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diff --git a/16136-h/16136-h.htm b/16136-h/16136-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7081a4a --- /dev/null +++ b/16136-h/16136-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5180 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of American Addresses, with a Lecture on the Study of Biology, by Thomas Henry Huxley</title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 65%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + hr.short {width: 45%;} + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + img {border: 0;} + .toc {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;} /* page numbers */ + .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em; + float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em; + font-size: smaller; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;} + + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center; } + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span {display: block; margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + hr.full { width: 100%; } + pre {font-size: 8pt;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, American Addresses, with a Lecture on the +Study of Biology, by Thomas Henry Huxley</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: American Addresses, with a Lecture on the Study of Biology</p> +<p>Author: Thomas Henry Huxley</p> +<p>Release Date: June 26, 2005 [eBook #16136]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN ADDRESSES, WITH A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3>E-text prepared by Clare Boothby, Jeremy Weatherford,<br /> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (https://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<!-- [Page: 002] --> +<p> </p> +<h1>AMERICAN ADDRESSES,</h1> + +<h2>WITH A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY.</h2> + +<h3>BY THOMAS H. HUXLEY.</h3> + +<p> </p> +<div style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-indent: 1em;"> +<p>"Naturæ leges et regulæ, secundum quas omnia fiunt et ex unis +formis in alias mutantur, sunt ubique et semper eadem."<br /> +<span style="display:block; margin-left: 4em">B. De Spinoza, <i>Ethices</i>, Pars tertia, Præfatio.</span></p></div> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p class="center">London:<br /> +MACMILLAN AND CO.<br /> +<br /> +1877</p> + +<!-- [Page: 003] --> +<p> </p> + +<p class="center"><small>LONDON:<br /> +R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,<br /> +BREAD STREET HILL,<br /> +QUEEN VICTORIA STREET.</small></p> + +<!-- [Page: 004] --> +<hr /> +<h3>CONTENTS.</h3> + +<div class="toc"> +<p>I. <a href="#NEWYORK"><b>THREE LECTURES ON EVOLUTION.</b></a> (New York, September 18, 20, 22, 1876).</p> + <div class="toc"> + <p><a href="#LECTURE_I"><b>LECTURE I.</b></a> <span class="smcap">The Three Hypotheses respecting The History of Nature</span></p> + + <p><a href="#LECTURE_II"><b>LECTURE II.</b></a> <span class="smcap">The Hypothesis of Evolution. The Neutral and the Favourable Evidence</span></p> + + <p><a href="#LECTURE_III"><b>LECTURE III.</b></a> <span class="smcap">The Demonstrative Evidence of Evolution</span></p> + </div> + + <p>II. <a href="#BALTIMORE"><b>AN ADDRESS ON THE OCCASION OF THE OPENING OF THE JOHN HOPKINS UNIVERSITY</b></a> (Baltimore, September 12, 1876)</p> + + <p>III. <a href="#LONDON"><b>A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY, IN CONNECTION WITH THE LOAN COLLECTION OF SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS.</b></a> (South Kensington Museum, December 16, 1876)</p> +</div> + +<!-- [Page: 005] --> + +<hr /> +<h2>NEW YORK.</h2> +<h1><a name="NEWYORK" id="NEWYORK"></a>LECTURES ON EVOLUTION.</h1> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_I" id="LECTURE_I"></a>LECTURE I.</h2> + +<h3>THE THREE HYPOTHESES RESPECTING THE +HISTORY OF NATURE.</h3> + + +<p>We live in and form part of a system of things +of immense diversity and perplexity, which we call +Nature; and it is a matter of the deepest interest +to all of us that we should form just conceptions +of the constitution of that system and of its past +history. With relation to this universe, man is, +in extent, little more than a mathematical point; in +duration but a fleeting shadow; he is a mere reed +shaken in the winds of force. But, as Pascal long +ago remarked, although a mere reed, he is a thinking +reed; and in virtue of that wonderful capacity of +thought, he has the power of framing for himself a +symbolic conception of the universe, which, although +doubtless highly imperfect and inadequate as a picture +of the great whole, is yet sufficient to serve +<!-- [Page: 008] --> +him as a chart for the guidance of his practical +affairs. It has taken long ages of toilsome and +often fruitless labour to enable man to look steadily +at the shifting scenes of the phantasmagoria of +Nature, to notice what is fixed among her fluctuations, +and what is regular among her apparent +irregularities; and it is only comparatively lately, +within the last few centuries, that the conception +of a universal order and of a definite course of +things, which we term the course of Nature, has +emerged.</p> + +<p>But, once originated, the conception of the constancy +of the order of Nature has become the +dominant idea of modern thought. To any person +who is familiar with the facts upon which that conception +is based, and is competent to estimate their +significance, it has ceased to be conceivable that +chance should have any place in the universe, or +that events should depend upon any but the natural +sequence of cause and effect. We have come to +look upon the present as the child of the past and +as the parent of the future; and, as we have +excluded chance from a place in the universe, so +we ignore, even as a possibility, the notion of any +interference with the order of Nature. Whatever +may be men's speculative doctrines, it is quite +certain, that every intelligent person guides his life +and risks his fortune upon the belief that the order +<!-- [Page: 009] --> +of Nature is constant, and that the chain of natural +causation is never broken.</p> + +<p>In fact, no belief which we entertain has so complete +a logical basis as that to which I have just +referred. It tacitly underlies every process of +reasoning; it is the foundation of every act of the +will. It is based upon the broadest induction, and +it is verified by the most constant, regular, and +universal of deductive processes. But we must +recollect that any human belief, however broad its +basis, however defensible it may seem, is, after all, +only a probable belief, and that our widest and +safest generalizations are simply statements of the +highest degree of probability. Though we are +quite clear about the constancy of the order of +Nature, at the present time, and in the present +state of things, it by no means necessarily follows +that we are justified in expanding this generalisation +into the infinite past, and in denying, absolutely, +that there may have been a time when +Nature did not follow a fixed order, when the +relations of cause and effect were not definite, and +when extra-natural agencies interfered with the +general course of Nature. Cautious men will +allow that a universe so different from that which +we know may have existed; just as a very candid +thinker may admit that a world in which two and +two do not make four, and in which two straight +<!-- [Page: 010] --> +lines do inclose a space, may exist. But the +same caution which forces the admission of such +possibilities demands a great deal of evidence +before it recognises them to be anything more substantial. +And when it is asserted that, so many +thousand years ago, events occurred in a manner +utterly foreign to and inconsistent with the existing +laws of Nature, men, who without being +particularly cautious, are simply honest thinkers, +unwilling to deceive themselves or delude others, +ask for trustworthy evidence of the fact.</p> + +<p>Did things so happen or did they not? This +is a historical question, and one the answer to +which must be sought in the same way as the +solution of any other historical problem.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p>So far as I know, there are only three hypotheses +which ever have been entertained, or which well +can be entertained, respecting the past history of +Nature. I will, in the first place, state the hypotheses, +and then I will consider what evidence +bearing upon them is in our possession, and by +what light of criticism that evidence is to be +interpreted.</p> + +<p>Upon the first hypothesis, the assumption is, that +phenomena of Nature similar to those exhibited by +the present world have always existed; in other +words, that the universe has existed from all +<!-- [Page: 011] --> +eternity in what may be broadly termed its present +condition.</p> + +<p>The second hypothesis is, that the present state +of things has had only a limited duration; and that, +at some period in the past, a condition of the world, +essentially similar to that which we now know, +came into existence, without any precedent condition +from which it could have naturally proceeded. +The assumption that successive states of Nature +have arisen, each without any relation of natural +causation to an antecedent state, is a mere modification +of this second hypothesis.</p> + +<p>The third hypothesis also assumes that the present +state of things has had but a limited duration; +but it supposes that this state has been evolved by +a natural process from an antecedent state, and that +from another, and so on; and, on this hypothesis, +the attempt to assign any limit to the series of +past changes is, usually, given up.</p> + +<p>It is so needful to form clear and distinct notions +of what is really meant by each of these hypotheses +that I will ask you to imagine what, according to +each, would have been visible to a spectator of the +events which constitute the history of the earth. +On the first hypothesis, however far back in time +that spectator might be placed, he would see a +world essentially, though perhaps not in all its +details, similar to that which now exists. The +<!-- [Page: 012] --> +animals which existed would be the ancestors of +those which now live, and similar to them; the +plants, in like manner, would be such as we know; +and the mountains, plains, and waters would foreshadow +the salient features of our present land and +water. This view was held more or less distinctly, +sometimes combined with the notion of recurrent +cycles of change, in ancient times; and its influence +has been felt down to the present day. It is worthy +of remark that it is a hypothesis which is not inconsistent +with the doctrine of Uniformitarianism, with +which geologists are familiar. That doctrine was +held by Hutton, and in his earlier days by Lyell. +Hutton was struck by the demonstration of astronomers +that the perturbations of the planetary bodies, +however great they may be, yet sooner or later +right themselves; and that the solar system possesses +a self-adjusting power by which these aberrations +are all brought back to a mean condition. +Hutton imagined that the like might be true of +terrestrial changes; although no one recognised +more clearly than he the fact that the dry land is +being constantly washed down by rain and rivers +and deposited in the sea; and that thus, in a longer +or shorter time, the inequalities of the earth's surface +must be levelled, and its high lands brought +down to the ocean. But, taking into account the +internal forces of the earth, which, upheaving the +<!-- [Page: 013] --> +sea-bottom give rise to new land, he thought that +these operations of degradation and elevation might +compensate each other; and that thus, for any +assignable time, the general features of our planet +might remain what they are. And inasmuch as, +under these circumstances, there need be no limit +to the propagation of animals and plants, it is +clear that the consistent working-out of the uniformitarian +idea might lead to the conception of the +eternity of the world. Not that I mean to say +that either Hutton or Lyell held this conception—assuredly +not; they would have been the first to +repudiate it. Nevertheless, the logical development +of their arguments tends directly towards this +hypothesis.</p> + +<p>The second hypothesis supposes that the present +order of things, at some no very remote time, had +a sudden origin, and that the world, such as it +now is, had chaos for its phenomenal antecedent. +That is the doctrine which you will find +stated most fully and clearly in the immortal poem +of John Milton—the English <i>Divina Commedia—Paradise +Lost</i>. I believe it is largely to the influence +of that remarkable work, combined with the +daily teachings to which we have all listened in +our childhood, that this hypothesis owes its general +wide diffusion as one of the current beliefs of +English-speaking people. If you turn to the +<!-- [Page: 014] --> +seventh book of <i>Paradise Lost</i>, you will find there +stated the hypothesis to which I refer, which is +briefly this: That this visible universe of ours came +into existence at no great distance of time from the +present; and that the parts of which it is composed +made their appearance, in a certain definite order, +in the space of six natural days, in such a manner +that, on the first of these days, light appeared; that, +on the second, the firmament, or sky, separated the +waters above, from the waters beneath the firmament; +that, on the third day, the waters drew away +from the dry land, and upon it a varied vegetable +life, similar to that which now exists, made its appearance; +that the fourth day was signalised by the +apparition of the sun, the stars, the moon, and the +planets; that, on the fifth day, aquatic animals +originated within the waters; that, on the sixth +day, the earth gave rise to our four-footed terrestrial +creatures, and to all varieties of terrestrial +animals except birds, which had appeared on the +preceding day; and, finally, that man appeared upon +the earth, and the emergence of the universe from +chaos was finished. Milton tells us, without the +least ambiguity, what a spectator of these marvellous +occurrences would have witnessed. I doubt +not that his poem is familiar to all of you, but I +should like to recall one passage to your minds, in +order that I may be justified in what I have said +<!-- [Page: 015] --> +regarding the perfectly concrete, definite picture of +the origin of the animal world which Milton draws. +He says:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span>"The sixth, and of creation last, arose<br /></span> +<span>With evening harps and matin, when God said,<br /></span> +<span>'Let the earth bring forth soul living in her kind,<br /></span> +<span>Cattle and creeping things, and beast of the earth,<br /></span> +<span>Each in their kind!' The earth obeyed, and, straight<br /></span> +<span>Opening her fertile womb, teemed at a birth<br /></span> +<span>Innumerous living creatures, perfect forms,<br /></span> +<span>Limbed and full-grown. Out of the ground uprose,<br /></span> +<span>As from his lair, the wild beast, where he wons<br /></span> +<span>In forest wild, in thicket, brake, or den;<br /></span> +<span>Among the trees in pairs they rose, they walked;<br /></span> +<span>The cattle in the fields and meadows green;<br /></span> +<span>Those rare and solitary; these in flocks<br /></span> +<span>Pasturing at once, and in broad herds upsprung.<br /></span> +<span>The grassy clods now calved; now half appears<br /></span> +<span>The tawny lion, pawing to get free<br /></span> +<span>His hinder parts—then springs, as broke from bonds,<br /></span> +<span>And rampant shakes his brinded mane; the ounce,<br /></span> +<span>The libbard, and the tiger, as the mole<br /></span> +<span>Rising, the crumbled earth above them threw<br /></span> +<span>In hillocks; the swift stag from underground<br /></span> +<span>Bore up his branching head; scarce from his mould<br /></span> +<span>Behemoth, biggest born of earth, upheaved<br /></span> +<span>His vastness; fleeced the flocks and bleating rose<br /></span> +<span>As plants; ambiguous between sea and land,<br /></span> +<span>The river-horse and scaly crocodile.<br /></span> +<span>At once came forth whatever creeps the ground,<br /></span> +<span>Insect or worm."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>There is no doubt as to the meaning of this +statement, nor as to what a man of Milton's genius +expected would have been actually visible to an +eye-witness of this mode of origination of living +things. +<!-- [Page: 016] --></p> + +<p>The third hypothesis, or the hypothesis of evolution, +supposes that, at any comparatively late period +of past time, our imaginary spectator would meet +with a state of things very similar to that which now +obtains; but that the likeness of the past to the present +would gradually become less and less, in proportion +to the remoteness of his period of observation +from the present day; that the existing distribution +of mountains and plains, of rivers and seas, would +show itself to be the product of a slow process +of natural change operating upon more and more +widely different antecedent conditions of the mineral +framework of the earth; until, at length, in place +of that framework, he would behold only a vast +nebulous mass, representing the constituents of the +sun and of the planetary bodies. Preceding the +forms of life which now exist, our observer would +see animals and plants not identical with them, but +like them; increasing their differences with their +antiquity and, at the same time, becoming simpler +and simpler; until, finally, the world of life would +present nothing but that undifferentiated protoplasmic +matter which, so far as our present knowledge goes, +is the common foundation of all vital activity.</p> + +<p>The hypothesis of evolution supposes that in all +this vast progression there would be no breach of +continuity, no point at which we could say "This +a natural process," and "This is not a natural +<!-- [Page: 017] --> +process;" but that the whole might be compared to +that wonderful process of development which may +be seen going on every day under our eyes, in +virtue of which there arises, out of the semi-fluid, +comparatively homogeneous substance which we call +an egg, the complicated organization of one of the +higher animals. That, in a few words, is what is +meant by the hypothesis of evolution.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p>I have already suggested that in dealing with +these three hypotheses, in endeavouring to form a +judgment as to which of them is the more worthy +of belief, or whether none is worthy of belief—in +which case our condition of mind should be that +suspension of judgment which is so difficult to all +but trained intellects—we should be indifferent to +all <i>à priori</i> considerations. The question is a +question of historical fact. The universe has come +into existence somehow or other, and the problem +is, whether it came into existence in one fashion, +or whether it came into existence in another; and, +as an essential preliminary to further discussion, +permit me to say two or three words as to the +nature and the kinds of historical evidence.</p> + +<p>The evidence as to the occurrence of any event +in past time may be ranged under two heads which, +for convenience' sake, I will speak of as testimonial +evidence and as circumstantial evidence. By testimonial +<!-- [Page: 018] --> +evidence I mean human testimony; and by +circumstantial evidence I mean evidence which is +not human testimony. Let me illustrate by a +familiar example what I understand by these two +kinds of evidence, and what is to be said respecting +their value.</p> + +<p>Suppose that a man tells you that he saw a +person strike another and kill him; that is testimonial +evidence of the fact of murder. But it is +possible to have circumstantial evidence of the fact +of murder; that is to say, you may find a man +dying with a wound upon his head having exactly +the form and character of the wound which is made +by an axe, and, with due care in taking surrounding +circumstances into account, you may conclude with +the utmost certainty that the man has been murdered; +that his death is the consequence of a blow +inflicted by another man with that implement. We +are very much in the habit of considering circumstantial +evidence as of less value than testimonial +evidence, and it may be that, where the circumstances +are not perfectly clear and intelligible, it is +a dangerous and unsafe kind of evidence; but it +must not be forgotten that, in many cases, circumstantial +is quite as conclusive as testimonial +evidence, and that, not unfrequently, it is a great +deal weightier than testimonial evidence. For example, +take the case to which I referred just now. +<!-- [Page: 019] --> +The circumstantial evidence may be better and +more convincing than the testimonial evidence; for it +may be impossible, under the conditions that I have +defined, to suppose that the man met his death +from any cause but the violent blow of an axe +wielded by another man. The circumstantial evidence +in favour of a murder having been committed, +in that case, is as complete and as convincing +as evidence can be. It is evidence which +is open to no doubt and to no falsification. But +the testimony of a witness is open to multitudinous +doubts. He may have been mistaken. He +may have been actuated by malice. It has constantly +happened that even an accurate man has +declared that a thing has happened in this, that, or +the other way, when a careful analysis of the circumstantial +evidence has shown that it did not +happen in that way, but in some other way.</p> + +<p>We may now consider the evidence in favour +of or against the three hypotheses. Let me first +direct your attention to what is to be said about +the hypothesis of the eternity of the state of things +in which we now live. What will first strike you +is, that it is a hypothesis which, whether true or +false, is not capable of verification by any evidence. +For, in order to obtain either circumstantial or testimonial +evidence sufficient to prove the eternity of +duration of the present state of nature, you must +<!-- [Page: 020] --> +have an eternity of witnesses or an infinity of +circumstances, and neither of these is attainable. +It is utterly impossible that such evidence should +be carried beyond a certain point of time; and all +that could be said, at most, would be, that so far +as the evidence could be traced, there was nothing +to contradict the hypothesis. But when you look, +not to the testimonial evidence—which, considering +the relative insignificance of the antiquity of human +records, might not be good for much in this case—but +to the circumstantial evidence, then you find +that this hypothesis is absolutely incompatible with +such evidence as we have; which is of so plain +and so simple a character that it is impossible in +any way to escape from the conclusions which it +forces upon us.</p> + +<p>You are, doubtless, all aware that the outer substance +of the earth, which alone is accessible to +direct observation, is not of a homogeneous character, +but that it is made up of a number of +layers or strata, the titles of the principal groups of +which are placed upon the accompanying diagram. +Each of these groups represents a number of beds +of sand, of stone, of clay, of slate, and of various +other materials.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="fig1" href="images/g01.jpg"><img src="images/tg01.jpg" alt="FIG. 1.—IDEAL SECTION OF THE CRUST OF THE EARTH." title="FIG. 1.—IDEAL SECTION OF THE CRUST OF THE EARTH." width="235" height="400"/></a><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Ideal Section of the Crust of the Earth.</span> +</div> + +<p>On careful examination, it is found that the +materials of which each of these layers of more +or less hard rock are composed are, for the most +<!-- [Page: 021] --> +part, of the same nature as those which are at present +being formed under known conditions on the +<!-- [Page: 022] --> +surface of the earth. For example, the chalk, which +constitutes a great part of the Cretaceous formation +in some parts of the world, is practically identical +in its physical and chemical characters with a substance +which is now being formed at the bottom +of the Atlantic Ocean, and covers an enormous +area; other beds of rock are comparable with the +sands which are being formed upon sea-shores, +packed together, and so on. Thus, omitting rocks +of igneous origin, it is demonstrable that all these +beds of stone, of which a total of not less than +seventy thousand feet is known, have been formed +by natural agencies, either out of the waste and +washing of the dry land, or else by the accumulation +of the exuviæ of plants and animals. Many +of these strata are full of such exuviæ—the so-called +"fossils." Remains of thousands of species +of animals and plants, as perfectly recognisable as +those of existing forms of life which you meet +with in museums, or as the shells which you pick +up upon the sea-beech, have been imbedded in +the ancient sands, or muds, or limestones, just as +they are being imbedded now, in sandy, or clayey, +or calcareous subaqueous deposits. They furnish +us with a record, the general nature of which cannot +be misinterpreted, of the kinds of things that +have lived upon the surface of the earth during +the time that is registered by this great thickness +<!-- [Page: 023] --> +of stratified rocks. But even a superficial study of +these fossils shows us that the animals and plants +which live at the present time have had only a temporary +duration; for the remains of such modern +forms of life are met with, for the most part, only in +the uppermost or latest tertiaries, and their number +rapidly diminishes in the lower deposits of that +epoch. In the older tertiaries, the places of existing +animals and plants are taken by other forms, as +numerous and diversified as those which live now +in the same localities, but more or less different from +them; in the mesozoic rocks, these are replaced by +others yet more divergent from modern types; and +in the palæozoic formations the contrast is still more +marked. Thus the circumstantial evidence absolutely +negatives the conception of the eternity of +the present condition of things. We can say with +certainty that the present condition of things has +existed for a comparatively short period; and that, +so far as animal and vegetable nature are concerned, +it has been preceded by a different condition. We +can pursue this evidence until we reach the lowest +of the stratified rocks, in which we lose the indications +of life altogether. The hypothesis of the eternity +of the present state of nature may therefore be +put out of court.</p> + +<p>We now come to what I will term Milton's +hypothesis—the hypothesis that the present +<!-- [Page: 024] --> +condition of things has endured for a comparatively +short time; and, at the commencement of that time, +came into existence within the course of six days. +I doubt not that it may have excited some surprise +in your minds that I should have spoken of this as +Milton's hypothesis, rather than that I should have +chosen the terms which are more customary, such as +"the doctrine of creation," or "the Biblical doctrine," +or "the doctrine of Moses," all of which denominations, +as applied to the hypothesis to which I have +just referred, are certainly much more familiar to +you than the title of the Miltonic hypothesis. But +I have had what I cannot but think are very +weighty reasons for taking the course which I have +pursued. In the first place, I have discarded the +title of the "doctrine of creation," because my +present business is not with the question why +the objects which constitute Nature came into existence, +but when they came into existence, and in +what order. This is as strictly a historical question +as the question when the Angles and the Jutes invaded +England, and whether they preceded or followed +the Romans. But the question about creation +is a philosophical problem, and one which cannot +be solved, or even approached, by the historical +method. What we want to learn is, whether the +facts, so far as they are known, afford evidence that +things arose in the way described by Milton, or +<!-- [Page: 025] --> +whether they do not; and, when that question is +settled, it will be time enough to inquire into the +causes of their origination.</p> + +<p>In the second place, I have not spoken of this +doctrine as the Biblical doctrine. It is quite true +that persons as diverse in their general views as +Milton the Protestant and the celebrated Jesuit +Father Suarez, each put upon the first chapter of +Genesis the interpretation embodied in Milton's +poem. It is quite true that this interpretation is +that which has been instilled into every one of us +in our childhood; but I do not for one moment +venture to say that it can properly be called the +Biblical doctrine. It is not my business, and does +not lie within my competency, to say what the +Hebrew text does, and what it does not signify; +moreover, were I to affirm that this is the Biblical +doctrine, I should be met by the authority of many +eminent scholars, to say nothing of men of science, +who, at various times, have absolutely denied that +any such doctrine is to be found in Genesis. If we +are to listen to many expositors of no mean authority, +we must believe that what seems so clearly defined +in Genesis—as if very great pains had been taken +that there should be no possibility of mistake—is +not the meaning of the text at all. The account +is divided into periods that we may make just as +long or as short as convenience requires. We are +<!-- [Page: 026] --> +also to understand that it is consistent with the +original text to believe that the most complex plants +and animals may have been evolved by natural +processes, lasting for millions of years, out of structureless +rudiments. A person who is not a Hebrew +scholar can only stand aside and admire the marvellous +flexibility of a language which admits of +such diverse interpretations. But assuredly, in the +face of such contradictions of authority upon matters +respecting which he is incompetent to form any +judgment, he will abstain, as I do, from giving any +opinion.</p> + +<p>In the third place, I have carefully abstained +from speaking of this as the Mosaic doctrine, because +we are now assured upon the authority of the +highest critics, and even of dignitaries of the Church, +that there is no evidence that Moses wrote the +Book of Genesis, or knew anything about it. You +will understand that I give no judgment—it would +be an impertinence upon my part to volunteer even +a suggestion—upon such a subject. But, that being +the state of opinion among the scholars and the +clergy, it is well for the unlearned in Hebrew lore, +and for the laity, to avoid entangling themselves in +such a vexed question. Happily, Milton leaves us +no excuse for doubting what he means, and I shall +therefore be safe in speaking of the opinion in +question as the Miltonic hypothesis. +<!-- [Page: 027] --></p> + +<p>Now we have to test that hypothesis. For my +part, I have no prejudice one way or the other. If +there is evidence in favour of this view, I am burdened +by no theoretical difficulties in the way of +accepting it; but there must be evidence. Scientific +men get an awkward habit—no, I won't call it that, +for it is a valuable habit—of believing nothing +unless there is evidence for it; and they have a +way of looking upon belief which is not based +upon evidence, not only as illogical, but as immoral. +We will, if you please, test this view by +the circumstantial evidence alone; for, from what +I have said, you will understand that I do not +propose to discuss the question of what testimonial +evidence is to be adduced in favour of it. +If those whose business it is to judge are not at +one as to the authenticity of the only evidence of +that kind which is offered, nor as to the facts to +which it bears witness, the discussion of such +evidence is superfluous.</p> + +<p>But I may be permitted to regret this necessity +of rejecting the testimonal evidence the less, because +the examination of the circumstantial evidence leads +to the conclusion, not only that it is incompetent to +justify the hypothesis, but that, so far as it goes, +it is contrary to the hypothesis.</p> + +<p>The considerations upon which I base this conclusion +are of the simplest possible character. The +<!-- [Page: 028] --> +Miltonic hypothesis contains assertions of a very +definite character relating to the succession of living +forms. It is stated that plants, for example, made +their appearance upon the third day, and not before. +And you will understand that what the poet means +by plants are such plants as now live, the ancestors, +in the ordinary way of propagation of like +by like, of the trees and shrubs which flourish in +the present world. It must needs be so; for, if +they were different, either the existing plants have +been the result of a separate origination since that +described by Milton, of which we have no record, nor +any ground for supposition that such an occurrence +has taken place; or else they have arisen by a +process of evolution from the original stocks.</p> + +<p>In the second place, it is clear that there was +no animal life before the fifth day, and that, on +the fifth day, aquatic animals and birds appeared. +And it is further clear that terrestrial living things, +other than birds, made their appearance upon the +sixth day, and not before. Hence, it follows that, +if, in the large mass of circumstantial evidence as +to what really has happened in the past history of +the globe we find indications of the existence of +terrestrial animals, other than birds, at a certain +period, it is perfectly certain that all that has taken +place since that time must be referred to the +sixth day. +<!-- [Page: 029] --></p> + +<p>In the great Carboniferous formation, whence +America derives so vast a proportion of her actual +and potential wealth, in the beds of coal which +have been formed from the vegetation of that +period, we find abundant evidence of the existence +of terrestrial animals. They have been described, +not only by European but by your own naturalists. +There are to be found numerous insects allied to +our cockroaches. There are to be found spiders +and scorpions of large size, the latter so similar +to existing scorpions that it requires the practised +eye of the naturalist to distinguish them. Inasmuch +as these animals can be proved to have been alive +in the Carboniferous epoch, it is perfectly clear +that, if the Miltonic account is to be accepted, +the huge mass of rocks extending from the middle +of the Palæozoic formations to the uppermost +members of the series, must belong to the day +which is termed by Milton the sixth. But, further, +it is expressly stated that aquatic animals took their +origin upon the fifth day, and not before; hence, +all formations in which remains of aquatic animals +can be proved to exist, and which therefore testify +that such animals lived at the time when these formations +were in course of deposition, must have +been deposited during or since the period which +Milton speaks of as the fifth day. But there is +absolutely no fossiliferous formation in which the +<!-- [Page: 030] --> +remains of aquatic animals are absent. The oldest +fossils in the Silurian rocks are exuviæ of marine +animals; and if the view which is entertained by +Principal Dawson and Dr. Carpenter respecting the +nature of the <i>Eozoön</i> be well founded, aquatic animals +existed at a period as far antecedent to the +deposition of the coal as the coal is from us; +inasmuch as the <i>Eozoön</i> is met with in those +Laurentian strata which lie at the bottom of the +series of stratified rocks. Hence it follows, plainly +enough, that the whole series of stratified rocks, if +they are to be brought into harmony with Milton, +must be referred to the fifth and sixth days, and +that we cannot hope to find the slightest trace of +the products of the earlier days in the geological +record. When we consider these simple facts, we +see how absolutely futile are the attempts that have +been made to draw a parallel between the story +told by so much of the crust of the earth as is +known to us and the story which Milton tells. +The whole series of fossiliferous stratified rocks +must be referred to the last two days; and neither +the Carboniferous, nor any other, formation can +afford evidence of the work of the third day.</p> + +<p>Not only is there this objection to any attempt +to establish a harmony between the Miltonic account +and the facts recorded in the fossiliferous +rocks, but there is a further difficulty. According +<!-- [Page: 031] --> +to the Miltonic account, the order in which animals +should have made their appearance in the stratified +rocks would be this: Fishes, including the great +whales, and birds; after them, all varieties of terrestrial +animals except birds. Nothing could be +further from the facts as we find them; we know +of not the slightest evidence of the existence of +birds before the Jurassic, or perhaps the Triassic, +formation; while terrestrial animals, as we have +just seen, occur in the Carboniferous rocks.</p> + +<p>If there were any harmony between the Miltonic +account and the circumstantial evidence, we ought +to have abundant evidence of the existence of birds +in the Carboniferous, the Devonian, and the Silurian +rocks. I need hardly say that this is not the +case, and that not a trace of birds makes its +appearance until the far later period which I have +mentioned.</p> + +<p>And again, if it be true that all varieties of fishes +and the great whales, and the like, made their +appearance on the fifth day, we ought to find the +remains of these animals in the older rocks—in +those which were deposited before the Carboniferous +epoch. Fishes we do find, in considerable +number and variety; but the great whales are +absent, and the fishes are not such as now live. +Not one solitary species of fish now in existence +is to be found in the Devonian or Silurian +<!-- [Page: 032] --> +formations. Hence we are introduced afresh to the +dilemma which I have already placed before you: +either the animals which came into existence on +the fifth day were not such as those which are +found at present, are not the direct and immediate +ancestors of those which now exist; in which case +either fresh creations of which nothing is said; or +a process of evolution must have occurred; or else +the whole story must be given up, as not only +devoid of any circumstantial evidence, but contrary +to such evidence as exists.</p> + +<p>I placed before you in a few words, some little +time ago, a statement of the sum and substance +of Milton's hypothesis. Let me now try to state +as briefly, the effect of the circumstantial evidence +bearing upon the past history of the earth which +is furnished, without the possibility of mistake, with +no chance of error as to its chief features, by the +stratified rocks. What we find is, that the great +series of formations represents a period of time +of which our human chronologies hardly afford us +a unit of measure. I will not pretend to say how +we ought to estimate this time, in millions or in +billions of years. For my purpose, the determination +of its absolute duration is wholly unessential. +But that the time was enormous there can be no +question.</p> + +<p>It results from the simplest methods of interpretation, +<!-- [Page: 033] --> +that leaving out of view certain patches +of metamorphosed rocks, and certain volcanic products, +all that is now dry land has once been at the +bottom of the waters. It is perfectly certain that, +at a comparatively recent period of the world's +history—the Cretaceous epoch—none of the great +physical features which at present mark the surface +of the globe existed. It is certain that the Rocky +Mountains were not. It is certain that the Himalaya +Mountains were not. It is certain that the +Alps and the Pyrenees had no existence. The +evidence is of the plainest possible character, and +is simply this:—We find raised up on the flanks +of these mountains, elevated by the forces of upheaval +which have given rise to them, masses of +Cretaceous rock which formed the bottom of the +sea before those mountains existed. It is therefore +clear that the elevatory forces which gave rise to +the mountains operated subsequently to the Cretaceous +epoch; and that the mountains themselves +are largely made up of the materials deposited in +the sea which once occupied their place. As we +go back in time, we meet with constant alternations +of sea and land, of estuary and open ocean; and, +in correspondence with these alternations, we +observe the changes in the fauna and flora to +which I have referred.</p> + +<p>But the inspection of these changes give us no +<!-- [Page: 034] --> +right to believe that there has been any discontinuity +in natural processes. There is no trace of +general cataclysms, of universal deluges, or sudden +destructions of a whole fauna or flora. The +appearances which were formerly interpreted in +that way have all been shown to be delusive, as +our knowledge has increased and as the blanks +which formerly appeared to exist between the +different formations have been filled up. That +there is no absolute break between formation +and formation, that there has been no sudden +disappearance of all the forms of life and replacement +of them by others, but that changes have +gone on slowly and gradually, that one type has +died out and another has taken its place, and that +thus, by insensible degrees, one fauna has been +replaced by another, are conclusions strengthened +by constantly increasing evidence. So that within +the whole of the immense period indicated by the +fossiliferous stratified rocks, there is assuredly not +the slightest proof of any break in the uniformity +of Nature's operations, no indication that events +have followed other than a clear and orderly +sequence.</p> + +<p>That, I say, is the natural and obvious teaching +of the circumstantial evidence contained in the +stratified rocks. I leave you to consider how far, +by any ingenuity of interpretation, by any stretching +<!-- [Page: 035] --> +of the meaning of language, it can be brought into +harmony with the Miltonic hypothesis.</p> + +<p>There remains the third hypothesis, that of +which I have spoken as the hypothesis of evolution; +and I purpose that, in lectures to come, we +should discuss it as carefully as we have considered +the other two hypotheses. I need not say +that it is quite hopeless to look for testimonial +evidence of evolution. The very nature of the +case precludes the possibility of such evidence, for +the human race can no more be expected to testify +to its own origin, than a child can be tendered as +a witness of its own birth. Our sole inquiry is, +what foundation circumstantial evidence lends to +the hypothesis, or whether it lends none, or whether +it controverts the hypothesis. I shall deal with the +matter entirely as a question of history. I shall +not indulge in the discussion of any speculative probabilities. +I shall not attempt to show that Nature +is unintelligible unless we adopt some such hypothesis. +For anything I know about the matter, it +may be the way of Nature to be unintelligible; she +is often puzzling, and I have no reason to suppose +that she is bound to fit herself to our notions.</p> + +<p>I shall place before you three kinds of evidence +entirely based upon what is known of the forms +of animal life which are contained in the series +of stratified rocks. I shall endeavour to show you +<!-- [Page: 036] --> +that there is one kind of evidence which is neutral, +which neither helps evolution nor is inconsistent +with it. I shall then bring forward a second kind +of evidence which indicates a strong probability in +favour of evolution, but does not prove it; and, +lastly, I shall adduce a third kind of evidence +which, being as complete as any evidence which +we can hope to obtain upon such a subject, and +being wholly and strikingly in favour of evolution, +may fairly be called demonstrative evidence of its +occurrence. +<!-- [Page: 037] --></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_II" id="LECTURE_II"></a>LECTURE II.</h2> + +<h3>THE HYPOTHESIS OF EVOLUTION. +THE NEUTRAL AND THE FAVOURABLE EVIDENCE.</h3> + + +<p>In the preceding lecture I pointed out that there +are three hypotheses which may be entertained, +and which have been entertained, respecting the +past history of life upon the globe. According to +the first of these hypotheses, living beings, such as +now exist, have existed from all eternity upon this +earth. We tested that hypothesis by the circumstantial +evidence, as I called it, which is furnished +by the fossil remains contained in the earth's crust, +and we found that it was obviously untenable. I +then proceeded to consider the second hypothesis, +which I termed the Miltonic hypothesis, not because +it is of any particular consequence to me whether +John Milton seriously entertained it or not, but +because it is stated in a clear and unmistakable +manner in his great poem. I pointed out to you +that the evidence at our command as completely +<!-- [Page: 038] --> +and fully negatives that hypothesis as it did the +preceding one. And I confess that I had too much +respect for your intelligence to think it necessary +to add that the negation was equally clear and +equally valid, whatever the source from which that +hypothesis might be derived, or whatever the +authority by which it might be supported. I +further stated that, according to the third hypothesis, +or that of evolution, the existing state of +things is the last term of a long series of states, +which, when traced back, would be found to show +no interruption and no breach in the continuity of +natural causation. I propose, in the present, and the +following lecture, to test this hypothesis rigorously +by the evidence at command, and to inquire how +far that evidence can be said to be indifferent to +it, how far it can be said to be favourable to +it, and, finally, how far it can be said to be +demonstrative.</p> + +<p>From almost the origin of the discussions about +the existing condition of the animal and vegetable +worlds and the causes which have determined that +condition, an argument has been put forward as an +objection to evolution, which we shall have to consider +very seriously. It is an argument which was +first clearly stated by Cuvier in his criticism of the +doctrines propounded by his great contemporary, +Lamarck. The French expedition to Egypt had +<!-- [Page: 039] --> +called the attention of learned men to the wonderful +store of antiquities in that country, and there had +been brought back to France numerous mummified +corpses of the animals which the ancient Egyptians +revered and preserved, and which, at a reasonable +computation, must have lived not less than three +or four thousand years before the time at which +they were thus brought to light. Cuvier endeavoured +to test the hypothesis that animals have +undergone gradual and progressive modifications of +structure, by comparing the skeletons and such other +parts of the mummies as were in a fitting state +of preservation, with the corresponding parts of the +representatives of the same species now living in +Egypt. He arrived at the conviction that no +appreciable change had taken place in these animals +in the course of this considerable lapse of time, +and the justice of his conclusion is not disputed.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that, if it can be proved that animals +have endured, without undergoing any demonstrable +change of structure, for so long a period as four +thousand years, no form of the hypothesis of evolution +which assumes that animals undergo a constant +and necessary progressive change can be tenable; +unless, indeed, it be further assumed that four +thousand years is too short a time for the production +of a change sufficiently great to be detected.</p> + +<p>But it is no less plain that if the process of +<!-- [Page: 040] --> +evolution of animals is not independent of surrounding +conditions; if it may be indefinitely +hastened or retarded by variations in these conditions; +or if evolution is simply a process of accommodation +to varying conditions; the argument against +the hypothesis of evolution based on the unchanged +character of the Egyptian fauna is worthless. For +the monuments which are coeval with the mummies +testify as strongly to the absence of change in the +physical geography and the general conditions of +the land of Egypt, for the time in question, as +the mummies do to the unvarying characters of its +living population.</p> + +<p>The progress of research since Cuvier's time has +supplied far more striking examples of the long +duration of specific forms of life than those which +are furnished by the mummified Ibises and Crocodiles +of Egypt. A remarkable case is to be found +in your own country, in the neighbourhood of the +falls of Niagara. In the immediate vicinity of the +whirlpool, and again upon Goat Island, in the +superficial deposits which cover the surface of +the rocky subsoil in those regions, there are found remains +of animals in perfect preservation, and among +them, shells belonging to exactly the same species +as those which at present inhabit the still waters +of Lake Erie. It is evident, from the structure +of the country, that these animal remains were +<!-- [Page: 041] --> +deposited in the beds in which they occur at a +time when the lake extended over the region in +which they are found. This involves the conclusion +that they lived and died before the falls had cut +their way back through the gorge of Niagara; and, +indeed, it has been determined that, when these +animals lived, the falls of Niagara must have been +at least six miles further down the river than they +are at present. Many computations have been +made of the rate at which the falls are thus cutting +their way back. Those computations have varied +greatly, but I believe I am speaking within the +bounds of prudence, if I assume that the falls of +Niagara have not retreated at a greater pace than +about a foot a year. Six miles, speaking roughly, +are 30,000 feet; 30,000 feet, at a foot a year, gives +30,000 years; and thus we are fairly justified in +concluding that no less a period than this has +passed since the shell-fish, whose remains are left +in the beds to which I have referred, were living +creatures.</p> + +<p>But there is still stronger evidence of the +long duration of certain types. I have already +stated that, as we work our way through the +great series of the Tertiary formations, we find +many species of animals identical with those which +live at the present day, diminishing in numbers, it +is true, but still existing, in a certain proportion, +<!-- [Page: 042] --> +in the oldest of the Tertiary rocks. Furthermore, +when we examine the rocks of the Cretaceous +epoch, we find the remains of some animals which +the closest scrutiny cannot show to be, in any +important respect, different from those which live +at the present time. That is the case with one +of the cretaceous lamp-shells (<i>Terebratula</i>), which +has continued to exist unchanged, or with insignificant +variations, down to the present day. Such +is the case with the <i>Globigerinæ</i>, the skeletons of +which, aggregated together, form a large proportion +of our English chalk. Those <i>Globigerinæ</i> can be +traced down to the <i>Globigerinæ</i> which live at the +surface of the present great oceans, and the remains +of which, falling to the bottom of the sea, give +rise to a chalky mud. Hence it must be admitted +that certain existing species of animals show no distinct +sign of modification, or transformation, in the +course of a lapse of time as great as that which +carries us back to the Cretaceous period; and +which, whatever its absolute measure, is certainly +vastly greater than thirty thousand years.</p> + +<p>There are groups of species so closely allied +together that it needs the eye of a naturalist to +distinguish them one from another. If we disregard +the small differences which separate these forms +and consider all the species of such groups as +modifications of one type, we shall find that, even +<!-- [Page: 043] --> +among the higher animals, some types have had a +marvellous duration. In the chalk, for example, +there is found a fish belonging to the highest and +the most differentiated group of osseous fishes, which +goes by the name of <i>Beryx</i>. The remains of that +fish are among the most beautiful and well preserved +of the fossils found in our English chalk. +It can be studied anatomically, so far as the hard +parts are concerned, almost as well as if it were a +recent fish. But the genus <i>Beryx</i> is represented, at +the present day, by very closely allied species which +are living in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. We +may go still farther back. I have already referred to +the fact that the Carboniferous formations, in Europe +and in America, contain the remains of scorpions in +an admirable state of preservation, and that those +scorpions are hardly distinguishable from such as +now live. I do not mean to say that they are not +different, but close scrutiny is needed in order to +distinguish them from modern scorpions.</p> + +<p>More than this. At the very bottom of the +Silurian series, in beds which are by some authorities +referred to the Cambrian formation, where the +signs of life begin to fail us—even there, among +the few and scanty animal remains which are discoverable, +we find species of molluscous animals +which are so closely allied to existing forms that, +at one time, they were grouped under the same +<!-- [Page: 044] --> +generic name. I refer to the well-known <i>Lingula</i> +of the <i>Lingula</i> flags, lately, in consequence of some +slight differences, placed in the new genus <i>Lingulella</i>. +Practically, it belongs to the same great +generic group as the <i>Lingula</i>, which is to be found +at the present day upon your own shores and those +of many other parts of the world.</p> + +<p>The same truth is exemplified if we turn to +certain great periods of the earth's history—as, for +example, the Mesozoic epoch. There are groups of +reptiles, such as the <i>Ichthyosauria</i> and the <i>Plesiosauria</i>, +which appear shortly after the commencement +of this epoch, and they occur in vast numbers. +They disappear with the chalk and, throughout +the whole of the great series of Mesozoic rocks, +they present no such modifications as can safely +be considered evidence of progressive modification.</p> + +<p>Facts of this kind are undoubtedly fatal to any +form of the doctrine of evolution which postulates +the supposition that there is an intrinsic necessity, +on the part of animal forms which have once come +into existence, to undergo continual modification; +and they are as distinctly opposed to any view +which involves the belief, that such modification as +may occur, must take place, at the same rate, in all +the different types of animal or vegetable life. The +facts, as I have placed them before you, obviously +directly contradict any form of the hypothesis of +<!-- [Page: 045] --> +evolution which stands in need of these two postulates.</p> + +<p>But, one great service that has been rendered +by Mr. Darwin to the doctrine of evolution in +general is this: he has shown that there are two +chief factors in the process of evolution: one of +them is the tendency to vary, the existence of +which in all living forms may be proved by observation; +the other is the influence of surrounding +conditions upon what I may call the parent form and +the variations which are thus evolved from it. The +cause of the production of variations is a matter +not at all properly understood at present. Whether +variation depends upon some intricate machinery—if +I may use the phrase—of the living organism +itself, or whether it arises through the influence of +conditions upon that form, is not certain, and the +question may, for the present, be left open. But +the important point is that, granting the existence +of the tendency to the production of variations; +then, whether the variations which are produced +shall survive and supplant the parent, or whether +the parent form shall survive and supplant the +variations, is a matter which depends entirely on +those conditions which give rise to the struggle for +existence. If the surrounding conditions are such +that the parent form is more competent to deal +with them and flourish in them, than the derived +<!-- [Page: 046] --> +forms, then, in the struggle for existence, the parent +form will maintain itself and the derived forms will +be exterminated. But if, on the contrary, the conditions +are such as to be more favourable to a +derived than to the parent form, the parent form +will be extirpated and the derived form will take +its place. In the first case, there will be no progression, +no change of structure, through any imaginable +series of ages; in the second place, there +will be modification and change of form.</p> + +<p>Thus the existence of these persistent types, as +I have termed them, is no real obstacle in the way +of the theory of evolution. Take the case of the +scorpions to which I have just referred. No doubt, +since the Carboniferous epoch, conditions have +always obtained, such as existed when the scorpions +of that epoch flourished; conditions in which +scorpions find themselves better off, more competent +to deal with the difficulties in their way, than any +variation from the scorpion type which they may +have produced; and, for that reason, the scorpion +type has persisted, and has not been supplanted +by any other form. And there is no reason, in the +nature of things, why, as long as this world exists, +if there be conditions more favourable to scorpions +than to any variation which may arise from them, +these forms of life should not persist.</p> + +<p>Therefore, the stock objection to the hypothesis +<!-- [Page: 047] --> +of evolution, based on the long duration of certain +animal and vegetable types, is no objection at all. +The facts of this character—and they are numerous—belong +to that class of evidence which I have +called indifferent. That is to say, they may afford +no direct support to the doctrine of evolution, but +they are capable of being interpreted in perfect +consistency with it.</p> + +<p>There is another order of facts belonging to the +class of negative or indifferent evidence. The great +group of Lizards, which abound in the present +world, extends through the whole series of formations +as far back as the Permian, or latest Palæozoic, +epoch. These Permian lizards differ astonishingly +little from the lizards which exist at the present +day. Comparing the amount of the differences +between them and modern lizards, with the prodigious +lapse of time between the Permian epoch +and the present age, it may be said that the amount +of change is insignificant. But, when we carry our +researches farther back in time, we find no trace +of lizards, nor of any true reptile whatever, in the +whole mass of formations beneath the Permian.</p> + +<p>Now, it is perfectly clear that if our palæontological +collections are to be taken, even approximately, +as an adequate representation of all the +forms of animals and plants that have ever lived; +and if the record furnished by the known series +<!-- [Page: 048] --> +of beds of stratified rock, covers the whole series +of events which constitute the history of life on the +globe, such a fact as this directly contravenes the +hypothesis of evolution; because this hypothesis +postulates that the existence of every form must +have been preceded by that of some form little +different from it. Here, however, we have to take +into consideration that important truth so well +insisted upon by Lyell and by Darwin—the imperfection +of the geological record. It can be +demonstrated that the geological record must be +incomplete, that it can only preserve remains found +in certain favourable localities and under particular +conditions; that it must be destroyed by processes +of denudation, and obliterated by processes of +metamorphosis. Beds of rock of any thickness, +crammed full of organic remains, may yet, either +by the percolation of water through them, or by +the influence of subterranean heat, lose all trace +of these remains, and present the appearance of +beds of rock formed under conditions in which +living forms were absent. Such metamorphic rocks +occur in formations of all ages; and, in various cases, +there are very good grounds for the belief that +they have contained organic remains, and that those +remains have been absolutely obliterated.</p> + +<p>I insist upon the defects of the geological record +the more because those who have not attended to +<!-- [Page: 049] --> +these matters are apt to say, "It is all very well, +but when you get into a difficulty with your theory +of evolution, you appeal to the incompleteness and +the imperfection of the geological record;" and I +want to make it perfectly clear to you that this +imperfection is a great fact, which must be taken +into account in all our speculations, or we shall +constantly be going wrong.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="fig2" href="images/g02.jpg"><img src="images/tg02.jpg" alt="FIG. 2.—TRACKS OF BRONTOZOUM." title="FIG. 2.—TRACKS OF BRONTOZOUM." width="400" height="134"/></a><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Tracks of Brontozoum.</span> +</div> + +<p>You see the singular series of footmarks, +drawn of its natural size in the large diagram +hanging up here (Fig. 2), which I owe to the kindness +of my friend Professor Marsh, with whom I had +the opportunity recently of visiting the precise locality +in Massachusetts in which these tracks occur. I am, +therefore, able to give you my own testimony, if +needed, that the diagram accurately represents what +we saw. The valley of the Connecticut is classical +ground for the geologist. It contains great beds of +sandstone, covering many square miles, which have +evidently formed a part of an ancient sea-shore, or, +it may be, lake-shore. For a certain period of time +after their deposition, these beds have remained +<!-- [Page: 050] --> +sufficiently soft to receive the impressions of the +feet of whatever animals walked over them, and to +preserve them afterwards, in exactly the same way +as such impressions are at this hour preserved on +the shores of the Bay of Fundy and elsewhere. +The diagram represents the track of some gigantic +animal, which walked on its hind legs. You see +the series of marks made alternately by the right +and by the left foot; so that, from one impression +to the other of the three-toed foot on the same side, +is one stride, and that stride, as we measured it, +is six feet nine inches. I leave you, therefore, to +form an impression of the magnitude of the creature +which, as it walked along the ancient shore, made +these impressions.</p> + +<p>Of such impressions there are untold thousands +upon these sandstones. Fifty or sixty different +kinds have been discovered, and they cover vast +areas. But, up to this present time, not a bone, +not a fragment, of any one of the animals which +left these great footmarks has been found; in fact, +the only animal remains which have been met with +in all these deposits, from the time of their discovery +to the present day—though they have been +carefully hunted over—is a fragmentary skeleton +of one of the smaller forms. What has become of +the bones of all these animals? You see we are +not dealing with little creatures, but with animals +<!-- [Page: 051] --> +that make a step of six feet nine inches; and their +remains must have been left somewhere. The probability +is, that they been dissolved away, and +absolutely lost.</p> + +<p>I have had occasion to work out the nature of +fossil remains, of which there was nothing left +except casts of the bones, the solid material of the +skeleton having been dissolved out by percolating +water. It was a chance, in this case, that the sandstone +happened to be of such a constitution as to +set, and to allow the bones to be afterward dissolved +out, leaving cavities of the exact shape of +the bones. Had that constitution been other than +what it was, the bones would have been dissolved, +the layers of sandstone would have fallen together +into one mass, and not the slightest indication that +the animal had existed would have been discoverable.</p> + +<p>I know of no more striking evidence than these +facts afford, of the caution which should be used +in drawing the conclusion, from the absence of +organic remains in a deposit, that animals or plants +did not exist at the time it was formed. I believe +that, with a right understanding of the doctrine of +evolution on the one hand, and a just estimation +of the importance of the imperfection of the geological +record on the other, all difficulty is removed +from the kind of evidence to which I have +<!-- [Page: 052] --> +adverted; and that we are justified in believing that +all such cases are examples of what I have designated +negative or indifferent evidence—that is to +say, they in no way directly advance the hypothesis +of evolution, but they are not to be regarded as +obstacles in the way of our belief in that doctrine.</p> + +<p>I now pass on to the consideration of those +cases which, for reasons which I will point out to +you by and by, are not to be regarded as demonstrative +of the truth of evolution, but which are +such as must exist if evolution be true, and which +therefore are, upon the whole, evidence in favour +of the doctrine. If the doctrine of evolution be +true, it follows, that, however diverse the different +groups of animals and of plants may be, they must +all, at one time or other, have been connected by gradational +forms; so that, from the highest animals, +whatever they may be, down to the lowest speck +of protoplasmic matter in which life can be manifested, +a series of gradations, leading from one end +of the series to the other, either exists or has +existed. Undoubtedly that is a necessary postulate +of the doctrine of evolution. But when we look +upon living Nature as it is, we find a totally different +state of things. We find that animals and +plants fall into groups, the different members of +which are pretty closely allied together, but which +are separated by definite, larger or smaller, breaks +<!-- [Page: 053] --> +from other groups. In other words, no intermediate +forms which bridge over these gaps or intervals +are, at present, to be met with.</p> + +<p>To illustrate what I mean: Let me call your +attention to those vertebrate animals which are +most familiar to you, such as mammals, birds, and +reptiles. At the present day, these groups of +animals are perfectly well defined from one another. +We know of no animal now living which, in any +sense, is intermediate between the mammal and the +bird, or between the bird and the reptile; but, on +the contrary, there are many very distinct anatomical +peculiarities, well-defined marks, by which the mammal +is separated from the bird, and the bird from +the reptile. The distinctions are obvious and +striking if you compare the definitions of these +great groups as they now exist.</p> + +<p>The same may be said of many of the subordinate +groups, or orders, into which these great classes +are divided. At the present time, for example, there +are numerous forms of non-ruminant pachyderms, +or what we may call broadly, the pig tribe, and +many varieties of ruminants. These latter have +their definite characteristics, and the former have +their distinguishing peculiarities. But there is +nothing that fills up the gap between the ruminants +and the pig tribe. The two are distinct. Such +also is the case in respect of the minor groups of +<!-- [Page: 054] --> +the class of reptiles. The existing fauna shows us +crocodiles, lizards, snakes, and tortoises; but no +connecting link between the crocodile and lizard, +nor between the lizard and snake, nor between +the snake and the crocodile, nor between any two +of these groups. They are separated by absolute +breaks. If, then, it could be shown that this state +of things had always existed, the fact would be +fatal to the doctrine of evolution. If the intermediate +gradations, which the doctrine of evolution +requires to have existed between these groups, are +not to be found anywhere in the records of the past +history of the globe, their absence is a strong and +weighty negative argument against evolution; while, +on the other hand, if such intermediate forms are +to be found, that is so much to the good of evolution; +although, for reasons which I will lay before +you by and by, we must be cautious in our estimate +of the evidential cogency of facts of this kind.</p> + +<p>It is a very remarkable circumstance that, from +the commencement of the serious study of fossil +remains; in fact, from the time when Cuvier began +his brilliant researches upon those found in the +quarries of Montmartre, palæontology has shown +what she was going to do in this matter, and what +kind of evidence it lay in her power to produce.</p> + +<p>I said just now that, in the existing Fauna, the +group of pig-like animals and the group of ruminants +<!-- [Page: 055] --> +are entirely distinct; but one of the first of +Cuvier's discoveries was an animal which he called +the <i>Anoplotherium</i>, and which proved to be, in +a great many important respects, intermediate in +character between the pigs, on the one hand, and +the ruminants on the other. Thus research into +the history of the past did, to a certain extent, tend +to fill up the breach between the group of ruminants +and the group of pigs. Another remarkable +animal restored by the great French palæontologist, +the <i>Palæotherium</i>, similarly tended to connect +together animals to all appearance so different as +the rhinoceros, the horse, and the tapir. Subsequent +research has brought to light multitudes of +facts of the same order; and, at the present day, +the investigations of such anatomists as Rütimeyer +and Gaudry have tended to fill up, more and more, +the gaps in our existing series of mammals, and to +connect groups formerly thought to be distinct.</p> + +<p>But I think it may have an especial interest if, +instead of dealing with these examples, which would +require a great deal of tedious osteological detail, +I take the case of birds and reptiles; groups which, +at the present day, are so clearly distinguished from +one another that there are perhaps no classes of +animals which, in popular apprehension, are more +completely separated. Existing birds, as you are +aware, are covered with feathers; their anterior +<!-- [Page: 056] --> +extremities, specially and peculiarly modified, are +converted into wings, by the aid of which most of +them are able to fly; they walk upright upon two +legs; and these limbs, when they are considered +anatomically, present a great number of exceedingly +remarkable peculiarities, to which I may have +occasion to advert incidentally as I go on, and +which are not met with, even approximately, in +any existing forms of reptiles. On the other hand, +existing reptiles have no feathers. They may have +naked skins, or be covered with horny scales, or +bony plates, or with both. They possess no wings; +they neither fly by means of their fore-limbs, nor +habitually walk upright upon their hind-limbs; and +the bones of their legs present no such modifications +as we find in birds. It is impossible to imagine +any two groups more definitely and distinctly separated, +notwithstanding certain characters which they +possess in common.</p> + +<p>As we trace the history of birds back in time, we +find their remains, sometimes in great abundance, +throughout the whole extent of the tertiary rocks; +but, so far as our present knowledge goes, the birds +of the tertiary rocks retain the same essential characters +as the birds of the present day. In other +words, the tertiary birds come within the definition +of the class constituted by existing birds, and are as +much separated from reptiles as existing birds are. +<!-- [Page: 057] --> +Not very long ago no remains of birds had been +found below the tertiary rocks, and I am not sure +but that some persons were prepared to demonstrate +that they could not have existed at an earlier period. +But in the course of the last few years, such remains +have been discovered in England; though, unfortunately, +in so imperfect and fragmentary a condition, +that it is impossible to say whether they differed +from existing birds in any essential character or not. +In your country the development of the cretaceous +series of rocks is enormous; the conditions under +which the later cretaceous strata have been deposited +are highly favourable to the preservation of +organic remains; and the researches, full of labour +and risk, which have been carried on by Professor +Marsh in these cretaceous rocks of Western America, +have rewarded him with the discovery of forms of +birds of which we had hitherto no conception. By +his kindness, I am enabled to place before you a +restoration of one of these extraordinary birds, every +part of which can be thoroughly justified by the more +or less complete skeletons, in a very perfect state of +preservation, which he has discovered. This <i>Hesperornis</i> +(Fig. 3), which measured between five and +six feet in length, is astonishingly like our existing +divers or grebes in a great many respects; so like +them indeed that, had the skeleton of <i>Hesperornis</i> +been found in a museum without its skull, it +<!-- [Page: 058] --> +probably would have been placed in the same group +of birds as the divers and grebes of the present day.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="fig3" href="images/g03.jpg"><img src="images/tg03.jpg" alt="FIG. 3.—HESPERORNIS REGALIS (Marsh)." title="FIG. 3.—HESPERORNIS REGALIS (Marsh)." width="338" height="400"/></a><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 3.—Hesperornis Regalis</span> (Marsh). +</div> + +<p>But <i>Hesperornis</i> differs from all existing birds, and +so far resembles reptiles, in one important particular—it +<!-- [Page: 059] --> +is provided with teeth. The long jaws are +armed with teeth which have curved crowns and +<!-- [Page: 060] --> +thick roots (Fig. 4), and are not set in distinct +sockets, but are lodged in a groove. In possessing +true teeth, the <i>Hesperornis</i> differs from every existing +bird, and from every bird yet discovered in +the tertiary formations, the tooth-like serrations of +the jaws in the <i>Odontopteryx</i> of the London clay +being mere processes of the bony substance of the +jaws, and not teeth in the proper sense of the word. +In view of the characteristics of this bird we are +therefore obliged to modify the definitions of the +classes of birds and reptiles. Before the discovery +of <i>Hesperornis</i>, the definition of the class Aves +based upon our knowledge of existing birds, might +have been extended to all birds; it might have been +said that the absence of teeth was characteristic of +the class of birds; but the discovery of an animal +which, in every part of its skeleton, closely agrees +with existing birds, and yet possesses teeth, shows +that there were ancient birds which, in respect of +possessing teeth, approached reptiles more nearly +than any existing bird does, and, to that extent, +diminishes the <i>hiatus</i> between the two classes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="fig4" href="images/g04.jpg"><img src="images/tg04.jpg" alt="FIG. 4.—HESPERORNIS REGALIS (Marsh)." title="FIG. 4.—HESPERORNIS REGALIS (Marsh)." width="259" height="400"/></a><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 4.—Hesperornis Regalis</span> (Marsh).<br /> +(Side and upper views of half the lower jaw; side and end views of a vertebra +and a separate tooth.) +</div> + +<p>The same formation has yielded another bird +<i>Ichthyornis</i> (Fig. 5), which also possesses teeth; +but the teeth are situated in distinct sockets, while +those of <i>Hesperornis</i> are not so lodged. The latter +also has such very small, almost rudimentary, +wings, that it must have been chiefly a swimmer +<!-- [Page: 061] --> +and a diver, like a Penguin; while <i>Ichthyornis</i> has +strong wings and no doubt possessed corresponding +<!-- [Page: 062] --> +powers of flight. <i>Ichthyornis</i> also differed in the +fact that its vertebræ have not the peculiar +characters of the vertebræ of existing and of all +known tertiary birds, but were concave at each +end. This discovery leads us to make a further +modification in the definition of the group of +birds, and to part with another of the characters +by which almost all existing birds are distinguished +from reptiles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="fig5" href="images/g05.jpg"><img src="images/tg05.jpg" alt="FIG. 5.—ICHTHYORNIS DISPAR (Marsh)." title="FIG. 5.—ICHTHYORNIS DISPAR (Marsh)." width="267" height="400"/></a><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 5.—Ichthyornis Dispar</span> (Marsh).<br /> +(Side and upper views of half the lower jaw; and side and end views of a +vertebra.) +</div> + +<p>Apart from the few fragmentary remains from +the English greensand, to which I have referred, +the mesozoic rocks, older than those in which <i>Hesperornis</i> +and <i>Ichthyornis</i> have been discovered +have afforded no certain evidence of birds, with +the remarkable exception of the Solenhofen slates. +These so-called slates are composed of a fine +grained calcareous mud which has hardened into +lithographic stone, and in which organic remains are +almost as well preserved as they would be if they +had been imbedded in so much plaster of Paris. +They have yielded the <i>Archæopteryx</i>, the existence +of which was first made known by the finding of +a fossil feather, or rather of the impression of one. +It is wonderful enough that such a perishable thing +as a feather, and nothing more, should be discovered; +yet, for a long time, nothing was known of +this bird except its feather. But, by and by a solitary +skeleton was discovered, which is now in the +<!-- [Page: 063] --> +British Museum. The skull of this solitary specimen +is unfortunately wanting, and it is therefore uncertain +whether the <i>Archæopteryx</i> possessed teeth or +not. But the remainder of the skeleton is so well +preserved as to leave no doubt respecting the main +features of the animal, which are very singular. +The feet are not only altogether bird-like, but have +the special characters of the feet of perching birds, +while the body had a clothing of true feathers. +Nevertheless, in some other respects, <i>Archæopteryx</i> +is unlike a bird and like a reptile. There is a long +tail composed of many vertebræ. The structure of +the wing differs in some very remarkable respects +from that which it presents in a true bird. In the +latter, the end of the wing answers to the thumb +and two fingers of my hand; but the metacarpal +bones, or those which answer to the bones of the +fingers which lie in the palm of the hand, are fused +together into one mass; and the whole apparatus, +except the last joints of the thumb, is bound up +in a sheath of integument, while the edge of the +hand carries the principal quill-feathers. In the +<i>Archæopteryx</i>, the upper-arm bone is like that of +a bird; and the two bones of the fore-arm are +more or less like those of a bird, but the fingers +are not bound together—they are free. What their +number may have been is uncertain; but several, +if not all, of them were terminated by strong curved +<!-- [Page: 064] --> +claws, not like such as are sometimes found in +birds, but such as reptiles possess; so that, in the +<i>Archæopteryx</i>, we have an animal which, to a certain +extent, occupies a midway place between a bird +and a reptile. It is a bird so far as its foot and +sundry other parts of its skeleton are concerned; +it is essentially and thoroughly a bird by its +feathers; but it is much more properly a reptile +in the fact that the region which represents the +hand has separate bones, with claws resembling +those which terminate the fore-limb of a reptile. +Moreover, it had a long reptile-like tail with a +fringe of feathers on each side; while, in all true +birds hitherto known, the tail is relatively short, +and the vertebræ which constitute its skeleton are +generally peculiarly modified.</p> + +<p>Like the <i>Anoplotherium</i> and the <i>Palæotherium</i>, +therefore, <i>Archæopteryx</i> tends to fill up the interval +between groups which, in the existing world, are +widely separated, and to destroy the value of the +definitions of zoological groups based upon our +knowledge of existing forms. And such cases as +these constitute evidence in favour of evolution, +in so far as they prove that, in former periods of +the world's history, there were animals which overstepped +the bounds of existing groups, and tended +to merge them into larger assemblages. They +show that animal organisation is more flexible than +<!-- [Page: 065] --> +our knowledge of recent forms might have led +us to believe; and that many structural permutations +and combinations, of which the present +world gives us no indication, may nevertheless have +existed.</p> + +<p>But it by no means follows, because the <i>Palæotherium</i> +has much in common with the Horse, on +the one hand, and with the Rhinoceros on the +other, that it is the intermediate form through +which Rhinoceroses have passed to become Horses, +or <i>vice versâ</i>; on the contrary, any such supposition +would certainly be erroneous. Nor do I think it +likely that the transition from the reptile to the +bird has been effected by such a form as <i>Archæopteryx</i>. +And it is convenient to distinguish +these intermediate forms between two groups, +which do not represent the actual passage from +the one group to the other, as <i>intercalary</i> types, +from those <i>linear</i> types which, more or less approximately, +indicate the nature of the steps by which +the transition from one group to the other was +effected.</p> + +<p>I conceive that such linear forms, constituting a +series of natural gradations between the reptile and +the bird, and enabling us to understand the manner +in which the reptilian has been metamorphosed into +the bird type, are really to be found among a group +of ancient and extinct terrestrial reptiles known as +<!-- [Page: 066] --> +the <i>Ornithoscelida</i>. The remains of these animals +occur throughout the series of mesozoic formations, +from the Trias to the Chalk, and there are indications +of their existence even in the later Palæozoic +strata.</p> + +<p>Most of these reptiles at present known are of +great size, some having attained a length of forty +feet or perhaps more. The majority resembled +lizards and crocodiles in their general form, and +many of them were, like crocodiles, protected by +an armour of heavy bony plates. But, in others, +the hind limbs elongate and the fore limbs shorten, +until their relative proportions approach those which +are observed in the short-winged, flightless, ostrich +tribe among birds.</p> + +<p>The skull is relatively light, and in some cases +the jaws, though bearing teeth, are beak-like at +their extremities and appear to have been enveloped +in a horny sheath. In the part of the vertebral +column which lies between the haunch bones and +is called the sacrum, a number of vertebræ may +unite together into one whole, and in this respect, +as in some details of its structure, the sacrum of +these reptiles approaches that of birds.</p> + +<p>But it is in the structure of the pelvis and of +the hind limb that some of these ancient reptiles present +the most remarkable approximation to birds, +and clearly indicate the way by which the most +<!-- [Page: 067] --> +specialized and characteristic features of the bird +may have been evolved from the corresponding +parts in the reptile.</p> + +<p>In Fig. 6, the pelvis and hind limbs of a crocodile, +a three-toed bird, and an ornithoscelidan are +represented side by side; and, for facility of comparison, +in corresponding positions; but it must be +recollected that, while the position of the bird's limb +is natural, that of the crocodile is not so. In the +bird, the thigh-bone lies close to the body, and the +metatarsal bones of the foot (ii., iii., iv., Fig. 6) +are, ordinarily, raised into a more or less vertical +position; in the crocodile, the thigh-bone stands out +at an angle from the body, and the metatarsal +bones (i., ii., iii., iv., Fig. 6) lie flat on the ground. +Hence, in the crocodile, the body usually lies squat +between the legs, while, in the bird, it is raised upon +the hind legs, as upon pillars.</p> + +<p>In the crocodile, the pelvis is obviously composed +of three bones on each side: the ilium (<i>Il.</i>), the +pubis (<i>Pb.</i>), and the ischium (<i>Is.</i>). In the adult +bird there appears to be but one bone on each +side. The examination of the pelvis of a chick, +however, shows that each half is made up of three +bones, which answer to those which remain distinct +throughout life, in the crocodile. There is, therefore, +a fundamental identity of plan in the construction +of the pelvis of both bird and reptile; +<!-- [Page: 068] --> +though the differences in form, relative size, and +direction of the corresponding bones in the two +cases are very great.</p> + +<p>But the most striking contrast between the two +lies in the bones of the leg and of that part of +the foot termed the tarsus, which follows upon the +leg. In the crocodile, the fibula (<i>F</i>) is relatively +large and its lower end is complete. The tibia (<i>T</i>) +has no marked crest at its upper end, and its lower +end is narrow and not pulley-shaped. There are +two rows of separate tarsal bones (<i>As.</i>, <i>Ca.</i>, <i>&c</i>.) +and four distinct metatarsal bones, with a rudiment +of a fifth.</p> + +<p>In the bird, the fibula is small and its lower end +diminishes to a point. The tibia has a strong crest +at its upper end and its lower extremity passes into +a broad pulley. There seem at first to be no tarsal +bones; and only one bone, divided at the end into +three heads for the three toes which are attached +to it, appears in the place of the metatarsus.</p> + +<p>In a young bird, however, the pulley-shaped +apparent end of the tibia is a distinct bone, which +represents the bones marked <i>As.</i>, <i>Ca.</i>, in the crocodile; +while the apparently single metatarsal bone +consists of three bones, which early unite with +one another and with an additional bone, which +represents the lower row of bones in the tarsus of +the crocodile. +<!-- [Page: 069] --></p> + +<p>In other words, it can be shown by the study of +development that the bird's pelvis and hind limb +are simply extreme modifications of the same fundamental +plan as that upon which these parts are +modelled in reptiles.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="fig6" href="images/g06.jpg"><img src="images/tg06.jpg" alt="FIG. 6.—BIRD. ORNITHOSCELIDAN. CROCODILE." title="FIG. 6.—BIRD. ORNITHOSCELIDAN. CROCODILE." width="400" height="350"/></a><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 6.—Bird. Ornithoscelidan. Crocodile.</span><br /> +(The letters have the same signification in all the figures. <i>Il.</i>, Ilium; +<i>a</i>, anterior end; <i>b</i>, posterior end; <i>Is.</i>, ischium; <i>Pb.</i>, pubis; <i>T</i>, tibia; +<i>F</i>, fibula; <i>As.</i>, astragalus; <i>Ca.</i>, calcaneum; 1, distal portion of the +tarsus; i., ii., iii., iv.; metatarsal bones.) +</div> + +<p>On comparing the pelvis and hind limb of the +ornithoscelidan with that of the crocodile, on the one +side, and that of the bird, on the other (Fig. 6), it +is obvious that it represents a middle term between +the two. The pelvic bones approach the form of +<!-- [Page: 070] --> +those of the birds, and the direction of the pubis +and ischium is nearly that which is characteristic of +birds; the thigh bone, from the direction of its +head, must have lain close to the body; the tibia +has a great crest; and, immovably fitted on to its +lower end, there is a pulley-shaped bone, like that +of the bird, but remaining distinct. The lower end +of the fibula is much more slender, proportionally, +than in the crocodile. The metatarsal bones have +such a form that they fit together immovably, +though they do not enter into bony union; the third +toe is, as in the bird, longest and strongest. In +fact, the ornithoscelidan limb is comparable to that +of an unhatched chick.</p> + +<p>Taking all these facts together, it is obvious that +the view, which was entertained by Mantell and the +probability of which was demonstrated by your +own distinguished anatomist, Leidy, while much +additional evidence in the same direction has been +furnished by Professor Cope, that some of these +animals may have walked upon their hind legs, as +birds do, acquires great weight. In fact, there can +be no reasonable doubt that one of the smaller +forms of the <i>Ornithoscelida, Compsognathus</i>, the +almost entire skeleton of which has been discovered +in the Solenhofen slates, was a bipedal animal. +The parts of this skeleton are somewhat twisted +out of their natural relations, but the accompanying +<!-- [Page: 071] --> +figure gives a just view of the general form of +<i>Compsognathus</i> and of the proportions of its limbs; +which, in some respects, are more completely bird-like +than those of other <i>Ornithoscelida</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="fig7" href="images/g07.jpg"><img src="images/tg07.jpg" alt="FIG. 7.—RESTORATION OF COMPSOGNATHUS LONGIPES." title="FIG. 7.—RESTORATION OF COMPSOGNATHUS LONGIPES." width="400" height="346"/></a><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 7.—Restoration of Compsognathus Longipes.</span> +</div> + +<p>We have had to stretch the definition of the +class of birds so as to include birds with teeth +and birds with paw-like fore-limbs and long tails. +There is no evidence that <i>Compsognathus</i> possessed +feathers; but, if it did, it would be hard indeed to +say whether it should be called a reptilian bird or +an avian reptile.</p> + +<p>As <i>Compsognathus</i> walked upon its hind legs, it +must have made tracks like those of birds. And +as the structure of the limbs of several of the +<!-- [Page: 072] --> +gigantic <i>Ornithoscelida</i>, such as <i>Iguandon</i>, leads +to the conclusion that they also may have constantly, +or occasionally, assumed the same attitude, a peculiar +interest attaches to the fact that, in the Wealden +strata of England, there are to be found gigantic +footsteps, arranged in order like those of the <i>Brontozoum</i>, +and which there can be no reasonable doubt +were made by some of the <i>Ornithoscelida</i>, the remains +of which are found in the same rocks. And, +knowing that reptiles that walked upon their hind +legs and shared many of the anatomical characters of +birds did once exist, it becomes a very important +question whether the tracks in the Trias of Massachusetts, +to which I referred some time ago, and +which formerly used to be unhesitatingly ascribed +to birds, may not all have been made by Ornithoscelidan +reptiles; and whether, if we could obtain +the skeletons of the animals which made these +tracks, we should not find in them the actual steps +of the evolutional process by which reptiles gave +rise to birds.</p> + +<p>The evidential value of the facts I have brought +forward in this Lecture must be neither over nor +under estimated. It is not historical proof of the +occurrence of the evolution of birds from reptiles, +for we have no safe ground for assuming that true +birds had not made their appearance at the commencement +of the Mesozoic epoch. It is, in fact, +<!-- [Page: 073] --> +quite possible that all these more or less avi-form +reptiles of the Mesozoic epoch are not terms in +the series of progression from birds to reptiles at +all but simply the more or less modified descendants +of Palæozoic forms through which that transition +was actually effected.</p> + +<p>We are not in a position to say that the known +<i>Ornithoscelida</i> are intermediate in the order of their +appearance on the earth between reptiles and birds. +All that can be said is that, if independent evidence +of the actual occurrence of evolution is producible, +then these intercalary forms remove every difficulty +in the way of understanding what the actual steps of +the process, in the case of birds, may have been.</p> + +<p>That intercalary forms should have existed in +ancient times is a necessary consequence of the +truth of the hypothesis of evolution; and, hence, +the evidence I have laid before you in proof of +the existence of such forms, is, so far as it goes, +in favour of that hypothesis.</p> + +<p>There is another series of extinct reptiles, which +may be said to be intercalary between reptiles and +birds, in so far as they combine some of the characters +of both these groups; and, which, as they +possessed the power of flight, may seem, at first +sight, to be nearer representatives of the forms by +which the transition from the reptile to the bird +was effected, than the <i>Ornithoscelida</i>. +<!-- [Page: 074] --></p> + + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="fig8" href="images/g08.jpg"><img src="images/tg08.jpg" alt="FIG. 8.—PTERODACTYLUS SPECTABILIS (Von Meyer)." title="FIG. 8.—PTERODACTYLUS SPECTABILIS (Von Meyer)." width="291" height="400"/></a><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 8.—Pterodactylus Spectabilis</span> (Von Meyer). +</div> + +<p>These are the <i>Pterosauria</i>, or Pterodactyles, the +remains of which are met with throughout the series +of Mesozoic rocks, from the lias to the chalk, and +some of which attained a great size, their wings +having a span of eighteen or twenty feet. These +animals, in the form and proportions of the head +<!-- [Page: 075] --> +and neck relatively to the body, and in the fact that +the ends of the jaws were often, if not always, more +or less extensively ensheathed in horny beaks, +remind us of birds. Moreover, their bones contained +air cavities, rendering them specifically +lighter, as is the case in most birds. The breast-bone +was large and keeled, as in most birds and in +bats, and the shoulder girdle is strikingly similar +to that of ordinary birds. But, it seems to me, +that the special resemblance of pterodactyles to +birds ends here, unless I may add the entire absence +of teeth which characterizes the great pterodactyles +(<i>Pteranodon</i>), discovered by Professor Marsh. All +other known pterodactyles have teeth lodged in +sockets. In the vertebral column and the hind +limbs there are no special resemblances to birds, +and when we turn to the wings they are found +to be constructed on a totally different principle +from those of birds.</p> + +<p>There are four fingers. These four fingers are +large, and three of them, those which answer to +the thumb and two following fingers in my hand—are +terminated by claws, while the fourth is +enormously prolonged and converted into a great +jointed style. You see at once, from what I have +stated about a bird's wing, that there could be +nothing less like a bird's wing than this is. It +concluded by general reasoning that this finger +<!-- [Page: 076] --> +had the office of supporting a web which extended +between it and the body. An existing specimen +proves that such was really the case, and that +the pterodactyles were devoid of feathers, but that +the fingers supported a vast web like that of a +bat's wing; in fact, there can be no doubt that this +ancient reptile flew after the fashion of a bat.</p> + +<p>Thus though the pterodactyle is a reptile which +has become modified in such a manner as to enable +it to fly, and therefore, as might be expected, presents +some points of resemblance to other animals +which fly; it has, so to speak, gone off the line +which leads directly from reptiles to birds, and has +become disqualified for the changes which lead to +the characteristic organization of the latter class. +Therefore, viewed in relation to the classes of +reptiles and birds, the pterodactyles appear to me +to be, in a limited sense, intercalary forms; but they +are not even approximately linear, in the sense of +exemplifying those modifications of structure through +which the passage from the reptile to the bird took +place. +<!-- [Page: 077] --></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="LECTURE_III" id="LECTURE_III"></a>LECTURE III.</h2> + +<h3>THE DEMONSTRATIVE EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION.</h3> + + +<p>The occurrence of historical facts is said to be +demonstrated, when the evidence that they happened +is of such a character as to render the +assumption that they did not happen in the highest +degree improbable; and the question I now have +to deal with is, whether evidence in favour of the +evolution of animals of this degree of cogency is, +or is not, obtainable from the record of the succession +of living forms which is presented to us +by fossil remains.</p> + +<p>Those who have attended to the progress of +palæontology are aware that evidence of the character +which I have defined has been produced in +considerable and continually-increasing quantity +during the last few years. Indeed, the amount and +the satisfactory nature of that evidence are somewhat +surprising, when we consider the conditions +under which alone we can hope to obtain it. +<!-- [Page: 078] --></p> + +<p>It is obviously useless to seek for such evidence +except in localities in which the physical conditions +have been such as to permit of the deposit of an +unbroken, or but rarely interrupted, series of strata +through a long period of time; in which the group +of animals to be investigated has existed in such +abundance as to furnish the requisite supply of +remains; and in which, finally, the materials composing +the strata are such as to ensure the preservation +of these remains in a tolerably perfect +and undisturbed state.</p> + +<p>It so happens that the case which, at present, +most nearly fulfils all these conditions is that of +the series of extinct animals which culminates in +the Horses; by which term I mean to denote not +merely the domestic animals with which we are all +so well acquainted, but their allies, the ass, zebra, +quagga, and the like. In short, I use "horses" +as the equivalent of the technical name <i>Equidæ</i>, +which is applied to the whole group of existing +equine animals.</p> + +<p>The horse is in many ways a remarkable +animal; not least so in the fact that it presents +us with an example of one of the most perfect +pieces of machinery in the living world. In truth, +among the works of human ingenuity it cannot be +said that there is any locomotive so perfectly +adapted to its purposes, doing so much work with +<!-- [Page: 079] --> +so small a quantity of fuel, as this machine of +nature's manufacture—the horse. And, as a necessary +consequence of any sort of perfection, of +mechanical perfection as of others, you find that +the horse is a beautiful creature, one of the most +beautiful of all land-animals. Look at the perfect +balance of its form, and the rhythm and force of +its action. The locomotive machinery is, as you +are aware, resident in its slender fore and hind +limbs; they are flexible and elastic levers, capable +of being moved by very powerful muscles; and, +in order to supply the engines which work these +levers with the force which they expend, the horse +is provided with a very perfect apparatus for +grinding its food and extracting therefrom the +requisite fuel.</p> + +<p>Without attempting to take you very far into +the region of osteological detail, I must nevertheless +trouble you with some statements respecting +the anatomical structure of the horse; and, more +especially, will it be needful to obtain a general +conception of the structure of its fore and hind +limbs, and of its teeth. But I shall only touch +upon those points which are absolutely essential +to our inquiry.</p> + +<p>Let us turn in the first place to the fore-limb. +In most quadrupeds, as in ourselves, the fore-arm +contains distinct bones called the radius and the +<!-- [Page: 080] --> +ulna. The corresponding region in the Horse +seem at first to possess but one bone. Careful +observation, however, enables us to distinguish in +this bone a part which clearly answers to the upper +end of the ulna. This is closely united with the +chief mass of the bone which represents the radius, +and runs out into a slender shaft which may be +traced for some distance downwards upon the back +of the radius, and then in most cases thins out and +vanishes. It takes still more trouble to make sure +of what is nevertheless the fact, that a small part +of the lower end of the bone of the horse's fore-arm, +which is only distinct in a very young foal, +is really the lower extremity of the ulna.</p> + +<p>What is commonly called the knee of a horse +is its wrist. The "cannon bone" answers to the +middle bone of the five metacarpal bones, which +support the palm of the hand in ourselves. The +"pastern," "coronary," and "coffin" bones of veterinarians +answer to the joints of our middle +fingers, while the hoof is simply a greatly enlarged +and thickened nail. But if what lies below the +horse's "knee" thus corresponds to the middle +finger in ourselves, what has become of the four +other fingers or digits? We find in the places of +the second and fourth digits only two slender +splint-like bones, about two-thirds as long as the +cannon bone, which gradually taper to their lower +<!-- [Page: 081] --> +ends and bear no finger joints, or, as they are +termed, phalanges. Sometimes, small bony or gristly +nodules are to be found at the bases of these two +metacarpal splints, and it is probable that these +represent rudiments of the first and fifth toes. +Thus, the part of the horse's skeleton, which corresponds +with that of the human hand, contains one +overgrown middle digit, and at least two imperfect +lateral digits; and these answer, respectively, to the +third, the second, and the fourth fingers in man.</p> + +<p>Corresponding modifications are found in the +hind limb. In ourselves, and in most quadrupeds, +the leg contains two distinct bones, a large bone, the +tibia, and a smaller and more slender bone, the fibula. +But, in the horse, the fibula seems, at first, to be +reduced to its upper end; a short slender bone +united with the tibia, and ending in a point below, +occupying its place. Examination of the lower end +of a young foal's shin-bone, however, shows a distinct +portion of osseous matter, which is the lower +end of the fibula; so that the, apparently single, +lower end of the shin-bone is really made up of +the coalesced ends of the tibia and fibula, just as +the, apparently single, lower end of the fore-arm +bone is composed of the coalesced radius and +ulna.</p> + +<p>The heel of the horse is the part commonly +known as the hock. The hinder cannon bone +<!-- [Page: 082] --> +answers to the middle metatarsal bone of the +human foot, the pastern, coronary, and coffin bones, +to the middle toe bones; the hind hoof to the nail; +as in the fore-foot. And, as in the fore-foot, +there are merely two splints to represent the second +and the fourth toes. Sometimes a rudiment of a +fifth toe appears to be traceable.</p> + +<p>The teeth of a horse are not less peculiar than +its limbs. The living engine, like all others, must +be well stoked if it is to do its work; and the +horse, if it is to make good its wear and tear, and +to exert the enormous amount of force required for +its propulsion, must be well and rapidly fed. To +this end, good cutting instruments and powerful +and lasting crushers are needful. Accordingly, the +twelve cutting teeth of a horse are close-set and +concentrated in the fore part of its mouth, like so +many adzes or chisels. The grinders or molars are +large, and have an extremely complicated structure, +being composed of a number of different substances +of unequal hardness. The consequence of this is +that they wear away at different rates; and, hence, +the surface of each grinder is always as uneven +as that of a good millstone.</p> + +<p>I have said that the structure of the grinding +teeth is very complicated, the harder and the +softer parts being, as it were, interlaced with one +another. The result of this is that, as the tooth +<!-- [Page: 083] --> +wears, the crown presents a peculiar pattern, the +nature of which is not very easily deciphered at +first; but which it is important we should understand +clearly. Each grinding tooth of the upper +jaw has an <i>outer wall</i> so shaped that, on the worn +crown, it exhibits the form of two crescents, one in +front and one behind, with their concave sides +turned outwards. From the inner side of the front +crescent, a crescentic <i>front ridge</i> passes inwards +and backwards, and its inner face enlarges into a +strong longitudinal fold or <i>pillar</i>. From the front +part of the hinder crescent, a <i>back ridge</i> takes a like +direction, and also has its <i>pillar</i>.</p> + +<p>The deep interspaces or <i>valleys</i> between these +ridges and the outer wall are filled by bony substance, +which is called <i>cement</i>, and coats the whole +tooth.</p> + +<p>The pattern of the worn face of each grinding +tooth of the lower jaw is quite different. It appears +to be formed of two crescent-shaped ridges, the +convexities of which are turned outwards. The +free extremity of each crescent has a <i>pillar</i>, and +there is a large double <i>pillar</i> where the two +crescents meet. The whole structure is, as it were, +imbedded in cement, which fills up the valleys, as +in the upper grinders.</p> + +<p>If the grinding faces of an upper and of a +lower molar of the same side are applied together, +<!-- [Page: 084] --> +it will be seen that the apposed ridges are nowhere +parallel, but that they frequently cross; and that +thus, in the act of mastication, a hard surface in +the one is constantly applied to a soft surface in +the other, and <i>vice versâ</i>. They thus constitute a +grinding apparatus of great efficiency, and one which +is repaired as fast as it wears, owing to the long-continued +growth of the teeth.</p> + +<p>Some other peculiarities of the dentition of the +horse must be noticed, as they bear upon what +I shall have to say by and by. Thus the crowns +of the cutting teeth have a peculiar deep pit, which +gives rise to the well-known "mark" of the horse. +There is a large space between the outer incisors +and the front grinder. In this space the adult +male horse presents, near the incisors on each side, +above and below, a canine or "tush," which is +commonly absent in mares. In a young horse, +moreover, there is not unfrequently to be seen +in front of the first grinder, a very small tooth, +which soon falls out. If this small tooth be +counted as one, it will be found that there are seven +teeth behind the canine on each side; namely, the +small tooth in question, and the six great grinders, +among which, by an unusual peculiarity, the foremost +tooth is rather larger than those which follow +it.</p> + +<p>I have now enumerated those characteristic +<!-- [Page: 085] --> +structures of the horse which are of most importance +for the purpose we have in view.</p> + +<p>To any one who is acquainted with the morphology +of vertebrated animals, they show that the +horse deviates widely from the general structure of +mammals; and that the horse type is, in many respects, +an extreme modification of the general mammalian +plan. The least modified mammals, in fact, have +the radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, distinct +and separate. They have five distinct and complete +digits on each foot, and no one of these +digits is very much larger than the rest. Moreover, +in the least modified mammals, the total +number of the teeth is very generally forty-four, +while in horses, the usual number is forty, and in +the absence of the canines, it may be reduced to +thirty-six; the incisor teeth are devoid of the fold +seen in those of the horse: the grinders regularly +diminish in size from the middle of the series to +its front end; while their crowns are short, early +attain their full length, and exhibit simple ridges or +tubercles, in place of the complex foldings of the +horse's grinders.</p> + +<p>Hence the general principles of the hypothesis +of evolution lead to the conclusion that the horse +must have been derived from some quadruped which +possessed five complete digits on each foot; which +had the bones of the fore-arm and of the leg complete +<!-- [Page: 086] --> +and separate; and which possessed forty-four teeth, +among which the crowns of the incisors and grinders +had a simple structure; while the latter gradually +increased in size from before backwards, at any rate +in the anterior part of the series, and had short +crowns.</p> + +<p>And if the horse has been thus evolved, and the +remains of the different stages of its evolution +have been preserved, they ought to present us +with a series of forms in which the number of +the digits becomes reduced; the bones of the fore-arm +and leg gradually take on the equine condition; +and the form and arrangement of the teeth successively +approximate to those which obtain in existing +horses.</p> + +<p>Let us turn to the facts, and see how far they +fulfil these requirements of the doctrine of evolution.</p> + +<p>In Europe abundant remains of horses are found +in the Quaternary and later Tertiary strata as far +as the Pliocene formation. But these horses, which +are so common in the cave-deposits and in the +gravels of Europe, are in all essential respects like +existing horses. And that is true of all the horses +of the latter part of the Pliocene epoch. But, in +deposits which belong to the earlier Pliocene and +later Miocene epochs, and which occur in Britain, +in France, in Germany, in Greece, in India, we +<!-- [Page: 087] --> +find animals which are extremely like horses—which, +in fact, are so similar to horses, that you +may follow descriptions given in works upon the +anatomy of the horse upon the skeletons of these +animals—but which differ in some important particulars. +For example, the structure of their fore and +hind limbs is somewhat different. The bones which, +in the horse, are represented by two splints, imperfect +below, are as long as the middle metacarpal +and metatarsal bones; and, attached to the extremity +of each, is a digit with three joints of the same +general character as those of the middle digit, only +very much smaller. These small digits are so disposed +that they could have had but very little +functional importance, and they must have been +rather of the nature of the dew-claws, such as are +to be found in many ruminant animals. The +<i>Hipparion</i>, as the extinct European three-toed +horse is called, in fact, presents a foot similar to +that of the American <i>Protohippus</i> (Fig. 9), except +that, in the <i>Hipparion</i>, the smaller digits are +situated farther back, and are of smaller proportional +size, than in the <i>Protohippus</i>.</p> + +<p>The ulna is slightly more distinct than in the +horse; and the whole length of it, as a very slender +shaft, intimately united with the radius, is completely +traceable. The fibula appears to be in the same +condition as in the horse. The teeth of the +<!-- [Page: 088] --> +<i>Hipparion</i> are essentially similar to those of the +horse, but the pattern of the grinders is in some +respects a little more complex, and there is a +depression on the face of the skull in front of the +orbit, which is not seen in existing horses.</p> + +<p>In the earlier Miocene, and perhaps the later +Eocene deposits of some parts of Europe, another +extinct animal has been discovered, which Cuvier, +who first described some fragments of it, considered +to be a <i>Palæotherium</i>. But as further discoveries +threw new light upon its structure, it was recognised +as a distinct genus, under the name of <i>Anchitherium</i>.</p> + +<p>In its general characters, the skeleton of <i>Anchitherium</i> +is very similar to that of the horse. In fact, +Lartet and De Blainville called it <i>Palæotherium +equinum</i> or <i>hippoides</i>; and De Christol, in 1847, +said that it differed from <i>Hipparion</i> in little more +than the characters of its teeth, and gave it the +name of <i>Hipparitherium</i>. Each foot possesses +three complete toes; while the lateral toes are much +larger in proportion to the middle toe than in +<i>Hipparion</i>, and doubtless rested on the ground in +ordinary locomotion.</p> + +<p>The ulna is complete and quite distinct from +the radius, though firmly united with the latter. +The fibula seems also to have been complete. +Its lower end, though intimately united with that +<!-- [Page: 089] --> +of the tibia, is clearly marked off from the latter +bone.</p> + +<p>There are forty-four teeth. The incisors have +no strong pit. The canines seem to have been +well developed in both sexes. The first of the +seven grinders, which, as I have said, is frequently +absent, and, when it does exist, is small in the +horse, is a good-sized and permanent tooth, while +the grinder which follows it is but little larger than +the hinder ones. The crowns of the grinders are +short, and though the fundamental pattern of the +horse-tooth is discernible, the front and back ridges +are less curved, the accessory pillars are wanting, +and the valleys, much shallower, are not filled up +with cement.</p> + +<p>Seven years ago, when I happened to be looking +critically into the bearing of palæontological facts +upon the doctrine of evolution, it appeared to me +that the <i>Anchitherium</i>, the <i>Hipparion</i>, and the +modern horses, constitute a series in which the +modifications of structure coincide with the order +of chronological occurrence, in the manner in +which they must coincide, if the modern horses +really are the result of the gradual metamorphosis, +in the course of the Tertiary epoch, of +a less specialised ancestral form. And I found +by correspondence with the late eminent French +anatomist and palæontologist, M. Lartet, that he +<!-- [Page: 090] --> +had arrived at the same conclusion from the +same data.</p> + +<p>That the <i>Anchitherium</i> type had become metamorphosed +into the <i>Hipparion</i> type, and the latter +into the <i>Equine</i> type, in the course of that period +of time which is represented by the latter half of +the Tertiary deposits, seemed to me to be the only +explanation of the facts for which there was even +a shadow of probability.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>And, hence, I have ever since held that these +facts afford evidence of the occurrence of evolution, +which, in the sense already defined, may be termed +demonstrative.</p> + +<p>All who have occupied themselves with the +structure of <i>Anchitherium</i>, from Cuvier onwards, +have acknowledged its many points of likeness to +a well-known genus of extinct Eocene mammals, +<i>Palæotherium</i>. Indeed, as we have seen, Cuvier +regarded his remains of <i>Anchitherium</i> as those +of a species of <i>Palæotherium</i>. Hence, in attempting +to trace the pedigree of the horse beyond +the Miocene epoch and the Anchitheroid form, I +naturally sought among the various species of +<!-- [Page: 091] --> +Palæotheroid animals for its nearest ally, and I +was led to conclude that the <i>Palæotherium minus +(Plagiolophus)</i> represented the next step more nearly +than any form then known.</p> + +<p>I think that this opinion was fully justifiable; +but the progress of investigation has thrown an +unexpected light on the question, and has brought +us much nearer than could have been anticipated +to a knowledge of the true series of the progenitors +of the horse.</p> + +<p>You are all aware that, when your country was +first discovered by Europeans, there were no traces +of the existence of the horse in any part of the +American Continent. The accounts of the conquest +of Mexico dwell upon the astonishment of the +natives of that country when they first became +acquainted with that astounding phenomenon—a +man seated upon a horse. Nevertheless, the investigations +of American geologists have proved +that the remains of horses occur in the most +superficial deposits of both North and South +America, just as they do in Europe. Therefore, +for some reason or other—no feasible suggestion +on that subject, so far as I know, has been made—the +horse must have died out on this continent +at some period preceding the discovery of America. +Of late years there has been discovered in your +Western Territories that marvellous accumulation +<!-- [Page: 092] --> +of deposits, admirably adapted for the preservation +of organic remains, to which I referred the other +evening, and which furnishes us with a consecutive +series of records of the fauna of the older half of +the Tertiary epoch, for which we have no parallel in +Europe. They have yielded fossils in an excellent +state of conservation and in unexampled number +and variety. The researches of Leidy and others +have shown that forms allied to the <i>Hipparion</i> +and the <i>Anchitherium</i> are to be found among +these remains. But it is only recently that the +admirably conceived and most thoroughly and +patiently worked-out investigations of Professor +Marsh have given us a just idea of the vast fossil +wealth, and of the scientific importance, of these +deposits. I have had the advantage of glancing +over the collections in Yale Museum; and I can +truly say that, so far as my knowledge extends, +there is no collection from any one region and series +of strata comparable, for extent, or for the care with +which the remains have been got together, or for +their scientific importance, to the series of fossils +which he has deposited there. This vast collection +has yielded evidence bearing upon the question +of the pedigree of the horse of the most striking +character. It tends to show that we must look to +America, rather than to Europe, for the original seat +of the equine series; and that the archaic forms and +<!-- [Page: 093] --> +successive modifications of the horse's ancestry are +far better preserved here than in Europe.</p> + +<p>Professor Marsh's kindness has enabled me to +put before you a diagram, every figure in which is +an actual representation of some specimen which +is to be seen at Yale at this present time +(Fig. 9).</p> + +<p>The succession of forms which he has brought together carries us from the top + to the bottom of the Tertiaries. Firstly, there is the true horse. Next we have + the American Pliocene form of the horse (<i>Pliohippus</i>); in the conformation + of its limbs it presents some very slight deviations from the ordinary horse, + and the crowns of the grinding teeth are shorter. Then comes the <i>Protohippus</i>, + which represents the European <i>Hipparion</i>, having one large digit and two + small ones on each foot, and the general characters of the fore-arm and leg + to which I have referred. But it is more valuable than the European <i>Hipparion</i> + for the reason that it is devoid of some of the peculiarities of that form—peculiarities + which tend to show that the European <i>Hipparion</i> is rather a member of + a collateral branch, than a form in the direct line of succession. Next, in + the backward order in time, is the <i>Miohippus</i>, which corresponds pretty + nearly with the <i>Anchitherium</i> of Europe. It presents three complete toes—one + large median and two smaller + <!-- [Page: 094] --> + <!-- [Page: 095] --> + lateral ones; and there is a rudiment of that digit, which answers to the little + finger of the human hand.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a id="fig9" href="images/g09.jpg"><img src="images/tg09.jpg" alt="FIG. 9" title="FIG. 9" width="228" height="400" /></a><br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 9</span> +</div> + +<p>The European record of the pedigree of the horse +stops here; in the American Tertiaries, on the +contrary, the series of ancestral equine forms is +continued into the Eocene formations. An older +Miocene form, termed <i>Mesohippus</i>, has three toes +in front, with a large splint-like rudiment representing +the little finger; and three toes behind. +The radius and ulna, the tibia and the fibula, are +distinct, and the short crowned molar teeth are +anchitherioid in pattern.</p> + +<p>But the most important discovery of all is the +<i>Orohippus</i>, which comes from the Eocene formation, +and is the oldest member of the equine series, as +yet known. Here we find four complete toes on +the front-limb, three toes on the hind-limb, a well-developed +ulna, a well-developed fibula, and short-crowned +grinders of simple pattern.</p> + +<p>Thus, thanks to these important researches, it +has become evident that, so far as our present +knowledge extends, the history of the horse-type +is exactly and precisely that which could have been +predicted from a knowledge of the principles of +evolution. And the knowledge we now possess +justifies us completely in the anticipation, that when +the still lower Eocene deposits, and those which +<!-- [Page: 096] --> +belong to the Cretaceous epoch, have yielded up +their remains of ancestral equine animals, we shall +find, first, a form with four complete toes and a +rudiment of the innermost or first digit in front, +with, probably, a rudiment of the fifth digit in the +hind foot;<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> while, in still older forms, the series of +the digits will be more and more complete, until +we come to the five-toed animals, in which, if the +doctrine of evolution is well founded, the whole +series must have taken its origin.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p>That is what I mean by demonstrative evidence +of evolution. An inductive hypothesis is +said to be demonstrated when the facts are +shown to be in entire accordance with it. If +that is not scientific proof, there are no merely +inductive conclusions which can be said to be +proved. And the doctrine of evolution, at the +present time, rests upon exactly as secure a foundation +as the Copernican theory of the motions +of the heavenly bodies did at the time of its promulgation. +Its logical basis is precisely of the +same character—the coincidence of the observed +facts with theoretical requirements.</p> + +<p>The only way of escape, if it be a way of escape, +<!-- [Page: 097] --> +from the conclusions which I have just indicated, is +the supposition that all these different equine forms +have been created separately at separate epochs of +time; and, I repeat, that of such an hypothesis as +this there neither is, nor can be, any scientific evidence; +and, assuredly, so far as I know, there is none +which is supported, or pretends to be supported, by +evidence or authority of any other kind. I can but +think that the time will come when such suggestions +as these, such obvious attempts to escape the +force of demonstration, will be put upon the same +footing as the supposition made by some writers, +who are, I believe, not completely extinct at +present, that fossils are mere simulacra, are no +indications of the former existence of the animals +to which they seem to belong; but that they are +either sports of Nature, or special creations, intended—as +I heard suggested the other day—to +test our faith.</p> + +<p>In fact, the whole evidence is in favour of evolution, +and there is none against it. And I say +this, although perfectly well aware of the seeming +difficulties which have been built up upon what +appears to the uninformed to be a solid foundation. +I meet constantly with the argument that the doctrine +of evolution cannot be well founded, because +it requires the lapse of a very vast period of time; +the duration of life upon the earth, thus +<!-- [Page: 098] --> +implied, is inconsistent with the conclusions arrived +at by the astronomer and the physicist. I may +venture to say that I am familiar with those +conclusions, inasmuch as some years ago, when +President of the Geological Society of London, +I took the liberty of criticising them, and of +showing in what respects, as it appeared to me, +they lacked complete and thorough demonstration. +But, putting that point aside, suppose that, as the +astronomers, or some of them, and some physical +philosophers, tell us, it is impossible that life could +have endured upon the earth for as long a period +as is required by the doctrine of evolution—supposing +that to be proved—I desire to be informed, +what is the foundation for the statement that +evolution does require so great a time? The +biologist knows nothing whatever of the amount +of time which may be required for the process of +evolution. It is a matter of fact that the equine forms +which I have described to you occur, in the order +stated, in the Tertiary formations. But I have not +the slightest means of guessing whether it took +a million of years, or ten millions, or a hundred +millions, or a thousand millions of years, to give +rise to that series of changes. A biologist has +no means of arriving at any conclusion as to the +amount of time which may be needed for a certain +quantity of organic change. He takes his time +<!-- [Page: 099] --> +from the geologist. The geologist, considering +the rate at which deposits are formed and the +rate at which denudation goes on upon the surface +of the earth, arrives at more or less justifiable +conclusions as to the time which is required for +the deposit of a certain thickness of rocks; and if +he tells me that the Tertiary formations required +500,000,000 years for their deposit, I suppose he +has good ground for what he says, and I take that +as a measure of the duration of the evolution of +the horse from the <i>Orohippus</i> up to its present +condition. And, if he is right, undoubtedly evolution +is a very slow process, and requires a great +deal of time. But suppose, now, that an astronomer +or a physicist—for instance, my friend Sir +William Thomson—tells me that my geological +authority is quite wrong; and that he has weighty +evidence to show that life could not possibly have +existed upon the surface of the earth 500,000,000 +years ago, because the earth would have then been +too hot to allow of life, my reply is: "That +is not my affair; settle that with the geologist, +and when you have come to an agreement among +yourselves I will adopt your conclusion." We +take our time from the geologists and physicists; +and it is monstrous that, having taken our time +from the physical philosopher's clock, the physical +philosopher should turn round upon us, and say +<!-- [Page: 100] --> +we are too fast or too slow. What we desire +to know is, is it a fact that evolution took place? +As to the amount of time which evolution may +have occupied, we are in the hands of the physicist +and the astronomer, whose business it is to +deal with those questions.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p>I have now, ladies and gentlemen, arrived at +the conclusion of the task which I set before +myself when I undertook to deliver these lectures. +My purpose has been, not to enable those among +you who have paid no attention to these subjects +before, to leave this room in a condition to decide +upon the validity or the invalidity of the hypothesis +of evolution; but I have desired to put before you +the principles upon which all hypotheses respecting +the history of Nature must be judged; and furthermore, +to make apparent the nature of the evidence +and the amount of cogency which is to be expected +and may be obtained from it. To this end, +I have not hesitated to regard you as genuine +students and persons desirous of knowing the +truth. I have not shrunk from taking you through +long discussions, that I fear may have sometimes +tried your patience; and I have inflicted upon you +details which were indispensable, but which may +well have been wearisome. But I shall rejoice—I +shall consider that I have done you the greatest +<!-- [Page: 101] --> +service, which it was in my power to do—if I have +thus convinced you that the great question which +we have been discussing is not one to be dealt +with by rhetorical flourishes, or by loose and +superficial talk; but that it requires the keen +attention of the trained intellect and the patience +of the accurate observer.</p> + +<p>When I commenced this series of lectures, I did +not think it necessary to preface them with a prologue, +such as might be expected from a stranger +and a foreigner; for during my brief stay in your +country, I have found it very hard to believe that +a stranger could be possessed of so many friends, +and almost harder that a foreigner could express +himself in your language in such a way as to be, +to all appearance, so readily intelligible. So +far as I can judge, that most intelligent, and, +perhaps, I may add, most singularly active and +enterprising body, your press reporters, do not seem +to have been deterred by my accent from giving +the fullest account of everything that I happen +to have said.</p> + +<p>But the vessel in which I take my departure +to-morrow morning is even now ready to slip +her moorings; I awake from my delusion that +I am other than a stranger and a foreigner. I +am ready to go back to my place and country; +but, before doing so, let me, by way of epilogue, +<!-- [Page: 102] --> +tender to you my most hearty thanks for the kind +and cordial reception which you have accorded +to me; and let me thank you still more for that +which is the greatest compliment which can be +afforded to any person in my position—the continuous +and undisturbed attention which you have +bestowed upon the long argument which I have +had the honour to lay before you.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> + The absence of any keel on the breast-bone and some other osteological peculiarities, + observed by Professor Marsh, however, suggest that <i>Hesperornis</i> may be + a modification of a less specialised group of birds than that to which these + existing aquatic birds belong.</div> + + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> + I use the word "type" because it is highly probable that many forms of <i>Anchitherium</i>-like + and <i>Hipparion</i>-like animals existed in the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, + just as many species of the horse tribe exist now; and it is highly improbable + that the particular species of <i>Anchitherium</i> or <i>Hipparion</i>, which + happen to have been discovered, should be precisely those which have formed + part of the direct line of the horse's pedigree.</p> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> + Since this lecture was delivered, Professor Marsh has discovered a new genus + of equine mammals (<i>Eohippus</i>) from the lowest Eocene deposits of the + West, which corresponds very nearly to this description.—<i>American + Journal of Science</i>, November, 1876.</p> +</div> + +<!-- [Page: 103] --> + +<hr /> +<h2>BALTIMORE.</h2> + +<h1><a name="BALTIMORE" id="BALTIMORE"></a>ADDRESS ON UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h1> + + +<p>The actual work of the University founded in this +city by the well-considered munificence of Johns +Hopkins commences to-morrow, and among the +many marks of confidence and good-will which +have been bestowed upon me in the United +States, there is none which I value more highly +than that conferred by the authorities of the +University when they invited me to deliver an +address on such an occasion.</p> + +<p>For the event which has brought us together +is, in many respects, unique. A vast property +is handed over to an administrative body, hampered +<!-- [Page: 106] --> +by no conditions save these;—That the +principal shall not be employed in building: that +the funds shall be appropriated, in equal proportions, +to the promotion of natural knowledge and +to the alleviation of the bodily sufferings of mankind; +and, finally, that neither political nor +ecclesiastical sectarianism shall be permitted to +disturb the impartial distribution of the testator's +benefactions.</p> + +<p>In my experience of life a truth which sounds +very much like a paradox has often asserted itself; +namely, that a man's worst difficulties begin when +he is able to do as he likes. So long as a man +is struggling with obstacles he has an excuse for +failure or shortcoming; but when fortune removes +them all and gives him the power of doing as +he thinks best, then comes the time of trial. +There is but one right, and the possibilities of +wrong are infinite. I doubt not that the trustees +of the Johns Hopkins University felt the full +force of this truth when they entered on the +administration of their trust a year and a half +ago; and I can but admire the activity and +resolution which have enabled them, aided by the +able president whom they have selected, to lay +down the great outlines of their plan, and carry +it thus far into execution. It is impossible to +study that plan without perceiving that great care, +<!-- [Page: 107] --> +forethought, and sagacity, have been bestowed +upon it, and that it demands the most respectful +consideration. I have been endeavouring to ascertain +how far the principles which underlie it +are in accordance with those which have been +established in my own mind by much and long-continued +thought upon educational questions. +Permit me to place before you the result of my +reflections.</p> + +<p>Under one aspect a university is a particular +kind of educational institution, and the views +which we may take of the proper nature of a +university are corollaries from those which we +hold respecting education in general. I think it +must be admitted that the school should prepare +for the university, and that the university should +crown the edifice, the foundations of which are +laid in the school. University education should +not be something distinct from elementary education, +but should be the natural outgrowth and +development of the latter. Now I have a very +clear conviction as to what elementary education +ought to be; what it really may be, when properly +organised; and what I think it will be, before +many years have passed over our heads, in England +and in America. Such education should enable +an average boy of fifteen or sixteen to read +and write his own language with ease and +<!-- [Page: 108] --> +accuracy, and with a sense of literary excellence +derived from the study of our classic writers: +to have a general acquaintance with the history +of his own country and with the great laws of +social existence; to have acquired the rudiments +of the physical and psychological sciences, and +a fair knowledge of elementary arithmetic and +geometry. He should have obtained an acquaintance +with logic rather by example than by precept; +while the acquirement of the elements of music +and drawing should have been pleasure rather +than work.</p> + +<p>It may sound strange to many ears if I venture +to maintain the proposition that a young person, +educated thus far, has had a liberal, though perhaps +not a full, education. But it seems to me +that such training as that to which I have referred +may be termed liberal, in both the senses in +which that word is employed, with perfect accuracy. +In the first place, it is liberal in breadth. It +extends over the whole ground of things to be +known and of faculties to be trained, and it gives +equal importance to the two great sides of human +activity—art and science. In the second place, +it is liberal in the sense of being an education +fitted for free men; for men to whom every career +is open, and from whom their country may demand +that they should be fitted to perform the duties +<!-- [Page: 109] --> +of any career. I cannot too strongly impress +upon you the fact that, with such a primary education +as this, and with no more than is to be +obtained by building strictly upon its lines, a man +of ability may become a great writer or speaker, +a statesman, a lawyer, a man of science, painter, +sculptor, architect, or musician. That even development +of all a man's faculties, which is what properly +constitutes culture, may be effected by such an education, +while it opens the way for the indefinite +strengthening of any special capabilities with +which he may be gifted.</p> + +<p>In a country like this, where most men have +to carve out their own fortunes and devote themselves +early to the practical affairs of life, comparatively +few can hope to pursue their studies +up to, still less beyond, the age of manhood. But +it is of vital importance to the welfare of the +community that those who are relieved from the +need of making a livelihood, and still more, those +who are stirred by the divine impulses of intellectual +thirst or artistic genius, should be enabled to +devote themselves to the higher service of their +kind, as centres of intelligence, interpreters of +nature, or creators of new forms of beauty. And +it is the function of a university to furnish such +men with the means of becoming that which it is +their privilege and duty to be. To this end +<!-- [Page: 110] --> +the university need cover no ground foreign to +that occupied by the elementary school. Indeed +it cannot; for the elementary instruction which +I have referred to embraces all the kinds of real +knowledge and mental activity possible to man. +The university can add no new departments of +knowledge, can offer no new fields of mental +activity; but what it can do is to intensify and +specialise the instruction in each department. +Thus literature and philology, represented in the +elementary school by English alone, in the university +will extend over the ancient and modern +languages. History, which, like charity, best +begins at home, but, like charity, should not end +there, will ramify into anthropology, archæology, +political history, and geography, with the history +of the growth of the human mind and of its products +in the shape of philosophy, science, and art. +And the university will present to the student +libraries, museums of antiquities, collections of +coins, and the like, which will efficiently subserve +these studies. Instruction in the elements of +social economy, a most essential, but hitherto +sadly-neglected part of elementary education, will +develop in the university into political economy, +sociology, and law. Physical science will have +its great divisions of physical geography, with +geology and astronomy; physics; chemistry and +<!-- [Page: 111] --> +biology; represented not merely by professors and +their lectures, but by laboratories, in which the +students, under guidance of demonstrators, will +work out facts for themselves and come into that +direct contact with reality which constitutes the +fundamental distinction of scientific education. +Mathematics will soar into its highest regions; +while the high peaks of philosophy may be scaled +by those whose aptitude for abstract thought has +been awakened by elementary logic. Finally, +schools of pictorial and plastic art, of architecture, +and of music, will offer a thorough discipline +in the principles and practice of art to those in +whom lies nascent the rare faculty of æsthetic +representation, or the still rarer powers of creative +genius.</p> + +<p>The primary school and the university are the +alpha and omega of education. Whether institutions +intermediate between these (so-called secondary +schools) should exist, appears to me to be a +question of practical convenience. If such schools +are established, the important thing is that they +should be true intermediaries between the primary +school and the university, keeping on the wide +track of general culture, and not sacrificing one +branch of knowledge for another.</p> + +<p>Such appear to me to be the broad outlines of the +relations which the university, regarded as a place +<!-- [Page: 112] --> +of education, ought to bear to the school, but a +number of points of detail require some consideration, +however briefly and imperfectly I can deal +with them. In the first place, there is the important +question of the limitations which should be +fixed to the entrance into the university; or, what +qualifications should be required of those who +propose to take advantage of the higher training +offered by the university. On the one hand, it +is obviously desirable that the time and opportunities +of the university should not be wasted +in conferring such elementary instruction as can +be obtained elsewhere; while, on the other hand, +it is no less desirable that the higher instruction +of the university should be made accessible to +every one who can take advantage of it, although +he may not have been able to go through any +very extended course of education. My own +feeling is distinctly against any absolute and defined +preliminary examination, the passing of which shall +be an essential condition of admission to the +university. I would admit to the university any one +who could be reasonably expected to profit by the +instruction offered to him; and I should be inclined, +on the whole, to test the fitness of the student, +not by examination before he enters the university, +but at the end of his first term of study. If, on +examination in the branches of knowledge to which +<!-- [Page: 113] --> +he has devoted himself, he show himself deficient +in industry or in capacity, it will be best for the +university and best for himself, to prevent him +from pursuing a vocation for which he is obviously +unfit. And I hardly know of any other method +than this by which his fitness or unfitness can be +safely ascertained, though no doubt a good deal may +be done, not by formal cut and dried examination, +but by judicious questioning, at the outset of his +career.</p> + +<p>Another very important and difficult practical +question is, whether a definite course of study shall +be laid down for those who enter the university; +whether a curriculum shall be prescribed; or +whether the student shall be allowed to range at +will among the subjects which are open to him. +And this question is inseparably connected with +another, namely, the conferring of degrees. It is +obviously impossible that any student should pass +through the whole of the series of courses of +instruction offered by a university. If a degree +is to be conferred as a mark of proficiency in +knowledge, it must be given on the ground that +the candidate is proficient in a certain fraction of +those studies; and then will arise the necessity +of insuring an equivalency of degrees, so that the +course by which a degree is obtained shall mark +approximately an equal amount of labour and of +<!-- [Page: 114] --> +acquirements, in all cases. But this equivalency +can hardly be secured in any other way than by +prescribing a series of definite lines of study. +This is a matter which will require grave consideration. +The important points to bear in mind, +I think, are that there should not be too many +subjects in the curriculum, and that the aim should +be the attainment of thorough and sound knowledge +of each.</p> + +<p>One half of the Johns Hopkins bequest is +devoted to the establishment of a hospital, and +it was the desire of the testator that the university +and the hospital should co-operate in the promotion +of medical education. The trustees will unquestionably +take the best advice that is to be +had as to the construction and administration of +the hospital. In respect to the former point, +they will doubtless remember that a hospital +may be so arranged as to kill more than it cures; +and, in regard to the latter, that a hospital may +spread the spirit of pauperism among the well-to-do, +as well as relieve the sufferings of the +destitute. It is not for me to speak on these +topics—rather let me confine myself to the one +matter on which my experience as a student of +medicine, and an examiner of long standing, who +has taken a great interest in the subject of medical +education, may entitle me to a hearing. I mean +<!-- [Page: 115] --> +the nature of medical education itself, and the +co-operation of the university in its promotion.</p> + +<p>What is the object of medical education? It +is to enable the practitioner, on the one hand, to +prevent disease by his knowledge of hygiene; +on the other hand, to divine its nature, and to +alleviate or cure it, by his knowledge of pathology, +therapeutics, and practical medicine. That is his +business in life, and if he has not a thorough +and practical knowledge of the conditions of health, +of the causes which tend to the establishment +of disease, of the meaning of symptoms, and of +the uses of medicines and operative appliances, +he is incompetent, even if he were the best +anatomist, or physiologist, or chemist, that ever +took a gold medal or won a prize certificate. +This is one great truth respecting medical education. +Another is, that all practice in medicine is based +upon theory of some sort or other; and therefore, +that it is desirable to have such theory in the +closest possible accordance with fact. The veriest +empiric who gives a drug in one case because he +has seen it do good in another of apparently the +same sort, acts upon the theory that similarity +of superficial symptoms means similarity of lesions; +which, by the way, is perhaps as wild an hypothesis +as could be invented. To understand the nature +of disease we must understand health, and the +<!-- [Page: 116] --> +understanding of the healthy body means the +having a knowledge of its structure and of the +way in which its manifold actions are performed, +which is what is technically termed human anatomy +and human physiology. The physiologist again +must needs possess an acquaintance with physics +and chemistry, inasmuch as physiology is, to a great +extent, applied physics and chemistry. For ordinary +purposes a limited amount of such knowledge is all +that is needful; but for the pursuit of the higher +branches of physiology no knowledge of these +branches of science can be too extensive, or too +profound. Again, what we call therapeutics, which +has to do with the action of drugs and medicines +on the living organism, is, strictly speaking, a +branch of experimental physiology, and is daily +receiving a greater and greater experimental development.</p> + +<p>The third great fact which is to be taken into +consideration in dealing with medical education, +is that the practical necessities of life do not, as +a rule, allow aspirants to medical practice to give +more than three, or it may be four years to their +studies. Let us put it at four years, and then +reflect that, in the course of this time, a young +man fresh from school has to acquaint himself with +medicine, surgery, obstetrics, therapeutics, pathology, +hygiene, as well as with the anatomy and the +<!-- [Page: 117] --> +physiology of the human body; and that his +knowledge should be of such a character that it +can be relied upon in any emergency, and always +ready for practical application. Consider, in addition, +that the medical practitioner may be called +upon, at any moment, to give evidence in a court +of justice in a criminal case; and that it is therefore +well that he should know something of the laws +of evidence, and of what we call medical jurisprudence. +On a medical certificate, a man may +be taken from his home and from his business +and confined in a lunatic asylum; surely, therefore, +it is desirable that the medical practitioner should +have some rational and clear conceptions as to +the nature and symptoms of mental disease. Bearing +in mind all these requirements of medical education, +you will admit that the burden on the young +aspirant for the medical profession is somewhat +of the heaviest, and that it needs some care to +prevent his intellectual back from being broken.</p> + +<p>Those who are acquainted with the existing +systems of medical education will observe that, +long as is the catalogue of studies which I have +enumerated, I have omitted to mention several +that enter into the usual medical curriculum of the +present day. I have said not a word about zoology, +comparative anatomy, botany, or materia medica. +Assuredly this is from no light estimate of the +<!-- [Page: 118] --> +value or importance of such studies in themselves. +It may be taken for granted that I should be the +last person in the world to object to the teaching +of zoology, or comparative anatomy, in themselves; +but I have the strongest feeling that, considering +the number and the gravity of those studies through +which a medical man must pass, if he is to be +competent to discharge the serious duties which +devolve upon him, subjects which lie so remote as +these do from his practical pursuits should be +rigorously excluded. The young man, who has +enough to do in order to acquire such familiarity +with the structure of the human body as will enable +him to perform the operations of surgery, ought +not, in my judgment, to be occupied with investigations +into the anatomy of crabs and starfishes. +Undoubtedly the doctor should know the common +poisonous plants of his own country when he sees +them; but that knowledge may be obtained by a +few hours devoted to the examination of specimens +of such plants, and the desirableness of such +knowledge is no justification, to my mind, for +spending three months over the study of systematic +botany. Again, materia medica, so far as it is a +knowledge of drugs, is the business of the druggist. +In all other callings the necessity of the division of +labour is fully recognised, and it is absurd to require +of the medical man that he should not avail himself +<!-- [Page: 119] --> +of the special knowledge of those whose business +it is to deal in the drugs which he uses. It is all +very well that the physician should know that +castor oil comes from a plant, and castoreum from +an animal, and how they are to be prepared; but +for all the practical purposes of his profession that +knowledge is not of one whit more value, has no +more relevancy, than the knowledge of how the +steel of his scalpel is made.</p> + +<p>All knowledge is good. It is impossible to say +that any fragment of knowledge, however insignificant +or remote from one's ordinary pursuits, may +not some day be turned to account. But in medical +education, above all things, it is to be recollected +that, in order to know a little well, one must be +content to be ignorant of a great deal.</p> + +<p>Let it not be supposed that I am proposing to +narrow medical education, or, as the cry is, to lower +the standard of the profession. Depend upon it +there is only one way of really ennobling any calling, +and that is to make those who pursue it real +masters of their craft, men who can truly do that +which they profess to be able to do, and which they +are credited with being able to do by the public. +And there is no position so ignoble as that of the +so-called "liberally-educated practitioner," who, as +Talleyrand said of his physician, "Knows everything, +even a little physic;" who may be able to +<!-- [Page: 120] --> +read Galen in the original; who knows all the plants, +from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop upon the +wall; but who finds himself, with the issues of life +and death in his hands, ignorant, blundering, and +bewildered, because of his ignorance of the essential +and fundamental truths upon which practice must +be based. Moreover, I venture to say, that any +man who has seriously studied all the essential +branches of medical knowledge; who has the +needful acquaintance with the elements of physical +science; who has been brought by medical jurisprudence +into contact with law; whose study of insanity +has taken him into the fields of psychology; +has <i>ipso facto</i> received a liberal education.</p> + +<p>Having lightened the medical curriculum by +culling out of it everything which is unessential, +we may next consider whether something may not +be done to aid the medical student toward the +acquirement of real knowledge by modifying the +system of examination. In England, within my +recollection, it was the practice to require of the +medical student attendance on lectures upon the most +diverse topics during three years; so that it often +happened that he would have to listen, in the course +of a day, to four or five lectures upon totally different +subjects, in addition to the hours given to dissection +and to hospital practice: and he was required to +keep all the knowledge he could pick up, in this +<!-- [Page: 121] --> +distracting fashion, at examination point, until, at the +end of three years, he was set down to a table and +questioned pell-mell upon all the different matters +with which he had been striving to make acquaintance. +A worse system and one more calculated to +obstruct the acquisition of sound knowledge and to +give full play to the "crammer" and the "grinder" +could hardly have been devised by human ingenuity. +Of late years great reforms have taken place. +Examinations have been divided so as to diminish +the number of subjects among which the attention +has to be distributed. Practical examination has +been largely introduced; but there still remains, +even under the present system, too much of the old +evil inseparable from the contemporaneous pursuit +of a multiplicity of diverse studies.</p> + +<p>Proposals have recently been made to get rid +of general examinations altogether, to permit the +student to be examined in each subject at the end +of his attendance on the class; and then, in case of +the result being satisfactory, to allow him to have +done with it; and I may say that this method has +been pursued for many years in the Royal School of +Mines in London, and has been found to work very +well. It allows the student to concentrate his mind +upon what he is about for the time being, and then +to dismiss it. Those who are occupied in intellectual +work, will, I think, agree with me that it is +<!-- [Page: 122] --> +important, not so much to know a thing, as to have +known it, and known it thoroughly. If you have +once known a thing in this way it is easy to renew +your knowledge when you have forgotten it; and +when you begin to take the subject up again, it +slides back upon the familiar grooves with great +facility.</p> + +<p>Lastly comes the question as to how the university +may co-operate in advancing medical education. +A medical school is strictly a technical +school—a school in which a practical profession is +taught—while a university ought to be a place in +which knowledge is obtained without direct reference +to professional purposes. It is clear, therefore, that +a university and its antecedent, the school, may best +co-operate with the medical school by making due +provision for the study of those branches of knowledge +which lie at the foundation of medicine.</p> + +<p>At present, young men come to the medical +schools without a conception of even the elements +of physical science; they learn, for the first time, +that there are such sciences as physics, chemistry, +and physiology, and are introduced to anatomy +as a new thing. It may be safely said that, with +a large proportion of medical students, much of +the first session is wasted in learning how to learn—in +familiarising themselves with utterly strange +conceptions, and in awakening their dormant and +<!-- [Page: 123] --> +wholly untrained powers of observation and of +manipulation. It is difficult to overestimate the +magnitude of the obstacles which are thrown in +the way of scientific training by the existing system +of school education. Not only are men trained +in mere book-work, ignorant of what observation +means, but the habit of learning from books alone +begets a disgust of observation. The book-learned +student will rather trust to what he sees in a book +than to the witness of his own eyes.</p> + +<p>There is not the least reason why this +should be so, and, in fact, when elementary +education becomes that which I have assumed it +ought to be, this state of things will no longer +exist. There is not the slightest difficulty in +giving sound elementary instruction in physics, +in chemistry, and in the elements of human +physiology, in ordinary schools. In other words, +there is no reason why the student should not +come to the medical school, provided with as +much knowledge of these several sciences as he +ordinarily picks up, in the course of his first year +of attendance, at the medical school.</p> + +<p>I am not saying this without full practical +justification for the statement. For the last +eighteen years we have had in England a system +of elementary science teaching carried out under +the auspices of the Science and Art Department, +<!-- [Page: 124] --> +by which elementary scientific instruction is made +readily accessible to the scholars of all the elementary +schools in the country. Commencing +with small beginnings, carefully developed and +improved, that system now brings up for examination +as many as seven thousand scholars in +the subject of human physiology alone. I can +say that, out of that number, a large proportion +have acquired a fair amount of substantial knowledge; +and that no inconsiderable percentage show +as good an acquaintance with human physiology +as used to be exhibited by the average candidates +for medical degrees in the University of London, +when I was first an examiner there twenty years +ago; and quite as much knowledge as is possessed +by the ordinary student of medicine at the present +day. I am justified, therefore, in looking forward +to the time when the student who proposes to +devote himself to medicine will come, not absolutely +raw and inexperienced as he is at present, +but in a certain state of preparation for further +study; and I look to the university to help him +still further forward in that stage of preparation, +through the organisation of its biological department. +Here the student will find means of +acquainting himself with the phenomena of life +in their broadest acceptation. He will study not +botany and zoology, which, as I have said, would +<!-- [Page: 125] --> +take him too far away from his ultimate goal; +but, by duly arranged instruction, combined with +work in the laboratory upon the leading types of +animal and vegetable life, he will lay a broad, and +at the same time solid, foundation of biological +knowledge; he will come to his medical studies +with a comprehension of the great truths of +morphology and of physiology, with his hands +trained to dissect and his eyes taught to see. I +have no hesitation in saying that such preparation +is worth a full year added on to the medical +curriculum. In other words, it will set free that +much time for attention to those studies which +bear directly upon the student's most grave and +serious duties as a medical practitioner.</p> + +<p>Up to this point I have considered only the +teaching aspect of your great foundation, that +function of the university in virtue of which it +plays the part of a reservoir of ascertained truth, +so far as our symbols can ever interpret nature. +All can learn; all can drink of this lake. It is +given to few to add to the store of knowledge, +to strike new springs of thought, or to shape +new forms of beauty. But so sure as it is that +men live not by bread, but by ideas, so sure is +it that the future of the world lies in the hands +of those who are able to carry the interpretation +of nature a step further than their predecessors; +<!-- [Page: 126] --> +so certain is it that the highest function of a +university is to seek out those men, cherish them, +and give their ability to serve their kind full +play.</p> + +<p>I rejoice to observe that the encouragement of +research occupies so prominent a place in your +official documents, and in the wise and liberal +inaugural address of your president. This subject +of the encouragement, or, as it is sometimes called, +the endowment of research, has of late years +greatly exercised the minds of men in England. +It was one of the main topics of discussion by +the members of the Royal Commission of whom +I was one, and who not long since issued their +report, after five years' labour. Many seem to +think that this question is mainly one of money; +that you can go into the market and buy research, +and that supply will follow demand, as in the +ordinary course of commerce. This view does +not commend itself to my mind. I know of no +more difficult practical problem than the discovery +of a method of encouraging and supporting the +original investigator without opening the door to +nepotism and jobbery. My own conviction is +admirably summed up in the passage of your +president's address, "that the best investigators +are usually those who have also the responsibilities +of instruction, gaining thus the incitement of +<!-- [Page: 127] --> +colleagues, the encouragement of pupils, and the +observation of the public."</p> + +<p>At the commencement of this address I ventured +to assume that I might, if I thought fit, criticise +the arrangements which have been made by the +board of trustees, but I confess that I have little to +do but to applaud them. Most wise and sagacious +seems to me the determination not to build for +the present. It has been my fate to see great +educational funds fossilise into mere bricks and +mortar, in the petrifying springs of architecture, +with nothing left to work the institution they were +intended to support. A great warrior is said to +have made a desert and called it peace. Administrators +of educational funds have sometimes +made a palace and called it a university. If I +may venture to give advice in a matter which +lies out of my proper competency, I would say +that whenever you do build, get an honest bricklayer, +and make him build you just such rooms as +you really want, leaving ample space for expansion. +And a century hence, when the Baltimore and +Ohio shares are at one thousand premium, and +you have endowed all the professors you need, +and built all the laboratories that are wanted, and +have the best museum and the finest library that +can be imagined; then, if you have a few hundred +thousand dollars you don't know what to do with, +<!-- [Page: 128] --> +send for an architect and tell him to put up a +façade. If American is similar to English experience, +any other course will probably lead you +into having some stately structure, good for your +architect's fame, but not in the least what you +want.</p> + +<p>It appears to me that what I have ventured to +lay down as the principles which should govern +the relations of a university to education in general, +are entirely in accordance with the measures you +have adopted. You have set no restrictions upon +access to the instruction you propose to give; +you have provided that such instruction, either +as given by the university or by associated institutions, +should cover the field of human intellectual +activity. You have recognised the importance of +encouraging research. You propose to provide +means by which young men, who may be full of +zeal for a literary or for a scientific career, but who +also may have mistaken aspiration for inspiration, +may bring their capacities to a test, and give their +powers a fair trial. If such a one fail, his endowment +terminates, and there is no harm done. +If he succeed, you may give power of flight to the +genius of a Davy or a Faraday, a Carlyle or a +Locke, whose influence on the future of his fellow-men +shall be absolutely incalculable.</p> + +<p>You have enunciated the principle that "the +<!-- [Page: 129] --> +glory of the university should rest upon the +character of the teachers and scholars, and not +upon their numbers or buildings constructed for +their use." And I look upon it as an essential +and most important feature of your plan that the +income of the professors and teachers shall be +independent of the number of students whom they +can attract. In this way you provide against the +danger, patent elsewhere, of finding attempts at +improvement obstructed by vested interests; and, +in the department of medical education especially, +you are free of the temptation to set loose upon +the world men utterly incompetent to perform the +serious and responsible duties of their profession.</p> + +<p>It is a delicate matter for a stranger to the +practical working of your institutions, like myself, +to pretend to give an opinion as to the organisation +of your governing power. I can conceive nothing +better than that it should remain as it is, if you can +secure a succession of wise, liberal, honest, and conscientious +men to fill the vacancies that occur among +you. I do not greatly believe in the efficacy of +any kind of machinery for securing such a result; +but I would venture to suggest that the exclusive +adoption of the method of co-optation for filling the +vacancies which must occur in your body, appears +to me to be somewhat like a tempting of Providence. +Doubtless there are grave practical objections to +<!-- [Page: 130] --> +the appointment of persons outside of your body +and not directly interested in the welfare of the +university; but might it not be well if there were +an understanding that your academic staff should +be officially represented on the board, perhaps even +the heads of one or two independent learned bodies, +so that academic opinion and the views of the +outside world might have a certain influence in that +most important matter, the appointment of your +professors? I throw out these suggestions, as I +have said, in ignorance of the practical difficulties +that may lie in the way of carrying them into effect, +on the general ground that personal and local influences +are very subtle, and often unconscious, +while the future greatness and efficiency of the +noble institution which now commences its work +must largely depend upon its freedom from them.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p>I constantly hear Americans speak of the charm +which our old mother country has for them, of the +delight with which they wander through the streets +of ancient towns, or climb the battlements of +mediæval strongholds, the names of which are indissolubly +associated with the great epochs of that +noble literature which is our common inheritance; +or with the blood-stained steps of that secular +progress, by which the descendants of the savage +Britons and of the wild pirates of the North Sea +<!-- [Page: 131] --> +have become converted into warriors of order and +champions of peaceful freedom, exhausting what +still remains of the old Berserk spirit in subduing +nature, and turning the wilderness into a garden. +But anticipation has no less charm than retrospect, +and to an Englishman landing upon your shores for +the first time, travelling for hundreds of miles +through strings of great and well-ordered cities, +seeing your enormous actual, and almost infinite +potential, wealth in all commodities, and in the +energy and ability which turn wealth to account, +there is something sublime in the vista of the future. +Do not suppose that I am pandering to what is +commonly understood by national pride. I cannot +say that I am in the slightest degree impressed by +your bigness, or your material resources, as such. +Size is not grandeur, and territory does not make +a nation. The great issue, about which hangs a +true sublimity, and the terror of overhanging fate, +is what are you going to do with all these things? +What is to be the end to which these are to be +the means? You are making a novel experiment +in politics on the greatest scale which the world +has yet seen. Forty millions at your first centenary, +it is reasonably to be expected that, at the second, +these states will be occupied by two hundred +millions of English-speaking people, spread over +an area as large as that of Europe, and with climates +<!-- [Page: 132] --> +and interests as diverse as those of Spain and +Scandinavia, England and Russia. You and your +descendants have to ascertain whether this great +mass will hold together under the forms of a republic, +and the despotic reality of universal suffrage; +whether state rights will hold out against centralisation, +without separation; whether centralisation +will get the better, without actual or disguised +monarchy; whether shifting corruption is better +than a permanent bureaucracy; and as population +thickens in your great cities, and the pressure of +want is felt, the gaunt spectre of pauperism will +stalk among you, and communism and socialism will +claim to be heard. Truly America has a great +future before her; great in toil, in care, and in responsibility; +great in true glory if she be guided in +wisdom and righteousness; great in shame if she fail. +I cannot understand why other nations should envy +you, or be blind to the fact that it is for the highest +interest of mankind that you should succeed; but +the one condition of success, your sole safeguard, +is the moral worth and intellectual clearness of the +individual citizen. Education cannot give these, +but it may cherish them and bring them to the front +in whatever station of society they are to be found; +and the universities ought to be, and may be, the +fortresses of the higher life of the nation.</p> + +<p>May the university which commences its practical +<!-- [Page: 133] --> +activity to-morrow abundantly fulfil its high purpose; +may its renown as a seat of true learning, a centre +of free inquiry, a focus of intellectual light, increase +year by year, until men wander hither from all parts +of the earth, as of old they sought Bologna, or +Paris, or Oxford.</p> + +<p>And it is pleasant to me to fancy that, among +the English students who are drawn to you at that +time, there may linger a dim tradition that a countryman +of theirs was permitted to address you as he +has done to-day, and to feel as if your hopes were +his hopes and your success his joy.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> + Delivered at the formal opening of the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore, + U.S., September 12. The total amount bequeathed by Johns Hopkins is more than + 7,000,000 dollars. The sum of 3,500,000 dollars is appropriated to a university, + a like sum to a hospital, and the rest to local institutions of education + and charity.</p> +</div> + + + + +<hr /> +<h2>LONDON.</h2> + +<h1><a name="LONDON" id="LONDON"></a>LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY.</h1> + + +<p>It is my duty to-night to speak about the study +of Biology, and while it may be that there are +many of my audience who are quite familiar with +that study, yet as a lecturer of some standing, +it would, I know by experience, be very bad +policy on my part to suppose such to be extensively +the case. On the contrary, I must imagine +that there are many of you who would like to +know what Biology is; that there are others who +have that amount of information, but would nevertheless +gladly hear why it should be worth their +while to study Biology; and yet others, again, to +whom these two points are clear, but who desire to +learn how they had best study it, and, finally, +when they had best study it.</p> + +<p>I shall, therefore, address myself to the endeavour +to give you some answer to these four questions—what +Biology is; why it should be studied; +<!-- [Page: 138] --> +how it should be studied; and when it should be +studied.</p> + +<p>In the first place, in respect to what Biology +is, there are, I believe, some persons who imagine +that the term "Biology" is simply a new-fangled +denomination, a neologism in short, for what used +to be known under the title of "Natural History;" +but I shall try to show you, on the contrary, that +the word is the expression of the growth of +science during the last 200 years, and came into +existence half a century ago.</p> + +<p>At the revival of learning, knowledge was +divided into two kinds—the knowledge of nature +and the knowledge of man; for it was the current +idea then (and a great deal of that ancient conception +still remains) that there was a sort of +essential antithesis, not to say antagonism, between +nature and man; and that the two had not very +much to do with one another, except that the +one was oftentimes exceedingly troublesome to +the other. Though it is one of the salient merits +of our great philosophers of the seventeenth +century, that they recognised but one scientific +method, applicable alike to man and to nature, +we find this notion of the existence of a broad +distinction between nature and man in the writings +both of Bacon and of Hobbes of Malmesbury; and +I have brought with me that famous work which +<!-- [Page: 139] --> +is now so little known, greatly as it deserves to +be studied, "The Leviathan," in order that I +may put to you in the wonderfully terse and +clear language of Thomas Hobbes, what was +his view of the matter. He says:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The register of knowledge of fact is called +history. Whereof there be two sorts, one called +natural history; which is the history of such facts +or effects of nature as have no dependence on +man's will; such as are the histories of metals, +plants, animals, regions, and the like. The other +is civil history; which is the history of the +voluntary actions of men in commonwealths."</p></div> + +<p>So that all history of fact was divided into +these two great groups of natural and of civil history. +The Royal Society was in course of foundation +about the time that Hobbes was writing this +book, which was published in 1651; and that +Society was termed a "Society for the Improvement +of Natural Knowledge," which was then nearly +the same thing as a "Society for the Improvement +of Natural History." As time went on, +and the various branches of human knowledge +became more distinctly developed and separated +from one another, it was found that some were +much more susceptible of precise mathematical +treatment than others. The publication of the +"Principia" of Newton, which probably gave a +<!-- [Page: 140] --> +greater stimulus to physical science than any work +ever published before, or which is likely to be +published hereafter, showed that precise mathematical +methods were applicable to those branches +of science such as astronomy, and what we now +call physics, which occupy a very large portion of +the domain of what the older writers understood +by natural history. And inasmuch as the partly +deductive and partly experimental methods of +treatment to which Newton and others subjected +these branches of human knowledge, showed +that the phenomena of nature which belonged +to them were susceptible of explanation, and +thereby came within the reach of what was called +"philosophy" in those days; so much of this +kind of knowledge as was not included under +astronomy came to be spoken of as "natural philosophy"—a +term which Bacon had employed in +a much wider sense. Time went on, and yet +other branches of science developed themselves. +Chemistry took a definite shape; and since all these +sciences, such as astronomy, natural philosophy, +and chemistry, were susceptible either of mathematical +treatment or of experimental treatment, +or of both, a broad distinction was drawn between +the experimental branches of what had previously +been called natural history and the observational +branches—those in which experiment was (or +<!-- [Page: 141] --> +appeared to be) of doubtful use, and where, at +that time, mathematical methods were inapplicable. +Under these circumstances the old name +of "Natural History" stuck by the residuum, by +those phenomena which were not, at that time, +susceptible of mathematical or experimental treatment; +that is to say, those phenomena of nature +which come now under the general heads of physical +geography, geology, mineralogy, the history of +plants, and the history of animals. It was in +this sense that the term was understood by the +great writers of the middle of the last century—Buffon +and Linnæus—by Buffon in his great +work, the "Histoire Naturelle Générale," and by +Linnæus in his splendid achievement, the "Systema +Naturæ." The subjects they deal with are spoken +of as "Natural History," and they called themselves +and were called "Naturalists." But you +will observe that this was not the original meaning of +these terms; but that they had, by this time, acquired +a signification widely different from that which they +possessed primitively.</p> + +<p>The sense in which "Natural History" was +used at the time I am now speaking of has, to +a certain extent, endured to the present day. +There are now in existence in some of our +northern universities, chairs of "Civil and Natural +History," in which "Natural History" is used +<!-- [Page: 142] --> +to indicate exactly what Hobbes and Bacon +meant by that term. The unhappy incumbent +of the chair of Natural History is, or was, +supposed to cover the whole ground of geology, +mineralogy, and zoology, perhaps even botany, in +his lectures.</p> + +<p>But as science made the marvellous progress which it did make at the latter + end of the last and the beginning of the present century, thinking men began + to discern that under this title of "Natural History" there were included very + heterogeneous constituents—that, for example, geology and mineralogy were, + in many respects, widely different from botany and zoology; that a man might + obtain an extensive knowledge of the structure and functions of plants and animals, + without having need to enter upon the study of geology or mineralogy, and <i>vice + versâ</i>; and, further as knowledge advanced, it became clear that there + was a great analogy, a very close alliance, between those two sciences of botany + and zoology which deal with living beings, while they are much more widely separated + from all other studies. It is due to Buffon to remark that he clearly recognised + this great fact. He says: "Ces deux genres d'êtres organisés [les + animaux et les végétaux] ont beaucoup plus de propriétés + communes que de différences réelles." Therefore, it is not wonderful + that, at the + <!-- [Page: 143] --> + beginning of the present century, in two different countries, and so far as + I know, without any intercommunication, two famous men clearly conceived the + notion of uniting the sciences which deal with living matter into one whole, + and of dealing with them as one discipline. In fact, I may say there were three + men to whom this idea occurred contemporaneously, although there were but two + who carried it into effect, and only one who worked it out completely. The persons + to whom I refer were the eminent physiologist Bichat, and the great naturalist + Lamarck, in France; and a distinguished German, Treviranus. Bichat<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> + assumed the existence of a special group of "physiological" sciences. Lamarck, + in a work published in 1801,<a name="FNanchor_2_6" id="FNanchor_2_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_6" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> + for the first time made use of the name "Biologie" from the two Greek words + which signify a discourse upon life and living things. About the same time it + occurred to Treviranus, that all those sciences which deal with living matter + are essentially and fundamentally one, and ought to be treated as a whole; and, + in the year 1802, he published the first volume of what he also called "Biologie." + Treviranus's great merit lies in this, that he worked out his idea, and + <!-- [Page: 144] --> + wrote the very remarkable book to which I refer. It consists of six volumes, + and occupied its author for twenty years—from 1802 to 1822.</p> + +<p>That is the origin of the term "Biology;" and +that is how it has come about that all clear thinkers +and lovers of consistent nomenclature have substituted +for the old confusing name of "Natural +History," which has conveyed so many meanings, +the term "Biology" which denotes the whole of +the sciences which deal with living things, whether +they be animals or whether they be plants. Some +little time ago—in the course of this year, I think—I +was favoured by a learned classic, Dr. Field +of Norwich, with a disquisition, in which he +endeavoured to prove that, from a philological +point of view, neither Treviranus nor Lamarck +had any right to coin this new word "Biology" +for their purpose; that, in fact, the Greek word +"Bios" had relation only to human life and human +affairs, and that a different word was employed by +the Greeks when they wished to speak of the life +of animals and plants. So Dr. Field tells us we are +all wrong in using the term biology, and that we +ought to employ another; only he is not quite +sure about the propriety of that which he proposes +as a substitute. It is a somewhat hard one—"zootocology." +I am sorry we are wrong, because +we are likely to continue so. In these matters +<!-- [Page: 145] --> +we must have some sort of "Statute of Limitations." +When a name has been employed for half-a-century, +persons of authority<a name="FNanchor_3_7" id="FNanchor_3_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_7" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> have been using it, and its +sense has become well understood, I am afraid +that people will go on using it, whatever the weight +of philological objection.</p> + +<p>Now that we have arrived at the origin of this +word "Biology," the next point to consider is: +What ground does it cover? I have said that, in its +strict technical sense, it denotes all the phenomena +which are exhibited by living things, as distinguished +from those which are not living; but while that +is all very well, so long as we confine ourselves to +the lower animals and to plants, it lands us in +considerable difficulties when we reach the higher +forms of living things. For whatever view we +may entertain about the nature of man, one thing +is perfectly certain, that he is a living creature. +Hence, if our definition is to be interpreted strictly, +we must include man and all his ways and works +under the head of Biology; in which case, we +should find that psychology, politics, and political +economy would be absorbed into the province of +Biology. In fact, civil history would be merged +in natural history. In strict logic it may be hard +<!-- [Page: 146] --> +to object to this course, because no one can doubt +that the rudiments and outlines of our own mental +phenomena are traceable among the lower animals. +They have their economy and their polity, and +if, as is always admitted, the polity of bees and the +commonwealth of wolves fall within the purview +of the biologist proper, it becomes hard to say +why we should not include therein human affairs, +which in so many cases resemble those of the bees +in zealous getting, and are not without a certain +parity in the proceedings of the wolves. The real +fact is that we biologists are a self-sacrificing people; +and inasmuch as, on a moderate estimate, there are +about a quarter of a million different species of +animals and plants to know about already, we +feel that we have more than sufficient territory. +There has been a sort of practical convention by +which we give up to a different branch of science +what Bacon and Hobbes would have called "Civil +History." That branch of science has constituted +itself under the head of Sociology. I may use +phraseology which, at present, will be well understood +and say that we have allowed that province +of Biology to become autonomous; but I should like +you to recollect that that is a sacrifice, and that you +should not be surprised if it occasionally happens +that you see a biologist apparently trespassing in +the region of philosophy or politics; or meddling +<!-- [Page: 147] --> +with human education; because, after all, that is +a part of his kingdom which he has only voluntarily +forsaken.</p> + +<p>Having now defined the meaning of the word +Biology, and having indicated the general scope of +Biological Science, I turn to my second question, +which is—Why should we study Biology? Possibly +the time may come when that will seem a very odd +question. That we, living creatures, should not +feel a certain amount of interest in what it is that +constitutes our life will eventually, under altered +ideas of the fittest objects of human inquiry, appear +to be a singular phenomenon; but, at present, +judging by the practice of teachers and educators, +Biology would seem to be a topic that does +not concern us at all. I propose to put before +you a few considerations with which I dare say +many will be familiar already, but which will +suffice to show—not fully, because to demonstrate +this point fully would take a great many lectures—that +there are some very good and substantial +reasons why it may be advisable that we should +know something about this branch of human +learning.</p> + +<p>I myself entirely agree with another sentiment of +the philosopher of Malmesbury, "that the scope of +all speculation is the performance of some action or +thing to be done," and I have not any very great +<!-- [Page: 148] --> +respect for, or interest in, mere knowing as such. +I judge of the value of human pursuits by their +bearing upon human interests; in other words, by +their utility; but I should like that we should quite +clearly understand what it is that we mean by this +word "utility." In an Englishman's mouth it +generally means that by which we get pudding or +praise, or both. I have no doubt that is one +meaning of the word utility, but it by no means +includes all I mean by utility. I think that +knowledge of every kind is useful in proportion +as it tends to give people right ideas, which are +essential to the foundation of right practice, and to +remove wrong ideas, which are the no less essential +foundations and fertile mothers of every description +of error in practice. And inasmuch as, whatever +practical people may say, this world is, after all, +absolutely governed by ideas, and very often by the +wildest and most hypothetical ideas, it is a matter of +the very greatest importance that our theories of +things, and even of things that seem a long way +apart from our daily lives, should be as far as +possible true, and as far as possible removed from +error. It is not only in the coarser practical sense of +the word "utility," but in this higher and broader +sense, that I measure the value of the study of +biology by its utility; and I shall try to point out to +you that you will feel the need of some knowledge +<!-- [Page: 149] --> +of biology at a great many turns of this present +nineteenth century life of ours. For example, +most of us attach great importance to the conception +which we entertain of the position of +man in this universe and his relation to the rest +of nature. We have almost all been told, and +most of us hold by the tradition, that man occupies +an isolated and peculiar position in nature; that +though he is in the world he is not of the world; +that his relations to things about him are of a remote +character; that his origin is recent, his duration +likely to be short, and that he is the great central +figure round which other things in this world +revolve. But this is not what the biologist tells +us.</p> + +<p>At the present moment you will be kind enough +to separate me from them, because it is in no way +essential to my present argument that I should +advocate their views. Don't suppose that I am +saying this for the purpose of escaping the responsibility +of their beliefs; indeed, at other times +and in other places, I do not think that point has +been left doubtful; but I want clearly to point out +to you that for my present argument they may all +be wrong; and, nevertheless, my argument will hold +good. The biologists tell us that all this is an +entire mistake. They turn to the physical organisation +of man. They examine his whole structure, +<!-- [Page: 150] --> +his bony frame and all that clothes it. They resolve +him into the finest particles into which the microscope +will enable them to break him up. They +consider the performance of his various functions +and activities, and they look at the manner in which +he occurs on the surface of the world. Then they +turn to other animals, and taking the first handy +domestic animal—say a dog—they profess to be +able to demonstrate that the analysis of the dog +leads them, in gross, to precisely the same results +as the analysis of the man; that they find almost +identically the same bones, having the same relations; +that they can name the muscles of the +dog by the names of the muscles of the man, and +the nerves of the dog by those of the nerves of +the man, and that, such structures and organs of +sense as we find in the man such also we find in +the dog; they analyse the brain and spinal cord, +and they find that the nomenclature which fits the +one answers for the other. They carry their microscopic +inquiries in the case of the dog as far as +they can, and they find that his body is resolvable +into the same elements as those of the man. Moreover, +they trace back the dog's and the man's +development, and they find that, at a certain stage +of their existence, the two creatures are not distinguishable +the one from the other; they find +that the dog and his kind have a certain distribution +<!-- [Page: 151] --> +over the surface of the world, comparable in its +way to the distribution of the human species. +What is true of the dog they tell us is true of +all the higher animals; and they assert that they +can lay down a common plan for the whole of +these creatures, and regard the man and the dog, +the horse and the ox as minor modifications of +one great fundamental unity. Moreover, the investigations +of the last three-quarters of a century +have proved, they tell us, that similar inquiries, +carried out through all the different kinds of animals +which are met with in nature, will lead us, +not in one straight series, but by many roads, +step by step, gradation by gradation, from man, +at the summit, to specks of animated jelly at the +bottom of the series. So that the idea of Leibnitz, +and of Bonnet, that animals form a great scale +of being, in which there are a series of gradations +from the most complicated form to the lowest and +simplest; that idea, though not exactly in the +form in which it was propounded by those philosophers, +turns out to be substantially correct. More +than this, when biologists pursue their investigations +into the vegetable world, they find that they can, +in the same way, follow out the structure of the +plant, from the most gigantic and complicated trees +down through a similar series of gradations, until +they arrive at specks of animated jelly, which they +<!-- [Page: 152] --> +are puzzled to distinguish from those specks which +they reached by the animal road.</p> + +<p>Thus, biologists have arrived at the conclusion +that a fundamental uniformity of structure pervades +the animal and vegetable worlds, and that plants +and animals differ from one another simply as +diverse modifications of the same great general +plan.</p> + +<p>Again, they tell us the same story in regard to +the study of function. They admit the large and +important interval which, at the present time, separates +the manifestations of the mental faculties +observable in the higher forms of mankind, and +even in the lower forms, such as we know them, +from those exhibited by other animals; but, at +the same time, they tell us that the foundations, +or rudiments, of almost all the faculties of man +are to be met with in the lower animals; that +there is a unity of mental faculty as well as of +bodily structure, and that, here also, the difference +is a difference of degree and not of kind. +I said "almost all," for a reason. Among the +many distinctions which have been drawn between +the lower creatures and ourselves, there is one +which is hardly ever insisted on,<a name="FNanchor_4_8" id="FNanchor_4_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_8" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> but which may +be very fitly spoken of in a place so largely devoted +<!-- [Page: 153] --> +to Art as that in which we are assembled. It is +this, that while, among various kinds of animals, +it is possible to discover traces of all the other +faculties of man, especially the faculty of mimicry, +yet that particular form of mimicry which shows +itself in the imitation of form, either by modelling +or by drawing, is not to be met with. As far as +I know, there is no sculpture or modelling, and +decidedly no painting or drawing, of animal origin, +I mention the fact, in order that such comfort +may be derived therefrom as artists may feel +inclined to take.</p> + +<p>If what the biologists tell us is true, it will be +needful to get rid of our erroneous conceptions +of man, and of his place in nature, and to substitute +right ones for them. But it is impossible +to form any judgment as to whether the biologists +are right or wrong, unless we are able to appreciate +the nature of the arguments which they have +to offer.</p> + +<p>One would almost think this to be a self-evident +proposition. I wonder what a scholar +would say to the man who should undertake to +criticise a difficult passage in a Greek play, but +who obviously had not acquainted himself with +the rudiments of Greek grammar. And yet, before +giving positive opinions about these high questions +of Biology, people not only do not seem to think +<!-- [Page: 154] --> +it necessary to be acquainted with the grammar +of the subject, but they have not even mastered +the alphabet. You find criticism and denunciation +showered about by persons, who, not only have +not attempted to go through the discipline necessary +to enable them to be judges, but who have not even +reached that stage of emergence from ignorance +in which the knowledge that such a discipline is +necessary dawns upon the mind. I have had to +watch with some attention—in fact I have been +favoured with a good deal of it myself—the sort +of criticism with which biologists and biological +teachings are visited. I am told every now and +then that there is a "brilliant article"<a name="FNanchor_5_9" id="FNanchor_5_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_9" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> in so-and-so, +in which we are all demolished. I used to read +these things once, but I am getting old now, and +I have ceased to attend very much to this cry of +"wolf." When one does read any of these productions, +what one finds generally, on the face of +it, is that the brilliant critic is devoid of even the +elements of biological knowledge, and that his +brilliancy is like the light given out by the crackling +of thorns under a pot of which Solomon speaks. +So far as I recollect, Solomon makes use of the +<!-- [Page: 155] --> +image for purposes of comparison; but I will not +proceed further into that matter.</p> + +<p>Two things must be obvious: in the first place, +that every man who has the interests of truth at +heart must earnestly desire that every well-founded +and just criticism that can be made should be +made; but that, in the second place, it is essential +to anybody's being able to benefit by criticism, +that the critic should know what he is talking +about, and be in a position to form a mental image +of the facts symbolised by the words he uses. +If not, it is as obvious in the case of a biological +argument, as it is in that of a historical or philological +discussion, that such criticism is a mere waste of +time on the part of its author, and wholly undeserving +of attention on the part of those who are +criticised. Take it then as an illustration of the +importance of biological study, that thereby alone +are men able to form something like a rational +conception of what constitutes valuable criticism of +the teachings of biologists.<a name="FNanchor_6_10" id="FNanchor_6_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_10" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> +<!-- [Page: 156] --></p> + +<p>Next, I may mention another bearing of biological +knowledge—a more practical one in the +ordinary sense of the word. Consider the theory +of infectious disease. Surely that is of interest +to all of us. Now the theory of infectious disease +is rapidly being elucidated by biological study. It +is possible to produce, from among the lower +animals, examples of devastating diseases which +spread in the same manner as our infectious disorders, +and which are certainly and unmistakably caused by +living organisms. This fact renders it possible, +at any rate, that that doctrine of the causation of +infectious disease which is known under the name +of "the germ theory" may be well-founded; and, +if so, it must needs lead to the most important +practical measures in dealing with those terrible +visitations. It may be well that the general, as +well as the professional, public should have a +sufficient knowledge of biological truths to be able +to take a rational interest in the discussion of +such problems, and to see, what I think they may +<!-- [Page: 157] --> +hope to see, that, to those who possess a sufficient +elementary knowledge of Biology, they are not +all quite open questions.</p> + +<p>Let me mention another important practical +illustration of the value of biological study. Within +the last forty years the theory of agriculture has +been revolutionised. The researches of Liebig, +and those of our own Lawes and Gilbert, have +had a bearing upon that branch of industry the +importance of which cannot be overestimated; but +the whole of these new views have grown out of +the better explanation of certain processes which +go on in plants; and which, of course, form a part +of the subject-matter of Biology.</p> + +<p>I might go on multiplying these examples, but +I see that the clock won't wait for me, and I +must therefore pass to the third question to which +I referred: Granted that Biology is something +worth studying, what is the best way of studying +it? Here I must point out that, since Biology is +a physical science, the method of studying it must +needs be analogous to that which is followed in +the other physical sciences. It has now long been +recognised that, if a man wishes to be a chemist, +it is not only necessary that he should read chemical +books and attend chemical lectures, but that +he should actually perform the fundamental experiments +in the laboratory for himself, and thus learn +<!-- [Page: 158] --> +exactly what the words which he finds in his books +and hears from his teachers, mean. If he does +not do so, he may read till the crack of doom, +but he will never know much about chemistry. +That is what every chemist will tell you, and the +physicist will do the same for his branch of science. +The great changes and improvements in physical +and chemical scientific education, which have taken +place of late, have all resulted from the combination +of practical teaching with the reading of books +and with the hearing of lectures. The same thing +is true in Biology. Nobody will ever know anything +about Biology except in a dilettante "paper-philosopher" +way, who contents himself with reading +books on botany, zoology, and the like; and +the reason of this is simple and easy to understand. +It is that all language is merely symbolical +of the things of which it treats; the more complicated +the things, the more bare is the symbol, +and the more its verbal definition requires to be +supplemented by the information derived directly +from the handling, and the seeing, and the touching +of the thing symbolised:—that is really what +is at the bottom of the whole matter. It is plain +common sense, as all truth, in the long run, is only +common sense clarified. If you want a man to +be a tea merchant, you don't tell him to read books +about China or about tea, but you put him into +<!-- [Page: 159] --> +a tea-merchant's office where he has the handling, +the smelling, and the tasting of tea. Without the +sort of knowledge which can be gained only in +this practical way, his exploits as a tea merchant +will soon come to a bankrupt termination. The +"paper-philosophers" are under the delusion that +physical science can be mastered as literary accomplishments +are acquired, but unfortunately it is +not so. You may read any quantity of books, +and you may be almost as ignorant as you were +at starting, if you don't have, at the back of your +minds, the change for words in definite images +which can only be acquired through the operation +of your observing faculties on the phenomena of +nature.</p> + +<p>It may be said:—"That is all very well, but +you told us just now that there are probably something +like a quarter of a million different kinds +of living and extinct animals and plants, and a +human life could not suffice for the examination +of one-fiftieth part of all these." That is true, +but then comes the great convenience of the way +things are arranged; which is, that although there +are these immense numbers of different kinds of +living things in existence, yet they are built up, +after all, upon marvellously few plans.</p> + +<p>There are certainly more than 100,000 species of +insects, and yet anybody who knows one insect—if +<!-- [Page: 160] --> +a properly chosen one—will be able to have +a very fair conception of the structure of the +whole. I do not mean to say he will know +that structure thoroughly, or as well as it is desirable +he should know it; but he will have enough +real knowledge to enable him to understand what +he reads, to have genuine images in his mind of +those structures which become so variously modified +in all the forms of insects he has not seen. +In fact, there are such things as types of form +among animals and vegetables, and for the purpose +of getting a definite knowledge of what constitutes +the leading modifications of animal and +plant life, it is not needful to examine more than +a comparatively small number of animals and +plants.</p> + +<p>Let me tell you what we do in the biological +laboratory which is lodged in a building adjacent to +this. There I lecture to a class of students daily +for about four-and-a-half months, and my class have, +of course, their text-books; but the essential part +of the whole teaching, and that which I regard +as really the most important part of it, is a +laboratory for practical work, which is simply a +room with all the appliances needed for ordinary +dissection. We have tables properly arranged in +regard to light, microscopes, and dissecting instruments, +and we work through the structure of a +<!-- [Page: 161] --> +certain number of animals and plants. As, for +example, among the plants, we take a yeast plant, +a <i>Protococcus</i>, a common mould, a <i>Chara</i>, a fern, +and some flowering plant; among animals we examine +such things as an <i>Amœba</i>, a <i>Vorticella</i>, and +a fresh-water polype. We dissect a star-fish, an +earth-worm, a snail, a squid, and a fresh-water +mussel. We examine a lobster and a cray-fish, +and a black beetle. We go on to a common skate, +a cod-fish, a frog, a tortoise, a pigeon, and a rabbit, +and that takes us about all the time we have to +give. The purpose of this course is not to make +skilled dissectors, but to give every student a clear +and definite conception, by means of sense-images, +of the characteristic structure of each of the leading +modifications of the animal kingdom; and +that is perfectly possible, by going no further than +the length of that list of forms which I have +enumerated. If a man knows the structure of +the animals I have mentioned, he has a clear and +exact, however limited, apprehension of the essential +features of the organisation of all those great +divisions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms +to which the forms I have mentioned severally +belong. And it then becomes possible for him +to read with profit; because every time he meets +with the name of a structure, he has a definite +image in his mind of what the name means in +<!-- [Page: 162] --> +the particular creature he is reading about, and +therefore the reading is not mere reading. It is +not mere repetition of words; but every term +employed in the description, we will say, of a horse, +or of an elephant, will call up the image of the +things he had seen in the rabbit, and he is able to +form a distinct conception of that which he has +not seen, as a modification of that which he has +seen.</p> + +<p>I find this system to yield excellent results; and +I have no hesitation whatever in saying, that any +one who has gone through such a course, attentively, +is in a better position to form a conception +of the great truths of Biology, especially of morphology +(which is what we chiefly deal with), than +if he had merely read all the books on that topic +put together.</p> + +<p>The connection of this discourse with the Loan +Collection of Scientific Apparatus arises out of the +exhibition in that collection of certain aids to our +laboratory work. Such of you as have visited that +very interesting collection may have noticed a series +of diagrams and of preparations illustrating the +structure of a frog. Those diagrams and preparations +have been made for the use of the students +in the biological laboratory. Similar diagrams and +preparations illustrating the structure of all the +other forms of life we examine, are either made or +<!-- [Page: 163] --> +in course of preparation. Thus the student has +before him, first, a picture of the structure he ought +to see; secondly, the structure itself worked out; +and if with these aids, and such needful explanations +and practical hints as a demonstrator can +supply, he cannot make out the facts for himself +in the materials supplied to him, he had better +take to some other pursuit than that of biological +science.</p> + +<p>I should have been glad to have said a few words +about the use of museums in the study of Biology, +but I see that my time is becoming short, and I +have yet another question to answer. Nevertheless +I must, at the risk of wearying you, say a word +or two upon the important subject of museums. +Without doubt there are no helps to the study of +Biology, or rather to some branches of it, which +are, or may be, more important than natural history +museums; but, in order to take this place in regard +to Biology, they must be museums of the future. +The museums of the present do not, by any +means, do so much for us as they might do. I do not +wish to particularise, but I dare say many of you, +seeking knowledge, or in the laudable desire to +employ a holiday usefully, have visited some great +natural history museum. You have walked through +a quarter of a mile of animals, more or less well +stuffed, with their long names written out underneath +<!-- [Page: 164] --> +them; and, unless your experience is very different +from that of most people, the upshot of it all is +that you leave that splendid pile with sore feet, a +bad headache, and a general idea that the animal +kingdom is a "mighty maze without a plan." I +do not think that a museum which brings about +this result does all that may be reasonably expected +from such an institution. What is needed in a collection +of natural history is that it should be made +as accessible and as useful as possible, on the one +hand to the general public, and on the other to +scientific workers. That need is not met by constructing +a sort of happy hunting-ground of miles +of glass cases; and, under the pretence of exhibiting +everything, putting the maximum amount of obstacle +in the way of those who wish properly to see +anything.</p> + +<p>What the public want is easy and unhindered +access to such a collection as they can understand +and appreciate; and what the men of science want +is similar access to the materials of science. To +this end the vast mass of objects of natural history +should be divided into two parts—one open to the +public, the other to men of science, every day. +The former division should exemplify all the more +important and interesting forms of life. Explanatory +tablets should be attached to them, and catalogues +containing clearly-written popular expositions +<!-- [Page: 165] --> +of the general significance of the objects exhibited +should be provided. The latter should contain, +packed into a comparatively small space, in rooms +adapted for working purposes, the objects of purely +scientific interest. For example, we will say I am +an ornithologist. I go to examine a collection of +birds. It is a positive nuisance to have them +stuffed. It is not only sheer waste, but I have to +reckon with the ideas of the bird-stuffer, while, if +I have the skin and nobody has interfered with it, +I can form my own judgment as to what the bird +was like. For ornithological purposes, what is +needed is not glass cases full of stuffed birds on +perches, but convenient drawers into each of which +a great quantity of skins will go. They occupy +no great space and do not require any expenditure +beyond their original cost. But for the edification of +the public, who want to learn indeed, but do not +seek for minute and technical knowledge, the case +is different. What one of the general public walking +into a collection of birds desires to see is not +all the birds that can be got together. He does +not want to compare a hundred species of the +sparrow tribe side by side; but he wishes to know +what a bird is, and what are the great modifications +of bird structure, and to be able to get at that +knowledge easily. What will best serve his purpose +<!-- [Page: 166] --> +is a comparatively small number of birds carefully +selected, and artistically, as well as accurately, set +up; with their different ages, their nests, their +young, their eggs, and their skeletons side by side; +and in accordance with the admirable plan which +is pursued in this museum, a tablet, telling the +spectator in legible characters what they are and +what they mean. For the instruction and recreation +of the public such a typical collection would be of +far greater value than any many-acred imitation +of Noah's ark.</p> + +<p>Lastly comes the question as to when biological +study may best be pursued. I do not see any +valid reason why it should not be made, to a +certain extent, a part of ordinary school training. +I have long advocated this view, and I +am perfectly certain that it can be carried out +with ease, and not only with ease, but with +very considerable profit to those who are taught; +but then such instruction must be adapted to +the minds and needs of the scholars. They used +to have a very odd way of teaching the classical +languages when I was a boy. The first task set +you was to learn the rules of the Latin grammar +in the Latin language—that being the language you +were going to learn! I thought then that this +was an odd way of learning a language, but did +<!-- [Page: 167] --> +not venture to rebel against the judgment of my +superiors. Now, perhaps, I am not so modest as +I was then, and I allow myself to think that it was +a very absurd fashion. But it would be no less +absurd, if we were to set about teaching Biology +by putting into the hands of boys a series of +definitions of the classes and orders of the animal +kingdom, and making them repeat them by heart. +That is so very favourite a method of teaching, +that I sometimes fancy the spirit of the old classical +system has entered into the new scientific +system, in which case I would much rather that any +pretence at scientific teaching were abolished altogether. +What really has to be done is to get into +the young mind some notion of what animal and +vegetable life is. In this matter, you have to consider +practical convenience as well as other things. +There are difficulties in the way of a lot of boys +making messes with slugs and snails; it might not +work in practice. But there is a very convenient +and handy animal which everybody has at hand, +and that is himself; and it is a very easy and +simple matter to obtain common plants. Hence +the general truths of anatomy and physiology can +be taught to young people in a very real fashion +by dealing with the broad facts of human structure. +Such viscera as they cannot very well examine in +<!-- [Page: 168] --> +themselves, such as hearts, lungs, and livers, may +be obtained from the nearest butcher's shop. In +respect to teaching something about the biology of +plants, there is no practical difficulty, because almost +any of the common plants will do, and plants do +not make a mess—at least they do not make an +unpleasant mess; so that, in my judgment, the best +form of Biology for teaching to very young people +is elementary human physiology on the one hand, +and the elements of botany on the other; beyond +that I do not think it will be feasible to advance +for some time to come. But then I see no reason +why, in secondary schools, and in the Science +Classes which are under the control of the Science +and Art Department—and which I may say, in +passing, have, in my judgment, done so very much +for the diffusion of a knowledge of science over +the country—we should not hope to see instruction +in the elements of Biology carried out, not perhaps +to the same extent, but still upon somewhat the +same principle as here. There is no difficulty, +when you have to deal with students of the ages +of 15 or 16, in practising a little dissection and in +getting a notion of, at any rate, the four or five +great modifications of the animal form; and the +like is true in regard to the higher anatomy of +plants. +<!-- [Page: 169] --></p> + +<p>While, lastly, to all those who are studying biological +science with a view to their own edification +merely, or with the intention of becoming zoologists +or botanists; to all those who intend to pursue +physiology—and especially to those who propose +to employ the working years of their lives in the +practice of medicine—I say that there is no training +so fitted, or which may be of such important +service to them, as the discipline in practical +biological work which I have sketched out as being +pursued in the laboratory hard by.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p>I may add that, beyond all these different classes +of persons who may profit by the study of Biology, +there is yet one other. I remember, a number of +years ago, that a gentleman who was a vehement +opponent of Mr. Darwin's views and had written +some terrible articles against them, applied to me +to know what was the best way in which he could +acquaint himself with the strongest arguments in +favour of evolution. I wrote back, in all good faith +and simplicity, recommending him to go through a +course of comparative anatomy and physiology, and +then to study development. I am sorry to say he +was very much displeased, as people often are with +good advice. Notwithstanding this discouraging +result, I venture, as a parting word, to repeat the +<!-- [Page: 170] --> +suggestion, and to say to all the more or less acute +lay and clerical "paper-philosophers"<a name="FNanchor_7_11" id="FNanchor_7_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_11" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> who venture +into the regions of biological controversy—Get a +little sound, thorough, practical, elementary instruction +in biology.</p> + + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> + See the distinction between the "sciences physiques" and the "sciences physiologiques" + in the "Anatomic Générale," 1801.</p> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_2_6" id="Footnote_2_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_6"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> + "Hydrogeologie," an. x. (1801).</p> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_3_7" id="Footnote_3_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_7"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> + "The term <i>Biology</i>, which means exactly what we wish to express, <i>the + Science of Life</i>, has often been used, and has of late become not uncommon, + among good writers."—Whewell, "Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences," + vol. i. p. 544 (edition of 1847).</p> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_4_8" id="Footnote_4_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_8"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> + I think that my friend Professor Allman was the first to draw attention to + it.</p> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_5_9" id="Footnote_5_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_9"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> + Galileo was troubled by a sort of people whom he called "paper philosophers," + because they fancied that the true reading of nature was to be detected by + the collation of texts. The race is not extinct, but, as of old, brings forth + its "winds of doctrine" by which the weathercock heads among us are much exercised.</p> +</div> + + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_6_10" id="Footnote_6_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_10"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> + Some critics do not even take the trouble to read. I have recently been adjured + with much solemnity, to state publicly why I have "changed my opinion" as + to the value of the palæontological evidence of the occurrence of evolution. + </p> + <p> +To this my reply is, Why should I, when that statement was made +seven years ago? An address delivered from the Presidential Chair +of the Geological Society, in 1870, may be said to be a public document, +inasmuch as it not only appeared in the <i>Journal</i> of that learned body, +but was re-published, in 1873, in a volume of "Critiques and Addresses," +to which my name is attached. Therein will be found a pretty full +statement of my reasons for enunciating two propositions: (1) that +"when we turn to the higher <i>Vertebrata</i>, the results of recent investigations, +however we may sift and criticise them, seem to me to +leave a clear balance in favour of the evolution of living forms one +from another;" and (2) that the case of the horse is one which "will +stand rigorous criticism." +</p><p> +Thus I do not see clearly in what way I can be said to have changed +my opinion, except in the way of intensifying it, when in consequence +of the accumulation of similar evidence since 1870, I recently spoke of +the denial of evolution as not worth serious consideration.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_7_11" id="Footnote_7_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_11"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> + Writers of this stamp are fond of talking about the Baconian method. I beg + them therefore to lay to heart these two weighty sayings of the herald of + Modern Science:— </p> +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Syllogismus ex propositionibus constat, propositiones ex verbis, +verba notionum tesseræ sunt. Itaque si notiones ipsæ (<i>id quod basis +rei est</i>) confusæ sint et temere a rebus abstractæ, nihil in iis quæ +superstruuntur est firmitudinis."—"Novum Organon," ii. 14. +</p><p> +"Huic autem vanitati nonnulli ex modernis summa levitate ita +indulserunt, ut in primo capitulo Geneseos et in libro Job et aliis +scripturis sacris, philosophiam naturalem fundare conati sint; <i>inter +vivos quærentes mortua</i>."—<i>Ibid.</i>, 65.</p></div> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN ADDRESSES, WITH A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 16136-h.txt or 16136-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/1/3/16136">https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/1/3/16136</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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