the future, the method of +manufacture simplified, the cost of manipulation reduced, and stronger +and more uniformly reliable cement be placed within the reach of those +upon whom devolves the duty and responsibility of constructing works +of a substantial and permanent character; but in order to do this it +will be necessary to allude to certain palpable errors and defects +which, in the author's opinion, are perpetuated, and are in general +practice at the present day. + +Portland cement is, as is well known, composed of a mixture of chalk, +or other carbonate of lime, and clay--such as is obtained on the banks +of the Thames or the Medway--intimately mixed and then subjected to +heat in a kiln, producing incipient fusion, and thereby forming a +chemical combination of lime with silica and alumina, or practically +of lime with dehydrated clay. In order to effect this, the usual +method is to place the mechanically mixed chalk and clay (technically +called slurry), in lumps varying in size, say, from 4 to 10 lb., in +kilns with alternate layers of coke, and raise the mass to a glowing +heat sufficient to effect the required combination, in the form of +very hard clinker. These kilns differ in capacity, but perhaps a fair +average size would be capable of producing about 30 tons of clinker, +requiring for the operation, say, from 60 to 70 tons of dried slurry, +with from 12 to 15 tons of coke or other fuel. The kiln, after being +thus loaded, is lighted by means of wood and shavings at the base, +and, as a matter of course, the lumps of slurry at the lower part of +the kiln are burned first, but the moisture and sulphurous gases +liberated by the heat are condensed by the cooler layers above, and +remain until the heat from combustion, gradually ascending, raises the +temperature to a sufficient degree to drive them further upward, until +at length they escape at the top of the kiln. The time occupied in +loading, burning, and drawing a kiln of 30 tons of clinker averages +about seven days. It will be readily understood that the outside of +the clinker so produced must have been subjected to a much greater +amount of heat then was necessary, before the center of such clinker +could have received sufficient to have produced the incipient fusion +necessary to effect the chemical combination of its ingredients; and +the result is not only a considerable waste of heat, but, as always +occurs, the clinker is not uniformly burnt, a portion of the outer +part has to be discarded as overburnt and useless, while the inner +part is not sufficiently burnt, and has to be reburned afterward. +Moreover, the clinker, which is of excessively hard character, has to +be reduced by means of a crusher to particles sufficiently small to be +admitted by the millstones, where it is ground into a fine powder, and +becomes the Portland cement of commerce. + +This process of manufacture is almost identical in principle and in +practice with that described and patented by Mr. Joseph Aspden in the +year 1824; and though various methods have been patented for utilizing +the waste heat of the kilns in drying the slurry previous to +calcination, still the main feature of burning the material in mass in +large and expensive kilns remained the same, and is continued in +practice to the present day. The attention of the author was directed +to this subject some time since in consequence of the failure of a +structure in which Portland cement formed an essential element, and he +had not proceeded far in his investigation of the cause of the failure +when he was struck with what appeared to him to be the unscientific +method adopted in its manufacture, and the uncertain results that must +necessarily accrue therefrom. Admitting, in the first place, that the +materials employed were considered the best and most economical for +the purpose readily accessible, viz., chalk and an alluvial deposit +found in abundance on the banks of the Thames and the Medway, and +being intimately mixed together in suitable proportions, was it +necessary, in order to effect the chemical combination of the +ingredients at an intense heat, to employ such massive and expensive +structures of masonry, occupying such an enormous space of valuable +ground, with tall chimney stacks for the purpose of discharging the +objectionable gases, etc., at such a height, in order to reduce the +nuisance to the surrounding neighborhood? Again, was it possible to +effect the perfect calcination of the interior of the lumps alluded to +without bestowing upon the outer portions a greater heat than was +necessary for the purpose, causing a wasteful expenditure of both +time and fuel? And further, as cement is required to be used in the +state of powder, could not the mixture of the raw materials be +calcined in powder, thereby avoiding the production of such a hard +clinker, which has afterward to be broken up and reduced to a fine +powder by grinding in an ordinary mill? + +The foregoing are some of the defects which the author applied himself +to remove, and he now desires to draw attention to the way in which +the object has been attained by the substitution of a revolving +furnace for the massive cement kilns now in general use, and by the +application of gaseous products to effect calcination, in the place of +coke or other solid fuel. The revolving furnace consists of a +cylindrical casing of steel or boiler plate supported upon steel +rollers (and rotated by means of a worm and wheel, driven by a pulley +upon the shaft carrying the worm), lined with good refractory fire +brick, so arranged that certain courses are set so as to form three or +more radial projecting fins or ledges. The cylindrical casing is +provided with two circular rails or pathways, turned perfectly true, +to revolve upon the steel rollers, mounted on suitable brickwork, with +regenerative flues, by passing through which the gas and air severally +become heated, before they meet in the combustion chamber, at the +mouth of the revolving furnace. The gas may be supplied from slack +coal or other hydrocarbon burnt in any suitable gas producer (such, +for instance, as those for which patents have been obtained by Messrs. +Brook & Wilson, of Middlesbrough, or by Mr. Thwaite, of Liverpool), +which producer may be placed in any convenient situation. + +The cement mixture or slurry, instead of being burnt in lumps, is +passed between rollers or any suitable mill, when, it readily falls +into coarse dry powder, which powder is thence conveyed by an elevator +and fed into the revolving furnace by means of a hopper and pipe, +which, being set at an angle with the horizon, as it turns gradually +conveys the cement material in a tortuous path toward the lower and +hotter end, where it is discharged properly calcined. The material +having been fed into the upper end of the cylinder falls through the +flame to the lower side of it; the cylinder being in motion lifts it +on its advancing side, where it rests against one of its projecting +fins or ledges until it has reached such an angle that it shoots off +in a shower through the flame and falls once more on the lower side. +This again causes it to travel in a similar path, and every rotation +of the cylinder produces a like effect, so that by the time it arrives +at the lower and hotter end it has pursued a roughly helical path, +during which it has been constantly lifted and shot through the flame, +occupying about half an hour in its transit. + +To some who have been accustomed to the more tedious process of kiln +burning, the time thus occupied may appear insufficient to effect the +combinations necessary to produce the required result; but it will be +seen that the conditions here attained are, in fact, those best suited +to carry out effectively the chemical changes necessary for the +production of cement. The raw material being in powder offers every +facility for the speedy liberation of water and carbonic acid, the +operation being greatly hastened by the velocity of the furnace gases +through which the particles pass. That such is practically the case is +shown by the following analysis of cement so burnt in the revolving +furnace or cylinder: + + Per cent. + Carbonic acid, anhydrous 0.4 + Sulphuric acid, anhydrous 0.26 + Silica soluble 24.68 + Silica insoluble 0.6 + Alumina and oxide of iron 10.56 + Lime 61.48 + Magnesia, water, and alkalies 2.02 + ------ + 100 + +Again, fineness of the particles results in their being speedily +heated to a uniform temperature, so that they do not serve as nuclei +for the condensation of the moisture existing in the furnace gas. The +calcined material, on reaching the lower end of the furnace, is +discharged on to the floor or on to a suitable "conveyer," and removed +to a convenient locality for cooling and subsequent grinding or +finishing. It, however, is not in the condition of hard, heavy +clinkers, such as are produced in the ordinary cement kiln, which +require special machinery for breaking up into smaller pieces before +being admitted between the millstones for the final process of +grinding; nor does it consist of an overburnt exterior and an +underburnt core or center portion; but it issues from the cylindrical +furnace in a condition resembling in appearance coarse gunpowder, with +occasional agglutinations of small friable particles readily reduced +to fine powder in an ordinary mill, requiring but small power to work, +and producing but little wear and tear upon the millstones. The +operation is continuous. The revolver or furnace, once started, works +on night and day, receiving the adjusted quantity of powdered material +at the upper or feed end, and delivering its equivalent in properly +burnt cement at the opposite end, thus effecting a great saving of +time, and preventing the enormous waste of heat and serious injury to +the brickwork, etc., incidental to the cooling down, withdrawing the +charge, and reloading the ordinary kiln. + +Cement, when taken from the furnace, weighed 110 lb. per bushel. +Cement, when ground, leaving 10 percent. on sieve with 2,500 holes to +the inch, weighed 121 lb. per bushel, and when cold 118 lb. per +bushel. When made into briquettes, the tensile breaking strain upon +the square inch: + + At 4 days was 410 lb. per square inch. + At 6 days " 610 " " " " + At 14 days " 810 " " " " + At 49 days " 900 " " " " + At 76 days " 1,040 " " " " + +A cylindrical furnace, such as the author has described, is capable of +turning out at least 20 tons of good cement per day of twenty-four +hours, with a consumption of about 3 tons of slack coal. It will be +readily understood that these furnaces can be worked more economically +in pairs than singly, as they can be so arranged that one producer may +furnish a sufficient quantity of gas for the supply of two cylinders, +and the same labor will suffice; but in order to provide for possible +contingencies the author advises that a spare gas producer and an +extra furnace should be in readiness, so that by a simple arrangement +of valves, etc., two cylinders may always be in operation, while from +any cause one may be undergoing temporary repairs, and by this means +any diminution in the output may be avoided. + +The author considers it unnecessary here to discuss either the +advantages or the economy of fuel effected by the employment of gas +producers for such a purpose. These have been abundantly proved in +steel and glass making industries, where a saving of from 50 to 70 per +cent. of the fuel formerly employed has been made. Their cost is +small, they occupy little room, they can be placed at any reasonable +distance from the place where the gas is to be burnt; any laborer can +shovel the slack into them, and they do not require constant skilled +supervision. It is claimed by the author of this paper that the +following are among the many advantages derivable from the adoption of +this method of manufacturing Portland cement, as compared with the old +system: + + (1) Economy of space--the furnaces, with their appurtenances, + requiring only about one-fourth the space of what would be + occupied by the ordinary kilns for producing the same quantity + of finished cement. + + (2) Continuous working, and consequent economy of fuel lost by + cooling and subsequent reheating of the kiln walls. + + (3) Economy of repairs, which are of a simple and comparatively + inexpensive character, and of much less frequent occurrence, as + the continuous heat avoids the racking occasioned by the + alternate heating and cooling. + + (4) Economy in first cost. + + (5) Economy in grinding, a friable granular substance being + produced instead of a hard clinker, whereby crushers are quite + abolished, and the wear and tear of millstones greatly + reduced. + + (6) Economy of labor, the conveyance to and removal from, the + revolving furnace being conducted automatically by mechanical + elevators and conveyers. + + (7) Improved quality of the cement, from non-mixture with + fuel, ash, or other impurities, and no overburning or + underburning of the material. + + (8) Thorough control, from the facility of increasing or + diminishing the flow of crushed slurry and of regulating the + heat in the furnace as desirable. + + (9) Absence of smoke and deleterious gases. + +It is well known that in some localities the materials from which +Portland cement is made are of such a powdery character that they have +to be combined or moulded into balls or bricks previous to calcination +in the ordinary way, thus entailing expense which would be entirely +obviated by the adoption of the patent revolving furnace, as has been +proved by the author in producing excellent cement with a mixture of +slag sand from the blast furnaces of the Cleveland iron district, with +a proper proportion of chalk or limestone, which, in consequence of +the friable nature of the compound, he was unable to burn in the +ordinary cement kiln, but which, when burnt in the revolving furnace, +gave the most satisfactory results. The cement so made possessed +extraordinary strength and hardness, and it has been a matter of +surprise that iron masters and others have not adopted such a means of +converting a waste material--which at the present time entails upon +its producers constant heavy outlay for its removal--into a +remunerative branch of industry by the expenditure of a comparatively +small amount of capital. The demand for Portland cement has increased +and is still increasing at a rapid ratio. It is being manufactured +upon a gigantic scale. + +Great interests are involved; large sums of money are being expended +in the erection and maintenance of expensive plant for its production; +and the author submits that the development of any method which will +improve the quality and at the same time reduce the cost of +manufacture of this valuable material will tend to increase the +prosperity of one of our great national industries, and stimulate +commercial enterprise. Works are in progress for manufacturing cement +by this improved process, and the author trusts the time is not far +distant when the unsightly structures which now disfigure the banks of +some of our rivers will be abolished--the present cement kilns, like +the windmills once such a common feature of our country, being +regarded as curiosities of the past, and cement manufacturers cease to +be complained of as causing nuisances to their neighbors. + + * * * * * + + + + +MIX AND GENEST'S MICROPHONE TELEPHONE. + + +We illustrate in the annexed engraving the microphone-telephone +constructed by Messrs. Mix & Genest, of Berlin, which, after extended +trials, has been adopted in preference to others by the imperial +postal department of Germany. There are now more than 5,000 of these +instruments in use, and we need scarcely mention that the invention +has been patented in many countries. + +In some microphones a rattling noise is frequently occasioned, which +borne along with the sound of the human voice causes an audible +disturbance in the telephone. The chief cause of these disturbances +may be ascribed to the fact that the carbon rollers in their journals, +rest loose in the flutings of the beam, which is fastened to the sound +plate. Owing to the shocks given to the entire apparatus, and +independent of the oscillations of the sound plate, they are set in +motion and roll to and fro in their bearings. + +In microphones in which the sound plates are arranged vertically (as +shown in Fig. 2), these disturbances assume such a character that +there is no possibility of understanding the speaker, for in this case +the horizontally directed oscillations of the sound plate, _m_, cause +themselves a backward and forward motion on the part of the carbon +rollers without increasing or decreasing at the same time the lying-on +pressure of the roller journals, and by doing so bring the places of +contact one on the other, and thus occasion a conducting resistance of +greater or less force. This circumstance serves as an explanation of +the reason why the sound plates in Ader's microphones are not arranged +vertically, although this way of arranging them offers many advantages +over a horizontal or slightly inclined arrangement of the sound +plates. Speaking is more convenient in the vertical arrangement, and +moreover the plates can be fitted on to instruments better in this +way. + +All the drawbacks just enumerated and found in Ader's microphones are +avoided in the apparatus made by Messrs. Mix & Genest. A sort of +braking contrivance operates on the carbon rollers in such a way as to +prevent their journals from lying on the lower points in the flutings +of the beams. Thus, for instance, if in a microphone with a horizontal +sound plate, as illustrated in Fig. 3, the carbon rollers are pressed +upward by outward force, it is evident that only a very trifling +rolling and disturbing motion can occur, and only small pieces of +carbon can be knocked off, which would act injuriously as a secondary +contact. The same may be said of the journals of microphones with +vertical sound plates, as represented in Fig. 2, when the carbon +rollers are pressed in the direction of the arrow, _p_, that is to +say, against the sound plate. In this case the journals, _a_, are +fixed in the flutings of the beams, _b_, in a direction given them by +the power and gravity operating on them, which is clearly represented +in the accompanying design, Fig. 2. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. + FIG. 2. + FIG. 3. + THE MIX AND GENEST TELEPHONE] + +In all such cases the regulating contrivance applied to brake the +carbon rollers in their motion has the result that only the +oscillations transmitted from the sound plate on to the contacts come +in operation, whereas disturbing mechanical shocks resulting from any +outward influences occasion very insignificant vibrations, which are +not perceptible in the telephone. The separate contacts thus form a +firm system with the sound plate, so that the former are influenced in +their motions and effects solely and alone by the shocks and +oscillations which operate direct on these sound plates. The roller +motion of the carbon is thus removed, and the distinctness of the +words spoken is greatly augmented. + +The above Figs. 1 and 2 show the microphone in side view and in cross +section. + +A metal ring, R (see Fig. 1), is fastened by means of the four screws, +_r_{1}_ _r_{2}_ _r_{3}_ _r_{4}_, on a wooden mouthpiece. In a recess of the +above ring is the diaphragm, M, which is provided on its outer edge +with an India rubber band and is held in position by the two clamps, _a_ +and _a_{1}_. The diaphragm is cut out of finely fibered firwood and is +well lacquered to preserve it against dampness. On it there are two +carbon beams, _b_, and in the perforations of the latter are the +journals of the carbon rollers, _k_. The alterations in contact take +place in the touching points. The cross piece, _f_, that runs straight +across the carbon rollers serves as a braking contrivance, which is +regulated as may be necessary by the large projecting screws. + +Fig. 3 shows the apparatus in cross section. T is the mouth piece, R +the metal ring, M the diaphragm, _f_ the breaking cross piece. On the +latter is a metal block fastened by means of two screws. On this metal +block is a soft elastic strip (d) of felt or similar material. The +letters _s_ and _s_ indicate the regulating screws for the braking +contrivance. + +The excellent qualities of other microphones, in particular their +extreme sensibility for the very least impressions, are undeniable; +but it is just this sensibility that is the cause of the complaints +made by the public. In practical use this overgreat sensibility proves +to be a fault. + +In the apparatus constructed by Messrs. Mix and Genest the well-known +deficiencies of other systems are avoided. The effect of the sound and +the distinctness of the human voice are clearer and far more +intelligible. One simple regulation of the microphone suffices for the +installation, for there is no danger of its getting out of order. +Owing to its peculiar construction, this new microphone is very firm +and solid, and for this very reason offers another advantage, namely, +the possibility of transmitting sound over very long distances. In the +competitive trials instituted by order of the imperial postal +department, apparatus of various systems and constructions were +subjected to tests, and the apparatus we are speaking of showed the +favorable results just mentioned. This microphone has overcome in +particular the difficulties connected with the using of combined lines +above and below ground, and with the aid of it the excellent +telephonic communication is carried on in Berlin, in which city the +telephone net is most extensive and complicated. At the same time this +microphone transmits the sound over long distances (up to 200 kilom. +even) in the most satisfactory manner. Another peculiar advantage of +this construction is that it exercises a very small inductive effect +on cables and free lines, and consequently the simultaneous speaking +on parallel lines causes but little disturbance. + +After repeated trials made by the German imperial postal department +with the microphones constructed by Messrs. Mix and Genest, these +apparatus have been introduced in the place of the telephones and +Bell-Blake microphones hitherto used in the telephone service. At +present we understand there are about 8,000 of these apparatus in use. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTROLYSIS AND REFINING OF SUGAR. + + +Mr. G. Fahrig, of Eccles, Lancashire, has invented a new process of +refining sugar through electrolysis. The brown sugar is decolorized by +means of ozone produced by electric currents of high tension from a +dynamo. The electrodes consist of metal grills covered with platinum +or some other inoxidizable metal, and are placed in a vat with the +intervention of perforated earthenware plates. After being ground and +dried in hot air, the crude sugar is placed between the plate and the +grills, and the discharges passing between the electrodes produce +ozone, which separates the sugar from the coloring matter. To purify +the sugar still further, Mr. Fahrig dries it and places it in another +vat, with carbon or platinum conducting plates separated by a porous +partition. The sugar is placed on one side of this partition, and +water circulates on the other side. + +The current from a dynamo of feeble tension is sent through the vat +between the plates. The water carries along the impurities separated +by the current, and the sugar is further whitened and refined. + +[Illustration] + +The accompanying figure shows a series of four vats arranged one above +another, in order to permit the water to circulate. Here _i_ and _h_ +represent the plates connected with the poles of the dynamo through +the conductors, _f_ and _g_; _m_ represents the porous partition; L, +the spaces filled with sugar; and _l_, the compartments in which the +water circulates.--_La Lumiere Electrique._ + + * * * * * + +[THE ELECTRICIAN.] + + + + +A CURRENT METER. + + +We give a description of a meter we made in June, 1883. You will find +a cross section of the meter and also a printed dial we had made at +the time. We called it an ampere register, but no doubt we would give +it a better name to-day. The meter consisted of a glass tube, _c_, +both ends of which were fitted into two bent pieces of piping, D and +F, as shown. Through these bent tubes, D and F, passed the wires, a +and _b_, which were connected to the binding posts, A and B. The part +of the wire where it passed into the tubes was well insulated. At the +ends, _a'_ and _b'_, was connected the coil, R, which consisted simply +of a few turns of copper wire whose diameter was less than the leading +wires, _a_ and _b_. To the tube, D, was attached a square tube, E, +which had a little opening at the top so as to permit a small +undershot wheel, I, to revolve freely. This undershot wheel was well +pivoted and constructed very light. To the axis of this wheel was +connected another system of wheels with indicators, as shown, J. Now +the tubes, E and F, were connected to a reservoir, G. This reservoir +consisted of a square tank, in the inside of which were soldered in an +alternating manner square sheets of copper as shown in the drawing, +_g_ _g'_ _g''_ _g'''_ ... These sheets acted as diffusers. These +plates or sheets presented a very large surface. On the outside of the +tank, G, were also diffusers, _h_ _h'_ ... arranged all round and +presenting an appearance as if two books were open so as to form a +square with their covers, the leaves being the diffusers. The +diffusers on the outside were at right angles to those inside. + +[Illustration: CROSS SECTION OF JEHL AND RUPP'S CURRENT METER.] + +The action of the meter was thus: When a current passes through the +coil, R, it heats the liquid at the place, thus causing a circulation, +the warm liquid ascending while the cold liquid descends as shown by +the arrows. This circulation causes the undershot wheel to revolve, +and its revolutions are registered by the clockwork. The stronger the +current, the more the heat, and thus the more rapid the circulation. +The warm liquid once in the tank, which is of a reasonable size, will +impart its heat to all the diffusers. The surface of the glass tube, +etc., is very small in comparison to the surface of the tank. It will +be seen that the function of this apparatus is independent of the +outward temperature, for the motion of the liquid is due only to that +heat which is generated by the current. When the current does not +pass, it is evident that the liquid, at whatever temperature it may +be, does not circulate, as all parts are of the same temperature; but +the moment the current passes, a difference is produced, which causes +a circulation in proportion to the current. We may mention that we +tried various liquids, and give preference to pure olive oil. It will +also be seen that this meter is good for alternating currents. In +conclusion, we may remark that the tests we made gave satisfaction, +and we wanted to publish them, but that Mr. Jehl was called away to +fit up the Edison exhibit in the Vienna exhibition for the Societe +Electrique Edison of Paris. After the exhibition we began our work +upon our disk machine, and had almost forgotten our meter. The whole +apparatus is mounted on a base, K. + +[Illustration: DIAL FACE.] + +JEHL AND RUPP. +Brünn, Sept. 26, 1887. + + * * * * * + + + + +STORAGE BATTERIES FOR ELECTRIC LOCOMOTION.[1] + + [Footnote 1: From a paper read before the National Electric Light + Association, New York, August, 1887.] + +By A. RECKENZAUN. + + +The idea of employing secondary batteries for propelling vehicles is +almost contemporaneous with the discovery of this method of storing +energy. To Mr. Plante, more than to any other investigator, much of +our knowledge in this branch of electrical science is due. He was the +first to take advantage of the action of secondary currents in voltaic +batteries. Plante is a scientist of the first grade, and he is a +wonderfully exact experimenter. He examined the whole question of +polarization of electrodes, using all kinds of metal as electrodes and +many different liquids as electrolytes, and during his endless +researches he found that the greatest useful effect was produced when +dilute sulphuric acid was electrolyzed between electrodes of metallic +lead. + +A set of Plante's original cells was exhibited for the first time in +March, 1860, before the Paris Academy of Sciences. Scientists admired +and praised it, but the general public knew nothing of this great +discovery thus brought to notice. Indeed, at that period little +commercial value could be attached to such apparatus, since the +accumulator had to be charged by means of primary batteries, and it +was then well known that electrical energy, when produced by chemical +means in voltaic cells, was far too expensive for any purpose outside +the physical laboratory or the telegraph office. + +It was twenty years after this exhibition at the Academy of Sciences +in Paris that public attention was drawn to the importance of storage +batteries, and that Mr. Faure conceived the idea of constructing +plates consisting of lead and oxides of lead. At that time the +advantages accruing through a system of electrical storage could be +fully appreciated, since electrical energy was already being produced +by mechanical means through the medium of dynamo-electric machines. + +It was the dynamo machine which created the demand for the storage +battery, and the latter was introduced anew to the public at large +and to the capitalist with great pomp and enthusiasm. One of Faure's +accumulators was sent to Sir William Thomson, and this eminent +scientist in the course of experiments ascertained that a single cell, +weighing 165 lb., can store two million foot-pounds of energy, or one +horse power for one hour, and that the loss of energy in charging did +not exceed 15 per cent. These results appeared highly encouraging. +There we had a method of storing that could give out the greater part +of the energy put in. The immense development which the electric +transmission of energy was even at that early day expected to undergo +pointed to the fact that a convenient method of receiving large +quantities of transmitted energy, and of holding it in readiness until +wanted, must be of the highest importance. Numerous applications of +the Faure battery were at once suggested, and the public jumped to the +conclusion that a thing for which so many uses could be instantly +found must necessarily be a profitable investment, and plenty of money +was provided forthwith, not with the idea of commencing careful +experiments and developing the then crude invention, which would have +been the correct thing, but for manufacturing tons of accumulators in +their first and immature form. + +I need not describe the disappointments which followed the first +unfulfilled hopes, nor repeat the criticism that was heaped upon the +heads of the early promoters. Those early hopes were untimely and +unreasonable. A thousand difficulties had to be overcome--scientific +difficulties and manufacturing difficulties. This invention, like most +others, had to go through steady historical developments and +evolution, and follow the recognized laws of nature, which are against +abnormal and instantaneous maturity. The period of maturity has also +been retarded by injudicious treatment, but the ultimate success was +inevitable. Great advances have been made within the last few years, +and I propose now to offer a few facts and figures relating to the +present state of the subject with reference to the application of +storage batteries to locomotive purposes. It is not within the +province of this paper to discuss all the different inventions of +secondary batteries nor to offer any suggestions with regard to +priority, therefore I will confine myself to general statements. I am +aware of the good work that was done in the United States by Kirchhoff +twenty-six years ago, and of the more recent work of Mr. Brush, of +Cleveland, Mr. Julien and others, but I am more particularly +acquainted with the recent achievements of the Electrical Accumulator +Company, who own the rights of the Electrical Power Storage Company, +of London. I have used the batteries of the latter company for +propelling electric boats and electric street cars. The first of the +boats was the Electricity, which was launched in September, 1882, and +which attained a speed of seven miles an hour for six consecutive +hours. Since then a dozen electric boats of various sizes have been +fitted up and worked successfully by means of storage batteries and +motors of my design. The most important of these were the launch Volta +and another similar craft, which is used by the Italian government for +torpedo work in the harbor of Spezia. On the measured mile trial trips +the Italian launch gave an average speed of 8.43 miles an hour with +and against the tide. The hull of this vessel was built by Messrs. +Yarrow & Co., and the motors were manufactured by Messrs. Stephens, +Smith & Co., of London. The Volta, which was entirely fitted by the +latter firm, is 37 feet long and 7 feet beam. She draws 2'6" of water +when carrying 40 persons, for whom there is ample sitting +accommodation. There are 64 cells in this boat. These are placed as +ballast under the floor, and actuate a pair of motors and a screw +coupled direct to the armature shaft running at 700 revolutions a +minute. We crossed the English Channel with this boat in September of +last year, leaving Dover at 10:40 in the morning, arriving at Calais +at 2:30 P.M.; stayed about an hour in the French harbor for luncheon +and floated into Dover docks the same evening, at 6:30, with full +speed. The actual distance traversed without entirely discharging the +cells was 54 miles. The current remained constant at 28 amperes until +5 P.M., and it only dropped to 25 amperes at the completion of the +double voyage between England and France. Several electric launches +are now being constructed in London, and one in New York by the +Electrical Accumulator Company. + +M. Trouve exhibited a small boat and a tricycle, both worked by Plante +accumulators, at Paris, in 1881. + +The first locomotive actuated by storage batteries was used at a +bleaching works in France in 1882. During the same year I designed an +electric street car for the storage company, and this was tried on the +lines of the West Metropolitan Tramways in March, 1883. It had +accommodation for 46 passengers. This car had many defects, and I +reconstructed it entirely, and ran it afterward in its improved form +on the South London Tramways, and also on a private track at Millwall, +where it is now in good condition, and I have a similar car in Berlin. +M. Phillippart exhibited a car in Paris and M. Julien made successful +experiments in Brussels, Antwerp, and Hamburg. Mr. Elieson is running +storage battery locomotives in London. Mr. Julien has also been +experimenting with a car in New York, and I believe one is in course +of construction for a line in the city of Boston. Messrs. W. Wharton, +Jr. & Co. have a storage battery car running at Philadelphia on Spruce +and Pine streets, and this energetic firm is now fitting up another +car with two trucks, each carrying an independent motor, similar to my +European cars. + +I have mentioned all these facts in order to show that there is a +considerable amount of activity displayed in the matter of storage +batteries for street cars, and that continued and substantial progress +is being made in each successive case. The prejudices against the +application of secondary batteries are being rapidly dispelled, and +there are indications everywhere that this method of propulsion will +soon take a recognized place among the great transit facilities in the +United States. I feel convinced that this country will also in this +respect be far ahead of Europe before another year has passed over our +heads. + +There are several popular and I may say serious objections to the +employment of storage batteries for propelling street cars. These +objections I will now enumerate, and endeavor to show how far they are +true, and in what measure they interfere with the economical side of +the question. + +First objection: The loss of energy, which amounts in practice to 20 +and sometimes 30 per cent. Now, every method of storing or +transmitting energy involves some waste, but in saying this we need +not condemn the system, for after all the term efficiency is only a +relative one. For instance, a 10 horse power steam engine consumes +three times as much fuel per horse power hour as a 1,000 horse power +engine does, yet this small engine must be, and is regarded as, one of +the most economical labor-saving appliances known to us. Considered as +a heat engine, the efficiency of the most economical steam motor is +but ten per cent.--90 per cent of the available units of heat +contained in coal being lost during its transformation into mechanical +energy. Thus, if we find that the storage battery does not return more +than 70 per cent, of the work expended in charging it, we ought not to +condemn it on that account until we have ascertained whether this low +efficiency renders the system unfit for any or all commercial +purposes. It is needless to go into figures in order to show that, +when compared with animal power, this objection drops into +insignificance. + +The second, more formidable, objection relates to the weight of +storage batteries--and this involves two disadvantages, viz., waste of +power in propelling the accumulator along with the car, and increased +pressure upon the street rails, which are only fitted to carry a +maximum of 5 tons distributed over 4 points, so that each wheel of an +ordinary car produces a pressure of 1¼ tons upon a point of the rail +immediately under it. + +The last mentioned objection is easily overcome by distributing the +weight of the car with its electrical apparatus over 8 wheels or 2 +small trucks, whereby the pressure per unit of section on the rails is +reduced to a minimum. With regard to the weight of the storage +batteries, relatively to the amount of energy the same are capable of +holding and transmitting, I beg to offer a few practical figures. +Theoretically, the energy manifested in the separation of one pound of +lead from its oxide is equivalent to 360,000 foot pounds, but these +chemical equivalents, though interesting in themselves, gives us no +tangible idea of the actual capacity of a battery. + +Repeated experiments have shown me that the capacity of a secondary +battery cell varies with the rate at which it is charged and +discharged. For instance, a cell such as we use on street cars gave a +useful capacity of 137.3 ampere hours when discharged at the average +rate of 45.76 amperes, and this same cell yielded 156.38 ampere hours +when worked at the rate of 22.34 amperes. At the commencement of the +discharge the E.M.F of the battery was 2.1 volts, and this was allowed +to drop to 1.87 volts when the experiment was concluded. The entire +active material contained in the plates of one cell weighed 11.5 lb., +therefore the energy given off per pound of active substance at the +above high rate of discharge was 62.225 foot pounds, and when +discharging at the lower rate of 22.34 amperes the available useful +energy was 72.313 foot pounds, or nearly 2.2 electrical horse power +per pound of active matter. But this active substance has to be +supported, and the strength or weight of the support has to be made +sufficiently great to give the plate a definite strength and +durability. The support of the plates inclusive of the terminals above +referred to weighs more than the active material, which consists of +peroxide of lead and spongy lead; so that the plates of one cell weigh +actually 26.5 pounds. Add to this the weight of the receptacle and +acid, and you get a total of about 41 pounds per cell when in working +order. Seventy of these cells will propel an ordinary street car for +four hours and a half, while consuming the stored energy at the rate +of 30 amperes, or over 5.6 electrical horse power. The whole set of +seventy cells weighs 2,870 lb., which is barely one-fifth of the +entire weight of the car when it carries forty adult passengers. +Therefore the energy wasted in propelling the accumulator along with a +ear does not amount to more than 20 per cent. of the total power, and +this we can easily afford to lose so long as animal power is our only +competitor. From numerous and exhaustive tests with accumulators on +cars in this country and abroad, I have come to the conclusion that +the motive power for hauling a full-sized street car for fifteen hours +a day does not exceed $1.75, and this includes fuel, water, oil, +attendance, and repairs to engine, boiler, and dynamo. We have thus an +immense margin left between the cost of electric traction and horse +traction, and the last objection, that relating to the depreciation of +the battery plates, can be most liberally met, and yet leave ample +profits over the old method of propulsion by means of animals. + +The advantages of storage battery street cars for city traffic are +self-evident, so that I need not trouble you with further details in +this respect, but I would beg those who take an interest in the +progress of the electric locomotive to give this subject all the +consideration it deserves, and I would assure them that the system +which I have advocated in this brief but very incomplete sketch is +worthy of an extended trial, and ready for the purposes set forth. +There is no reason why those connected with electric lighting +interests in the various cities and towns should not give the matter +their special attention, as they are the best informed on electrical +engineering and already have a local control of the supply of current +needed for charging. + +In the car which we use in Philadelphia there are actually 80 cells, +because there are considerable gradients to go over. Each cell weighs +40 pounds and the average horse power of each battery is six. +Sometimes we only use two horse power and sometimes, going up grades +of 5 per cent., we use as much as 12 horse power, but the average rate +is 6 electrical horse power. With reference to the weight of +passengers on the cars, we have never carried more than 50 passengers +on that car, because it is impossible to put more than 50 men into it. +There are seats for 24, and the rest have to stand on the platforms or +in the aisle. + +The changing of the batteries takes three minutes with proper +appliances. One set of cells is drawn out by means of a small winch +and a freshly charged set is put in. It takes the same time to charge +the battery as it does to discharge it in the working of the cars, so +one reserve set would be sufficient to keep the car continually +moving. + +The loss of energy from standing about is probably nothing. If a +battery were to stand charged for three months in a dry case, the loss +of energy might be in three months 10 per cent. I purposely had a set +of cells standing for two years charged and never used them. After two +years there was still a small amount of energy left. So as regards +the loss of energy in a battery standing idle, it is practically +nothing, because no one would think of charging a battery and letting +it stand for three months or a year. + +I have had them stand three or four months and I could hardly +appreciate the loss going on, provided always that the cells are +standing on a dry floor. If the exterior of the box be moist, or if it +stands on a moist floor, there will naturally be a surface leakage +going on: but where there is no surface leakage the mere local action +between the oxides and metallic lead will not discharge the battery +for a very considerable time. + +I have made experiments in London with a loaded car pulled by two +horses. I put a dynamometer between the attachment of the horse and +the car, so as to ascertain exactly the amount of pull, measured in +pounds multiplied by the distance traversed in a minute. You will be +surprised to know that two horses, when doing their easiest work, +drawing a loaded car on a perfectly level road, exert from two to +three horse power. I have mentioned a car in Philadelphia where we use +between two and twelve horse power. A horse is capable of exerting +eight horse power for a few minutes, and when a car is being driven up +grades, such as I see in Boston, for instance, pulling a load of +passengers up these grades, the horses must be exerting from 12 to 16 +horse power, mechanical horse power. That is the reason that street +car horses cannot run more than three or four hours out of the +twenty-four. If they were to run longer, they would be dead in a few +weeks. If they run two hours a day, they will last three or four +years. + +The life of the cells must be expressed upon the principle of ampere +hours or the amount of energy given off by them. Street car service +requires that the cells work their hardest for fifteen or sixteen +hours a day. The life of the cells has to be divided; first, into the +life of the box which contains the plates. This box, if appropriately +constructed of the best materials, will last many years, because there +is no actual wear on it. The life of the negative plates will be very +considerable, because no chemical action is going on in the negative +plate. The negative plate consists almost entirely of spongy lead, and +the hydrogen is mechanically occluded in that spongy lead. Therefore +the depreciation of the battery is almost entirely due to the +oxidation of the positive plates. If we were to make a lead battery of +plates ¼ inch thick, it would last many years; but for street car +work that would be far too heavy. Therefore we make the positive +plates a little more than one-eighth of an inch thick. I find that the +plates get sufficiently brittle to almost fall to pieces after the car +has run fifteen hours a day for six months. The plates then have to be +renewed. But this renewal does not mean the throwing away of the +plates. The weight is the same as before, because no consumption of +material takes place. We take out peroxide of lead instead of red +lead. That peroxide, if converted, produces 70 per cent. of metallic +lead, so that there is a loss of 30 per cent. in value. Then comes the +question of the manufacture of these positive plates, which, I +believe, at the present day are rather expensive. But I believe the +time will come when battery plates will be manufactured like shoe +nails, and the process of renewing the positive plates will be a very +cheap one. + +I ascertained in Europe that the motive power costs 2 cents per car +mile; that is, the steam power and attendance for charging the +batteries. We have to allow twice as much for the depreciation of a +battery at the present high rate at which we have to pay for the +battery--$12 for each cell. But I believe that as soon as the storage +battery industry is sufficiently extended, the total cost for +propelling these cars will not be more than six cents a mile, or about +one half the cost of the cheapest horse traction. + +I have made some very careful observations on the cable tramway in +Philadelphia, which is quite an extensive system. I have never been +able to ascertain the exact amount of waste in pulling the cable +itself; but I have it on the authority of certain technical papers +that there is a waste of about eighty per cent. I do not intend to +depreciate cable or any other tramways, but there is a difficulty +about introducing cable tramways. It is necessary to dig up the +streets and interfere with the roadways. I have been told that the +cable arrangements in Philadelphia cost $100,000 a mile, and that the +cable road in San Francisco cost more than that. One of the directors +of the cable company in Philadelphia told me that if he had seen the +battery system before the introduction of the cable, he would probably +have made up his mind in favor of the former. The wear and tear in the +case of the storage system is also considerable. There is a waste of +energy in the dynamo; secondly, in the accumulator charged by that +dynamo; thirdly, in the motor which is driven by the accumulator; and +fourthly, in the gearing that reduces the speed of the motor to the +speed required by the car axles. It would be difficult to make a motor +run at the rate of eighty revolutions per minute, which is the number +of revolutions of the street car axle when running at the rate of ten +miles an hour. Take all these wastes, and you find in practice that +you do not utilize more than 40 per cent. of the energy given by the +steam engine. But this is quite sufficient to make this system much +cheaper than horse traction. + +It is well known that we can discharge the storage battery _ad +libitum_ at the rate of 2 amperes or 200 amperes. I can get out of a +storage battery almost any horse power I like for a short space of +time. I have not the least objection to the direct system. But when +you come to run twenty or thirty or fifty cars on one line, you will +require very large conductors or dangerously high electromotive force. +The overhead system is applicable to its own particular purposes. +Where there are only five or ten, or even twenty, cars running on one +line, and that line runs through a suburb or a part of a city where +there are not many houses, that system is to be preferred. The +objection to the overhead system is not so much the want of beauty, +but the want of practicability. You have to put your posts very high +indeed, so as to let great wagon loads of hay and all sorts of things +pass underneath. Most of the trouble comes in winter, and when it is +snowing hard a great many difficulties arise. As regards the loss, +suppose that the resistance of the overhead lines is one ohm. To draw +one car it will take an average of 20 amperes, and the only loss will +be 20 multiplied by 20, that is, 400 watts through line resistance. +But if there are ten cars on that line, you get 40,000 watts loss of +energy, unless you increase the conductor in proportion to the number +of cars. If you do that, you get an enormous conductor, and have a +sort of elevated railroad instead of a telegraph wire, as most people +imagine an overhead conductor to be. + +The current required to run a street car is about thirty amperes, and +an electromotive force of about 180 volts. If cars are run in +connection with an incandescent light station, we can arrange our +apparatus so that we can use an E.M.F. say of 110 volts, and then we +can put in a smaller number of cells with a larger capacity that will +give a corresponding horse power. We can charge such larger cells with +50 or 60 amperes instead of thirty. + +In regard to arc lighting machinery, the arc lighting dynamo should +not be used to charge the accumulators. They can be used, but they +require such constant attention as to make them impracticable. We can +only use shunt-wound dynamos conveniently for that purpose. + +In regard to using two motors on a car, there are several advantages +in it. I use two motors on all my cars in Europe, and always have done +so from the beginning. One of the advantages is that in case of an +accident to one motor the other will bring the car home; secondly, +with two motors we can vary the speed without changing the E.M.F. of +the battery. If I want very much power, I put two motors in parallel, +getting four times the power that I do with one machine, and an +intermediate power of two motors. + +There is another advantage of having two motors, and that is that we +can use two driving axles instead of one, and we can go up grades with +almost double the facility that way, because the adhesion would be +double. These are the main advantages arising from the use of two or +more motors. + +Mr. Mailloux asked if I would give my experience in regard to the +mechanical transmission between the motor and the car axle. I have +used almost everything that was known at the time, but in order to +give you a full and detailed account of the various modes of +transmission which I have used I should have to give you figures to +bear out certain experiments. I should only be able to do that in a +lecture of at least five hours' duration, so I hope that you will +kindly excuse me on that point. + +With regard to the durability of plates, I have taken into +consideration fifteen hours a day. In regard to the application of +electrical brakes, I will say that that was one of the first ideas +that entered my head when I began to use electric motors, and other +people had that idea long before me. I have used an electric brake, +using the motor itself as a brake--that is, as the car runs down a +grade by momentum, it generates a current, but this current cannot be +used for recharging a battery. It is utter nonsense to talk about that +unless we have a steady grade four or five miles long. The advantages +are very small indeed, and the complications which would be introduced +by employing automatic cut-outs, governors, and so on, would +counterbalance anything that might be gained. As regards going up an +incline, of course stopping and starting again has to be done often, +and anybody who at any time works cars by electricity, whether they +have storage batteries or not, has to allow for sufficient motive +power to overcome all the difficulties that any line might present. + +One of the great mistakes which some of the pioneers in this direction +made was that they did not put sufficient power upon the cars. You +always ought to put on the cars power capable of exerting perhaps 20 +to 40 per cent. more than is necessary in the ordinary street service, +so that in case of the road being snowed up, or in the case of any +other accident which is liable to occur, you ought to have plenty of +power to get out of the scrape. + + * * * * * + + + + +BRISTOL CATHEDRAL. + + +[Illustration: BRISTOL CATHEDRAL.] + +An Augustinian monastery, founded by Robert Fitzhardinge in 1142, had +its church, of Norman architecture, to which additions were made in +the early English period. When Edmund Knowle was abbot, from 1306 to +1332, the Norman choir was replaced by that which now exists. His +successor, Abbot Snow, built the chapels on the south side of the +choir. Abbot Newland, between 1481 and 1515, enriched the transepts +with a groined roof and with ornamental work of the decorated Gothic +style, and erected the central tower. Abbot Elliott, who followed +Newland, removed the Norman nave and aisles, intending to rebuild +them; but this was prevented by his death in 1526 and by the +dissolution of the monastery a few years afterward; he completed, +however, the vaulting of the south transept. The church remained with +a nave, and otherwise incomplete, until the modern restorations; after +which, in 1877, it was reopened with a special service. Messrs. Pope & +Bindon, of Bristol, were the architects employed. The exterior, of +which we give an illustration, viewed from St. Augustine's Green, or +Upper College Green, is not very imposing; from the Lower Green there +is a good view of the central tower and the transept. The height of +the tower is but 127 ft. It is of perpendicular Gothic architecture, +but the piers supporting it are Norman. The interior presents many +features of interest. The clustered triple shafts of the piers in the +choir, with their capitals of graceful foliage, the lofty pointed +arches between them, and the groined vaulting, have much beauty. The +chancel is decorated with tracery of a peculiar pattern. + +The Abbey of St. Augustine at Bristol was surrendered to King Henry +VIII. in 1538, and became, in 1542, the cathedral of the new Episcopal +see then created. The first Bishop of Bristol, Paul Bush, was deprived +of his see by Queen Mary, being a married clergyman and refusing to +part with his wife. Bishop Fletcher, in Queen Elizabeth's time, +afterward Bishop of Worcester and of London, was twice married, at +which this queen likewise expressed her displeasure. He was father of +Fletcher, the dramatic poet; and he is said to have been one of the +first English smokers of tobacco. Among noted Bishops of Bristol were +Bishop Lake, afterward of Chichester, and Bishop Trelawny (Sir +Jonathan Trelawny, Bart., of Cornwall), two of the "seven bishops"; +imprisoned for disobeying an illegal order of James II. "And shall +Trelawny die? Then twenty thousand Cornishmen will know the reason +why." But the most eminent was Bishop Joseph Butler, the author of +"The Analogy of Natural and Revealed Religion" and of the "Sermons on +Human Nature." He was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, and was educated +as a Nonconformist. He was Bishop of Bristol from 1738 to 1750, when +he was translated to Durham. In 1836, the see of Bristol was joined +with that of Gloucester; and the Right Rev. Drs. J.H. Monk, O. Baring, +W. Thomson (now Archbishop of York), and C.J. Ellicott have been +Bishops of Gloucester and Bristol.--_Illustrated London News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +WAVES. + + +In the first days of August, two startling announcements reached us +from the United States. They were as follows: + +(1.) "The commander of the Cunarder Umbria reports that at 3 o'clock +on July 27, about 1,500 miles from Sandy Hook, the vessel was struck +by a tidal wave 50 ft. high, which swept the decks, carried away a +portion of the bridge and the forward hatch, and flooded the cabins +and steerage." + +(2.) "The captain of the Wilson line steamer Martello reports that at +half-past 8 on the evening of July 25, when in lat. 49° 3' N., long. +31° W., an enormous wave struck the vessel, completely submerging the +decks." + +In view of these reports, and inasmuch as questions were asked on the +subject in Parliament, though it is quite possible that, as regards +the "tidal" character of the waves, there may be something of +newspaper _gobemoucherie_ in the announcements, we offer a few remarks +on _waves_ in general, which may be useful to some of our readers. + +_Tidal phenomena_ present themselves under two aspects: as alternate +elevations and depressions of the sea and as recurrent inflows and +outflows of streams. Careful writers, however, use the word _tide_ in +strict reference to the _changes of elevation_ in the water, while +they distinguish the recurrent streams as _tidal currents_. Hence, +also, _rise_ and _fall_ appertain to the tide, while _flood_ and _ebb_ +refer to the tidal current. + +The _cause of the tides_ is the combined action of the sun and moon. +The relative effects of these two bodies on the oceanic waters are +directly as their mass and inversely as the square of their distance; +but the moon, though small in comparison with the sun, is so much +nearer to the earth that she exerts the greater influence in the +production of the great _tide wave_. Thus the mean force of the moon, +as compared with that of the sun, is as 2¼ to 1. + +The attractive force of the moon is most strongly felt by those parts +of the ocean over which she is vertical, and they are, consequently, +drawn toward her. In the same manner, the influence of the luminary +being less powerfully exerted on the waters furthest from her than on +the earth itself, they must remain behind. By these means, at the two +opposite sides of the earth, in the direction of the straight line +between the centers of the earth and moon, the waters are +simultaneously raised above their mean level; and the moon, in her +progressive westerly motion, as she comes to each meridian in +succession, causes two uprisings of the water--two high tides--the one +when she passes the meridian above, the other when she crosses it +below; and this is done, not by drawing after her the water first +raised, but by raising continually that under her at the time; this is +the _tide wave_. In a similar manner (from causes already referred to) +the sun produces two tides of much smaller dimensions, and the joint +effect of the action of the two luminaries is this, that instead of +four separate tides resulting from their separate influence, the _sun +merely alters the form of the wave raised by the moon_; or, in other +words, the greater of the two waves (which is due to the moon) is +modified in its height by the smaller (sun's) wave. When the summit of +the two happens to coincide, the summit of the combined wave will be +at the highest. When the hollow of the smaller wave coincides with the +summit of the larger, the summit of the combined wave will be at the +lowest. + +It is necessary to have a clear and distinct conception of the +difference between the _motion_ of a _wave_ and that of a _current_. +In the current there is a transfer of water; in the wave the transfer +is no more than would be brought about by a particle of water +impinging on another where that particle has a motion perpendicular to +the surface, and a rising and falling results. The onward movement of +the wave itself is always perceptible enough. That the water is not +moving with the same velocity is also evident from watching the +progress of any light body floating on its surface. This fact may be +practically illustrated in the case of a ship at sea, sailing before +the wind in the same direction as the waves are moving. When the crest +of a wave is near the stern, drop a piece of wood on it. Almost +instantly the wave will be seen shooting ahead of the vessel, while +the wood is scarcely removed from the position where it fell on the +water. The wave has moved onward, preserving its identity as a wave, +the water of which it is formed being constantly changed; and thus the +motion of the wave is one thing, that of the water in which the waves +are formed is quite another thing. + +Again, waves are formed by a force acting horizontally; but in the +case of the tide wave, that force acts uniformly from the surface to +the lowest depths of the ocean, and the breadth of the wave is that +curved surface which, commencing at low water, passes over the summit +of the tide down to the next low water--this is a wave of the first +order. In waves of the second order, the force raising them acts only +on the surface, and there the effect is greatest (as in the wind +waves)--where one assists in giving to the water oscillating motion +which maintains the next, and gradually puts the whole surface in +commotion; but at a short distance down that effect entirely +disappears. + +If the earth presented a uniform globe, with a belt of sea of great +and uniform depth encircling it round the equator, the tide wave would +be perfectly regular and uniform. Its velocity, where the water was +deep and free to follow the two luminaries, would be 1,000 miles an +hour, and the height of tide inconsiderable. But even the Atlantic is +not broad enough for the formation of a powerful tide wave. The +continents, the variation in the direction of the coast line, the +different depths of the ocean, the narrowness of channels, all +interfere to modify it. At first it is affected with only a slight +current motion toward the west--a motion which only acquires strength +when the wave is heaped up, as it were, by obstacles to its progress, +as happens to it over the shallow parts of the sea, on the coasts, in +gulfs, and in the mouths of rivers. Thus the first wave advancing +meets in its course with resistance on the two sides of a narrow +channel, it is forced to rise by the pressure of the following waves, +whose motion is not at all retarded, or certainly less so than that of +the first wave. Thus an actual current of water is produced in straits +and narrow channels; and it is always important to distinguish between +the tide wave, as bringing high water, and the tidal stream--between +the rise and fall of the tide and the flow and ebb. + +In the open ocean, and at a distance from the land, the tide wave is +imperceptible, and the rise and fall of the water is small. Among the +islands of the Pacific four to six feet is the usual spring rise. But +the range is considerably affected by local causes, as by the shoaling +of the water and the narrowing of the channel, or by the channel +opening to the free entrance of the tide wave. In such cases the range +of tide is 40 to 50 feet or more, and the tidal stream is one of great +velocity. It may under such circumstances even present the peculiar +phenomenon called the _bore_--a wave that comes rolling in with the +first of flood, and, with a foaming crest, rushes onward, threatening +destruction to shipping, and sweeping away all impediments lying in +its course. + +It is certain that in the open ocean the _great tide wave_ could not +be recognized as a wave, since it is merely a temporary alteration of +the sea level. + +_Waves_ which have their origin in the action of the wind striking the +surface of the water commence as a series of small and slow +undulations or wavelets--a mere ripple. As the strength, and +consequently the pressure, of the wind increases, waves are formed; +and a numerical relation exists between the length of a wave, its +velocity of progress, and the depth of the water in which it travels. + +The _height_ of a wave is measured from trough to crest; and though +waves as seen from the deck of a small vessel appear to be "enormous" +and "overwhelming," their height, in an ordinary gale, in deep water, +does not exceed 15 to 20 feet. In a very heavy gale of some days' +continuance they will, of course, be much higher. + +Scoresby has observed them 30 ft. high in the North Atlantic; and Ross +measured waves of 22 ft. in the South Atlantic. Wilkes records 32 ft. +in the Pacific. But the highest waves have been reported off the Cape +of Good Hope and Cape Horn, where they have been observed, on rare +occasions, from 30 to 40 ft high; and 36 ft. has been given as the +admeasurement in the Bay of Biscay, under very exceptional +circumstances. In the voyage round the world the Venus and Bonite +record a maximum of 27 ft., while the Novara found the maximum to be +35 ft. But waves of 12 to 14 ft. in shallow seas are often more trying +than those of larger dimensions in deeper water. It is generally +assumed that a distance from crest to crest of 150 to 350 ft. in the +storm wave gives a velocity (in the change of form) of from 17 to 28 +miles per hour. But what is required in the computation of the +velocity is the period of passage between two crests. Thus a distance +of 500 to 600 ft. between two crests, and a period of 10 to 11 +seconds, indicates a velocity of 34 miles per hour. + +The following table, by Sir G.B. Airy (late Astronomer Royal), shows +the velocities with which waves of given lengths travel in water of +certain depth: + + Depth of | Length of the Wave in Feet.[1] + the Water| | | | | | | + in Feet. | 10 | 100 | 1,000 | 10,000 | 100,000 |1,000,000 |10,000,000 + ---------+-----+------+-------+--------+---------+----------+---------- + | + | Corresponding Velocity of Wave per Hour in Nautical Miles. + | + 1 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 + 10 | 4.3 | 10.1 | 10.7 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.8 + 100 | 4.3 | 13.5 | 32.0 | 34.0 | 34.0 | 34.0 | 34.0 + 1,000 | 4.3 | 13.5 | 42.9 | 101.8 | 107.5 | 107.5 | 107.5 + 10,000 | 4.3 | 13.5 | 42.9 | 135.7 | 320.3 | 340.0 | 340.3 + 100,000 | 4.3 | 13.5 | 42.9 | 135.7 | 429.3 | 1013.0 | 1075.3 + ---------+-----+------+-------+--------+---------+----------+---------- + + [Footnote 1: As an example, this table shows that waves 1,000 feet + in length travel 43 nautical miles per hour in water 1,000 feet + deep. The length is measured from crest to crest.] + +From these numbers it appears that-- + +1. When the length of the wave is not greater than the depth of the +water, the velocity of the wave depends (sensibly) only on its length, +and is proportional to the square root of its length. + +2. When the length of the wave is not less than a thousand times the +depth of the water, the velocity of the wave depends (sensibly) only +on the depth, and is proportional to the square root of the depth. + +It is, in fact, the same as the velocity which a free body would +acquire by falling from rest under the action of gravity through a +height equal to half the depth of the water. + +_Rollers_ are of the nature of a violent _ground swell_, and possibly +the worst of them may be due to the propagation of an earthquake wave. +They come with little notice, and rarely last long. All the small +islands in the Mid-Atlantic experience them, and they are frequent on +the African coast in the calm season. They are also not unknown in the +other oceans. In discussing the meteorology of the equatorial district +of the Atlantic, extending from lat. 20° to 10° S, Captain Toynbee +observes that "swells of the sea are not always caused by the +prevailing wind of the neighborhood. For instance, during the northern +winter and spring months, northwesterly swells abound. They are +sometimes long and heavy, and extend to the most southern limit of the +district. Again, during the southern winter and spring months, +southerly and southwesterly swells abound, extending at times to the +most northern limit of the district. They are frequently very heavy +and long." + +The great _forced sea waves_, due to earthquakes, and generally to +subterranean and volcanic action, have been known to attain the +enormous height of 60 feet or more, and sweep to destruction whole +towns situated on the shores where they have broken--as for example +Lisbon and places on the west coast of America and in the island of +Java. Though so destructive when they come in toward the land, and +begin to feel the shelving sea bottom, it is not probable that, in the +open ocean, this wave would do more than appear as a long rolling +swell. It has, however, been observed that "a wave with a gentle front +has probably been produced by gentle rise or fall of a part of the sea +bottom, while a wave with a steep front has probably been due to a +somewhat sudden elevation or depression. Waves of complicated surface +form again would indicate violent oscillations of the bottom." + +The altitude and volume of the great sea wave resulting from an +earthquake depend upon the suddenness and extent of the originating +disturbance and upon the depth of water at its origin. Its velocity of +translation at the surface of the sea varies with the depth of the sea +at any given point, and its form and dimensions depend upon this also, +as well as upon the sort of sea room it has to move in. In deep ocean +water, one of these waves may be so long and low as to pass under a +ship without being observed, but, as it approaches a sloping shore, +its advancing slope becomes steeper, and when the depth of water +becomes less than the altitude of the wave, it topples over, and comes +ashore as an enormous and overwhelming breaker. + +Lastly, there is the _storm wave_--the result of the cyclone or +hurricane--and, perhaps, the greatest terror to seamen, for it almost +always appears in the character of a _heavy cross sea_, the period of +which is irregular and uncertain. The disturbance within the area of +the cyclone is not confined to the air, but extends also to the ocean, +producing first a rolling swell, which eventually culminates in a +tremendous pyramidal sea and a series of storm waves, the undulations +of which are propagated to an extraordinary distance, behind, before, +and on each side of the storm field. + +Enough has now been said to show that whatever the character of the +waves encountered by the Umbria and Martello in July last, they were +in no sense "tidal," but, if approximating to the dimensions stated, +they were either due to storm or earthquake, or, possibly, to a +combination of both the last agents. + +For those of our readers who may be interested in wave observations, +we conclude by introducing Prof. Stokes' summary of the method of +observing the phenomenon: + + "_For a Ship at Sea._ + + "(1.) The apparent periodic time,[2] observed as if the ship + were at rest. + + "(2.) The _true_ direction from which the waves come, also the + ship's _true_ course and speed per hour. + + "(3.) A measure or estimate of the height of the waves. + + "(4.) The depth of the sea if it is known, but, at any rate, + the position of the ship as near as possible, either by cross + bearings of land or any other method, so that the depth may be + got from charts or other sources. + + "_For a Ship at Anchor._ + + "(1.) The periodic time. + + "(2.) The true direction from which the waves come. + + "(3.) A measure or estimate of the height of the waves. + + "(4.) The depth of water where she is anchored." + + [Footnote 2: The period of a wave is the interval of time which + elapses between the transits of two successive wave crests past a + stationary floating body, the wave crest being the highest line + along the ridge.] + +It is the opinion of scientists that when the period of oscillation of +the ship and the period of the wave are nearly the same, the turning +over of the ship is an approximate consequence, and thus the wave to +such a ship would appear more formidable than to another ship with a +different period of oscillation.--_Nautical Magazine._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PRACTICAL EDUCATION. + + +It is now recognized that one of the elements in which the public +school systems of the United States are most lacking is in the +practical branches in teaching trades and industry. There is too much +book learning, too little practical education. Throughout the +continent of Europe there are trade and industrial schools which have +accomplished much in turning out skilled workmen for the various +branches of industry. Here we have one. Our deficiency in this matter +was recognized by the late commissioner of education, and attention +called to it in several of his reports, and a number of the State +superintendents of education have also urged the establishment of +manual or training schools as a part of the State systems. We have +such an institution here in the Tulane Manual School. In Philadelphia, +Cleveland, and Chicago, the system has been adopted on a large scale, +and made part of the high school course. Another city which has +inaugurated the manual training school as a part of its public schools +is Toledo, O. A rich citizen of that town, who recently died, left a +large sum for the establishment of a university of arts and trades. +Instead of founding a separate university, however, the money was +applied to the establishment of manual schools in connection with the +public schools, for both boys and girls. + +The course of girls' work given will afford some idea of what it is +proposed to do. This begins with the senior grammar school grade and +continues three years in high school. It includes free hand, +mechanical, and architectural drawing, light carpentry, wood carving, +designing for wood carving, wood turning, clay moulding, decorative +designing, etc. But more practical than these things are the lessons +in cooking, sewing, and household management. The course in domestic +economy "is arranged with special reference to giving young women such +a liberal and practical education as will inspire them with a belief +in the dignity and nobleness of an earnest womanhood, and incite them +to a faithful performance of the every day duties of life. It is based +upon the assumption that a pleasant home is an essential element of +broad culture, and one of the surest safeguards of morality and +virtue." The report of the school also remarks that "the design of +this course is to furnish thorough instruction in applied +housekeeping, and the sciences related thereto, and students will +receive practical drill in all branches of housework; in the purchase +and care of family supplies, and in general household management; but +will not be expected to perform more labor than is actually necessary +for the desired instruction." + +A special branch which will be well received is that which proposes to +teach the girls how to cook. The curriculum is one that every +housekeeper ought to go through. + +Boiling--Practical illustrations of boiling and steaming, and +treatment of vegetables, meats, fish, and cereals, soup making, etc. + +Broiling--Lessons and practice in meat, chicken, fish, oysters, etc. + +Bread Making--Chemical and mechanical action of materials used. +Manipulations in bread making in its various departments. Yeasts and +their substitutes. + +Baking--Heat in its action on different materials in the process of +baking. Practical experiments in baking bread, pastry, puddings, +cakes, meat, fish, etc. + +Frying--Chemical and mechanical principles involved and illustrated in +the frying of vegetables, meats, fish, oysters, etc. + +Mixing--The art of making combinations, as in soups, salads, puddings, +pies, cakes, sauces, dressings, flavorings, condiments, etc. + +In "marketing, economy," etc., the course comprises general teaching +on the following subjects: + + "The selection and purchase of household supplies. General + instructions in systematizing and economizing the household + work and expenses. The anatomy of animals used as food, and + how to choose the several parts. Lessons on the qualities of + water and steam; the construction of stoves and ranges; the + properties of different fuels." + +Again, there is a dressmaking and millinery department, where the +girls are taught how to cut and make dresses and other garments, and +the economical and tasteful use of materials. + +So much for the girls. The courses in the boys' schools are somewhat +similar, turning, however, on the more practical instruction in trades +and industries, in carpentering, wood and iron work, etc. + +The Toledo experiment has been tried there but one year, and has given +general satisfaction. The board of school directors has interested the +public in its efforts, and advisory committees of ladies and gentlemen +have been appointed to assist in managing these schools. + +It is to be hoped that other and larger cities will imitate Toledo in +the matter. Those philanthropists who are giving money so liberally +for the establishment of institutions of higher learning might do much +good in providing for manual training schools of this kind that will +assure the country good housewives and skilled mechanics in the +future.--_Trustees' T. Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A GIGANTIC LOAD OF LUMBER. + + +When it was announced in the _Lumberman_ that the barge Wahnapitę had +carried a cargo of 2,181,000 feet of lumber, letters were received +asking if it was not a typographical error. It was thought by many +that no boat could carry such a load. For the purpose of showing the +barge on paper, a photograph was obtained of her when loaded at +Duluth, which is herewith reproduced. The freight rate obtained to +Tonawanda was $3.75 a thousand, which footed up to a total of +$8,178.75 The owners of the boat, however, were not satisfied with +such a record, and proceeded to break it by loading at Duluth +2,409,800 feet of lumber, which also went to Tonawanda, and which is +put down as the biggest cargo of lumber on record. At the latter place +the cargo was unloaded on Saturday afternoon and Monday forenoon--one +working day. It will be readily understood that the money-making +capacity of the barge is of the Jumbo order also. + +[Illustration: THE BARGE WAHNAPITĘ, LOADED WITH 2,181,000 FEET OF +LUMBER.] + +The barge is owned by the Saginaw Lumber and Salt Company and the +Emery Lumber Company, and cost $30,000. She is 275 feet long and 51 +feet beam. The lumber on her was piled 22 feet high and she drew 11 +feet of water. Had she been 10 inches wider, she could not have passed +through the Soo canal. The boat was built on the Saginaw river a year +ago last winter, and was designed for carrying logs from the Georgian +bay to the Saginaw river and Tawas mills. The Canadian government, +however, increased the export duty on logs, and the barge was put into +the lumber-carrying trade--_N.W. Lumberman._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE NEWBERY-VAUTIN CHLORINATION PROCESS. + + +The process of extracting gold from ores by absorption of the precious +metal in chlorine gas, from which it is reduced to a metallic state, +is not a very new discovery. It was first introduced by Plattner many +years ago, and at that time promised to revolutionize the processes +for gold extraction. By degrees it was found that only a very clever +chemist could work this process with practically perfect results, for +many reasons. Lime and magnesia might be contained in the quartz, and +would be attacked by the chlorine. These consume the reagents without +producing any results, earthy particles would settle and surround the +small gold and prevent chlorination, then lead and zinc or other +metals in combination with the gold would also be absorbed by the +chlorine; or, again, from some locally chemical peculiarity in the +water or the ore, gold held in solution by the water might be again +precipitated in the tailings before filtration was complete, and thus +be lost. Henderson, Clark, De Lacy, Mears, and Deacon, all introduced +improvements, or what were claimed to be improvements, on Plattner, +but these chiefly failed because they did not cover every particular +variety of case which gold extraction presented. Therefore, where +delicate chemical operations were necessary for success, practice +generally failed from want of knowledge on the part of the operator, +and many times extensive plants have been pronounced useless from this +cause alone. Hence it is not to be wondered that processes requiring +such care and uncommon knowledge are not greatly in favor. + +Mr. Claude Vautin, a gentleman possessed of much practical experience +of gold mining and extraction in Queensland, together with Mr. J. +Cosmo Newbery, analytical chemist to the government of Victoria, have +developed a process which they claim to combine all the advantages of +the foregoing methods, and by the addition of certain improvements in +the machinery and mode of treatment to overcome the difficulties which +have hitherto prevented the general adoption of the chlorination +process. + +By reference to the illustrations of the plant below, the system by +which the ore is treated can be readily understood. The materials for +treatment--crushed and roasted ore, or tailings, as the case may +be--are put into the hopper above the revolving barrel, or +chlorinator. This latter is made of iron, lined with wood and lead, +and sufficiently strong to bear a pressure of 100 lb. to the square +inch, its capacity being about 30 cwt of ore. The charge falls from +the hopper into the chlorinator. Water and chlorine-producing +chemicals are added--generally sulphuric acid and chloride of +lime--the manhole cover is replaced and screwed down so as to be gas +tight. On the opposite side of the barrel there is a valve connected +with an air pump, through which air to about the pressure of four +atmospheres is pumped in, to liquefy the chlorine gas that is +generated, after which the valve is screwed down. The barrel is then +set revolving at about ten revolutions a minute, the power being +transmitted by a friction wheel. According to the nature of the ore, +or the size of the grains of gold, this movement is continued from one +to four hours, during which time the gold, from combination with the +chlorine gas, has formed a soluble gold chloride, which has all been +taken up by the water in the barrel. The chlorinator is then stopped, +and the gas and compressed air allowed to escape from the valve +through a rubber hose into a vat of lime water. This is to prevent the +inhalation of any chlorine gas by the workmen. The manhole cover is +now removed and the barrel again set revolving, by which means the +contents are thrown automatically into the filter below. This filter +is an iron vat lined with lead. It has a false bottom, to which is +connected a pipe from a vacuum pump working intermittently. As soon as +all the ore has fallen from the chlorinator into the filter, the pump +is set going, a partial vacuum is produced in the chamber below the +false bottom in the filter, and very rapid filtration results. By this +means all the gold chlorides contained in the wet ore may be washed +out, a continual stream being passed through it while filtration is +going on. The solution running from the filter is continually tested, +and when found free from gold, the stream of water is stopped, as is +also the vacuum pump. The filter is then tipped up into a truck below, +and the tailings run out to the waste heap. The process of washing and +filtration occupies about an hour, during which time another charge +may be in process of treatment in the chlorinator above. The discharge +from the filter and the washings are run into a vat, and from this +they are allowed to pass slowly through a tap into a charcoal filter. +During the passage of the liquid through the charcoal filter, the +chloride of gold is decomposed and the gold is deposited on the +charcoal, which, when fully charged, is burnt, the ashes are fused +with borax in a crucible, and the gold is obtained. + +[Illustration: THE NEWBERY-VAUTIN CHLORINATION PROCESS.] + +We have specified above the objections to the old processes of +chlorination, so it may be fairly asked in what way the Newbery-Vautin +process avoids the various chemical actions which have hitherto proved +so difficult to contend with. + +For any system of chlorination yet introduced it is necessary to free +the ore from sulphides. This is done by roasting according to any of +the well-known systems in vogue. It is a matter which requires great +care and considerable skill. The heat must be applied and increased +slowly and steadily. If, through any neglect on the part of the +roaster, the ore is allowed to fuse, in most cases it is best to throw +the charge away, as waste. This roasting applies equally to the Vautin +process as to any others. So on this head there is no alteration. One +of the most important advantages is not a chemical one, but is the +rapidity with which the charge can be treated. In the older styles of +treatment the time varied from thirty six to ninety hours. Now this is +accomplished in from three to six hours with a practically perfect +result. The older processes required a careful damping of the ore, +which, to get good results, must leave the ore neither too wet nor too +dry. Now "damping" is entirely done away with, and in its place water +is poured into the barrel. Pressure to the extent of four atmospheres +causes chlorine gas to leave its vaporous form. Thus the pressure +applied not only enables a strong solution of chlorine to be formed +with the water in the barrel, but forces this into contact with the +gold through every crevice in the ore. Chlorine gas also takes up any +silver which may exist in association with the gold. In the older +processes this is deposited as a film of chloride of silver around the +fine gold grains, and from its insolubility in water prevents the +absorption of the gold. The rotary motion of the barrel in the +Newbery-Vautin method counteracts this by continually rubbing the +particles together; this frees the particles from any accumulations, +so that they always present fresh surfaces for the action of the +solvent. Again, the short time the ore is in contact with the chlorine +does not allow of the formation of hydrochloric acid, which has a +tendency to precipitate the gold from its soluble form in the water +before being withdrawn from the chlorinator. + +Hitherto, when the ore was very fine or contained slimes, the +difficulty of filtration was increased, sometimes in extreme cases to +such an extent that chlorination became impracticable. By the +introduction of the vacuum pump this is greatly facilitated; then by +making the action intermittent a jigging motion is given to the +material in the filter which prevents any clogging except in cases of +extreme fineness. + +The advantage of using charcoal as a decomposing agent for chloride of +gold was pointed out by Mr. Newbery some twenty years ago; four or +five years since the idea was patented in the United States, but as +this was given gratis to the world years before, the patent did not +hold good. The form of precipitation generally adopted was to add +sulphate of iron to the liquid drawn from the filter. This not only +threw down the gold it contained, but also the lime and magnesia. Then +very great care was necessary, and a tedious process had to be gone +through to divide the gold from these. Now, by filtration through +charcoal everything that is soluble in hydrochloric acid passes away +with the water; for instance, lime and magnesia, which before gave +such great trouble. In passing through the charcoal, the chloride of +gold is decomposed and all fine gold particles are taken up by the +charcoal, so that it is coated by what appears to be a purple film. + +Should copper be associated with the gold, the water, after running +through the charcoal filter, is passed over scrap iron, upon which the +copper is precipitated by a natural chemical action. If silver is +contained in the ore, it is found among the tailings in the filter, in +a chloride which is insoluble in water. Should the quantity prove +sufficiently large, it may be leached out in the usual way by +hyposulphites. + +One of the great advantages common to all systems of chlorination is +that ores may be crushed dry and treated, so that the loss from float +gold may be avoided. Of this loss, which is most serious, we shall +have something to say on another occasion. An advantage in +amalgamation with chlorine gas instead of amalgamation with +quicksilver in the wet way, is that the ore need not be crushed so +finely. Roasting takes the place of fine crushing, as the ore from the +roasting furnace is either found somewhat spongy in texture or the +grains of silica in which fine gold may be incased are split or flawed +by the fire. For quicksilver amalgamation very fine crushing is +necessary to bring all gold particles in contact with it. Quicksilver +being so thick in substance, it will not find its way readily in and +out of a microscopically fine spongy body or through very fine flaws +in grains of silica, whereas chlorine gas or a solution of liquefied +chlorine does this, and absorbs the gold far more readily. + +There are cases when gold is contained in ores in what is known as a +perfectly "free" form--that is, there is an absence of all sulphides, +arsenides, etc.--when it is not practicable to extract it either with +the ordinary forms of quicksilver amalgamation of or any process of +chlorination, without first roasting. This is because the finer gold +is locked up inside fine grains of silica and hydrated oxide of iron. +No ordinary crushing will bring this fine enough, but when roasting is +resorted to by drawing it rapidly through a furnace heated to a cherry +red, these grains are split up so that chlorine gas is enabled to +penetrate to the gold. + +It may be said that an equally clever chemist will be required to work +this improved process as compared with those that have, one by one, +fallen into disuse, mainly from want of knowledge among the operators. +To a certain extent this is so. The natural chemical actions are not +so delicate, but an ignorant operator would spoil this process, as he +does nearly every other. When a reef is discovered, practice shows +that its strongest characteristics are consistently carried throughout +it wherever it bears gold. Before Messrs. Newbery and Vautin leave a +purchaser to deal himself with their process, they get large samples +of his ore to their works and there experiment continually until a +practically perfect result is obtained; then any one with a moderate +amount of knowledge can work with the formula supplied. It has been +their experience that the ore from any two mines rarely presents the +same characteristics. Experiments are begun by treating very coarse +crushings. These, if not satisfactory, are gradually reduced until the +desired result is obtained. + +To treat the whole body of ore from a mine, dry crushing is strongly +recommended. To accomplish this in the most efficient manner, a stone +breaker which will reduce to about ¼ in. cubes is necessary. For +subsequent crushing Kroms rolls have, up to the present time, proved +most satisfactory. They will crush with considerable evenness to a +thirty mesh, which is generally sufficient. The crushings are then +roasted in the ordinary way in a reverberatory furnace and the whole +of the roastings are passed through the machine we have just +described. By this it is claimed that over 90 per cent. of the gold +can be extracted at very much the same cost as the processes now in +general use in gold producing countries, which on the average barely +return 50 per cent. If so, the gentlemen who have brought forward +these improvements deserve all the success their process +promises.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR EXERCISING THE MUSCLES. + + +The apparatus herewith illustrated consists of a wooden base, which +may be bolted to the floor, and which supports two wooden uprights, to +which is affixed the apparatus designed to exercise the legs. The +apparatus for exercising the arms is mounted upon a second frame that +slides up and down the wooden supports. It is fixed in position at any +height by means of two screws. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR EXERCISING THE MUSCLES.] + +The apparatus for exercising the legs, as well as the one for the +arms, consists essentially of a fly wheel mounted upon an axle +extending to the second upright and bent into the form of a crank in +the center. The fly wheel is provided with a winch whose arm is +capable of elongation in order to accommodate it to the reach of the +sound limb. + +The apparatus for the legs is arranged in a contrary direction, that +is to say, the wheel is on the opposite side of the frame, and upon +the fixed uprights. It is really a velocipede, one of the pedals of +which is movable upon the winch, and is capable of running from the +axle to the extremity, as in the upper apparatus. This pedal has the +form of a shoe, and is provided with two straps to keep the foot in +place and cause it to follow the pedal in its rotary motion. A movable +seat, capable of rising and descending and moving backward and +forward, according to the leg that needs treatment, is fixed back of +the apparatus. + +The operation is as follows: Suppose that the atrophied arm is the +left one. The invalid, facing the apparatus, grasps the movable handle +on the crank with his left hand, and revolves the winch with his +right. The left hand being thus carried along, the arm is submitted to +a motion that obliges it to elongate and contract alternately, and the +result is an extension of the muscles which strengthens them. + +The apparatus, which is as simple as it is ingenious, can, it is true, +be applied only when one of the two limbs, arm or leg, is diseased, +the other being always necessary to set the apparatus in motion; but, +even reduced to such conditions, it is destined to render numerous +services in cases of paralysis, atrophy, contusions, etc.--_Moniteur +des Inventions Industrielles._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BULL OPTOMETER. + + +Dr. Javal has just presented to the Academy of Medicine a very +ingenious and practical optometer devised by George J. Bull, a young +American doctor, after a number of researches made at the laboratory +of ophthalmology at the Sorbonne. Among other applications that can be +made of it, there is one that is quite original and that will insure +it some success in the world. It permits, in fact, of approximately +deducing the age of a person from certain data that it furnishes as to +his or her sight. As well known, the organs become weak with age, +their functions are accomplished with less regularity and precision, +and, according to the expression of the poet, + + "_En marchant a la mort, on meurt a chaque pas,_" + +the senses become blunted, the hearing becomes dull, the eyes lose +their luster, vivacity, and strength, and vision becomes in general +shorter, less piercing, and less powerful. + +The various parts of the eye, but more particularly the crystalline +lens, undergo modifications in form and structure. Accommodation is +effected with more and more difficulty, and, toward the age of sixty, +it can hardly be effected at all. + +These changes occur in emmetropics as well as in hypermetropics and +myopics. + +As will be seen, then, there is a relation between the age of a +person and the amplitude of the accommodation of his eyes. If we +cannot express a law, we can at least, through statistics, find out, +approximately, the age of a person if we know the extent of the +accommodation of his eyes. + +A Dutch oculist, Donders, has got up a table in which, opposite the +amplitudes, the corresponding ages are found. Now, the Javal-Bull +optometer permits of a quick determination of the value of the +amplitude of accommodation in _dioptries_. (A dioptrie is the power of +a lens whose focal distance is one meter.) + +The first idea of this apparatus is due to the illustrious physicist +Thomas Young, who flourished about a century ago. The Young apparatus +is now a scarcely known scientific curiosity that Messrs. Javal and +Bull have resuscitated and transformed and completed. + +It consists of a light wooden rule about 24 inches long by 1¼ inch +wide that can easily be held in the hand by means of a handle fixed at +right angles with the flat part (Fig. 1). At one extremity there is a +square thin piece of metal of the width of the rule, and at right +angles with the latter, but on the side opposite the handle. This +piece of metal contains a circular aperture a few hundredths of an +inch in diameter (Fig. 3). Toward this aperture there may be moved +either a converging lens of five dioptries or a diverging lens of the +same diameter, but of six dioptries. + +[Illustration: FIG 1.--MODE OF USING THE BULL OPTOMETER] + +On holding the apparatus by the handle and putting the eye to the +aperture, provided or not with a lens, we see a series of dominoes +extending along the rule, from the double ace, which occupies the +extremity most distant from the eye, to the double six, which is very +near the eye (Fig. 2). The numbers from two to twelve, simply, are +indicated, but this original means of representing them has been +chosen in order to call attention to them better. + +[Illustration: FIG 2.--THE RULE, WITH THE DOMINOES (¼ Actual +Size.) ] + +Figures are characters without physiognomy, if we may so express +ourselves, while the spots on the dominoes take particular +arrangements according to the number represented, and differentiate +themselves more clearly from each other than figures do. They are at +the same time more easily read than figures or regularly spaced dots. +Now, it is very important to fix the attention upon the numbers, since +they are arranged at distances expressed in dioptries and indicated by +the number of the spots. On looking through the aperture, we see in +the first place one of the dominoes more distinctly than the rest. +Then, on endeavoring to see those that are nearer or farther off, we +succeed in accommodating the eye and in seeing the numbers that +express the extreme terms of the accommodation, and consequently the +amplitude. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--DETAILS OF EYE PIECE.] + +Let us now take some examples: If we wish to express in dioptries the +myopia of a person, we put the apparatus in his hand, and ask him to +place his eye very near the aperture and note the number of spots on +the most distant domino that he sees distinctly. This is the number +sought. If the observation be made through the upper lens, it will be +necessary to subtract five from the number obtained; if, on the +contrary, the other lens is used, it will be necessary to add six. + +If it is a question of a presbyope, let him look with his spectacles, +and note the nearest domino seen distinctly. This will be the number +of dioptries expressing the nearest point at which he can read. This +number permits us to know whether it is necessary to add or subtract +dioptries in order to allow him to read nearer by or farther off. If, +for example, he sees the deuce and the ace distinctly, say 3 dioptries +or 0.33 meter, and we want to allow him to read at 0.25 meter, +corresponding to four dioptries, it will be necessary to increase the +power of his spectacles by one dioptrie. + +Upon the whole, Dr. Bull's optometer permits of measuring the +amplitude of accommodation, and, consequently, of obtaining the +approximate age of people, of knowing the extreme distances of the +accommodation, and of quickly finding the number of the glass +necessary for each one. It reveals the defects in the accommodation, +and serves for the quick determination of refraction. So, in saying +that this little instrument is very ingenious and very practical, Dr. +Javal has used no exaggeration.--_La Nature._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SANITATION OF TOWNS.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Abstract from the presidential address delivered + before the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and + Surveyors, at the annual meeting in Leicester, July 18, 1887.] + +By Mr. J. GORDON, C.E. + + +The average mortality for England and Wales was 22.4 in 1838, and in +1886 19.3, which shows a saving on last year's population of England +and Wales of 86,400 lives annually, and a saving in suffering from an +estimated number of about 1,728,000 cases of sickness. To accomplish +all this, vast sums of money have been expended, probably not always +wisely, inasmuch as there have been mistakes made in this direction, +as in all new developments of science when applied in practice, and +evils have arisen which, if foreseen at all at the outset, were +underrated. + +The great object of the public health act, 1848, was to enable local +authorities by its adoption to properly sewer, drain, and cleanse +their towns, and to provide efficient supplies of water, free from +contamination and impurities dangerous to health. The raising of money +by loans repayable in a series of years, which the act empowered, +enabled all these objects to be accomplished, and, while the first +duty of local authorities was undoubtedly the provision of a good +supply of water and proper sewerage for the removal of liquid filth +from the immediate vicinity of inhabited dwellings, the carrying out +of proper works for the latter object has been of much slower growth +than the former. Private companies led the way, in fact, in providing +supplies of water, inasmuch as there was a prospect of the works +becoming remunerative to shareholders investing their money in them; +and in nearly every instance where local authorities have eventually +found it to be in the interests of the inhabitants of their districts +to purchase the work, they have had to pay high prices for the +undertaking. This has generally led to a great deal of dissatisfaction +with companies holding such works, but it must not be forgotten that +the companies would, in most instances, never have had any existence +if the local authorities had taken the initiative, and that but for +the companies this great boon of a pure supply of water would most +probably have been long delayed to many large as well as small +communities. + +The evils which have arisen from the sewering and draining of towns +have been of a twofold character. First, in the increased pollution of +rivers and streams into which the sewage, in the earlier stages of +these works, was poured without any previous treatment; and secondly, +in the production of sewer gas, which up to the present moment seems +so difficult to deal with. These concomitant evils and difficulties +attending the execution of sanitary works are in no way to be +underrated, but it still remains the first duty of town authorities to +remove, as quickly as possible, all liquid and other refuse from the +midst and immediate vicinity of large populations, before putrefaction +has had time to take place. + +There are some minds whose course of reasoning seems to lead them to +the conclusion that the evils attending the introduction of modern +systems of sewerage are greater than those of the old methods of +dealing with town sewage and refuse, but the facts are against them to +such an extent that it would be difficult to point to a responsible +medical officer in the kingdom who would be courageous enough to +advocate a return to the old regime of cesspools, privy ashpits, open +ditches, and flat bottomed culverts. The introduction of earth closets +as one of the safeguards against sewer gas has made no headway for +large populations, and is beset with practical difficulties. + +In the Midland and Lancashire towns the system known as the pail or +tub system has been much more largely introduced as a substitute for +the water closet, and it has, from a landlord's point of view, many +attractions. In the first place, the first cost, as compared with that +of a water closet, is very small, and the landlord is relieved for +ever afterward I believe, in most towns, of all future costs and +maintenance; whereas, in the case of water closets, there is +undoubtedly great difficulty in cottage property in keeping them in +good working order, especially during the frosts of winter. There are, +however, many objections to the pail system, which it is not proposed +to touch upon in this address, beyond this, that it appears to be a +costly appendage to the water carriage system, without the expected +corresponding advantage of relieving the municipal authorities of any +of the difficulties of river pollution, inasmuch as the remaining +liquid refuse of the town has still to be dealt with by the modern +systems of precipitation or irrigation, at practically the same cost +as would have been the case if the water carriage system had been +adopted in its entirety. + +The rivers pollution act gave an impetus to works for the treatment of +sewage, although much had been done prior to that, and Leicester was +one of those towns which led the way so early as 1854 in precipitating +the solids of the sewage before allowing it to enter the river. The +innumerable methods which have since then been tried, and after large +expenditures of money have proved to be failures, show the +difficulties of the question. + +On the whole, however, sewage farms, or a combination of the chemical +system with irrigation or intermittent filtration, have been the most +successful, so that the first evil to which the cleansing of towns by +the increased pollution of rivers gave rise may now be said to be +capable of satisfactory solution, notwithstanding that the old battle +of the systems of precipitation versus application of sewage to land +still wages whenever opportunity occurs. + +The second evil to which I have made reference, viz., that of sewer +ventilation, seems still unsolved, and I would earnestly entreat +members, all of whom have more or less opportunities of experimenting +and making observations of the behavior of sewer gas under certain +conditions, to direct their attention to this subject. It is admitted +on all hands that the sewers must be ventilated--that is, that there +must be a means of escape for the polluted air of the sewers; for it +is well known that the conditions prevailing within the sewers during +the twenty-four hours of the day are very varying, and on this subject +the early observations of the late medical officer for the City of +London (Dr. Letheby), and the present engineer for the City of London +(Lieutenant-Colonel Heywood), and the still more recent investigations +of Professor Pettenkofer, of Munich, Professor Soyka, of Prague, and +our own members, Mr. McKie, of Carlisle, Mr. Read, of Gloucester, and +others, are worthy of attention. It does not, however, seem to be so +readily or universally conceded that a plentiful supply of fresh air +is of equal importance, and that the great aim and object of sewer +ventilation should be the introduction of atmospheric air for the +purpose of diluting and oxidizing the air of the sewers, and the +creation of a current to some exit, which shall, if possible, either +be above the roofs of the houses, or, still better, to some point +where the sewer gas can be cremated. The most recent contribution to +this subject, in direct opposition to these views, is to be found in +the address of Professor Attfield to the Hertfordshire Natural History +Society and Field Club, in which it is laid down that all that is +necessary is a vent at an elevation above the ground, and that, +therefore, the surface ventilators, or other openings for the +introduction of fresh air, are not only not necessary, but are, on the +contrary, injurious, even when acting as downcast shafts. + +These aims and objects are beset with difficulties, and the most +scientific minds of the country have failed so far to devise a method +of ventilation which shall at the same time be within the range of +practical application as regards cost and universally satisfactory. + +The report of last year of a committee of the metropolitan board of +works is worth attention, as showing the opinion of metropolitan +surveyors. Out of forty districts, the opinions of whose surveyors +were taken, thirty-five were in favor of open ventilation, two were +doubtful, two against, and one had no experience in this matter. The +average distances of the ventilators were from 30 to 200 yards, and +the committee came to the conclusion that "pipe ventilators of large +section can be used with great advantage in addition to, and not in +substitution for, surface ventilators." To supplement the street +openings as much as possible with vertical cast iron or other shafts +up the house sides would seem to be the first thing to do, for there +can be no doubt that the more this is done, the more perfect will be +the ventilation of the sewers. It must also not be forgotten that the +anxiety, of late years, of English sanitarians to protect each house +from the possible dangers of sewer gas from the street sewer has led +to a system of so-called disconnection of the house drains by a water +seal or siphon trap, and that, consequently, the soil pipes of the +houses, which, when carried through the roofs, acted as ventilators to +the public sewers, have been lost for this purpose, and thus the +difficulty of sewer ventilation has been greatly increased. + +In Leicester we have been fortunate enough to secure the co-operation +of factory owners, who have allowed us to connect no fewer than +fifty-two chimneys; while we have already carried out, at a cost of +about £1,250, 146 special shafts up the house sides, with a locked +opening upon a large number of them, by means of which we can test the +velocity of the current as well as the temperature of the outflowing +air. The connections with the high factory chimneys are all of too +small a caliber to be of great use, being generally only six inches, +with a few exceptionally of nine inches in diameter. + +The radius of effect of specially erected chimneys, as shown by the +experiments of Sir Joseph Bazalgette, and as experienced with the +special ventilating towers erected at Frankfurt, is disappointing and +discouraging when the cost is taken into consideration. It can not be +expected, however, that manufacturers will admit larger connections to +be made with their chimney; otherwise, of course, much more +satisfactory results would be obtained. To fall back upon special +shafts up the house sides means, in my opinion, that there should be +probably as many in number as are represented by the soil pipes of the +houses, for in this we have a tested example at Frankfurt, which, so +far as I know, has up to the present moment proved eminently +satisfactory. + +The distance apart of such shafts would largely depend on the size of +them, but as a rule it will be found that house owners object to large +pipes, in which case the number must be increased, and if we take a +distance of about 30 yards, we should require about 5,000 such shafts +in Leicester. Whether some artificial means of inducing currents in +sewers by drawing down fresh air from shafts above the eaves of the +houses, and sending forth the diluted sewer gas to still higher +levels, or burning it in an outcast shaft, will take the place of +natural ventilation, and prove to be less costly and more certain in +its action, remains to be seen. But it is quite certain that +notwithstanding the patents which have already been taken out and +failed, and those now before the public, there is still a wide field +of research before this question is satisfactorily solved, so that no +cause whatever shall remain of complaint on the part of the most +fastidious. + +One other important question common to all towns is that of the +collection and disposal of the ashes and refuse of the households. It +is one which is becoming daily more difficult to deal with, especially +in those large communities where the old privy and ashpit system has +not been entirely abolished. The removal of such ashes is at all times +a source of nuisance, and if they cannot be disposed of to the +agriculturists of the district, they become a source of difficulty. In +purely water-closeted towns the so-called dry ashpits cannot be kept +in such a condition as to be entirely free from nuisance, especially +in the summer months, inasmuch as the refuse of vegetable and animal +matter finds its way into them, and they are, in close and inhabited +districts, necessarily too close to the living apartments of the +dwellings. The tendency therefore now is rather to discourage the +establishment of ashpits by the substitution of ashbins, to be +collected daily or weekly as the case may be, and I think there can be +no doubt that from a sanitary point of view this is by far the best +system, harmonizing as it does with the general principle applicable +to town sanitation of removing all refuse, likely by decomposition to +become dangerous to health, as quickly as possible from the precincts +of human habitations. + +The difficulty of disposing of the ashes, mixed as they must +necessarily be with animal and vegetable matter, is one that is +forcing itself upon the attention of all town authorities, and the +days of the rich dust contractors of the metropolis are practically +numbered. Destruction by fire seems to be the ultimate end to be aimed +at, and in this respect several towns have led the way. But as this is +a subject which will be fully dealt with by a paper to be read during +the meeting, I will not anticipate the information which will be +brought before you, further than to say that the great end to be aimed +at in this method of disposing of the ashes and refuse of towns is +greater economy in cost of construction of destructors, as well as in +cost of working them. + +The progress in sanitation on the Continent, America, and the colonies +has not been coincident with the progress in England, but these +countries have largely benefited by the experience of the United +Kingdom, and in some respects their specialists take more extreme +views than those of this country in matters of detail. This is, +perhaps, more particularly the case with the Americans, who have +devised all sorts of exceptional details in connection with private +drainage, in order to protect the interior of the houses from sewer +gas, and to perfect its ventilation. In plumbing matters they seem +also to be very advanced, and to have established examinations for +plumbers and far-reaching regulations for house drainage. + +Time will not permit me to examine into the works of a sanitary +character which have been undertaken in the several countries after +the example of England, but they have been attended with similar +beneficial results and saving in life and sickness as in this country, +although the Continental towns which have led the way with such works +cannot as yet point to the low rates of mortality for large towns +which have been attained in England, with the exception of the German +towns of Carlsruhe, Frankfurt, Wiesbaden, and Stuttgart, which show +death rates of 20.55, 20.64, 22, and 21.4 respectively. The greatest +reduction of the mortality by the execution of proper sewerage and +water works took place in Danzig, on the Baltic, and Linz, on the +Danube, where after the execution of the works the mortality was +reduced by 7.85 and 10.17 per 1,000 respectively, and in the case of +Danzig this reduction is almost exclusively in zymotic diseases. +Berlin is also a remarkable example of the enterprise of German +sanitarians, for there they are demonstrating to the world the +practicability of dealing with the sewage from a population of over 1¼ +million upon 16,000 acres of land, of which about 10,000 acres are +already under irrigation. + +In taking this chair, it has been usual, when meetings have been held +out of London, for your president to give some account of the works of +his own town. In the present instance I feel that I can dispense with +this course, in so far as that I need not do more than generally +indicate what has been the course of events since I read to a largely +attended district meeting in May, 1884, a paper on "The Public Works +of Leicester." At that time large flood prevention works were in +course of construction, under an act obtained in 1881, for continuing +the river improvement works executed under previous acts. The works +then under contract extended from the North Mill Lock and the North +Bridge on the north to the West Bridge and Bramstone Gate Bridge on +the south, along the river and canal, and included bridges, weirs, +retaining walls, and some heavy underpinning works in connection with +the widening and deepening of the river and canal. These works were +duly completed, as well as a further length of works on the River Soar +up to what is known as the old grass weir, including the Braunstone +Gate Bridge, added to one of the then running contracts, at a total +cost, excluding land and compensation, of £77,000. At this point a +halt was made in consequence of the incompleteness of the negotiations +with the land owners on the upper reach of the river, and this, +together with various other circumstances, has contributed to greater +delay in again resuming the works. In the interval, a question of +whether there should be only one channel for both river and canal +instead of two, as authorized by the act, has necessarily added +considerably to the delay. But as that has now been settled in favor +of the original parliamentary scheme, the authority of the council has +been given to proceed with the whole of the works. + +One contract, now in progress, which members will have an opportunity +of inspecting, was let to Mr. Evans, of Birmingham, in March last, for +about £18,000. It consists of a stone and concrete weir, 500 feet in +length, with a lock of 7 feet 6 inches lift and large flood basins, +retaining and towing path walls, including a sunk weir parallel with +the Midland Railway viaduct. This contract is to be completed by March +next. The remainder of the works about to be entered upon include a +new canal and flood channel about 1,447 yards long, and the deepening +and widening of the River Soar for a length of about 920 yards, with +two or three bridges. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COTTON FIBER. + +By Dr. BOWMAN. + + +Every chemist knows that cotton is chiefly composed of cellulose, +C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}, with some other substances in smaller quantities. +This, although the usual opinion, is only true in a partial sense, as +the author found on investigating samples of cotton from various +sources. Thus, while mere cellulose contains carbon 44.44 per cent. +and hydrogen 6.173, he found in Surat cotton 7.6 per cent. of +hydrogen, in American cotton 6.3 per cent., and in Egyptian cotton 7.2 +per cent. The fact is that along with cellulose in ordinary cotton +there are a number of celluloid bodies derived from the inspissated +juices of the cotton plant. + +In order to gain information on this subject, the author has grown +cotton under glass, and analyzed it at various stages of its life +history. In the early stage of unripeness he has found an astringent +substance in the fiber. This substance disappears as the plant ripens, +and seems to closely resemble some forms of tannin. Doubtless the +presence of this body in cotton put upon the market in an unripe +condition may account for certain dark stains sometimes appearing in +the finished calicoes. The tannin matter forms dark stains with any +compound or salt of iron, and is a great bugbear to the manufacturer. +Some years ago there was quite a panic because of the prevalence of +these stains, and people in Yorkshire began to think the spinners were +using some new or inferior kind of oil. Dr. Bowman made inquiries, and +found that in Egypt during that year the season had been very foggy +and unfavorable to the ripening of the cotton, and it seemed probable +that these tannin-like matters were present in the fiber, and led to +the disastrous results. + +Although the hydrogen and oxygen present in pure cellulose are in the +same relative proportions as in water, they do not exist as water in +the compound. There is, however, in cotton a certain amount of water +present in a state of loose combination with the cellulose, and the +celluloid bodies previously referred to appear to contain water +similarly combined, but in greater proportion. Oxycellulose is another +body present in the cotton fiber. It is a triple cellulose, in which +four atoms of hydrogen are replaced by one atom of oxygen, and like +cellulose forms nitro compounds analogous to nitro glycerine. It is +probable that the presence of this oxycellulose has a marked influence +upon the behavior of cotton, especially with dye matters. The earthy +substances in cotton are also of importance. These are potassium +carbonate, chloride, and sulphate, with similar sodium salts, and +these vary in different samples of cotton, and possibly influence its +properties to some extent. Then there are oily matters in the young +fiber which, upon its ripening, become the waxy matter which Dr. +Schunk has investigated. Resin also is present, and having a high +melting point is not removed by the manipulative processes that cotton +is subjected to. When this is in excessive amount, it comes to the +surface of the goods after dyeing. + + * * * * * + + + + +SYNTHESIS OF STYROLENE. + + +MM. Vabet and Vienne, in a recent number of _Comptes Rendus_, state +that by passing a current of acetylene through 200 grammes of benzene +containing 50 grammes of aluminum chloride for 30 hours the oily +liquid remaining after removal of the unaltered aluminum chloride by +washing was found to yield, on fractional distillation, three distinct +products. The first, which came over between 143° and 145°, and which +amounted to 80 per cent. of the whole, consisted of pure cinnamene or +styrolene (C_{6}H_{5}.CH.CH_{2}), which is one of the principal +constituents of liquid storax, and was synthetized by M. Berthelot by +passing acetylene and benzene vapor through a tube heated to redness. +The second fraction, coming over at 265°-270°, consisted of diphenyl +ethane ((C_{6}H_{5})_{2} CH.CH_{3}); and the third fraction, boiling +at 280°-286°, was found to consist entirely of dibenzyl +(C_{6}H_{5}.CH_{2}.CH_{2}.C_{6}H_{5}), a solid substance isomeric with +diphenyl ethane. These syntheses afford another instance of the +singular action of aluminum chloride in attacking the benzene nucleus. + + * * * * * + + + + +NOTES ON SACCHARIN. + +By EDWARD D. GRAVILL, F.C.S., F.R.M.S. + + +Now that a supply of this reputed substitute for sugar has been placed +upon the London market, it will doubtless have attracted the attention +of many pharmacists, and as information having reference to its +characters and properties is as yet somewhat scarce, the following +notes may be of interest. + +The sample to which these notes refer represents, I believe, a portion +of the first supply that has been offered to us as a commercial +article, and may therefore be taken to represent the same as it at +present occurs in commerce. I think it desirable to call attention to +this fact, because of the wide difference I have seen in other samples +obtained, I think, by special request some weeks ago, and which do not +favorably correspond with the sample under consideration, being much +more highly colored, and in comparison having a very strong odor. +Saccharin now occurs as a very pale yellow, nearly white, amorphous +powder, free from grittiness, but giving a distinct sensation of +roughness when rubbed between the fingers. It is not entirely free +from odor, but this is very slight, and not at all objectionable, +reminding one of a very slight flavor of essential oils of almonds. +Its taste is intensely sweet and persistent, which in the raw state is +followed by a slight harshness upon the tongue and palate. The +sweetness is very distinct when diluted to 1 in 10,000. Under the +microscope it presents no definite form of crystallization. + +A temperature of 100° C, even if continued for some time, has no +perceptible effect upon saccharin; it loses no weight, and undergoes +no physical change. It fuses at a temperature of from 118° to 120° C., +and at 150° C. forms a clear light yellow liquid, which boils a few +degrees higher. At the latter temperature dense white fumes appear, +and a condensation of tufts of acicular crystals (some well defined) +is found upon the cool surface of the apparatus. These crystals, +except for a slight sweetness of taste, correspond in characters and +tests to benzoic acid. The sweet flavor, I think, may be due to the +presence of a very small quantity of undecomposed saccharin, carried +mechanically with the fumes. The escaping vapors, which are very +irritable, and give a more decided odor of hydride of benzole than the +powder itself, also communicate a very distinct sensation of sweetness +to the back part of the palate. Heated over the flame, with free +access of air, saccharin carbonizes and burns with a dull yellow smoky +flame, leaving a residue amounting to 0.65 per cent. of sodium salts. +It does not reduce an alkaline copper solution, but, like glycerine, +liberates boracic acid from borax, the latter salt dissolving +saccharin readily in aqueous solution, due no doubt to a displacement +of the boracic acid. + +The strong acids, either hot or cold, show no characteristic color +reaction; the compound enters solution at the boiling point of the +acid, and in the case of hydrochloric shows a white granular +separation on cooling. Sulphuric acid develops an uncharacteristic +light brown color. + +The compound, like most of the organic acids, shows a characteristic +reaction with ferro and ferrid cyanide of potassium. In the former +case no change is perceptible until boiled when a greenish white +turbidity appears, with the liberation of small quantities of +hydrocyanic acid. In the latter case a trace also of this acid is set +free, with the formation of a very distinct green solution, the latter +reaction being very perceptible with a few drops of a 1 in 1,000 +solution of saccharin in water. Heated with lime, very distinct odors +of benzoic aldehyde are developed. + +Saccharin possesses very decided acid properties, and combines readily +with alkalies or alkaline carbonates, forming anhydro-ortho +sulphamine-benzoates of the same, in the latter case at the expense of +the carbonic anhydride, causing strong effervescence. These +combinations are very soluble in water, the alkaline carbonate thus +forming a ready medium for the solution of this acid, which alone is +so sparingly soluble. Another advantage of some importance is that, +while the harshness of flavor perceptible in a simple solution of the +acid is destroyed, the great sweetness appears to be distinctly +intensified and refined. + +The following shows the solubility of saccharin in the various liquids +quoted, all, with the exception of the boiling water, being taken at +60° F.: + + Boiling water 0.60 parts per 100 by volume. + Cold water 0.20 " " " + Alcohol 0.800 4.25 " " " + Rectified spirit 0.838 3.20 " " " + Ether 0.717 1.00 " " " + Chloroform 1.49 0.20 " " " + Benzene 0.40 " " " + Petroleum ether insoluble. + +It is also sparingly soluble in glycerin and fixed oils, and to a +greater or less extent in volatile oils. Benzoic aldehyde dissolves +saccharin in large quantities. + +I was somewhat disappointed at the slight solubility of saccharin in +ether, as it has been repeatedly stated to be very soluble in that +liquid. + +The quantity of saccharin required to communicate an agreeable degree +of sweetness, like sugar, differs with the material to be sweetened; +but from half to one and half grains, according to taste, will be +found sufficient for an ordinary breakfast cup full of tea or coffee +infusion.--_Pharm. Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ALCOHOL AND TURPENTINE. + + +In a paper entitled "The Oxidation of Ethyl Alcohol in the Presence of +Turpentine," communicated to the Chemical Society by Mr. C.E. +Steedman, Williamstown, Victoria, the author states that dilute ethyl +alcohol in the presence of air and turpentine becomes oxidized to +acetic acid. He placed in a clear glass 16 oz. bottle a mixture of 2 +drachms of alcohol, 1 drachm of turpentine, and 1 oz. of water. The +bottle was securely corked and left exposed to a varying temperature +averaging about 80° F. for three months. At the end of that time the +liquid was strongly acid from the presence of acetic acid. One curious +fact appears to have light thrown upon it by this observation. + +Mr. McAlpine, Professor of Biology at Ormond College, Melbourne +University, has a method of preserving biological specimens by +abstracting their moisture with alcohol after hardening in chromic +acid, and then placing the specimen in turpentine for some time; great +discrepancies arise, however, according as the alcohol is allowed or +not to evaporate from the specimen before dipping it into turpentine. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION. + +$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts. + +This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued +monthly--on the first day of the month. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 620, November 19,1887 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July 24, 2005 [EBook #16354] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="center"><a name="Page_9895" id="Page_9895"></a><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt="Issue Title" /></a></p> +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 620</h1> +<h2>NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 19, 1887</h2> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIV., No. 620.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> +<hr /> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> +<tr><td valign="top" align="left">I.</td><td align="left"><a href="#art01">ARCHITECTURE—Bristol Cathedral—The history and description of + this ancient building, with large illustration.—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9904</td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top" align="left">II.</td><td align="left"><a href="#art02">BIOGRAPHY—Oliver Evans and the Steam Engine.—The work of this + early pioneer, hitherto but slightly recognized at his true + worth as an inventor.</a></td><td>9896</td></tr> +<tr><td valign="top" align="left">III.</td><td align="left"><a href="#art03">CHEMISTRY—The Chemistry of the Cotton Fiber—By Dr. BOWMAN—An + interesting investigation, showing the variation in composition + in different cottons.</a></td><td>9909</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art04">Synthesis of Styrolene.</a></td><td>9910</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art05">Notes on Saccharin.</a></td><td>9910</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art06">Alcohol and Turpentine.</a></td><td>9910</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="left">IV.</td><td align="left"><a href="#art07">ENGINEERING—Auguste's Endless Stone Saw—A valuable improvement, + introducing the principle of the band saw, and producing a + horizontal cut—10 illustrations.</a></td><td>9896</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="left">V.</td><td align="left"><a href="#art08">ELECTRICITY.—A Current Meter—The Jehl & Rupp meter for + electricity described—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9903</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art09">Mix & Genest's Microphone Telephone—The new telephone recently + adopted by the imperial post office department of Germany—3 + illustrations.</a></td><td>9902</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art10">Storage Batteries for Electric Locomotion—By A. RECKENZAUN—A + valuable paper on this subject, giving historical facts and + working figures of expense, etc.</a></td><td>9903</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art11">The Telemeter System—By R.F. UPTON—The system of Ö.L. Clarke, + of New York, as described before the British Association—A + valuable tribute to an American inventor—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9900</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="left">VI.</td><td align="left"><a href="#art12">METALLURGY.—The Newbery-Vautin Chlorination Process—A new + process of extracting gold from its ores, with details of the + management of the process and apparatus—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9907</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="left">VII.</td><td align="left"><a href="#art13">MISCELLANEOUS.—A Gigantic Load of Lumber—The largest barge + load of lumber ever shipped—The barge Wahnapitæ and her + appearance as loaded at Duluth—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9907</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art14">Apparatus for Exercising the Muscles—An appliance for use by + invalids requiring to exercise atrophied limbs—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9908</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art15">Practical Education.—A plea for the support of manual training + schools.</a></td><td>9906</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art16">Waves—The subject of ocean waves fully treated—An interesting + <i>resume</i> of our present knowledge of this phenomenon of + fluids.</a></td><td>9906</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="left">VIII.</td><td align="left"><a href="#art17">NAVAL ENGINEERING—The New Spanish Armored Cruiser Reina Regente. + —Illustration and full description of this recent addition + to the Spanish navy.—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9895</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art18">The Spanish Torpedo Boat Azor—Illustration and note of speed, + etc., of this new vessel—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9895</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="left">IX.</td><td align="left"><a href="#art19">OPHTHALMOLOGY—The Bull Optometer—An apparatus for testing + the eyesight.—The invention of Dr George J. Bull.—3 + illustrations.</a></td><td>9908</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="left">X.</td><td align="left"><a href="#art20">SANITATION AND HYGIENE—The Sanitation of Towns—By J. GORDON, + C.E.—A presidential address before the Leicester meeting of + the Society of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors + of England.</a></td><td>9909</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" align="left">XI.</td><td align="left"><a href="#art21">TECHNOLOGY—A New Monster Revolving Black Ash Furnace and the + Work Done with It—By WATSON SMITH—The great furnace of the + Widnes Alkali Company described, with results and features of + its working—4 illustrations.</a></td><td>9900</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art22">Apparatus Used for Making Alcohol for Hospital Use during the + Civil War between the States—By CHARLES K. GALLAGHER—A curiosity + of war times described and illustrated.—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9900</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art23">Confederate Apparatus for Manufacturing Saltpeter for Ammunition + —By CHARLES K. GALLAGHER—Primitive process for extracting + saltpeter from earth and other material—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9900</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art24">Electrolysis and Refining of Sugar—A method of bleaching sugar + said to be due to ozone produced by electric currents acting on + the solution—1 illustration.</a></td><td>9903</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art25">Improvements in the Manufacture of Portland Cement—By FREDERICK + RANSOME, A.I.C.E.—An important paper recently read before the + British Association, giving the last and most advanced methods + of manufacture.</a></td><td>9901</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art26">Roburite, the New Explosive—Practical tests of this substance, + with special application to coal mining.</a></td><td>9897</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><a href="#art27">The Mechanical Reeling of Silk.—An advanced method of treating + silk cocoons, designed to dispense with the old hand winding of + the raw silk.—3 illustrations.</a></td><td>9898</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr /> + + + + +<h2><a name="Page_9896" id="Page_9896"></a><a name="art18" id="art18"></a>THE SPANISH TORPEDO BOAT AZOR.</h2> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/1a.png"><img src="./images/1a_th.png" alt=" THE SPANISH TORPEDO BOAT AZOR." /></a><br /> THE SPANISH TORPEDO BOAT AZOR.</p> + +<p>The Azor was built by Yarrow & Co., London, is of the larger class, +having a displacement of 120 tons, and is one of the fastest boats +afloat. Her speed is 24½ miles per hour. She has two tubes for +launching torpedoes and three rapid firing Nordenfelt guns. She lately +arrived in Santander, Spain, after the very rapid passage of forty +hours from England.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>THE NEW SPANISH ARMORED CRUISER REINA REGENTE.</h2> + + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/1b.png"><img src="./images/1b_th.png" alt=" THE NEW SPANISH ARMORED CRUISER REINA REGENTE." /></a><br /> THE NEW SPANISH ARMORED CRUISER REINA REGENTE.</p> + +<p>The new armored cruiser Reina Regente, which has been built and +engined by Messrs. James & George Thomson, of Clydebank, for the +Spanish government, has recently completed her official speed trials +on the Clyde, the results attained being sufficient to justify the +statement made on her behalf that she is the fastest war cruiser in +the world. She is a vessel of considerable size, the following being +her measurements: Length over all, 330 ft., and 307 ft. between +perpendiculars; breadth, 50½ ft.; and her draught is 20 ft., giving a +displacement of 5,000 tons, which will be increased to 5,600 tons when +she is fully equipped.</p> + +<p>This vessel belongs to the internally protected type of war cruisers, +a type of recent origin, and of which she is the largest example yet +built. The internal protection includes an armored deck which consists +of steel plates ranging from 3-1/8 in. in thickness in the flat center +to 4¾ in. at the sloping sides of the deck. This protective deck +covers the "vitals" of the ship, the machinery, boilers, etc. Then +there is a very minute subdivision in the hull of the ship, there +being, in all, 156 water-tight compartments, 83 of which are between +the armored deck and the one immediately above it, or between wind and +water. Most of these compartments are used as coal bunkers. Of the +remainder of the water-tight compartments, 60 are beneath the armor. +Throughout her whole length the Reina Regente has a double bottom, +which also extends from side to side of the ship. In order to keep the +vessel as free of water as possible, there have been fitted on board +four 14 in. centrifugal pumps, all of which are connected to a main +pipe running right fore and aft in the ship, and into which branches +are received from every compartment. These pumps are of the "Bon +Accord" type, and were supplied by Messrs. Drysdale & Co., Glasgow.</p> + +<p>Not being weighted by massive external armor, the Reina Regente is +unusually light in proportion to her bulk, and in consequence it has +been rendered possible to supply her with engines of extraordinary +power. They are of the horizontal triple expansion type, driving twin +screws, and placed in separate water-tight compartments. The boilers, +four in number, are also in separate compartments. Well above the +water line there are two auxiliary boilers, which were supplied by +Messrs. Merryweather, London, and are intended for raising steam +rapidly in cases of emergency. These boilers are connected with all +the auxiliary engines of the ship, numbering no fewer than +forty-three.</p> + +<p>The engines have been designed to indicate 12,000 horse power, and on +the trial, when they were making 110 revolutions per minute, they +indicated considerably upward of 11,000 horse power, the bearings all +the while keeping wonderfully cool, and the temperature of the engine +and boiler rooms being never excessive. The boilers are fitted with a +forced draught arrangement giving a pressure of 1 in. of water. In the +official run she attained a speed equal to 21 knots (over 24 miles) +per hour, and over a period of four hours an average speed of 20.72 +knots per hour was developed, without the full power of the engines +being attained. The average steam pressure in the boilers was 140 lb. +per square inch. In the course of some private trials made by the +builders, the consumption of coal was tested, with the result that +while the vessel was going at a moderate speed the very low +consumption of 14 lb. of coal per indicated horse power per hour was +reached. The vessel is capable of steaming 6,000 knots when there is a +normal supply of coal in her bunkers, and when they are full there is +sufficient to enable her to steam 13,000 knots.</p> + +<p>The Reina Regente will be manned by 50 officers and a crew of 350 men, +all of whom will have their quarters on the main deck. Among her +fittings and equipment there are three steam lifeboats and eight other +boats, five of Sir William Thomson's patent compasses, and a complete +electric light installation, the latter including two powerful search +lights, which are placed on the bridge. All parts of the vessel are in +communication by means of speaking tubes. In order to enable the +vessel to turn speedily, she is fitted with the sternway rudder of +Messrs. Thomson & Biles. This contrivance is a combination of a +partially balanced rudder with a rudder formed as a continuation of +the after lines of a ship. The partial balance tends to reduce the +strains on the steering gear, and thereby enables the rudder area to +be increased without unduly straining the gear.</p> + +<p>When fitted out for actual service, this novel war cruiser will have a +most formidable armament, consisting of four 24 centimeter Hontorio +guns (each of 21 tons), six 12 centimeter guns (also of the Hontorio +type), six 6 pounder Nordenfelt guns, fourteen small guns, and five +torpedo tubes—one at the stern, two amidships, and two at the bow of +the ship.</p> + +<p>It is worthy of note that this war cruiser was constructed in fifteen +months, or three months under the stipulated contract time; in fact, +the official trial of the vessel took place exactly eighteen months +from the signing of the contract. Not only is this the fastest war +cruiser afloat, but her owners also possess in the El Destructor what +is probably the simplest torpedo catcher afloat, a vessel which has +attained a speed of 22½ knots, or over 26 miles, per +hour.—<i>Engineering.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>OLIVER EVANS AND THE STEAM ENGINE.</h2> + +<p>A correspondent of the New York <i>Times</i>, deeming that far too much +credit has been given to foreigners for the practical development of +the steam engine, contributes the following interesting <i>resume</i>:</p> + +<p>Of all the inventions of ancient or modern times none have more +importantly and beneficently influenced the affairs of mankind than +the double acting high pressure steam engine, the locomotive, the +steam railway system, and the steamboat, all of which inventions are +of American origin. The first three are directly and the last +indirectly associated with a patent that was granted by the State of +Maryland, in 1787, being the very year of the framing of the +Constitution of the United States. In view of the momentous nature of +the services which these four inventions have rendered to the material +and national interests of the people of the United States, it is to be +hoped that neither they nor their origin will be forgotten in the +coming celebration of the centennial of the framing of the +Constitution.</p> + +<p>The high pressure steam engine in its stationary form is almost +ubiquitous in America. In all great iron and steel works, in all +factories, in all plants for lighting cities with electricity, in +brief, wherever in the United States great power in compact form is +wanted, there will be found the high pressure steam engine furnishing +all the power that is required, and more, too, if more is demanded, +because it appears to be equal to every human requisition. But go +beyond America. Go to Great Britain, and the American steam +engine—although it is not termed American in Great Britain—will be +found fast superseding the English engine—in other words, James +Watt's condensing engine. It is the same the world over. On all the +earth there is not a steam locomotive that could turn a wheel but for +the fact that, in common with every locomotive from the earliest +introduction of that invention, it is simply the American steam engine +put on wheels, and it was first put on wheels by its American +inventor, Oliver Evans, being the same Oliver Evans to whom the State +of Maryland granted the before mentioned patent of 1787.</p> + +<p>He is the same Oliver Evans whom Elijah Galloway, the British writer +on the steam engine, compared with James Watt as to the authorship of +the locomotive, or rather "steam carriage," as the locomotive was in +those days termed. After showing the unfitness of Mr. Watt's low +pressure steam engine for locomotive purposes, Mr. Galloway, more than +fifty years ago, wrote: "We have made these remarks in this place in +order to set at rest the title of Mr. Watt to the invention of steam +carriages. And, taking for our rule that the party who first attempted +them in practice by mechanical arrangements of his own is entitled to +the reputation of being their inventor, Mr. Oliver Evans, of America, +appears to us to be the person to whom that honor is due." He is the +same Oliver Evans whom the <i>Mechanics' Magazine</i>, of London, the +leading journal of its kind at that period, had in mind when, in its +number of September, 1830, it published the official report of the +competitive trial between the steam carriages Rocket, San Pariel, +Novelty, and others on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.</p> + +<p>In that trial the company's engines developed about 15 miles in an +hour, and spurts of still higher speed. The <i>Magazine</i> points to the +results of the trial, and then, under the heading of "The First +Projector of Steam Traveling," it declares that all that had been +accomplished had been anticipated and its feasibility practically +exemplified over a quarter of a century before by Oliver Evans, an +American citizen. The <i>Magazine</i> showed that many years before the +trial Mr. Evans had offered to furnish steam carriages that, on level +railways, should run at the rate of 300 miles in a day, or he would +not ask pay therefor. The writer will state that this offer by Mr. +Evans was made in November, 1812, at which date not a British steam +carriage had yet accomplished seven miles in an hour.</p> + +<p>In 1809 Mr. Evans endeavored to establish a steam railway both for +freight and passenger traffic between New York and Philadelphia, +offering to invest $500 per mile in the enterprise. At the date of his +effort there was not a railway in the world over ten miles long, nor +does there appear to have been another human being who up to that date +had entertained even the thought of a steam railway for passenger and +freight traffic. In view of all this, is it at all surprising that the +British <i>Mechanics' Magazine</i> declared Oliver Evans, an American, to +be the first projector of steam railway traveling? In 1804 Mr. Evans +made a most noteworthy demonstration, his object being to practically +exemplify that locomotion could be imparted by his high pressure steam +engine to both carriages and boats, and the reader will see that the +date of the demonstration was three years before Fulton moved a boat +by means of Watt's low pressure steam engine. The machine used +involved the original double acting high pressure steam engine, the +original steam locomotive, and the original high pressure steamboat. +The whole mass weighed over twenty tons.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding there was no railway, except a temporary one laid over +a slough in the path, Mr. Evans' engine moved this great weight with +ease from the southeast corner of Ninth and Market streets, in the +city of Philadelphia, one and a half miles, to the River Schuylkill. +There the machine was launched into the river, and the land wheels +being taken off and a paddle wheel attached to the stern and connected +with the engine, the now steamboat sped away down the river until it +emptied into the Delaware, whence it turned upward until it reached +Philadelphia. Although this strange craft was square both at bow and +stern, it nevertheless passed all the up-bound ships and other sailing +vessels in the river, the wind being to them ahead. The writer repeats +that this thorough demonstration by Oliver Evans of the possibility of +navigation by steam was made three years before Fulton. But for more +than a quarter of a century prior to this demonstration Mr. Evans had +time and again asserted that vessels could be thus navigated. He did +not contend with John Fitch, but on the contrary tried to aid him and +advised him to use other means than oars to propel his boat. But Fitch +was wedded to his own methods. In 1805 Mr. Evans published a book on +the steam engine, mainly devoted to his form thereof. In this book he +gives directions how to propel boats by means of his engine against +the current of the Mississippi. Prior to this publication he +associated himself with some citizens of Kentucky—one of whom was the +grandfather of the present Gen. Chauncey McKeever, United States +Army—the purpose being to build a steamboat to run on the +Mississippi. The boat was actually built in Kentucky and floated to +New Orleans. The engine was actually built in Philadelphia by Mr. +Evans and sent to New Orleans, but before the engine arrived out the +boat was destroyed by fire or hurricane. The engine was then put to +sawing timber, and it operated so successfully that Mr. Stackhouse, +the engineer who went out with it, reported on his return from the +South that for the 13 months prior to his leaving the engine had been +constantly at work, not having lost a single day!</p> + +<p>The reader can thus see the high stage of efficiency which Oliver +Evans had imparted to his engine full 80 years ago. On this point Dr. +Ernst Alban, the German writer on the steam engine, when speaking of +the high pressure steam engine, writes: "Indeed, to such perfection +did he [Evans] bring it, that Trevithick and Vivian, who came after +him, followed but clumsily in his wake, and do not deserve the title +of either inventors or improvers of the high pressure engine, which +the English are so anxious to award to them.... When it is considered +under what unfavorable circumstances Oliver Evans worked, his merit +must be much enhanced; and all attempts made to lessen his fame only +show that he is neither understood nor equaled by his detractors."</p> + +<p>The writer has already shown that there are bright exceptions to this +general charge brought by Dr. Alban against British writers, but the +overwhelming mass of them have acted more like envious children than +like men when speaking of the authorship of the double acting high +pressure steam engine, the locomotive, and the steam railway system. +Speaking of this class of British writers, Prof. Renwick, when +alluding to their treatment of Oliver Evans, writes: "Conflicting +national pride comes in aid of individual jealousy, and the writers of +one nation often claim for their own vain and inefficient projectors +the honors due to the successful enterprise of a foreigner." Many of +these writers totally ignore the very existence of Oliver Evans, and +all of them attribute to Trevithick and Vivian the authorship of the +high pressure steam engine and the locomotive. Yet, when doing so, all +of them substantially acknowledge the American origin of both +inventions, because it is morally certain that Trevithick and Vivian +got possession of the plans and specifications of his engine. Oliver +Evans sent them to England in 1794-5 by Mr. Joseph Stacy Sampson, of +Boston, with the hope that some British engineer would approve and +conjointly with him take out patents for the inventions. Mr. Sampson +died in England, but not until after he had extensively exhibited Mr. +Evans' plans, apparently, however, without success. After Mr. +Sampson's death Trevithick and Vivian took out a patent for a high +pressure steam engine. This could happen and yet the invention be +original with them.</p> + +<p>But they introduced into Cornwall a form of boiler hitherto unknown in +Great Britain, namely, the cylindrical flue boiler, which Oliver Evans +had invented and used in America years before the names of Trevithick +and Vivian were associated with the steam engine. Hence, they were +charged over fifty years ago with having stolen the invention of Mr. +Evans, and the charge has never been refuted. Hence when British +writers ignore the just claims of Oliver Evans and assert for +Trevithick and Vivian the authorship of the high pressure steam engine +and the locomotive, they thereby substantially acknowledge the +American origin of both inventions. They are not only of American +origin, but their author, although born in 1755, was nevertheless an +American of the second generation, seeing that he was descended from +the Rev. Dr. Evans Evans, who in the earlier days of the colony of +Pennsylvania came out to take charge of the affairs of the Episcopal +Church in Pennsylvania.</p> + +<p>The writer has thus shown that with the patent granted by the State of +Maryland to Oliver Evans in 1787 were associated—first, the double +acting high pressure steam engine, which to-day is the standard steam +engine of the world; second, the locomotive, that is in worldwide use; +third, the steam railway system, which pervades the world; fourth, the +high pressure steamboat, which term embraces all the great ocean +steamships that are actuated by the compound steam engine, as well as +all the steamships on the Mississippi and its branches.</p> + +<p>The time and opportunity has now arrived to assert before all the +world the American origin of these universally beneficent inventions. +Such a demonstration should be made, if only for the instruction of +the rising generation. Not a school book has fallen into the hands of +the writer that correctly sets forth the origin of the subject matter +of this paper. He apprehends that it is the same with the books used +in colleges and universities, for otherwise how could that parody on +the history of the locomotive, called "The Life of George Stephenson, +Railway Engineer," by Samuel Smiles, have met such unbounded success? +To the amazement of the writer, a learned professor in one of the most +important institutions of learning in the country did, in a lecture, +quote Smiles as authority on a point bearing on the history of the +locomotive! It is true that he made amends by adding, when his lecture +was published, a counter statement; but that such a man should have +seriously cited such a work shows the widespread mischief done among +people not versed in engineering lore by the admirably written romance +of Smiles, who as Edward C. Knight, in his Mechanical Dictionary, +truly declares, has "pettifogged the whole case." If, as Prof. Renwick +intimates, "conflicting national pride" has led the major part of +British writers to suppress the truth as to the origin of the high +pressure steam engine, the locomotive, and the steam railway system, +surely true national pride should induce the countrymen of Oliver +Evans to assert it. In closing this paper the writer will say, for the +information of the so-called "practical" men of the country, or, in +other words, those men whose judgment of an invention is mainly guided +by its money value, that Poor's Manual of Railroads in the United +States for 1886 puts their capital stock and their debts at over +$8,162,000,000. The value of the steamships and steamboats actuated by +the high pressure steam engine the writer has no means of +ascertaining. Neither can he appraise the factories and other plants +in the United States—to say nothing of the rest of the world—in +which the high pressure steam engine forms the motive power.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a>AUGUSTE'S ENDLESS STONE SAW.</h2> + +<p>It does not seem as if the band or endless saw should render the same +services in sawing stone as in working wood and metals, for the +reason that quite a great stress is necessary to cause the advance of +the stone (which is in most cases very heavy) against the blade. Mr. +A. Auguste, however, has not stopped at such a consideration, or, +better, he has got round the difficulty by holding the block +stationary and making the blade act horizontally. Fig. 1 gives a +general view of the apparatus; Fig. 2 gives a plan view; Fig. 3 is a +<a name="Page_9897" id="Page_9897"></a>transverse section; Fig. 4 is an end view; Figs. 5, 6, and 7 show +details of the water and sand distributer; and Figs. 8, 9, and 10 show +the pulleys arranged for obtaining several slabs at once.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/3a.png"><img src="./images/3a_th.png" alt=" FIG. 1 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW." /></a><br /> FIG. 1 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/3b.png"><img src="./images/3b_th.png" alt=" FIG. 2 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW." /></a><br /> FIG. 2 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/3c.png"><img src="./images/3c_th.png" alt=" FIGS. 3 and 4 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW." /></a><br /> FIGS. 3 and 4 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/3d.png"><img src="./images/3d_th.png" alt=" FIGS. 5 through 10 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW." /></a><br /> FIGS. 5 through 10 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW.</p> + +<p>The machine is wholly of cast iron. The frame consists of four +columns, A, bolted to a rectangular bed plate, A', and connected above +by a frame, B, that forms a table for the support of the transmission +pieces, as well as the iron ladders, <i>a</i>, and the platform, <i>b</i>, that +supports the water reservoirs, C, and sand receptacles, C'.</p> + +<p>Between the two columns at the ends of the machine there are two +crosspieces, D and D', so arranged that they can move vertically, like +carriages. These pieces carry the axles of the pulleys, P and P', +around which the band saw, S, passes. In the center of the bed plate, +A', which is cast in two pieces connected by bolts, there are ties to +which are screwed iron rails, <i>e</i>, which form a railway over which the +platform car, E, carrying the stone is made to advance beneath the +saw.</p> + +<p>The saw consists of an endless band of steel, either smooth or +provided with teeth that are spaced according to the nature of the +material to be worked. It passes around the pulleys, P and P', which +are each encircled by a wide and stout band of rubber to cause the +blade to adhere, and which are likewise provided with two flanges. Of +the latter, the upper one is cast in a piece with the pulley, and the +lower one is formed of sections of a circle connected by screws. The +pulley, P, is fast, and carries along the saw; the other, P', is +loose, and its hub is provided with a bronze socket (Figs. 1 and 4). +It is through this second pulley that the blade is given the desired +tension, and to this effect its axle is forged with a small disk +adjusted in a frame and traversed by a screw, <i>d'</i>, which is +maneuvered through a hand wheel. The extremities of the crosspieces, D +and D', are provided with brass sockets through which the pieces slide +up and down the columns, with slight friction, under the action of the +vertical screws, <i>g</i> and <i>g'</i>, within the columns.</p> + +<p>A rotary motion is communicated to the four screws simultaneously by +the transmission arranged upon the frame. To this effect, the pulley, +P, which receives the motion and transmits it to the saw, has its +axle, <i>f</i>, prolonged, and grooved throughout its length in order that +it may always be carried along, whatever be the place it occupies, by +the hollow shaft, F, which is provided at the upper extremity with a +bevel wheel and two keys placed at the level of the bronze collars of +its support, G. The slider, D, is cast in a piece with the pillow +block that supports the shaft, <i>f</i>, and the bronze bushing of this +pillow block is arranged to receive a shoulder and an annular +projection, both forged with the shaft and designed to carry it, as +well as the pulley, P, keyed to its extremity. Now the latter, by its +weight, exerts a pressure which determines a sensible friction upon +the bushing through this shoulder and projection, and, in order to +diminish the same, the bushing is continuously moistened with a +solution of soap and water through the pipe, <i>g</i>, which runs from the +reservoir, G'.</p> + +<p>The saw is kept from deviating from its course by movable guides +placed on the sliders, D and D'. These guides, H and H', each consist +of a cast iron box fixed by a nut to the extremity of the arms, <i>h</i> +and <i>h'</i>, and coupled by crosspieces, <i>j</i> and <i>j'</i>, which keep them +apart and give the guides the necessary rigidity.</p> + +<p>The shaft, <i>m</i>, mounted in pillow blocks fixed to the left extremity +of the frame, receives motion from the motor through the pulley, <i>p</i>, +at the side of which is mounted the loose pulley, <i>p</i>. This motion is +transmitted by the drum, M, and the pulley, L, to the shaft, <i>l</i>, at +the other extremity. This latter is provided with a pinion, <i>l'</i>, +which, through the wheel, F', gives motion to the saw. The shaft, <i>m</i>, +likewise controls the upward or downward motion of the saw through the +small drums, N and <i>n</i>, and the two pairs of fast and loose pulleys, +N' and <i>n'</i>. This shaft, too, transmits motion (a very slow one) to +the four screws, <i>g</i> and <i>g'</i>, in the interior of the columns, and the +nuts of which are affixed to the sliders, D and D'. To this effect, +the shaft, <i>q</i>, is provided at its extremities with endless screws +that gear with two wheels, <i>q</i>', with helicoidal teeth fixed near the +middle of two parallel axes, <i>r</i>, running above the table, B, and +terminating in bevel wheels, <i>r'</i>, that engage with similar wheels +fixed at the end of the screws, <i>g</i> and <i>g'</i>.</p> + +<p>The car that carries the block to the saw consists of a strong frame, +E, mounted upon four wheels. This frame is provided with a pivot and a +circular track for the reception of the cast iron platform, E', which +rests thereon through the intermedium of rollers. Between the +rails, <i>e</i>, and parallel with them, are fixed two strong screws, <i>e'</i>, +held by supports that raise them to the bottom of the car frame, so +that they can be affixed thereto. When once the car is fastened in +this way, the screws are revolved by means of winches, and the block +is thus made to advance or recede a sufficient distance to make the +lines marked on its surface come exactly opposite the saw blade.</p> + +<p>In sawing hard stones, it is necessary, as well known, to keep up a +flow of water and fine sand upon the blade in order to increase its +friction. Upon two platforms, <i>b</i>, at the extremities of the machine, +are fixed the water reservoir, C, and the receptacles, C', containing +fine sand or dry pulverized grit stone. As may be seen from Figs. 5 +and 6, the bottom of the sand box, C', is conical and terminates in a +hopper, T, beneath which is adjusted a slide valve, <i>t</i>, connected +with a screw that carries a pulley, T'. By means of this valve, the +bottom of the hopper may be opened or closed in such a way as to +regulate the flow of the sand at will by acting upon the pulley, T', +through a chain, <i>t'</i>, passing over the guide pulley, <i>t²</i>. A rubber +tube, <i>u</i>, which starts from the hopper, runs into a metal pipe, U, +that descends to the guide, H, with which it is connected by a collar. +Under the latter, this pipe terminates in a sphere containing a small +aperture to allow the sand to escape upon an inclined board provided +with a flange. At the same time, through the rubber tube, <i>c</i>, coming +from the reservoir, C, a stream of water is directed upon the board in +order to wet the sand.</p> + +<p>As the apparatus with but a single endless saw makes but two kerfs at +once, Mr. Auguste has devised an arrangement by means of which several +blades may be used, and the work thus be expedited.</p> + +<p>Without changing the general arrangements, he replaces the pulleys, P +and P', by two half drums, V and V' (Figs. 8, 9, and 10), which are +each cast in a piece with the crosspieces, D² and D³, designed to +replace D and D', and, like them, sliding up and down the columns, A, +of the frame. Motion is transmitted to all the saw blades by a cog +wheel, X, keyed to the vertical shaft, <i>f</i>, and gearing with small +pinions, <i>x</i>, which are equally distant all around, and which +themselves gear with similar pinions forming the radii of a succession +of circles concentric with the first. All these pinions are mounted +upon axles traversing bronze bearings within the drum, which, to this +effect, is provided with slots. The axles of the pinions are prolonged +in order to receive rollers, <i>x'</i>, surrounded with rubber so as to +facilitate, through friction, the motion of all the blades running +between them.</p> + +<p>The other drum, V', is arranged in the same way, except that it is not +cast in a piece with the carriage, D³, but is so adjusted to it that +a tension may be exerted upon the blades by means of the screw, <i>d</i>, +and its hand wheel.</p> + +<p>Through this combination, all the blades are carried along at once in +opposite directions and at the same speed.—<i>Publication +Industrielle.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art26" id="art26"></a>ROBURITE, THE NEW EXPLOSIVE.</h2> + +<p>A series of experiments of great interest and vital importance to +colliery owners and all those engaged in mining coal has been carried +out during the last ten days in the South Yorkshire coal field. The +new mines regulation act provides that any explosible used in coal +mines shall either be fired in a water cartridge or be of such a +nature that it cannot inflame firedamp. This indeed is the problem +which has puzzled many able chemists during the last few years, and +which Dr. Roth, of Berlin, claims to have solved with his explosive +"roburite." We recently gave a detailed account of trials carried out +at the School of Military Engineering, Chatham, to test the safety and +strength of roburite, as compared with gun cotton, dynamite, and +blasting gelatine. The results were conclusive of the great power of +the new explosive, and so far fully confirmed the reports of the able +mining engineer and the chemical experts who had been sent to Germany +to make full inquiries. These gentlemen had ample opportunity of +seeing roburite used in the coal mines of Westphalia, and it was +mainly upon their testimony that the patents for the British empire +were acquired by the Roburite Explosive Company.</p> + +<p>It has, however, been deemed advisable to give practical proof to +those who would have to use it, that roburite possesses all the high +qualities claimed for it, and hence separate and independent trials +have been arranged in such representative collieries as the +Wharncliffe Silkstone, near Sheffield, Monk Bretton, near Barnsley, +and, further north, in the Durham coal field, at Lord Londonderry's +Seaham and Silksworth collieries. Mr. G.B. Walker, resident manager of +the Wharncliffe Colliery Company, had gone to Germany as an +independent observer—provided with a letter of introduction from the +Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs—and had seen the +director of the government mines at Saarbruck, who gave it as his +opinion that, so far as his experience had gone, the new explosive was +a most valuable invention. Mr. Walker was so impressed with the great +advantages of roburite that he desired to introduce it into his own +colliery, where he gladly arranged with the company to make the first +coal mining experiments in this country. These were recently carried +out in the Parkgate seam of the Wharncliffe Silkstone colliery, under +the personal superintendence of the inventor, Dr. Roth, and in the +presence of a number of colliery managers and other practical men.</p> + +<p>In all six shots were fired, five of which were for the purpose of +winning coal, while the sixth was expressly arranged as a "blowout +shot." The roburite—which resembles nothing so much as a common +yellow sugar—is packed in cartridges of about 4½ in. in length and 1½ +in. in diameter, each containing about 65 grammes (one-seventh of a +pound) inclosed in a waterproof envelope. By dividing a cartridge, any +desired strength of charge can be obtained. The first shot had a +charge of 90 grammes (one-fifth of a pound) placed in a hole drilled +to a depth of about 4 ft. 6 in., and 1¾ in. in diameter. All the +safety lamps were carefully covered, so that complete darkness was +produced, but there was no visible sign of an explosion in the shape +of flame—not even a spark—only the dull, heavy report and the noise +made by the displaced coal. A large quantity of <a name="Page_9898" id="Page_9898"></a>coal was brought +down, but it was considered by most of the practical men present to be +rather too much broken. The second shot was fired with a single +cartridge of 65 grammes, and this gave the same remarkable results as +regards absence of flame, and, in each case, there were no noxious +fumes perceivable, even the moment after the shot was fired. This +reduced charge gave excellent results as regards coal winning, and one +of the subsequent shots, with the same weight of roburite, produced +from 10 to 11 tons of coal in almost a solid mass.</p> + +<p>It has been found that a fertile cause of accidents in coal mines is +insufficient tamping, or "stemming," as it is called in Yorkshire. +Therefore a hole was bored into a strong wall of coal, and a charge of +45 grammes inserted, and very slightly tamped, with the view of +producing a flame if such were possible. This "blowout" shot is so +termed from the fact of its being easier for the explosion to blow out +the tamping, like the shot from a gun, than to split or displace the +coal. The result was most successful, as there was no flash to relieve +the utter darkness.</p> + +<p>The second set of experiments took place on October 24 last, in the +Monk Bretton colliery, near Barnsley, of which Mr. W. Pepper, of +Leeds, is owner. This gentleman determined to give the new explosive a +fair and exhaustive trial, and the following programme was carried out +in the presence of a very large gathering of gentlemen interested in +coal mining. The chief inspector of mines for Yorkshire and +Lincolnshire, Mr. F.N. Wardell, was also present, and the Roburite +Explosives Company was represented by Lieut.-General Sir John Stokes, +K.C.B., R.E., chairman, and several of the directors.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Surface Experiments.</i>—A shot fired on the ground, exposed. This +gave no perceptible flame (70 grammes of roburite was the charge in +these experiments).</p> + +<p>2. A shot fired on the ground, bedded in fine coal dust. No flame nor +ignition of the coal dust was perceptible.</p> + +<p>3. A shot fired suspended in a case into which gas was conducted, and +the atmospheric air allowed to enter so as to form an explosive +mixture. The gas was not fired.</p> + +<p>4. A shot fired in a boiler flue 16 ft. by 2 ft. 8 in., placed +horizontally, in which was a quantity of fine coal dust kept suspended +in the air by the action of a fan. No flame nor ignition of the coal +dust took place.</p> + +<p>5. A shot fired as above, except that an explosive mixture of gas and +air was flowing into the boiler tube in addition to the coal dust. +That this mixture was firedamp was proved by the introduction of a +safety lamp, the flame of which was elongated, showing what miners +call the "blue cap." There was no explosion of the gas or sign of +flames.</p> + +<p>6. A shot of roburite fired in the boiler tube without any gas or +suspended coal dust. The report was quite as loud as in the preceding +case; indeed, to several present it seemed more distinct.</p> + +<p>7. A shot of ½ lb. gunpowder was fired under the same condition as No. +5, <i>i.e.</i>, in an explosive mixture of gas and air with coal dust. The +result was most striking, and appeared to carry conviction of the +great comparative safety of roburite to all present. Not only was +there an unmistakable explosion of the firedamp, with very loud +report, and a vivid sheet of flame, but the gas flowing into the far +end of the boiler tube was ignited and remained burning until turned +off.</p> + +<p><i>In the Pit.</i>—1. A 2 in. hole was drilled 4 ft. 6 in. deep into coal, +having a face 7 yards wide, fast at both ends, and holed under for a +depth of 8 ft., end on, thickness of front of coal to be blown down 2 +ft. 10 in., plus 9 in. of dirt. This represented a most difficult +shot, having regard to the natural lines of cleavage of the coal—a +"heavy job" as it was locally termed. The charge was 65 grammes of +roburite, which brought down a large quantity of coal, not at all too +small in size. No flame was perceptible, although all the lamps were +carefully covered.</p> + +<p>2. A 2 in. hole drilled 4 ft. 6 in. into the side of the coal about 10 +in. from the top, fast ends not holed under, width of space 10 ft. +This was purposely a "blowout" shot. The result was again most +satisfactory, the charge exploding in perfect darkness.</p> + +<p>3. A "breaking up" shot placed in the stone roof for "ripping," the +hole being drilled at an angle of 35 deg. or 40 deg. This is intended +to open a cavity in the perfectly smooth roof, the ripping being +continued by means of the "lip" thus formed. The charge was 105 +grammes (nearly 4 oz), and it brought down large quantities of stone.</p> + +<p>4. A "ripping" shot in the stone roof, hole 4 ft. 6 in. deep, width of +place 15 ft. with a "lip" of 2 ft. 6 in. This is a strong stone +"bind," and very difficult to get down. The trial was most successful, +a large heap of stone being brought down and more loosened.</p> + +<p>5. A second "blowout" shot, under the conditions most likely to +produce an accident in a fiery mine. A 2 in. hole, 4 ft. 6 in. deep, +was drilled in the face of the coal near the roof, and charged with +105 grammes of roburite. A space of 6 in. or 8 in. was purposely left +between the charge and the tamping. The hole was then strongly tamped +for a distance of nearly 2 ft. The report was very loud, and a +trumpet-shaped orifice was formed at the mouth of the hole, but no +flame or spark could be perceived, nor was any inconvenience caused by +the fumes, even the instant after the explosion.</p> + +<p><i>Further Experiments at Wharncliffe Colliery.</i>—On Tuesday, October +25, some very interesting surface trials were arranged with great care +by Mr. Walker. An old boiler flue was placed vertically, and closed at +top by means of a removable wooden cover, the interior space being +about 72 cubic feet. A temporary gasometer had been arranged at a +suitable distance by means of a paraffin cask having a capacity of 6 +cubic feet suspended inside a larger cask, and by this means the +boiler was charged with a highly explosive mixture of gas and air in +the proportion of 1 to 12.</p> + +<p>1. A charge of gunpowder was placed in the closed end of a piece of +gas pipe, and strongly tamped, so as to give the conditions most +unfavorable to the ignition of the firedamp. It was, however, ignited, +and a loud explosion produced, which blew off the wooden cover and +filled the boiler tube with flame.</p> + +<p>2. Under the same conditions as to firedamp, a charge of roburite was +placed on a block of wood inside the boiler, totally unconfined except +by a thin covering of coal dust. When exploded by electricity, as in +the previous case, no flame was produced, nor was the firedamp +ignited.</p> + +<p>3. The preceding experiment was repeated with the same results.</p> + +<p>4. A charge of blasting gelatine, inserted in one of Settle's water +cartridges, was suspended in the boiler tube and fired with a +fulminate of mercury detonator in the usual manner. The gelatine did +not, however, explode, the only report being that of the detonator. +After a safe interval the unexploded cartridge was recovered, or so +much of it as had not been scattered by the detonator, and the +gelatine was found to be frozen. This fact was also evident from an +inspection of other gelatine dynamite cartridges which had been stored +in the same magazine during the night. This result, although not that +intended, was most instructive as regards the danger of using +explosives which are liable to freeze at such a moderate temperature, +and the thawing of which is undoubtedly attended with great risk +unless most carefully performed. Also, the small pieces of the +gelatine or dynamite, when scattered by the explosion of the +detonator, might cause serious accident if trodden +upon.—<i>Engineering.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art27" id="art27"></a>THE MECHANICAL REELING OF SILK.</h2> + +<p>When automatic machinery for thread spinning was invented, English +intelligence and enterprise were quick to utilize and develop it, and +thus gained that supremacy in textile manufacture which has remained +up to the present time, and which will doubtless long continue. The +making of the primary thread is the foundation of all textile +processes, and it is on the possibility of doing this by automatic +machinery that England's great textile industries depend. The use of +highly developed machinery for spinning cotton, wool, and flax has +grown to be so much a part of our conception of modern life, as +contrasted with the times of our grandfathers, as often to lead to the +feeling that a complete and universal change has occurred in all the +textile industries. This is, however, not the case. There is one great +textile industry—one of the most staple and valuable—still in the +primitive condition of former times, and employing processes and +apparatus essentially the same as those known and employed before such +development had taken place. We mean the art of silk reeling. The +improvements made in the production of threads of all other materials +have only been applied to silk in the minor processes for utilizing +waste; but the whole silk trade and manufacture of the world has, up +to this time, been dependent for its raw silk threads upon apparatus +which, mechanically speaking, is nearly or quite as primitive as the +ancient spinning wheels. Thousands of operatives are constantly +employed in forming up these threads by hand, adding filament by +filament to the thread as required, while watching the unwinding from +the cocoon of many miles of filament in order to produce a single +pound of the raw silk thread, making up the thread unaided by any +mechanical device beyond a simple reel on which the thread is wound as +finished, and a basin of heated water in which the cocoons are placed.</p> + +<p>Viewed from any standpoint to which we are accustomed, this state of +things is so remarkable that we are naturally led to the belief that +there must be some special causes which tended to retard the +introduction of automatic machinery, and these are not far to seek. +The spinning machinery employed for the production of threads, other +than those of raw silk, may be broadly described as consisting of +devices capable of taking a mass of confused and comparatively short +fibers, laying them parallel with one another, and twisting them into +a cylindrical thread, depending for its strength upon the friction and +interlocking of these constituent fibers.</p> + +<p>This process is radically different from that employed to make a +thread of raw silk, which consists of filaments, each several thousand +feet long, laid side by side, almost without twist, and glued together +into a solid thread by means of the "gum" or glue with which each +filament is naturally coated. If this radical difference be borne in +mind, but very little mechanical knowledge is required to make it +evident that the principle of spinning machinery in general is utterly +unsuited to the making up of the threads of raw silk. Since spinning +machinery, as usually constructed for other fibers, could not be +employed in the manufacture of raw silk, and as the countries where +silk is produced are, generally speaking, not the seat of great +mechanical industries, where the need of special machinery would be +quickly recognized and supplied, silk reeling (the making of raw silk) +has been passed by, and has never become an industrial art. It +remained one of the few manual handicrafts, while yet serving as the +base of a great and staple industry of worldwide importance.</p> + +<p>There is every reason to suppose that we are about to witness a +transformation in the art of silk reeling, a change similar to that +which has already been brought about in the spinning of other threads, +and of which the consequences will be of the highest importance. For +some years past work has been done in France in developing an +automatic silk-reeling machine, and incomplete notes concerning it +have from time to time been published. That the accounts which were +allowed to reach the outer world were incomplete will cause no +surprise to those who know what experimental work is—how easily and +often an inventor or pioneer finds himself hampered by premature +publication. The process in question has now, however, emerged from +the experimental state, and is practically complete. By the courtesy +of the inventor we are in a position to lay before our readers an +exact analysis of the principles, essential parts, and method of +operation of the new silk-reeling machine. As silk reeling is not +widely known in England, it will, however, be well to preface our +remarks by some details concerning the cocoon and the manner in which +it is at present manufactured into raw silk, promising that if these +seem tedious, the labor of reading them will be amply repaid by the +clearer understanding of the new mechanical process which will be the +result.</p> + +<p>The silkworm, when ready to make its cocoon, seeks a suitable support. +This is usually found among the twigs of brush placed for the purpose +over the trays in which the worms have been grown. At first the worm +proceeds by stretching filaments backward and forward from one twig to +another in such manner as to include a space large enough for the +future cocoon. When sufficient support has thus been obtained, the +worm incloses itself in a layer of filaments adhering to the support +and following the shape of the new cocoon, of which it forms the +outermost stratum. After having thus provided a support and outlined +the cocoon, the worm begins the serious work of constrution. The +filament from its silk receiver issues from two small spinnarets +situated near its jaws. Each filament, as it comes out, is coated with +a layer of exceedingly tenacious natural gum, and they at once unite +to form a single flattened thread, the two parts lying side by side. +It is this flat thread, called the "baye" or "brin," which serves as +the material for making the cocoon, and which, when subsequently +unwound, is the filament used in making up the raw silk. While +spinning, the worm moves its head continually from right to left, +laying on the filament in a succession of lines somewhat resembling +the shape of the figure eight. As the worm continues the work of +making its cocoon, the filament expressed from its body in the manner +described is deposited in nearly even layers all over the interior of +the wall of the cocoon, which gradually becomes thicker and harder. +The filament issuing from the spinnarets is immediately attached to +that already in place by means of the gum which has been mentioned. +When the store of silk in the body of the worm is exhausted, the +cocoon is finished, and the worm, once more shedding its skin, becomes +dormant and begins to undergo its change into a moth. It is at this +point that its labors in the production of silk terminate and those of +man begin. A certain number of the cocoons are set aside for +reproduction.</p> + +<p>In southern countries the reproduction of silkworms is a vast industry +to which great attention is given, and which receives important and +regular aid from the government. It is, however, quite distinct from +the manufacturing industry with which at present we have to do. The +cocoons to be used for reeling, <i>i.e.</i>, all but those which are +reserved for reproduction, are in the first place "stifled," that is +to say, they are put into a steam or other oven and the insect is +killed. The cocoons are then ready for reeling, but those not to be +used at once are allowed to dry. In this process, which is carried on +for about two months, they lose about two-thirds of their weight, +representing the water in the fresh chrysalis. The standard and dried +cocoons form the raw material of the reeling mills, or filatures, as +they are called on the Continent. Each filature endeavors as far as +possible to collect, stifle, and dry the cocoons in its own +neighborhood; but dried cocoons, nevertheless, give rise to an +important commerce, having its center at Marseilles. The appearance of +the cocoon is probably well known to most of our readers. Industrially +considered, the cocoon may be divided into three parts: (1) The floss, +which consists of the remains of the filaments used for supporting the +cocoon on the twigs of the brush among which it was built and the +outside layer of the cocoon, together with such ends and parts of the +thread forming the main part of the shell as have become broken in +detaching and handling the cocoon; (2) the shell of the cocoon, which +is formed, as has been described, of a long continuous filament, which +it is the object of the reeler to unwind and to form up into threads +of raw silk; and (3) the dried body of the chrysalis.</p> + +<p>We shall first describe the usual practice of reeling, which is as +follows: The cocoons are put into a basin of boiling water, on the +surface of which they float. They are stirred about so as to be as +uniformly acted upon as possible. The hot water softens the gum, and +allows the floss to become partially detached. This process is called +"cooking" the cocoons. When the cocoons are sufficiently cooked, they +are subjected to a process called "beating," or brushing, the object +of which is to remove the floss.</p> + +<p>As heretofore carried on, this brushing is a most rudimentary and +wasteful operation. It consists of passing a brush of heather or broom +twigs over the floating cocoons in such manner that the ends of the +brush come in contact with the softened cocoons, catch the floss, and +drag it off. In practice it happens that the brush catches the sound +filaments on the surface of the cocoon as well as the floss, and, as a +consequence, the sound filament is broken, dragged off, and wasted. In +treating some kinds of cocoons as much as a third of the silk is +wasted in this manner, and even in the best reeling, as at present +practiced, there is an excessive loss from this cause. At the present +low price of cocoons this waste is not as important as it was some +time ago, when cocoons were much dearer; but even at present it +amounts to between fifteen and twenty millions of francs per annum in +the silk districts of France and Italy alone. In France the cooking +and brushing are usually done by the same women who reel, and in the +same basins. In Italy the brushing is usually done by girls, and often +with the aid of mechanically rotated brushes, an apparatus which is of +doubtful utility, as, in imitating the movement of hand brushing, the +same waste is occasioned.</p> + +<p>After the cocoons are brushed they are, in the ordinary process, +cleaned by hand, which is another tedious and wasteful operation +performed by the reeler, and concerning which we shall have more to +say further on. Whatever may be the preparatory operations, they +result in furnishing the reeler with a quantity of cocoons, each +having its floss removed, and the end of the filament ready to be +unwound. Each reeler is provided with a basin containing water, which +may be heated either by a furnace or by steam, and a reel, upon which +the silk is wound when put in motion by hand or by power. In civilized +countries heating by steam and the use of motive power is nearly +universal. The reeler is ordinarily seated before the reel and the +basin. The reeler begins operations by assembling the cocoons in the +basin, and attaching all the ends to a peg at its side. She then +introduces the ends of the filaments from several cocoons into small +dies of agate or porcelain, which are held over the basin by a +support.</p> + +<p>The ends so brought in contact stick together, owing to the adhesive +substance they naturally contain, and form a thread. To wring out the +water which is brought up with the ends, and further consolidate the +thread, it is so arranged as to twist round either itself or another +similar thread during its passage from the basin to the reel. This +process is called "croisure," and is facilitated by guides or small +pulleys. Having made the croisure, which consists of about two hundred +turns, the operator attaches the end of a thread to the reel, +previously passing it through a guide fixed in a bar, which moves +backward and forward, so as to distribute the thread on the reel, +forming a hank about three inches wide.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_9899" id="Page_9899"></a>The reel is now put into movement, and winds the thread formed by the +union of the filaments. It is at this moment that the real +difficulties of the reeler begin. She has now to maintain the size and +regularity of the thread as nearly as possible by adding new filaments +at the proper moment. The operation of adding an end of a filament +consists of throwing it in a peculiar manner on the other filaments +already being reeled, so that it sticks to them, and is carried up +with them. We may mention here that this process of silk reeling can +be seen in operation at the Manchester exhibition.</p> + +<p>It is only after a long apprenticeship that a reeler succeeds in +throwing the end properly. The thread produced by the several +filaments is itself so fine that its size cannot readily be judged by +the eye, and the speed with which it is being wound renders this even +more difficult. But, in order to have an idea of the size, the reeler +watches the cocoons as they unwind, counts them, and, on the +hypothesis that the filament of one cocoon is of the same diameter as +that of another, gets an approximate idea of the size of the thread +that she is reeling. But this hypothesis is not exact, and the +filament being largest at the end which is first unwound, and tapering +throughout its whole length, the result is that the reeler has not +only to keep going a certain number of cocoons, but also to appreciate +how much has been unwound from each.</p> + +<p>If the cocoons are but slightly unwound, there must be fewer than if a +certain quantity of silk has been unwound from them. Consequently +their number must be constantly varying in accordance with their +condition. These facts show that the difficulty of maintaining +regularity in a thread is very great. Nevertheless, this regularity is +one of the principal factors of the value of a thread of "grege," and +this to such an extent that badly reeled silks are sold at from twenty +to twenty-five francs a kilogramme less than those which are +satisfactorily regular.</p> + +<p>The difficulty of this hand labor can be still better understood if it +be remembered that the reeler being obliged to watch at every moment +the unwinding of each cocoon, in order to obtain one pound of well +reeled silk, she must incessantly watch, and without a moment of +distraction, the unwinding of about two thousand seven hundred miles +of silk filaments. For nine pounds of silk, she reels a length of +filament sufficient to girdle the earth. The manufacturer, therefore, +cannot and must not depend only on the constant attention that each +reeler should give to the work confided to her care. He is obliged to +have overseers who constantly watch the reelers, so that the defects +in the work of any single reeler, who otherwise might not give the +attention required by her work, will not greatly diminish the value +either of her own work or that of several other reelers whose silk is +often combined to form a single lot. In addition to the ordinary hand +labor, considerable expense is thus necessitated for the watching of +the reelers.</p> + +<p>Enough has now been said, we think, to give a good idea of silk +reeling, as usually practiced, and to show how much it is behind other +textile arts from a mechanical point of view. To any one at all +familiar with industrial work, or possessing the least power of +analysis or calculation, it is evident that a process carried on in +so primitive a manner is entirely unsuitable for use in any country in +which the conditions of labor are such as to demand its most +advantageous employment. In the United States, for instance, or in +England, silk reeling, as a great national industry, would be out of +the question unless more mechanical means for doing it could be +devised. The English climate is not suitable for the raising of +cocoons, and in consequence the matter has not attracted very much +attention in this country. But America is very differently situated. +Previous to 1876 it had been abundantly demonstrated that cocoons +could be raised to great advantage in many parts of that country. The +only question was whether they could be reeled. In fact, it was stated +at the time that the question of reeling silk presented a striking +analogy to the question of cotton before the invention of the "gin." +It will be remembered that cotton raising was several times tried in +the United States, and abandoned because the fiber could not be +profitably prepared for the market. The impossibility of competing +with India and other cheap labor countries in this work became at +least a fact fully demonstrated, and any hope that cotton would ever +be produced in America was confined to the breasts of a few +enthusiasts.</p> + +<p>As soon, however, as it was shown that the machine invented by Eli +Whitney would make it possible to do this work mechanically, the +conditions were changed; cotton raising become not only possible, but +the staple industry of a great part of the country; the population was +rapidly increased, the value of real estate multiplied, and within a +comparatively short time the United States became the leading cotton +country of the world. For many years much more cotton has been grown +in America than in all the other countries of the world combined; and +it is interesting to note that both the immense agricultural wealth of +America and the supply required for the cotton industry of England +flow directly from the invention of the cotton gin.</p> + +<p>Attention was turned in 1876 to silk raising, and it was found that +all the conditions for producing cocoons of good quality and at low +cost were most favorable. It was, however, useless to raise cocoons +unless they could be utilized; in a word, it was seen that the country +needed silk-reeling machinery in 1876, as it had needed cotton-ginning +machinery in 1790. Under these conditions, Mr. Edward W. Serrell, Jr., +an engineer of New York, undertook the study of the matter, and soon +became convinced that the production of such machinery was feasible. +He devoted his time to this work, and by 1880 had pushed his +investigations as far as was possible in a country where silk reeling +was not commercially carried on. He then went to France, where he has +since been incessantly engaged in the heart of the silk-reeling +district in perfecting, reducing to practice, and applying his +improvements and inventions. The success obtained was such that Mr. +Serrell has been enabled to interest many of the principal silk +producers of the Continent in his work, and a revolution in silk +reeling is being gradually brought about, for, strangely enough, he +found that the work which he had undertaken solely for America was of +equal importance for all silk-producing countries.</p> + +<p>We have described the processes by which cocoons are ordinarily cooked +and brushed, these being the first processes of the filature. Instead +of first softening the gum of the cocoons and then attacking the floss +with the points of a brush, Mr. Serrell places the cocoons in a +receptacle full of boiling water, in which by various means violent +reciprocating or vortex currents are produced. The result is that by +the action of the water itself and the rubbing of the cocoons one +against the other the floss is removed, carrying with it the end of +the continuous filament without unduly softening the cocoon or +exposing any of the more delicate filament to the rough action of the +brush, as has hitherto been the case. The advantages of this process +will be readily understood. In brushing after the ordinary manner, the +point of the brush is almost sure to come into contact with and to +break some of the filament forming the body of the cocoon. When this +occurs, and the cocoon is sent to be reeled, it naturally becomes +detached when the unwinding reaches the point at which the break +exists. It then has to be sent back, and the end of the filament +detached by brushing over again, when several layers of filament are +inevitably caught by the brush and wasted, and very probably some +other part of the filament is cut. This accounts for the enormous +waste which occurs in silk reeling, and to which we have referred. Its +importance will be appreciated when it is remembered that every pound +of fiber thus dragged off by the brush represents a net loss of about +19s. at the present low prices.</p> + +<p>The mechanical details by which Mr. Serrell carries out this process +vary somewhat according to the nature of the different cocoons to be +treated. In one type of machine the water is caused to surge in and +out of a metal vessel with perforated sides; in another a vertical +brush is rapidly raised and lowered, agitating the water in a basin, +without, however, actually touching the cocoons. After a certain +number of strokes the brush is automatically raised, when the ends of +the filaments are found to adhere to it, having been swept against it +by the scouring action of the water. The cleaning of the cocoons is +performed by means of a mechanism also entirely new. In the brushing +machinery the floss is loosened and partially detached from the +cocoon. The object of the cleaning machine is to thoroughly complete +the operation. To this end the cocoons are floated under a plate, and +the floss passed up through a slot in the latter. A rapid to and fro +horizontal movement is given to the plate, and those cocoons from +which the floss has been entirely removed easily give off a few inches +of their filament, and allow themselves to be pushed on one side, +which is accomplished by the cocoons which still have some floss +adhering to them; because these latter, not being free to pay off, are +drawn up to the slot in the plate, and by its motion are rapidly +washed backward and forward in the water. This washing soon causes all +the cocoons to be freed from the last vestiges of floss without +breaking the filament, and after about twenty seconds of movement they +are all free and clean, ready for reeling.</p> + +<p>We have now to explain the operation of the machine by which the +thread is formed from the prepared cocoon. At the risk of some +repetition, however, it seems necessary to call attention to the +character of the work itself. In each prepared cocoon are about a +thousand yards of filament ready to pay off, but this filament is +nearly as fine as a cobweb and is tapering. The object is to form a +thread by laying these filaments side by side in sufficient number to +obtain the desired size. For the threads of raw silk used in commerce, +the sizes vary, so that while some require but an average of three +filaments, the coarsest sizes require twenty-five or thirty. It being +necessary keep the thread at as near the same size as possible, the +work required is, in effect, to add an additional cocoon filament to +the thread which is being wound whenever this latter has tapered down +to a given size, or whenever one of the filaments going to form it has +become detached. Those familiar with cotton spinning will understand +what is meant when it is said that the reeling is effectively a +"doubling" operation, but performed with a variable number of ends, so +as to compensate for the taper of the filaments. In reeling by hand, +as has been said, the size of the silk is judged, as nearly as +possible, by a complex mental operation, taking into account the +number, size, and state of unwinding of the cocoons. It is impossible +to do this mechanically, if for no other reason than this, that the +cocoons must be left free to float and roll about in <a name="Page_9900" id="Page_9900"></a>the water in +order to give off their ends without breaking, and any mechanical +device which touched them would defeat the object of the machine. The +only way in which the thread can be mechanically regulated in silk +reeling is by some kind of actual measurement performed after the +thread has left the cocoons. The conditions are such that no direct +measurement of size can be made, even with very delicate and expensive +apparatus; but Mr. Serrell discovered that, owing to the great +tenacity of the thread in proportion to its size, its almost absolute +elastic uniformity, and from the fact that it could be stretched, two +or three per cent. without injury, it was possible to measure its size +indirectly, but as accurately as could be desired. As this fact is the +starting point of an entirely new and important class of machinery, we +may explain with considerable detail the method in which this +measurement is performed. Bearing in mind that the thread is of +uniform quality, it is evident that it will require more force to +stretch a coarse thread by a given percentage of its length than it +will to stretch one that is finer. Supposing the thread is uniform in +quality but varying in size, the force required to stretch it varies +directly with the size or sectional area of the thread itself. In the +automatic reeling machine this stretch is obtained by causing the +thread to take a turn round a pulley of a given winding speed, and +then, after leaving this pulley, to take a turn around a second pulley +having a somewhat greater winding speed.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/5a.png"><img src="./images/5a_th.png" alt=" Fig. 1 THE MECHANICAL REELING OF SILK." /></a><br /> Fig. 1 THE MECHANICAL REELING OF SILK.</p> + +<p>By this means the thread which is passing from one pulley to the other +is stretched by an amount equal to the difference of the winding speed +of the two pulleys. In the diagram (Fig. 2) the thread passes, as +shown by the arrows, over the pulley, P, and then over the pulley, P¹, +the latter having a slightly greater winding speed. Between these +pulleys it passes over the guide pulley, G. This latter is supported +by a lever hinged at S, and movable between the stops, TT¹. W is an +adjustable counterweight. When the thread is passed over the pulleys +and guided in this manner, the stretch to which it is subjected tends +to raise the guide and lever, so that the latter will be drawn up +against the stop, T¹, when the thread is so coarse that the effort +required to stretch it is sufficient to overcome the weight of the +guide pulley and the adjustable counterweight. But as the thread +becomes finer, which, in the case of reeling silk, happens either from +the tapering of the filaments or the dropping off of a cocoon, a +moment arrives when it is no longer strong enough to keep up the lever +and counterweight. These then descend, and the lever touches the lower +stop, T. It will be readily seen that the up and down movements of the +lever can be made to take place when the thread has reached any +desired maximum or minimum of size, the limits being fixed by suitably +adjusting the counterweight.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/5b.png" alt=" FIG. 2." /><br /> FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>In the automatic reeling machine this is the method employed for +regulating the supply of cocoons. The counterweight being suitably +adjusted, the lever falls when the thread has become fine enough to +need another cocoon. The stop, T, and the lever serve as two parts of +an electric contact, so that when they touch each other a circuit is +completed, which trips a trigger and sets in motion the feed apparatus +by which a new cocoon is added. In practice the two drums or pulleys +are mounted on the same shaft, D (Fig. 1), difference of winding speed +being obtained by making them of slightly different diameters.</p> + +<p>The lever is mounted as a horizontal pendulum, and the less or greater +stress required according to the size to be reeled is obtained by +inclining its axis to a less or greater degree from the vertical. An +arrangement is also adopted by which the strains existing in the +thread when it arrives at the first drum are neutralized, so far as +their effect upon the lever is concerned. This is accomplished by +simply placing upon the lever an extra guide pulley, L¹, upon the side +opposite to that which corresponds to the guide shown in the diagram, +Fig. 2.</p> + +<p>An electric contact is closed by a slight movement of the lever +whenever the thread requires a new filament of cocoon, and broken +again when the thread has been properly strengthened. It is evident +that a delicate faller movement might be employed to set the feed +mechanism in motion instead of the electric circuit, but, under the +circumstances, as the motion is very slight and without force, being, +in fact, comparable to the swinging of the beam of a balance through +the space of about the sixteenth of an inch, it is simpler to use a +contact.</p> + +<p>The actual work of supplying the cocoons to the running thread is +performed as follows: The cleaned cocoons are put into what is called +the feeding basin, B1 (Fig. 1), a receptacle placed alongside of the +ordinary reeling basin, B, of a filature. A circular elevator, E, into +which the cocoons are charged by a slight current of water, lifts them +over one corner of the reeling basin and drops them one by one through +an aperture in a plate about six inches above the water of the reeling +basin.</p> + +<p>The end of the filament having been attached to a peg above the +elevator, it happens that when a cocoon has been brought into the +corner of the reeling basin, the filament is strung from it to the +edge of the hole in the plate in such a position as to be readily +seized by a mechanical finger, K (Fig. 3), attached to a truck +arranged to run backward and forward along one side of the basin. This +finger is mounted on an axis, and has a tang projecting at right +angles to the side of the basin, so that the whole is in the form of a +bell crank mounted on the truck.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/5c.png" alt=" FIG. 3." /><br /> FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>There are usually four threads to each basin. When neither one of them +needs an additional cocoon, the finger of the distributing apparatus +remains, holding the filament of the cocoon at the corner of the basin +where it has been dropped. When a circuit is closed by the weakening +of any one of the threads, an electromagnetic catch is released, and +the truck with its finger is drawn across the basin by a weight. At +the same time the stop shown dotted in Fig. 3 is thrown out opposite +to the thread that needs strengthening. This stop strikes the tang of +the finger, and causes the latter to be thrown out near to the point +at which the filaments going to make up the weakened thread are being +drawn from the cocoons. Here the new filament is attached to the new +running thread by a kind of revolving finger, J, called in France a +"lance-bout." This contrivance takes the place of the agate of the +ordinary filature, and is made up, essentially, of the following +parts:</p> + +<p>(1) A hollow axis, through the inside of which the thread passes +instead of going through the hole of an agate. This hollow axis is +furnished, near its lower end, with a ridge which serves to support a +movable portion turning constantly round the axis. (2) A movable +portion turning constantly round the axis. (3) A finger or hook +fastened on the side of the movable portion and revolving with it. +This hook, in revolving, catches the filament brought up by the finger +and serves it on to the thread.</p> + +<p>Such are the principal parts of the automatic reeling machine. +Although the fact that this machine is entirely a new invention has +necessitated a somewhat long explanation, its principal organs can +nevertheless be summed up in a few words: (1) A controlling drum which +serves to give the thread a constant elongation; (2) a pulley mounted +on a pivot which closes an electric current every time that the thread +becomes too fine, and attains, in consequence, its minimum strength, +in other words, every time that a fresh cocoon is needed; (3) +electromagnets with the necessary conducting wires; (4) the feeding +basin; (5) distributing finger and stops; and (6) the lance-bout.</p> + +<p>Our illustration, Fig. 1, shows diagrammatically a section through the +cocoon frame and reel. The thread is composed of three, four, or more +filaments, and after passing through the lance-bout, it travels as +shown by the arrows. At first it is wound round itself about two +hundred times, then passed over a fixed guide pulley, and over a +second guide pulley lower down fixed to the frames which carry the +lance-bouts, then up through the twist and over the smaller of the +pulleys, D. Taking one complete turn, it is led round the guide +pulley, L, from there round the larger of the pulleys, D, round the +second guide pulley, L¹, then back to the large wheel, and over a +fixed guide pulley across to the reeling frame. Power is supplied to +the latter by means of a friction clutch, and to insure even winding +the usual reciprocating motion of a guide is employed. The measuring +apparatus is pivoted at F, and by raising or lowering the nuts at the +end of the bar the required inclination is given.</p> + +<p>We had recently an opportunity of examining the whole of this +machinery in detail, and seeing the process of silk reeling in actual +operation, Mr. Serrell having put up a complete set of his machines in +Queen Victoria Street, London. Regarded simply as a piece of ingenious +mechanism, the performance of these machines cannot fail to be of the +highest interest to engineers, the reeling machine proper seeming +almost endowed with human intelligence, so perfectly does it work. +But, apart from the technical perfection, Mr. Serrell's improvements +are of great importance as calculated to introduce the silk-reeling +industry in this country on a large scale, while at the same time its +effect upon India as a silk-growing country will be of equal +importance.—<i>Industries.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art22" id="art22"></a>APPARATUS USED FOR MAKING ALCOHOL FOR HOSPITAL USE DURING THE +CIVIL WAR BETWEEN THE STATES.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By CHARLES K. GALLAGHER, Washington, N.C.</h3> + +<p>A is an ordinary farm boiler or kettle, with an iron lid securely +bolted on; B, a steam pipe ending in a coil within a trough, D. C, D, +two troughs made of gum logs, one inverted over the other, securely +luted and fastened together by clamps and wedges. The "beer" to be +distilled was introduced at E and the opening closed with a plug. The +distillate—"low wine"—was collected at F, and redistilled from a set +of similar troughs not shown in above figure, and heated by a +continuation of the steam coil from D.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/6a.png" alt="" /></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a></p><div class="footnote"><p> +Read at the Cincinnati meeting of the American +Pharmaceutical Association.</p></div> +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art23" id="art23"></a>CONFEDERATE APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING SALTPETER FOR +AMMUNITION.</h2> + +<h3>By CHARLES K. GALLAGHER, Washington, N.C.</h3> + +<p>Any convenient number of percolators, made of rough boards, arranged +over a trough after the style of the old fashioned "lye stand," +similar to the figure. Into these was placed the earth scraped from +around old tobacco barns, from under kitchens and smokehouses. Then +water or water and urine was poured upon it until the mass was +thoroughly leached or exhausted. The percolate was collected in a +receptacle and evaporated, the salt redissolved, filtered, again +evaporated, and crystallized from the mother water.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/6b.png" alt="" /></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>THE TELEMETER SYSTEM.</h2> + +<h3>By F.R. UPTON.</h3> + +<p>In this paper, read before the British Association, the author +explained that the "Telemeter System," invented by C.L. Clarke, of New +York, is a method by which the slow movement of a revolving hand of +any indicating instrument may be reproduced by the movement of a +similar hand at a distant place, using electricity to convey the +impulse. The primary hand moves until it makes electrical contact, +thus sending an impulse. It is here that all previous methods have +failed. This contact should be absolute and positive, for if it is +not, the receiver will not work in unison. The contact could often be +doubled by the jarring of the instrument, thus making the receiver +jump twice. Clarke has overcome this defect by so arranging his +mechanism that the faintest contact in the primary instrument closes +two platinum points in multiple arc with it, thus making a firm and +positive contact, which is not disturbed by any jar on the primary +contact. This gives the instruments a positive start for the series of +operations, instead of the faint contact which would be given, for +example, by the light and slowly moving hand of a metallic +thermometer. The other trouble with previous methods was that the +contact points would corrode, and, in consequence of such corrosion, +the instrument would fail to send impulses. Corrosion of the contacts +is due to breaking the circuit slowly on a small surface. This is +entirely remedied by breaking the circuit elsewhere than at the +primary contact, using a quick motion, and also by giving this +breaking contact large surface and making it firm. The instrument, as +applied to a thermometer, is made as follows: From the free end of the +light spiral of a metallic thermometer fixed at the other end, an arm, +C, is attached, the end of which moves over an arc of a circle when +the temperature varies. This end carries on either side of its +extremity platinum contacts which, when the thermometer is at rest, +lie between two other platinum points, A B, carried on radial arms. +Any variation in temperature brings a point on the thermometer arm in +contact with one of these points, and thus gives the initial start to +the series of operations without opposing any friction to the free +motion of the instrument. The first result is the closing of a short +circuit round the initial point of contact, so that no current flows +through it. Then the magnets which operate one set of pawls come into +play. The two contact points are attached to a toothed wheel in which +the pawls play, and these pawls are so arranged that they drive the +wheel whenever moved by their magnets; thus the primary contact is +broken.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/6c.png" alt="" /></p> + +<p>In the receiver there is a similar toothed wheel carrying the hand of +the indicating instrument, and actuated at the same moment as the +transmitter. The primary contacts are so arranged that the contact is +made for each degree of temperature to be indicated. This series of +operations leaves the instruments closed and the pawls home in the +toothed wheel. To break the circuit another wire and separate set of +contacts are employed.</p> + +<p>These are arranged on the arms carrying the pawls, and so adjusted +that no contact is made until after the toothed wheel has moved a +degree, when a circuit is closed and a magnet attracts an armature +attached to a pendulum. This pendulum, after starting, breaks the +circuit of the magnets which hold the pawls down, as well as of the +short-circuiting device. As the pendulum takes an appreciable time to +vibrate, this allows all the magnets to drop back, and breaks all +circuits, leaving the primary contacts in the same relation as at +first. The many details of the instruments are carefully worked out. +All the contacts are of a rubbing nature, thus avoiding danger from +dirt, and they are made with springs, so as not to be affected by jar.</p> + +<p>The receiving instruments can be made recorders also by simple +devices. Thus, having only a most delicate pressure in the primary +instrument, a distinct ink record may be made in the receiver, even +though the paper be rough and soft. The method is applicable to steam +gauges, water indicators, clocks, barometers, etc., in fact, to any +measuring instrument where a moving hand can be employed.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art21" id="art21"></a>A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE AND THE WORK DONE WITH IT.</h2> + +<h3>By WATSON SMITH, Lecturer in Chemical Technology in the Victoria +University, etc.</h3> + +<p>The Widnes Alkali Company, limited, to which I am indebted for +permission to describe this latest addition to a family of revolving +black ash furnaces, of late not only increasing in number, but also +individual size, has kindly allowed my friend, Mr. H. Baker, to +photograph the great revolver in question, and I have pleasure now in +throwing on the screen a picture of it, and also one of a revolver of +ordinary size, so as to render a comparison possible. The revolver of +ordinary size measures at most 18½ ft. long, with a diameter of 12½ +ft. The boiling down pans connected with such a furnace measure 60 ft. +in length. Each charge contains four tons of salt cake, and some of +these revolvers get through 18 tons of salt cake per <a name="Page_9901" id="Page_9901"></a>day and consume +13 cwt. of coal per ton of cake decomposed.</p> + +<p>With regard to the larger revolver, it may be just said that the +Widnes Alkali Company has not at once sprung to the adoption of a +furnace of the immense size to be presently given, but in 1884 it +erected a revolver only about 3 ft. to 4 ft. short of the length of +that one, and having two discharging holes. The giant revolving +furnace to be described measures in length 30 ft. and has a diameter +of 12 ft. 6 in. Inside length is 28 ft. 6 in., with a diameter of 11 +ft. 4 in. It is lined with 16,000 fire bricks and 120 fire-clay blocks +or breakers, weighing each 1¼ cwt. The bricks weigh per 1,000 about +four tons. The weight of salt cake per charge (<i>i.e.</i>, contained in +each charge of salt cake, limestone, mud, and slack) is 8 tons 12 cwt. +For 100 tons of salt cake charged, there are also charged about 110 +tons of lime mud and limestone and 55 tons of mixing slack. In a week +of seven days about 48 charges are worked through, weighing of raw +materials about 25 <i>tons per charge</i>. The total amount of salt cake +decomposed weekly is about 400 tons, and may be reckoned as yielding +240 tons of 60 per cent. caustic soda. As regards fuel used for +firing, this may be put down as 200 tons per week, or about 10 cwt. +per ton of salt cake decomposed. Also with regard to the concentration +of liquor from 20° Tw. to 50° Tw., there is sufficient of such +concentrated liquor evaporated down to keep three self-fired caustic +pots working, which are boiled at a strength of 80° Tw. Were it not +for this liquor, no less than seven self-fired pots would be required +to do this work, showing a difference of 80 tons of fuel.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/7a.png" alt="A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE." /></p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/7b.png" alt="A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE. " /><br /> A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE. </p> + +<p>The question may be asked, "Why increase the size of these huge pieces +of apparatus?" The answer, I apprehend, is that owing to competition +and reduction of prices, greater efforts are necessary to reduce +costs. With automatic apparatus like the black ash revolver, we may +consider no very sensible addition of man power would be needed, in +passing from the smallest sized to the largest sized revolver. Then, +again, we may, reckoning a certain constant amount of heat lost per +each revolver furnace of the small size, consider that if we doubled +the size of such revolver, we should lose by no means double the +amount of heat lost with the small apparatus; but only the same as +that lost in the small furnace <i>plus</i> a certain fraction of that +quantity, which will be smaller the better and more efficient the +arrangements are. Then, again, there is an economy in iron plate for +such a large revolver; there is economy in expense on the engine power +and on fuel consumed, as well as in wear and tear.</p> + +<p>Just to mention fuel alone, we saw that with an ordinary large sized +revolver, the coal consumption was 13 cwt. per ton of salt cake +decomposed in the black ash process; but with the giant revolver we +have been describing, that consumption is reduced to 10 cwt. per ton +of cake decomposed.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/7c.png" alt="A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE." /></p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/7d.png" alt="A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE." /><br /> A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE.</p> + +<p>The question will be probably asked, How is it possible to get a flame +from one furnace to carry through such a long revolver and do its work +in fusing the black ash mixture effectively from one end to the other? +The furnace employed viewed in front looks very like an ordinary +revolver fireplace, but at the side thereof, in line with the front of +the revolver, at which the discharge of the "crude soda" takes place, +there are observed to be three "charging holes," rather than doors, +through which fuel is charged from a platform directly into the +furnace through those holes.</p> + +<p>The furnace is of course a larger one than furnaces adjusted to +revolvers of the usual size. But the effect of one charging door in +front and three at the side, which after charging are "banked" up with +coal, with the exception of a small aperture above for admission of +air, is very similar to that sometimes adopted in the laboratory for +increasing heating effect by joining several Bunsen lamps together to +produce one large, powerful flame. In this case, the four charging +holes represent, as it were, the air apertures of the several Bunsen +lamps. Of course the one firing door at front would be totally +inadequate to supply and feed a fire capable of yielding a flame that +would be adequate for the working of so huge a revolver. As an effort +of chemical engineering, it is a very interesting example of what +skill and enterprise in that direction alone will do in reducing +costs, without in the least modifying the chemical reactions taking +place.—<i>Journal Soc. Chem. Industry.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art25" id="art25"></a>IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By FREDERICK RANSOMS, A.I.C.E.</h3> + +<p>So much has been said and written on and in relation to Portland +cement that further communications upon the subject may appear to many +of the present company to be superfluous. But is this really so? The +author thinks not, and he hopes by the following communication, to +place before this meeting and the community at large some facts which +have up to the present time, or until within a very recent date, been +practically disregarded or overlooked in the production of this very +important and valuable material, so essential in carrying out the +great and important works of the present day, whether of docks and +harbors, our coast defenses, or our more numerous operations on land, +including the construction of our railways, tunnels, and bridges, +aqueducts, viaducts, foundations, etc. The author does not propose to +occupy the time of this meeting by referring to the origin or the +circumstances attendant upon the early history of this material, the +manufacture of which has now assumed such gigantic proportions—these +matters have already been fully dealt with by other more competent +authorities; but rather to direct the attention of those interested +therein to certain modifications, which he considers improvements, by +means of which a large proportion of capital unnecessarily involved in +its manufacture may be set free in the future, the method of +manufacture simplified, the cost of manipulation reduced, and stronger +and more uniformly reliable cement be placed within the reach of those +upon whom devolves the duty and responsibility of constructing works +of a substantial and permanent character; but in order to do this it +will be necessary to allude to certain palpable errors and defects +which, in the author's opinion, are perpetuated, and are in general +practice at the present day.</p> + +<p>Portland cement is, as is well known, composed of a mixture of chalk, +or other carbonate of lime, and clay—such as is obtained on the banks +of the Thames or the Medway—intimately mixed and then subjected to +heat in a kiln, producing incipient fusion, and thereby forming a +chemical combination of lime with silica and alumina, or practically +of lime with dehydrated clay. In order to effect this, the usual +method is to place the mechanically mixed chalk and clay (technically +called slurry), in lumps varying in size, say, from 4 to 10 lb., in +kilns with alternate layers of coke, and raise the mass to a glowing +heat sufficient to effect the required combination, in the form of +very hard clinker. These kilns differ in capacity, but perhaps a fair +average size would be capable of producing about 30 tons of clinker, +requiring for the operation, say, from 60 to 70 tons of dried slurry, +with from 12 to 15 tons of coke or other fuel. The kiln, after being +thus loaded, is lighted by means of wood and shavings at the base, +and, as a matter of course, the lumps of slurry at the lower part of +the kiln are burned first, but the moisture and sulphurous gases +liberated by the heat are condensed by the cooler layers above, and +remain until the heat from combustion, gradually ascending, raises the +temperature to a sufficient degree to drive them further upward, until +at length they escape at the top of the kiln. The time occupied in +loading, burning, and drawing a kiln of 30 tons of clinker averages +about seven days. It will be readily understood that the outside of +the clinker so produced must have been subjected to a much greater +amount of heat then was necessary, before the center of such clinker +could have received sufficient to have produced the incipient fusion +necessary to effect the chemical combination of its ingredients; and +the result is not only a considerable waste of heat, but, as always +occurs, the clinker is not uniformly burnt, a portion of the outer +part has to be discarded as overburnt and useless, while the inner +part is not sufficiently burnt, and has to be reburned afterward. +Moreover, the clinker, which is of excessively hard character, has to +be reduced by means of a crusher to particles sufficiently small to be +admitted by the millstones, where it is ground into a fine powder, and +becomes the Portland cement of commerce.</p> + +<p>This process of manufacture is almost identical in principle and in +practice with that described and patented by Mr. Joseph Aspden in the +year 1824; and though various methods have been patented for utilizing +the waste heat of the kilns in drying the slurry previous to +calcination, still the main feature of burning the material in mass in +large and expensive kilns remained the same, and is continued in +practice to the present day. The attention of the author was directed +to this subject some time since in consequence of the failure of a +structure in which Portland cement formed an essential element, and he +had not proceeded far in his investigation of the cause of the failure +when he was struck with what appeared to him to be the unscientific +method adopted in its manufacture, and the uncertain results that must +necessarily accrue therefrom. Admitting, in the first place, that the +materials employed were considered the best and most economical for +the purpose readily accessible, viz., chalk and an alluvial deposit +found in abundance on the banks of the Thames and the Medway, and +being intimately mixed together in suitable proportions, was it +necessary, in order to effect the chemical combination of the +ingredients at an intense heat, to employ such massive and expensive +structures of masonry, occupying such an enormous space of valuable +ground, with tall chimney stacks for the purpose of discharging the +objectionable gases, etc., at such a height, in order to reduce the +nuisance to the surrounding neighborhood? Again, was it possible to +effect the perfect calcination of the interior of the lumps alluded to +without bestowing upon the outer portions a greater heat than was +necessary for the purpose, causing a wasteful expenditure of both +<a name="Page_9902" id="Page_9902"></a>time and fuel? And further, as cement is required to be used in the +state of powder, could not the mixture of the raw materials be +calcined in powder, thereby avoiding the production of such a hard +clinker, which has afterward to be broken up and reduced to a fine +powder by grinding in an ordinary mill?</p> + +<p>The foregoing are some of the defects which the author applied himself +to remove, and he now desires to draw attention to the way in which +the object has been attained by the substitution of a revolving +furnace for the massive cement kilns now in general use, and by the +application of gaseous products to effect calcination, in the place of +coke or other solid fuel. The revolving furnace consists of a +cylindrical casing of steel or boiler plate supported upon steel +rollers (and rotated by means of a worm and wheel, driven by a pulley +upon the shaft carrying the worm), lined with good refractory fire +brick, so arranged that certain courses are set so as to form three or +more radial projecting fins or ledges. The cylindrical casing is +provided with two circular rails or pathways, turned perfectly true, +to revolve upon the steel rollers, mounted on suitable brickwork, with +regenerative flues, by passing through which the gas and air severally +become heated, before they meet in the combustion chamber, at the +mouth of the revolving furnace. The gas may be supplied from slack +coal or other hydrocarbon burnt in any suitable gas producer (such, +for instance, as those for which patents have been obtained by Messrs. +Brook & Wilson, of Middlesbrough, or by Mr. Thwaite, of Liverpool), +which producer may be placed in any convenient situation.</p> + +<p>The cement mixture or slurry, instead of being burnt in lumps, is +passed between rollers or any suitable mill, when, it readily falls +into coarse dry powder, which powder is thence conveyed by an elevator +and fed into the revolving furnace by means of a hopper and pipe, +which, being set at an angle with the horizon, as it turns gradually +conveys the cement material in a tortuous path toward the lower and +hotter end, where it is discharged properly calcined. The material +having been fed into the upper end of the cylinder falls through the +flame to the lower side of it; the cylinder being in motion lifts it +on its advancing side, where it rests against one of its projecting +fins or ledges until it has reached such an angle that it shoots off +in a shower through the flame and falls once more on the lower side. +This again causes it to travel in a similar path, and every rotation +of the cylinder produces a like effect, so that by the time it arrives +at the lower and hotter end it has pursued a roughly helical path, +during which it has been constantly lifted and shot through the flame, +occupying about half an hour in its transit.</p> + +<p>To some who have been accustomed to the more tedious process of kiln +burning, the time thus occupied may appear insufficient to effect the +combinations necessary to produce the required result; but it will be +seen that the conditions here attained are, in fact, those best suited +to carry out effectively the chemical changes necessary for the +production of cement. The raw material being in powder offers every +facility for the speedy liberation of water and carbonic acid, the +operation being greatly hastened by the velocity of the furnace gases +through which the particles pass. That such is practically the case is +shown by the following analysis of cement so burnt in the revolving +furnace or cylinder:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left">Per cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Carbonic acid, anhydrous</td> +<td align="right"><ins class="tnote" title="Transcriber's Note: Trailing zero added to line up table">0.40</ins></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sulphuric acid, anhydrous</td><td align="right">0.26</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Silica soluble</td><td align="right">24.68</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Silica insoluble</td> +<td align="right"><ins class="tnote" title="Transcriber's Note: Trailing zero added to line up table">0.60</ins></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Alumina and oxide of iron</td><td align="right">10.56</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Lime</td><td align="right">61.48</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Magnesia, water, and alkalies</td><td align="right">2.02</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">———</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"> +<ins class="tnote" title="Transcriber's Note: Decimal point and trailing zeroes added to line up table">100.00</ins></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>Again, fineness of the particles results in their being speedily +heated to a uniform temperature, so that they do not serve as nuclei +for the condensation of the moisture existing in the furnace gas. The +calcined material, on reaching the lower end of the furnace, is +discharged on to the floor or on to a suitable "conveyer," and removed +to a convenient locality for cooling and subsequent grinding or +finishing. It, however, is not in the condition of hard, heavy +clinkers, such as are produced in the ordinary cement kiln, which +require special machinery for breaking up into smaller pieces before +being admitted between the millstones for the final process of +grinding; nor does it consist of an overburnt exterior and an +underburnt core or center portion; but it issues from the cylindrical +furnace in a condition resembling in appearance coarse gunpowder, with +occasional agglutinations of small friable particles readily reduced +to fine powder in an ordinary mill, requiring but small power to work, +and producing but little wear and tear upon the millstones. The +operation is continuous. The revolver or furnace, once started, works +on night and day, receiving the adjusted quantity of powdered material +at the upper or feed end, and delivering its equivalent in properly +burnt cement at the opposite end, thus effecting a great saving of +time, and preventing the enormous waste of heat and serious injury to +the brickwork, etc., incidental to the cooling down, withdrawing the +charge, and reloading the ordinary kiln.</p> + +<p>Cement, when taken from the furnace, weighed 110 lb. per bushel. +Cement, when ground, leaving 10 percent. on sieve with 2,500 holes to +the inch, weighed 121 lb. per bushel, and when cold 118 lb. per +bushel. When made into briquettes, the tensile breaking strain upon +the square inch:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="right">At</td><td align="right">4 days</td><td align="right">was</td><td align="right">410</td><td align='center'>lb. per square inch.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">At</td><td align="right">6 days</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align="right">610</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">At</td><td align="right">14 days</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align="right">810</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">At</td><td align="right">49 days</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align="right">900</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">At</td><td align="right">76 days</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align="right">1,040</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>A cylindrical furnace, such as the author has described, is capable of +turning out at least 20 tons of good cement per day of twenty-four +hours, with a consumption of about 3 tons of slack coal. It will be +readily understood that these furnaces can be worked more economically +in pairs than singly, as they can be so arranged that one producer may +furnish a sufficient quantity of gas for the supply of two cylinders, +and the same labor will suffice; but in order to provide for possible +contingencies the author advises that a spare gas producer and an +extra furnace should be in readiness, so that by a simple arrangement +of valves, etc., two cylinders may always be in operation, while from +any cause one may be undergoing temporary repairs, and by this means +any diminution in the output may be avoided.</p> + +<p>The author considers it unnecessary here to discuss either the +advantages or the economy of fuel effected by the employment of gas +producers for such a purpose. These have been abundantly proved in +steel and glass making industries, where a saving of from 50 to 70 per +cent. of the fuel formerly employed has been made. Their cost is +small, they occupy little room, they can be placed at any reasonable +distance from the place where the gas is to be burnt; any laborer can +shovel the slack into them, and they do not require constant skilled +supervision. It is claimed by the author of this paper that the +following are among the many advantages derivable from the adoption of +this method of manufacturing Portland cement, as compared with the old +system:</p> + +<div class="ind"> +<p>(1) Economy of space—the furnaces, with their appurtenances, + requiring only about one-fourth the space of what would be + occupied by the ordinary kilns for producing the same quantity + of finished cement.</p> + +<p>(2) Continuous working, and consequent economy of fuel lost by + cooling and subsequent reheating of the kiln walls.</p> + +<p>(3) Economy of repairs, which are of a simple and comparatively + inexpensive character, and of much less frequent occurrence, as + the continuous heat avoids the racking occasioned by the + alternate heating and cooling.</p> + +<p>(4) Economy in first cost.</p> + +<p>(5) Economy in grinding, a friable granular substance being + produced instead of a hard clinker, whereby crushers are quite + abolished, and the wear and tear of millstones greatly + reduced.</p> + +<p>(6) Economy of labor, the conveyance to and removal from, the + revolving furnace being conducted automatically by mechanical + elevators and conveyers.</p> + +<p>(7) Improved quality of the cement, from non-mixture with + fuel, ash, or other impurities, and no overburning or + underburning of the material.</p> + +<p>(8) Thorough control, from the facility of increasing or + diminishing the flow of crushed slurry and of regulating the + heat in the furnace as desirable.</p> + +<p>(9) Absence of smoke and deleterious gases.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is well known that in some localities the materials from which +Portland cement is made are of such a powdery character that they have +to be combined or moulded into balls or bricks previous to calcination +in the ordinary way, thus entailing expense which would be entirely +obviated by the adoption of the patent revolving furnace, as has been +proved by the author in producing excellent cement with a mixture of +slag sand from the blast furnaces of the Cleveland iron district, with +a proper proportion of chalk or limestone, which, in consequence of +the friable nature of the compound, he was unable to burn in the +ordinary cement kiln, but which, when burnt in the revolving furnace, +gave the most satisfactory results. The cement so made possessed +extraordinary strength and hardness, and it has been a matter of +surprise that iron masters and others have not adopted such a means of +converting a waste material—which at the present time entails upon +its producers constant heavy outlay for its removal—into a +remunerative branch of industry by the expenditure of a comparatively +small amount of capital. The demand for Portland cement has increased +and is still increasing at a rapid ratio. It is being manufactured +upon a gigantic scale.</p> + +<p>Great interests are involved; large sums of money are being expended +in the erection and maintenance of expensive plant for its production; +and the author submits that the development of any method which will +improve the quality and at the same time reduce the cost of +manufacture of this valuable material will tend to increase the +prosperity of one of our great national industries, and stimulate +commercial enterprise. Works are in progress for manufacturing cement +by this improved process, and the author trusts the time is not far +distant when the unsightly structures which now disfigure the banks of +some of our rivers will be abolished—the present cement kilns, like +the windmills once such a common feature of our country, being +regarded as curiosities of the past, and cement manufacturers cease to +be complained of as causing nuisances to their neighbors.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[1]</a></p> +<div class="footnote"><p>A paper recently read before the British Association.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a>MIX AND GENEST'S MICROPHONE TELEPHONE.</h2> + +<p>We illustrate in the annexed engraving the microphone-telephone +constructed by Messrs. Mix & Genest, of Berlin, which, after extended +trials, has been adopted in preference to others by the imperial +postal department of Germany. There are now more than 5,000 of these +instruments in use, and we need scarcely mention that the invention +has been patented in many countries.</p> + +<p>In some microphones a rattling noise is frequently occasioned, which +borne along with the sound of the human voice causes an audible +disturbance in the telephone. The chief cause of these disturbances +may be ascribed to the fact that the carbon rollers in their journals, +rest loose in the flutings of the beam, which is fastened to the sound +plate. Owing to the shocks given to the entire apparatus, and +independent of the oscillations of the sound plate, they are set in +motion and roll to and fro in their bearings.</p> + +<p>In microphones in which the sound plates are arranged vertically (as +shown in Fig. 2), these disturbances assume such a character that +there is no possibility of understanding the speaker, for in this case +the horizontally directed oscillations of the sound plate, <i>m</i>, cause +themselves a backward and forward motion on the part of the carbon +rollers without increasing or decreasing at the same time the lying-on +pressure of the roller journals, and by doing so bring the places of +contact one on the other, and thus occasion a conducting resistance of +greater or less force. This circumstance serves as an explanation of +the reason why the sound plates in Ader's microphones are not arranged +vertically, although this way of arranging them offers many advantages +over a horizontal or slightly inclined arrangement of the sound +plates. Speaking is more convenient in the vertical arrangement, and +moreover the plates can be fitted on to instruments better in this +way.</p> + +<p>All the drawbacks just enumerated and found in Ader's microphones are +avoided in the apparatus made by Messrs. Mix & Genest. A sort of +braking contrivance operates on the carbon rollers in such a way as to +prevent their journals from lying on the lower points in the flutings +of the beams. Thus, for instance, if in a microphone with a horizontal +sound plate, as illustrated in Fig. 3, the carbon rollers are pressed +upward by outward force, it is evident that only a very trifling +rolling and disturbing motion can occur, and only small pieces of +carbon can be knocked off, which would act injuriously as a secondary +contact. The same may be said of the journals of microphones with +vertical sound plates, as represented in Fig. 2, when the carbon +rollers are pressed in the direction of the arrow, <i>p</i>, that is to +say, against the sound plate. In this case the journals, <i>a</i>, are +fixed in the flutings of the beams, <i>b</i>, in a direction given them by +the power and gravity operating on them, which is clearly represented +in the accompanying design, Fig. 2.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/8a.png" alt=" FIG. 1." /><br /> FIG. 1.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/8b.png" alt=" FIG. 2." /><br /> FIG. 2.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/8c.png" alt=" FIG. 3." /><br /> FIG. 3.<br /> +THE MIX AND GENEST TELEPHONE.</p> + +<p>In all such cases the regulating contrivance applied to brake the +carbon rollers in their motion has the result that only the +oscillations transmitted from the sound plate on to the contacts come +in operation, whereas disturbing mechanical shocks resulting from any +outward influences occasion very insignificant vibrations, which are +not perceptible in the telephone. The separate contacts thus form a +firm system with the sound plate, so that the former are influenced in +their motions and effects solely and alone by the shocks and +oscillations which operate direct on these sound plates. The roller +motion of the carbon is thus removed, and the distinctness of the +words spoken is greatly augmented.</p> + +<p>The above Figs. 1 and 2 show the microphone in side view and in cross +section.</p> + +<p>A metal ring, R (see Fig. 1), is fastened by means of the four screws, +<i>r<sub>1</sub></i> <i>r<sub>2</sub></i> <i>r<sub>3</sub></i> <i>r<sub>4</sub></i>, on a wooden mouthpiece. In a recess of the +above ring is the diaphragm, M, which is provided on its outer edge +with an India rubber band and is held in position by the two clamps, <i>a</i> +and <i>a<sub>1</sub></i>. The diaphragm is cut out of finely fibered firwood and is +well lacquered to preserve it against dampness. On it there are two +carbon beams, <i>b</i>, and in the perforations of the latter are the +journals of the carbon rollers, <i>k</i>. The alterations in contact take +place in the touching points. The cross piece, <i>f</i>, that runs straight +across the carbon rollers serves as a braking contrivance, which is +regulated as may be necessary by the large projecting screws.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_9903" id="Page_9903"></a>Fig. 3 shows the apparatus in cross section. T is the mouth piece, R +the metal ring, M the diaphragm, <i>f</i> the breaking cross piece. On the +latter is a metal block fastened by means of two screws. On this metal +block is a soft elastic strip (<i>d</i>) of felt or similar material. The +letters <i>s</i> and <i>s</i> indicate the regulating screws for the braking +contrivance.</p> + +<p>The excellent qualities of other microphones, in particular their +extreme sensibility for the very least impressions, are undeniable; +but it is just this sensibility that is the cause of the complaints +made by the public. In practical use this overgreat sensibility proves +to be a fault.</p> + +<p>In the apparatus constructed by Messrs. Mix and Genest the well-known +deficiencies of other systems are avoided. The effect of the sound and +the distinctness of the human voice are clearer and far more +intelligible. One simple regulation of the microphone suffices for the +installation, for there is no danger of its getting out of order. +Owing to its peculiar construction, this new microphone is very firm +and solid, and for this very reason offers another advantage, namely, +the possibility of transmitting sound over very long distances. In the +competitive trials instituted by order of the imperial postal +department, apparatus of various systems and constructions were +subjected to tests, and the apparatus we are speaking of showed the +favorable results just mentioned. This microphone has overcome in +particular the difficulties connected with the using of combined lines +above and below ground, and with the aid of it the excellent +telephonic communication is carried on in Berlin, in which city the +telephone net is most extensive and complicated. At the same time this +microphone transmits the sound over long distances (up to 200 kilom. +even) in the most satisfactory manner. Another peculiar advantage of +this construction is that it exercises a very small inductive effect +on cables and free lines, and consequently the simultaneous speaking +on parallel lines causes but little disturbance.</p> + +<p>After repeated trials made by the German imperial postal department +with the microphones constructed by Messrs. Mix and Genest, these +apparatus have been introduced in the place of the telephones and +Bell-Blake microphones hitherto used in the telephone service. At +present we understand there are about 8,000 of these apparatus in use.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art24" id="art24"></a>ELECTROLYSIS AND REFINING OF SUGAR.</h2> + +<p>Mr. G. Fahrig, of Eccles, Lancashire, has invented a new process of +refining sugar through electrolysis. The brown sugar is decolorized by +means of ozone produced by electric currents of high tension from a +dynamo. The electrodes consist of metal grills covered with platinum +or some other inoxidizable metal, and are placed in a vat with the +intervention of perforated earthenware plates. After being ground and +dried in hot air, the crude sugar is placed between the plate and the +grills, and the discharges passing between the electrodes produce +ozone, which separates the sugar from the coloring matter. To purify +the sugar still further, Mr. Fahrig dries it and places it in another +vat, with carbon or platinum conducting plates separated by a porous +partition. The sugar is placed on one side of this partition, and +water circulates on the other side.</p> + +<p>The current from a dynamo of feeble tension is sent through the vat +between the plates. The water carries along the impurities separated +by the current, and the sugar is further whitened and refined.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/9a.png" alt="" /></p> + +<p>The accompanying figure shows a series of four vats arranged one above +another, in order to permit the water to circulate. Here <i>i</i> and <i>h</i> +represent the plates connected with the poles of the dynamo through +the conductors, <i>f</i> and <i>g</i>; <i>m</i> represents the porous partition; L, +the spaces filled with sugar; and <i>l</i>, the compartments in which the +water circulates.—<i>La Lumiere Electrique.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center">[THE ELECTRICIAN.]</p> + +<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a>A CURRENT METER.</h2> + +<p>We give a description of a meter we made in June, 1883. You will find +a cross section of the meter and also a printed dial we had made at +the time. We called it an ampere register, but no doubt we would give +it a better name to-day. The meter consisted of a glass tube, <i>c</i>, +both ends of which were fitted into two bent pieces of piping, D and +F, as shown. Through these bent tubes, D and F, passed the wires, a +and <i>b</i>, which were connected to the binding posts, A and B. The part +of the wire where it passed into the tubes was well insulated. At the +ends, <i>a'</i> and <i>b'</i>, was connected the coil, R, which consisted simply +of a few turns of copper wire whose diameter was less than the leading +wires, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>. To the tube, D, was attached a square tube, E, +which had a little opening at the top so as to permit a small +undershot wheel, I, to revolve freely. This undershot wheel was well +pivoted and constructed very light. To the axis of this wheel was +connected another system of wheels with indicators, as shown, J. Now +the tubes, E and F, were connected to a reservoir, G. This reservoir +consisted of a square tank, in the inside of which were soldered in an +alternating manner square sheets of copper as shown in the drawing, +<i>g</i> <i>g'</i> <i>g''</i> <i>g'''</i> ... These sheets acted as diffusers. These +plates or sheets presented a very large surface. On the outside of the +tank, G, were also diffusers, <i>h</i> <i>h'</i> ... arranged all round and +presenting an appearance as if two books were open so as to form a +square with their covers, the leaves being the diffusers. The +diffusers on the outside were at right angles to those inside.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/9b.png" alt=" CROSS SECTION OF JEHL AND RUPP'S CURRENT METER." /><br /> CROSS SECTION OF JEHL AND RUPP'S CURRENT METER.</p> + +<p>The action of the meter was thus: When a current passes through the +coil, R, it heats the liquid at the place, thus causing a circulation, +the warm liquid ascending while the cold liquid descends as shown by +the arrows. This circulation causes the undershot wheel to revolve, +and its revolutions are registered by the clockwork. The stronger the +current, the more the heat, and thus the more rapid the circulation. +The warm liquid once in the tank, which is of a reasonable size, will +impart its heat to all the diffusers. The surface of the glass tube, +etc., is very small in comparison to the surface of the tank. It will +be seen that the function of this apparatus is independent of the +outward temperature, for the motion of the liquid is due only to that +heat which is generated by the current. When the current does not +pass, it is evident that the liquid, at whatever temperature it may +be, does not circulate, as all parts are of the same temperature; but +the moment the current passes, a difference is produced, which causes +a circulation in proportion to the current. We may mention that we +tried various liquids, and give preference to pure olive oil. It will +also be seen that this meter is good for alternating currents. In +conclusion, we may remark that the tests we made gave satisfaction, +and we wanted to publish them, but that Mr. Jehl was called away to +fit up the Edison exhibit in the Vienna exhibition for the Societe +Electrique Edison of Paris. After the exhibition we began our work +upon our disk machine, and had almost forgotten our meter. The whole +apparatus is mounted on a base, K.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/9c.png" alt=" DIAL FACE." /><br />DIAL FACE.</p> + +<p class="signature">JEHL AND RUPP.</p> +<p>Brünn, Sept. 26, 1887.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>STORAGE BATTERIES FOR ELECTRIC LOCOMOTION.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By A. RECKENZAUN.</h3> + + +<p>The idea of employing secondary batteries for propelling vehicles is +almost contemporaneous with the discovery of this <a name="Page_9904" id="Page_9904"></a>method of storing +energy. To Mr. Plante, more than to any other investigator, much of +our knowledge in this branch of electrical science is due. He was the +first to take advantage of the action of secondary currents in voltaic +batteries. Plante is a scientist of the first grade, and he is a +wonderfully exact experimenter. He examined the whole question of +polarization of electrodes, using all kinds of metal as electrodes and +many different liquids as electrolytes, and during his endless +researches he found that the greatest useful effect was produced when +dilute sulphuric acid was electrolyzed between electrodes of metallic +lead.</p> + +<p>A set of Plante's original cells was exhibited for the first time in +March, 1860, before the Paris Academy of Sciences. Scientists admired +and praised it, but the general public knew nothing of this great +discovery thus brought to notice. Indeed, at that period little +commercial value could be attached to such apparatus, since the +accumulator had to be charged by means of primary batteries, and it +was then well known that electrical energy, when produced by chemical +means in voltaic cells, was far too expensive for any purpose outside +the physical laboratory or the telegraph office.</p> + +<p>It was twenty years after this exhibition at the Academy of Sciences +in Paris that public attention was drawn to the importance of storage +batteries, and that Mr. Faure conceived the idea of constructing +plates consisting of lead and oxides of lead. At that time the +advantages accruing through a system of electrical storage could be +fully appreciated, since electrical energy was already being produced +by mechanical means through the medium of dynamo-electric machines.</p> + +<p>It was the dynamo machine which created the demand for the storage +battery, and the latter was introduced anew to the public at large +and to the capitalist with great pomp and enthusiasm. One of Faure's +accumulators was sent to Sir William Thomson, and this eminent +scientist in the course of experiments ascertained that a single cell, +weighing 165 lb., can store two million foot-pounds of energy, or one +horse power for one hour, and that the loss of energy in charging did +not exceed 15 per cent. These results appeared highly encouraging. +There we had a method of storing that could give out the greater part +of the energy put in. The immense development which the electric +transmission of energy was even at that early day expected to undergo +pointed to the fact that a convenient method of receiving large +quantities of transmitted energy, and of holding it in readiness until +wanted, must be of the highest importance. Numerous applications of +the Faure battery were at once suggested, and the public jumped to the +conclusion that a thing for which so many uses could be instantly +found must necessarily be a profitable investment, and plenty of money +was provided forthwith, not with the idea of commencing careful +experiments and developing the then crude invention, which would have +been the correct thing, but for manufacturing tons of accumulators in +their first and immature form.</p> + +<p>I need not describe the disappointments which followed the first +unfulfilled hopes, nor repeat the criticism that was heaped upon the +heads of the early promoters. Those early hopes were untimely and +unreasonable. A thousand difficulties had to be overcome—scientific +difficulties and manufacturing difficulties. This invention, like most +others, had to go through steady historical developments and +evolution, and follow the recognized laws of nature, which are against +abnormal and instantaneous maturity. The period of maturity has also +been retarded by injudicious treatment, but the ultimate success was +inevitable. Great advances have been made within the last few years, +and I propose now to offer a few facts and figures relating to the +present state of the subject with reference to the application of +storage batteries to locomotive purposes. It is not within the +province of this paper to discuss all the different inventions of +secondary batteries nor to offer any suggestions with regard to +priority, therefore I will confine myself to general statements. I am +aware of the good work that was done in the United States by Kirchhoff +twenty-six years ago, and of the more recent work of Mr. Brush, of +Cleveland, Mr. Julien and others, but I am more particularly +acquainted with the recent achievements of the Electrical Accumulator +Company, who own the rights of the Electrical Power Storage Company, +of London. I have used the batteries of the latter company for +propelling electric boats and electric street cars. The first of the +boats was the Electricity, which was launched in September, 1882, and +which attained a speed of seven miles an hour for six consecutive +hours. Since then a dozen electric boats of various sizes have been +fitted up and worked successfully by means of storage batteries and +motors of my design. The most important of these were the launch Volta +and another similar craft, which is used by the Italian government for +torpedo work in the harbor of Spezia. On the measured mile trial trips +the Italian launch gave an average speed of 8.43 miles an hour with +and against the tide. The hull of this vessel was built by Messrs. +Yarrow & Co., and the motors were manufactured by Messrs. Stephens, +Smith & Co., of London. The Volta, which was entirely fitted by the +latter firm, is 37 feet long and 7 feet beam. She draws 2'6" of water +when carrying 40 persons, for whom there is ample sitting +accommodation. There are 64 cells in this boat. These are placed as +ballast under the floor, and actuate a pair of motors and a screw +coupled direct to the armature shaft running at 700 revolutions a +minute. We crossed the English Channel with this boat in September of +last year, leaving Dover at 10:40 in the morning, arriving at Calais +at 2:30 P.M.; stayed about an hour in the French harbor for luncheon +and floated into Dover docks the same evening, at 6:30, with full +speed. The actual distance traversed without entirely discharging the +cells was 54 miles. The current remained constant at 28 amperes until +5 P.M., and it only dropped to 25 amperes at the completion of the +double voyage between England and France. Several electric launches +are now being constructed in London, and one in New York by the +Electrical Accumulator Company.</p> + +<p>M. Trouve exhibited a small boat and a tricycle, both worked by Plante +accumulators, at Paris, in 1881.</p> + +<p>The first locomotive actuated by storage batteries was used at a +bleaching works in France in 1882. During the same year I designed an +electric street car for the storage company, and this was tried on the +lines of the West Metropolitan Tramways in March, 1883. It had +accommodation for 46 passengers. This car had many defects, and I +reconstructed it entirely, and ran it afterward in its improved form +on the South London Tramways, and also on a private track at Millwall, +where it is now in good condition, and I have a similar car in Berlin. +M. Phillippart exhibited a car in Paris and M. Julien made successful +experiments in Brussels, Antwerp, and Hamburg. Mr. Elieson is running +storage battery locomotives in London. Mr. Julien has also been +experimenting with a car in New York, and I believe one is in course +of construction for a line in the city of Boston. Messrs. W. Wharton, +Jr. & Co. have a storage battery car running at Philadelphia on Spruce +and Pine streets, and this energetic firm is now fitting up another +car with two trucks, each carrying an independent motor, similar to my +European cars.</p> + +<p>I have mentioned all these facts in order to show that there is a +considerable amount of activity displayed in the matter of storage +batteries for street cars, and that continued and substantial progress +is being made in each successive case. The prejudices against the +application of secondary batteries are being rapidly dispelled, and +there are indications everywhere that this method of propulsion will +soon take a recognized place among the great transit facilities in the +United States. I feel convinced that this country will also in this +respect be far ahead of Europe before another year has passed over our +heads.</p> + +<p>There are several popular and I may say serious objections to the +employment of storage batteries for propelling street cars. These +objections I will now enumerate, and endeavor to show how far they are +true, and in what measure they interfere with the economical side of +the question.</p> + +<p>First objection: The loss of energy, which amounts in practice to 20 +and sometimes 30 per cent. Now, every method of storing or +transmitting energy involves some waste, but in saying this we need +not condemn the system, for after all the term efficiency is only a +relative one. For instance, a 10 horse power steam engine consumes +three times as much fuel per horse power hour as a 1,000 horse power +engine does, yet this small engine must be, and is regarded as, one of +the most economical labor-saving appliances known to us. Considered as +a heat engine, the efficiency of the most economical steam motor is +but ten per cent.—90 per cent of the available units of heat +contained in coal being lost during its transformation into mechanical +energy. Thus, if we find that the storage battery does not return more +than 70 per cent, of the work expended in charging it, we ought not to +condemn it on that account until we have ascertained whether this low +efficiency renders the system unfit for any or all commercial +purposes. It is needless to go into figures in order to show that, +when compared with animal power, this objection drops into +insignificance.</p> + +<p>The second, more formidable, objection relates to the weight of +storage batteries—and this involves two disadvantages, viz., waste of +power in propelling the accumulator along with the car, and increased +pressure upon the street rails, which are only fitted to carry a +maximum of 5 tons distributed over 4 points, so that each wheel of an +ordinary car produces a pressure of 1¼ tons upon a point of the rail +immediately under it.</p> + +<p>The last mentioned objection is easily overcome by distributing the +weight of the car with its electrical apparatus over 8 wheels or 2 +small trucks, whereby the pressure per unit of section on the rails is +reduced to a minimum. With regard to the weight of the storage +batteries, relatively to the amount of energy the same are capable of +holding and transmitting, I beg to offer a few practical figures. +Theoretically, the energy manifested in the separation of one pound of +lead from its oxide is equivalent to 360,000 foot pounds, but these +chemical equivalents, though interesting in themselves, gives us no +tangible idea of the actual capacity of a battery.</p> + +<p>Repeated experiments have shown me that the capacity of a secondary +battery cell varies with the rate at which it is charged and +discharged. For instance, a cell such as we use on street cars gave a +useful capacity of 137.3 ampere hours when discharged at the average +rate of 45.76 amperes, and this same cell yielded 156.38 ampere hours +when worked at the rate of 22.34 amperes. At the commencement of the +discharge the E.M.F of the battery was 2.1 volts, and this was allowed +to drop to 1.87 volts when the experiment was concluded. The entire +active material contained in the plates of one cell weighed 11.5 lb., +therefore the energy given off per pound of active substance at the +above high rate of discharge was 62.225 foot pounds, and when +discharging at the lower rate of 22.34 amperes the available useful +energy was 72.313 foot pounds, or nearly 2.2 electrical horse power +per pound of active matter. But this active substance has to be +supported, and the strength or weight of the support has to be made +sufficiently great to give the plate a definite strength and +durability. The support of the plates inclusive of the terminals above +referred to weighs more than the active material, which consists of +peroxide of lead and spongy lead; so that the plates of one cell weigh +actually 26.5 pounds. Add to this the weight of the receptacle and +acid, and you get a total of about 41 pounds per cell when in working +order. Seventy of these cells will propel an ordinary street car for +four hours and a half, while consuming the stored energy at the rate +of 30 amperes, or over 5.6 electrical horse power. The whole set of +seventy cells weighs 2,870 lb., which is barely one-fifth of the +entire weight of the car when it carries forty adult passengers. +Therefore the energy wasted in propelling the accumulator along with a +ear does not amount to more than 20 per cent. of the total power, and +this we can easily afford to lose so long as animal power is our only +competitor. From numerous and exhaustive tests with accumulators on +cars in this country and abroad, I have come to the conclusion that +the motive power for hauling a full-sized street car for fifteen hours +a day does not exceed $1.75, and this includes fuel, water, oil, +attendance, and repairs to engine, boiler, and dynamo. We have thus an +immense margin left between the cost of electric traction and horse +traction, and the last objection, that relating to the depreciation of +the battery plates, can be most liberally met, and yet leave ample +profits over the old method of propulsion by means of animals.</p> + +<p>The advantages of storage battery street cars for city traffic are +self-evident, so that I need not trouble you with further details in +this respect, but I would beg those who take an interest in the +progress of the electric locomotive to give this subject all the +consideration it deserves, and I would assure them that the system +which I have advocated in this brief but very incomplete sketch is +worthy of an extended trial, and ready for the purposes set forth. +There is no reason why those connected with electric lighting +interests in the various cities and towns should not give the matter +their special attention, as they are the best informed on electrical +engineering and already have a local control of the supply of current +needed for charging.</p> + +<p>In the car which we use in Philadelphia there are actually 80 cells, +because there are considerable gradients to go over. Each cell weighs +40 pounds and the average horse power of each battery is six. +Sometimes we only use two horse power and sometimes, going up grades +of 5 per cent., we use as much as 12 horse power, but the average rate +is 6 electrical horse power. With reference to the weight of +passengers on the cars, we have never carried more than 50 passengers +on that car, because it is impossible to put more than 50 men into it. +There are seats for 24, and the rest have to stand on the platforms or +in the aisle.</p> + +<p>The changing of the batteries takes three minutes with proper +appliances. One set of cells is drawn out by means of a small winch +and a freshly charged set is put in. It takes the same time to charge +the battery as it does to discharge it in the working of the cars, so +one reserve set would be sufficient to keep the car continually +moving.</p> + +<p>The loss of energy from standing about is probably nothing. If a +battery were to stand charged for three months in a dry case, the loss +of energy might be in three months 10 per cent. I purposely had a set +of cells standing for two years charged and never used them. After two +years there was still a small amount of energy left. So as regards +the loss of energy in a battery standing idle, it is practically +nothing, because no one would think of charging a battery and letting +it stand for three months or a year.</p> + +<p>I have had them stand three or four months and I could hardly +appreciate the loss going on, provided always that the cells are +standing on a dry floor. If the exterior of the box be moist, or if it +stands on a moist floor, there will naturally be a surface leakage +going on: but where there is no surface leakage the mere local action +between the oxides and metallic lead will not discharge the battery +for a very considerable time.</p> + +<p>I have made experiments in London with a loaded car pulled by two +horses. I put a dynamometer between the attachment of the horse and +the car, so as to ascertain exactly the amount of pull, measured in +pounds multiplied by the distance traversed in a minute. You will be +surprised to know that two horses, when doing their easiest work, +drawing a loaded car on a perfectly level road, exert from two to +three horse power. I have mentioned a car in Philadelphia where we use +between two and twelve horse power. A horse is capable of exerting +eight horse power for a few minutes, and when a car is being driven up +grades, such as I see in Boston, for instance, pulling a load of +passengers up these grades, the horses must be exerting from 12 to 16 +horse power, mechanical horse power. That is the reason that street +car horses cannot run more than three or four hours out of the +twenty-four. If they were to run longer, they would be dead in a few +weeks. If they run two hours a day, they will last three or four +years.</p> + +<p>The life of the cells must be expressed upon the principle of ampere +hours or the amount of energy given off by them. Street car service +requires that the cells work their hardest for fifteen or sixteen +hours a day. The life of the cells has to be divided; first, into the +life of the box which contains the plates. This box, if appropriately +constructed of the best materials, will last many years, because there +is no actual wear on it. The life of the negative plates will be very +considerable, because no chemical action is going on in the negative +plate. The negative plate consists almost entirely of spongy lead, and +the hydrogen is mechanically occluded in that spongy lead. Therefore +the depreciation of the battery is almost entirely due to the +oxidation of the positive plates. If we were to make a lead battery of +plates ¼ inch thick, it would last many years; but for street car +work that would be far too heavy. Therefore we make the positive +plates a little more than one-eighth of an inch thick. I find that the +plates get sufficiently brittle to almost fall to pieces after the car +has run fifteen hours a day for six months. The plates then have to be +renewed. But this renewal does not mean the throwing away of the +plates. The weight is the same as before, because no consumption of +material takes place. We take out peroxide of lead instead of red +lead. That peroxide, if converted, produces 70 per cent. of metallic +lead, so that there is a loss of 30 per cent. in value. Then comes the +question of the manufacture of these positive plates, which, I +believe, at the present day are rather expensive. But I believe the +time will come when battery plates will be manufactured like shoe +nails, and the process of renewing the positive plates will be a very +cheap one.</p> + +<p>I ascertained in Europe that the motive power costs 2 cents per car +mile; that is, the steam power and attendance for charging the +batteries. We have to allow twice as much for the depreciation of a +battery at the present high rate at which we have to pay for the +battery—$12 for each cell. But I believe that as soon as the storage +battery industry is sufficiently extended, the total cost for +propelling these cars will not be more than six cents a mile, or about +one half the cost of the cheapest horse traction.</p> + +<p>I have made some very careful observations on the cable tramway in +Philadelphia, which is quite an extensive system. I have never been +able to ascertain the exact amount of waste in pulling the cable +itself; but I have it on the authority of certain technical papers +that there is a waste of about eighty per cent. I do not intend to +depreciate cable or any other tramways, but there is a difficulty +about introducing cable tramways. It is necessary to dig up the +streets and interfere with the roadways. I have been told that the +cable arrangements in Philadelphia cost $100,000 a mile, and that the +cable road in San Francisco cost more than that. One of the directors +of the cable company in Philadelphia told me that if he had seen the +battery system before the introduction of the cable, he would probably +have made up his mind in favor of the former. The wear and tear in the +case of the storage system is also considerable. There is a waste of +energy in the dynamo; secondly, in the accumulator charged by that +dynamo; thirdly, in the motor which is driven by the accumulator; and +fourthly, in the gearing that reduces the speed of the motor to the +speed required by the car axles. It would be difficult to make a motor +run at the rate of eighty revolutions per minute, which is the number +of revolutions of the street car axle when running at the rate of ten +miles an hour. Take all these wastes, and you find in practice that +you do not utilize more than 40 per cent. of the energy given by the +steam engine. But this is quite sufficient to make this system much +cheaper than horse traction.</p> + +<p>It is well known that we can discharge the storage battery <i>ad +libitum</i> at the rate of 2 amperes or 200 amperes. I can get out of a +storage battery almost any horse power I like for a short space of +time. I have not the least objection to the direct system. But when +you come to run twenty or thirty or fifty cars on one line, you will +require very large conductors or dangerously high electromotive force. +The overhead system is applicable to its own particular purposes. +Where there are only five or ten, or even twenty, cars running on one +line, and that line runs through a suburb or a part of a city where +there are not many houses, that system is to be preferred. The +objection to the overhead system is not so much the want of beauty, +but the want of practicability. You have to put your posts very high +indeed, so as to let great wagon loads of hay and all sorts of things +pass underneath. Most of the trouble comes in winter, and when it is +snowing hard a great many difficulties arise. As regards the loss, +suppose that the resistance of the overhead lines is one ohm. To draw +one car it will take an average of 20 amperes, and the only loss will +be 20 multiplied by 20, that is, 400 watts through line resistance. +But if there are ten cars on that line, you get 40,000 watts loss of +energy, unless you increase the conductor in proportion to the number +of cars. If you do that, you get an enormous conductor, and have a +sort of elevated railroad instead of a telegraph wire, as most people +imagine an overhead conductor to be.</p> + +<p>The current required to run a street car is about thirty amperes, and +an electromotive force of about 180 volts. If cars are run in +connection with an incandescent light station, we can arrange our +apparatus so that we can use an E.M.F. say of 110 volts, and then we +can put in a smaller number of cells with a larger capacity that will +give a corresponding horse power. We can charge such larger cells with +50 or 60 amperes instead of thirty.</p> + +<p>In regard to arc lighting machinery, the arc lighting dynamo should +not be used to charge the accumulators. They can be used, but they +require such constant attention as to make them impracticable. We can +only use shunt-wound dynamos conveniently for that purpose.</p> + +<p>In regard to using two motors on a car, there are several advantages +in it. I use two motors on all my cars in Europe, and always have done +so from the beginning. One of the advantages is that in case of an +accident to one motor the other will bring the car home; secondly, +with two motors we can vary the speed without changing the E.M.F. of +the battery. If I want very much power, I put two motors in parallel, +getting four times the power that I do with one machine, and an +intermediate power of two motors.</p> + +<p>There is another advantage of having two motors, and that is that we +can use two driving axles instead of one, and we can go up grades with +almost double the facility that way, because the adhesion would be +double. These are the main advantages arising from the use of two or +more motors.</p> + +<p>Mr. Mailloux asked if I would give my experience in regard to the +mechanical transmission between the motor and the car axle. I have +used almost everything that was known at the time, but in order to +give you a full and detailed account of the various modes of +transmission which I have used I should have to give you figures to +bear out certain experiments. I should only be able to do that in a +lecture of at least five hours' duration, so I hope that you will +kindly excuse me on that point.</p> + +<p>With regard to the durability of plates, I have taken into +consideration fifteen hours a day. In regard to the application of +electrical brakes, I will say that that was one of the first ideas +that entered my head when I began to use electric motors, and other +people had that idea long before me. I have used an electric brake, +using the motor itself as a brake—that is, as the car runs down a +grade by momentum, it generates a current, but this current cannot be +used for recharging a battery. It is utter nonsense to talk about that +unless we have a steady grade four or five miles long. The advantages +are very small indeed, and the complications which would be introduced +by employing automatic cut-outs, governors, and so on, would +counterbalance anything that might be gained. As regards going up an +incline, of course stopping and starting again has to be done often, +and anybody who at any time works cars by electricity, whether they +have storage batteries or not, has to allow for sufficient motive +power to overcome all the difficulties that any line might present.</p> + +<p>One of the great mistakes which some of the pioneers in this direction +made was that they did not put sufficient power upon the cars. You +always ought to put on the cars power capable of exerting perhaps 20 +to 40 per cent. more than is necessary in the ordinary street service, +so that in case of the road being snowed up, or in the case of any +other accident which is liable to occur, you ought to have plenty of +power to get out of the scrape.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[1]</a></p><div class="footnote"><p>From a paper read before the National Electric Light +Association, New York, August, 1887.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art01" id="art01"></a>BRISTOL CATHEDRAL.</h2> + +<p class="center"><a name="Page_9905" id="Page_9905"></a><a href="./images/11.png"><img src="./images/11_th.png" alt=" BRISTOL CATHEDRAL." /></a><br /> BRISTOL CATHEDRAL.</p> + +<p>An Augustinian monastery, founded by Robert Fitzhardinge in 1142, had +its church, of Norman architecture, to which additions were made in +the early English period. When Edmund Knowle was abbot, from 1306 to +1332, the Norman choir was replaced by that which now exists. His +successor, Abbot Snow, built the chapels on the south side of the +choir. Abbot Newland, between 1481 and 1515, enriched the transepts +with a groined roof and with ornamental work of the decorated Gothic +style, and erected the central tower. Abbot Elliott, who followed +Newland, removed the Norman nave and aisles, intending to rebuild +them; but this was prevented by his death in 1526 and by the +dissolution of the monastery a few years afterward; he completed, +however, the vaulting of the south transept. The church remained with +a nave, and otherwise incomplete, until the modern restorations; after +which, in 1877, it was reopened with a special service. Messrs. Pope & +Bindon, of Bristol, were the architects employed. The exterior, of +which we give an illustration, viewed from St. Augustine's Green, or +Upper College Green, is not very imposing; from the Lower Green there +is a good view of the central tower and the transept. The height of +the tower is but 127 ft. It is of perpendicular Gothic architecture, +but the piers supporting it are Norman. The interior presents many +features of interest. The clustered triple shafts of the piers in the +choir, with their capitals of graceful foliage, the lofty pointed +arches between them, and the groined vaulting, have much beauty. The +chancel is decorated with tracery of a peculiar pattern.</p> + +<p>The Abbey of St. Augustine at Bristol was surrendered to King Henry +VIII. in 1538, and became, in 1542, the cathedral of the new Episcopal +see then created. The first Bishop of Bristol, Paul Bush, was deprived +of his see by Queen Mary, being a married clergyman and refusing to +part with his wife. Bishop Fletcher, in Queen Elizabeth's time, +afterward Bishop of Worcester and of London, was twice married, at +which this queen likewise expressed her displeasure. He was father of +Fletcher, the dramatic poet; and he is said to have been one of the +first English smokers of tobacco. Among noted Bishops of Bristol were +Bishop Lake, afterward of Chichester, and Bishop Trelawny (Sir +Jonathan Trelawny, Bart., of Cornwall), two of the "seven bishops"; +imprisoned for disobeying an illegal order of James II. "And shall +Trelawny die? Then twenty thousand Cornishmen will know the reason +why." But the most eminent was Bishop Joseph <a name="Page_9906" id="Page_9906"></a>Butler, the author of +"The Analogy of Natural and Revealed Religion" and of the "Sermons on +Human Nature." He was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, and was educated +as a Nonconformist. He was Bishop of Bristol from 1738 to 1750, when +he was translated to Durham. In 1836, the see of Bristol was joined +with that of Gloucester; and the Right Rev. Drs. J.H. Monk, O. Baring, +W. Thomson (now Archbishop of York), and C.J. Ellicott have been +Bishops of Gloucester and Bristol.—<i>Illustrated London News.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art16" id="art16"></a>WAVES.</h2> + +<p>In the first days of August, two startling announcements reached us +from the United States. They were as follows:</p> + +<p>(1.) "The commander of the Cunarder Umbria reports that at 3 o'clock +on July 27, about 1,500 miles from Sandy Hook, the vessel was struck +by a tidal wave 50 ft. high, which swept the decks, carried away a +portion of the bridge and the forward hatch, and flooded the cabins +and steerage."</p> + +<p>(2.) "The captain of the Wilson line steamer Martello reports that at +half-past 8 on the evening of July 25, when in lat. 49° 3' N., long. +31° W., an enormous wave struck the vessel, completely submerging the +decks."</p> + +<p>In view of these reports, and inasmuch as questions were asked on the +subject in Parliament, though it is quite possible that, as regards +the "tidal" character of the waves, there may be something of +newspaper <i>gobemoucherie</i> in the announcements, we offer a few remarks +on <i>waves</i> in general, which may be useful to some of our readers.</p> + +<p><i>Tidal phenomena</i> present themselves under two aspects: as alternate +elevations and depressions of the sea and as recurrent inflows and +outflows of streams. Careful writers, however, use the word <i>tide</i> in +strict reference to the <i>changes of elevation</i> in the water, while +they distinguish the recurrent streams as <i>tidal currents</i>. Hence, +also, <i>rise</i> and <i>fall</i> appertain to the tide, while <i>flood</i> and <i>ebb</i> +refer to the tidal current.</p> + +<p>The <i>cause of the tides</i> is the combined action of the sun and moon. +The relative effects of these two bodies on the oceanic waters are +directly as their mass and inversely as the square of their distance; +but the moon, though small in comparison with the sun, is so much +nearer to the earth that she exerts the greater influence in the +production of the great <i>tide wave</i>. Thus the mean force of the moon, +as compared with that of the sun, is as 2¼ to 1.</p> + +<p>The attractive force of the moon is most strongly felt by those parts +of the ocean over which she is vertical, and they are, consequently, +drawn toward her. In the same manner, the influence of the luminary +being less powerfully exerted on the waters furthest from her than on +the earth itself, they must remain behind. By these means, at the two +opposite sides of the earth, in the direction of the straight line +between the centers of the earth and moon, the waters are +simultaneously raised above their mean level; and the moon, in her +progressive westerly motion, as she comes to each meridian in +succession, causes two uprisings of the water—two high tides—the one +when she passes the meridian above, the other when she crosses it +below; and this is done, not by drawing after her the water first +raised, but by raising continually that under her at the time; this is +the <i>tide wave</i>. In a similar manner (from causes already referred to) +the sun produces two tides of much smaller dimensions, and the joint +effect of the action of the two luminaries is this, that instead of +four separate tides resulting from their separate influence, the <i>sun +merely alters the form of the wave raised by the moon</i>; or, in other +words, the greater of the two waves (which is due to the moon) is +modified in its height by the smaller (sun's) wave. When the summit of +the two happens to coincide, the summit of the combined wave will be +at the highest. When the hollow of the smaller wave coincides with the +summit of the larger, the summit of the combined wave will be at the +lowest.</p> + +<p>It is necessary to have a clear and distinct conception of the +difference between the <i>motion</i> of a <i>wave</i> and that of a <i>current</i>. +In the current there is a transfer of water; in the wave the transfer +is no more than would be brought about by a particle of water +impinging on another where that particle has a motion perpendicular to +the surface, and a rising and falling results. The onward movement of +the wave itself is always perceptible enough. That the water is not +moving with the same velocity is also evident from watching the +progress of any light body floating on its surface. This fact may be +practically illustrated in the case of a ship at sea, sailing before +the wind in the same direction as the waves are moving. When the crest +of a wave is near the stern, drop a piece of wood on it. Almost +instantly the wave will be seen shooting ahead of the vessel, while +the wood is scarcely removed from the position where it fell on the +water. The wave has moved onward, preserving its identity as a wave, +the water of which it is formed being constantly changed; and thus the +motion of the wave is one thing, that of the water in which the waves +are formed is quite another thing.</p> + +<p>Again, waves are formed by a force acting horizontally; but in the +case of the tide wave, that force acts uniformly from the surface to +the lowest depths of the ocean, and the breadth of the wave is that +curved surface which, commencing at low water, passes over the summit +of the tide down to the next low water—this is a wave of the first +order. In waves of the second order, the force raising them acts only +on the surface, and there the effect is greatest (as in the wind +waves)—where one assists in giving to the water oscillating motion +which maintains the next, and gradually puts the whole surface in +commotion; but at a short distance down that effect entirely +disappears.</p> + +<p>If the earth presented a uniform globe, with a belt of sea of great +and uniform depth encircling it round the equator, the tide wave would +be perfectly regular and uniform. Its velocity, where the water was +deep and free to follow the two luminaries, would be 1,000 miles an +hour, and the height of tide inconsiderable. But even the Atlantic is +not broad enough for the formation of a powerful tide wave. The +continents, the variation in the direction of the coast line, the +different depths of the ocean, the narrowness of channels, all +interfere to modify it. At first it is affected with only a slight +current motion toward the west—a motion which only acquires strength +when the wave is heaped up, as it were, by obstacles to its progress, +as happens to it over the shallow parts of the sea, on the coasts, in +gulfs, and in the mouths of rivers. Thus the first wave advancing +meets in its course with resistance on the two sides of a narrow +channel, it is forced to rise by the pressure of the following waves, +whose motion is not at all retarded, or certainly less so than that of +the first wave. Thus an actual current of water is produced in straits +and narrow channels; and it is always important to distinguish between +the tide wave, as bringing high water, and the tidal stream—between +the rise and fall of the tide and the flow and ebb.</p> + +<p>In the open ocean, and at a distance from the land, the tide wave is +imperceptible, and the rise and fall of the water is small. Among the +islands of the Pacific four to six feet is the usual spring rise. But +the range is considerably affected by local causes, as by the shoaling +of the water and the narrowing of the channel, or by the channel +opening to the free entrance of the tide wave. In such cases the range +of tide is 40 to 50 feet or more, and the tidal stream is one of great +velocity. It may under such circumstances even present the peculiar +phenomenon called the <i>bore</i>—a wave that comes rolling in with the +first of flood, and, with a foaming crest, rushes onward, threatening +destruction to shipping, and sweeping away all impediments lying in +its course.</p> + +<p>It is certain that in the open ocean the <i>great tide wave</i> could not +be recognized as a wave, since it is merely a temporary alteration of +the sea level.</p> + +<p><i>Waves</i> which have their origin in the action of the wind striking the +surface of the water commence as a series of small and slow +undulations or wavelets—a mere ripple. As the strength, and +consequently the pressure, of the wind increases, waves are formed; +and a numerical relation exists between the length of a wave, its +velocity of progress, and the depth of the water in which it travels.</p> + +<p>The <i>height</i> of a wave is measured from trough to crest; and though +waves as seen from the deck of a small vessel appear to be "enormous" +and "overwhelming," their height, in an ordinary gale, in deep water, +does not exceed 15 to 20 feet. In a very heavy gale of some days' +continuance they will, of course, be much higher.</p> + +<p>Scoresby has observed them 30 ft. high in the North Atlantic; and Ross +measured waves of 22 ft. in the South Atlantic. Wilkes records 32 ft. +in the Pacific. But the highest waves have been reported off the Cape +of Good Hope and Cape Horn, where they have been observed, on rare +occasions, from 30 to 40 ft high; and 36 ft. has been given as the +admeasurement in the Bay of Biscay, under very exceptional +circumstances. In the voyage round the world the Venus and Bonite +record a maximum of 27 ft., while the Novara found the maximum to be +35 ft. But waves of 12 to 14 ft. in shallow seas are often more trying +than those of larger dimensions in deeper water. It is generally +assumed that a distance from crest to crest of 150 to 350 ft. in the +storm wave gives a velocity (in the change of form) of from 17 to 28 +miles per hour. But what is required in the computation of the +velocity is the period of passage between two crests. Thus a distance +of 500 to 600 ft. between two crests, and a period of 10 to 11 +seconds, indicates a velocity of 34 miles per hour.</p> + +<p>The following table, by Sir G.B. Airy (late Astronomer Royal), shows +the velocities with which waves of given lengths travel in water of +certain depth:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="right"> </td><th colspan="7" align='center'>Length of the Wave in Feet.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>1</sup></a></th></tr> +<tr><th align="right">Depth of the<br /> Water in Feet.</th><th align="right">10</th><th align="right">100</th><th align="right">1,000</th><th align="right">10,000</th><th align="right">100,000</th><th align="right">1,000,000</th><th align="right">10,000,000</th></tr> +<tr><td align="right"> </td><td colspan="7" align='center'>Corresponding Velocity of Wave per Hour in Nautical Miles.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">3.2</td><td align="right">3.4</td><td align="right">3.4</td><td align="right">3.4</td><td align="right">3.4</td><td align="right">3.4</td><td align="right">3.4</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">4.3</td><td align="right">10.1</td><td align="right">10.7</td><td align="right">10.8</td><td align="right">10.8</td><td align="right">10.8</td><td align="right">10.8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">100</td><td align="right">4.3</td><td align="right">13.5</td><td align="right">32.0</td><td align="right">34.0</td><td align="right">34.0</td><td align="right">34.0</td><td align="right">34.0</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1,000</td><td align="right">4.3</td><td align="right">13.5</td><td align="right">42.9</td><td align="right">101.8</td><td align="right">107.5</td><td align="right">107.5</td><td align="right">107.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">10,000</td><td align="right">4.3</td><td align="right">13.5</td><td align="right">42.9</td><td align="right">135.7</td><td align="right">320.3</td><td align="right">340.0</td><td align="right">340.3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">100,000</td><td align="right">4.3</td><td align="right">13.5</td><td align="right">42.9</td><td align="right">135.7</td><td align="right">429.3</td><td align="right">1013.0</td><td align="right">1075.3</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>From these numbers it appears that—</p> + +<p>1. When the length of the wave is not greater than the depth of the +water, the velocity of the wave depends (sensibly) only on its length, +and is proportional to the square root of its length.</p> + +<p>2. When the length of the wave is not less than a thousand times the +depth of the water, the velocity of the wave depends (sensibly) only +on the depth, and is proportional to the square root of the depth.</p> + +<p>It is, in fact, the same as the velocity which a free body would +acquire by falling from rest under the action of gravity through a +height equal to half the depth of the water.</p> + +<p><i>Rollers</i> are of the nature of a violent <i>ground swell</i>, and possibly +the worst of them may be due to the propagation of an earthquake wave. +They come with little notice, and rarely last long. All the small +islands in the Mid-Atlantic experience them, and they are frequent on +the African coast in the calm season. They are also not unknown in the +other oceans. In discussing the meteorology of the equatorial district +of the Atlantic, extending from lat. 20° to 10° S, Captain Toynbee +observes that "swells of the sea are not always caused by the +prevailing wind of the neighborhood. For instance, during the northern +winter and spring months, northwesterly swells abound. They are +sometimes long and heavy, and extend to the most southern limit of the +district. Again, during the southern winter and spring months, +southerly and southwesterly swells abound, extending at times to the +most northern limit of the district. They are frequently very heavy +and long."</p> + +<p>The great <i>forced sea waves</i>, due to earthquakes, and generally to +subterranean and volcanic action, have been known to attain the +enormous height of 60 feet or more, and sweep to destruction whole +towns situated on the shores where they have broken—as for example +Lisbon and places on the west coast of America and in the island of +Java. Though so destructive when they come in toward the land, and +begin to feel the shelving sea bottom, it is not probable that, in the +open ocean, this wave would do more than appear as a long rolling +swell. It has, however, been observed that "a wave with a gentle front +has probably been produced by gentle rise or fall of a part of the sea +bottom, while a wave with a steep front has probably been due to a +somewhat sudden elevation or depression. Waves of complicated surface +form again would indicate violent oscillations of the bottom."</p> + +<p>The altitude and volume of the great sea wave resulting from an +earthquake depend upon the suddenness and extent of the originating +disturbance and upon the depth of water at its origin. Its velocity of +translation at the surface of the sea varies with the depth of the sea +at any given point, and its form and dimensions depend upon this also, +as well as upon the sort of sea room it has to move in. In deep ocean +water, one of these waves may be so long and low as to pass under a +ship without being observed, but, as it approaches a sloping shore, +its advancing slope becomes steeper, and when the depth of water +becomes less than the altitude of the wave, it topples over, and comes +ashore as an enormous and overwhelming breaker.</p> + +<p>Lastly, there is the <i>storm wave</i>—the result of the cyclone or +hurricane—and, perhaps, the greatest terror to seamen, for it almost +always appears in the character of a <i>heavy cross sea</i>, the period of +which is irregular and uncertain. The disturbance within the area of +the cyclone is not confined to the air, but extends also to the ocean, +producing first a rolling swell, which eventually culminates in a +tremendous pyramidal sea and a series of storm waves, the undulations +of which are propagated to an extraordinary distance, behind, before, +and on each side of the storm field.</p> + +<p>Enough has now been said to show that whatever the character of the +waves encountered by the Umbria and Martello in July last, they were +in no sense "tidal," but, if approximating to the dimensions stated, +they were either due to storm or earthquake, or, possibly, to a +combination of both the last agents.</p> + +<p>For those of our readers who may be interested in wave observations, +we conclude by introducing Prof. Stokes' summary of the method of +observing the phenomenon:</p> + +<div class="ind"> + <p class="center">"<i>For a Ship at Sea.</i></p> + +<p>"(1.) The apparent periodic time,<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5"><sup>2</sup></a> observed as if the ship + were at rest.</p> + +<p>"(2.) The <i>true</i> direction from which the waves come, also the + ship's <i>true</i> course and speed per hour.</p> + +<p>"(3.) A measure or estimate of the height of the waves.</p> + +<p>"(4.) The depth of the sea if it is known, but, at any rate, + the position of the ship as near as possible, either by cross + bearings of land or any other method, so that the depth may be + got from charts or other sources.</p> + +<p class="center">"<i>For a Ship at Anchor.</i></p> + +<p>"(1.) The periodic time.</p> + +<p>"(2.) The true direction from which the waves come.</p> + +<p>"(3.) A measure or estimate of the height of the waves.</p> + +<p>"(4.) The depth of water where she is anchored."</p> +</div> + + +<p>It is the opinion of scientists that when the period of oscillation of +the ship and the period of the wave are nearly the same, the turning +over of the ship is an approximate consequence, and thus the wave to +such a ship would appear more formidable than to another ship with a +different period of oscillation.—<i>Nautical Magazine.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[1]</a></p><div class="footnote"><p>As an example, this table shows that waves 1,000 feet in +length travel 43 nautical miles per hour in water 1,000 feet deep. The +length is measured from crest to crest.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5">[2]</a></p><div class="footnote"> +<p>The period of a wave is the interval of time which +elapses between the transits of two successive wave crests past a +stationary floating body, the wave crest being the highest line along +the ridge.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>PRACTICAL EDUCATION.</h2> + +<p>It is now recognized that one of the elements in which the public +school systems of the United States are most lacking is in the +practical branches in teaching trades and industry. There is too much +book learning, too little practical education. Throughout the +continent of Europe there are trade and industrial schools which have +accomplished much in turning out skilled workmen for the various +branches of industry. Here we have one. Our deficiency in this matter +was recognized by the late commissioner of education, and attention +called to it in several of his reports, and a number of the State +superintendents of education have also urged the establishment of +manual or training schools as a part of the State systems. We have +such an institution here in the Tulane Manual School. In Philadelphia, +Cleveland, and Chicago, the system has been adopted on a large scale, +and made part of the high school course. Another city which has +inaugurated the manual training school as a part of its public schools +is Toledo, O. A rich citizen of that town, who recently died, left a +large sum for the establishment of a university of arts and trades. +Instead of founding a separate university, however, the money was +applied to the establishment of manual schools in connection with the +public schools, for both boys and girls.</p> + +<p>The course of girls' work given will afford some idea of what it is +proposed to do. This begins with the senior grammar school grade and +continues three years in high school. It includes free hand, +mechanical, and architectural drawing, light carpentry, wood carving, +designing for wood carving, wood turning, clay moulding, decorative +designing, etc. But more practical than these things are the lessons +in cooking, sewing, and household management. The course in domestic +economy "is arranged with special reference to giving young women such +a liberal and practical education as will inspire them with a belief +in the dignity and nobleness of an earnest womanhood, and incite them +to a faithful performance of the every day duties of life. It is based +upon the assumption that a pleasant home is an essential element of +broad culture, and one of the surest safeguards of morality and +virtue." The report of the school also remarks that "the design of +this course is to furnish thorough instruction in applied +housekeeping, and the sciences related thereto, and students will +receive practical drill in all branches of housework; in the purchase +and care of family supplies, and in general household management; but +will not be expected to perform more labor than is actually necessary +for the desired instruction."</p> + +<p>A special branch which will be well received is that which proposes to +teach the girls how to cook. The curriculum is one that every +housekeeper ought to go through.</p> + +<p>Boiling—Practical illustrations of boiling and steaming, and +treatment of vegetables, meats, fish, and cereals, soup making, etc.</p> + +<p>Broiling—Lessons and practice in meat, chicken, fish, oysters, etc.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_9907" id="Page_9907"></a>Bread Making—Chemical and mechanical action of materials used. +Manipulations in bread making in its various departments. Yeasts and +their substitutes.</p> + +<p>Baking—Heat in its action on different materials in the process of +baking. Practical experiments in baking bread, pastry, puddings, +cakes, meat, fish, etc.</p> + +<p>Frying—Chemical and mechanical principles involved and illustrated in +the frying of vegetables, meats, fish, oysters, etc.</p> + +<p>Mixing—The art of making combinations, as in soups, salads, puddings, +pies, cakes, sauces, dressings, flavorings, condiments, etc.</p> + +<p>In "marketing, economy," etc., the course comprises general teaching +on the following subjects:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + "The selection and purchase of household supplies. General + instructions in systematizing and economizing the household + work and expenses. The anatomy of animals used as food, and + how to choose the several parts. Lessons on the qualities of + water and steam; the construction of stoves and ranges; the + properties of different fuels." +</div> + +<p>Again, there is a dressmaking and millinery department, where the +girls are taught how to cut and make dresses and other garments, and +the economical and tasteful use of materials.</p> + +<p>So much for the girls. The courses in the boys' schools are somewhat +similar, turning, however, on the more practical instruction in trades +and industries, in carpentering, wood and iron work, etc.</p> + +<p>The Toledo experiment has been tried there but one year, and has given +general satisfaction. The board of school directors has interested the +public in its efforts, and advisory committees of ladies and gentlemen +have been appointed to assist in managing these schools.</p> + +<p>It is to be hoped that other and larger cities will imitate Toledo in +the matter. Those philanthropists who are giving money so liberally +for the establishment of institutions of higher learning might do much +good in providing for manual training schools of this kind that will +assure the country good housewives and skilled mechanics in the +future.—<i>Trustees' T. Jour.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a>A GIGANTIC LOAD OF LUMBER.</h2> + +<p>When it was announced in the <i>Lumberman</i> that the barge Wahnapitæ had +carried a cargo of 2,181,000 feet of lumber, letters were received +asking if it was not a typographical error. It was thought by many +that no boat could carry such a load. For the purpose of showing the +barge on paper, a photograph was obtained of her when loaded at +Duluth, which is herewith reproduced. The freight rate obtained to +Tonawanda was $3.75 a thousand, which footed up to a total of +$8,178.75 The owners of the boat, however, were not satisfied with +such a record, and proceeded to break it by loading at Duluth +2,409,800 feet of lumber, which also went to Tonawanda, and which is +put down as the biggest cargo of lumber on record. At the latter place +the cargo was unloaded on Saturday afternoon and Monday forenoon—one +working day. It will be readily understood that the money-making +capacity of the barge is of the Jumbo order also.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/13a.png"><img src="./images/13a_th.png" alt=" THE BARGE WAHNAPITÆ, LOADED WITH 2,181,000 FEET OF" /></a><br /> +THE BARGE WAHNAPITÆ, LOADED WITH 2,181,000 FEET OF LUMBER.</p> + +<p>The barge is owned by the Saginaw Lumber and Salt Company and the +Emery Lumber Company, and cost $30,000. She is 275 feet long and 51 +feet beam. The lumber on her was piled 22 feet high and she drew 11 +feet of water. Had she been 10 inches wider, she could not have passed +through the Soo canal. The boat was built on the Saginaw river a year +ago last winter, and was designed for carrying logs from the Georgian +bay to the Saginaw river and Tawas mills. The Canadian government, +however, increased the export duty on logs, and the barge was put into +the lumber-carrying trade—<i>N.W. Lumberman.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a>THE NEWBERY-VAUTIN CHLORINATION PROCESS.</h2> + +<p>The process of extracting gold from ores by absorption of the precious +metal in chlorine gas, from which it is reduced to a metallic state, +is not a very new discovery. It was first introduced by Plattner many +years ago, and at that time promised to revolutionize the processes +for gold extraction. By degrees it was found that only a very clever +chemist could work this process with practically perfect results, for +many reasons. Lime and magnesia might be contained in the quartz, and +would be attacked by the chlorine. These consume the reagents without +producing any results, earthy particles would settle and surround the +small gold and prevent chlorination, then lead and zinc or other +metals in combination with the gold would also be absorbed by the +chlorine; or, again, from some locally chemical peculiarity in the +water or the ore, gold held in solution by the water might be again +precipitated in the tailings before filtration was complete, and thus +be lost. Henderson, Clark, De Lacy, Mears, and Deacon, all introduced +improvements, or what were claimed to be improvements, on Plattner, +but these chiefly failed because they did not cover every particular +variety of case which gold extraction presented. Therefore, where +delicate chemical operations were necessary for success, practice +generally failed from want of knowledge on the part of the operator, +and many times extensive plants have been pronounced useless from this +cause alone. Hence it is not to be wondered that processes requiring +such care and uncommon knowledge are not greatly in favor.</p> + +<p>Mr. Claude Vautin, a gentleman possessed of much practical experience +of gold mining and extraction in Queensland, together with Mr. J. +Cosmo Newbery, analytical chemist to the government of Victoria, have +developed a process which they claim to combine all the advantages of +the foregoing methods, and by the addition of certain improvements in +the machinery and mode of treatment to overcome the difficulties which +have hitherto prevented the general adoption of the chlorination +process.</p> + +<p>By reference to the illustrations of the plant below, the system by +which the ore is treated can be readily understood. The materials for +treatment—crushed and roasted ore, or tailings, as the case may +be—are put into the hopper above the revolving barrel, or +chlorinator. This latter is made of iron, lined with wood and lead, +and sufficiently strong to bear a pressure of 100 lb. to the square +inch, its capacity being about 30 cwt of ore. The charge falls from +the hopper into the chlorinator. Water and chlorine-producing +chemicals are added—generally sulphuric acid and chloride of +lime—the manhole cover is replaced and screwed down so as to be gas +tight. On the opposite side of the barrel there is a valve connected +with an air pump, through which air to about the pressure of four +atmospheres is pumped in, to liquefy the chlorine gas that is +generated, after which the valve is screwed down. The barrel is then +set revolving at about ten revolutions a minute, the power being +transmitted by a friction wheel. According to the nature of the ore, +or the size of the grains of gold, this movement is continued from one +to four hours, during which time the gold, from combination with the +chlorine gas, has formed a soluble gold chloride, which has all been +taken up by the water in the barrel. The chlorinator is then stopped, +and the gas and compressed air allowed to escape from the valve +through a rubber hose into a vat of lime water. This is to prevent the +inhalation of any chlorine gas by the workmen. The manhole cover is +now removed and the barrel again set revolving, by which means the +contents are thrown automatically into the filter below. This filter +is an iron vat lined with lead. It has a false bottom, to which is +connected a pipe from a vacuum pump working intermittently. As soon as +all the ore has fallen from the chlorinator into the filter, the pump +is set going, a partial vacuum is produced in the chamber below the +false bottom in the filter, and very rapid filtration results. By this +means all the gold chlorides contained in the wet ore may be washed +out, a continual stream being passed through it while filtration is +going on. The solution running from the filter is continually tested, +and when found free from gold, the stream of water is stopped, as is +also the vacuum pump. The filter is then tipped up into a truck below, +and the tailings run out to the waste heap. The process of washing and +filtration occupies about an hour, during which time another charge +may be in process of treatment in the chlorinator above. The discharge +from the filter and the washings are run into a vat, and from this +they are allowed to pass slowly through a tap into a charcoal filter. +During the passage of the liquid through the charcoal filter, the +chloride of gold is decomposed and the gold is deposited on the +charcoal, which, when fully charged, is burnt, the ashes are fused +with borax in a crucible, and the gold is obtained.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/13b.png"><img src="./images/13b_th.png" alt=" THE NEWBERY-VAUTIN CHLORINATION PROCESS." /></a><br /> THE NEWBERY-VAUTIN CHLORINATION PROCESS.</p> + +<p>We have specified above the objections to the old processes of +chlorination, so it may be fairly asked in what way the Newbery-Vautin +process avoids the various chemical actions which have hitherto proved +so difficult to contend with.</p> + +<p>For any system of chlorination yet introduced it is necessary to free +the ore from sulphides. This is done by roasting according to any of +the well-known systems in vogue. It is a matter which requires great +care and considerable skill. The heat must be applied and increased +slowly and steadily. If, through any neglect on the part of the +roaster, the ore is allowed to fuse, in most cases it is best to throw +the charge away, as waste. This roasting applies equally to the Vautin +process as to any others. So on this head there is no alteration. One +of the most important advantages is not a chemical one, but is the +rapidity with which the charge can be treated. In the older styles of +treatment the time varied from thirty six to ninety hours. Now this is +accomplished in from three to six hours with a practically perfect +result. The older processes required a careful damping of the ore, +which, to get good results, must leave the ore neither too wet nor too +dry. Now "damping" is entirely done away with, and in its place water +is poured into the barrel. Pressure to the extent of four atmospheres +causes chlorine gas to leave its vaporous form. Thus the pressure +applied not only enables a strong solution of chlorine to be formed +with the water in the barrel, but forces this into contact with the +gold through every crevice in the ore. Chlorine gas also takes up any +silver which may exist in association with the gold. In the older +processes this is deposited as a film of chloride of silver around the +fine gold grains, and from its insolubility in water prevents the +absorption of the gold. The rotary motion of the barrel in the +Newbery-Vautin method counteracts this by continually rubbing the +particles together; this frees the particles from any accumulations, +so that they always present fresh surfaces for the action of the +solvent. Again, the short time the ore is in contact with the chlorine +does not allow of the formation of hydrochloric acid, which has a +tendency to precipitate the gold from its soluble form in the water +before being withdrawn from the chlorinator.</p> + +<p>Hitherto, when the ore was very fine or contained slimes, the +difficulty of filtration was increased, sometimes in extreme cases to +such an extent that chlorination became impracticable. By the +introduction of the vacuum pump this is greatly facilitated; then by +making the action intermittent a jigging motion is given to the +material in the filter which prevents any clogging except in cases of +extreme fineness.</p> + +<p>The advantage of using charcoal as a decomposing agent for chloride of +gold was pointed out by Mr. Newbery some twenty years ago; four or +five years since the idea was patented in the United States, but as +this was given gratis to the world years before, the patent did not +hold good. The form of precipitation generally adopted was to add +sulphate of iron to the liquid drawn from the filter. This not only +threw down the gold it contained, but also the lime and magnesia. Then +very great care was necessary, and a tedious process had to be gone +through to divide the gold from these. Now, by filtration through +charcoal everything that is soluble in hydrochloric acid passes away +with the water; for instance, lime and magnesia, which before gave +such great trouble. In passing through the charcoal, the chloride of +gold is decomposed and all fine gold particles are taken up by the +charcoal, so that it is coated by what appears to be a purple film.</p> + +<p>Should copper be associated with the gold, the water, after running +through the charcoal filter, is passed over scrap iron, upon which the +copper is precipitated by a natural chemical action. If silver is +contained in the ore, it is found among the tailings in the filter, in +a chloride which is insoluble in water. Should the quantity prove +sufficiently large, it may be leached out in the usual way by +hyposulphites.</p> + +<p>One of the great advantages common to all systems of chlorination is +that ores may be crushed dry and treated, so that the loss from float +gold may be avoided. Of this loss, which is most serious, we shall +have something to say on another occasion. An advantage in +amalgamation with chlorine gas instead of amalgamation with +quicksilver in the wet way, is that the ore need not be crushed so +finely. Roasting takes the place of fine crushing, as the ore from the +roasting furnace is either found somewhat spongy in texture or the +grains of silica in which fine gold may be incased are split or flawed +by the fire. For quicksilver amalgamation very fine crushing is +necessary to bring all gold particles in contact with it. Quicksilver +being so thick in substance, it will not find its way readily in and +out of a microscopically fine spongy body or through very fine flaws +in grains of silica, whereas chlorine gas or a solution of liquefied +chlorine does this, and absorbs the gold far more readily.</p> + +<p>There are cases when gold is contained in ores in <a name="Page_9908" id="Page_9908"></a>what is known as a +perfectly "free" form—that is, there is an absence of all sulphides, +arsenides, etc.—when it is not practicable to extract it either with +the ordinary forms of quicksilver amalgamation of or any process of +chlorination, without first roasting. This is because the finer gold +is locked up inside fine grains of silica and hydrated oxide of iron. +No ordinary crushing will bring this fine enough, but when roasting is +resorted to by drawing it rapidly through a furnace heated to a cherry +red, these grains are split up so that chlorine gas is enabled to +penetrate to the gold.</p> + +<p>It may be said that an equally clever chemist will be required to work +this improved process as compared with those that have, one by one, +fallen into disuse, mainly from want of knowledge among the operators. +To a certain extent this is so. The natural chemical actions are not +so delicate, but an ignorant operator would spoil this process, as he +does nearly every other. When a reef is discovered, practice shows +that its strongest characteristics are consistently carried throughout +it wherever it bears gold. Before Messrs. Newbery and Vautin leave a +purchaser to deal himself with their process, they get large samples +of his ore to their works and there experiment continually until a +practically perfect result is obtained; then any one with a moderate +amount of knowledge can work with the formula supplied. It has been +their experience that the ore from any two mines rarely presents the +same characteristics. Experiments are begun by treating very coarse +crushings. These, if not satisfactory, are gradually reduced until the +desired result is obtained.</p> + +<p>To treat the whole body of ore from a mine, dry crushing is strongly +recommended. To accomplish this in the most efficient manner, a stone +breaker which will reduce to about ¼ in. cubes is necessary. For +subsequent crushing Kroms rolls have, up to the present time, proved +most satisfactory. They will crush with considerable evenness to a +thirty mesh, which is generally sufficient. The crushings are then +roasted in the ordinary way in a reverberatory furnace and the whole +of the roastings are passed through the machine we have just +described. By this it is claimed that over 90 per cent. of the gold +can be extracted at very much the same cost as the processes now in +general use in gold producing countries, which on the average barely +return 50 per cent. If so, the gentlemen who have brought forward +these improvements deserve all the success their process +promises.—<i>Engineering.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>APPARATUS FOR EXERCISING THE MUSCLES.</h2> + +<p>The apparatus herewith illustrated consists of a wooden base, which +may be bolted to the floor, and which supports two wooden uprights, to +which is affixed the apparatus designed to exercise the legs. The +apparatus for exercising the arms is mounted upon a second frame that +slides up and down the wooden supports. It is fixed in position at any +height by means of two screws.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/14a.png"><img src="./images/14a_th.png" alt="Issue Title" /></a> +<br />APPARATUS FOR EXERCISING THE MUSCLES.</p> + +<p>The apparatus for exercising the legs, as well as the one for the +arms, consists essentially of a fly wheel mounted upon an axle +extending to the second upright and bent into the form of a crank in +the center. The fly wheel is provided with a winch whose arm is +capable of elongation in order to accommodate it to the reach of the +sound limb.</p> + +<p>The apparatus for the legs is arranged in a contrary direction, that +is to say, the wheel is on the opposite side of the frame, and upon +the fixed uprights. It is really a velocipede, one of the pedals of +which is movable upon the winch, and is capable of running from the +axle to the extremity, as in the upper apparatus. This pedal has the +form of a shoe, and is provided with two straps to keep the foot in +place and cause it to follow the pedal in its rotary motion. A movable +seat, capable of rising and descending and moving backward and +forward, according to the leg that needs treatment, is fixed back of +the apparatus.</p> + +<p>The operation is as follows: Suppose that the atrophied arm is the +left one. The invalid, facing the apparatus, grasps the movable handle +on the crank with his left hand, and revolves the winch with his +right. The left hand being thus carried along, the arm is submitted to +a motion that obliges it to elongate and contract alternately, and the +result is an extension of the muscles which strengthens them.</p> + +<p>The apparatus, which is as simple as it is ingenious, can, it is true, +be applied only when one of the two limbs, arm or leg, is diseased, +the other being always necessary to set the apparatus in motion; but, +even reduced to such conditions, it is destined to render numerous +services in cases of paralysis, atrophy, contusions, etc.—<i>Moniteur +des Inventions Industrielles.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art19" id="art19"></a>THE BULL OPTOMETER.</h2> + +<p>Dr. Javal has just presented to the Academy of Medicine a very +ingenious and practical optometer devised by George J. Bull, a young +American doctor, after a number of researches made at the laboratory +of ophthalmology at the Sorbonne. Among other applications that can be +made of it, there is one that is quite original and that will insure +it some success in the world. It permits, in fact, of approximately +deducing the age of a person from certain data that it furnishes as to +his or her sight. As well known, the organs become weak with age, +their functions are accomplished with less regularity and precision, +and, according to the expression of the poet,</p> + +<p class="ind">"<i>En marchant a la mort, on meurt a chaque pas,</i>"</p> + +<p>the senses become blunted, the hearing becomes dull, the eyes lose +their luster, vivacity, and strength, and vision becomes in general +shorter, less piercing, and less powerful.</p> + +<p>The various parts of the eye, but more particularly the crystalline +lens, undergo modifications in form and structure. Accommodation is +effected with more and more difficulty, and, toward the age of sixty, +it can hardly be effected at all.</p> + +<p>These changes occur in emmetropics as well as in hypermetropics and +myopics.</p> + +<p>As will be seen, then, there is a relation between the age of a +person and the amplitude of the accommodation of his eyes. If we +cannot express a law, we can at least, through statistics, find out, +approximately, the age of a person if we know the extent of the +accommodation of his eyes.</p> + +<p>A Dutch oculist, Donders, has got up a table in which, opposite the +amplitudes, the corresponding ages are found. Now, the Javal-Bull +optometer permits of a quick determination of the value of the +amplitude of accommodation in <i>dioptries</i>. (A dioptrie is the power of +a lens whose focal distance is one meter.)</p> + +<p>The first idea of this apparatus is due to the illustrious physicist +Thomas Young, who flourished about a century ago. The Young apparatus +is now a scarcely known scientific curiosity that Messrs. Javal and +Bull have resuscitated and transformed and completed.</p> + +<p>It consists of a light wooden rule about 24 inches long by 1¼ inch +wide that can easily be held in the hand by means of a handle fixed at +right angles with the flat part (Fig. 1). At one extremity there is a +square thin piece of metal of the width of the rule, and at right +angles with the latter, but on the side opposite the handle. This +piece of metal contains a circular aperture a few hundredths of an +inch in diameter (Fig. 3). Toward this aperture there may be moved +either a converging lens of five dioptries or a diverging lens of the +same diameter, but of six dioptries.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/14b.png" alt=" FIG 1.—MODE OF USING THE BULL OPTOMETER" /><br /> FIG 1.—MODE OF USING THE BULL OPTOMETER</p> + +<p>On holding the apparatus by the handle and putting the eye to the +aperture, provided or not with a lens, we see a series of dominoes +extending along the rule, from the double ace, which occupies the +extremity most distant from the eye, to the double six, which is very +near the eye (Fig. 2). The numbers from two to twelve, simply, are +indicated, but this original means of representing them has been +chosen in order to call attention to them better.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/14c.png"><img src="./images/14c_th.png" alt=" FIG 2.--;THE RULE, WITH THE DOMINOES (¼ Actual" /></a><br /> FIG 2.—THE RULE, WITH THE DOMINOES (¼ Actual +Size.)</p> + +<p>Figures are characters without physiognomy, if we may so express +ourselves, while the spots on the dominoes take particular +arrangements according to the number represented, and differentiate +themselves more clearly from each other than figures do. They are at +the same time more easily read than figures or regularly spaced dots. +Now, it is very important to fix the attention upon the numbers, since +they are arranged at distances expressed in dioptries and indicated by +the number of the spots. On looking through the aperture, we see in +the first place one of the dominoes more distinctly than the rest. +Then, on endeavoring to see those that are nearer or farther off, we +succeed in accommodating the eye and in seeing the numbers that +express the extreme terms of the accommodation, and consequently the +amplitude.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/14d.png" alt=" FIG. 3.—DETAILS OF EYE PIECE." /><br /> FIG. 3.—DETAILS OF EYE PIECE.</p> + +<p>Let us now take some examples: If we wish to express in dioptries the +myopia of a person, we put the apparatus in his hand, and ask him to +place his eye very near the aperture and note the number of spots on +the most distant domino that he sees distinctly. This is the number +sought. If the observation be made through the upper lens, it will be +necessary to subtract five from the number obtained; if, on the +contrary, the other lens is used, it will be necessary to add six.</p> + +<p>If it is a question of a presbyope, let him look with his spectacles, +and note the nearest domino seen distinctly. This will be the number +of dioptries expressing the nearest point at which he can read. This +number permits us to know whether it is necessary to add or subtract +dioptries in order to allow him to read nearer by or farther off. If, +for example, he sees the deuce and the ace distinctly, say 3 dioptries +or 0.33 meter, and we want to allow him to read at 0.25 meter, +corresponding to four dioptries, it will be necessary to increase the +power of his spectacles by one dioptrie.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_9909" id="Page_9909"></a>Upon the whole, Dr. Bull's optometer permits of measuring the +amplitude of accommodation, and, consequently, of obtaining the +approximate age of people, of knowing the extreme distances of the +accommodation, and of quickly finding the number of the glass +necessary for each one. It reveals the defects in the accommodation, +and serves for the quick determination of refraction. So, in saying +that this little instrument is very ingenious and very practical, Dr. +Javal has used no exaggeration.—<i>La Nature.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a>THE SANITATION OF TOWNS.<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By Mr. J. GORDON, C.E.</h3> + +<p>The average mortality for England and Wales was 22.4 in 1838, and in +1886 19.3, which shows a saving on last year's population of England +and Wales of 86,400 lives annually, and a saving in suffering from an +estimated number of about 1,728,000 cases of sickness. To accomplish +all this, vast sums of money have been expended, probably not always +wisely, inasmuch as there have been mistakes made in this direction, +as in all new developments of science when applied in practice, and +evils have arisen which, if foreseen at all at the outset, were +underrated.</p> + +<p>The great object of the public health act, 1848, was to enable local +authorities by its adoption to properly sewer, drain, and cleanse +their towns, and to provide efficient supplies of water, free from +contamination and impurities dangerous to health. The raising of money +by loans repayable in a series of years, which the act empowered, +enabled all these objects to be accomplished, and, while the first +duty of local authorities was undoubtedly the provision of a good +supply of water and proper sewerage for the removal of liquid filth +from the immediate vicinity of inhabited dwellings, the carrying out +of proper works for the latter object has been of much slower growth +than the former. Private companies led the way, in fact, in providing +supplies of water, inasmuch as there was a prospect of the works +becoming remunerative to shareholders investing their money in them; +and in nearly every instance where local authorities have eventually +found it to be in the interests of the inhabitants of their districts +to purchase the work, they have had to pay high prices for the +undertaking. This has generally led to a great deal of dissatisfaction +with companies holding such works, but it must not be forgotten that +the companies would, in most instances, never have had any existence +if the local authorities had taken the initiative, and that but for +the companies this great boon of a pure supply of water would most +probably have been long delayed to many large as well as small +communities.</p> + +<p>The evils which have arisen from the sewering and draining of towns +have been of a twofold character. First, in the increased pollution of +rivers and streams into which the sewage, in the earlier stages of +these works, was poured without any previous treatment; and secondly, +in the production of sewer gas, which up to the present moment seems +so difficult to deal with. These concomitant evils and difficulties +attending the execution of sanitary works are in no way to be +underrated, but it still remains the first duty of town authorities to +remove, as quickly as possible, all liquid and other refuse from the +midst and immediate vicinity of large populations, before putrefaction +has had time to take place.</p> + +<p>There are some minds whose course of reasoning seems to lead them to +the conclusion that the evils attending the introduction of modern +systems of sewerage are greater than those of the old methods of +dealing with town sewage and refuse, but the facts are against them to +such an extent that it would be difficult to point to a responsible +medical officer in the kingdom who would be courageous enough to +advocate a return to the old regime of cesspools, privy ashpits, open +ditches, and flat bottomed culverts. The introduction of earth closets +as one of the safeguards against sewer gas has made no headway for +large populations, and is beset with practical difficulties.</p> + +<p>In the Midland and Lancashire towns the system known as the pail or +tub system has been much more largely introduced as a substitute for +the water closet, and it has, from a landlord's point of view, many +attractions. In the first place, the first cost, as compared with that +of a water closet, is very small, and the landlord is relieved for +ever afterward I believe, in most towns, of all future costs and +maintenance; whereas, in the case of water closets, there is +undoubtedly great difficulty in cottage property in keeping them in +good working order, especially during the frosts of winter. There are, +however, many objections to the pail system, which it is not proposed +to touch upon in this address, beyond this, that it appears to be a +costly appendage to the water carriage system, without the expected +corresponding advantage of relieving the municipal authorities of any +of the difficulties of river pollution, inasmuch as the remaining +liquid refuse of the town has still to be dealt with by the modern +systems of precipitation or irrigation, at practically the same cost +as would have been the case if the water carriage system had been +adopted in its entirety.</p> + +<p>The rivers pollution act gave an impetus to works for the treatment of +sewage, although much had been done prior to that, and Leicester was +one of those towns which led the way so early as 1854 in precipitating +the solids of the sewage before allowing it to enter the river. The +innumerable methods which have since then been tried, and after large +expenditures of money have proved to be failures, show the +difficulties of the question.</p> + +<p>On the whole, however, sewage farms, or a combination of the chemical +system with irrigation or intermittent filtration, have been the most +successful, so that the first evil to which the cleansing of towns by +the increased pollution of rivers gave rise may now be said to be +capable of satisfactory solution, notwithstanding that the old battle +of the systems of precipitation versus application of sewage to land +still wages whenever opportunity occurs.</p> + +<p>The second evil to which I have made reference, viz., that of sewer +ventilation, seems still unsolved, and I would earnestly entreat +members, all of whom have more or less opportunities of experimenting +and making observations of the behavior of sewer gas under certain +conditions, to direct their attention to this subject. It is admitted +on all hands that the sewers must be ventilated—that is, that there +must be a means of escape for the polluted air of the sewers; for it +is well known that the conditions prevailing within the sewers during +the twenty-four hours of the day are very varying, and on this subject +the early observations of the late medical officer for the City of +London (Dr. Letheby), and the present engineer for the City of London +(Lieutenant-Colonel Heywood), and the still more recent investigations +of Professor Pettenkofer, of Munich, Professor Soyka, of Prague, and +our own members, Mr. McKie, of Carlisle, Mr. Read, of Gloucester, and +others, are worthy of attention. It does not, however, seem to be so +readily or universally conceded that a plentiful supply of fresh air +is of equal importance, and that the great aim and object of sewer +ventilation should be the introduction of atmospheric air for the +purpose of diluting and oxidizing the air of the sewers, and the +creation of a current to some exit, which shall, if possible, either +be above the roofs of the houses, or, still better, to some point +where the sewer gas can be cremated. The most recent contribution to +this subject, in direct opposition to these views, is to be found in +the address of Professor Attfield to the Hertfordshire Natural History +Society and Field Club, in which it is laid down that all that is +necessary is a vent at an elevation above the ground, and that, +therefore, the surface ventilators, or other openings for the +introduction of fresh air, are not only not necessary, but are, on the +contrary, injurious, even when acting as downcast shafts.</p> + +<p>These aims and objects are beset with difficulties, and the most +scientific minds of the country have failed so far to devise a method +of ventilation which shall at the same time be within the range of +practical application as regards cost and universally satisfactory.</p> + +<p>The report of last year of a committee of the metropolitan board of +works is worth attention, as showing the opinion of metropolitan +surveyors. Out of forty districts, the opinions of whose surveyors +were taken, thirty-five were in favor of open ventilation, two were +doubtful, two against, and one had no experience in this matter. The +average distances of the ventilators were from 30 to 200 yards, and +the committee came to the conclusion that "pipe ventilators of large +section can be used with great advantage in addition to, and not in +substitution for, surface ventilators." To supplement the street +openings as much as possible with vertical cast iron or other shafts +up the house sides would seem to be the first thing to do, for there +can be no doubt that the more this is done, the more perfect will be +the ventilation of the sewers. It must also not be forgotten that the +anxiety, of late years, of English sanitarians to protect each house +from the possible dangers of sewer gas from the street sewer has led +to a system of so-called disconnection of the house drains by a water +seal or siphon trap, and that, consequently, the soil pipes of the +houses, which, when carried through the roofs, acted as ventilators to +the public sewers, have been lost for this purpose, and thus the +difficulty of sewer ventilation has been greatly increased.</p> + +<p>In Leicester we have been fortunate enough to secure the co-operation +of factory owners, who have allowed us to connect no fewer than +fifty-two chimneys; while we have already carried out, at a cost of +about £1,250, 146 special shafts up the house sides, with a locked +opening upon a large number of them, by means of which we can test the +velocity of the current as well as the temperature of the outflowing +air. The connections with the high factory chimneys are all of too +small a caliber to be of great use, being generally only six inches, +with a few exceptionally of nine inches in diameter.</p> + +<p>The radius of effect of specially erected chimneys, as shown by the +experiments of Sir Joseph Bazalgette, and as experienced with the +special ventilating towers erected at Frankfurt, is disappointing and +discouraging when the cost is taken into consideration. It can not be +expected, however, that manufacturers will admit larger connections to +be made with their chimney; otherwise, of course, much more +satisfactory results would be obtained. To fall back upon special +shafts up the house sides means, in my opinion, that there should be +probably as many in number as are represented by the soil pipes of the +houses, for in this we have a tested example at Frankfurt, which, so +far as I know, has up to the present moment proved eminently +satisfactory.</p> + +<p>The distance apart of such shafts would largely depend on the size of +them, but as a rule it will be found that house owners object to large +pipes, in which case the number must be increased, and if we take a +distance of about 30 yards, we should require about 5,000 such shafts +in Leicester. Whether some artificial means of inducing currents in +sewers by drawing down fresh air from shafts above the eaves of the +houses, and sending forth the diluted sewer gas to still higher +levels, or burning it in an outcast shaft, will take the place of +natural ventilation, and prove to be less costly and more certain in +its action, remains to be seen. But it is quite certain that +notwithstanding the patents which have already been taken out and +failed, and those now before the public, there is still a wide field +of research before this question is satisfactorily solved, so that no +cause whatever shall remain of complaint on the part of the most +fastidious.</p> + +<p>One other important question common to all towns is that of the +collection and disposal of the ashes and refuse of the households. It +is one which is becoming daily more difficult to deal with, especially +in those large communities where the old privy and ashpit system has +not been entirely abolished. The removal of such ashes is at all times +a source of nuisance, and if they cannot be disposed of to the +agriculturists of the district, they become a source of difficulty. In +purely water-closeted towns the so-called dry ashpits cannot be kept +in such a condition as to be entirely free from nuisance, especially +in the summer months, inasmuch as the refuse of vegetable and animal +matter finds its way into them, and they are, in close and inhabited +districts, necessarily too close to the living apartments of the +dwellings. The tendency therefore now is rather to discourage the +establishment of ashpits by the substitution of ashbins, to be +collected daily or weekly as the case may be, and I think there can be +no doubt that from a sanitary point of view this is by far the best +system, harmonizing as it does with the general principle applicable +to town sanitation of removing all refuse, likely by decomposition to +become dangerous to health, as quickly as possible from the precincts +of human habitations.</p> + +<p>The difficulty of disposing of the ashes, mixed as they must +necessarily be with animal and vegetable matter, is one that is +forcing itself upon the attention of all town authorities, and the +days of the rich dust contractors of the metropolis are practically +numbered. Destruction by fire seems to be the ultimate end to be aimed +at, and in this respect several towns have led the way. But as this is +a subject which will be fully dealt with by a paper to be read during +the meeting, I will not anticipate the information which will be +brought before you, further than to say that the great end to be aimed +at in this method of disposing of the ashes and refuse of towns is +greater economy in cost of construction of destructors, as well as in +cost of working them.</p> + +<p>The progress in sanitation on the Continent, America, and the colonies +has not been coincident with the progress in England, but these +countries have largely benefited by the experience of the United +Kingdom, and in some respects their specialists take more extreme +views than those of this country in matters of detail. This is, +perhaps, more particularly the case with the Americans, who have +devised all sorts of exceptional details in connection with private +drainage, in order to protect the interior of the houses from sewer +gas, and to perfect its ventilation. In plumbing matters they seem +also to be very advanced, and to have established examinations for +plumbers and far-reaching regulations for house drainage.</p> + +<p>Time will not permit me to examine into the works of a sanitary +character which have been undertaken in the several countries after +the example of England, but they have been attended with similar +beneficial results and saving in life and sickness as in this country, +although the Continental towns which have led the way with such works +cannot as yet point to the low rates of mortality for large towns +which have been attained in England, with the exception of the German +towns of Carlsruhe, Frankfurt, Wiesbaden, and Stuttgart, which show +death rates of 20.55, 20.64, 22, and 21.4 respectively. The greatest +reduction of the mortality by the execution of proper sewerage and +water works took place in Danzig, on the Baltic, and Linz, on the +Danube, where after the execution of the works the mortality was +reduced by 7.85 and 10.17 per 1,000 respectively, and in the case of +Danzig this reduction is almost exclusively in zymotic diseases. +Berlin is also a remarkable example of the enterprise of German +sanitarians, for there they are demonstrating to the world the +practicability of dealing with the sewage from a population of over 1¼ +million upon 16,000 acres of land, of which about 10,000 acres are +already under irrigation.</p> + +<p>In taking this chair, it has been usual, when meetings have been held +out of London, for your president to give some account of the works of +his own town. In the present instance I feel that I can dispense with +this course, in so far as that I need not do more than generally +indicate what has been the course of events since I read to a largely +attended district meeting in May, 1884, a paper on "The Public Works +of Leicester." At that time large flood prevention works were in +course of construction, under an act obtained in 1881, for continuing +the river improvement works executed under previous acts. The works +then under contract extended from the North Mill Lock and the North +Bridge on the north to the West Bridge and Bramstone Gate Bridge on +the south, along the river and canal, and included bridges, weirs, +retaining walls, and some heavy underpinning works in connection with +the widening and deepening of the river and canal. These works were +duly completed, as well as a further length of works on the River Soar +up to what is known as the old grass weir, including the Braunstone +Gate Bridge, added to one of the then running contracts, at a total +cost, excluding land and compensation, of £77,000. At this point a +halt was made in consequence of the incompleteness of the negotiations +with the land owners on the upper reach of the river, and this, +together with various other circumstances, has contributed to greater +delay in again resuming the works. In the interval, a question of +whether there should be only one channel for both river and canal +instead of two, as authorized by the act, has necessarily added +considerably to the delay. But as that has now been settled in favor +of the original parliamentary scheme, the authority of the council has +been given to proceed with the whole of the works.</p> + +<p>One contract, now in progress, which members will have an opportunity +of inspecting, was let to Mr. Evans, of Birmingham, in March last, for +about £18,000. It consists of a stone and concrete weir, 500 feet in +length, with a lock of 7 feet 6 inches lift and large flood basins, +retaining and towing path walls, including a sunk weir parallel with +the Midland Railway viaduct. This contract is to be completed by March +next. The remainder of the works about to be entered upon include a +new canal and flood channel about 1,447 yards long, and the deepening +and widening of the River Soar for a length of about 920 yards, with +two or three bridges.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6">[1]</a></p><div class="footnote"> +<p>Abstract from the presidential address delivered before +the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors, at +the annual meeting in Leicester, July 18, 1887.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a>THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COTTON FIBER.</h2> + +<h3>By Dr. BOWMAN.</h3> + +<p>Every chemist knows that cotton is chiefly composed of cellulose, +C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>, with some other substances in smaller quantities. +This, although the usual opinion, is only true in a partial sense, as +the author found on investigating samples of cotton from various +sources. Thus, while mere cellulose contains carbon 44.44 per cent. +and hydrogen 6.173, he found in Surat cotton 7.6 per cent. of +hydrogen, in American cotton 6.3 per cent., and in Egyptian cotton 7.2 +per cent. The fact is that along with cellulose in ordinary cotton +there are a number of celluloid bodies derived from the inspissated +juices of the cotton plant.</p> + +<p>In order to gain information on this subject, the author has grown +cotton under glass, and analyzed it at various stages of its life +history. In the early stage of unripeness he has found an astringent +substance in the fiber. This substance disappears as the plant ripens, +and seems to closely resemble some forms of tannin. Doubtless the +presence of this body in cotton put upon the market in an unripe +condition may account for certain dark stains sometimes appearing in +the finished calicoes. The tannin matter forms dark stains with <a name="Page_9910" id="Page_9910"></a>any +compound or salt of iron, and is a great bugbear to the manufacturer. +Some years ago there was quite a panic because of the prevalence of +these stains, and people in Yorkshire began to think the spinners were +using some new or inferior kind of oil. Dr. Bowman made inquiries, and +found that in Egypt during that year the season had been very foggy +and unfavorable to the ripening of the cotton, and it seemed probable +that these tannin-like matters were present in the fiber, and led to +the disastrous results.</p> + +<p>Although the hydrogen and oxygen present in pure cellulose are in the +same relative proportions as in water, they do not exist as water in +the compound. There is, however, in cotton a certain amount of water +present in a state of loose combination with the cellulose, and the +celluloid bodies previously referred to appear to contain water +similarly combined, but in greater proportion. Oxycellulose is another +body present in the cotton fiber. It is a triple cellulose, in which +four atoms of hydrogen are replaced by one atom of oxygen, and like +cellulose forms nitro compounds analogous to nitro glycerine. It is +probable that the presence of this oxycellulose has a marked influence +upon the behavior of cotton, especially with dye matters. The earthy +substances in cotton are also of importance. These are potassium +carbonate, chloride, and sulphate, with similar sodium salts, and +these vary in different samples of cotton, and possibly influence its +properties to some extent. Then there are oily matters in the young +fiber which, upon its ripening, become the waxy matter which Dr. +Schunk has investigated. Resin also is present, and having a high +melting point is not removed by the manipulative processes that cotton +is subjected to. When this is in excessive amount, it comes to the +surface of the goods after dyeing.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>SYNTHESIS OF STYROLENE.</h2> + +<p>MM. Vabet and Vienne, in a recent number of <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, state +that by passing a current of acetylene through 200 grammes of benzene +containing 50 grammes of aluminum chloride for 30 hours the oily +liquid remaining after removal of the unaltered aluminum chloride by +washing was found to yield, on fractional distillation, three distinct +products. The first, which came over between 143° and 145°, and which +amounted to 80 per cent. of the whole, consisted of pure cinnamene or +styrolene (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>.CH.CH<sub>2</sub>), which is one of the principal +constituents of liquid storax, and was synthetized by M. Berthelot by +passing acetylene and benzene vapor through a tube heated to redness. +The second fraction, coming over at 265°-270°, consisted of diphenyl +ethane ((C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>)<sub>2</sub> CH.CH<sub>3</sub>); and the third fraction, boiling +at 280°-286°, was found to consist entirely of dibenzyl +(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>.CH<sub>2</sub>.CH<sub>2</sub>.C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>), a solid substance isomeric with +diphenyl ethane. These syntheses afford another instance of the +singular action of aluminum chloride in attacking the benzene nucleus.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a>NOTES ON SACCHARIN.</h2> + +<h3>By EDWARD D. GRAVILL, F.C.S., F.R.M.S.</h3> + +<p>Now that a supply of this reputed substitute for sugar has been placed +upon the London market, it will doubtless have attracted the attention +of many pharmacists, and as information having reference to its +characters and properties is as yet somewhat scarce, the following +notes may be of interest.</p> + +<p>The sample to which these notes refer represents, I believe, a portion +of the first supply that has been offered to us as a commercial +article, and may therefore be taken to represent the same as it at +present occurs in commerce. I think it desirable to call attention to +this fact, because of the wide difference I have seen in other samples +obtained, I think, by special request some weeks ago, and which do not +favorably correspond with the sample under consideration, being much +more highly colored, and in comparison having a very strong odor. +Saccharin now occurs as a very pale yellow, nearly white, amorphous +powder, free from grittiness, but giving a distinct sensation of +roughness when rubbed between the fingers. It is not entirely free +from odor, but this is very slight, and not at all objectionable, +reminding one of a very slight flavor of essential oils of almonds. +Its taste is intensely sweet and persistent, which in the raw state is +followed by a slight harshness upon the tongue and palate. The +sweetness is very distinct when diluted to 1 in 10,000. Under the +microscope it presents no definite form of crystallization.</p> + +<p>A temperature of 100° C, even if continued for some time, has no +perceptible effect upon saccharin; it loses no weight, and undergoes +no physical change. It fuses at a temperature of from 118° to 120° C., +and at 150° C. forms a clear light yellow liquid, which boils a few +degrees higher. At the latter temperature dense white fumes appear, +and a condensation of tufts of acicular crystals (some well defined) +is found upon the cool surface of the apparatus. These crystals, +except for a slight sweetness of taste, correspond in characters and +tests to benzoic acid. The sweet flavor, I think, may be due to the +presence of a very small quantity of undecomposed saccharin, carried +mechanically with the fumes. The escaping vapors, which are very +irritable, and give a more decided odor of hydride of benzole than the +powder itself, also communicate a very distinct sensation of sweetness +to the back part of the palate. Heated over the flame, with free +access of air, saccharin carbonizes and burns with a dull yellow smoky +flame, leaving a residue amounting to 0.65 per cent. of sodium salts. +It does not reduce an alkaline copper solution, but, like glycerine, +liberates boracic acid from borax, the latter salt dissolving +saccharin readily in aqueous solution, due no doubt to a displacement +of the boracic acid.</p> + +<p>The strong acids, either hot or cold, show no characteristic color +reaction; the compound enters solution at the boiling point of the +acid, and in the case of hydrochloric shows a white granular +separation on cooling. Sulphuric acid develops an uncharacteristic +light brown color.</p> + +<p>The compound, like most of the organic acids, shows a characteristic +reaction with ferro and ferrid cyanide of potassium. In the former +case no change is perceptible until boiled when a greenish white +turbidity appears, with the liberation of small quantities of +hydrocyanic acid. In the latter case a trace also of this acid is set +free, with the formation of a very distinct green solution, the latter +reaction being very perceptible with a few drops of a 1 in 1,000 +solution of saccharin in water. Heated with lime, very distinct odors +of benzoic aldehyde are developed.</p> + +<p>Saccharin possesses very decided acid properties, and combines readily +with alkalies or alkaline carbonates, forming anhydro-ortho +sulphamine-benzoates of the same, in the latter case at the expense of +the carbonic anhydride, causing strong effervescence. These +combinations are very soluble in water, the alkaline carbonate thus +forming a ready medium for the solution of this acid, which alone is +so sparingly soluble. Another advantage of some importance is that, +while the harshness of flavor perceptible in a simple solution of the +acid is destroyed, the great sweetness appears to be distinctly +intensified and refined.</p> + +<p>The following shows the solubility of saccharin in the various liquids +quoted, all, with the exception of the boiling water, being taken at +60° F.:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="75%" summary="Solvent, solubility"> +<tr><td align='left'>Boiling water</td><td align='right'>0.60</td><td align='left'>parts per 100 by volume.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cold water</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Alcohol 0.800</td><td align='right'>4.25</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rectified spirit 0.838</td><td align='right'>3.20</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ether 0.717</td><td align='right'>1.00</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chloroform 1.49</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Benzene</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='center'>"</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' colspan="2">Petroleum ether insoluble.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>It is also sparingly soluble in glycerin and fixed oils, and to a +greater or less extent in volatile oils. Benzoic aldehyde dissolves +saccharin in large quantities.</p> + +<p>I was somewhat disappointed at the slight solubility of saccharin in +ether, as it has been repeatedly stated to be very soluble in that +liquid.</p> + +<p>The quantity of saccharin required to communicate an agreeable degree +of sweetness, like sugar, differs with the material to be sweetened; +but from half to one and half grains, according to taste, will be +found sufficient for an ordinary breakfast cup full of tea or coffee +infusion.—<i>Pharm. Jour.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>ALCOHOL AND TURPENTINE.</h2> + +<p>In a paper entitled "The Oxidation of Ethyl Alcohol in the Presence of +Turpentine," communicated to the Chemical Society by Mr. C.E. +Steedman, Williamstown, Victoria, the author states that dilute ethyl +alcohol in the presence of air and turpentine becomes oxidized to +acetic acid. He placed in a clear glass 16 oz. bottle a mixture of 2 +drachms of alcohol, 1 drachm of turpentine, and 1 oz. of water. The +bottle was securely corked and left exposed to a varying temperature +averaging about 80° F. for three months. At the end of that time the +liquid was strongly acid from the presence of acetic acid. One curious +fact appears to have light thrown upon it by this observation.</p> + +<p>Mr. McAlpine, Professor of Biology at Ormond College, Melbourne +University, has a method of preserving biological specimens by +abstracting their moisture with alcohol after hardening in chromic +acid, and then placing the specimen in turpentine for some time; great +discrepancies arise, however, according as the alcohol is allowed or +not to evaporate from the specimen before dipping it into turpentine.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN</h3> + +<h2>Architects and Builders Edition.</h2> + +<p class="center">$2.50 a Year. 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anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 620, November 19,1887 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July 24, 2005 [EBook #16354] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 620 + + + + +NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 18, 1997 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIV., No. 620. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ARCHITECTURE--Bristol Cathedral--The history and description of + this ancient building, with large illustration.--1 illustration. 9904 + +II. BIOGRAPHY--Oliver Evans and the Steam Engine.--The work of this + early pioneer, hitherto but slightly recognized at his true + worth as an inventor. 9896 + +III. CHEMISTRY--The Chemistry of the Cotton Fiber--By Dr. BOWMAN--An + interesting investigation, showing the variation in composition + in different cottons. 9909 + + Synthesis of Styrolene. 9910 + + Notes on Saccharin. 9910 + + Alcohol and Turpentine. 9910 + +IV. ENGINEERING--Auguste's Endless Stone Saw--A valuable improvement, + introducing the principle of the band saw, and producing a + horizontal cut--10 illustrations. 9896 + +V. ELECTRICITY.--A Current Meter--The Jehl & Rupp meter for + electricity described--1 illustration. 9903 + + Mix & Genest's Microphone Telephone--The new telephone recently + adopted by the imperial post office department of Germany--3 + illustrations. 9902 + + Storage Batteries for Electric Locomotion--By A. RECKENZAUN--A + valuable paper on this subject, giving historical facts and + working figures of expense, etc. 9903 + + The Telemeter System--By R.F. UPTON--The system of Oe.L. Clarke, + of New York, as described before the British Association--A + valuable tribute to an American inventor--1 illustration. 9900 + +VI. METALLURGY.--The Newbery-Vautin Chlorination Process--A new + process of extracting gold from its ores, with details of the + management of the process and apparatus--1 illustration. 9907 + +VII. MISCELLANEOUS.--A Gigantic Load of Lumber--The largest barge + load of lumber ever shipped--The barge Wahnapitae and her + appearance as loaded at Duluth--1 illustration. 9907 + + Apparatus for Exercising the Muscles--An appliance for use by + invalids requiring to exercise atrophied limbs--1 illustration. 9908 + + Practical Education.--A plea for the support of manual training + schools. 9906 + + Waves--The subject of ocean waves fully treated--An interesting + _resume_ of our present knowledge of this phenomenon of + fluids. 9906 + +VIII. NAVAL ENGINEERING--The New Spanish Armored Cruiser Reina + Regente.--Illustration and full description of this recent + addition to the Spanish navy.--1 illustration. 9895 + + The Spanish Torpedo Boat Azor--Illustration and note of speed, + etc., of this new vessel--1 illustration. 9895 + +IX. OPHTHALMOLOGY--The Bull Optometer--An apparatus for testing + the eyesight.--The invention of Dr George J. Bull.--3 + illustrations. 9908 + +X. SANITATION AND HYGIENE--The Sanitation of Towns--By J. GORDON, + C.E.--A presidential address before the Leicester meeting of + the Society of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors + of England. 9909 + +XI. TECHNOLOGY--A New Monster Revolving Black Ash Furnace and the + Work Done with It--By WATSON SMITH--The great furnace of the + Widnes Alkali Company described, with results and features of + its working--4 illustrations. 9900 + + Apparatus Used for Making Alcohol for Hospital Use during the + Civil War between the States--By CHARLES K. GALLAGHER--A curiosity + of war times described and illustrated.--1 illustration. 9900 + + Confederate Apparatus for Manufacturing Saltpeter for Ammunition + --By CHARLES K. GALLAGHER--Primitive process for extracting + saltpeter from earth and other material--1 illustration. 9900 + + Electrolysis and Refining of Sugar--A method of bleaching sugar + said to be due to ozone produced by electric currents acting on + the solution--1 illustration. 9903 + + Improvements in the Manufacture of Portland Cement--By FREDERICK + RANSOME, A.I.C.E.--An important paper recently read before the + British Association, giving the last and most advanced methods + of manufacture. 9901 + + Roburite, the New Explosive--Practical tests of this substance, + with special application to coal mining. 9897 + + The Mechanical Reeling of Silk.--An advanced method of treating + silk cocoons, designed to dispense with the old hand winding of + the raw silk.--3 illustrations. 9898 + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SPANISH TORPEDO BOAT AZOR. + + +[Illustration: THE SPANISH TORPEDO BOAT AZOR.] + +The Azor was built by Yarrow & Co., London, is of the larger class, +having a displacement of 120 tons, and is one of the fastest boats +afloat. Her speed is 241/2 miles per hour. She has two tubes for +launching torpedoes and three rapid firing Nordenfelt guns. She lately +arrived in Santander, Spain, after the very rapid passage of forty +hours from England. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE NEW SPANISH ARMORED CRUISER REINA REGENTE. + + + +[Illustration: THE NEW SPANISH ARMORED CRUISER REINA REGENTE.] + +The new armored cruiser Reina Regente, which has been built and +engined by Messrs. James & George Thomson, of Clydebank, for the +Spanish government, has recently completed her official speed trials +on the Clyde, the results attained being sufficient to justify the +statement made on her behalf that she is the fastest war cruiser in +the world. She is a vessel of considerable size, the following being +her measurements: Length over all, 330 ft., and 307 ft. between +perpendiculars; breadth, 501/2 ft.; and her draught is 20 ft., giving a +displacement of 5,000 tons, which will be increased to 5,600 tons when +she is fully equipped. + +This vessel belongs to the internally protected type of war cruisers, +a type of recent origin, and of which she is the largest example yet +built. The internal protection includes an armored deck which consists +of steel plates ranging from 3-1/8 in. in thickness in the flat center +to 43/4 in. at the sloping sides of the deck. This protective deck +covers the "vitals" of the ship, the machinery, boilers, etc. Then +there is a very minute subdivision in the hull of the ship, there +being, in all, 156 water-tight compartments, 83 of which are between +the armored deck and the one immediately above it, or between wind and +water. Most of these compartments are used as coal bunkers. Of the +remainder of the water-tight compartments, 60 are beneath the armor. +Throughout her whole length the Reina Regente has a double bottom, +which also extends from side to side of the ship. In order to keep the +vessel as free of water as possible, there have been fitted on board +four 14 in. centrifugal pumps, all of which are connected to a main +pipe running right fore and aft in the ship, and into which branches +are received from every compartment. These pumps are of the "Bon +Accord" type, and were supplied by Messrs. Drysdale & Co., Glasgow. + +Not being weighted by massive external armor, the Reina Regente is +unusually light in proportion to her bulk, and in consequence it has +been rendered possible to supply her with engines of extraordinary +power. They are of the horizontal triple expansion type, driving twin +screws, and placed in separate water-tight compartments. The boilers, +four in number, are also in separate compartments. Well above the +water line there are two auxiliary boilers, which were supplied by +Messrs. Merryweather, London, and are intended for raising steam +rapidly in cases of emergency. These boilers are connected with all +the auxiliary engines of the ship, numbering no fewer than +forty-three. + +The engines have been designed to indicate 12,000 horse power, and on +the trial, when they were making 110 revolutions per minute, they +indicated considerably upward of 11,000 horse power, the bearings all +the while keeping wonderfully cool, and the temperature of the engine +and boiler rooms being never excessive. The boilers are fitted with a +forced draught arrangement giving a pressure of 1 in. of water. In the +official run she attained a speed equal to 21 knots (over 24 miles) +per hour, and over a period of four hours an average speed of 20.72 +knots per hour was developed, without the full power of the engines +being attained. The average steam pressure in the boilers was 140 lb. +per square inch. In the course of some private trials made by the +builders, the consumption of coal was tested, with the result that +while the vessel was going at a moderate speed the very low +consumption of 14 lb. of coal per indicated horse power per hour was +reached. The vessel is capable of steaming 6,000 knots when there is a +normal supply of coal in her bunkers, and when they are full there is +sufficient to enable her to steam 13,000 knots. + +The Reina Regente will be manned by 50 officers and a crew of 350 men, +all of whom will have their quarters on the main deck. Among her +fittings and equipment there are three steam lifeboats and eight other +boats, five of Sir William Thomson's patent compasses, and a complete +electric light installation, the latter including two powerful search +lights, which are placed on the bridge. All parts of the vessel are in +communication by means of speaking tubes. In order to enable the +vessel to turn speedily, she is fitted with the sternway rudder of +Messrs. Thomson & Biles. This contrivance is a combination of a +partially balanced rudder with a rudder formed as a continuation of +the after lines of a ship. The partial balance tends to reduce the +strains on the steering gear, and thereby enables the rudder area to +be increased without unduly straining the gear. + +When fitted out for actual service, this novel war cruiser will have a +most formidable armament, consisting of four 24 centimeter Hontorio +guns (each of 21 tons), six 12 centimeter guns (also of the Hontorio +type), six 6 pounder Nordenfelt guns, fourteen small guns, and five +torpedo tubes--one at the stern, two amidships, and two at the bow of +the ship. + +It is worthy of note that this war cruiser was constructed in fifteen +months, or three months under the stipulated contract time; in fact, +the official trial of the vessel took place exactly eighteen months +from the signing of the contract. Not only is this the fastest war +cruiser afloat, but her owners also possess in the El Destructor what +is probably the simplest torpedo catcher afloat, a vessel which has +attained a speed of 221/2 knots, or over 26 miles, per hour. +--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +OLIVER EVANS AND THE STEAM ENGINE. + + +A correspondent of the New York _Times_, deeming that far too much +credit has been given to foreigners for the practical development of +the steam engine, contributes the following interesting _resume_: + +Of all the inventions of ancient or modern times none have more +importantly and beneficently influenced the affairs of mankind than +the double acting high pressure steam engine, the locomotive, the +steam railway system, and the steamboat, all of which inventions are +of American origin. The first three are directly and the last +indirectly associated with a patent that was granted by the State of +Maryland, in 1787, being the very year of the framing of the +Constitution of the United States. In view of the momentous nature of +the services which these four inventions have rendered to the material +and national interests of the people of the United States, it is to be +hoped that neither they nor their origin will be forgotten in the +coming celebration of the centennial of the framing of the +Constitution. + +The high pressure steam engine in its stationary form is almost +ubiquitous in America. In all great iron and steel works, in all +factories, in all plants for lighting cities with electricity, in +brief, wherever in the United States great power in compact form is +wanted, there will be found the high pressure steam engine furnishing +all the power that is required, and more, too, if more is demanded, +because it appears to be equal to every human requisition. But go +beyond America. Go to Great Britain, and the American steam +engine--although it is not termed American in Great Britain--will be +found fast superseding the English engine--in other words, James +Watt's condensing engine. It is the same the world over. On all the +earth there is not a steam locomotive that could turn a wheel but for +the fact that, in common with every locomotive from the earliest +introduction of that invention, it is simply the American steam engine +put on wheels, and it was first put on wheels by its American +inventor, Oliver Evans, being the same Oliver Evans to whom the State +of Maryland granted the before mentioned patent of 1787. + +He is the same Oliver Evans whom Elijah Galloway, the British writer +on the steam engine, compared with James Watt as to the authorship of +the locomotive, or rather "steam carriage," as the locomotive was in +those days termed. After showing the unfitness of Mr. Watt's low +pressure steam engine for locomotive purposes, Mr. Galloway, more than +fifty years ago, wrote: "We have made these remarks in this place in +order to set at rest the title of Mr. Watt to the invention of steam +carriages. And, taking for our rule that the party who first attempted +them in practice by mechanical arrangements of his own is entitled to +the reputation of being their inventor, Mr. Oliver Evans, of America, +appears to us to be the person to whom that honor is due." He is the +same Oliver Evans whom the _Mechanics' Magazine_, of London, the +leading journal of its kind at that period, had in mind when, in its +number of September, 1830, it published the official report of the +competitive trial between the steam carriages Rocket, San Pariel, +Novelty, and others on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. + +In that trial the company's engines developed about 15 miles in an +hour, and spurts of still higher speed. The _Magazine_ points to the +results of the trial, and then, under the heading of "The First +Projector of Steam Traveling," it declares that all that had been +accomplished had been anticipated and its feasibility practically +exemplified over a quarter of a century before by Oliver Evans, an +American citizen. The _Magazine_ showed that many years before the +trial Mr. Evans had offered to furnish steam carriages that, on level +railways, should run at the rate of 300 miles in a day, or he would +not ask pay therefor. The writer will state that this offer by Mr. +Evans was made in November, 1812, at which date not a British steam +carriage had yet accomplished seven miles in an hour. + +In 1809 Mr. Evans endeavored to establish a steam railway both for +freight and passenger traffic between New York and Philadelphia, +offering to invest $500 per mile in the enterprise. At the date of his +effort there was not a railway in the world over ten miles long, nor +does there appear to have been another human being who up to that date +had entertained even the thought of a steam railway for passenger and +freight traffic. In view of all this, is it at all surprising that the +British _Mechanics' Magazine_ declared Oliver Evans, an American, to +be the first projector of steam railway traveling? In 1804 Mr. Evans +made a most noteworthy demonstration, his object being to practically +exemplify that locomotion could be imparted by his high pressure steam +engine to both carriages and boats, and the reader will see that the +date of the demonstration was three years before Fulton moved a boat +by means of Watt's low pressure steam engine. The machine used +involved the original double acting high pressure steam engine, the +original steam locomotive, and the original high pressure steamboat. +The whole mass weighed over twenty tons. + +Notwithstanding there was no railway, except a temporary one laid over +a slough in the path, Mr. Evans' engine moved this great weight with +ease from the southeast corner of Ninth and Market streets, in the +city of Philadelphia, one and a half miles, to the River Schuylkill. +There the machine was launched into the river, and the land wheels +being taken off and a paddle wheel attached to the stern and connected +with the engine, the now steamboat sped away down the river until it +emptied into the Delaware, whence it turned upward until it reached +Philadelphia. Although this strange craft was square both at bow and +stern, it nevertheless passed all the up-bound ships and other sailing +vessels in the river, the wind being to them ahead. The writer repeats +that this thorough demonstration by Oliver Evans of the possibility of +navigation by steam was made three years before Fulton. But for more +than a quarter of a century prior to this demonstration Mr. Evans had +time and again asserted that vessels could be thus navigated. He did +not contend with John Fitch, but on the contrary tried to aid him and +advised him to use other means than oars to propel his boat. But Fitch +was wedded to his own methods. In 1805 Mr. Evans published a book on +the steam engine, mainly devoted to his form thereof. In this book he +gives directions how to propel boats by means of his engine against +the current of the Mississippi. Prior to this publication he +associated himself with some citizens of Kentucky--one of whom was the +grandfather of the present Gen. Chauncey McKeever, United States +Army--the purpose being to build a steamboat to run on the +Mississippi. The boat was actually built in Kentucky and floated to +New Orleans. The engine was actually built in Philadelphia by Mr. +Evans and sent to New Orleans, but before the engine arrived out the +boat was destroyed by fire or hurricane. The engine was then put to +sawing timber, and it operated so successfully that Mr. Stackhouse, +the engineer who went out with it, reported on his return from the +South that for the 13 months prior to his leaving the engine had been +constantly at work, not having lost a single day! + +The reader can thus see the high stage of efficiency which Oliver +Evans had imparted to his engine full 80 years ago. On this point Dr. +Ernst Alban, the German writer on the steam engine, when speaking of +the high pressure steam engine, writes: "Indeed, to such perfection +did he [Evans] bring it, that Trevithick and Vivian, who came after +him, followed but clumsily in his wake, and do not deserve the title +of either inventors or improvers of the high pressure engine, which +the English are so anxious to award to them.... When it is considered +under what unfavorable circumstances Oliver Evans worked, his merit +must be much enhanced; and all attempts made to lessen his fame only +show that he is neither understood nor equaled by his detractors." + +The writer has already shown that there are bright exceptions to this +general charge brought by Dr. Alban against British writers, but the +overwhelming mass of them have acted more like envious children than +like men when speaking of the authorship of the double acting high +pressure steam engine, the locomotive, and the steam railway system. +Speaking of this class of British writers, Prof. Renwick, when +alluding to their treatment of Oliver Evans, writes: "Conflicting +national pride comes in aid of individual jealousy, and the writers of +one nation often claim for their own vain and inefficient projectors +the honors due to the successful enterprise of a foreigner." Many of +these writers totally ignore the very existence of Oliver Evans, and +all of them attribute to Trevithick and Vivian the authorship of the +high pressure steam engine and the locomotive. Yet, when doing so, all +of them substantially acknowledge the American origin of both +inventions, because it is morally certain that Trevithick and Vivian +got possession of the plans and specifications of his engine. Oliver +Evans sent them to England in 1794-5 by Mr. Joseph Stacy Sampson, of +Boston, with the hope that some British engineer would approve and +conjointly with him take out patents for the inventions. Mr. Sampson +died in England, but not until after he had extensively exhibited Mr. +Evans' plans, apparently, however, without success. After Mr. +Sampson's death Trevithick and Vivian took out a patent for a high +pressure steam engine. This could happen and yet the invention be +original with them. + +But they introduced into Cornwall a form of boiler hitherto unknown in +Great Britain, namely, the cylindrical flue boiler, which Oliver Evans +had invented and used in America years before the names of Trevithick +and Vivian were associated with the steam engine. Hence, they were +charged over fifty years ago with having stolen the invention of Mr. +Evans, and the charge has never been refuted. Hence when British +writers ignore the just claims of Oliver Evans and assert for +Trevithick and Vivian the authorship of the high pressure steam engine +and the locomotive, they thereby substantially acknowledge the +American origin of both inventions. They are not only of American +origin, but their author, although born in 1755, was nevertheless an +American of the second generation, seeing that he was descended from +the Rev. Dr. Evans Evans, who in the earlier days of the colony of +Pennsylvania came out to take charge of the affairs of the Episcopal +Church in Pennsylvania. + +The writer has thus shown that with the patent granted by the State of +Maryland to Oliver Evans in 1787 were associated--first, the double +acting high pressure steam engine, which to-day is the standard steam +engine of the world; second, the locomotive, that is in worldwide use; +third, the steam railway system, which pervades the world; fourth, the +high pressure steamboat, which term embraces all the great ocean +steamships that are actuated by the compound steam engine, as well as +all the steamships on the Mississippi and its branches. + +The time and opportunity has now arrived to assert before all the +world the American origin of these universally beneficent inventions. +Such a demonstration should be made, if only for the instruction of +the rising generation. Not a school book has fallen into the hands of +the writer that correctly sets forth the origin of the subject matter +of this paper. He apprehends that it is the same with the books used +in colleges and universities, for otherwise how could that parody on +the history of the locomotive, called "The Life of George Stephenson, +Railway Engineer," by Samuel Smiles, have met such unbounded success? +To the amazement of the writer, a learned professor in one of the most +important institutions of learning in the country did, in a lecture, +quote Smiles as authority on a point bearing on the history of the +locomotive! It is true that he made amends by adding, when his lecture +was published, a counter statement; but that such a man should have +seriously cited such a work shows the widespread mischief done among +people not versed in engineering lore by the admirably written romance +of Smiles, who as Edward C. Knight, in his Mechanical Dictionary, +truly declares, has "pettifogged the whole case." If, as Prof. Renwick +intimates, "conflicting national pride" has led the major part of +British writers to suppress the truth as to the origin of the high +pressure steam engine, the locomotive, and the steam railway system, +surely true national pride should induce the countrymen of Oliver +Evans to assert it. In closing this paper the writer will say, for the +information of the so-called "practical" men of the country, or, in +other words, those men whose judgment of an invention is mainly guided +by its money value, that Poor's Manual of Railroads in the United +States for 1886 puts their capital stock and their debts at over +$8,162,000,000. The value of the steamships and steamboats actuated by +the high pressure steam engine the writer has no means of +ascertaining. Neither can he appraise the factories and other plants +in the United States--to say nothing of the rest of the world--in +which the high pressure steam engine forms the motive power. + + * * * * * + + + + +AUGUSTE'S ENDLESS STONE SAW. + + +It does not seem as if the band or endless saw should render the same +services in sawing stone as in working wood and metals, for the +reason that quite a great stress is necessary to cause the advance of +the stone (which is in most cases very heavy) against the blade. Mr. +A. Auguste, however, has not stopped at such a consideration, or, +better, he has got round the difficulty by holding the block +stationary and making the blade act horizontally. Fig. 1 gives a +general view of the apparatus; Fig. 2 gives a plan view; Fig. 3 is a +transverse section; Fig. 4 is an end view; Figs. 5, 6, and 7 show +details of the water and sand distributer; and Figs. 8, 9, and 10 show +the pulleys arranged for obtaining several slabs at once. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW.] + +[Illustration: FIGS. 3 and 4 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW.] + +[Illustration: FIGS. 5 through 10 AUGUSTE'S STONE SAW.] + +The machine is wholly of cast iron. The frame consists of four +columns, A, bolted to a rectangular bed plate, A', and connected above +by a frame, B, that forms a table for the support of the transmission +pieces, as well as the iron ladders, _a_, and the platform, _b_, that +supports the water reservoirs, C, and sand receptacles, C'. + +Between the two columns at the ends of the machine there are two +crosspieces, D and D', so arranged that they can move vertically, like +carriages. These pieces carry the axles of the pulleys, P and P', +around which the band saw, S, passes. In the center of the bed plate, +A', which is cast in two pieces connected by bolts, there are ties to +which are screwed iron rails, _e_, which form a railway over which the +platform car, E, carrying the stone is made to advance beneath the +saw. + +The saw consists of an endless band of steel, either smooth or +provided with teeth that are spaced according to the nature of the +material to be worked. It passes around the pulleys, P and P', which +are each encircled by a wide and stout band of rubber to cause the +blade to adhere, and which are likewise provided with two flanges. Of +the latter, the upper one is cast in a piece with the pulley, and the +lower one is formed of sections of a circle connected by screws. The +pulley, P, is fast, and carries along the saw; the other, P', is +loose, and its hub is provided with a bronze socket (Figs. 1 and 4). +It is through this second pulley that the blade is given the desired +tension, and to this effect its axle is forged with a small disk +adjusted in a frame and traversed by a screw, _d'_, which is +maneuvered through a hand wheel. The extremities of the crosspieces, D +and D', are provided with brass sockets through which the pieces slide +up and down the columns, with slight friction, under the action of the +vertical screws, _g_ and _g'_, within the columns. + +A rotary motion is communicated to the four screws simultaneously by +the transmission arranged upon the frame. To this effect, the pulley, +P, which receives the motion and transmits it to the saw, has its +axle, _f_, prolonged, and grooved throughout its length in order that +it may always be carried along, whatever be the place it occupies, by +the hollow shaft, F, which is provided at the upper extremity with a +bevel wheel and two keys placed at the level of the bronze collars of +its support, G. The slider, D, is cast in a piece with the pillow +block that supports the shaft, _f_, and the bronze bushing of this +pillow block is arranged to receive a shoulder and an annular +projection, both forged with the shaft and designed to carry it, as +well as the pulley, P, keyed to its extremity. Now the latter, by its +weight, exerts a pressure which determines a sensible friction upon +the bushing through this shoulder and projection, and, in order to +diminish the same, the bushing is continuously moistened with a +solution of soap and water through the pipe, _g_, which runs from the +reservoir, G'. + +The saw is kept from deviating from its course by movable guides +placed on the sliders, D and D'. These guides, H and H', each consist +of a cast iron box fixed by a nut to the extremity of the arms, _h_ +and _h'_, and coupled by crosspieces, _j_ and _j'_, which keep them +apart and give the guides the necessary rigidity. + +The shaft, _m_, mounted in pillow blocks fixed to the left extremity +of the frame, receives motion from the motor through the pulley, _p_, +at the side of which is mounted the loose pulley, _p_. This motion is +transmitted by the drum, M, and the pulley, L, to the shaft, _l_, at +the other extremity. This latter is provided with a pinion, _l'_, +which, through the wheel, F', gives motion to the saw. The shaft, _m_, +likewise controls the upward or downward motion of the saw through the +small drums, N and _n_, and the two pairs of fast and loose pulleys, +N' and _n'_. This shaft, too, transmits motion (a very slow one) to +the four screws, _g_ and _g'_, in the interior of the columns, and the +nuts of which are affixed to the sliders, D and D'. To this effect, +the shaft, _q_, is provided at its extremities with endless screws +that gear with two wheels, _q_', with helicoidal teeth fixed near the +middle of two parallel axes, _r_, running above the table, B, and +terminating in bevel wheels, _r'_, that engage with similar wheels +fixed at the end of the screws, _g_ and _g'_. + +The car that carries the block to the saw consists of a strong frame, +E, mounted upon four wheels. This frame is provided with a pivot and a +circular track for the reception of the cast iron platform, E', which +rests thereon through the intermedium of rollers. Between the +rails, _e_, and parallel with them, are fixed two strong screws, _e'_, +held by supports that raise them to the bottom of the car frame, so +that they can be affixed thereto. When once the car is fastened in +this way, the screws are revolved by means of winches, and the block +is thus made to advance or recede a sufficient distance to make the +lines marked on its surface come exactly opposite the saw blade. + +In sawing hard stones, it is necessary, as well known, to keep up a +flow of water and fine sand upon the blade in order to increase its +friction. Upon two platforms, _b_, at the extremities of the machine, +are fixed the water reservoir, C, and the receptacles, C', containing +fine sand or dry pulverized grit stone. As may be seen from Figs. 5 +and 6, the bottom of the sand box, C', is conical and terminates in a +hopper, T, beneath which is adjusted a slide valve, _t_, connected +with a screw that carries a pulley, T'. By means of this valve, the +bottom of the hopper may be opened or closed in such a way as to +regulate the flow of the sand at will by acting upon the pulley, T', +through a chain, _t'_, passing over the guide pulley, _t squared_. A rubber +tube, _u_, which starts from the hopper, runs into a metal pipe, U, +that descends to the guide, H, with which it is connected by a collar. +Under the latter, this pipe terminates in a sphere containing a small +aperture to allow the sand to escape upon an inclined board provided +with a flange. At the same time, through the rubber tube, _c_, coming +from the reservoir, C, a stream of water is directed upon the board in +order to wet the sand. + +As the apparatus with but a single endless saw makes but two kerfs at +once, Mr. Auguste has devised an arrangement by means of which several +blades may be used, and the work thus be expedited. + +Without changing the general arrangements, he replaces the pulleys, P +and P', by two half drums, V and V' (Figs. 8, 9, and 10), which are +each cast in a piece with the crosspieces, D squared and D cubed, designed to +replace D and D', and, like them, sliding up and down the columns, A, +of the frame. Motion is transmitted to all the saw blades by a cog +wheel, X, keyed to the vertical shaft, _f_, and gearing with small +pinions, _x_, which are equally distant all around, and which +themselves gear with similar pinions forming the radii of a succession +of circles concentric with the first. All these pinions are mounted +upon axles traversing bronze bearings within the drum, which, to this +effect, is provided with slots. The axles of the pinions are prolonged +in order to receive rollers, _x'_, surrounded with rubber so as to +facilitate, through friction, the motion of all the blades running +between them. + +The other drum, V', is arranged in the same way, except that it is not +cast in a piece with the carriage, D cubed, but is so adjusted to it that +a tension may be exerted upon the blades by means of the screw, _d_, +and its hand wheel. + +Through this combination, all the blades are carried along at once in +opposite directions and at the same speed.--_Publication +Industrielle._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ROBURITE, THE NEW EXPLOSIVE. + + +A series of experiments of great interest and vital importance to +colliery owners and all those engaged in mining coal has been carried +out during the last ten days in the South Yorkshire coal field. The +new mines regulation act provides that any explosible used in coal +mines shall either be fired in a water cartridge or be of such a +nature that it cannot inflame firedamp. This indeed is the problem +which has puzzled many able chemists during the last few years, and +which Dr. Roth, of Berlin, claims to have solved with his explosive +"roburite." We recently gave a detailed account of trials carried out +at the School of Military Engineering, Chatham, to test the safety and +strength of roburite, as compared with gun cotton, dynamite, and +blasting gelatine. The results were conclusive of the great power of +the new explosive, and so far fully confirmed the reports of the able +mining engineer and the chemical experts who had been sent to Germany +to make full inquiries. These gentlemen had ample opportunity of +seeing roburite used in the coal mines of Westphalia, and it was +mainly upon their testimony that the patents for the British empire +were acquired by the Roburite Explosive Company. + +It has, however, been deemed advisable to give practical proof to +those who would have to use it, that roburite possesses all the high +qualities claimed for it, and hence separate and independent trials +have been arranged in such representative collieries as the +Wharncliffe Silkstone, near Sheffield, Monk Bretton, near Barnsley, +and, further north, in the Durham coal field, at Lord Londonderry's +Seaham and Silksworth collieries. Mr. G.B. Walker, resident manager of +the Wharncliffe Colliery Company, had gone to Germany as an +independent observer--provided with a letter of introduction from the +Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs--and had seen the +director of the government mines at Saarbruck, who gave it as his +opinion that, so far as his experience had gone, the new explosive was +a most valuable invention. Mr. Walker was so impressed with the great +advantages of roburite that he desired to introduce it into his own +colliery, where he gladly arranged with the company to make the first +coal mining experiments in this country. These were recently carried +out in the Parkgate seam of the Wharncliffe Silkstone colliery, under +the personal superintendence of the inventor, Dr. Roth, and in the +presence of a number of colliery managers and other practical men. + +In all six shots were fired, five of which were for the purpose of +winning coal, while the sixth was expressly arranged as a "blowout +shot." The roburite--which resembles nothing so much as a common +yellow sugar--is packed in cartridges of about 41/2 in. in length and 11/2 +in. in diameter, each containing about 65 grammes (one-seventh of a +pound) inclosed in a waterproof envelope. By dividing a cartridge, any +desired strength of charge can be obtained. The first shot had a +charge of 90 grammes (one-fifth of a pound) placed in a hole drilled +to a depth of about 4 ft. 6 in., and 13/4 in. in diameter. All the +safety lamps were carefully covered, so that complete darkness was +produced, but there was no visible sign of an explosion in the shape +of flame--not even a spark--only the dull, heavy report and the noise +made by the displaced coal. A large quantity of coal was brought +down, but it was considered by most of the practical men present to be +rather too much broken. The second shot was fired with a single +cartridge of 65 grammes, and this gave the same remarkable results as +regards absence of flame, and, in each case, there were no noxious +fumes perceivable, even the moment after the shot was fired. This +reduced charge gave excellent results as regards coal winning, and one +of the subsequent shots, with the same weight of roburite, produced +from 10 to 11 tons of coal in almost a solid mass. + +It has been found that a fertile cause of accidents in coal mines is +insufficient tamping, or "stemming," as it is called in Yorkshire. +Therefore a hole was bored into a strong wall of coal, and a charge of +45 grammes inserted, and very slightly tamped, with the view of +producing a flame if such were possible. This "blowout" shot is so +termed from the fact of its being easier for the explosion to blow out +the tamping, like the shot from a gun, than to split or displace the +coal. The result was most successful, as there was no flash to relieve +the utter darkness. + +The second set of experiments took place on October 24 last, in the +Monk Bretton colliery, near Barnsley, of which Mr. W. Pepper, of +Leeds, is owner. This gentleman determined to give the new explosive a +fair and exhaustive trial, and the following programme was carried out +in the presence of a very large gathering of gentlemen interested in +coal mining. The chief inspector of mines for Yorkshire and +Lincolnshire, Mr. F.N. Wardell, was also present, and the Roburite +Explosives Company was represented by Lieut.-General Sir John Stokes, +K.C.B., R.E., chairman, and several of the directors. + +1. _Surface Experiments._--A shot fired on the ground, exposed. This +gave no perceptible flame (70 grammes of roburite was the charge in +these experiments). + +2. A shot fired on the ground, bedded in fine coal dust. No flame nor +ignition of the coal dust was perceptible. + +3. A shot fired suspended in a case into which gas was conducted, and +the atmospheric air allowed to enter so as to form an explosive +mixture. The gas was not fired. + +4. A shot fired in a boiler flue 16 ft. by 2 ft. 8 in., placed +horizontally, in which was a quantity of fine coal dust kept suspended +in the air by the action of a fan. No flame nor ignition of the coal +dust took place. + +5. A shot fired as above, except that an explosive mixture of gas and +air was flowing into the boiler tube in addition to the coal dust. +That this mixture was firedamp was proved by the introduction of a +safety lamp, the flame of which was elongated, showing what miners +call the "blue cap." There was no explosion of the gas or sign of +flames. + +6. A shot of roburite fired in the boiler tube without any gas or +suspended coal dust. The report was quite as loud as in the preceding +case; indeed, to several present it seemed more distinct. + +7. A shot of 1/2 lb. gunpowder was fired under the same condition as No. +5, i.e., in an explosive mixture of gas and air with coal dust. The +result was most striking, and appeared to carry conviction of the +great comparative safety of roburite to all present. Not only was +there an unmistakable explosion of the firedamp, with very loud +report, and a vivid sheet of flame, but the gas flowing into the far +end of the boiler tube was ignited and remained burning until turned +off. + +_In the Pit._--1. A 2 in. hole was drilled 4 ft. 6 in. deep into coal, +having a face 7 yards wide, fast at both ends, and holed under for a +depth of 8 ft., end on, thickness of front of coal to be blown down 2 +ft. 10 in., plus 9 in. of dirt. This represented a most difficult +shot, having regard to the natural lines of cleavage of the coal--a +"heavy job" as it was locally termed. The charge was 65 grammes of +roburite, which brought down a large quantity of coal, not at all too +small in size. No flame was perceptible, although all the lamps were +carefully covered. + +2. A 2 in. hole drilled 4 ft. 6 in. into the side of the coal about 10 +in. from the top, fast ends not holed under, width of space 10 ft. +This was purposely a "blowout" shot. The result was again most +satisfactory, the charge exploding in perfect darkness. + +3. A "breaking up" shot placed in the stone roof for "ripping," the +hole being drilled at an angle of 35 deg. or 40 deg. This is intended +to open a cavity in the perfectly smooth roof, the ripping being +continued by means of the "lip" thus formed. The charge was 105 +grammes (nearly 4 oz), and it brought down large quantities of stone. + +4. A "ripping" shot in the stone roof, hole 4 ft. 6 in. deep, width of +place 15 ft. with a "lip" of 2 ft. 6 in. This is a strong stone +"bind," and very difficult to get down. The trial was most successful, +a large heap of stone being brought down and more loosened. + +5. A second "blowout" shot, under the conditions most likely to +produce an accident in a fiery mine. A 2 in. hole, 4 ft. 6 in. deep, +was drilled in the face of the coal near the roof, and charged with +105 grammes of roburite. A space of 6 in. or 8 in. was purposely left +between the charge and the tamping. The hole was then strongly tamped +for a distance of nearly 2 ft. The report was very loud, and a +trumpet-shaped orifice was formed at the mouth of the hole, but no +flame or spark could be perceived, nor was any inconvenience caused by +the fumes, even the instant after the explosion. + +_Further Experiments at Wharncliffe Colliery._--On Tuesday, October +25, some very interesting surface trials were arranged with great care +by Mr. Walker. An old boiler flue was placed vertically, and closed at +top by means of a removable wooden cover, the interior space being +about 72 cubic feet. A temporary gasometer had been arranged at a +suitable distance by means of a paraffin cask having a capacity of 6 +cubic feet suspended inside a larger cask, and by this means the +boiler was charged with a highly explosive mixture of gas and air in +the proportion of 1 to 12. + +1. A charge of gunpowder was placed in the closed end of a piece of +gas pipe, and strongly tamped, so as to give the conditions most +unfavorable to the ignition of the firedamp. It was, however, ignited, +and a loud explosion produced, which blew off the wooden cover and +filled the boiler tube with flame. + +2. Under the same conditions as to firedamp, a charge of roburite was +placed on a block of wood inside the boiler, totally unconfined except +by a thin covering of coal dust. When exploded by electricity, as in +the previous case, no flame was produced, nor was the firedamp +ignited. + +3. The preceding experiment was repeated with the same results. + +4. A charge of blasting gelatine, inserted in one of Settle's water +cartridges, was suspended in the boiler tube and fired with a +fulminate of mercury detonator in the usual manner. The gelatine did +not, however, explode, the only report being that of the detonator. +After a safe interval the unexploded cartridge was recovered, or so +much of it as had not been scattered by the detonator, and the +gelatine was found to be frozen. This fact was also evident from an +inspection of other gelatine dynamite cartridges which had been stored +in the same magazine during the night. This result, although not that +intended, was most instructive as regards the danger of using +explosives which are liable to freeze at such a moderate temperature, +and the thawing of which is undoubtedly attended with great risk +unless most carefully performed. Also, the small pieces of the +gelatine or dynamite, when scattered by the explosion of the +detonator, might cause serious accident if trodden upon.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MECHANICAL REELING OF SILK. + + +When automatic machinery for thread spinning was invented, English +intelligence and enterprise were quick to utilize and develop it, and +thus gained that supremacy in textile manufacture which has remained +up to the present time, and which will doubtless long continue. The +making of the primary thread is the foundation of all textile +processes, and it is on the possibility of doing this by automatic +machinery that England's great textile industries depend. The use of +highly developed machinery for spinning cotton, wool, and flax has +grown to be so much a part of our conception of modern life, as +contrasted with the times of our grandfathers, as often to lead to the +feeling that a complete and universal change has occurred in all the +textile industries. This is, however, not the case. There is one great +textile industry--one of the most staple and valuable--still in the +primitive condition of former times, and employing processes and +apparatus essentially the same as those known and employed before such +development had taken place. We mean the art of silk reeling. The +improvements made in the production of threads of all other materials +have only been applied to silk in the minor processes for utilizing +waste; but the whole silk trade and manufacture of the world has, up +to this time, been dependent for its raw silk threads upon apparatus +which, mechanically speaking, is nearly or quite as primitive as the +ancient spinning wheels. Thousands of operatives are constantly +employed in forming up these threads by hand, adding filament by +filament to the thread as required, while watching the unwinding from +the cocoon of many miles of filament in order to produce a single +pound of the raw silk thread, making up the thread unaided by any +mechanical device beyond a simple reel on which the thread is wound as +finished, and a basin of heated water in which the cocoons are placed. + +Viewed from any standpoint to which we are accustomed, this state of +things is so remarkable that we are naturally led to the belief that +there must be some special causes which tended to retard the +introduction of automatic machinery, and these are not far to seek. +The spinning machinery employed for the production of threads, other +than those of raw silk, may be broadly described as consisting of +devices capable of taking a mass of confused and comparatively short +fibers, laying them parallel with one another, and twisting them into +a cylindrical thread, depending for its strength upon the friction and +interlocking of these constituent fibers. + +This process is radically different from that employed to make a +thread of raw silk, which consists of filaments, each several thousand +feet long, laid side by side, almost without twist, and glued together +into a solid thread by means of the "gum" or glue with which each +filament is naturally coated. If this radical difference be borne in +mind, but very little mechanical knowledge is required to make it +evident that the principle of spinning machinery in general is utterly +unsuited to the making up of the threads of raw silk. Since spinning +machinery, as usually constructed for other fibers, could not be +employed in the manufacture of raw silk, and as the countries where +silk is produced are, generally speaking, not the seat of great +mechanical industries, where the need of special machinery would be +quickly recognized and supplied, silk reeling (the making of raw silk) +has been passed by, and has never become an industrial art. It +remained one of the few manual handicrafts, while yet serving as the +base of a great and staple industry of worldwide importance. + +There is every reason to suppose that we are about to witness a +transformation in the art of silk reeling, a change similar to that +which has already been brought about in the spinning of other threads, +and of which the consequences will be of the highest importance. For +some years past work has been done in France in developing an +automatic silk-reeling machine, and incomplete notes concerning it +have from time to time been published. That the accounts which were +allowed to reach the outer world were incomplete will cause no +surprise to those who know what experimental work is--how easily and +often an inventor or pioneer finds himself hampered by premature +publication. The process in question has now, however, emerged from +the experimental state, and is practically complete. By the courtesy +of the inventor we are in a position to lay before our readers an +exact analysis of the principles, essential parts, and method of +operation of the new silk-reeling machine. As silk reeling is not +widely known in England, it will, however, be well to preface our +remarks by some details concerning the cocoon and the manner in which +it is at present manufactured into raw silk, promising that if these +seem tedious, the labor of reading them will be amply repaid by the +clearer understanding of the new mechanical process which will be the +result. + +The silkworm, when ready to make its cocoon, seeks a suitable support. +This is usually found among the twigs of brush placed for the purpose +over the trays in which the worms have been grown. At first the worm +proceeds by stretching filaments backward and forward from one twig to +another in such manner as to include a space large enough for the +future cocoon. When sufficient support has thus been obtained, the +worm incloses itself in a layer of filaments adhering to the support +and following the shape of the new cocoon, of which it forms the +outermost stratum. After having thus provided a support and outlined +the cocoon, the worm begins the serious work of constrution. The +filament from its silk receiver issues from two small spinnarets +situated near its jaws. Each filament, as it comes out, is coated with +a layer of exceedingly tenacious natural gum, and they at once unite +to form a single flattened thread, the two parts lying side by side. +It is this flat thread, called the "baye" or "brin," which serves as +the material for making the cocoon, and which, when subsequently +unwound, is the filament used in making up the raw silk. While +spinning, the worm moves its head continually from right to left, +laying on the filament in a succession of lines somewhat resembling +the shape of the figure eight. As the worm continues the work of +making its cocoon, the filament expressed from its body in the manner +described is deposited in nearly even layers all over the interior of +the wall of the cocoon, which gradually becomes thicker and harder. +The filament issuing from the spinnarets is immediately attached to +that already in place by means of the gum which has been mentioned. +When the store of silk in the body of the worm is exhausted, the +cocoon is finished, and the worm, once more shedding its skin, becomes +dormant and begins to undergo its change into a moth. It is at this +point that its labors in the production of silk terminate and those of +man begin. A certain number of the cocoons are set aside for +reproduction. + +In southern countries the reproduction of silkworms is a vast industry +to which great attention is given, and which receives important and +regular aid from the government. It is, however, quite distinct from +the manufacturing industry with which at present we have to do. The +cocoons to be used for reeling, i.e., all but those which are +reserved for reproduction, are in the first place "stifled," that is +to say, they are put into a steam or other oven and the insect is +killed. The cocoons are then ready for reeling, but those not to be +used at once are allowed to dry. In this process, which is carried on +for about two months, they lose about two-thirds of their weight, +representing the water in the fresh chrysalis. The standard and dried +cocoons form the raw material of the reeling mills, or filatures, as +they are called on the Continent. Each filature endeavors as far as +possible to collect, stifle, and dry the cocoons in its own +neighborhood; but dried cocoons, nevertheless, give rise to an +important commerce, having its center at Marseilles. The appearance of +the cocoon is probably well known to most of our readers. Industrially +considered, the cocoon may be divided into three parts: (1) The floss, +which consists of the remains of the filaments used for supporting the +cocoon on the twigs of the brush among which it was built and the +outside layer of the cocoon, together with such ends and parts of the +thread forming the main part of the shell as have become broken in +detaching and handling the cocoon; (2) the shell of the cocoon, which +is formed, as has been described, of a long continuous filament, which +it is the object of the reeler to unwind and to form up into threads +of raw silk; and (3) the dried body of the chrysalis. + +We shall first describe the usual practice of reeling, which is as +follows: The cocoons are put into a basin of boiling water, on the +surface of which they float. They are stirred about so as to be as +uniformly acted upon as possible. The hot water softens the gum, and +allows the floss to become partially detached. This process is called +"cooking" the cocoons. When the cocoons are sufficiently cooked, they +are subjected to a process called "beating," or brushing, the object +of which is to remove the floss. + +As heretofore carried on, this brushing is a most rudimentary and +wasteful operation. It consists of passing a brush of heather or broom +twigs over the floating cocoons in such manner that the ends of the +brush come in contact with the softened cocoons, catch the floss, and +drag it off. In practice it happens that the brush catches the sound +filaments on the surface of the cocoon as well as the floss, and, as a +consequence, the sound filament is broken, dragged off, and wasted. In +treating some kinds of cocoons as much as a third of the silk is +wasted in this manner, and even in the best reeling, as at present +practiced, there is an excessive loss from this cause. At the present +low price of cocoons this waste is not as important as it was some +time ago, when cocoons were much dearer; but even at present it +amounts to between fifteen and twenty millions of francs per annum in +the silk districts of France and Italy alone. In France the cooking +and brushing are usually done by the same women who reel, and in the +same basins. In Italy the brushing is usually done by girls, and often +with the aid of mechanically rotated brushes, an apparatus which is of +doubtful utility, as, in imitating the movement of hand brushing, the +same waste is occasioned. + +After the cocoons are brushed they are, in the ordinary process, +cleaned by hand, which is another tedious and wasteful operation +performed by the reeler, and concerning which we shall have more to +say further on. Whatever may be the preparatory operations, they +result in furnishing the reeler with a quantity of cocoons, each +having its floss removed, and the end of the filament ready to be +unwound. Each reeler is provided with a basin containing water, which +may be heated either by a furnace or by steam, and a reel, upon which +the silk is wound when put in motion by hand or by power. In civilized +countries heating by steam and the use of motive power is nearly +universal. The reeler is ordinarily seated before the reel and the +basin. The reeler begins operations by assembling the cocoons in the +basin, and attaching all the ends to a peg at its side. She then +introduces the ends of the filaments from several cocoons into small +dies of agate or porcelain, which are held over the basin by a +support. + +The ends so brought in contact stick together, owing to the adhesive +substance they naturally contain, and form a thread. To wring out the +water which is brought up with the ends, and further consolidate the +thread, it is so arranged as to twist round either itself or another +similar thread during its passage from the basin to the reel. This +process is called "croisure," and is facilitated by guides or small +pulleys. Having made the croisure, which consists of about two hundred +turns, the operator attaches the end of a thread to the reel, +previously passing it through a guide fixed in a bar, which moves +backward and forward, so as to distribute the thread on the reel, +forming a hank about three inches wide. + +The reel is now put into movement, and winds the thread formed by the +union of the filaments. It is at this moment that the real +difficulties of the reeler begin. She has now to maintain the size and +regularity of the thread as nearly as possible by adding new filaments +at the proper moment. The operation of adding an end of a filament +consists of throwing it in a peculiar manner on the other filaments +already being reeled, so that it sticks to them, and is carried up +with them. We may mention here that this process of silk reeling can +be seen in operation at the Manchester exhibition. + +It is only after a long apprenticeship that a reeler succeeds in +throwing the end properly. The thread produced by the several +filaments is itself so fine that its size cannot readily be judged by +the eye, and the speed with which it is being wound renders this even +more difficult. But, in order to have an idea of the size, the reeler +watches the cocoons as they unwind, counts them, and, on the +hypothesis that the filament of one cocoon is of the same diameter as +that of another, gets an approximate idea of the size of the thread +that she is reeling. But this hypothesis is not exact, and the +filament being largest at the end which is first unwound, and tapering +throughout its whole length, the result is that the reeler has not +only to keep going a certain number of cocoons, but also to appreciate +how much has been unwound from each. + +If the cocoons are but slightly unwound, there must be fewer than if a +certain quantity of silk has been unwound from them. Consequently +their number must be constantly varying in accordance with their +condition. These facts show that the difficulty of maintaining +regularity in a thread is very great. Nevertheless, this regularity is +one of the principal factors of the value of a thread of "grege," and +this to such an extent that badly reeled silks are sold at from twenty +to twenty-five francs a kilogramme less than those which are +satisfactorily regular. + +The difficulty of this hand labor can be still better understood if it +be remembered that the reeler being obliged to watch at every moment +the unwinding of each cocoon, in order to obtain one pound of well +reeled silk, she must incessantly watch, and without a moment of +distraction, the unwinding of about two thousand seven hundred miles +of silk filaments. For nine pounds of silk, she reels a length of +filament sufficient to girdle the earth. The manufacturer, therefore, +cannot and must not depend only on the constant attention that each +reeler should give to the work confided to her care. He is obliged to +have overseers who constantly watch the reelers, so that the defects +in the work of any single reeler, who otherwise might not give the +attention required by her work, will not greatly diminish the value +either of her own work or that of several other reelers whose silk is +often combined to form a single lot. In addition to the ordinary hand +labor, considerable expense is thus necessitated for the watching of +the reelers. + +Enough has now been said, we think, to give a good idea of silk +reeling, as usually practiced, and to show how much it is behind other +textile arts from a mechanical point of view. To any one at all +familiar with industrial work, or possessing the least power of +analysis or calculation, it is evident that a process carried on in +so primitive a manner is entirely unsuitable for use in any country in +which the conditions of labor are such as to demand its most +advantageous employment. In the United States, for instance, or in +England, silk reeling, as a great national industry, would be out of +the question unless more mechanical means for doing it could be +devised. The English climate is not suitable for the raising of +cocoons, and in consequence the matter has not attracted very much +attention in this country. But America is very differently situated. +Previous to 1876 it had been abundantly demonstrated that cocoons +could be raised to great advantage in many parts of that country. The +only question was whether they could be reeled. In fact, it was stated +at the time that the question of reeling silk presented a striking +analogy to the question of cotton before the invention of the "gin." +It will be remembered that cotton raising was several times tried in +the United States, and abandoned because the fiber could not be +profitably prepared for the market. The impossibility of competing +with India and other cheap labor countries in this work became at +least a fact fully demonstrated, and any hope that cotton would ever +be produced in America was confined to the breasts of a few +enthusiasts. + +As soon, however, as it was shown that the machine invented by Eli +Whitney would make it possible to do this work mechanically, the +conditions were changed; cotton raising become not only possible, but +the staple industry of a great part of the country; the population was +rapidly increased, the value of real estate multiplied, and within a +comparatively short time the United States became the leading cotton +country of the world. For many years much more cotton has been grown +in America than in all the other countries of the world combined; and +it is interesting to note that both the immense agricultural wealth of +America and the supply required for the cotton industry of England +flow directly from the invention of the cotton gin. + +Attention was turned in 1876 to silk raising, and it was found that +all the conditions for producing cocoons of good quality and at low +cost were most favorable. It was, however, useless to raise cocoons +unless they could be utilized; in a word, it was seen that the country +needed silk-reeling machinery in 1876, as it had needed cotton-ginning +machinery in 1790. Under these conditions, Mr. Edward W. Serrell, Jr., +an engineer of New York, undertook the study of the matter, and soon +became convinced that the production of such machinery was feasible. +He devoted his time to this work, and by 1880 had pushed his +investigations as far as was possible in a country where silk reeling +was not commercially carried on. He then went to France, where he has +since been incessantly engaged in the heart of the silk-reeling +district in perfecting, reducing to practice, and applying his +improvements and inventions. The success obtained was such that Mr. +Serrell has been enabled to interest many of the principal silk +producers of the Continent in his work, and a revolution in silk +reeling is being gradually brought about, for, strangely enough, he +found that the work which he had undertaken solely for America was of +equal importance for all silk-producing countries. + +We have described the processes by which cocoons are ordinarily cooked +and brushed, these being the first processes of the filature. Instead +of first softening the gum of the cocoons and then attacking the floss +with the points of a brush, Mr. Serrell places the cocoons in a +receptacle full of boiling water, in which by various means violent +reciprocating or vortex currents are produced. The result is that by +the action of the water itself and the rubbing of the cocoons one +against the other the floss is removed, carrying with it the end of +the continuous filament without unduly softening the cocoon or +exposing any of the more delicate filament to the rough action of the +brush, as has hitherto been the case. The advantages of this process +will be readily understood. In brushing after the ordinary manner, the +point of the brush is almost sure to come into contact with and to +break some of the filament forming the body of the cocoon. When this +occurs, and the cocoon is sent to be reeled, it naturally becomes +detached when the unwinding reaches the point at which the break +exists. It then has to be sent back, and the end of the filament +detached by brushing over again, when several layers of filament are +inevitably caught by the brush and wasted, and very probably some +other part of the filament is cut. This accounts for the enormous +waste which occurs in silk reeling, and to which we have referred. Its +importance will be appreciated when it is remembered that every pound +of fiber thus dragged off by the brush represents a net loss of about +19s. at the present low prices. + +The mechanical details by which Mr. Serrell carries out this process +vary somewhat according to the nature of the different cocoons to be +treated. In one type of machine the water is caused to surge in and +out of a metal vessel with perforated sides; in another a vertical +brush is rapidly raised and lowered, agitating the water in a basin, +without, however, actually touching the cocoons. After a certain +number of strokes the brush is automatically raised, when the ends of +the filaments are found to adhere to it, having been swept against it +by the scouring action of the water. The cleaning of the cocoons is +performed by means of a mechanism also entirely new. In the brushing +machinery the floss is loosened and partially detached from the +cocoon. The object of the cleaning machine is to thoroughly complete +the operation. To this end the cocoons are floated under a plate, and +the floss passed up through a slot in the latter. A rapid to and fro +horizontal movement is given to the plate, and those cocoons from +which the floss has been entirely removed easily give off a few inches +of their filament, and allow themselves to be pushed on one side, +which is accomplished by the cocoons which still have some floss +adhering to them; because these latter, not being free to pay off, are +drawn up to the slot in the plate, and by its motion are rapidly +washed backward and forward in the water. This washing soon causes all +the cocoons to be freed from the last vestiges of floss without +breaking the filament, and after about twenty seconds of movement they +are all free and clean, ready for reeling. + +We have now to explain the operation of the machine by which the +thread is formed from the prepared cocoon. At the risk of some +repetition, however, it seems necessary to call attention to the +character of the work itself. In each prepared cocoon are about a +thousand yards of filament ready to pay off, but this filament is +nearly as fine as a cobweb and is tapering. The object is to form a +thread by laying these filaments side by side in sufficient number to +obtain the desired size. For the threads of raw silk used in commerce, +the sizes vary, so that while some require but an average of three +filaments, the coarsest sizes require twenty-five or thirty. It being +necessary keep the thread at as near the same size as possible, the +work required is, in effect, to add an additional cocoon filament to +the thread which is being wound whenever this latter has tapered down +to a given size, or whenever one of the filaments going to form it has +become detached. Those familiar with cotton spinning will understand +what is meant when it is said that the reeling is effectively a +"doubling" operation, but performed with a variable number of ends, so +as to compensate for the taper of the filaments. In reeling by hand, +as has been said, the size of the silk is judged, as nearly as +possible, by a complex mental operation, taking into account the +number, size, and state of unwinding of the cocoons. It is impossible +to do this mechanically, if for no other reason than this, that the +cocoons must be left free to float and roll about in the water in +order to give off their ends without breaking, and any mechanical +device which touched them would defeat the object of the machine. The +only way in which the thread can be mechanically regulated in silk +reeling is by some kind of actual measurement performed after the +thread has left the cocoons. The conditions are such that no direct +measurement of size can be made, even with very delicate and expensive +apparatus; but Mr. Serrell discovered that, owing to the great +tenacity of the thread in proportion to its size, its almost absolute +elastic uniformity, and from the fact that it could be stretched, two +or three per cent. without injury, it was possible to measure its size +indirectly, but as accurately as could be desired. As this fact is the +starting point of an entirely new and important class of machinery, we +may explain with considerable detail the method in which this +measurement is performed. Bearing in mind that the thread is of +uniform quality, it is evident that it will require more force to +stretch a coarse thread by a given percentage of its length than it +will to stretch one that is finer. Supposing the thread is uniform in +quality but varying in size, the force required to stretch it varies +directly with the size or sectional area of the thread itself. In the +automatic reeling machine this stretch is obtained by causing the +thread to take a turn round a pulley of a given winding speed, and +then, after leaving this pulley, to take a turn around a second pulley +having a somewhat greater winding speed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1 THE MECHANICAL REELING OF SILK.] + +By this means the thread which is passing from one pulley to the other +is stretched by an amount equal to the difference of the winding speed +of the two pulleys. In the diagram (Fig. 2) the thread passes, as +shown by the arrows, over the pulley, P, and then over the pulley, P¹, +the latter having a slightly greater winding speed. Between these +pulleys it passes over the guide pulley, G. This latter is supported +by a lever hinged at S, and movable between the stops, TT¹. W is an +adjustable counterweight. When the thread is passed over the pulleys +and guided in this manner, the stretch to which it is subjected tends +to raise the guide and lever, so that the latter will be drawn up +against the stop, T¹, when the thread is so coarse that the effort +required to stretch it is sufficient to overcome the weight of the +guide pulley and the adjustable counterweight. But as the thread +becomes finer, which, in the case of reeling silk, happens either from +the tapering of the filaments or the dropping off of a cocoon, a +moment arrives when it is no longer strong enough to keep up the lever +and counterweight. These then descend, and the lever touches the lower +stop, T. It will be readily seen that the up and down movements of the +lever can be made to take place when the thread has reached any +desired maximum or minimum of size, the limits being fixed by suitably +adjusting the counterweight. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +In the automatic reeling machine this is the method employed for +regulating the supply of cocoons. The counterweight being suitably +adjusted, the lever falls when the thread has become fine enough to +need another cocoon. The stop, T, and the lever serve as two parts of +an electric contact, so that when they touch each other a circuit is +completed, which trips a trigger and sets in motion the feed apparatus +by which a new cocoon is added. In practice the two drums or pulleys +are mounted on the same shaft, D (Fig. 1), difference of winding speed +being obtained by making them of slightly different diameters. + +The lever is mounted as a horizontal pendulum, and the less or greater +stress required according to the size to be reeled is obtained by +inclining its axis to a less or greater degree from the vertical. An +arrangement is also adopted by which the strains existing in the +thread when it arrives at the first drum are neutralized, so far as +their effect upon the lever is concerned. This is accomplished by +simply placing upon the lever an extra guide pulley, L¹, upon the side +opposite to that which corresponds to the guide shown in the diagram, +Fig. 2. + +An electric contact is closed by a slight movement of the lever +whenever the thread requires a new filament of cocoon, and broken +again when the thread has been properly strengthened. It is evident +that a delicate faller movement might be employed to set the feed +mechanism in motion instead of the electric circuit, but, under the +circumstances, as the motion is very slight and without force, being, +in fact, comparable to the swinging of the beam of a balance through +the space of about the sixteenth of an inch, it is simpler to use a +contact. + +The actual work of supplying the cocoons to the running thread is +performed as follows: The cleaned cocoons are put into what is called +the feeding basin, B1 (Fig. 1), a receptacle placed alongside of the +ordinary reeling basin, B, of a filature. A circular elevator, E, into +which the cocoons are charged by a slight current of water, lifts them +over one corner of the reeling basin and drops them one by one through +an aperture in a plate about six inches above the water of the reeling +basin. + +The end of the filament having been attached to a peg above the +elevator, it happens that when a cocoon has been brought into the +corner of the reeling basin, the filament is strung from it to the +edge of the hole in the plate in such a position as to be readily +seized by a mechanical finger, K (Fig. 3), attached to a truck +arranged to run backward and forward along one side of the basin. This +finger is mounted on an axis, and has a tang projecting at right +angles to the side of the basin, so that the whole is in the form of a +bell crank mounted on the truck. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +There are usually four threads to each basin. When neither one of them +needs an additional cocoon, the finger of the distributing apparatus +remains, holding the filament of the cocoon at the corner of the basin +where it has been dropped. When a circuit is closed by the weakening +of any one of the threads, an electromagnetic catch is released, and +the truck with its finger is drawn across the basin by a weight. At +the same time the stop shown dotted in Fig. 3 is thrown out opposite +to the thread that needs strengthening. This stop strikes the tang of +the finger, and causes the latter to be thrown out near to the point +at which the filaments going to make up the weakened thread are being +drawn from the cocoons. Here the new filament is attached to the new +running thread by a kind of revolving finger, J, called in France a +"lance-bout." This contrivance takes the place of the agate of the +ordinary filature, and is made up, essentially, of the following +parts: + +(1) A hollow axis, through the inside of which the thread passes +instead of going through the hole of an agate. This hollow axis is +furnished, near its lower end, with a ridge which serves to support a +movable portion turning constantly round the axis. (2) A movable +portion turning constantly round the axis. (3) A finger or hook +fastened on the side of the movable portion and revolving with it. +This hook, in revolving, catches the filament brought up by the finger +and serves it on to the thread. + +Such are the principal parts of the automatic reeling machine. +Although the fact that this machine is entirely a new invention has +necessitated a somewhat long explanation, its principal organs can +nevertheless be summed up in a few words: (1) A controlling drum which +serves to give the thread a constant elongation; (2) a pulley mounted +on a pivot which closes an electric current every time that the thread +becomes too fine, and attains, in consequence, its minimum strength, +in other words, every time that a fresh cocoon is needed; (3) +electromagnets with the necessary conducting wires; (4) the feeding +basin; (5) distributing finger and stops; and (6) the lance-bout. + +Our illustration, Fig. 1, shows diagrammatically a section through the +cocoon frame and reel. The thread is composed of three, four, or more +filaments, and after passing through the lance-bout, it travels as +shown by the arrows. At first it is wound round itself about two +hundred times, then passed over a fixed guide pulley, and over a +second guide pulley lower down fixed to the frames which carry the +lance-bouts, then up through the twist and over the smaller of the +pulleys, D. Taking one complete turn, it is led round the guide +pulley, L, from there round the larger of the pulleys, D, round the +second guide pulley, L¹, then back to the large wheel, and over a +fixed guide pulley across to the reeling frame. Power is supplied to +the latter by means of a friction clutch, and to insure even winding +the usual reciprocating motion of a guide is employed. The measuring +apparatus is pivoted at F, and by raising or lowering the nuts at the +end of the bar the required inclination is given. + +We had recently an opportunity of examining the whole of this +machinery in detail, and seeing the process of silk reeling in actual +operation, Mr. Serrell having put up a complete set of his machines in +Queen Victoria Street, London. Regarded simply as a piece of ingenious +mechanism, the performance of these machines cannot fail to be of the +highest interest to engineers, the reeling machine proper seeming +almost endowed with human intelligence, so perfectly does it work. +But, apart from the technical perfection, Mr. Serrell's improvements +are of great importance as calculated to introduce the silk-reeling +industry in this country on a large scale, while at the same time its +effect upon India as a silk-growing country will be of equal +importance.--_Industries._ + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS USED FOR MAKING ALCOHOL FOR HOSPITAL USE DURING THE +CIVIL WAR BETWEEN THE STATES.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Read at the Cincinnati meeting of the American + Pharmaceutical Association.] + +By CHARLES K. GALLAGHER, Washington, N.C. + + +A is an ordinary farm boiler or kettle, with an iron lid securely +bolted on; B, a steam pipe ending in a coil within a trough, D. C, D, +two troughs made of gum logs, one inverted over the other, securely +luted and fastened together by clamps and wedges. The "beer" to be +distilled was introduced at E and the opening closed with a plug. The +distillate--"low wine"--was collected at F, and redistilled from a set +of similar troughs not shown in above figure, and heated by a +continuation of the steam coil from D. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +CONFEDERATE APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING SALTPETER FOR +AMMUNITION. + +By CHARLES K. GALLAGHER, Washington, N.C. + + +Any convenient number of percolators, made of rough boards, arranged +over a trough after the style of the old fashioned "lye stand," +similar to the figure. Into these was placed the earth scraped from +around old tobacco barns, from under kitchens and smokehouses. Then +water or water and urine was poured upon it until the mass was +thoroughly leached or exhausted. The percolate was collected in a +receptacle and evaporated, the salt redissolved, filtered, again +evaporated, and crystallized from the mother water. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TELEMETER SYSTEM. + +By F.R. UPTON. + + +In this paper, read before the British Association, the author +explained that the "Telemeter System," invented by C.L. Clarke, of New +York, is a method by which the slow movement of a revolving hand of +any indicating instrument may be reproduced by the movement of a +similar hand at a distant place, using electricity to convey the +impulse. The primary hand moves until it makes electrical contact, +thus sending an impulse. It is here that all previous methods have +failed. This contact should be absolute and positive, for if it is +not, the receiver will not work in unison. The contact could often be +doubled by the jarring of the instrument, thus making the receiver +jump twice. Clarke has overcome this defect by so arranging his +mechanism that the faintest contact in the primary instrument closes +two platinum points in multiple arc with it, thus making a firm and +positive contact, which is not disturbed by any jar on the primary +contact. This gives the instruments a positive start for the series of +operations, instead of the faint contact which would be given, for +example, by the light and slowly moving hand of a metallic +thermometer. The other trouble with previous methods was that the +contact points would corrode, and, in consequence of such corrosion, +the instrument would fail to send impulses. Corrosion of the contacts +is due to breaking the circuit slowly on a small surface. This is +entirely remedied by breaking the circuit elsewhere than at the +primary contact, using a quick motion, and also by giving this +breaking contact large surface and making it firm. The instrument, as +applied to a thermometer, is made as follows: From the free end of the +light spiral of a metallic thermometer fixed at the other end, an arm, +C, is attached, the end of which moves over an arc of a circle when +the temperature varies. This end carries on either side of its +extremity platinum contacts which, when the thermometer is at rest, +lie between two other platinum points, A B, carried on radial arms. +Any variation in temperature brings a point on the thermometer arm in +contact with one of these points, and thus gives the initial start to +the series of operations without opposing any friction to the free +motion of the instrument. The first result is the closing of a short +circuit round the initial point of contact, so that no current flows +through it. Then the magnets which operate one set of pawls come into +play. The two contact points are attached to a toothed wheel in which +the pawls play, and these pawls are so arranged that they drive the +wheel whenever moved by their magnets; thus the primary contact is +broken. + +[Illustration] + +In the receiver there is a similar toothed wheel carrying the hand of +the indicating instrument, and actuated at the same moment as the +transmitter. The primary contacts are so arranged that the contact is +made for each degree of temperature to be indicated. This series of +operations leaves the instruments closed and the pawls home in the +toothed wheel. To break the circuit another wire and separate set of +contacts are employed. + +These are arranged on the arms carrying the pawls, and so adjusted +that no contact is made until after the toothed wheel has moved a +degree, when a circuit is closed and a magnet attracts an armature +attached to a pendulum. This pendulum, after starting, breaks the +circuit of the magnets which hold the pawls down, as well as of the +short-circuiting device. As the pendulum takes an appreciable time to +vibrate, this allows all the magnets to drop back, and breaks all +circuits, leaving the primary contacts in the same relation as at +first. The many details of the instruments are carefully worked out. +All the contacts are of a rubbing nature, thus avoiding danger from +dirt, and they are made with springs, so as not to be affected by jar. + +The receiving instruments can be made recorders also by simple +devices. Thus, having only a most delicate pressure in the primary +instrument, a distinct ink record may be made in the receiver, even +though the paper be rough and soft. The method is applicable to steam +gauges, water indicators, clocks, barometers, etc., in fact, to any +measuring instrument where a moving hand can be employed. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE AND THE WORK DONE WITH IT. + +By WATSON SMITH, Lecturer in Chemical Technology in the Victoria +University, etc. + + +The Widnes Alkali Company, limited, to which I am indebted for +permission to describe this latest addition to a family of revolving +black ash furnaces, of late not only increasing in number, but also +individual size, has kindly allowed my friend, Mr. H. Baker, to +photograph the great revolver in question, and I have pleasure now in +throwing on the screen a picture of it, and also one of a revolver of +ordinary size, so as to render a comparison possible. The revolver of +ordinary size measures at most 181/2 ft. long, with a diameter of 121/2 +ft. The boiling down pans connected with such a furnace measure 60 ft. +in length. Each charge contains four tons of salt cake, and some of +these revolvers get through 18 tons of salt cake per day and consume +13 cwt. of coal per ton of cake decomposed. + +With regard to the larger revolver, it may be just said that the +Widnes Alkali Company has not at once sprung to the adoption of a +furnace of the immense size to be presently given, but in 1884 it +erected a revolver only about 3 ft. to 4 ft. short of the length of +that one, and having two discharging holes. The giant revolving +furnace to be described measures in length 30 ft. and has a diameter +of 12 ft. 6 in. Inside length is 28 ft. 6 in., with a diameter of 11 +ft. 4 in. It is lined with 16,000 fire bricks and 120 fire-clay blocks +or breakers, weighing each 11/4 cwt. The bricks weigh per 1,000 about +four tons. The weight of salt cake per charge (i.e., contained in +each charge of salt cake, limestone, mud, and slack) is 8 tons 12 cwt. +For 100 tons of salt cake charged, there are also charged about 110 +tons of lime mud and limestone and 55 tons of mixing slack. In a week +of seven days about 48 charges are worked through, weighing of raw +materials about 25 _tons per charge_. The total amount of salt cake +decomposed weekly is about 400 tons, and may be reckoned as yielding +240 tons of 60 per cent. caustic soda. As regards fuel used for +firing, this may be put down as 200 tons per week, or about 10 cwt. +per ton of salt cake decomposed. Also with regard to the concentration +of liquor from 20 deg. Tw. to 50 deg. Tw., there is sufficient of such +concentrated liquor evaporated down to keep three self-fired caustic +pots working, which are boiled at a strength of 80 deg. Tw. Were it not +for this liquor, no less than seven self-fired pots would be required +to do this work, showing a difference of 80 tons of fuel. + +[Illustration: A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE. (2 Figures.) ] + +The question may be asked, "Why increase the size of these huge pieces +of apparatus?" The answer, I apprehend, is that owing to competition +and reduction of prices, greater efforts are necessary to reduce +costs. With automatic apparatus like the black ash revolver, we may +consider no very sensible addition of man power would be needed, in +passing from the smallest sized to the largest sized revolver. Then, +again, we may, reckoning a certain constant amount of heat lost per +each revolver furnace of the small size, consider that if we doubled +the size of such revolver, we should lose by no means double the +amount of heat lost with the small apparatus; but only the same as +that lost in the small furnace _plus_ a certain fraction of that +quantity, which will be smaller the better and more efficient the +arrangements are. Then, again, there is an economy in iron plate for +such a large revolver; there is economy in expense on the engine power +and on fuel consumed, as well as in wear and tear. + +Just to mention fuel alone, we saw that with an ordinary large sized +revolver, the coal consumption was 13 cwt. per ton of salt cake +decomposed in the black ash process; but with the giant revolver we +have been describing, that consumption is reduced to 10 cwt. per ton +of cake decomposed. + +[Illustration: A NEW MONSTER REVOLVING BLACK ASH FURNACE. (2 Figures.)] + +The question will be probably asked, How is it possible to get a flame +from one furnace to carry through such a long revolver and do its work +in fusing the black ash mixture effectively from one end to the other? +The furnace employed viewed in front looks very like an ordinary +revolver fireplace, but at the side thereof, in line with the front of +the revolver, at which the discharge of the "crude soda" takes place, +there are observed to be three "charging holes," rather than doors, +through which fuel is charged from a platform directly into the +furnace through those holes. + +The furnace is of course a larger one than furnaces adjusted to +revolvers of the usual size. But the effect of one charging door in +front and three at the side, which after charging are "banked" up with +coal, with the exception of a small aperture above for admission of +air, is very similar to that sometimes adopted in the laboratory for +increasing heating effect by joining several Bunsen lamps together to +produce one large, powerful flame. In this case, the four charging +holes represent, as it were, the air apertures of the several Bunsen +lamps. Of course the one firing door at front would be totally +inadequate to supply and feed a fire capable of yielding a flame that +would be adequate for the working of so huge a revolver. As an effort +of chemical engineering, it is a very interesting example of what +skill and enterprise in that direction alone will do in reducing +costs, without in the least modifying the chemical reactions taking +place.--_Journal Soc. Chem. Industry._ + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A paper recently read before the British + Association.] + +By FREDERICK RANSOMS, A.I.C.E. + + +So much has been said and written on and in relation to Portland +cement that further communications upon the subject may appear to many +of the present company to be superfluous. But is this really so? The +author thinks not, and he hopes by the following communication, to +place before this meeting and the community at large some facts which +have up to the present time, or until within a very recent date, been +practically disregarded or overlooked in the production of this very +important and valuable material, so essential in carrying out the +great and important works of the present day, whether of docks and +harbors, our coast defenses, or our more numerous operations on land, +including the construction of our railways, tunnels, and bridges, +aqueducts, viaducts, foundations, etc. The author does not propose to +occupy the time of this meeting by referring to the origin or the +circumstances attendant upon the early history of this material, the +manufacture of which has now assumed such gigantic proportions--these +matters have already been fully dealt with by other more competent +authorities; but rather to direct the attention of those interested +therein to certain modifications, which he considers improvements, by +means of which a large proportion of capital unnecessarily involved in +its manufacture may be set free in the future, the method of +manufacture simplified, the cost of manipulation reduced, and stronger +and more uniformly reliable cement be placed within the reach of those +upon whom devolves the duty and responsibility of constructing works +of a substantial and permanent character; but in order to do this it +will be necessary to allude to certain palpable errors and defects +which, in the author's opinion, are perpetuated, and are in general +practice at the present day. + +Portland cement is, as is well known, composed of a mixture of chalk, +or other carbonate of lime, and clay--such as is obtained on the banks +of the Thames or the Medway--intimately mixed and then subjected to +heat in a kiln, producing incipient fusion, and thereby forming a +chemical combination of lime with silica and alumina, or practically +of lime with dehydrated clay. In order to effect this, the usual +method is to place the mechanically mixed chalk and clay (technically +called slurry), in lumps varying in size, say, from 4 to 10 lb., in +kilns with alternate layers of coke, and raise the mass to a glowing +heat sufficient to effect the required combination, in the form of +very hard clinker. These kilns differ in capacity, but perhaps a fair +average size would be capable of producing about 30 tons of clinker, +requiring for the operation, say, from 60 to 70 tons of dried slurry, +with from 12 to 15 tons of coke or other fuel. The kiln, after being +thus loaded, is lighted by means of wood and shavings at the base, +and, as a matter of course, the lumps of slurry at the lower part of +the kiln are burned first, but the moisture and sulphurous gases +liberated by the heat are condensed by the cooler layers above, and +remain until the heat from combustion, gradually ascending, raises the +temperature to a sufficient degree to drive them further upward, until +at length they escape at the top of the kiln. The time occupied in +loading, burning, and drawing a kiln of 30 tons of clinker averages +about seven days. It will be readily understood that the outside of +the clinker so produced must have been subjected to a much greater +amount of heat then was necessary, before the center of such clinker +could have received sufficient to have produced the incipient fusion +necessary to effect the chemical combination of its ingredients; and +the result is not only a considerable waste of heat, but, as always +occurs, the clinker is not uniformly burnt, a portion of the outer +part has to be discarded as overburnt and useless, while the inner +part is not sufficiently burnt, and has to be reburned afterward. +Moreover, the clinker, which is of excessively hard character, has to +be reduced by means of a crusher to particles sufficiently small to be +admitted by the millstones, where it is ground into a fine powder, and +becomes the Portland cement of commerce. + +This process of manufacture is almost identical in principle and in +practice with that described and patented by Mr. Joseph Aspden in the +year 1824; and though various methods have been patented for utilizing +the waste heat of the kilns in drying the slurry previous to +calcination, still the main feature of burning the material in mass in +large and expensive kilns remained the same, and is continued in +practice to the present day. The attention of the author was directed +to this subject some time since in consequence of the failure of a +structure in which Portland cement formed an essential element, and he +had not proceeded far in his investigation of the cause of the failure +when he was struck with what appeared to him to be the unscientific +method adopted in its manufacture, and the uncertain results that must +necessarily accrue therefrom. Admitting, in the first place, that the +materials employed were considered the best and most economical for +the purpose readily accessible, viz., chalk and an alluvial deposit +found in abundance on the banks of the Thames and the Medway, and +being intimately mixed together in suitable proportions, was it +necessary, in order to effect the chemical combination of the +ingredients at an intense heat, to employ such massive and expensive +structures of masonry, occupying such an enormous space of valuable +ground, with tall chimney stacks for the purpose of discharging the +objectionable gases, etc., at such a height, in order to reduce the +nuisance to the surrounding neighborhood? Again, was it possible to +effect the perfect calcination of the interior of the lumps alluded to +without bestowing upon the outer portions a greater heat than was +necessary for the purpose, causing a wasteful expenditure of both +time and fuel? And further, as cement is required to be used in the +state of powder, could not the mixture of the raw materials be +calcined in powder, thereby avoiding the production of such a hard +clinker, which has afterward to be broken up and reduced to a fine +powder by grinding in an ordinary mill? + +The foregoing are some of the defects which the author applied himself +to remove, and he now desires to draw attention to the way in which +the object has been attained by the substitution of a revolving +furnace for the massive cement kilns now in general use, and by the +application of gaseous products to effect calcination, in the place of +coke or other solid fuel. The revolving furnace consists of a +cylindrical casing of steel or boiler plate supported upon steel +rollers (and rotated by means of a worm and wheel, driven by a pulley +upon the shaft carrying the worm), lined with good refractory fire +brick, so arranged that certain courses are set so as to form three or +more radial projecting fins or ledges. The cylindrical casing is +provided with two circular rails or pathways, turned perfectly true, +to revolve upon the steel rollers, mounted on suitable brickwork, with +regenerative flues, by passing through which the gas and air severally +become heated, before they meet in the combustion chamber, at the +mouth of the revolving furnace. The gas may be supplied from slack +coal or other hydrocarbon burnt in any suitable gas producer (such, +for instance, as those for which patents have been obtained by Messrs. +Brook & Wilson, of Middlesbrough, or by Mr. Thwaite, of Liverpool), +which producer may be placed in any convenient situation. + +The cement mixture or slurry, instead of being burnt in lumps, is +passed between rollers or any suitable mill, when, it readily falls +into coarse dry powder, which powder is thence conveyed by an elevator +and fed into the revolving furnace by means of a hopper and pipe, +which, being set at an angle with the horizon, as it turns gradually +conveys the cement material in a tortuous path toward the lower and +hotter end, where it is discharged properly calcined. The material +having been fed into the upper end of the cylinder falls through the +flame to the lower side of it; the cylinder being in motion lifts it +on its advancing side, where it rests against one of its projecting +fins or ledges until it has reached such an angle that it shoots off +in a shower through the flame and falls once more on the lower side. +This again causes it to travel in a similar path, and every rotation +of the cylinder produces a like effect, so that by the time it arrives +at the lower and hotter end it has pursued a roughly helical path, +during which it has been constantly lifted and shot through the flame, +occupying about half an hour in its transit. + +To some who have been accustomed to the more tedious process of kiln +burning, the time thus occupied may appear insufficient to effect the +combinations necessary to produce the required result; but it will be +seen that the conditions here attained are, in fact, those best suited +to carry out effectively the chemical changes necessary for the +production of cement. The raw material being in powder offers every +facility for the speedy liberation of water and carbonic acid, the +operation being greatly hastened by the velocity of the furnace gases +through which the particles pass. That such is practically the case is +shown by the following analysis of cement so burnt in the revolving +furnace or cylinder: + + Per cent. + Carbonic acid, anhydrous 0.4 + Sulphuric acid, anhydrous 0.26 + Silica soluble 24.68 + Silica insoluble 0.6 + Alumina and oxide of iron 10.56 + Lime 61.48 + Magnesia, water, and alkalies 2.02 + ------ + 100 + +Again, fineness of the particles results in their being speedily +heated to a uniform temperature, so that they do not serve as nuclei +for the condensation of the moisture existing in the furnace gas. The +calcined material, on reaching the lower end of the furnace, is +discharged on to the floor or on to a suitable "conveyer," and removed +to a convenient locality for cooling and subsequent grinding or +finishing. It, however, is not in the condition of hard, heavy +clinkers, such as are produced in the ordinary cement kiln, which +require special machinery for breaking up into smaller pieces before +being admitted between the millstones for the final process of +grinding; nor does it consist of an overburnt exterior and an +underburnt core or center portion; but it issues from the cylindrical +furnace in a condition resembling in appearance coarse gunpowder, with +occasional agglutinations of small friable particles readily reduced +to fine powder in an ordinary mill, requiring but small power to work, +and producing but little wear and tear upon the millstones. The +operation is continuous. The revolver or furnace, once started, works +on night and day, receiving the adjusted quantity of powdered material +at the upper or feed end, and delivering its equivalent in properly +burnt cement at the opposite end, thus effecting a great saving of +time, and preventing the enormous waste of heat and serious injury to +the brickwork, etc., incidental to the cooling down, withdrawing the +charge, and reloading the ordinary kiln. + +Cement, when taken from the furnace, weighed 110 lb. per bushel. +Cement, when ground, leaving 10 percent. on sieve with 2,500 holes to +the inch, weighed 121 lb. per bushel, and when cold 118 lb. per +bushel. When made into briquettes, the tensile breaking strain upon +the square inch: + + At 4 days was 410 lb. per square inch. + At 6 days " 610 " " " " + At 14 days " 810 " " " " + At 49 days " 900 " " " " + At 76 days " 1,040 " " " " + +A cylindrical furnace, such as the author has described, is capable of +turning out at least 20 tons of good cement per day of twenty-four +hours, with a consumption of about 3 tons of slack coal. It will be +readily understood that these furnaces can be worked more economically +in pairs than singly, as they can be so arranged that one producer may +furnish a sufficient quantity of gas for the supply of two cylinders, +and the same labor will suffice; but in order to provide for possible +contingencies the author advises that a spare gas producer and an +extra furnace should be in readiness, so that by a simple arrangement +of valves, etc., two cylinders may always be in operation, while from +any cause one may be undergoing temporary repairs, and by this means +any diminution in the output may be avoided. + +The author considers it unnecessary here to discuss either the +advantages or the economy of fuel effected by the employment of gas +producers for such a purpose. These have been abundantly proved in +steel and glass making industries, where a saving of from 50 to 70 per +cent. of the fuel formerly employed has been made. Their cost is +small, they occupy little room, they can be placed at any reasonable +distance from the place where the gas is to be burnt; any laborer can +shovel the slack into them, and they do not require constant skilled +supervision. It is claimed by the author of this paper that the +following are among the many advantages derivable from the adoption of +this method of manufacturing Portland cement, as compared with the old +system: + + (1) Economy of space--the furnaces, with their appurtenances, + requiring only about one-fourth the space of what would be + occupied by the ordinary kilns for producing the same quantity + of finished cement. + + (2) Continuous working, and consequent economy of fuel lost by + cooling and subsequent reheating of the kiln walls. + + (3) Economy of repairs, which are of a simple and comparatively + inexpensive character, and of much less frequent occurrence, as + the continuous heat avoids the racking occasioned by the + alternate heating and cooling. + + (4) Economy in first cost. + + (5) Economy in grinding, a friable granular substance being + produced instead of a hard clinker, whereby crushers are quite + abolished, and the wear and tear of millstones greatly + reduced. + + (6) Economy of labor, the conveyance to and removal from, the + revolving furnace being conducted automatically by mechanical + elevators and conveyers. + + (7) Improved quality of the cement, from non-mixture with + fuel, ash, or other impurities, and no overburning or + underburning of the material. + + (8) Thorough control, from the facility of increasing or + diminishing the flow of crushed slurry and of regulating the + heat in the furnace as desirable. + + (9) Absence of smoke and deleterious gases. + +It is well known that in some localities the materials from which +Portland cement is made are of such a powdery character that they have +to be combined or moulded into balls or bricks previous to calcination +in the ordinary way, thus entailing expense which would be entirely +obviated by the adoption of the patent revolving furnace, as has been +proved by the author in producing excellent cement with a mixture of +slag sand from the blast furnaces of the Cleveland iron district, with +a proper proportion of chalk or limestone, which, in consequence of +the friable nature of the compound, he was unable to burn in the +ordinary cement kiln, but which, when burnt in the revolving furnace, +gave the most satisfactory results. The cement so made possessed +extraordinary strength and hardness, and it has been a matter of +surprise that iron masters and others have not adopted such a means of +converting a waste material--which at the present time entails upon +its producers constant heavy outlay for its removal--into a +remunerative branch of industry by the expenditure of a comparatively +small amount of capital. The demand for Portland cement has increased +and is still increasing at a rapid ratio. It is being manufactured +upon a gigantic scale. + +Great interests are involved; large sums of money are being expended +in the erection and maintenance of expensive plant for its production; +and the author submits that the development of any method which will +improve the quality and at the same time reduce the cost of +manufacture of this valuable material will tend to increase the +prosperity of one of our great national industries, and stimulate +commercial enterprise. Works are in progress for manufacturing cement +by this improved process, and the author trusts the time is not far +distant when the unsightly structures which now disfigure the banks of +some of our rivers will be abolished--the present cement kilns, like +the windmills once such a common feature of our country, being +regarded as curiosities of the past, and cement manufacturers cease to +be complained of as causing nuisances to their neighbors. + + * * * * * + + + + +MIX AND GENEST'S MICROPHONE TELEPHONE. + + +We illustrate in the annexed engraving the microphone-telephone +constructed by Messrs. Mix & Genest, of Berlin, which, after extended +trials, has been adopted in preference to others by the imperial +postal department of Germany. There are now more than 5,000 of these +instruments in use, and we need scarcely mention that the invention +has been patented in many countries. + +In some microphones a rattling noise is frequently occasioned, which +borne along with the sound of the human voice causes an audible +disturbance in the telephone. The chief cause of these disturbances +may be ascribed to the fact that the carbon rollers in their journals, +rest loose in the flutings of the beam, which is fastened to the sound +plate. Owing to the shocks given to the entire apparatus, and +independent of the oscillations of the sound plate, they are set in +motion and roll to and fro in their bearings. + +In microphones in which the sound plates are arranged vertically (as +shown in Fig. 2), these disturbances assume such a character that +there is no possibility of understanding the speaker, for in this case +the horizontally directed oscillations of the sound plate, _m_, cause +themselves a backward and forward motion on the part of the carbon +rollers without increasing or decreasing at the same time the lying-on +pressure of the roller journals, and by doing so bring the places of +contact one on the other, and thus occasion a conducting resistance of +greater or less force. This circumstance serves as an explanation of +the reason why the sound plates in Ader's microphones are not arranged +vertically, although this way of arranging them offers many advantages +over a horizontal or slightly inclined arrangement of the sound +plates. Speaking is more convenient in the vertical arrangement, and +moreover the plates can be fitted on to instruments better in this +way. + +All the drawbacks just enumerated and found in Ader's microphones are +avoided in the apparatus made by Messrs. Mix & Genest. A sort of +braking contrivance operates on the carbon rollers in such a way as to +prevent their journals from lying on the lower points in the flutings +of the beams. Thus, for instance, if in a microphone with a horizontal +sound plate, as illustrated in Fig. 3, the carbon rollers are pressed +upward by outward force, it is evident that only a very trifling +rolling and disturbing motion can occur, and only small pieces of +carbon can be knocked off, which would act injuriously as a secondary +contact. The same may be said of the journals of microphones with +vertical sound plates, as represented in Fig. 2, when the carbon +rollers are pressed in the direction of the arrow, _p_, that is to +say, against the sound plate. In this case the journals, _a_, are +fixed in the flutings of the beams, _b_, in a direction given them by +the power and gravity operating on them, which is clearly represented +in the accompanying design, Fig. 2. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. + FIG. 2. + FIG. 3. + THE MIX AND GENEST TELEPHONE] + +In all such cases the regulating contrivance applied to brake the +carbon rollers in their motion has the result that only the +oscillations transmitted from the sound plate on to the contacts come +in operation, whereas disturbing mechanical shocks resulting from any +outward influences occasion very insignificant vibrations, which are +not perceptible in the telephone. The separate contacts thus form a +firm system with the sound plate, so that the former are influenced in +their motions and effects solely and alone by the shocks and +oscillations which operate direct on these sound plates. The roller +motion of the carbon is thus removed, and the distinctness of the +words spoken is greatly augmented. + +The above Figs. 1 and 2 show the microphone in side view and in cross +section. + +A metal ring, R (see Fig. 1), is fastened by means of the four screws, +_r_{1}_ _r_{2}_ _r_{3}_ _r_{4}_, on a wooden mouthpiece. In a recess of the +above ring is the diaphragm, M, which is provided on its outer edge +with an India rubber band and is held in position by the two clamps, _a_ +and _a_{1}_. The diaphragm is cut out of finely fibered firwood and is +well lacquered to preserve it against dampness. On it there are two +carbon beams, _b_, and in the perforations of the latter are the +journals of the carbon rollers, _k_. The alterations in contact take +place in the touching points. The cross piece, _f_, that runs straight +across the carbon rollers serves as a braking contrivance, which is +regulated as may be necessary by the large projecting screws. + +Fig. 3 shows the apparatus in cross section. T is the mouth piece, R +the metal ring, M the diaphragm, _f_ the breaking cross piece. On the +latter is a metal block fastened by means of two screws. On this metal +block is a soft elastic strip (d) of felt or similar material. The +letters _s_ and _s_ indicate the regulating screws for the braking +contrivance. + +The excellent qualities of other microphones, in particular their +extreme sensibility for the very least impressions, are undeniable; +but it is just this sensibility that is the cause of the complaints +made by the public. In practical use this overgreat sensibility proves +to be a fault. + +In the apparatus constructed by Messrs. Mix and Genest the well-known +deficiencies of other systems are avoided. The effect of the sound and +the distinctness of the human voice are clearer and far more +intelligible. One simple regulation of the microphone suffices for the +installation, for there is no danger of its getting out of order. +Owing to its peculiar construction, this new microphone is very firm +and solid, and for this very reason offers another advantage, namely, +the possibility of transmitting sound over very long distances. In the +competitive trials instituted by order of the imperial postal +department, apparatus of various systems and constructions were +subjected to tests, and the apparatus we are speaking of showed the +favorable results just mentioned. This microphone has overcome in +particular the difficulties connected with the using of combined lines +above and below ground, and with the aid of it the excellent +telephonic communication is carried on in Berlin, in which city the +telephone net is most extensive and complicated. At the same time this +microphone transmits the sound over long distances (up to 200 kilom. +even) in the most satisfactory manner. Another peculiar advantage of +this construction is that it exercises a very small inductive effect +on cables and free lines, and consequently the simultaneous speaking +on parallel lines causes but little disturbance. + +After repeated trials made by the German imperial postal department +with the microphones constructed by Messrs. Mix and Genest, these +apparatus have been introduced in the place of the telephones and +Bell-Blake microphones hitherto used in the telephone service. At +present we understand there are about 8,000 of these apparatus in use. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTROLYSIS AND REFINING OF SUGAR. + + +Mr. G. Fahrig, of Eccles, Lancashire, has invented a new process of +refining sugar through electrolysis. The brown sugar is decolorized by +means of ozone produced by electric currents of high tension from a +dynamo. The electrodes consist of metal grills covered with platinum +or some other inoxidizable metal, and are placed in a vat with the +intervention of perforated earthenware plates. After being ground and +dried in hot air, the crude sugar is placed between the plate and the +grills, and the discharges passing between the electrodes produce +ozone, which separates the sugar from the coloring matter. To purify +the sugar still further, Mr. Fahrig dries it and places it in another +vat, with carbon or platinum conducting plates separated by a porous +partition. The sugar is placed on one side of this partition, and +water circulates on the other side. + +The current from a dynamo of feeble tension is sent through the vat +between the plates. The water carries along the impurities separated +by the current, and the sugar is further whitened and refined. + +[Illustration] + +The accompanying figure shows a series of four vats arranged one above +another, in order to permit the water to circulate. Here _i_ and _h_ +represent the plates connected with the poles of the dynamo through +the conductors, _f_ and _g_; _m_ represents the porous partition; L, +the spaces filled with sugar; and _l_, the compartments in which the +water circulates.--_La Lumiere Electrique._ + + * * * * * + +[THE ELECTRICIAN.] + + + + +A CURRENT METER. + + +We give a description of a meter we made in June, 1883. You will find +a cross section of the meter and also a printed dial we had made at +the time. We called it an ampere register, but no doubt we would give +it a better name to-day. The meter consisted of a glass tube, _c_, +both ends of which were fitted into two bent pieces of piping, D and +F, as shown. Through these bent tubes, D and F, passed the wires, a +and _b_, which were connected to the binding posts, A and B. The part +of the wire where it passed into the tubes was well insulated. At the +ends, _a'_ and _b'_, was connected the coil, R, which consisted simply +of a few turns of copper wire whose diameter was less than the leading +wires, _a_ and _b_. To the tube, D, was attached a square tube, E, +which had a little opening at the top so as to permit a small +undershot wheel, I, to revolve freely. This undershot wheel was well +pivoted and constructed very light. To the axis of this wheel was +connected another system of wheels with indicators, as shown, J. Now +the tubes, E and F, were connected to a reservoir, G. This reservoir +consisted of a square tank, in the inside of which were soldered in an +alternating manner square sheets of copper as shown in the drawing, +_g_ _g'_ _g''_ _g'''_ ... These sheets acted as diffusers. These +plates or sheets presented a very large surface. On the outside of the +tank, G, were also diffusers, _h_ _h'_ ... arranged all round and +presenting an appearance as if two books were open so as to form a +square with their covers, the leaves being the diffusers. The +diffusers on the outside were at right angles to those inside. + +[Illustration: CROSS SECTION OF JEHL AND RUPP'S CURRENT METER.] + +The action of the meter was thus: When a current passes through the +coil, R, it heats the liquid at the place, thus causing a circulation, +the warm liquid ascending while the cold liquid descends as shown by +the arrows. This circulation causes the undershot wheel to revolve, +and its revolutions are registered by the clockwork. The stronger the +current, the more the heat, and thus the more rapid the circulation. +The warm liquid once in the tank, which is of a reasonable size, will +impart its heat to all the diffusers. The surface of the glass tube, +etc., is very small in comparison to the surface of the tank. It will +be seen that the function of this apparatus is independent of the +outward temperature, for the motion of the liquid is due only to that +heat which is generated by the current. When the current does not +pass, it is evident that the liquid, at whatever temperature it may +be, does not circulate, as all parts are of the same temperature; but +the moment the current passes, a difference is produced, which causes +a circulation in proportion to the current. We may mention that we +tried various liquids, and give preference to pure olive oil. It will +also be seen that this meter is good for alternating currents. In +conclusion, we may remark that the tests we made gave satisfaction, +and we wanted to publish them, but that Mr. Jehl was called away to +fit up the Edison exhibit in the Vienna exhibition for the Societe +Electrique Edison of Paris. After the exhibition we began our work +upon our disk machine, and had almost forgotten our meter. The whole +apparatus is mounted on a base, K. + +[Illustration: DIAL FACE.] + +JEHL AND RUPP. +Bruenn, Sept. 26, 1887. + + * * * * * + + + + +STORAGE BATTERIES FOR ELECTRIC LOCOMOTION.[1] + + [Footnote 1: From a paper read before the National Electric Light + Association, New York, August, 1887.] + +By A. RECKENZAUN. + + +The idea of employing secondary batteries for propelling vehicles is +almost contemporaneous with the discovery of this method of storing +energy. To Mr. Plante, more than to any other investigator, much of +our knowledge in this branch of electrical science is due. He was the +first to take advantage of the action of secondary currents in voltaic +batteries. Plante is a scientist of the first grade, and he is a +wonderfully exact experimenter. He examined the whole question of +polarization of electrodes, using all kinds of metal as electrodes and +many different liquids as electrolytes, and during his endless +researches he found that the greatest useful effect was produced when +dilute sulphuric acid was electrolyzed between electrodes of metallic +lead. + +A set of Plante's original cells was exhibited for the first time in +March, 1860, before the Paris Academy of Sciences. Scientists admired +and praised it, but the general public knew nothing of this great +discovery thus brought to notice. Indeed, at that period little +commercial value could be attached to such apparatus, since the +accumulator had to be charged by means of primary batteries, and it +was then well known that electrical energy, when produced by chemical +means in voltaic cells, was far too expensive for any purpose outside +the physical laboratory or the telegraph office. + +It was twenty years after this exhibition at the Academy of Sciences +in Paris that public attention was drawn to the importance of storage +batteries, and that Mr. Faure conceived the idea of constructing +plates consisting of lead and oxides of lead. At that time the +advantages accruing through a system of electrical storage could be +fully appreciated, since electrical energy was already being produced +by mechanical means through the medium of dynamo-electric machines. + +It was the dynamo machine which created the demand for the storage +battery, and the latter was introduced anew to the public at large +and to the capitalist with great pomp and enthusiasm. One of Faure's +accumulators was sent to Sir William Thomson, and this eminent +scientist in the course of experiments ascertained that a single cell, +weighing 165 lb., can store two million foot-pounds of energy, or one +horse power for one hour, and that the loss of energy in charging did +not exceed 15 per cent. These results appeared highly encouraging. +There we had a method of storing that could give out the greater part +of the energy put in. The immense development which the electric +transmission of energy was even at that early day expected to undergo +pointed to the fact that a convenient method of receiving large +quantities of transmitted energy, and of holding it in readiness until +wanted, must be of the highest importance. Numerous applications of +the Faure battery were at once suggested, and the public jumped to the +conclusion that a thing for which so many uses could be instantly +found must necessarily be a profitable investment, and plenty of money +was provided forthwith, not with the idea of commencing careful +experiments and developing the then crude invention, which would have +been the correct thing, but for manufacturing tons of accumulators in +their first and immature form. + +I need not describe the disappointments which followed the first +unfulfilled hopes, nor repeat the criticism that was heaped upon the +heads of the early promoters. Those early hopes were untimely and +unreasonable. A thousand difficulties had to be overcome--scientific +difficulties and manufacturing difficulties. This invention, like most +others, had to go through steady historical developments and +evolution, and follow the recognized laws of nature, which are against +abnormal and instantaneous maturity. The period of maturity has also +been retarded by injudicious treatment, but the ultimate success was +inevitable. Great advances have been made within the last few years, +and I propose now to offer a few facts and figures relating to the +present state of the subject with reference to the application of +storage batteries to locomotive purposes. It is not within the +province of this paper to discuss all the different inventions of +secondary batteries nor to offer any suggestions with regard to +priority, therefore I will confine myself to general statements. I am +aware of the good work that was done in the United States by Kirchhoff +twenty-six years ago, and of the more recent work of Mr. Brush, of +Cleveland, Mr. Julien and others, but I am more particularly +acquainted with the recent achievements of the Electrical Accumulator +Company, who own the rights of the Electrical Power Storage Company, +of London. I have used the batteries of the latter company for +propelling electric boats and electric street cars. The first of the +boats was the Electricity, which was launched in September, 1882, and +which attained a speed of seven miles an hour for six consecutive +hours. Since then a dozen electric boats of various sizes have been +fitted up and worked successfully by means of storage batteries and +motors of my design. The most important of these were the launch Volta +and another similar craft, which is used by the Italian government for +torpedo work in the harbor of Spezia. On the measured mile trial trips +the Italian launch gave an average speed of 8.43 miles an hour with +and against the tide. The hull of this vessel was built by Messrs. +Yarrow & Co., and the motors were manufactured by Messrs. Stephens, +Smith & Co., of London. The Volta, which was entirely fitted by the +latter firm, is 37 feet long and 7 feet beam. She draws 2'6" of water +when carrying 40 persons, for whom there is ample sitting +accommodation. There are 64 cells in this boat. These are placed as +ballast under the floor, and actuate a pair of motors and a screw +coupled direct to the armature shaft running at 700 revolutions a +minute. We crossed the English Channel with this boat in September of +last year, leaving Dover at 10:40 in the morning, arriving at Calais +at 2:30 P.M.; stayed about an hour in the French harbor for luncheon +and floated into Dover docks the same evening, at 6:30, with full +speed. The actual distance traversed without entirely discharging the +cells was 54 miles. The current remained constant at 28 amperes until +5 P.M., and it only dropped to 25 amperes at the completion of the +double voyage between England and France. Several electric launches +are now being constructed in London, and one in New York by the +Electrical Accumulator Company. + +M. Trouve exhibited a small boat and a tricycle, both worked by Plante +accumulators, at Paris, in 1881. + +The first locomotive actuated by storage batteries was used at a +bleaching works in France in 1882. During the same year I designed an +electric street car for the storage company, and this was tried on the +lines of the West Metropolitan Tramways in March, 1883. It had +accommodation for 46 passengers. This car had many defects, and I +reconstructed it entirely, and ran it afterward in its improved form +on the South London Tramways, and also on a private track at Millwall, +where it is now in good condition, and I have a similar car in Berlin. +M. Phillippart exhibited a car in Paris and M. Julien made successful +experiments in Brussels, Antwerp, and Hamburg. Mr. Elieson is running +storage battery locomotives in London. Mr. Julien has also been +experimenting with a car in New York, and I believe one is in course +of construction for a line in the city of Boston. Messrs. W. Wharton, +Jr. & Co. have a storage battery car running at Philadelphia on Spruce +and Pine streets, and this energetic firm is now fitting up another +car with two trucks, each carrying an independent motor, similar to my +European cars. + +I have mentioned all these facts in order to show that there is a +considerable amount of activity displayed in the matter of storage +batteries for street cars, and that continued and substantial progress +is being made in each successive case. The prejudices against the +application of secondary batteries are being rapidly dispelled, and +there are indications everywhere that this method of propulsion will +soon take a recognized place among the great transit facilities in the +United States. I feel convinced that this country will also in this +respect be far ahead of Europe before another year has passed over our +heads. + +There are several popular and I may say serious objections to the +employment of storage batteries for propelling street cars. These +objections I will now enumerate, and endeavor to show how far they are +true, and in what measure they interfere with the economical side of +the question. + +First objection: The loss of energy, which amounts in practice to 20 +and sometimes 30 per cent. Now, every method of storing or +transmitting energy involves some waste, but in saying this we need +not condemn the system, for after all the term efficiency is only a +relative one. For instance, a 10 horse power steam engine consumes +three times as much fuel per horse power hour as a 1,000 horse power +engine does, yet this small engine must be, and is regarded as, one of +the most economical labor-saving appliances known to us. Considered as +a heat engine, the efficiency of the most economical steam motor is +but ten per cent.--90 per cent of the available units of heat +contained in coal being lost during its transformation into mechanical +energy. Thus, if we find that the storage battery does not return more +than 70 per cent, of the work expended in charging it, we ought not to +condemn it on that account until we have ascertained whether this low +efficiency renders the system unfit for any or all commercial +purposes. It is needless to go into figures in order to show that, +when compared with animal power, this objection drops into +insignificance. + +The second, more formidable, objection relates to the weight of +storage batteries--and this involves two disadvantages, viz., waste of +power in propelling the accumulator along with the car, and increased +pressure upon the street rails, which are only fitted to carry a +maximum of 5 tons distributed over 4 points, so that each wheel of an +ordinary car produces a pressure of 11/4 tons upon a point of the rail +immediately under it. + +The last mentioned objection is easily overcome by distributing the +weight of the car with its electrical apparatus over 8 wheels or 2 +small trucks, whereby the pressure per unit of section on the rails is +reduced to a minimum. With regard to the weight of the storage +batteries, relatively to the amount of energy the same are capable of +holding and transmitting, I beg to offer a few practical figures. +Theoretically, the energy manifested in the separation of one pound of +lead from its oxide is equivalent to 360,000 foot pounds, but these +chemical equivalents, though interesting in themselves, gives us no +tangible idea of the actual capacity of a battery. + +Repeated experiments have shown me that the capacity of a secondary +battery cell varies with the rate at which it is charged and +discharged. For instance, a cell such as we use on street cars gave a +useful capacity of 137.3 ampere hours when discharged at the average +rate of 45.76 amperes, and this same cell yielded 156.38 ampere hours +when worked at the rate of 22.34 amperes. At the commencement of the +discharge the E.M.F of the battery was 2.1 volts, and this was allowed +to drop to 1.87 volts when the experiment was concluded. The entire +active material contained in the plates of one cell weighed 11.5 lb., +therefore the energy given off per pound of active substance at the +above high rate of discharge was 62.225 foot pounds, and when +discharging at the lower rate of 22.34 amperes the available useful +energy was 72.313 foot pounds, or nearly 2.2 electrical horse power +per pound of active matter. But this active substance has to be +supported, and the strength or weight of the support has to be made +sufficiently great to give the plate a definite strength and +durability. The support of the plates inclusive of the terminals above +referred to weighs more than the active material, which consists of +peroxide of lead and spongy lead; so that the plates of one cell weigh +actually 26.5 pounds. Add to this the weight of the receptacle and +acid, and you get a total of about 41 pounds per cell when in working +order. Seventy of these cells will propel an ordinary street car for +four hours and a half, while consuming the stored energy at the rate +of 30 amperes, or over 5.6 electrical horse power. The whole set of +seventy cells weighs 2,870 lb., which is barely one-fifth of the +entire weight of the car when it carries forty adult passengers. +Therefore the energy wasted in propelling the accumulator along with a +ear does not amount to more than 20 per cent. of the total power, and +this we can easily afford to lose so long as animal power is our only +competitor. From numerous and exhaustive tests with accumulators on +cars in this country and abroad, I have come to the conclusion that +the motive power for hauling a full-sized street car for fifteen hours +a day does not exceed $1.75, and this includes fuel, water, oil, +attendance, and repairs to engine, boiler, and dynamo. We have thus an +immense margin left between the cost of electric traction and horse +traction, and the last objection, that relating to the depreciation of +the battery plates, can be most liberally met, and yet leave ample +profits over the old method of propulsion by means of animals. + +The advantages of storage battery street cars for city traffic are +self-evident, so that I need not trouble you with further details in +this respect, but I would beg those who take an interest in the +progress of the electric locomotive to give this subject all the +consideration it deserves, and I would assure them that the system +which I have advocated in this brief but very incomplete sketch is +worthy of an extended trial, and ready for the purposes set forth. +There is no reason why those connected with electric lighting +interests in the various cities and towns should not give the matter +their special attention, as they are the best informed on electrical +engineering and already have a local control of the supply of current +needed for charging. + +In the car which we use in Philadelphia there are actually 80 cells, +because there are considerable gradients to go over. Each cell weighs +40 pounds and the average horse power of each battery is six. +Sometimes we only use two horse power and sometimes, going up grades +of 5 per cent., we use as much as 12 horse power, but the average rate +is 6 electrical horse power. With reference to the weight of +passengers on the cars, we have never carried more than 50 passengers +on that car, because it is impossible to put more than 50 men into it. +There are seats for 24, and the rest have to stand on the platforms or +in the aisle. + +The changing of the batteries takes three minutes with proper +appliances. One set of cells is drawn out by means of a small winch +and a freshly charged set is put in. It takes the same time to charge +the battery as it does to discharge it in the working of the cars, so +one reserve set would be sufficient to keep the car continually +moving. + +The loss of energy from standing about is probably nothing. If a +battery were to stand charged for three months in a dry case, the loss +of energy might be in three months 10 per cent. I purposely had a set +of cells standing for two years charged and never used them. After two +years there was still a small amount of energy left. So as regards +the loss of energy in a battery standing idle, it is practically +nothing, because no one would think of charging a battery and letting +it stand for three months or a year. + +I have had them stand three or four months and I could hardly +appreciate the loss going on, provided always that the cells are +standing on a dry floor. If the exterior of the box be moist, or if it +stands on a moist floor, there will naturally be a surface leakage +going on: but where there is no surface leakage the mere local action +between the oxides and metallic lead will not discharge the battery +for a very considerable time. + +I have made experiments in London with a loaded car pulled by two +horses. I put a dynamometer between the attachment of the horse and +the car, so as to ascertain exactly the amount of pull, measured in +pounds multiplied by the distance traversed in a minute. You will be +surprised to know that two horses, when doing their easiest work, +drawing a loaded car on a perfectly level road, exert from two to +three horse power. I have mentioned a car in Philadelphia where we use +between two and twelve horse power. A horse is capable of exerting +eight horse power for a few minutes, and when a car is being driven up +grades, such as I see in Boston, for instance, pulling a load of +passengers up these grades, the horses must be exerting from 12 to 16 +horse power, mechanical horse power. That is the reason that street +car horses cannot run more than three or four hours out of the +twenty-four. If they were to run longer, they would be dead in a few +weeks. If they run two hours a day, they will last three or four +years. + +The life of the cells must be expressed upon the principle of ampere +hours or the amount of energy given off by them. Street car service +requires that the cells work their hardest for fifteen or sixteen +hours a day. The life of the cells has to be divided; first, into the +life of the box which contains the plates. This box, if appropriately +constructed of the best materials, will last many years, because there +is no actual wear on it. The life of the negative plates will be very +considerable, because no chemical action is going on in the negative +plate. The negative plate consists almost entirely of spongy lead, and +the hydrogen is mechanically occluded in that spongy lead. Therefore +the depreciation of the battery is almost entirely due to the +oxidation of the positive plates. If we were to make a lead battery of +plates 1/4 inch thick, it would last many years; but for street car +work that would be far too heavy. Therefore we make the positive +plates a little more than one-eighth of an inch thick. I find that the +plates get sufficiently brittle to almost fall to pieces after the car +has run fifteen hours a day for six months. The plates then have to be +renewed. But this renewal does not mean the throwing away of the +plates. The weight is the same as before, because no consumption of +material takes place. We take out peroxide of lead instead of red +lead. That peroxide, if converted, produces 70 per cent. of metallic +lead, so that there is a loss of 30 per cent. in value. Then comes the +question of the manufacture of these positive plates, which, I +believe, at the present day are rather expensive. But I believe the +time will come when battery plates will be manufactured like shoe +nails, and the process of renewing the positive plates will be a very +cheap one. + +I ascertained in Europe that the motive power costs 2 cents per car +mile; that is, the steam power and attendance for charging the +batteries. We have to allow twice as much for the depreciation of a +battery at the present high rate at which we have to pay for the +battery--$12 for each cell. But I believe that as soon as the storage +battery industry is sufficiently extended, the total cost for +propelling these cars will not be more than six cents a mile, or about +one half the cost of the cheapest horse traction. + +I have made some very careful observations on the cable tramway in +Philadelphia, which is quite an extensive system. I have never been +able to ascertain the exact amount of waste in pulling the cable +itself; but I have it on the authority of certain technical papers +that there is a waste of about eighty per cent. I do not intend to +depreciate cable or any other tramways, but there is a difficulty +about introducing cable tramways. It is necessary to dig up the +streets and interfere with the roadways. I have been told that the +cable arrangements in Philadelphia cost $100,000 a mile, and that the +cable road in San Francisco cost more than that. One of the directors +of the cable company in Philadelphia told me that if he had seen the +battery system before the introduction of the cable, he would probably +have made up his mind in favor of the former. The wear and tear in the +case of the storage system is also considerable. There is a waste of +energy in the dynamo; secondly, in the accumulator charged by that +dynamo; thirdly, in the motor which is driven by the accumulator; and +fourthly, in the gearing that reduces the speed of the motor to the +speed required by the car axles. It would be difficult to make a motor +run at the rate of eighty revolutions per minute, which is the number +of revolutions of the street car axle when running at the rate of ten +miles an hour. Take all these wastes, and you find in practice that +you do not utilize more than 40 per cent. of the energy given by the +steam engine. But this is quite sufficient to make this system much +cheaper than horse traction. + +It is well known that we can discharge the storage battery _ad +libitum_ at the rate of 2 amperes or 200 amperes. I can get out of a +storage battery almost any horse power I like for a short space of +time. I have not the least objection to the direct system. But when +you come to run twenty or thirty or fifty cars on one line, you will +require very large conductors or dangerously high electromotive force. +The overhead system is applicable to its own particular purposes. +Where there are only five or ten, or even twenty, cars running on one +line, and that line runs through a suburb or a part of a city where +there are not many houses, that system is to be preferred. The +objection to the overhead system is not so much the want of beauty, +but the want of practicability. You have to put your posts very high +indeed, so as to let great wagon loads of hay and all sorts of things +pass underneath. Most of the trouble comes in winter, and when it is +snowing hard a great many difficulties arise. As regards the loss, +suppose that the resistance of the overhead lines is one ohm. To draw +one car it will take an average of 20 amperes, and the only loss will +be 20 multiplied by 20, that is, 400 watts through line resistance. +But if there are ten cars on that line, you get 40,000 watts loss of +energy, unless you increase the conductor in proportion to the number +of cars. If you do that, you get an enormous conductor, and have a +sort of elevated railroad instead of a telegraph wire, as most people +imagine an overhead conductor to be. + +The current required to run a street car is about thirty amperes, and +an electromotive force of about 180 volts. If cars are run in +connection with an incandescent light station, we can arrange our +apparatus so that we can use an E.M.F. say of 110 volts, and then we +can put in a smaller number of cells with a larger capacity that will +give a corresponding horse power. We can charge such larger cells with +50 or 60 amperes instead of thirty. + +In regard to arc lighting machinery, the arc lighting dynamo should +not be used to charge the accumulators. They can be used, but they +require such constant attention as to make them impracticable. We can +only use shunt-wound dynamos conveniently for that purpose. + +In regard to using two motors on a car, there are several advantages +in it. I use two motors on all my cars in Europe, and always have done +so from the beginning. One of the advantages is that in case of an +accident to one motor the other will bring the car home; secondly, +with two motors we can vary the speed without changing the E.M.F. of +the battery. If I want very much power, I put two motors in parallel, +getting four times the power that I do with one machine, and an +intermediate power of two motors. + +There is another advantage of having two motors, and that is that we +can use two driving axles instead of one, and we can go up grades with +almost double the facility that way, because the adhesion would be +double. These are the main advantages arising from the use of two or +more motors. + +Mr. Mailloux asked if I would give my experience in regard to the +mechanical transmission between the motor and the car axle. I have +used almost everything that was known at the time, but in order to +give you a full and detailed account of the various modes of +transmission which I have used I should have to give you figures to +bear out certain experiments. I should only be able to do that in a +lecture of at least five hours' duration, so I hope that you will +kindly excuse me on that point. + +With regard to the durability of plates, I have taken into +consideration fifteen hours a day. In regard to the application of +electrical brakes, I will say that that was one of the first ideas +that entered my head when I began to use electric motors, and other +people had that idea long before me. I have used an electric brake, +using the motor itself as a brake--that is, as the car runs down a +grade by momentum, it generates a current, but this current cannot be +used for recharging a battery. It is utter nonsense to talk about that +unless we have a steady grade four or five miles long. The advantages +are very small indeed, and the complications which would be introduced +by employing automatic cut-outs, governors, and so on, would +counterbalance anything that might be gained. As regards going up an +incline, of course stopping and starting again has to be done often, +and anybody who at any time works cars by electricity, whether they +have storage batteries or not, has to allow for sufficient motive +power to overcome all the difficulties that any line might present. + +One of the great mistakes which some of the pioneers in this direction +made was that they did not put sufficient power upon the cars. You +always ought to put on the cars power capable of exerting perhaps 20 +to 40 per cent. more than is necessary in the ordinary street service, +so that in case of the road being snowed up, or in the case of any +other accident which is liable to occur, you ought to have plenty of +power to get out of the scrape. + + * * * * * + + + + +BRISTOL CATHEDRAL. + + +[Illustration: BRISTOL CATHEDRAL.] + +An Augustinian monastery, founded by Robert Fitzhardinge in 1142, had +its church, of Norman architecture, to which additions were made in +the early English period. When Edmund Knowle was abbot, from 1306 to +1332, the Norman choir was replaced by that which now exists. His +successor, Abbot Snow, built the chapels on the south side of the +choir. Abbot Newland, between 1481 and 1515, enriched the transepts +with a groined roof and with ornamental work of the decorated Gothic +style, and erected the central tower. Abbot Elliott, who followed +Newland, removed the Norman nave and aisles, intending to rebuild +them; but this was prevented by his death in 1526 and by the +dissolution of the monastery a few years afterward; he completed, +however, the vaulting of the south transept. The church remained with +a nave, and otherwise incomplete, until the modern restorations; after +which, in 1877, it was reopened with a special service. Messrs. Pope & +Bindon, of Bristol, were the architects employed. The exterior, of +which we give an illustration, viewed from St. Augustine's Green, or +Upper College Green, is not very imposing; from the Lower Green there +is a good view of the central tower and the transept. The height of +the tower is but 127 ft. It is of perpendicular Gothic architecture, +but the piers supporting it are Norman. The interior presents many +features of interest. The clustered triple shafts of the piers in the +choir, with their capitals of graceful foliage, the lofty pointed +arches between them, and the groined vaulting, have much beauty. The +chancel is decorated with tracery of a peculiar pattern. + +The Abbey of St. Augustine at Bristol was surrendered to King Henry +VIII. in 1538, and became, in 1542, the cathedral of the new Episcopal +see then created. The first Bishop of Bristol, Paul Bush, was deprived +of his see by Queen Mary, being a married clergyman and refusing to +part with his wife. Bishop Fletcher, in Queen Elizabeth's time, +afterward Bishop of Worcester and of London, was twice married, at +which this queen likewise expressed her displeasure. He was father of +Fletcher, the dramatic poet; and he is said to have been one of the +first English smokers of tobacco. Among noted Bishops of Bristol were +Bishop Lake, afterward of Chichester, and Bishop Trelawny (Sir +Jonathan Trelawny, Bart., of Cornwall), two of the "seven bishops"; +imprisoned for disobeying an illegal order of James II. "And shall +Trelawny die? Then twenty thousand Cornishmen will know the reason +why." But the most eminent was Bishop Joseph Butler, the author of +"The Analogy of Natural and Revealed Religion" and of the "Sermons on +Human Nature." He was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, and was educated +as a Nonconformist. He was Bishop of Bristol from 1738 to 1750, when +he was translated to Durham. In 1836, the see of Bristol was joined +with that of Gloucester; and the Right Rev. Drs. J.H. Monk, O. Baring, +W. Thomson (now Archbishop of York), and C.J. Ellicott have been +Bishops of Gloucester and Bristol.--_Illustrated London News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +WAVES. + + +In the first days of August, two startling announcements reached us +from the United States. They were as follows: + +(1.) "The commander of the Cunarder Umbria reports that at 3 o'clock +on July 27, about 1,500 miles from Sandy Hook, the vessel was struck +by a tidal wave 50 ft. high, which swept the decks, carried away a +portion of the bridge and the forward hatch, and flooded the cabins +and steerage." + +(2.) "The captain of the Wilson line steamer Martello reports that at +half-past 8 on the evening of July 25, when in lat. 49 deg. 3' N., long. +31 deg. W., an enormous wave struck the vessel, completely submerging the +decks." + +In view of these reports, and inasmuch as questions were asked on the +subject in Parliament, though it is quite possible that, as regards +the "tidal" character of the waves, there may be something of +newspaper _gobemoucherie_ in the announcements, we offer a few remarks +on _waves_ in general, which may be useful to some of our readers. + +_Tidal phenomena_ present themselves under two aspects: as alternate +elevations and depressions of the sea and as recurrent inflows and +outflows of streams. Careful writers, however, use the word _tide_ in +strict reference to the _changes of elevation_ in the water, while +they distinguish the recurrent streams as _tidal currents_. Hence, +also, _rise_ and _fall_ appertain to the tide, while _flood_ and _ebb_ +refer to the tidal current. + +The _cause of the tides_ is the combined action of the sun and moon. +The relative effects of these two bodies on the oceanic waters are +directly as their mass and inversely as the square of their distance; +but the moon, though small in comparison with the sun, is so much +nearer to the earth that she exerts the greater influence in the +production of the great _tide wave_. Thus the mean force of the moon, +as compared with that of the sun, is as 21/4 to 1. + +The attractive force of the moon is most strongly felt by those parts +of the ocean over which she is vertical, and they are, consequently, +drawn toward her. In the same manner, the influence of the luminary +being less powerfully exerted on the waters furthest from her than on +the earth itself, they must remain behind. By these means, at the two +opposite sides of the earth, in the direction of the straight line +between the centers of the earth and moon, the waters are +simultaneously raised above their mean level; and the moon, in her +progressive westerly motion, as she comes to each meridian in +succession, causes two uprisings of the water--two high tides--the one +when she passes the meridian above, the other when she crosses it +below; and this is done, not by drawing after her the water first +raised, but by raising continually that under her at the time; this is +the _tide wave_. In a similar manner (from causes already referred to) +the sun produces two tides of much smaller dimensions, and the joint +effect of the action of the two luminaries is this, that instead of +four separate tides resulting from their separate influence, the _sun +merely alters the form of the wave raised by the moon_; or, in other +words, the greater of the two waves (which is due to the moon) is +modified in its height by the smaller (sun's) wave. When the summit of +the two happens to coincide, the summit of the combined wave will be +at the highest. When the hollow of the smaller wave coincides with the +summit of the larger, the summit of the combined wave will be at the +lowest. + +It is necessary to have a clear and distinct conception of the +difference between the _motion_ of a _wave_ and that of a _current_. +In the current there is a transfer of water; in the wave the transfer +is no more than would be brought about by a particle of water +impinging on another where that particle has a motion perpendicular to +the surface, and a rising and falling results. The onward movement of +the wave itself is always perceptible enough. That the water is not +moving with the same velocity is also evident from watching the +progress of any light body floating on its surface. This fact may be +practically illustrated in the case of a ship at sea, sailing before +the wind in the same direction as the waves are moving. When the crest +of a wave is near the stern, drop a piece of wood on it. Almost +instantly the wave will be seen shooting ahead of the vessel, while +the wood is scarcely removed from the position where it fell on the +water. The wave has moved onward, preserving its identity as a wave, +the water of which it is formed being constantly changed; and thus the +motion of the wave is one thing, that of the water in which the waves +are formed is quite another thing. + +Again, waves are formed by a force acting horizontally; but in the +case of the tide wave, that force acts uniformly from the surface to +the lowest depths of the ocean, and the breadth of the wave is that +curved surface which, commencing at low water, passes over the summit +of the tide down to the next low water--this is a wave of the first +order. In waves of the second order, the force raising them acts only +on the surface, and there the effect is greatest (as in the wind +waves)--where one assists in giving to the water oscillating motion +which maintains the next, and gradually puts the whole surface in +commotion; but at a short distance down that effect entirely +disappears. + +If the earth presented a uniform globe, with a belt of sea of great +and uniform depth encircling it round the equator, the tide wave would +be perfectly regular and uniform. Its velocity, where the water was +deep and free to follow the two luminaries, would be 1,000 miles an +hour, and the height of tide inconsiderable. But even the Atlantic is +not broad enough for the formation of a powerful tide wave. The +continents, the variation in the direction of the coast line, the +different depths of the ocean, the narrowness of channels, all +interfere to modify it. At first it is affected with only a slight +current motion toward the west--a motion which only acquires strength +when the wave is heaped up, as it were, by obstacles to its progress, +as happens to it over the shallow parts of the sea, on the coasts, in +gulfs, and in the mouths of rivers. Thus the first wave advancing +meets in its course with resistance on the two sides of a narrow +channel, it is forced to rise by the pressure of the following waves, +whose motion is not at all retarded, or certainly less so than that of +the first wave. Thus an actual current of water is produced in straits +and narrow channels; and it is always important to distinguish between +the tide wave, as bringing high water, and the tidal stream--between +the rise and fall of the tide and the flow and ebb. + +In the open ocean, and at a distance from the land, the tide wave is +imperceptible, and the rise and fall of the water is small. Among the +islands of the Pacific four to six feet is the usual spring rise. But +the range is considerably affected by local causes, as by the shoaling +of the water and the narrowing of the channel, or by the channel +opening to the free entrance of the tide wave. In such cases the range +of tide is 40 to 50 feet or more, and the tidal stream is one of great +velocity. It may under such circumstances even present the peculiar +phenomenon called the _bore_--a wave that comes rolling in with the +first of flood, and, with a foaming crest, rushes onward, threatening +destruction to shipping, and sweeping away all impediments lying in +its course. + +It is certain that in the open ocean the _great tide wave_ could not +be recognized as a wave, since it is merely a temporary alteration of +the sea level. + +_Waves_ which have their origin in the action of the wind striking the +surface of the water commence as a series of small and slow +undulations or wavelets--a mere ripple. As the strength, and +consequently the pressure, of the wind increases, waves are formed; +and a numerical relation exists between the length of a wave, its +velocity of progress, and the depth of the water in which it travels. + +The _height_ of a wave is measured from trough to crest; and though +waves as seen from the deck of a small vessel appear to be "enormous" +and "overwhelming," their height, in an ordinary gale, in deep water, +does not exceed 15 to 20 feet. In a very heavy gale of some days' +continuance they will, of course, be much higher. + +Scoresby has observed them 30 ft. high in the North Atlantic; and Ross +measured waves of 22 ft. in the South Atlantic. Wilkes records 32 ft. +in the Pacific. But the highest waves have been reported off the Cape +of Good Hope and Cape Horn, where they have been observed, on rare +occasions, from 30 to 40 ft high; and 36 ft. has been given as the +admeasurement in the Bay of Biscay, under very exceptional +circumstances. In the voyage round the world the Venus and Bonite +record a maximum of 27 ft., while the Novara found the maximum to be +35 ft. But waves of 12 to 14 ft. in shallow seas are often more trying +than those of larger dimensions in deeper water. It is generally +assumed that a distance from crest to crest of 150 to 350 ft. in the +storm wave gives a velocity (in the change of form) of from 17 to 28 +miles per hour. But what is required in the computation of the +velocity is the period of passage between two crests. Thus a distance +of 500 to 600 ft. between two crests, and a period of 10 to 11 +seconds, indicates a velocity of 34 miles per hour. + +The following table, by Sir G.B. Airy (late Astronomer Royal), shows +the velocities with which waves of given lengths travel in water of +certain depth: + + Depth of | Length of the Wave in Feet.[1] + the Water| | | | | | | + in Feet. | 10 | 100 | 1,000 | 10,000 | 100,000 |1,000,000 |10,000,000 + ---------+-----+------+-------+--------+---------+----------+---------- + | + | Corresponding Velocity of Wave per Hour in Nautical Miles. + | + 1 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 + 10 | 4.3 | 10.1 | 10.7 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.8 + 100 | 4.3 | 13.5 | 32.0 | 34.0 | 34.0 | 34.0 | 34.0 + 1,000 | 4.3 | 13.5 | 42.9 | 101.8 | 107.5 | 107.5 | 107.5 + 10,000 | 4.3 | 13.5 | 42.9 | 135.7 | 320.3 | 340.0 | 340.3 + 100,000 | 4.3 | 13.5 | 42.9 | 135.7 | 429.3 | 1013.0 | 1075.3 + ---------+-----+------+-------+--------+---------+----------+---------- + + [Footnote 1: As an example, this table shows that waves 1,000 feet + in length travel 43 nautical miles per hour in water 1,000 feet + deep. The length is measured from crest to crest.] + +From these numbers it appears that-- + +1. When the length of the wave is not greater than the depth of the +water, the velocity of the wave depends (sensibly) only on its length, +and is proportional to the square root of its length. + +2. When the length of the wave is not less than a thousand times the +depth of the water, the velocity of the wave depends (sensibly) only +on the depth, and is proportional to the square root of the depth. + +It is, in fact, the same as the velocity which a free body would +acquire by falling from rest under the action of gravity through a +height equal to half the depth of the water. + +_Rollers_ are of the nature of a violent _ground swell_, and possibly +the worst of them may be due to the propagation of an earthquake wave. +They come with little notice, and rarely last long. All the small +islands in the Mid-Atlantic experience them, and they are frequent on +the African coast in the calm season. They are also not unknown in the +other oceans. In discussing the meteorology of the equatorial district +of the Atlantic, extending from lat. 20 deg. to 10 deg. S, Captain Toynbee +observes that "swells of the sea are not always caused by the +prevailing wind of the neighborhood. For instance, during the northern +winter and spring months, northwesterly swells abound. They are +sometimes long and heavy, and extend to the most southern limit of the +district. Again, during the southern winter and spring months, +southerly and southwesterly swells abound, extending at times to the +most northern limit of the district. They are frequently very heavy +and long." + +The great _forced sea waves_, due to earthquakes, and generally to +subterranean and volcanic action, have been known to attain the +enormous height of 60 feet or more, and sweep to destruction whole +towns situated on the shores where they have broken--as for example +Lisbon and places on the west coast of America and in the island of +Java. Though so destructive when they come in toward the land, and +begin to feel the shelving sea bottom, it is not probable that, in the +open ocean, this wave would do more than appear as a long rolling +swell. It has, however, been observed that "a wave with a gentle front +has probably been produced by gentle rise or fall of a part of the sea +bottom, while a wave with a steep front has probably been due to a +somewhat sudden elevation or depression. Waves of complicated surface +form again would indicate violent oscillations of the bottom." + +The altitude and volume of the great sea wave resulting from an +earthquake depend upon the suddenness and extent of the originating +disturbance and upon the depth of water at its origin. Its velocity of +translation at the surface of the sea varies with the depth of the sea +at any given point, and its form and dimensions depend upon this also, +as well as upon the sort of sea room it has to move in. In deep ocean +water, one of these waves may be so long and low as to pass under a +ship without being observed, but, as it approaches a sloping shore, +its advancing slope becomes steeper, and when the depth of water +becomes less than the altitude of the wave, it topples over, and comes +ashore as an enormous and overwhelming breaker. + +Lastly, there is the _storm wave_--the result of the cyclone or +hurricane--and, perhaps, the greatest terror to seamen, for it almost +always appears in the character of a _heavy cross sea_, the period of +which is irregular and uncertain. The disturbance within the area of +the cyclone is not confined to the air, but extends also to the ocean, +producing first a rolling swell, which eventually culminates in a +tremendous pyramidal sea and a series of storm waves, the undulations +of which are propagated to an extraordinary distance, behind, before, +and on each side of the storm field. + +Enough has now been said to show that whatever the character of the +waves encountered by the Umbria and Martello in July last, they were +in no sense "tidal," but, if approximating to the dimensions stated, +they were either due to storm or earthquake, or, possibly, to a +combination of both the last agents. + +For those of our readers who may be interested in wave observations, +we conclude by introducing Prof. Stokes' summary of the method of +observing the phenomenon: + + "_For a Ship at Sea._ + + "(1.) The apparent periodic time,[2] observed as if the ship + were at rest. + + "(2.) The _true_ direction from which the waves come, also the + ship's _true_ course and speed per hour. + + "(3.) A measure or estimate of the height of the waves. + + "(4.) The depth of the sea if it is known, but, at any rate, + the position of the ship as near as possible, either by cross + bearings of land or any other method, so that the depth may be + got from charts or other sources. + + "_For a Ship at Anchor._ + + "(1.) The periodic time. + + "(2.) The true direction from which the waves come. + + "(3.) A measure or estimate of the height of the waves. + + "(4.) The depth of water where she is anchored." + + [Footnote 2: The period of a wave is the interval of time which + elapses between the transits of two successive wave crests past a + stationary floating body, the wave crest being the highest line + along the ridge.] + +It is the opinion of scientists that when the period of oscillation of +the ship and the period of the wave are nearly the same, the turning +over of the ship is an approximate consequence, and thus the wave to +such a ship would appear more formidable than to another ship with a +different period of oscillation.--_Nautical Magazine._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PRACTICAL EDUCATION. + + +It is now recognized that one of the elements in which the public +school systems of the United States are most lacking is in the +practical branches in teaching trades and industry. There is too much +book learning, too little practical education. Throughout the +continent of Europe there are trade and industrial schools which have +accomplished much in turning out skilled workmen for the various +branches of industry. Here we have one. Our deficiency in this matter +was recognized by the late commissioner of education, and attention +called to it in several of his reports, and a number of the State +superintendents of education have also urged the establishment of +manual or training schools as a part of the State systems. We have +such an institution here in the Tulane Manual School. In Philadelphia, +Cleveland, and Chicago, the system has been adopted on a large scale, +and made part of the high school course. Another city which has +inaugurated the manual training school as a part of its public schools +is Toledo, O. A rich citizen of that town, who recently died, left a +large sum for the establishment of a university of arts and trades. +Instead of founding a separate university, however, the money was +applied to the establishment of manual schools in connection with the +public schools, for both boys and girls. + +The course of girls' work given will afford some idea of what it is +proposed to do. This begins with the senior grammar school grade and +continues three years in high school. It includes free hand, +mechanical, and architectural drawing, light carpentry, wood carving, +designing for wood carving, wood turning, clay moulding, decorative +designing, etc. But more practical than these things are the lessons +in cooking, sewing, and household management. The course in domestic +economy "is arranged with special reference to giving young women such +a liberal and practical education as will inspire them with a belief +in the dignity and nobleness of an earnest womanhood, and incite them +to a faithful performance of the every day duties of life. It is based +upon the assumption that a pleasant home is an essential element of +broad culture, and one of the surest safeguards of morality and +virtue." The report of the school also remarks that "the design of +this course is to furnish thorough instruction in applied +housekeeping, and the sciences related thereto, and students will +receive practical drill in all branches of housework; in the purchase +and care of family supplies, and in general household management; but +will not be expected to perform more labor than is actually necessary +for the desired instruction." + +A special branch which will be well received is that which proposes to +teach the girls how to cook. The curriculum is one that every +housekeeper ought to go through. + +Boiling--Practical illustrations of boiling and steaming, and +treatment of vegetables, meats, fish, and cereals, soup making, etc. + +Broiling--Lessons and practice in meat, chicken, fish, oysters, etc. + +Bread Making--Chemical and mechanical action of materials used. +Manipulations in bread making in its various departments. Yeasts and +their substitutes. + +Baking--Heat in its action on different materials in the process of +baking. Practical experiments in baking bread, pastry, puddings, +cakes, meat, fish, etc. + +Frying--Chemical and mechanical principles involved and illustrated in +the frying of vegetables, meats, fish, oysters, etc. + +Mixing--The art of making combinations, as in soups, salads, puddings, +pies, cakes, sauces, dressings, flavorings, condiments, etc. + +In "marketing, economy," etc., the course comprises general teaching +on the following subjects: + + "The selection and purchase of household supplies. General + instructions in systematizing and economizing the household + work and expenses. The anatomy of animals used as food, and + how to choose the several parts. Lessons on the qualities of + water and steam; the construction of stoves and ranges; the + properties of different fuels." + +Again, there is a dressmaking and millinery department, where the +girls are taught how to cut and make dresses and other garments, and +the economical and tasteful use of materials. + +So much for the girls. The courses in the boys' schools are somewhat +similar, turning, however, on the more practical instruction in trades +and industries, in carpentering, wood and iron work, etc. + +The Toledo experiment has been tried there but one year, and has given +general satisfaction. The board of school directors has interested the +public in its efforts, and advisory committees of ladies and gentlemen +have been appointed to assist in managing these schools. + +It is to be hoped that other and larger cities will imitate Toledo in +the matter. Those philanthropists who are giving money so liberally +for the establishment of institutions of higher learning might do much +good in providing for manual training schools of this kind that will +assure the country good housewives and skilled mechanics in the +future.--_Trustees' T. Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A GIGANTIC LOAD OF LUMBER. + + +When it was announced in the _Lumberman_ that the barge Wahnapitae had +carried a cargo of 2,181,000 feet of lumber, letters were received +asking if it was not a typographical error. It was thought by many +that no boat could carry such a load. For the purpose of showing the +barge on paper, a photograph was obtained of her when loaded at +Duluth, which is herewith reproduced. The freight rate obtained to +Tonawanda was $3.75 a thousand, which footed up to a total of +$8,178.75 The owners of the boat, however, were not satisfied with +such a record, and proceeded to break it by loading at Duluth +2,409,800 feet of lumber, which also went to Tonawanda, and which is +put down as the biggest cargo of lumber on record. At the latter place +the cargo was unloaded on Saturday afternoon and Monday forenoon--one +working day. It will be readily understood that the money-making +capacity of the barge is of the Jumbo order also. + +[Illustration: THE BARGE WAHNAPITAE, LOADED WITH 2,181,000 FEET OF +LUMBER.] + +The barge is owned by the Saginaw Lumber and Salt Company and the +Emery Lumber Company, and cost $30,000. She is 275 feet long and 51 +feet beam. The lumber on her was piled 22 feet high and she drew 11 +feet of water. Had she been 10 inches wider, she could not have passed +through the Soo canal. The boat was built on the Saginaw river a year +ago last winter, and was designed for carrying logs from the Georgian +bay to the Saginaw river and Tawas mills. The Canadian government, +however, increased the export duty on logs, and the barge was put into +the lumber-carrying trade--_N.W. Lumberman._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE NEWBERY-VAUTIN CHLORINATION PROCESS. + + +The process of extracting gold from ores by absorption of the precious +metal in chlorine gas, from which it is reduced to a metallic state, +is not a very new discovery. It was first introduced by Plattner many +years ago, and at that time promised to revolutionize the processes +for gold extraction. By degrees it was found that only a very clever +chemist could work this process with practically perfect results, for +many reasons. Lime and magnesia might be contained in the quartz, and +would be attacked by the chlorine. These consume the reagents without +producing any results, earthy particles would settle and surround the +small gold and prevent chlorination, then lead and zinc or other +metals in combination with the gold would also be absorbed by the +chlorine; or, again, from some locally chemical peculiarity in the +water or the ore, gold held in solution by the water might be again +precipitated in the tailings before filtration was complete, and thus +be lost. Henderson, Clark, De Lacy, Mears, and Deacon, all introduced +improvements, or what were claimed to be improvements, on Plattner, +but these chiefly failed because they did not cover every particular +variety of case which gold extraction presented. Therefore, where +delicate chemical operations were necessary for success, practice +generally failed from want of knowledge on the part of the operator, +and many times extensive plants have been pronounced useless from this +cause alone. Hence it is not to be wondered that processes requiring +such care and uncommon knowledge are not greatly in favor. + +Mr. Claude Vautin, a gentleman possessed of much practical experience +of gold mining and extraction in Queensland, together with Mr. J. +Cosmo Newbery, analytical chemist to the government of Victoria, have +developed a process which they claim to combine all the advantages of +the foregoing methods, and by the addition of certain improvements in +the machinery and mode of treatment to overcome the difficulties which +have hitherto prevented the general adoption of the chlorination +process. + +By reference to the illustrations of the plant below, the system by +which the ore is treated can be readily understood. The materials for +treatment--crushed and roasted ore, or tailings, as the case may +be--are put into the hopper above the revolving barrel, or +chlorinator. This latter is made of iron, lined with wood and lead, +and sufficiently strong to bear a pressure of 100 lb. to the square +inch, its capacity being about 30 cwt of ore. The charge falls from +the hopper into the chlorinator. Water and chlorine-producing +chemicals are added--generally sulphuric acid and chloride of +lime--the manhole cover is replaced and screwed down so as to be gas +tight. On the opposite side of the barrel there is a valve connected +with an air pump, through which air to about the pressure of four +atmospheres is pumped in, to liquefy the chlorine gas that is +generated, after which the valve is screwed down. The barrel is then +set revolving at about ten revolutions a minute, the power being +transmitted by a friction wheel. According to the nature of the ore, +or the size of the grains of gold, this movement is continued from one +to four hours, during which time the gold, from combination with the +chlorine gas, has formed a soluble gold chloride, which has all been +taken up by the water in the barrel. The chlorinator is then stopped, +and the gas and compressed air allowed to escape from the valve +through a rubber hose into a vat of lime water. This is to prevent the +inhalation of any chlorine gas by the workmen. The manhole cover is +now removed and the barrel again set revolving, by which means the +contents are thrown automatically into the filter below. This filter +is an iron vat lined with lead. It has a false bottom, to which is +connected a pipe from a vacuum pump working intermittently. As soon as +all the ore has fallen from the chlorinator into the filter, the pump +is set going, a partial vacuum is produced in the chamber below the +false bottom in the filter, and very rapid filtration results. By this +means all the gold chlorides contained in the wet ore may be washed +out, a continual stream being passed through it while filtration is +going on. The solution running from the filter is continually tested, +and when found free from gold, the stream of water is stopped, as is +also the vacuum pump. The filter is then tipped up into a truck below, +and the tailings run out to the waste heap. The process of washing and +filtration occupies about an hour, during which time another charge +may be in process of treatment in the chlorinator above. The discharge +from the filter and the washings are run into a vat, and from this +they are allowed to pass slowly through a tap into a charcoal filter. +During the passage of the liquid through the charcoal filter, the +chloride of gold is decomposed and the gold is deposited on the +charcoal, which, when fully charged, is burnt, the ashes are fused +with borax in a crucible, and the gold is obtained. + +[Illustration: THE NEWBERY-VAUTIN CHLORINATION PROCESS.] + +We have specified above the objections to the old processes of +chlorination, so it may be fairly asked in what way the Newbery-Vautin +process avoids the various chemical actions which have hitherto proved +so difficult to contend with. + +For any system of chlorination yet introduced it is necessary to free +the ore from sulphides. This is done by roasting according to any of +the well-known systems in vogue. It is a matter which requires great +care and considerable skill. The heat must be applied and increased +slowly and steadily. If, through any neglect on the part of the +roaster, the ore is allowed to fuse, in most cases it is best to throw +the charge away, as waste. This roasting applies equally to the Vautin +process as to any others. So on this head there is no alteration. One +of the most important advantages is not a chemical one, but is the +rapidity with which the charge can be treated. In the older styles of +treatment the time varied from thirty six to ninety hours. Now this is +accomplished in from three to six hours with a practically perfect +result. The older processes required a careful damping of the ore, +which, to get good results, must leave the ore neither too wet nor too +dry. Now "damping" is entirely done away with, and in its place water +is poured into the barrel. Pressure to the extent of four atmospheres +causes chlorine gas to leave its vaporous form. Thus the pressure +applied not only enables a strong solution of chlorine to be formed +with the water in the barrel, but forces this into contact with the +gold through every crevice in the ore. Chlorine gas also takes up any +silver which may exist in association with the gold. In the older +processes this is deposited as a film of chloride of silver around the +fine gold grains, and from its insolubility in water prevents the +absorption of the gold. The rotary motion of the barrel in the +Newbery-Vautin method counteracts this by continually rubbing the +particles together; this frees the particles from any accumulations, +so that they always present fresh surfaces for the action of the +solvent. Again, the short time the ore is in contact with the chlorine +does not allow of the formation of hydrochloric acid, which has a +tendency to precipitate the gold from its soluble form in the water +before being withdrawn from the chlorinator. + +Hitherto, when the ore was very fine or contained slimes, the +difficulty of filtration was increased, sometimes in extreme cases to +such an extent that chlorination became impracticable. By the +introduction of the vacuum pump this is greatly facilitated; then by +making the action intermittent a jigging motion is given to the +material in the filter which prevents any clogging except in cases of +extreme fineness. + +The advantage of using charcoal as a decomposing agent for chloride of +gold was pointed out by Mr. Newbery some twenty years ago; four or +five years since the idea was patented in the United States, but as +this was given gratis to the world years before, the patent did not +hold good. The form of precipitation generally adopted was to add +sulphate of iron to the liquid drawn from the filter. This not only +threw down the gold it contained, but also the lime and magnesia. Then +very great care was necessary, and a tedious process had to be gone +through to divide the gold from these. Now, by filtration through +charcoal everything that is soluble in hydrochloric acid passes away +with the water; for instance, lime and magnesia, which before gave +such great trouble. In passing through the charcoal, the chloride of +gold is decomposed and all fine gold particles are taken up by the +charcoal, so that it is coated by what appears to be a purple film. + +Should copper be associated with the gold, the water, after running +through the charcoal filter, is passed over scrap iron, upon which the +copper is precipitated by a natural chemical action. If silver is +contained in the ore, it is found among the tailings in the filter, in +a chloride which is insoluble in water. Should the quantity prove +sufficiently large, it may be leached out in the usual way by +hyposulphites. + +One of the great advantages common to all systems of chlorination is +that ores may be crushed dry and treated, so that the loss from float +gold may be avoided. Of this loss, which is most serious, we shall +have something to say on another occasion. An advantage in +amalgamation with chlorine gas instead of amalgamation with +quicksilver in the wet way, is that the ore need not be crushed so +finely. Roasting takes the place of fine crushing, as the ore from the +roasting furnace is either found somewhat spongy in texture or the +grains of silica in which fine gold may be incased are split or flawed +by the fire. For quicksilver amalgamation very fine crushing is +necessary to bring all gold particles in contact with it. Quicksilver +being so thick in substance, it will not find its way readily in and +out of a microscopically fine spongy body or through very fine flaws +in grains of silica, whereas chlorine gas or a solution of liquefied +chlorine does this, and absorbs the gold far more readily. + +There are cases when gold is contained in ores in what is known as a +perfectly "free" form--that is, there is an absence of all sulphides, +arsenides, etc.--when it is not practicable to extract it either with +the ordinary forms of quicksilver amalgamation of or any process of +chlorination, without first roasting. This is because the finer gold +is locked up inside fine grains of silica and hydrated oxide of iron. +No ordinary crushing will bring this fine enough, but when roasting is +resorted to by drawing it rapidly through a furnace heated to a cherry +red, these grains are split up so that chlorine gas is enabled to +penetrate to the gold. + +It may be said that an equally clever chemist will be required to work +this improved process as compared with those that have, one by one, +fallen into disuse, mainly from want of knowledge among the operators. +To a certain extent this is so. The natural chemical actions are not +so delicate, but an ignorant operator would spoil this process, as he +does nearly every other. When a reef is discovered, practice shows +that its strongest characteristics are consistently carried throughout +it wherever it bears gold. Before Messrs. Newbery and Vautin leave a +purchaser to deal himself with their process, they get large samples +of his ore to their works and there experiment continually until a +practically perfect result is obtained; then any one with a moderate +amount of knowledge can work with the formula supplied. It has been +their experience that the ore from any two mines rarely presents the +same characteristics. Experiments are begun by treating very coarse +crushings. These, if not satisfactory, are gradually reduced until the +desired result is obtained. + +To treat the whole body of ore from a mine, dry crushing is strongly +recommended. To accomplish this in the most efficient manner, a stone +breaker which will reduce to about 1/4 in. cubes is necessary. For +subsequent crushing Kroms rolls have, up to the present time, proved +most satisfactory. They will crush with considerable evenness to a +thirty mesh, which is generally sufficient. The crushings are then +roasted in the ordinary way in a reverberatory furnace and the whole +of the roastings are passed through the machine we have just +described. By this it is claimed that over 90 per cent. of the gold +can be extracted at very much the same cost as the processes now in +general use in gold producing countries, which on the average barely +return 50 per cent. If so, the gentlemen who have brought forward +these improvements deserve all the success their process +promises.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR EXERCISING THE MUSCLES. + + +The apparatus herewith illustrated consists of a wooden base, which +may be bolted to the floor, and which supports two wooden uprights, to +which is affixed the apparatus designed to exercise the legs. The +apparatus for exercising the arms is mounted upon a second frame that +slides up and down the wooden supports. It is fixed in position at any +height by means of two screws. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR EXERCISING THE MUSCLES.] + +The apparatus for exercising the legs, as well as the one for the +arms, consists essentially of a fly wheel mounted upon an axle +extending to the second upright and bent into the form of a crank in +the center. The fly wheel is provided with a winch whose arm is +capable of elongation in order to accommodate it to the reach of the +sound limb. + +The apparatus for the legs is arranged in a contrary direction, that +is to say, the wheel is on the opposite side of the frame, and upon +the fixed uprights. It is really a velocipede, one of the pedals of +which is movable upon the winch, and is capable of running from the +axle to the extremity, as in the upper apparatus. This pedal has the +form of a shoe, and is provided with two straps to keep the foot in +place and cause it to follow the pedal in its rotary motion. A movable +seat, capable of rising and descending and moving backward and +forward, according to the leg that needs treatment, is fixed back of +the apparatus. + +The operation is as follows: Suppose that the atrophied arm is the +left one. The invalid, facing the apparatus, grasps the movable handle +on the crank with his left hand, and revolves the winch with his +right. The left hand being thus carried along, the arm is submitted to +a motion that obliges it to elongate and contract alternately, and the +result is an extension of the muscles which strengthens them. + +The apparatus, which is as simple as it is ingenious, can, it is true, +be applied only when one of the two limbs, arm or leg, is diseased, +the other being always necessary to set the apparatus in motion; but, +even reduced to such conditions, it is destined to render numerous +services in cases of paralysis, atrophy, contusions, etc.--_Moniteur +des Inventions Industrielles._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BULL OPTOMETER. + + +Dr. Javal has just presented to the Academy of Medicine a very +ingenious and practical optometer devised by George J. Bull, a young +American doctor, after a number of researches made at the laboratory +of ophthalmology at the Sorbonne. Among other applications that can be +made of it, there is one that is quite original and that will insure +it some success in the world. It permits, in fact, of approximately +deducing the age of a person from certain data that it furnishes as to +his or her sight. As well known, the organs become weak with age, +their functions are accomplished with less regularity and precision, +and, according to the expression of the poet, + + "_En marchant a la mort, on meurt a chaque pas,_" + +the senses become blunted, the hearing becomes dull, the eyes lose +their luster, vivacity, and strength, and vision becomes in general +shorter, less piercing, and less powerful. + +The various parts of the eye, but more particularly the crystalline +lens, undergo modifications in form and structure. Accommodation is +effected with more and more difficulty, and, toward the age of sixty, +it can hardly be effected at all. + +These changes occur in emmetropics as well as in hypermetropics and +myopics. + +As will be seen, then, there is a relation between the age of a +person and the amplitude of the accommodation of his eyes. If we +cannot express a law, we can at least, through statistics, find out, +approximately, the age of a person if we know the extent of the +accommodation of his eyes. + +A Dutch oculist, Donders, has got up a table in which, opposite the +amplitudes, the corresponding ages are found. Now, the Javal-Bull +optometer permits of a quick determination of the value of the +amplitude of accommodation in _dioptries_. (A dioptrie is the power of +a lens whose focal distance is one meter.) + +The first idea of this apparatus is due to the illustrious physicist +Thomas Young, who flourished about a century ago. The Young apparatus +is now a scarcely known scientific curiosity that Messrs. Javal and +Bull have resuscitated and transformed and completed. + +It consists of a light wooden rule about 24 inches long by 11/4 inch +wide that can easily be held in the hand by means of a handle fixed at +right angles with the flat part (Fig. 1). At one extremity there is a +square thin piece of metal of the width of the rule, and at right +angles with the latter, but on the side opposite the handle. This +piece of metal contains a circular aperture a few hundredths of an +inch in diameter (Fig. 3). Toward this aperture there may be moved +either a converging lens of five dioptries or a diverging lens of the +same diameter, but of six dioptries. + +[Illustration: FIG 1.--MODE OF USING THE BULL OPTOMETER] + +On holding the apparatus by the handle and putting the eye to the +aperture, provided or not with a lens, we see a series of dominoes +extending along the rule, from the double ace, which occupies the +extremity most distant from the eye, to the double six, which is very +near the eye (Fig. 2). The numbers from two to twelve, simply, are +indicated, but this original means of representing them has been +chosen in order to call attention to them better. + +[Illustration: FIG 2.--THE RULE, WITH THE DOMINOES (1/4 Actual +Size.) ] + +Figures are characters without physiognomy, if we may so express +ourselves, while the spots on the dominoes take particular +arrangements according to the number represented, and differentiate +themselves more clearly from each other than figures do. They are at +the same time more easily read than figures or regularly spaced dots. +Now, it is very important to fix the attention upon the numbers, since +they are arranged at distances expressed in dioptries and indicated by +the number of the spots. On looking through the aperture, we see in +the first place one of the dominoes more distinctly than the rest. +Then, on endeavoring to see those that are nearer or farther off, we +succeed in accommodating the eye and in seeing the numbers that +express the extreme terms of the accommodation, and consequently the +amplitude. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--DETAILS OF EYE PIECE.] + +Let us now take some examples: If we wish to express in dioptries the +myopia of a person, we put the apparatus in his hand, and ask him to +place his eye very near the aperture and note the number of spots on +the most distant domino that he sees distinctly. This is the number +sought. If the observation be made through the upper lens, it will be +necessary to subtract five from the number obtained; if, on the +contrary, the other lens is used, it will be necessary to add six. + +If it is a question of a presbyope, let him look with his spectacles, +and note the nearest domino seen distinctly. This will be the number +of dioptries expressing the nearest point at which he can read. This +number permits us to know whether it is necessary to add or subtract +dioptries in order to allow him to read nearer by or farther off. If, +for example, he sees the deuce and the ace distinctly, say 3 dioptries +or 0.33 meter, and we want to allow him to read at 0.25 meter, +corresponding to four dioptries, it will be necessary to increase the +power of his spectacles by one dioptrie. + +Upon the whole, Dr. Bull's optometer permits of measuring the +amplitude of accommodation, and, consequently, of obtaining the +approximate age of people, of knowing the extreme distances of the +accommodation, and of quickly finding the number of the glass +necessary for each one. It reveals the defects in the accommodation, +and serves for the quick determination of refraction. So, in saying +that this little instrument is very ingenious and very practical, Dr. +Javal has used no exaggeration.--_La Nature._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SANITATION OF TOWNS.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Abstract from the presidential address delivered + before the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and + Surveyors, at the annual meeting in Leicester, July 18, 1887.] + +By Mr. J. GORDON, C.E. + + +The average mortality for England and Wales was 22.4 in 1838, and in +1886 19.3, which shows a saving on last year's population of England +and Wales of 86,400 lives annually, and a saving in suffering from an +estimated number of about 1,728,000 cases of sickness. To accomplish +all this, vast sums of money have been expended, probably not always +wisely, inasmuch as there have been mistakes made in this direction, +as in all new developments of science when applied in practice, and +evils have arisen which, if foreseen at all at the outset, were +underrated. + +The great object of the public health act, 1848, was to enable local +authorities by its adoption to properly sewer, drain, and cleanse +their towns, and to provide efficient supplies of water, free from +contamination and impurities dangerous to health. The raising of money +by loans repayable in a series of years, which the act empowered, +enabled all these objects to be accomplished, and, while the first +duty of local authorities was undoubtedly the provision of a good +supply of water and proper sewerage for the removal of liquid filth +from the immediate vicinity of inhabited dwellings, the carrying out +of proper works for the latter object has been of much slower growth +than the former. Private companies led the way, in fact, in providing +supplies of water, inasmuch as there was a prospect of the works +becoming remunerative to shareholders investing their money in them; +and in nearly every instance where local authorities have eventually +found it to be in the interests of the inhabitants of their districts +to purchase the work, they have had to pay high prices for the +undertaking. This has generally led to a great deal of dissatisfaction +with companies holding such works, but it must not be forgotten that +the companies would, in most instances, never have had any existence +if the local authorities had taken the initiative, and that but for +the companies this great boon of a pure supply of water would most +probably have been long delayed to many large as well as small +communities. + +The evils which have arisen from the sewering and draining of towns +have been of a twofold character. First, in the increased pollution of +rivers and streams into which the sewage, in the earlier stages of +these works, was poured without any previous treatment; and secondly, +in the production of sewer gas, which up to the present moment seems +so difficult to deal with. These concomitant evils and difficulties +attending the execution of sanitary works are in no way to be +underrated, but it still remains the first duty of town authorities to +remove, as quickly as possible, all liquid and other refuse from the +midst and immediate vicinity of large populations, before putrefaction +has had time to take place. + +There are some minds whose course of reasoning seems to lead them to +the conclusion that the evils attending the introduction of modern +systems of sewerage are greater than those of the old methods of +dealing with town sewage and refuse, but the facts are against them to +such an extent that it would be difficult to point to a responsible +medical officer in the kingdom who would be courageous enough to +advocate a return to the old regime of cesspools, privy ashpits, open +ditches, and flat bottomed culverts. The introduction of earth closets +as one of the safeguards against sewer gas has made no headway for +large populations, and is beset with practical difficulties. + +In the Midland and Lancashire towns the system known as the pail or +tub system has been much more largely introduced as a substitute for +the water closet, and it has, from a landlord's point of view, many +attractions. In the first place, the first cost, as compared with that +of a water closet, is very small, and the landlord is relieved for +ever afterward I believe, in most towns, of all future costs and +maintenance; whereas, in the case of water closets, there is +undoubtedly great difficulty in cottage property in keeping them in +good working order, especially during the frosts of winter. There are, +however, many objections to the pail system, which it is not proposed +to touch upon in this address, beyond this, that it appears to be a +costly appendage to the water carriage system, without the expected +corresponding advantage of relieving the municipal authorities of any +of the difficulties of river pollution, inasmuch as the remaining +liquid refuse of the town has still to be dealt with by the modern +systems of precipitation or irrigation, at practically the same cost +as would have been the case if the water carriage system had been +adopted in its entirety. + +The rivers pollution act gave an impetus to works for the treatment of +sewage, although much had been done prior to that, and Leicester was +one of those towns which led the way so early as 1854 in precipitating +the solids of the sewage before allowing it to enter the river. The +innumerable methods which have since then been tried, and after large +expenditures of money have proved to be failures, show the +difficulties of the question. + +On the whole, however, sewage farms, or a combination of the chemical +system with irrigation or intermittent filtration, have been the most +successful, so that the first evil to which the cleansing of towns by +the increased pollution of rivers gave rise may now be said to be +capable of satisfactory solution, notwithstanding that the old battle +of the systems of precipitation versus application of sewage to land +still wages whenever opportunity occurs. + +The second evil to which I have made reference, viz., that of sewer +ventilation, seems still unsolved, and I would earnestly entreat +members, all of whom have more or less opportunities of experimenting +and making observations of the behavior of sewer gas under certain +conditions, to direct their attention to this subject. It is admitted +on all hands that the sewers must be ventilated--that is, that there +must be a means of escape for the polluted air of the sewers; for it +is well known that the conditions prevailing within the sewers during +the twenty-four hours of the day are very varying, and on this subject +the early observations of the late medical officer for the City of +London (Dr. Letheby), and the present engineer for the City of London +(Lieutenant-Colonel Heywood), and the still more recent investigations +of Professor Pettenkofer, of Munich, Professor Soyka, of Prague, and +our own members, Mr. McKie, of Carlisle, Mr. Read, of Gloucester, and +others, are worthy of attention. It does not, however, seem to be so +readily or universally conceded that a plentiful supply of fresh air +is of equal importance, and that the great aim and object of sewer +ventilation should be the introduction of atmospheric air for the +purpose of diluting and oxidizing the air of the sewers, and the +creation of a current to some exit, which shall, if possible, either +be above the roofs of the houses, or, still better, to some point +where the sewer gas can be cremated. The most recent contribution to +this subject, in direct opposition to these views, is to be found in +the address of Professor Attfield to the Hertfordshire Natural History +Society and Field Club, in which it is laid down that all that is +necessary is a vent at an elevation above the ground, and that, +therefore, the surface ventilators, or other openings for the +introduction of fresh air, are not only not necessary, but are, on the +contrary, injurious, even when acting as downcast shafts. + +These aims and objects are beset with difficulties, and the most +scientific minds of the country have failed so far to devise a method +of ventilation which shall at the same time be within the range of +practical application as regards cost and universally satisfactory. + +The report of last year of a committee of the metropolitan board of +works is worth attention, as showing the opinion of metropolitan +surveyors. Out of forty districts, the opinions of whose surveyors +were taken, thirty-five were in favor of open ventilation, two were +doubtful, two against, and one had no experience in this matter. The +average distances of the ventilators were from 30 to 200 yards, and +the committee came to the conclusion that "pipe ventilators of large +section can be used with great advantage in addition to, and not in +substitution for, surface ventilators." To supplement the street +openings as much as possible with vertical cast iron or other shafts +up the house sides would seem to be the first thing to do, for there +can be no doubt that the more this is done, the more perfect will be +the ventilation of the sewers. It must also not be forgotten that the +anxiety, of late years, of English sanitarians to protect each house +from the possible dangers of sewer gas from the street sewer has led +to a system of so-called disconnection of the house drains by a water +seal or siphon trap, and that, consequently, the soil pipes of the +houses, which, when carried through the roofs, acted as ventilators to +the public sewers, have been lost for this purpose, and thus the +difficulty of sewer ventilation has been greatly increased. + +In Leicester we have been fortunate enough to secure the co-operation +of factory owners, who have allowed us to connect no fewer than +fifty-two chimneys; while we have already carried out, at a cost of +about L1,250, 146 special shafts up the house sides, with a locked +opening upon a large number of them, by means of which we can test the +velocity of the current as well as the temperature of the outflowing +air. The connections with the high factory chimneys are all of too +small a caliber to be of great use, being generally only six inches, +with a few exceptionally of nine inches in diameter. + +The radius of effect of specially erected chimneys, as shown by the +experiments of Sir Joseph Bazalgette, and as experienced with the +special ventilating towers erected at Frankfurt, is disappointing and +discouraging when the cost is taken into consideration. It can not be +expected, however, that manufacturers will admit larger connections to +be made with their chimney; otherwise, of course, much more +satisfactory results would be obtained. To fall back upon special +shafts up the house sides means, in my opinion, that there should be +probably as many in number as are represented by the soil pipes of the +houses, for in this we have a tested example at Frankfurt, which, so +far as I know, has up to the present moment proved eminently +satisfactory. + +The distance apart of such shafts would largely depend on the size of +them, but as a rule it will be found that house owners object to large +pipes, in which case the number must be increased, and if we take a +distance of about 30 yards, we should require about 5,000 such shafts +in Leicester. Whether some artificial means of inducing currents in +sewers by drawing down fresh air from shafts above the eaves of the +houses, and sending forth the diluted sewer gas to still higher +levels, or burning it in an outcast shaft, will take the place of +natural ventilation, and prove to be less costly and more certain in +its action, remains to be seen. But it is quite certain that +notwithstanding the patents which have already been taken out and +failed, and those now before the public, there is still a wide field +of research before this question is satisfactorily solved, so that no +cause whatever shall remain of complaint on the part of the most +fastidious. + +One other important question common to all towns is that of the +collection and disposal of the ashes and refuse of the households. It +is one which is becoming daily more difficult to deal with, especially +in those large communities where the old privy and ashpit system has +not been entirely abolished. The removal of such ashes is at all times +a source of nuisance, and if they cannot be disposed of to the +agriculturists of the district, they become a source of difficulty. In +purely water-closeted towns the so-called dry ashpits cannot be kept +in such a condition as to be entirely free from nuisance, especially +in the summer months, inasmuch as the refuse of vegetable and animal +matter finds its way into them, and they are, in close and inhabited +districts, necessarily too close to the living apartments of the +dwellings. The tendency therefore now is rather to discourage the +establishment of ashpits by the substitution of ashbins, to be +collected daily or weekly as the case may be, and I think there can be +no doubt that from a sanitary point of view this is by far the best +system, harmonizing as it does with the general principle applicable +to town sanitation of removing all refuse, likely by decomposition to +become dangerous to health, as quickly as possible from the precincts +of human habitations. + +The difficulty of disposing of the ashes, mixed as they must +necessarily be with animal and vegetable matter, is one that is +forcing itself upon the attention of all town authorities, and the +days of the rich dust contractors of the metropolis are practically +numbered. Destruction by fire seems to be the ultimate end to be aimed +at, and in this respect several towns have led the way. But as this is +a subject which will be fully dealt with by a paper to be read during +the meeting, I will not anticipate the information which will be +brought before you, further than to say that the great end to be aimed +at in this method of disposing of the ashes and refuse of towns is +greater economy in cost of construction of destructors, as well as in +cost of working them. + +The progress in sanitation on the Continent, America, and the colonies +has not been coincident with the progress in England, but these +countries have largely benefited by the experience of the United +Kingdom, and in some respects their specialists take more extreme +views than those of this country in matters of detail. This is, +perhaps, more particularly the case with the Americans, who have +devised all sorts of exceptional details in connection with private +drainage, in order to protect the interior of the houses from sewer +gas, and to perfect its ventilation. In plumbing matters they seem +also to be very advanced, and to have established examinations for +plumbers and far-reaching regulations for house drainage. + +Time will not permit me to examine into the works of a sanitary +character which have been undertaken in the several countries after +the example of England, but they have been attended with similar +beneficial results and saving in life and sickness as in this country, +although the Continental towns which have led the way with such works +cannot as yet point to the low rates of mortality for large towns +which have been attained in England, with the exception of the German +towns of Carlsruhe, Frankfurt, Wiesbaden, and Stuttgart, which show +death rates of 20.55, 20.64, 22, and 21.4 respectively. The greatest +reduction of the mortality by the execution of proper sewerage and +water works took place in Danzig, on the Baltic, and Linz, on the +Danube, where after the execution of the works the mortality was +reduced by 7.85 and 10.17 per 1,000 respectively, and in the case of +Danzig this reduction is almost exclusively in zymotic diseases. +Berlin is also a remarkable example of the enterprise of German +sanitarians, for there they are demonstrating to the world the +practicability of dealing with the sewage from a population of over 11/4 +million upon 16,000 acres of land, of which about 10,000 acres are +already under irrigation. + +In taking this chair, it has been usual, when meetings have been held +out of London, for your president to give some account of the works of +his own town. In the present instance I feel that I can dispense with +this course, in so far as that I need not do more than generally +indicate what has been the course of events since I read to a largely +attended district meeting in May, 1884, a paper on "The Public Works +of Leicester." At that time large flood prevention works were in +course of construction, under an act obtained in 1881, for continuing +the river improvement works executed under previous acts. The works +then under contract extended from the North Mill Lock and the North +Bridge on the north to the West Bridge and Bramstone Gate Bridge on +the south, along the river and canal, and included bridges, weirs, +retaining walls, and some heavy underpinning works in connection with +the widening and deepening of the river and canal. These works were +duly completed, as well as a further length of works on the River Soar +up to what is known as the old grass weir, including the Braunstone +Gate Bridge, added to one of the then running contracts, at a total +cost, excluding land and compensation, of L77,000. At this point a +halt was made in consequence of the incompleteness of the negotiations +with the land owners on the upper reach of the river, and this, +together with various other circumstances, has contributed to greater +delay in again resuming the works. In the interval, a question of +whether there should be only one channel for both river and canal +instead of two, as authorized by the act, has necessarily added +considerably to the delay. But as that has now been settled in favor +of the original parliamentary scheme, the authority of the council has +been given to proceed with the whole of the works. + +One contract, now in progress, which members will have an opportunity +of inspecting, was let to Mr. Evans, of Birmingham, in March last, for +about L18,000. It consists of a stone and concrete weir, 500 feet in +length, with a lock of 7 feet 6 inches lift and large flood basins, +retaining and towing path walls, including a sunk weir parallel with +the Midland Railway viaduct. This contract is to be completed by March +next. The remainder of the works about to be entered upon include a +new canal and flood channel about 1,447 yards long, and the deepening +and widening of the River Soar for a length of about 920 yards, with +two or three bridges. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COTTON FIBER. + +By Dr. BOWMAN. + + +Every chemist knows that cotton is chiefly composed of cellulose, +C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}, with some other substances in smaller quantities. +This, although the usual opinion, is only true in a partial sense, as +the author found on investigating samples of cotton from various +sources. Thus, while mere cellulose contains carbon 44.44 per cent. +and hydrogen 6.173, he found in Surat cotton 7.6 per cent. of +hydrogen, in American cotton 6.3 per cent., and in Egyptian cotton 7.2 +per cent. The fact is that along with cellulose in ordinary cotton +there are a number of celluloid bodies derived from the inspissated +juices of the cotton plant. + +In order to gain information on this subject, the author has grown +cotton under glass, and analyzed it at various stages of its life +history. In the early stage of unripeness he has found an astringent +substance in the fiber. This substance disappears as the plant ripens, +and seems to closely resemble some forms of tannin. Doubtless the +presence of this body in cotton put upon the market in an unripe +condition may account for certain dark stains sometimes appearing in +the finished calicoes. The tannin matter forms dark stains with any +compound or salt of iron, and is a great bugbear to the manufacturer. +Some years ago there was quite a panic because of the prevalence of +these stains, and people in Yorkshire began to think the spinners were +using some new or inferior kind of oil. Dr. Bowman made inquiries, and +found that in Egypt during that year the season had been very foggy +and unfavorable to the ripening of the cotton, and it seemed probable +that these tannin-like matters were present in the fiber, and led to +the disastrous results. + +Although the hydrogen and oxygen present in pure cellulose are in the +same relative proportions as in water, they do not exist as water in +the compound. There is, however, in cotton a certain amount of water +present in a state of loose combination with the cellulose, and the +celluloid bodies previously referred to appear to contain water +similarly combined, but in greater proportion. Oxycellulose is another +body present in the cotton fiber. It is a triple cellulose, in which +four atoms of hydrogen are replaced by one atom of oxygen, and like +cellulose forms nitro compounds analogous to nitro glycerine. It is +probable that the presence of this oxycellulose has a marked influence +upon the behavior of cotton, especially with dye matters. The earthy +substances in cotton are also of importance. These are potassium +carbonate, chloride, and sulphate, with similar sodium salts, and +these vary in different samples of cotton, and possibly influence its +properties to some extent. Then there are oily matters in the young +fiber which, upon its ripening, become the waxy matter which Dr. +Schunk has investigated. Resin also is present, and having a high +melting point is not removed by the manipulative processes that cotton +is subjected to. When this is in excessive amount, it comes to the +surface of the goods after dyeing. + + * * * * * + + + + +SYNTHESIS OF STYROLENE. + + +MM. Vabet and Vienne, in a recent number of _Comptes Rendus_, state +that by passing a current of acetylene through 200 grammes of benzene +containing 50 grammes of aluminum chloride for 30 hours the oily +liquid remaining after removal of the unaltered aluminum chloride by +washing was found to yield, on fractional distillation, three distinct +products. The first, which came over between 143 deg. and 145 deg., and which +amounted to 80 per cent. of the whole, consisted of pure cinnamene or +styrolene (C_{6}H_{5}.CH.CH_{2}), which is one of the principal +constituents of liquid storax, and was synthetized by M. Berthelot by +passing acetylene and benzene vapor through a tube heated to redness. +The second fraction, coming over at 265 deg.-270 deg., consisted of diphenyl +ethane ((C_{6}H_{5})_{2} CH.CH_{3}); and the third fraction, boiling +at 280 deg.-286 deg., was found to consist entirely of dibenzyl +(C_{6}H_{5}.CH_{2}.CH_{2}.C_{6}H_{5}), a solid substance isomeric with +diphenyl ethane. These syntheses afford another instance of the +singular action of aluminum chloride in attacking the benzene nucleus. + + * * * * * + + + + +NOTES ON SACCHARIN. + +By EDWARD D. GRAVILL, F.C.S., F.R.M.S. + + +Now that a supply of this reputed substitute for sugar has been placed +upon the London market, it will doubtless have attracted the attention +of many pharmacists, and as information having reference to its +characters and properties is as yet somewhat scarce, the following +notes may be of interest. + +The sample to which these notes refer represents, I believe, a portion +of the first supply that has been offered to us as a commercial +article, and may therefore be taken to represent the same as it at +present occurs in commerce. I think it desirable to call attention to +this fact, because of the wide difference I have seen in other samples +obtained, I think, by special request some weeks ago, and which do not +favorably correspond with the sample under consideration, being much +more highly colored, and in comparison having a very strong odor. +Saccharin now occurs as a very pale yellow, nearly white, amorphous +powder, free from grittiness, but giving a distinct sensation of +roughness when rubbed between the fingers. It is not entirely free +from odor, but this is very slight, and not at all objectionable, +reminding one of a very slight flavor of essential oils of almonds. +Its taste is intensely sweet and persistent, which in the raw state is +followed by a slight harshness upon the tongue and palate. The +sweetness is very distinct when diluted to 1 in 10,000. Under the +microscope it presents no definite form of crystallization. + +A temperature of 100 deg. C, even if continued for some time, has no +perceptible effect upon saccharin; it loses no weight, and undergoes +no physical change. It fuses at a temperature of from 118 deg. to 120 deg. C., +and at 150 deg. C. forms a clear light yellow liquid, which boils a few +degrees higher. At the latter temperature dense white fumes appear, +and a condensation of tufts of acicular crystals (some well defined) +is found upon the cool surface of the apparatus. These crystals, +except for a slight sweetness of taste, correspond in characters and +tests to benzoic acid. The sweet flavor, I think, may be due to the +presence of a very small quantity of undecomposed saccharin, carried +mechanically with the fumes. The escaping vapors, which are very +irritable, and give a more decided odor of hydride of benzole than the +powder itself, also communicate a very distinct sensation of sweetness +to the back part of the palate. Heated over the flame, with free +access of air, saccharin carbonizes and burns with a dull yellow smoky +flame, leaving a residue amounting to 0.65 per cent. of sodium salts. +It does not reduce an alkaline copper solution, but, like glycerine, +liberates boracic acid from borax, the latter salt dissolving +saccharin readily in aqueous solution, due no doubt to a displacement +of the boracic acid. + +The strong acids, either hot or cold, show no characteristic color +reaction; the compound enters solution at the boiling point of the +acid, and in the case of hydrochloric shows a white granular +separation on cooling. Sulphuric acid develops an uncharacteristic +light brown color. + +The compound, like most of the organic acids, shows a characteristic +reaction with ferro and ferrid cyanide of potassium. In the former +case no change is perceptible until boiled when a greenish white +turbidity appears, with the liberation of small quantities of +hydrocyanic acid. In the latter case a trace also of this acid is set +free, with the formation of a very distinct green solution, the latter +reaction being very perceptible with a few drops of a 1 in 1,000 +solution of saccharin in water. Heated with lime, very distinct odors +of benzoic aldehyde are developed. + +Saccharin possesses very decided acid properties, and combines readily +with alkalies or alkaline carbonates, forming anhydro-ortho +sulphamine-benzoates of the same, in the latter case at the expense of +the carbonic anhydride, causing strong effervescence. These +combinations are very soluble in water, the alkaline carbonate thus +forming a ready medium for the solution of this acid, which alone is +so sparingly soluble. Another advantage of some importance is that, +while the harshness of flavor perceptible in a simple solution of the +acid is destroyed, the great sweetness appears to be distinctly +intensified and refined. + +The following shows the solubility of saccharin in the various liquids +quoted, all, with the exception of the boiling water, being taken at +60 deg. F.: + + Boiling water 0.60 parts per 100 by volume. + Cold water 0.20 " " " + Alcohol 0.800 4.25 " " " + Rectified spirit 0.838 3.20 " " " + Ether 0.717 1.00 " " " + Chloroform 1.49 0.20 " " " + Benzene 0.40 " " " + Petroleum ether insoluble. + +It is also sparingly soluble in glycerin and fixed oils, and to a +greater or less extent in volatile oils. Benzoic aldehyde dissolves +saccharin in large quantities. + +I was somewhat disappointed at the slight solubility of saccharin in +ether, as it has been repeatedly stated to be very soluble in that +liquid. + +The quantity of saccharin required to communicate an agreeable degree +of sweetness, like sugar, differs with the material to be sweetened; +but from half to one and half grains, according to taste, will be +found sufficient for an ordinary breakfast cup full of tea or coffee +infusion.--_Pharm. Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ALCOHOL AND TURPENTINE. + + +In a paper entitled "The Oxidation of Ethyl Alcohol in the Presence of +Turpentine," communicated to the Chemical Society by Mr. C.E. +Steedman, Williamstown, Victoria, the author states that dilute ethyl +alcohol in the presence of air and turpentine becomes oxidized to +acetic acid. He placed in a clear glass 16 oz. bottle a mixture of 2 +drachms of alcohol, 1 drachm of turpentine, and 1 oz. of water. The +bottle was securely corked and left exposed to a varying temperature +averaging about 80 deg. F. for three months. At the end of that time the +liquid was strongly acid from the presence of acetic acid. One curious +fact appears to have light thrown upon it by this observation. + +Mr. McAlpine, Professor of Biology at Ormond College, Melbourne +University, has a method of preserving biological specimens by +abstracting their moisture with alcohol after hardening in chromic +acid, and then placing the specimen in turpentine for some time; great +discrepancies arise, however, according as the alcohol is allowed or +not to evaporate from the specimen before dipping it into turpentine. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN + +ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION. + +$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts. + +This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued +monthly--on the first day of the month. 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