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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Haskalah Movement in Russia, by Jacob S.
+Raisin
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Haskalah Movement in Russia
+
+
+Author: Jacob S. Raisin
+
+Release Date: May 27, 2005  [eBook #15921]
+
+Language: En
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HASKALAH MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, David King, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
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+
+
+
+
+
+THE HASKALAH MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA
+
+by
+
+JACOB S. RAISIN, PH.D., D.D.
+
+Author of _Sect, Creed and Custom in Judaism_, etc.
+
+Philadelphia
+The Jewish Publication Society of America
+
+1913
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  _And the "Maskilim" shall shine
+  As the brightness of the firmament ...
+  Many shall run to and fro,
+  And knowledge shall be increased_.
+                       --Dan. xii. 3-4
+
+
+
+[Illustration: TOBIAS COHN
+1652-1759
+FROM THE FRONTISPIECE OF HIS MA'ASEH TOBIAH]
+
+
+
+
+TO AARON S. RAISIN
+
+Your name, dear father, will not be found in the following pages, for,
+like "the waters of the Siloam that run softly," you ever preferred to
+pursue your useful course in unassuming silence. Yet, as it is your
+life, devoted entirely to meditating, learning, and teaching, that
+inspired me in my effort, I dedicate this book to you; and I am happy to
+know that I thus not only dedicate it to one of the noblest of Maskilim,
+but at the same time offer you some slight token of the esteem and
+affection felt for you by
+
+Your Son,
+
+JACOB S. RAISIN
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PREFACE                                                       11
+
+CHAPTER I.   THE PRE-HASKALAH PERIOD                          17
+
+CHAPTER II.  THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION                         53
+
+CHAPTER III. THE DAWN OF HASKALAH                            110
+
+CHAPTER IV.  CONFLICTS AND CONQUESTS                         162
+
+CHAPTER V.   RUSSIFICATION, REFORMATION, AND ASSIMILATION    222
+
+CHAPTER VI.  THE AWAKENING                                   268
+
+NOTES                                                        305
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                 331
+
+INDEX                                                        339
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+TOBIAS COHN (1652-1759)                   Frontispiece
+
+ISAAC BÄR LEVINSOHN (1788-1860)        facing page  64
+
+MAX LILIENTHAL (1815-1882)                "    "   120
+
+ALEXANDER ZEDERBAUM (1816-1893)           "    "   175
+
+PEREZ BEN MOSHEH SMOLENSKIN (1842-1885)   "    "   220
+
+MOSES LÖB LILIENBLUM (1843-1910)          "    "   280
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+To the lover of mankind the history of the Russo-Jewish renaissance is
+an encouraging and inspiring phenomenon. Seldom has a people made such
+rapid strides forward as the Russian Jews. From the melancholy
+regularity that marked their existence a little more than two
+generations ago, from the darkness of the Middle Ages in which they were
+steeped until the time of Alexander II, they emerged suddenly into the
+life and light of the West, and some of the most intrepid devotees of
+latter-day culture, both in Europe and in America, have come from among
+them. Destitute of everything that makes for enlightenment, and under
+the dominion of a Government which sought to extinguish the few
+rushlights that scattered the shadows around them, they nevertheless
+snatched victory from defeat, sloughed off medieval superstition, and,
+disregarding the Dejanira shirt of modern disabilities, compelled their
+countrymen to admit more than once that
+
+  Tho' I've belted you and flayed you,
+  By the livin' Gawd that made you,
+  You're a better man than I am!
+
+Similar movements were started in Germany during the latter part of the
+eighteenth century, and in Austria, notably Galicia, at the beginning of
+the nineteenth, but none stirred the mind of the Jews to the same degree
+as the Haskalah movement in Russia during the last fifty years. In the
+former, the removal of restrictions soon rendered attempts toward
+self-emancipation unnecessary on the part of Jews, and the few Maskilim
+among them, satisfied with the present, devoted themselves to
+investigating and elucidating the past of their people's history. In
+Russia the past was all but forgotten on account of the immediate duties
+of the present. The energy and acquisitiveness that made the Jews of
+happier and more prosperous lands prominent in every sphere of practical
+life, were directed toward the realm of thought, and the merciless
+severity with which the Government excluded them from the enjoyment of
+things material only increased their ardor for things spiritual and
+intellectual.
+
+In its wide sense Haskalah denotes enlightenment. Those who strove to
+enlighten their benighted coreligionists or disseminate European culture
+among them, were called Maskilim. A careful perusal of this work will
+reveal the exact ideals these terms embody. For Haskalah was not only
+progressive, it was also aggressive, militant, sometimes destructive.
+From the days of Mordecai Günzburg to the time of Asher Ginzberg (Ahad
+Ha-'Am), it changed its tendencies and motives more than once.
+Levinsohn, "the father of the Maskilim," was satisfied with removing the
+ban from secular learning; Gordon wished to see his brethren "Jews at
+home and men abroad"; Smolenskin dreamed of the rehabilitation of Jews
+in Palestine; and Ahad Ha-'Am hopes for the spiritual regeneration of
+his beloved people. Others advocated the levelling of all distinctions
+between Jews and Gentiles, or the upliftment of mankind in general and
+Russia in particular. To each of them Haskalah implied different ideals,
+and through each it promulgated diverse doctrines. To trace these
+varying phases from an indistinct glimmering in the eighteenth century
+to the glorious effulgence of the beginning of the twentieth, is the
+main object of this book.
+
+In pursuance of my end, I have paid particular attention to the causes
+that retarded or accelerated Russo-Jewish cultural advance. As these
+causes originate in the social, economic, and political status of the
+Russian Jew, I frequently portray political events as well as the state
+of knowledge, belief, art, and morals of the periods under
+consideration. For this reason also I have marked the boundaries of the
+Haskalah epochs in correspondence to the dates of the reigns of the
+several czars, though the correspondence is not always exact.
+
+Essays have been published, on some of the topics treated in these
+pages, by writers in different languages: in Russian, by Bramson,
+Klausner, and Morgulis; in Hebrew, by Izgur, Katz, and Klausner; in
+German, by Maimon, Lilienthal, Wengeroff, and Weissberg; in English, by
+Lilienthal and Wiener; and in French, by Slouschz. The subject as a
+whole, however, has not been treated. Should this work stimulate further
+research, I shall feel amply rewarded. Without prejudice and without
+partiality, by an honest presentation of facts drawn from what I regard
+as reliable sources, I have tried to unfold the story of the struggle of
+five millions of human beings for right living and rational thinking, in
+the hope of throwing light on the ideals and aspirations and the real
+character of the largely prejudged and misunderstood Russian Jew.
+
+In conclusion, I wish to express my gratitude and indebtedness to those
+who encouraged me to proceed with my work after some specimens of it had
+been published in several Jewish periodicals, especially to Doctor
+Solomon Schechter, Rabbi Max Heller, and Mr. A.S. Freidus, for their
+courtesy and assistance while the work was being written.
+
+JACOB S. RAISIN.
+
+E. Las Vegas, N. Mex.,
+
+Thanksgiving Day, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE PRE-HASKALAH PERIOD
+
+?-1648
+
+
+"There is but one key to the present," says Max Müller, "and that is the
+past." To understand fully the growth and historical development of a
+people's mind, one must be familiar with the conditions that have shaped
+its present form. It would seem necessary, therefore, to introduce a
+description of the Haskalah movement with a rapid survey of the history
+of the Russo-Polish Jews from the time of their emergence from obscurity
+up to the middle of the seventeenth century.
+
+Among those who laid the foundations for the study of this almost
+unexplored department of Jewish history, the settlement of Jews in
+Russia and their vicissitudes during the dark ages, the most prominent
+are perhaps Isaac Bär Levinsohn, Abraham Harkavy, and Simon Dubnow.
+There is much to be said of each of these as writers, scholars, and men.
+Here they concern us as Russo-Jewish historians. What Linnaeus, Agassiz,
+and Cuvier did in the field of natural philosophy, they accomplished in
+their chosen province of Jewish history.[1] Levinsohn was the first to
+express the opinion that the Russian Jews hailed, not from Germany, as
+is commonly supposed, but from the banks of the Volga. This hypothesis,
+corroborated by tradition, Harkavy established as a fact. Originally the
+vernacular of the Jews of Volhynia, Podolia, and Kiev was Russian and
+Polish, or, rather, the two being closely allied, Palaeo-Slavonic. The
+havoc wrought by the Crusades in the Jewish communities of Western
+Europe caused a constant stream of German-Jewish immigrants to pour,
+since 1090, into the comparatively free countries of the Slavonians.
+Russo-Poland became the America of the Old World. The Jewish settlers
+from abroad soon outnumbered the native Jews, and they spread a new
+language and new customs wherever they established themselves.[2]
+
+Whether the Jews of Russia were originally pagans from the shores of the
+Black and Caspian Seas, converted to Judaism under the Khazars during
+the eighth century, or Palestinian exiles subjugated by their Slavonian
+conquerors and assimilated with them, it is indisputable that they
+inhabited what we know to-day as Russia long before the Varangian prince
+Rurik came, at the invitation of Scythian and Sarmatian savages, to lay
+the foundation of the Muscovite empire. In Feodosia there is a synagogue
+at least a thousand years old. The Greek inscription on a marble slab,
+dating back to 80-81 B.C.E., preserved in the Imperial Hermitage in St.
+Petersburg, makes it certain that they flourished in the Crimea before
+the destruction of the Temple. In a communication to the Russian
+Geographical Society, M. Pogodin makes the statement, that there still
+exist a synagogue and a cemetery in the Crimea that belong to the
+pre-Christian era. Some of the tombstones, bearing Jewish names, and
+decorated with the seven-branched Menorah, date back to 157 B.C.E.;
+while Chufut-Kale, also known as the Rock of the Jews (Sela'
+ha-Yehudim), from the fortress supposed to have been built there by the
+Jews, would prove Jewish settlements to have been made there during the
+Babylonian or Persian captivity.[3]
+
+Though the same antiquity cannot be established for other Jewish
+settlements, we know that Kiev, "the mother of Russian cities," had many
+Jews long before the eighth century, who thus antedated the Russians as
+citizens. According to Joseph Hakohen they came there from Persia in
+690, according to Malishevsky in 776. It is certain that their influence
+was felt as early as the latter part of the tenth century. The Russian
+Chronicles ascribed to Nestor relate that they endeavored, in 986, to
+induce Grand Duke Vladimir to accept their religion. They did not
+succeed as they had succeeded two centuries before with the khan of the
+Khazars.[4] Yet the grand duke, who had the greatest influence in
+introducing and spreading Greek Catholicism, and who is now worshipped
+as a saint, was always favorably disposed toward them.
+
+There were other places that were inhabited early by Jews. There are
+traditions to the effect that Jews lived in Poland as early as the ninth
+century, and under the Boreslavs (992-1278) they are said to have
+enjoyed considerable privileges, carried on a lively trade, and spread
+as far as Kiev. Chernigov in Little Russia (the Ukraine), Baku in South
+Russia (Transcaucasia), Kalisz and Warsaw, Brest and Grodno, in West
+Russia (Russian Poland), all possess Jewish communities of considerable
+antiquity. In the townlet Eishishki, near Vilna, a tombstone set in 1171
+was still in existence at the end of the last century, and Khelm,
+Government Kovno, has a synagogue to which tradition ascribes an age of
+eight hundred years.[5]
+
+The Jewish population in all these communities was prosperous and
+respected. Jews were in favor with the Government, enjoyed equal rights
+with their Gentile neighbors, and were especially prominent as traders
+and farmers of taxes. Their monoxyla, or one-oared canoes, loaded with
+silks, furs, and precious metals, issued from the Borysthanes, traversed
+the Baltic and the Euxine, the Oder and the Bosphorus, the Danube and
+the Black Sea, and carried on the commerce between the Turks and the
+Slavonians. They were granted the honorable and lucrative privilege of
+directing and controlling the mints, and that of putting Hebrew as well
+as Slavonic inscriptions on their coins.[6] In the Lithuanian Magna
+Charta, granted by Vitold in 1388, the Jews of Brest were given many
+rights, and about a year later those of Grodno were permitted to engage
+in all pursuits and occupations, and exempted from paying taxes on
+synagogues and cemeteries. They possessed full jurisdiction in their own
+affairs. Some were raised to the nobility, notably the Josephovich
+brothers, Abraham and Michael. Under King Alexander Jagellon, Abraham
+was assessor of Kovno, alderman of Smolensk, and prefect of Minsk; he
+was called "sir" (jastrzhembets), was presented with the estates of
+Voidung, Grinkov, and Troki (1509), and appointed Secretary of the
+Treasury in Lithuania (1510). The other brother, Michael, was made
+"fiscal agent to the king." In the eighteenth century, Andrey
+Abramovich, of the same family but not of the Jewish faith, was senator
+and castellan of Brest-Litovsk.[7] They were not unique exceptions.
+Abraham Shmoilovich of Turisk is spoken of as "honorable sir" in leases
+of large estates. Affras Rachmailovich and Judah Bogdanovich figure
+among the merchant princes of Livonia and Lithuania; and Francisco Molo,
+who settled later in Amsterdam, was financial agent of John III of
+Poland in 1679. The influence of the last-named was so great with the
+Dutch States-General that the Treaty of Ryswick was concluded with Louis
+XIV, in 1697, through his mediation.[8]
+
+That Russo-Poland should have elected a Jewish king on two occasions, a
+certain Abraham Prochovnik in 842 and the famous Saul Wahl[9] in the
+sixteenth century, sounds legendary; but that there was a Jewish queen,
+called Esterka, is probable, and that some Jews attained to political
+eminence is beyond reasonable doubt.[10] Records have been discovered
+concerning two envoys, Saul and Joseph, who served the Slavonic czar
+about 960, and an interesting story is told of two Jewish soldiers,
+Ephraim Moisievich and Anbal the Jassin, who won the confidence of
+Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky of Kiev, and afterwards became leaders in a
+conspiracy against him (1174).[11] Henry, Duke of Anjou, the successor
+of Sigismud August on the throne of Poland and Lithuania, owed his
+election mainly to the efforts of Solomon Ashkenazi. Ivan Vassilyevich,
+too, had many and important relations with Jews, and his favorable
+attitude towards them is amply proved by the fact that his family
+physician was the Jew Leo (1490). Throughout his reign he maintained an
+uninterrupted friendship with Chozi Kokos, a Jew of the Crimea, and he
+did not hesitate to offer hospitality and protection to Zacharias de
+Guizolfi, though the latter was not in a position to reciprocate such
+favors.[12]
+
+In addition there are less prominent individuals who received honors at
+the hands of their non-Jewish countrymen. Meïr Ashkenazi of Kaffa, in
+the Crimea, who was slain by pirates on a trip from "Gava to Dakhel,"
+was envoy of the khan of the Tatars to the king of Poland in the
+sixteenth century. Mention is made of "Jewish Cossacks," who
+distinguished themselves on the field of battle, and were elevated to
+the rank of major and colonel.[13] While the common opinion regarding
+Jews expressed itself in merry England in such ballads as "The Jewish
+Dochter," and "Gernutus, the Jew of Venice," many a Little Russian song
+had the bravery of a Jewish soldier as its burden. In everything save
+religion the Jews were hardly distinguishable from their neighbors.
+
+    There are--writes Cardinal Commendoni, an eye-witness--a great
+    many Jews in these provinces, including Lithuania, who are not,
+    as in other places, regarded with disrespect. They do not
+    maintain themselves miserably by base profits; they are landed
+    proprietors, are engaged in business, and even devote themselves
+    to the study of literature and, above all, to medicine and
+    astronomy; they hold almost everywhere the commission of levying
+    customs duties, are classed among the most honest people, wear
+    no outward mark to distinguish them from the Christians, and are
+    permitted to carry swords and walk about with their arms. In a
+    word they have equal rights with the other citizens.
+
+A similar statement is made by Joseph Delmedigo, who spent many years in
+Livonia and Lithuania as physician to Prince Radziwill.[14]
+
+In his inimitable manner Gibbon describes the fierce struggle the Greek
+Catholic Church had to wage before she obtained a foothold in Russia,
+but he neglects to mention the fact that Judaism no less than paganism
+was among her formidable opponents. The contest lasted several
+centuries, and in many places it is undecided to this day.[15] The
+Khazars, who had become proselytes in the eighth century, were
+constantly encroaching upon Russian Christianity. Buoyant as both were
+with the vigor of youth, missionary zeal was at its height among the two
+contending religions. Each made war upon the other. We read that Photius
+of Constantinople sent a message of thanks to Archbishop Anthony of
+Kertch (858-859) for his efforts to convert the Jews; that the first
+Bishop of the Established Church (1035) was "Lukas, the little Jew"
+(Luka Zhidyata), who was appointed to his office by Yaroslav; and that
+St. Feodosi Pechersky was fond of conversing with learned Jews on
+matters of theology.[16] On the other hand, the efforts of the Jews were
+not without success. The baptism of the pious Olga marks an era in
+Russian Christianity, the beginning of the "Judaizing heresy," which
+centuries of persecution only strengthened. In 1425, Zacharias of Kiev,
+who is reputed to have "studied astrology, necromancy, and various other
+magic arts," converted the priest Dionis, the Archbishop Aleksey, and,
+through the latter, many more clergymen of Novgorod, Moscow, and Pskov.
+Aleksey became a devout Jew. He called himself Abraham and his wife
+Sarah. Yet, strange to say, he retained the favor of the Grand Duke Ivan
+Vassilyevich, even after the latter's daughter-in-law, Princess Helena,
+his secretary Theodore Kuritzin, the Archimandrite Sosima, the monk
+Zacharias, and other persons of note had entered the fold of Judaism
+through his influence.
+
+The "heresy" spread over many parts of the empire, and the number of its
+adherents constantly grew. Archbishop Nikk complains that in the very
+monastery of Moscow there were presumably converted Jews, "who had again
+begun to practice their old Jewish religion and demoralize the young
+monks." In Poland, too, proselytism was of frequent occurrence,
+especially in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The religious
+tolerance of Casimir IV (1434-1502) and his immediate successors, and
+the new doctrines preached by Huss and Luther, which permeated the upper
+classes of society, rendered the Poles more liberal on the one hand, and
+on the other the Jews more assertive. We hear of a certain nobleman,
+George Morschtyn, who married a Jewess, Magdalen, and had his daughter
+raised in the religion of her mother. In fact, at a time when Jews in
+Spain assumed the mask of Christianity to escape persecution, Russian
+and Polish Christians by birth could choose, with little fear of danger,
+to lead the Jewish life. It was not till about the eighteenth century
+that the Government began to resort to the usual methods of eradicating
+heresy. Katharina Weigel, a lady famous for her beauty, who embraced
+Judaism, was decapitated in Cracow at the instigation of Bishop Peter
+Gamrat. On the deposition of his wife, Captain Vosnitzin of the Polish
+navy was put to death by auto-da-fé (July 15, 1738). The eminent "Ger
+Zedek," Count Valentine Pototzki, less fortunate than his comrade and
+fellow-convert Zaremba, was burnt at the stake in Vilna (May 24, 1749),
+and his teacher in the Jewish doctrines, Menahem Mann, was tortured and
+executed a few months later, at the age of seventy. But these measures
+proved of little avail. According to Martin Bielski, the noted
+historian, Jews saved their proselytes from the impending doom by
+transporting them to Turkey. Many of them sought refuge in Amsterdam.
+For those who remained behind their new coreligionists provided through
+collections made for that purpose in Russia and in Germany. To this day
+these Russian and Polish proselytes adhere steadfastly to their faith,
+and whether they migrate to America or Palestine to escape the
+persecution of their countrymen, they seldom, if ever, indulge in the
+latitudinarianism into which many of longer Jewish lineage fall so
+readily when removed from old moorings.[17]
+
+That the Russian Jews of the day were not altogether unenlightened, that
+they not only practiced the Law devoutly, but also studied it
+diligently, and cultivated the learning of the time as well, we may
+safely infer from researches recently made. Cyril, or Constantine, "the
+philosopher," the apostle to the Slavonians, acquired a knowledge of
+Hebrew while at Kherson, and was probably aided by Jews in his
+translation of the Bible into Slavonic. Manuscripts of Russo-Jewish
+commentaries to the Scriptures, written as early as 1094 and 1124, are
+still preserved in the Vatican and Bodleian libraries, and copyists were
+doing fairly good work at Azov in 1274.
+
+Jewish scholars frequented celebrated seats of learning in foreign
+lands. Before the end of the twelfth century traces of them are to be
+found in France, Italy, and Spain. That in the eleventh century Judah
+Halevi of Toledo and Nathan of Rome should have been familiar with
+Russian words cannot but be attributed to their contact with Russian
+Jews. However, in the case of these two scholars, it may possibly be
+ascribed to their great erudition or extensive travels. But the many
+Slavonic expressions occurring in the commentaries of Rashi (1040-1105),
+and employed by Joseph Caro (ab. 1140), Benjamin of Tudela (ab. 1160),
+and Isaac of Vienna (ab. 1250), lend color to Harkavy's contention, that
+Russian was once the vernacular of the Russian Jews, and they also argue
+in favor of our contention, that these natives of the "land of
+Canaan"--as the country of the Slavs was then called in Hebrew--came
+into personal touch with the "lights and leaders" of other Jewish
+communities. Indeed, Rabbi Moses of Kiev is mentioned as one of the
+pupils of Jacob Tam, the Tosafist of France (d. 1170), and Asheri, or
+Rosh, of Spain is reported to have had among his pupils Rabbi Asher and
+Master (Bahur) Jonathan from Russia. From these peripatetic scholars
+perhaps came the martyrs of 1270, referred to in the _Memorbuch_ of
+Mayence. It was Rabbi Moses who, while still in Russia, corresponded
+with Samuel ben Ali, head of the Babylonian Academy, and called the
+attention of Western scholars to certain Gaonic decisions. Another
+rabbi, Isaac, or Itshke, of Chernigov, was probably the first Talmudist
+in England, and his decisions were regarded as authoritative on certain
+occasions. These and others like them wrote super-commentaries on the
+commentaries of Rashi and Ibn Ezra, the most popular and profound
+scholars medieval Jewry produced, and made copies of the works of other
+authors.[18]
+
+Soon the Russo-Polish Jews established at home what they had been
+compelled to seek abroad. Hearing of the advantages offered in the great
+North-East, German Jews flocked thither in such numbers as to dominate
+and absorb the original Russians and Poles. A new element asserted
+itself. Names like Ashkenazi, Heilperin, Hurwitz, Landau, Luria,
+Margolis, Schapiro, Weil, Zarfati, etc., variously spelled, took the
+place, through intermarriage and by adoption, of the ancient Slavonic
+nomenclature. The language, manners, modes of thought, and, to a certain
+extent, even the physiognomy of the earlier settlers, underwent a more
+or less radical change. In some provinces the conflict lasted longer
+than in others. To this day not a few Russian Jews would seem to be of
+Slavonic rather than Semitic extraction. As late as the sixteenth
+century there was still a demand in certain places for a Russian
+translation of the Hebrew Book of Common Prayer, and in 1635 Rabbi Meïr
+Ashkenazi, who came from Frankfort-on-the-Main to study in Lublin, and
+was retained as rabbi in Mohilev-on-the-Dnieper, had cause to exclaim,
+"Would to God that our coreligionists all spoke the same
+language--German."[19] Even Maimon, in the latter half of the eighteenth
+century, mentions one, by no means an exception, who did not "understand
+the Jewish language, and made use, therefore, of the Russian."[20] But
+by the middle of the seventeenth century the amalgamation was almost
+complete. It resulted in a product entirely new. As the invasion of
+England by the Normans produced the Anglo-Saxon, so the inundation of
+Russia by the Germans produced the Slav-Teuton. This is the clue to the
+study of the Haskalah, as will appear from what follows.
+
+Russo-Poland gradually became the cynosure of the Talmudic world, the
+"Aksanye shel Torah," the asylum of the Law, whence "enlargement and
+deliverance" arose for the traditions which the Jews carried with them,
+through fire and water, during the dreary centuries of their dispersion.
+It became to Jews what Athens was to ancient Greece, Rome to medieval
+Christendom, New England to our early colonies. With the invention and
+importation of the printing-press, the publication and acquisition of
+the Bible, the Talmud, and most of the important rabbinic works were
+facilitated. As a consequence, yeshibot, or colleges, for the study of
+Jewish literature, were founded in almost every community. Their fame
+reached distant lands. It became a popular saying that "from Kiev shall
+go forth the Law, and the word of God from Starodub." Horodno, the
+vulgar pronunciation of Grodno, was construed to mean Har Adonaï, "the
+Mount of the Lord." A pious rabbi did not hesitate to write to a
+colleague, "Be it known to the high honor of your glory that it is
+preferable by far to dwell in the land of the Russ and promote the study
+of the Torah in Israel than in the land of Israel."[21] Especially the
+part of Poland ultimately swallowed up by Russia was the new Palestine
+of the Diaspora. Thither flocked all desirous of becoming adepts in the
+dialectics of the rabbis, "of learning how to swim in the sea of the
+Talmud." It was there that the voluminous works of Hebrew literature
+were studied, literally "by day and by night," and the subtleties of the
+Talmudists were developed to a degree unprecedented in Jewish history.
+Thither was sent, from the distant Netherlands, the youngest son of
+Manasseh ben Israel, and he "became mighty in the Talmud and master of
+four languages." Thither came, from Prague, the afterwards famous
+Cabbalist, author, and rabbi, Isaiah Horowitz (ab. 1555-1630), and there
+he chose to remain the rest of his days. Thither also went, from
+Frankfort, the above-mentioned Meïr Ashkenazi, who, according to some,
+was the first author of note in White Russia.
+
+From everywhere they came "to pour water on the hands and sit at the
+feet" of the great ones of the second Palestine.[22]
+
+For Jewish solidarity was more than a word in those days. "Sefardim" had
+not yet learned to boast of aristocratic lineage, nor "Ashkenazim" to
+look down contemptuously upon their Slavonic coreligionists. It was
+before the removal of civil disabilities from one portion of the Jewish
+people had sowed the seed of arrogance toward the other less favored
+portion. Honor was accorded to whom it was due, regardless of the
+locality in which he happened to have been born. Glückel von Hameln
+states in her _Memoirs_ that preference was sometimes given to the
+decisions of the "great ones of Poland," and mentions with pride that
+her brother Shmuel married the daughter of the great Reb Shulem of
+Lemberg.[23] With open arms, Amsterdam, Frankfort, Fürth, Konigsberg,
+Metz, Prague, and other communities renowned for wealth and learning,
+welcomed the acute Talmudists of Brest, Grodno, Kovno, Lublin, Minsk,
+and Vilna, whenever they were willing or compelled to consider a call.
+The practice of summoning Russo-Polish rabbis to German posts was
+carried so far that it aroused the displeasure of the Western scholars,
+and they complained of being slighted.[24]
+
+The reverence for Slavonic learning was strikingly illustrated during
+the years following the Cossack massacres, when many Russo-Polish rabbis
+fled for safety to foreign lands. Frankfort, Fürth, Prague, and Vienna
+successively elected the fugitive Shabbataï Horowitz of Ostrog as their
+religious guide. David Taz of Vladimir became rabbi of Steinitz in
+Moravia; Ephraim Hakohen was called to Trebitsch in Moravia and to Ofen
+in Hungary; David of Lyda, to Mayence and Amsterdam, and Naphtali Kohen,
+to Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1704, and later to Breslau. No less
+personages than Isaac Aboab and Saul Morteira welcomed the
+merchant-Talmudist Moses Rivkes of Vilna when he sought refuge in
+Amsterdam, and they entrusted to him the task of editing the _Shulhan
+'Aruk_, his marginal notes to which, the _Beër ha-Golah_, have ever
+since been printed with the text. In addition to rabbis, Lithuania and
+other provinces furnished teachers for the young, melammedim, who
+exerted considerable influence upon the people among whom they lived.
+Their opinions, we are told, were highly valued in the choice of
+rabbis.[25]
+
+It must not be supposed that supremacy in the Talmud was secured at the
+cost of secular knowledge, or what was then regarded as such. Their
+familiarity with other branches of study was not inferior to that of the
+Jews in better-known lands. Not a few of the prominent men united piety
+with philosophy, and thorough knowledge of the Talmud with mastery of
+one or more of the sciences of the time. Data on this phase of the
+subject might have been much more abundant, had not the storm of
+persecution suddenly swept over the communities, destroying them and
+their records. What we still possess indicates what may have been lost.
+The Ukraine was famous for its scholars. Among them was Jehiel Michael
+of Nemirov, reputed to have been "versed in all the sciences of the
+world."[26] Several of them were poets and grammarians. Poems of a
+liturgical character are still extant in which they bemoan their plight
+or assert their faith hopefully. Such were the poems of Ephraim of
+Khelm, Joseph of Kobrin, Solomon of Zamoscz, and Shabbataï Kohen. The
+last, eminent as a Talmudist, the author of commentaries on the _Shulhan
+'Aruk_ approved by the leading rabbis of his generation, is also known
+as a very trustworthy historian. His _Megillah 'Afah_, written in
+classic Hebrew, is a valuable source of information on the critical
+period in which he lived. He won the esteem of the Polish nobility by
+his secular attainments. To judge from his correspondence, he must have
+been on intimate terms with Vidrich of Leipsic.[27] Of the grammarians,
+Jacob Zaslaver wrote on the Massorah, and Shabbataï Sofer was the author
+of annotations and treatises.[28] Our taste in poetry and grammar is no
+longer the same, but the polemic and apologetic writings of those days,
+called forth by the discussions between Rabbanites and Karaites and by
+the constant attacks of Christianity, are still of uncommon interest.
+Specimens of the former kind are the polemics of Moses of Shavli, which
+caused consternation in the camp of the Karaites. Of the apologetic
+writings should be mentioned the reply, in Polish, of Jacob Nahman of
+Belzyc to Martin Chekhovic (Lublin, 1581), and the _Hizzuk Emunah_ of
+the Karaite Isaac ben Abraham of Troki. In the latter the weakness of
+Christianity and the strength of Judaism are pointed out with trenchancy
+never before reached. The work stirred up heated discussions among the
+various Christian sects, with the tenets of which the author was
+intimately acquainted. It was translated into Latin (1681, 1705),
+Yiddish (1717), English (1851), and German (1865, 1873). Voltaire says
+that all the arguments used by free-thinkers against Christianity were
+drawn from it.[29]
+
+In philosophy, mathematics, and medicine, the three main branches of
+medieval knowledge, many Slavonian Jews attained eminence. Devout
+Karaites as well as diligent Talmudists found secular learning a
+diversion and a delight. For the lovers of enlightenment Italy,
+especially Padua, was the centre of attraction, as France and Spain had
+been before, and Germany, particularly Berlin, became afterwards.[30]
+Towards the middle of the sixteenth century we find young Delacrut at
+the University of Bologna, the philosopher and Cabbalist, known for his
+commentaries to Gikatilla's _Sha'are Orah_ (Cracow, 1600) and Ben
+Avigdor's _Mar'eh ha-Ofanim_ (1720), and his translation of Gossuin's
+_L'image du monde_ (Amsterdam, 1733). His famous disciple Mordecai Jaffe
+(Lebushim) spent ten years in the study of astronomy and mathematics
+before he occupied the rabbinate of Grodno (1572)[31] At the request of
+Yom-Tob Lipman Heller, Joseph ben Isaac Levi wrote a commentary on
+Maimuni's _Moreh Nebukim_, which was published with the former's
+annotations, _Gibe'at ha-Moreh_ (Prague, 1611). Deservedly or not,
+Eliezer Mann was called "the Hebrew Socrates"; and many a Maskil in his
+study of mathematics turned for guidance to Manoah Handel of
+Brzeszticzka, Volhynia, author and translator of several scientific
+works, who rendered seven Euclidean propositions into Hebrew.[32]
+
+Polyglots they were compelled to be by force of circumstances. When the
+exotic Judeo-German finally asserted itself as the vernacular, the
+language in which they wrote and prayed was still the ancient Hebrew,
+with which every one was familiar, and commercial intercourse with their
+Gentile neighbors was hardly feasible without at least a smattering of
+the local Slavonic dialect. "Look at our brethren in Poland," exclaims
+Wessely many years later in his address to his countrymen. "They
+converse with their neighbors in good Polish.... What excuse have we for
+our brogue and jargon?" He might have had still better cause for
+complaint, had he been aware that the Yiddish of the Russo-Polish Jews,
+despite its considerable Slavonic admixture, was purer German than that
+of his contemporaries in Germany, even as the English of our New England
+colonies was superior to the Grub Street style prevalent in Dr.
+Johnson's England, and the Spanish of our Mexican annexations to the
+Castilian spoken at the time of Coronado. But we are here concerned with
+their knowledge of foreign languages. We shall refer only to the
+Hebrew-German-Italian-Latin-French dictionary _Safah Berurah_ (Prague,
+1660; Amsterdam, 1701) by the eminent Talmudist Nathan Hannover.[33]
+
+In medicine Jews were pre-eminent in the Slavonic countries, as they
+were everywhere else. They were in great demand as court physicians,
+though several had to pay with their lives "for having failed to effect
+cures." Doctor Leo, who was at the court of Moscow in 1490, was
+mentioned above. Jacob Isaac, the "nobleman of Jerusalem" (Yerosalimska
+shlyakhta), was attached to the court of Sigismund, where he was held in
+high esteem. Prince Radziwill's physician was Itshe Nisanovich, and
+among those in attendance on John Sobieski were Jonas Casal and Abraham
+Troki, the latter the author of several works on medicine and natural
+philosophy.[34]
+
+Medieval Jewish physicians were prone to travel, and those of
+Russo-Poland were no exception. We find them in almost every part of the
+civilized world, and their number increases with the disappearance of
+prejudice. Some were noted Talmudists, such as Solomon Luria and Samuel
+ben Mattathias. Abraham Ashkenazi Apotheker was not only a compounder of
+herbs but a healer of souls, for the edification of which he wrote his
+_Elixir of Life_ (_Sam Hayyim_, Prague, 1590). To the same class belong
+Moses Katzenellenbogen and his son Hayyim, who was styled Gaon. In 1657
+Hayyim visited Italy. He was welcomed by the prominent Jews of Mantua,
+Modena, Venice, and Verona, but he preferred to continue the practice of
+his profession in his home town Lublin.[35] Nor may we omit the names of
+Stephen von Gaden and Moses Coën, because of their high standing among
+their colleagues and the honors conferred upon them for their
+statesmanship. Stephen von Gaden, who with Samuel Collins was
+physician-in-ordinary to Czar Aleksey Mikhailovich, was instrumental in
+removing many disabilities from the Jews of Moscow and in the interior
+of Russia. Moses Coën, in consequence of the Cossack uprising, escaped
+to Moldavia, and was made court physician by the hospodar Vassile Lupu.
+But for Coën, Lupu would have been dethroned by those who conspired
+against him. To his loyalty may probably be attributed the kind
+treatment Moldavian Jews later enjoyed at the hands of the prince. Coën
+also exposed the secret alliance between Russia and Sweden against
+Turkey, and his advice was sought by the doge of Venice.[36]
+
+The personage who typifies best the enlightened Slavonic Jew of the
+pre-Haskalah period is Tobias Cohn (1652-1729). He was the son and
+grandson of physicians, who practiced at Kamenetz-Podolsk and Byelsk,
+and after 1648 went to Metz. After their father's death, he and his
+older brother returned to Poland, whence Tobias, in turn, emigrated
+first to Italy and then to Turkey. In Adrianople he was
+physician-in-ordinary to five successive sultans. In the history of
+medicine he is remembered as the discoverer of the _plica polonica_, and
+as the publisher of a Materia Medica in three languages. To the student
+of Haskalah he is interesting, because he marks the close of the old and
+the beginning of the new era. Like the Maskilim of a century or two
+centuries later, he compiled and edited an encyclopedia in Hebrew, that
+"knowledge be increased among his coreligionists." His acquaintance with
+learned works in several ancient and modern languages of which he was
+master, enabled him to write his magnum opus, _Ma'aseh Tobiah_, with
+tolerable ease. This work is divided into eight parts, devoted
+respectively to theology, astronomy, pharmacy, hygiene, venereal
+diseases, botany, cosmography, and chemistry. It is illustrated with
+several plates, among them the picture of an astrolabe and one of the
+human body treated as a house. From the numerous editions through which
+it passed (Venice, 1707, 1715, 1728, 1769), we may conclude that it met
+with marked success.[37]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To understand the _raison d'Être_ of the Haskalah movement, it may not
+be superfluous to cast a glance at the inner social and religious life
+of the Slavonic Jews during pre-Haskalah times. The labors of the farmer
+are crowned with success only when nature lends him a helping hand. His
+soil must be fertile, and blessed with frequent showers. Nor would the
+Maskilim have accomplished their aim, had the material they found at
+hand been different from what it was.
+
+The Jews in the land of the Slavonians were fortunate in being regarded
+as aliens in a country which, as we have seen, they inhabited long
+before those who claimed to be its possessors by divine right of
+conquest. If their position was precarious, their sufferings were those
+of a conquered nation. As the whim and fancy of the reigning prince,
+knyaz, varied, they were induced one day to settle in the country by the
+offer of the most flattering privileges, and the next day they were
+expelled, only to be requested to return again. Now their synagogues and
+cemeteries were exempt from taxation, now an additional poll-tax or
+land-tax was levied on every Jew (serebshizna); one day they were
+allowed to live unhampered by restrictions, then they were prohibited to
+wear certain garments and ornaments, and commanded to use yellow caps
+and kerchiefs to distinguish them from the Gentiles (1566).
+
+But all this was the consequence of political subjugation. Judged by the
+standard of the times, they were veritable freemen, freer than the
+Huguenots of France and the Puritans of England. They were left
+unmolested in the administration of their internal affairs, and were
+permitted to appoint their own judges, enforce their own laws, and
+support their own institutions. Forming a state within a state, they
+developed a civilization contrasting strongly with that round about
+them, and comparing favorably with some of the features of ours of
+to-day. Slavonic Jewry was divided into four districts, consisting of
+the more important communities (kahals), to which a number of smaller
+ones (prikahalki) were subservient. These, known as the Jewish
+Assemblies (zbori zhidovskiye), met at stated intervals. As in our
+federal Government, the administrative, executive, and legislative
+departments were kept distinct, and those who presided over them
+(roshim) were elected annually by ballot. These roshim, or elders,
+served by turns for periods of one month each. The rabbi of each
+community was the chief judge, and was assisted by several inferior
+judges (dayyanim). For matters of importance there were courts of appeal
+established in Ostrog and Lemberg, the former having jurisdiction over
+Volhynia and the Ukraine, the latter over the rest of Jewish
+Russo-Poland. For inter-kahal litigation, there was a supreme court, the
+Wa'ad Arba' ha-Arazot (the Synod of the Four Countries), which held its
+sessions during the Lublin fair in winter and the Yaroslav fair in
+summer. In cases affecting Jews and Gentiles, a decision was given by
+the _judex Judaeorum_, who held his office by official appointment of
+the grand duke.
+
+So far their system of self-government appears almost a prototype of our
+own. The same is true of their municipal administration. The rabbi, who
+had the deciding vote in case of a dead-lock, stood in the same relation
+to them as the mayor holds to us, only that his term of office,
+nominally limited to three years, was actually for life or during good
+behavior. Yet the power vested in him was only delegated power. A number
+of selectmen, or aldermen, guarded the rights of the community with the
+utmost jealousy, and tolerated no innovation, unless previously
+sanctioned by them. There were also several honorary offices, with a
+one-year tenure, which none could fill who had not had experience in an
+inferior position. The chief duties attached to these offices were to
+appraise the amount of taxation, pay the salaries of the rabbi, his
+dayyanim, and the teachers of the public schools, provide for the poor,
+and, above all, intercede with the Government.[38]
+
+Still more interesting and, for our purpose, more important were their
+public and private institutions of learning. Jews have always been noted
+for the solicitous care they exercise in the education of the young. The
+Slavonic Jews surpassed their brethren of other countries in this
+respect. At times they wrenched the tender bond of parental love in
+their ardor for knowledge. With a republican form of government they
+created an aristocracy, not of wealth or of blood, but of intellect. The
+education of girls was, indeed, neglected. To be able to read her
+prayers in Hebrew and to write Yiddish was all that was expected of a
+mother in Israel. It was otherwise with the boys. Every Jew deemed
+himself in duty bound to educate his son. "Learning is the best
+merchandise"--_Torah iz die beste sehorah_--was the lesson inculcated
+from cradle to manhood, the precept followed from manhood to old age.
+All the lullabies transmitted to us from earliest times indicate the
+pursuit of knowledge as the highest ambition cherished by mothers for
+their sons:
+
+  Patsché, patsché, little tootsies,
+  We shall buy us little bootsies;
+  Little bootsies we shall buy,
+  To run to heder we shall try;
+  Torah we'll learn and all good ma'alot (qualities),
+  On our wedding eve we shall solve sha'alot (ritual problems).[39]
+
+To have a scholarly son or son-in-law was the best passport to the
+highest circles, a means of rising from the lowliest to the loftiest
+station in life.
+
+It is no wonder, then, that schools abounded in every community. At the
+early age of four the child was usually sent to the heder (school;
+literally, room), where he studied until he was ready for the yeshibah,
+the higher "seat" of learning. The melammedim, teachers, were graded
+according to their ability, and the school year consisted of two terms,
+zemannim, from the first Sabbath after the Holy Days to Passover and
+from after Passover to Rosh ha-Shanah. The boy's intellectual capacities
+were steadily, if not systematically, cultivated, sometimes at the
+expense of his bodily development. It was not unusual for a child of
+seven or eight to handle a difficult problem in the Talmud, a precocity
+characteristic to this day of the children hailing from Slavonic
+countries. Their 'illuyim (prodigies) might furnish ample material for
+more than one volume of _les enfants célèbres_.
+
+Nor were the children of the poor left to grow up in ignorance. Learning
+was free, to be had for the asking. More than this, stringent measures
+were taken that no child be without instruction. Talmud Torahs were
+founded even in the smallest kehillot (communities), and the students
+were supplied, not only with books, but also with the necessaries of
+life. Communal and individual benefactors furnished clothes, and every
+member (ba'al ha-bayit) had to provide food and lodging for an indigent
+pupil at least one day of each week. The "Freitisch" (free board) was an
+inseparable adjunct to every school. Poor young men were not regarded as
+"beggar students." They were looked upon as earning their living by
+study, even as teachers by instructing. To pray for the dead or the
+living in return for their support is a recent innovation, and mostly
+among other than Slavonic Jews. It is a custom adopted from medieval
+Christianity, and practiced in England by the poor student, who, in the
+words of Chaucer,
+
+  Busily 'gan for the souls to pray
+  On them that gave him wherewith to scolay.
+
+For a faithful and vivid description of the yeshibot we cannot do better
+than transcribe the account given in the pages of the little pamphlet
+_Yeven Mezulah_ in which Nathan Hannover, mentioned above, has left us a
+reliable history of the Cossack uprisings and the Kulturgeschichte of
+his own time.
+
+    I need bring no proof for the statement that nowhere was the
+    study of the Law so universal as in Russo-Poland. In every
+    community there was a well-paid dean (rosh yeshibah), who,
+    exempt from worry about a livelihood, devoted himself
+    exclusively to teaching and studying by day and by night. In
+    every kahal, many youths, maintained liberally, studied under
+    the guidance of the dean. In turn, they instructed the less
+    advanced, who were also supported by the community. A kahal of
+    fifty [families] had to provide for at least thirty such. They
+    boarded and lodged in the homes of their patrons, and frequently
+    received pocket-money in addition. Thus there was hardly a house
+    in which the Torah was not studied, either by the master of the
+    house, a son, a son-in-law, or a student stranger. They always
+    bore in mind the dictum of Rabba, "He who loves scholars will
+    have scholarly sons; he who welcomes scholars will have
+    scholarly sons-in-law; he who admires scholars will become
+    learned himself." No wonder, then, that every community swarmed
+    with scholars, that out of every fifty of its members at least
+    twenty were far advanced, and had the morenu (i.e. bachelor)
+    degree.
+
+    The dean was vested with absolute authority. He could punish an
+    offender, whether rich or poor. Everybody respected him, and he
+    often received gifts of money or valuables. In all religious
+    processions he came first. Then followed the students, then the
+    learned, and the rest of the congregation brought up the rear.
+    This veneration for the dean prompted many a youth to imitate
+    his example, and thus our country was rendered full of the
+    knowledge of the Law.
+
+What became of the students when they were graduated? Let us turn once
+more to Hannover's interesting narrative. The "fairs" of those days were
+much more than opportunities for barter; they afforded favorable and
+attractive occasions for other objects. Zaslav and Yaroslav during the
+summer, Lemberg and Lublin in the winter, were "filled with hundreds of
+deans and thousands of students," and one who had a marriageable
+daughter had but to resort thither to have his worries allayed.
+Therefore, "Jews and Jewesses attended these bazaars in magnificent
+attire, and [each season] several hundred, sometimes as many as a
+thousand, alliances were consummated."
+
+That the rabbi, living in a strange land and recalling a glorious past,
+should have indulged in a bit of exaggeration in his sorrowful
+retrospect, is not more than natural; and that his picture on the whole
+is true is proved by similar schools which existed in Russia till
+recently. The descriptions of these institutions by Smolenskin as well
+as writers of less repute are graphic and intensely interesting. They
+constituted a unique world, in which the Jewish youth lived and moved
+until he reached man's estate. In later years, when Russian Jewry became
+infected, so to speak, with the Aufklärungs-bacilli, they became the
+nurseries of the new learning. But in the earlier time, too, a spirit of
+enlightenment pervaded them. The study of the Talmud fostered in them
+was regarded both as a religious duty and as a means to an end, the
+rabbinate. Even in the Middle Ages Aristotle was a favorite with the
+older students, and Solomon Luria complained that in the prayer books of
+many of them he had noticed the prayer of Aristotle, for which he blamed
+the liberal views of Moses Isserles![40]
+
+Another typically, though not exclusively, Slavonic Jewish institution
+was the study-hall, or bet ha-midrash. As the synagogues gradually
+became Schulen (schools), so, by a contrary process, the bet ha-midrash
+assumed the function of a house of prayer. Its uniqueness it has
+retained to this day. It was at once a library, a reading-room, and a
+class-room; yet those who frequented it were bound by the rigorous laws
+of none of the three. There were no restrictions as to when, or what, or
+how one should study. It was a place in which originality was admired
+and research encouraged. As at a Spartan feast, youth and age
+commingled, men of all ages and diverse attainments exchanged views, and
+all benefited by mutual contact.
+
+Those whose position precluded devotion to study availed themselves at
+least of the means for mutual improvement at their disposal. They
+organized societies for the study of certain branches of Jewish lore,
+and for the meetings of these societies the busiest spared time and the
+poorest put aside his work. It was a people composed of scholars and
+those who maintained scholars, and the scholars, in dress and
+appearance, represented the aristocracy, an aristocracy of the
+intellect.
+
+Such was the pre-Haskalah period. From the meagre data at our disposal
+we are justified in concluding, that, left undisturbed, the Slavonic
+Jews would have evolved a civilization rivalling, if not surpassing,
+that of the golden era of the Spanish Jews. But this was not to be.
+Their onward march met a sudden and terrific check. Hetman Chmielnicki
+at the head of his savage hordes of Russians and Tatars conquered the
+Poles, and Jews and Catholics were subjected to the most inhuman
+treatment. The descendants of those who, in 1090, had escaped the
+Crusaders fell victims in 1648 to the more cruel Cossacks. About half a
+million Jews, it is estimated, lost their lives in Chmielnicki's
+horrible massacres. The few communities remaining were utterly
+demoralized. The education of the young was neglected, both sacred and
+secular branches of study were abandoned. And when the storm calmed
+down, they found themselves deprived of the accumulations of centuries,
+forced, like Noah after the deluge, but without his means, to start
+again from the very beginning. Indeed, as Levinsohn remarks, the wonder
+is that, despite the fiendish persecution they endured, these
+unfortunates should have preserved a spark of love of knowledge. Yet a
+little later it was to burst into flame again and bring light and warmth
+to hearts crushed by "man's inhumanity to man."
+
+(Notes, pp. 305-310.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION
+
+1648-1794
+
+
+The storm of persecution that had been brewing in the sixteenth century,
+and which burst in all its fury by the middle of the seventeenth
+century, was allayed but little by the rivers of blood that streamed
+over the length and breadth of the Slavonic land. Half a million Jewish
+victims were not sufficient to satisfy the followers of a religion of
+love. They only whetted their insatiable appetite. The anarchy among the
+Gentiles increased the misery of the Jews. The towns fell into the hands
+of the Lithuanians, Poles, Russians, and Tatars successively, and it was
+upon the Jews that the hounds of war were let loose at each defeat or
+conquest. Determined to exterminate each other, they joined forces in
+exterminating the Jews. When Bratzlav, for instance, was destroyed by
+the Tatars, in 1479, more than four hundred of its six hundred Jewish
+citizens were slain. When the city was attacked by the Cossacks in 1569,
+the greater number of the plundered and murdered were Jews. The same
+happened when Chmielnicki gained the upper hand in Bratzlav in 1648,
+again when the Russians slaughtered all the inhabitants in 1664, and
+when the Tatars plotted against their victorious enemy, Peter the
+Great.[1] Swedish attacks without and popular uprisings within rendered
+the Polish pan (dubbed among Jews poriz, rowdy or ruffian) as reckless
+as he was irresponsible. The Jew became for him a sponge to be squeezed
+for money, and a clown to contribute to his brutal amusements. The
+subtle and baneful influence of the Jesuits succeeded, besides, in
+introducing religion into politics and making the Jew the scapegoat for
+the evils of both. The _Judaeus infidelis_ was the target of abuse and
+persecution. It was only the fear that the Government's exchequer might
+suffer that prevented his being turned into a veritable slave. His
+condition, indeed, was worse than slavery; his life was worth less than
+a beast's. It was frequently taken for the mere fun of it, and with
+impunity. An overseer once ordered all Jewish mothers living on the
+estate to climb to the tree-tops and leave their little ones below. He
+then fired at the children, and when the women fell from the trees at
+the horrible sight, he presented each with a piece of money, and thanked
+them for the pleasure they had afforded him.[2]
+
+In the cities, though the pan's excesses were bound to be somewhat
+bridled there, the lot of the Jews was equally gloomy. They were treated
+like outlaws, were forbidden to engage in all but a few branches of
+trade or handicraft, or to live with Christians, or employ them as
+servants. In 1720 they were prohibited to build new synagogues or even
+repair the old ones. Sometimes the synagogues were locked "by order
+of ..." until a stipulated amount of money bought permission to reopen
+them. We of to-day can hardly imagine what pain a Jew of that time
+experienced when he hastened to the house of God on one of the great
+Holy Days only to find its doors closed by the police!
+
+Their status was no better in Lithuania and Great Russia. The accession
+of Ivan IV, the Terrible (1533-1584), dealt their former comparative
+prosperity a blow from which it has not recovered to this day. As if to
+remove the impression of liberalism made by his predecessor and
+obliterate from memory his amicable relations with Doctor Leo, de
+Guizolfi, and Chozi Kolos, this monster czar, with the fiendishness of a
+Caligula, but lacking the accomplishments of his heathen prototype,
+delighted to invent tortures for inoffensive Jews. He expelled them from
+Moscow, and deprived them of the right of travel from place to place.
+During his occupancy of Polotsk he ordered all Jews residing there
+either to become converts to Greek Catholicism or choose between being
+drowned in the Dwina and burnt at the stake.
+
+But even the removal of the terrible czar and the dawn of the century of
+reason and humanitarianism failed to effect a change for the better in
+the condition of the Slavonic Jews. For a while it appeared as if the
+Zeitgeist might penetrate even into Russo-Poland, and the Renaissance
+and the Reformation would not pass over the eastern portion of Europe
+without beneficent results. In Lithuania Calvinism threatened to oust
+Catholicism, science and culture began to be pursued, and Jewish and
+Gentile children attended the same schools. The successors of Ivan IV
+were men of better breeding, and the praiseworthy attempts of Peter the
+Great to introduce Western civilization are known to all.[3] But
+Slavonic soil has never been susceptible to the elevating influences
+that have transformed the rest of Europe. Every reformatory effort was
+nipped in the bud. The lot of the Jews accordingly grew from bad to
+worse. In 1727 they were expelled from the Ukraine and other provinces,
+and they were recalled, "for the benefit of the citizens," only at the
+instance of Apostol, the hetman of the very Cossacks that had massacred
+them in 1648. Baruch Leibov was burned alive in St. Petersburg, in 1738,
+for having dared "insult the Christian religion by building a synagogue
+in the village of Zvyerovichi," an offence that was aggravated by the
+suspicion that he had converted the Russian Captain Vosnitzin to
+Judaism. The same fate was, in 1783, meted out to Moses, a Jewish
+tailor, for refusing to accept Christianity, and in 1790 a Jew was
+quartered in Grodno, though the king had declined to sign his death
+warrant. In some places Jews had to contribute towards the maintenance
+of churches, and in Slutsk the law, enacted there in 1766, remains
+unrevoked to this day. Elizabeta Petrovna did not imitate Ivan III. When
+she discovered that Sanchez, her physician, was of the Jewish
+persuasion, she discharged him without notice, after eighteen years of
+faithful service. Similarly, when the Livonian merchants remonstrated,
+maintaining that the exclusion of Jews from their fairs was fraught with
+disastrous consequences to the commerce of the country, she is reported
+to have replied, "From the enemies of Christ I will not receive even a
+benefit."[4]
+
+But worse things were yet to come, the worst since Chmielnicki's
+massacres. The bitterness of both Poles and Russians against the Jews
+grew especially intense as the days of the rozbior, the Partition of
+Poland, drew near (1794). The Poles, forgetting the many examples of
+loyalty and self-sacrifice shown by Jews in times of peace and war,
+suspected them of being treacherous and unreliable; while the Russians,
+though denying the patriotism of their own Jews, persisted in the
+accusation that Polish Jews spent money lavishly in fomenting rebellion
+and anarchy. The pupils of the Jesuits found great delight in attacks
+upon the Jews, which frequently culminated in riot and bloodshed and the
+payment of money by Jews to Catholic institutions. "What appalling
+spectacles," exclaims a Christian writer, "must we witness in the
+capital [Warsaw] on solemn holidays. Students and even adults in noisy
+mobs assault the Jews, and sometimes beat them with sticks. We have seen
+a gang waylay a Jew, stop his horses, and strike him till he fell from
+the wagon. How can we look with indifference on such a survival of
+barbarism?" The commonest manifestations of hatred and superstition,
+however, were, as in other countries, the charge that Jews were
+magicians, using the black art to avenge themselves on their
+persecutors, and that they used Christian blood for their observance of
+the Passover. The latter crime, the imputing of which was sternly
+prohibited by an edict of the liberal Bathory, in 1576, was so
+frequently laid at their door, that in the short period of sixty years
+(1700-1760) not less than twenty such accusations were brought against
+them, ending each time in the massacre of Jews by infuriated mobs. Even
+more shocking, if possible, was the frequent extermination of whole
+communities by the brigand bands known as Haidamacks. They added the
+"Massacre of Uman" (1768) to the Jewish calendar of misfortunes, the
+most terrible slaughter, equalled, perhaps, only by that of Nemirov in
+1648.[5]
+
+That all this should have left a marked impression on the mentality and
+intellectuality of the Jews, is little to be wondered at. The marvel is
+that they should have maintained their superiority over their
+surroundings, and continued to be a law-abiding and God-fearing people.
+While among the Russians and Poles the nobles who learned to read or
+write formed a rare exception, there was hardly one among the Jews, the
+very lowliest of them, who could not read Hebrew, and even translate it
+into the vernacular. Maimon tells us that in his early youth he became
+the family tutor of "a miserable farmer in a still more miserable
+village," who yet was ambitious of giving his children an education of
+some kind.
+
+    Fortunately for the Jews of those times--says a writer--their
+    civilization was by far superior to that of the Christians. The
+    rabbi, though in no way inferior to the priest mentally, was
+    immeasurably above him morally. The students of the yeshibot,
+    despite their exclusive devotion to the study of the Talmud, yet
+    were better equipped for intellectual work, were of broader
+    minds and better manners, than the pupils of the Jesuits. And
+    the Jewish ba'ale battim, with an education as good as that of
+    the Gentile shlyakhta, had a more ennobling and elevating object
+    in life.[6]
+
+It is remarkable how quickly they recuperated from the blows they
+received. In 1648 thousands of people were killed, whole communities
+exterminated, Volhynia, Podolia, and a great part of Lithuania utterly
+ruined. In 1660, in those very places, we hear again of Jewish
+settlements, with synagogues and schools and a system of education of
+the kind described in the preceding chapter, and we hear of the Council
+of Lithuania struggling to re-establish and cement the shattered
+foundation of their self-government. Yet all their efforts improved the
+demoralized condition of the country but little. As always in national
+crises, the individual was sacrificed to the community, and deprived of
+the few rights remaining to him. The kehillot became brutally
+oppressive. There were no longer men of the stamp of Abraham Rapoport,
+Solomon Luria, Mordecai Jaffe, and Meïr Katz, to put their feet on the
+neck of tyranny. Without special permission no one could buy or sell, or
+move from one place to another, or learn a trade or practice a
+profession. Rabbinism became synonymous with rigorism, the coercion of
+untold customs became unbearable, and the spirit of Judaism was lost in
+a heap of innumerable rites. The Jew's every act had to be sanctioned by
+religion. He knew of the outward world only from the heavy taxes he paid
+in order to be allowed to exist, and from the bloody riots with which
+his people was frequently visited.
+
+What could result from such a state of affairs but poverty, material and
+spiritual, with all the suffering it engenders? Those at the head of the
+kehillot, being responsible solely to the Government, often had to
+deliver the full tale of bricks like the Jewish overseers in Egypt,
+though no straw was given to them. On one occasion Rabbi Mikel of Shkud
+was arrested because the kahal could not pay the thousand gulden it
+owed. In 1767, the whole kahal of Vilna went to Warsaw to protest
+against intolerable taxation. Such protests were usually of little
+avail. On the other hand, a few powerful families throve at the expense
+of their oppressed coreligionists. This aroused a spirit of animosity
+and a clamor for the abolition of the kahal institution. Jewish autonomy
+was more and more encroached upon. Rabbinates were bought and sold, and
+the aid of the Government was invoked in religious controversies. A
+question regarding the preferable form of prayer was submitted to the
+decision of Paul I. In 1777, Prince Radziwill decided who should
+officiate as rabbi in so important a centre of Judaism as Vilna,[7] and
+in 1804 the Government issued a "regulation" depriving the kahal of its
+judicial functions altogether.
+
+What was even more disastrous was the spiritual poverty of the masses.
+Seldom have the awful warnings of the great lawgiver been fulfilled so
+literally as during the eighteenth century:
+
+    And upon them that remain of you, I will send a faintness into
+    their hearts in the land of their enemies; and the sound of a
+    shaken leaf shall chase them; and they shall flee as fleeing
+    from a sword; and they shall fall, when none pursueth. And they
+    shall fall one upon another, as it were before a sword, when
+    none pursueth: and ye shall have no power to stand before your
+    enemies (Lev. 26: 36-37).
+
+    But the Lord shall give thee there a trembling heart, and
+    failing of eyes, and sorrow of mind. And thy life shall hang in
+    doubt before thee; and thou shalt fear day and night, and thou
+    shalt have none assurance of thy life (Deut. 29: 65-66).
+
+Having learned from sad experience that there was no crime their foes
+were incapable of perpetrating, they gave credence to every rumor as to
+an established fact. A report that boys and girls were to be prohibited
+from marrying before a certain age resulted in behalot (panics), during
+which children of the tenderest ages were united as husband and wife
+(1754, 1764, 1793). Mysticism became rampant. "Messiah" after "Messiah"
+"revealed" himself as the one promised to redeem Israel from all his
+troubles. Love of God began to be tinged with fear of the devil, and
+incantations to take the place of religious belief. The _Zohar_ and
+works full of superstition, such as the _Kab ha-Yashar_, _Midrash
+Talpiyot_, and _Nishmat Hayyim_, the first studied by men, the others by
+both sexes, but mostly by women, prepared their minds for all sorts of
+mongrel beliefs. "In no land," says Tobias Cohn, "is the practice of
+summoning up devils and spirits by means of the Cabbalistic abracadabra
+so prevalent, and the belief in dreams and visions so strong, as in
+Poland."[8] All this, though it strengthened religious fervor in some,
+undermined it in others. Sects came into being, struggled, and, having
+brought added misery upon their followers, disappeared. Jewish criminals
+escaped justice by invoking the power of the Catholic priesthood and
+promising to become converted to Christianity.[9] And now and then even
+Talmudists left the fold, as, for instance, Carl Anton, the Courland
+pupil of Eybeschütz, who became professor of Hebrew at Hamsted, and
+wrote numerous works on Judaism. Others hoped to win the favor of the
+Gentiles by preaching a mixture of Judaism and Catholicism. In many
+places, especially in the Ukraine, the seat of learning that had
+suffered most from the ravages of the Cossacks, the state of morals sank
+very low, owing to the teaching of Jacob Querido, the self-proclaimed
+son of the pseudo-Messiah Shabbataï Zebi, "that the sinfulness of the
+world can be overcome only by a super-abundance of sin." This paved the
+way for the last of the long list of Messiahs, Jacob (Yankev Leibovich)
+Frank of Podolia. His experiences, adventures, and hairbreadth escapes,
+his entire career, beginning with his return from his travels in Turkey,
+through his conversion to Catholicism (1759), to the day of his death as
+"Baron von Offenbach," would furnish material for a stirring drama. As
+if to counteract this demoralizing tendency, a new sect, known as
+Hasidim, originating in Lithuania and headed by Judah Hasid of Dubno and
+Hayyim Malak, taught its devotees to hasten the advent of the Messiah by
+doing penance for the sins of Israel. They were so firmly convinced of
+the efficacy of fasts and prayers that they went to Jerusalem by
+hundreds to witness the impending redemption (ab. 1706). But the ascetic
+Hasidim and the epicurean Frankists were alike doomed to disappear or to
+be swallowed up by a new Hasidism, combining the teachings and
+aspirations of both, the sect founded by Israel Baal Shem, or Besht (ab.
+1698-1759), and fully developed by Bar of Meseritz and Jacob Joseph of
+Polonnoy.
+
+[Illustration: ISAAC BÄR LEVINSOHN, 1788-1860]
+
+Time was when all writers on the subject, usually Maskilim, thought it
+their duty to cast a stone at Hasidism. They described it as a Chinese
+wall shutting the Jews in and shutting the world out. It is becoming
+more and more plainly recognized and admitted, that it was, in reality,
+an attempt at reform rendered imperative by the tyranny of the kahal,
+the rigorism of the rabbis, the superciliousness of the learned classes,
+and the superstition of the masses. Its aim was to bring about a deep
+psychologic improvement, to change not so much the belief as the
+believer. It insisted on purity rather than profundity of thought.
+Unable to remove the galling yoke, it gave strength to its wearers by
+prohibiting sadness and asceticism, and emphasizing joy and fellowship
+as important elements in the fabric of its theology.
+
+Hasidism was thus a plant the seeds of which had been sown by the
+various sects. Like the former Hasidim, or even the Assideans of nearly
+two thousand years before, their latter-day namesakes rigidly adhered to
+the laws of Levitical purification, and, to a certain extent, led a
+communistic life. In addition they accepted, in a modified form, certain
+customs and beliefs of the Catholic church that had been adopted by the
+followers of Frank. The prayers to the saints (zaddikim), the conception
+of faith as the fountain of salvation, even the belief in a trinity
+consisting of the Godhead, the Shekinah, and the Holy Ghost, these and
+other exotic doctrines introduced by the Cabbala took root and grew in
+the vineyard of Hasidism.[10]
+
+The founder of the sect has an interesting history. In his childhood he
+gave no evidence of future greatness. His education was of a low order,
+but his feeling heart and sympathetic soul won him the esteem of all
+that knew him. The woods possessed the same charm for him as for
+Wordsworth or Whitman. With the latter especially he seems to have much
+in common. While a child, he absented himself frequently from the narrow
+and noisy heder, and spent the day in the quiet of the neighboring
+woods. When he grew up, he accepted the menial position of a school
+usher. His office was to go from house to house, arouse the sleeping
+children, dress them, and bring them to heder. But the time soon came
+when humble and obscure Israel "revealed" himself to the world. Owing to
+his tact and knowledge of human nature, combined with the conditions of
+the times, his teachings spread rapidly. He was speedily crowned with
+the glory of a "good name" (Baal Shem Tob), and in the end he was
+immortalized.
+
+From such a man we can expect only originality, not profundity. Indeed,
+his whole life was a protest against the subtleties of the Talmudists
+and the ceremonies, meaningless to him, which they introduced into
+Judaism. His object was to remove the petrified rabbinical restrictions
+(gezerot) and develop the emotional side of the Jew in their stead. He
+was primarily a man of action, and had little love for the rabbis, their
+passivity, world-weariness, and pride of intellect. It is said that when
+he "overheard the sounds of eager, loud discussions issuing from a
+rabbinical college, closing his ears with his hands, [he] declared that
+it was such disputants who delayed the redemption of Israel from
+captivity." Men like these, who study the Law for the sake of knowing,
+not of feeling, cannot claim any merit for it. They deserve to be called
+"Jewish devils." Only he is worthy of reward who is virtuous rather than
+innocent, who does what he is afraid to do, who, as Jacob Joseph of
+Polonnoy puts it, "acquires evil thoughts and converts them into holy
+ones." No asceticism for him. All kinds of human feelings deserve our
+respect, for it is not the body that feels but the soul, and the soul,
+"being a part of God on high, cannot possibly have an absolutely bad
+tendency." Men may not be heresy-hunters and fault-finders, for none is
+free from heresy and faults himself: the face he brings to the mirror,
+he finds reflected in it. Yea, even the followers of Abraham possess
+evil propensities, and noble qualities frequently belong to the
+disciples of Balaam himself.[11]
+
+These democratic principles put the most ignorant Jew in Russia on an
+equality with the erudite Lithuanian. No wonder that they obtained such
+strong hold on the people of the Ukraine, the province shorn of all its
+glory. Hasidism invaded Podolia and Volhynia, swept over Galicia and
+Hungary, and found adherents even in many a large community in Western
+Russia and Prussia. It brought cheer and happiness in its wake, and
+rendered the unfortunate Jew forgetful of his misery. Gottlober
+maintains that the inspiring melodies of the Hasidic hymns were largely
+responsible for the spread of the movement, even as Moody attributed the
+success of his revivals to the singing of Sankey. For, as Doctor
+Schechter has it, "the Besht was a religious revivalist in the best
+sense, full of burning faith in his God and his cause; convinced of the
+value of his teaching and his truth."[12]
+
+One province there was to which the Besht could not penetrate, at least
+not without a long siege and great losses. In Lithuania the inroads of
+Hasidism were strenuously opposed, and its advance disputed step by
+step. The Lithuanian Jews, to whom the Talmud was as dear as ever, could
+not countenance a movement sprung, as they believed, from the seed sown
+by Shabbataï Zebi, an opponent of the Talmud, and by Jacob Frank, at
+whose instigation the Bishop of Kamenetz ordered the Talmud to be
+publicly burnt.[13]
+
+The opponents (Mitnaggedim) of Hasidism were headed by a leader who was
+as typical an exponent of the cause he espoused as the Besht was of his.
+Among the students of Jewish literature since the close of the Talmud,
+few have surpassed, or even equalled, Elijah of Vilna (1720-1797). Not
+inappropriately he was called Gaon and Hasid, for in mental and moral
+attainments he was unique in his generation. As the Besht was noted in
+his early life for dulness and indifference, so Elijah was remarkable
+for diligence and versatility. His life, like the Besht's, became the
+nucleus of many wonderful tales, which his biographer narrates with
+painstaking exactness. They present the picture of a man diametrically
+different from Israel Baal Shem Tob. Every year, we are told, added to
+the marvellous development of the young intellectual giant. When he was
+six years old, none but Rabbi Moses Margolioth, the renowned Talmudist
+and author, was competent enough to teach him. At seven, he worsted the
+chief rabbi of his native city in a Talmudic discussion. At nine, there
+was nothing in Jewish literature with which he was not familiar, and he
+turned to other studies to satisfy his craving for knowledge. And at
+thirteen, he was acknowledged by his fellows as the greatest of
+Talmudists.[14] He had neither guide nor teacher. All unaided he
+discovered the path of truth. He held neither a rabbinical nor any other
+public office. He was as retiring as the Besht was aggressive.
+Nevertheless his word was law, and his influence immense. The centenary
+of his death (1897) was celebrated among all classes with the solemnity
+which the memories of "men of God" inspire.[15]
+
+Now, this Gaon of Vilna, or Hagra, was perhaps no less dissatisfied with
+prevailing conditions than the Besht, but his remedy for them was as
+different as the two personalities were unlike. He did not desire to
+abolish the Talmud, but rather to render it more attractive, by making
+its acquisition easier and putting its study on a scientific basis. Even
+in Lithuania, the citadel of the Talmud, the development of Talmudic
+learning had been hampered. In accordance with a Talmudic principle,
+mankind is continually degenerating, not only physically, but morally
+and mentally as well. It holds that if "the ancients were angels, we are
+mere men; if they were but men, we are asses." This high regard for
+antiquity produced a belief in the infallibility of the rabbis on the
+part of the Mitnaggedim, similar to that in their zaddikim by the
+Hasidim. No scholar of a later generation dared disagree with the
+statement of a rabbi of a previous generation. But as authorities
+sometimes conflict with each other, the Talmudists regarded it their
+duty to reconcile them or to prove, in the words of the ancient sages,
+that "these as well as those are the words of the living God."
+Similarly, the popes declared that, despite their contradictions, the
+Biblical translations of Sixtus V and Clement VIII were both correct.
+
+It is true that Lithuanian Talmudists were not always the slaves of
+authority which they ultimately became. A study of the works of the
+early Slavonian rabbis, before and after Rabbi Polack, shows that they
+were free from unhealthy awe of their predecessors, and sometimes were
+audaciously independent. Neither Solomon Luria (Maharshal), Samuel Edels
+(Maharsha), or Meïr Lublin (Maharam) refrained from criticising and
+amending whenever they deemed it necessary. But in the course of time
+the casuistic method, originally a mere pastime, became the approved
+method of study, and produced what is known as pilpul. Scholars wasted
+days and nights in heaping Ossa upon Pelion, in reconciling difficulties
+which no logic could harmonize. Here the Gaon found the first and most
+urgent need for reform. The Talmudists, he declared, were not
+infallible. Every one may interpret the Mishnah in accordance with
+reason, even if the interpretation be not in keeping with the
+traditional meaning as construed by the Amoraim.[16]
+
+His views on religion were equally liberal. The same process of
+reasoning which, spun out to its logical conclusion, led to pilpul in
+the schools, produced, when turned into the channel of religion, the
+over-piety culminating in the _Shulhan 'Aruk_. This remarkable book,
+with the euphonious name _The Ready Table_, prescribed enough
+regulations to keep one busy from early morning till late at night. The
+Jews found themselves bound hand and foot by ceremonial trammels and
+weighted down by a burden of innumerable customs. The spirit of freedom
+that had animated Slavonian Judaism during the Middle Ages had fled. The
+breadth of view that had marked the decision of many of its rabbis was
+gone.[17] Judaism was a mere mummy of its former self. Here, too, the
+Gaon came to the rescue. Rightly or wrongly, he "established the
+importance of Minhagim [religious ceremonies] according to their
+antiquity or primitivism, regarding those which have originated since
+the codification of the _Shulhan 'Aruk_ as not binding at all; those
+which have been adopted since the Talmudic period to be subject to
+change by common consent; while those of the Bible and in the Talmud
+were to him fundamental and unalterable."[18]
+
+But the Gaon's influence on the Haskalah movement by far surpassed his
+influence on the study of the Talmud or on the ceremonials of the
+synagogue. Many, in point of fact, regard him as the originator of the
+movement. As he was the first to oppose the authority of the Talmudists,
+so he was the first to inveigh against the educational system among the
+Jews of his day and country. The mania for distinction in rabbinical
+learning plunged the child into the mazes of Talmudic casuistry as soon
+as he could read; frequently he had not read the Bible or studied the
+rudiments of grammar. The Gaon insisted that every one should first
+master the twenty-four books of the Bible, their etymology, prosody, and
+syntax, then the six divisions of the Mishnah with the important
+commentaries and the suggested emendations, and finally the Talmud in
+general, without wasting much time on pilpul, which brings no practical
+result. "These few lines," says a writer, "contain a more thorough
+course of study than Wessely suggested in his _Words of Peace and
+Truth_. Though they did not entirely change the system in vogue--for
+great is the power of habit--they produced a wholesome effect, which was
+visible in a short time among the people." Furthermore, the Gaon
+exhorted the Talmudists to study secular science, since, "if one is
+ignorant of the other sciences, one is a hundredfold more ignorant of
+the sciences of the Torah, for the two are inseparably connected." He
+set the example by writing, not only on the most important Hebrew books,
+Biblical, Talmudic, and Cabbalistic, but also on algebra, geometry,
+trigonometry, astronomy, and grammar.[19] And his example served as an
+impetus and encouragement to the Maskilim in spreading knowledge among
+their coreligionists.
+
+Such was the man who led the crusade against the converts to Hasidism.
+But even he could not stem the current. In their despair, the Lithuanian
+Jews turned to their coreligionists in Germany, and implored their
+assistance in eradicating, or at least suppressing, the threatened
+invasion. The great learning and literary ability of the "divine
+philosopher, Rabbi Moses ben Menahem" (Mendelssohn, 1729-1786), were
+appealed to for help. Not a stone was left unturned to crush the new
+sect (kat), so called. Volumes of the _Toledot Ya'akob Yosef_, in which
+Rabbi Jacob Joseph of Polonnoy set forth the principles of the Besht,
+were burnt in the market-place in Vilna. Intermarriage, social
+intercourse of any kind, was prohibited between Hasidim and Mitnaggedim.
+In Vilna, Grodno, Brest, Slutsk, Minsk, Pinsk, etc., the ban was hurled
+against the dissenters by the most prominent rabbis. Israel was divided
+into two hostile camps.[20] But soon everything was changed. Hasidim and
+Mitnaggedim discovered that while they were fighting each other, a
+common enemy was undermining the ground on which they stood. The
+Haskalah was steadily drawing recruits from both, and it threatened
+ultimately to become more dangerous to both than they were to each
+other.
+
+From the South had come the impulse of religious revivalism through the
+followers of the Besht, and the North was showing signs of awakening
+through the reforms of the Gaon. At the same time a ray of enlightenment
+from the West pierced through the night. To make the regeneration of
+Slavonic Judaism complete, the element of estheticism had to be added to
+emotionalism and reason. From the warm South came Besht, from the
+studious North Hagra, and Rambman (Mendelssohn) made his appearance from
+the enlightened West. The triumvirate was complete.
+
+Not that Mendelssohn ever visited or resided in Russo-Poland. But the
+gentle, cultured little savant of Berlin, with whose lips, Carlyle tells
+us, Socrates spoke like Socrates in German as in no other modern
+language, "for his own character was Socratic," was at no period of his
+life wholly cut off from influencing Slavonic Jews and from being
+influenced by them. As a lad Mendelssohn was instructed by Israel Moses
+Halevi of Zamoscz (ab. 1700-1772). This teacher of his, who is credited
+with several inventions, and of whom Lessing says, in a letter to
+Mendelssohn, that he was "one of the first to arouse a love for science
+in the hearts of Jews," imbued him with love for philosophy. When
+Mendelssohn emerged from obscurity, and, despite ill-health and
+ignorance, attained culture and breeding, his associate, who was with
+him the most important factor in German Haskalah, was the renowned
+Naphtali, or Hartwig, Wessely, whose grandfather Joseph Reis had been
+among the fugitives from the Cossack massacres in 1648. And when he
+became famous, and took his place among the greatest of his age, he
+still sought diversion and instruction among the Slavonian Jews, and
+boasted of being a descendant of one of them, Moses Isserles of Cracow.
+As formerly with the Talmud, the Haskalah seemed, at the time of
+Mendelssohn, to be moving from the East westward, through the agency of
+the Slavonic Jews pouring perennially into Germany. Positions, from the
+lowly melammed's to the honorable chief rabbi's in prominent
+communities, were filled almost exclusively by them. The cause of
+Judaism seems to have been entrusted to them. Ezekiel Landau, whose
+tactful intercession helped greatly to establish peace between the
+Emden-Eybeschütz factions, was rabbi of Prague for almost forty years
+(1755-1793); the equally prominent, but at first somewhat less liberal
+Phinehas Horowitz was rabbi and dean in Frankfort-on-the-Main for over
+thirty years (1771-1805); his brother Shmelke, regarded as a saint, was
+chief rabbi of Moravia (1775). Another Horwitz, Aaron Halevi, was rabbi
+of Berlin, one of those who favored Mendelssohn's translation of the
+Pentateuch; while the cultured and profound Talmudist Raphael Hakohen,
+whose grandson, Gabriel Riesser, became the greatest champion of Jewish
+emancipation Germany has yet produced, was offered the rabbinate of
+Berlin (1771). He declined the post, and finally became chief rabbi
+(1776-1803) of the united congregations of Altona, Hamburg, and
+Wandsbeck. It is also recorded that Samuel ben Avigdor, the last rabbi
+of Vilna, held the rabbinate of Königsberg,[21] and there certainly must
+have been many more who, because of their inferior positions, cannot be
+so easily traced. Besides, Germany, as we have seen, was the common
+fatherland of the greater part of both Slavonic and Teutonic Jews. It
+never remained a _terra incognita_ to the former for any length of time.
+Its proximity to Russia, the business relations between the Jews of the
+two countries, intermarriage, and, with a few insignificant exceptions,
+the identity of language, made the Jews of both countries come into
+closer contact than was possible with any other Jews. For the studious,
+Germany possessed the attraction which the "land of universities" exerts
+upon seekers after knowledge the world over. To whom, indeed, could the
+profound and abstruse speculations of Leibnitz and Kant make a stronger
+appeal than to the Jew who had been initiated into metaphysical
+abstractions from his very childhood? It is no wonder, then, that
+immigration from Russo-Poland into Germany was constantly on the
+increase, until, under Alexander II, the advancement of Russian
+civilization put a stop in a measure to these roamings, to be resumed
+under Alexander III and Nicholas II.
+
+The Russo-Polish youth, therefore, found himself quite at home in the
+country of Mendelssohn, and thither, in case of necessity, he would go.
+In the eleventh century Jews had gone from Germany to Poland. In the
+eighteenth they retraced their steps from Poland to Germany.
+Outnumbering by far those who went there from choice or by invitation,
+were those compelled to go in search of a livelihood. "When I reached
+the age of twenty, peaceful and comfortable in my father's house, I
+began to hope that henceforth I should pursue my studies uninterrupted.
+But all at once my father lost his fortune, and I was forced to go
+somewhere to provide for myself. So I became a melammed in Berlin." This
+piece of autobiography in the preface to a Talmudic treatise by Reuben
+of Zamoscz might have been written by many others, too. But there were
+also the goodly number led thither by thirst for knowledge, whose
+remarkable abilities attracted the admiration of Jew and Gentile alike.
+Wessely the poet and Linda the mathematician more than once expressed
+surprise at the amount of learning many of the poor immigrants were
+found to possess.[22]
+
+Among these immigrants were two who may justly be regarded as the
+conducting medium through which the Haskalah currents were transmitted
+from Germany to Russo-Poland: Solomon Dubno, the indefatigable laborer
+in the province of Jewish science, and Solomon Maimon, the brilliant but
+unfortunate philosopher, both of them teachers in the house of
+Mendelssohn.
+
+Solomon Dubno (1738-1813) was all his life a bee in search of flowers,
+to turn their sweetness into honey. Having exhausted the knowledge of
+his Volhynian instructors, he went to Galicia, where he became
+proficient in Hebrew grammar and Biblical exegesis. Thence, attracted by
+its rich collection of books, he left for Amsterdam, where he spent five
+years in study and research. Finally he settled in Berlin, and earned a
+livelihood by teaching among others the children of Mendelssohn. The
+gentle disposition and profound learning of the Polish emigrant made a
+favorable impression on the Berlin sage, who invited him to participate
+in his translation of the Bible, which revolutionized the Judaism of the
+nineteenth century more than the Septuagint that of the first century.
+The result was the _Biur_ (commentary), which he, together with his
+countryman, Aaron Yaroslav, also a teacher, wrote on several books of
+the Bible. Comparatively few of Dubno's works have been published, but
+judging from such as are known we may safely pronounce him a master of
+the Massorah and a scholar of unusual attainments. Of his poems
+Delitzsch says that they are "in the truest sense Hebrew in expression,
+Biblical in imagery and subject-matter, medieval in rhyme and rhythm,
+and in general genuinely Jewish in manner of treatment,"--laudation
+which this exacting critic bestowed on no other Hebrew poet of his time.
+It was mainly through the endeavors of Dubno that Mendelssohn's
+Pentateuch, later regarded with suspicion, was everywhere bought and
+studied eagerly.[23]
+
+One better known to the outside world than Dubno, and who has engraved
+his name forever on the history of theology and philosophy, was Solomon
+Maimon (Nieszvicz, Lithuania, 1754--Niedersiegersdorf, Silesia, 1800).
+In his famous autobiography is mirrored the lot of hundreds of his
+countrymen who, like him, left their homes and hearths, their nearest
+and dearest, and led a wretched and miserable existence, all because
+they were anxious to be _ma'amike be-hakmah_ ("delvers in knowledge"),
+as he himself might have said, and avail themselves of the opportunities
+for acquiring the truth and wisdom unattainable in their own land.
+
+But Maimon was doomed to suffer abroad even more than at home. He was
+one of those unfortunates whose sufferings are regarded as
+well-deserved. His exceptional ability was never to develop to its
+fullest capacity. Great injustice has been done to him, not only by the
+rabid orthodox, who denied him a grave in their cemetery, but even by
+the enlightened historian Graetz. Fortunately he left behind him his
+_Lebensgeschichte_, among the best of its kind in German literature, in
+which, with the frankness of a Rousseau, he described the events of his
+short and checkered career.[24]
+
+From this admirable work, in which he neither hides his follies nor
+flaunts his talents, we learn that Maimon possessed rare virtues. His
+sympathy for the poor, his ready helpfulness even at the sacrifice of
+himself, rendered him as uncommon in moral action as in philosophic
+speculation. To the English reader a striking parallelism suggests
+itself between him and his contemporary Oliver Goldsmith. Both were
+afflicted with generosity above their fortunes; both had a "knack at
+hoping," which led frequently to their undoing; neither could subscribe
+easily to the "decent formalities of rigid virtue"; and, as of the
+latter we may also say of the former, in the language of a reviewer, "He
+had lights and shadows, virtues and foibles--vices you cannot call them,
+be you never so unkind."
+
+As Goldsmith came to London, so came Maimon to Berlin, "without friends,
+recommendation, money, or impudence." His only luggage was two
+manuscripts: a commentary on the works of Maimuni, whose name he had
+adopted, and to whom he paid divine reverence; and a treatise in which
+he attempted to rationalize the recondite doctrines of the Cabbala, and
+which he always kept by him "as a monument of the struggle of the human
+mind after perfection in spite of all hindrances which were put in its
+way." The little bundle, which, to the zealot Jewish elders of that
+community, seemed sufficient indication that Maimon was tainted with
+heresy, and that his intentions were to devote himself to the study of
+science and philosophy, proved a great impediment to entering Berlin;
+and when, after a long, incredible struggle, he was finally admitted, he
+found himself incapable of earning a livelihood. In his childlike
+naïveté he was betrayed by the very persons upon whom he relied most.
+All this could not deaden his love for knowledge and truth. By chance he
+obtained Wolff's _Metaphysics_, and this marked a new epoch in his life.
+"Not only the sublime science in itself," says he, "but also the order
+and mathematical method of the celebrated author, the precision of his
+explanations, the exactness of his reasoning, and the scientific
+arrangement of his expositions--all this kindled a new light in my
+mind."
+
+So profound a thinker could not for long be a mere pupil. Wolff's
+argument _a posteriori_ for the existence of God, in accordance with his
+philosophic hobby, the "principle of sufficient reason," displeased him
+wholly. A Hebrew letter to Mendelssohn, in which he shook the foundation
+of the _Metaphysics_ by means of his irrefutable ontology, won him the
+admiration of the Berlin sage, who invited him to become his daily
+guest.
+
+Maimon's intellect unfolded from day to day, until, some time
+afterwards, he astonished the philosophic world by his great work, _Die
+Transcendentale Philosophie_ (Berlin, 1790), in reference to which Kant
+wrote to his beloved disciple Marcus Herz: "A mere glance at it enabled
+me to recognize its merits, and showed me, that not only had none of my
+opponents understood me and the main problem so well, but very few could
+claim so much penetration as Herr Maimon in profound inquiries of this
+sort." He demolished the prevalent Leibnitzo-Wolffian system in it, and
+proved that even the Kantian theory, though irrefutable from a dogmatic
+point of view, is exposed to severe attacks from the skeptic's point of
+view.
+
+Thenceforth he became a leading figure in philosophic controversy. In
+1793 he published _Ueber die Progresse der Philosophie_; in 1794,
+_Versuch einer neuen Logik_, and _Die Kategorien des Aristoteles_, and,
+three years later, _Kritische Untersuchungen über den menschlichen
+Geist_ (Berlin, 1797), wherein he originated a speculative, monistic
+idealism, which pervaded not only philosophy, but all sciences during
+the first half of the nineteenth century, the system by which Fichte,
+Schelling, and Hegel were influenced. According to Bernfeld, he was the
+greatest Jewish philosopher since the time of Spinoza, with whose depth
+of reasoning he combined an ease and straightforwardness of illustration
+characteristic of Benjamin Franklin.[25]
+
+With all this he remained an ardent lover of the Talmud to the last. In
+fact, his philosophy is distinctively Jewish. Like Spinoza, he exhibited
+the effects of the Cabbala and of rabbinic speculation, with which he
+had been familiar from childhood. The honor of the Talmudic sages was
+always dear to him, and he never mentioned them without expressing
+profound respect. Persecuted though he was by his German coreligionists,
+he never bore them a grudge. As a man he loved them as brothers, but as
+a philosopher he could not subscribe to their views implicitly. But for
+friends and benefactors his affection was unusually strong. With what
+love he talks of Mendelssohn in the chapter dedicated to him in his
+autobiography, even though "he could not explain the persistency of
+Mendelssohn and the Wolffians generally in adhering to their system,
+except as a political dodge, and a piece of hypocrisy, by which they
+studiously endeavored to descend to the mode of thinking common to the
+popular mind!" His devotion to his wife was not diminished even after he
+had been compelled to divorce her because of his supposed heretical
+proclivities. "When the subject [of his divorce] came up in
+conversation, it was easy," says his biographer,[26] "to read in his
+face the deep sorrow he felt: his liveliness then faded away sensibly.
+By and by he would become perfectly silent, was incapable of further
+entertainment, and went home earlier than usual." Of his Russo-Polish
+brethren he speaks in the highest terms. He cannot bestow too much
+praise on their care for the poor and the sick, and he always hoped once
+more to see his native land, to whose king he dedicated his
+_Transcendental Philosophy_. "For," says he, "the Polish Jews are,
+indeed, for the most part not enlightened by science; their manners and
+way of life are still rude, but they are loyal to the religion of their
+fathers and to the laws of their country."[27]
+
+It is because I regard him as the greatest Maskil of his time that I
+have dwelt on Maimon at such length. Mendelssohn's philosophy, if he had
+an original system, has long since passed into oblivion; Maimon's will
+be studied as long as Spinoza, Leibnitz, and Kant are in vogue. His
+importance to us does not lie in the circumstance that his
+autobiography--"that wonderful bit of Autobiography," as George Eliot
+speaks of it, or "that curious and rare book," as Dean Milman calls
+it--and the pictures drawn of him by Berthold Auerbach and Israel
+Zangwill[28] have made him the hero of some of the world's best
+biographies and novels. Over and above this, he is the prototype of his
+unfortunate countrymen during the days of transition. He embodied the
+aspiration, courage, and disappointments of them all, and if, as Carlyle
+said, "the history of the world is the history of its great men,"
+Maimon's life should be studied by all interested in the Kulturkampf of
+the Russo-Polish and of the German Jews in the eighteenth century.
+
+What could he not have accomplished, he to whom Kant and Goethe,
+Schiller and Körner paid tributes of unstinted praise, had he not been
+doomed to suffer and to starve. Only at the last moment, before he was
+silenced forever, was he able to say, _Ich bin ruhig_ ("I am at peace").
+Yet, in spite of the difficulties and impediments besetting him at every
+step, his promise of greatness and usefulness was not belied. In the
+Introduction to his commentary on Maimuni's _Guide to the Perplexed
+(Gibe'at ha-Moreh)_, in which he attempted to reconcile his master's
+system with that of modern philosophy--even as the master had tried to
+reconcile Judaism with Aristotelianism--he gave a brief sketch of the
+development of modern thought. This part of his work was assiduously
+studied by his compatriots. Among his unpublished writings was found a
+work on mathematical physics, _Ta'alumot Hokmah_, and in his Talmudic
+treatise, _Heshek Shelomoh_, he inserted a dissertation, _Ma'aseh
+Hosheb_, on arithmetic, like a skilful physician putting a healing,
+though to some it may appear a repelling, balm into a delicious,
+attractive capsule.
+
+The story of Maimon, as I have said, is the story of many of the
+peripatetic apostles of Haskalah, and his experience was more or less
+also theirs. Issachar Falkensohn Behr (or Bär Falkensohn, 1746-1796?),
+without funds, friends, or rudimentary knowledge of the subjects
+necessary for admission into a public school, left his native city of
+Zamosez with the determination to enter the university of "Little
+Berlin," as Königsberg was called. Too poor to carry out his plan, he
+tramped to Berlin. Through the influence of his relatives and
+countrymen, Israel Moses Halevi and Daniel Jaffe, he was introduced to
+Mendelssohn, and was enabled to devote himself systematically to the
+study of German, the alphabet of which he had learned from Wolff's
+treatise on mathematics, and to French, Latin, physics, philosophy, and
+medicine. In a very short time he mastered them all, especially German.
+His _Gedichte eines polnischen Juden_ (Mitau and Leipsic, 1772) caused
+no little stir among the poets. Lessing and Goethe, close observers of
+symptoms of enlightenment among the Jews, expressed themselves
+differently as to the real merit of the collection; but both concurred
+with Boie, who, writing to Knebel, the friend of Goethe, remarked
+concerning them, "You are right; the Jewish nation promises much after
+it is once awakened."[29]
+
+For one reason or another we find that some Slavonic Jewish youths
+preferred other places to Berlin for the pursuit of their studies. Such
+were Benjamin Wolf Günzberg and Jacob Liboschüts. The former was
+probably the only Jew at the Göttingen University. It was from there
+that he inquired of Jacob Emden "whether it was permissible to dissect
+on the Sabbath," and his thesis for the doctor's degree was _De medica
+ex Talmudicis illustrata_ (Göttingen, 1743).[30] Liboschüts studied at
+the University of Halle. After graduation, finding that as a Jew he
+could not settle in St. Petersburg, he established himself in Vilna,
+where he became celebrated as a diplomat, philanthropist, and, more
+especially, expert physician. When Professor Frank was asked who would
+take care of the public health in his absence, he is reported to have
+said, _Deus et Judaeus_, "God and the Jew" [Liboschüts]!
+
+In their deep-rooted love for learning, they sometimes ventured even
+beyond the German boundaries, into countries whose language and customs
+had little in common with theirs. Padua continued to be the resort of
+Russo-Polish Jews that it had been before 1648. Moses Hayyim Luzzatto
+found an ardent admirer and zealous propagandist of his principles in
+the young medical student Jekuthiel Gordon (ab. 1729), who wrote
+concerning his master to friends in Vienna and Vilna.[31] Judah Halevi
+Hurwitz (d. 1797), whose work _'Ammude Bet Yehudah_ (Amsterdam, 1765)
+was highly recommended by Mendelssohn and Wessely, was a graduate of the
+same famous institution. In addition to his medical and philosophic
+attainments, he wrote a number of poems, and he was among the first to
+translate fables from German into Hebrew.[32]
+
+The story of Zalkind Hurwitz (1740-1812), "le fameux," as he was called
+by a French writer, is interesting. Starting, as usual, by going to
+Berlin, and succeeding, as usual, in gaining the friendship of
+Mendelssohn, he then visited Nancy, Metz, and Strasburg, and finally
+settled in Paris. Like Doctor Behr, he had to resort to peddling as a
+means for a livelihood. The rudiments of French he acquired from any
+book he chanced to obtain. Nevertheless, he soon became proficient in
+the language of his adopted country, and wrote his excellent _Apologie
+des juifs_, which, crowned by the Academy of Metz and quoted by
+Mirabeau, was largely instrumental in removing the disabilities of the
+Jews in France. Clermont-Tonnerre, the advocate of Jewish emancipation,
+said of him, _Le juif polonais seul avait parlé en philosophe_. He was
+suggested as a member of the Sanhedrin convoked by Napoleon in 1807.
+Though for some reason he never enjoyed the honor of membership in it,
+he was, nevertheless, the ruling spirit in the august assembly, and
+later generations have paid him the homage he deserves.[33]
+
+Where Hurwitz failed, another of his countrymen was to succeed. Judah
+Litvack (1776-1836) removed from Berlin to Amsterdam, became prominent
+among the Dutch mathematicians, and wrote a Dutch work, _Verhandeling
+over de Profgetallen Gen. ii_ (Amsterdam, 1817), which appeared in a
+second edition four years after the first. The author was elected a
+member of the Mathesis Artium Genetrix Society, and appointed one of the
+deputation sent to the Sanhedrin (February 12, 1807), before which he
+delivered a discourse in the German language.
+
+The "distant isles of the sea," the British Islands, Russo-Polish Jews
+seem to have frequented ever since the Restoration, probably
+contemporaneously with the settlement of the Spanish Jews. The famous
+mystic Hayyim Samuel Jacob Falk, one of the many Baal-Shems who
+flourished in Podolia at the beginning of the eighteenth century,
+settled in London before 1750, and became the subject of many wonder
+stories. Sussman Shesnovzi, apparently a countryman of his, describes
+him, in a letter to Jacob Emden, as "standing alone in his generation by
+reason of his knowledge of holy mysteries." That this was the opinion of
+many and prominent personages may be inferred from the fact that among
+his callers were such distinguished visitors as the Marchese de Crona,
+Baron de Neuhoff, Prince Czartorisky, and the Duke of Orleans. The
+confidence of such as these brought Falk a considerable fortune, a large
+part of which he bequeathed to a charity fund, the interest of which the
+overseers of the United Synagogue still distribute annually among the
+poor.[34] Shortly before "Doctor" Falk's death (1782), there settled in
+London Phinehas Phillips of Krotoschin, the founder of the Phillips
+family, which has furnished two Lord Mayors to the city of London.
+
+It was not merely because of its business facilities that England
+appealed to the Slavonic Jews. Baruch Shklover, or Schick (1740-1812),
+went thither to study medicine, and it was from English literature that
+he selected the material for his _Keneh ha-Middah_ (Prague, 1784;
+Shklov, 1793), on trigonometry. It would appear that the first Hebrew
+book, _Toledot Ya'akob_, printed for a Jew in England, was, as the name
+of the author, Eisenstadt, suggests, that of a Slavonic Jew. Although a
+silversmith by profession, Israel Lyons (d. 1770) was appointed teacher
+of Hebrew at the University of Cambridge. He acquired repute as a Hebrew
+scholar, and published, in 1757, the _Scholar's Instructor_, or _Hebrew
+Grammar_ (4th ed., 1823), and in 1768 a treatise printed by the
+Cambridge Press, _Observations and Inquiries Relating to Various Parts
+of Scripture History_. In the same chosen field labored Hyman Hurwitz
+(1770-1844), the friend of Coleridge, who founded the Highgate Academy
+(1799), and wrote an _Introduction to Hebrew Grammar_, _Vindica
+Hebraica_, and _Hebrew Tales_, which were translated into various
+languages. He finally became professor of Hebrew in University College,
+London.
+
+A younger contemporary of Abrahamson, the Jewish German medallist, was
+Solomon (Yom Tob) Bennett (1780-1841), the engraver of Polotsk, who
+spent a number of years at Copenhagen and Berlin in perfecting himself
+in his art. Among his works is a highly praised bas-relief of Frederick
+II, which was much admired by the professors of the Academy. An ardent
+lover of liberty, of which there was little more in Germany at that time
+than in Russia, he left for England, where he spent the remaining years
+of his life, in Bristol. Besides being an artist and an engraver he was
+a profound theologian, anxious to defend the cause of Judaism against
+enemies within and without. The enemy within he attacked in his cutting
+criticism of Solomon Cohen's _Rudiments of Religion_, and the enemy
+outside, in his other work, _The Constancy of Israel_ (_Nezah Yisraël_,
+London, 1809). He also wrote expositions on many important Biblical
+topics, such as sacrifices (1815) and the Temple (1824). Having pointed
+out the defects of the Authorized Version (1834), he was ambitious of
+publishing a complete revised translation of the Bible. Specimens
+appeared in 1841. Death intervened and frustrated his plans. As Schick
+was the first Jew to translate from English into Hebrew, so Bennett was
+the first after Manasseh ben Israel to write in English in behalf of his
+people.[35]
+
+If the contributions of Slavonic Jews to Latin, German, French, Dutch,
+and English literature were not less considerable at that time than
+those of the Jews residing in the countries where these languages were
+respectively used as media, they excelled them in Hebrew literature. In
+the renaissance of the holy tongue, they played the most important part
+from the first. The striving for knowledge, not for the purpose of
+obtaining a coveted privilege, but for its own sake, became an
+irresistible passion, and it was accompanied by an unquenchable desire
+to disseminate knowledge among the masses, to make learning and wisdom
+common property. The Hebrew language being the best vehicle for the
+purpose, it was soon impressed into the service of Haskalah. The pioneer
+Maskilim learned to handle it with ease and clearness that would do
+credit to a modern writer in a much more developed European language.
+
+From the middle of the fifteenth to the latter part of the eighteenth
+century, Hebrew literature consisted, if a few scattered books on
+philosophy, mostly translations from the Arabic, are excepted, mainly of
+Talmudic disquisitions, written in the rabbinic dialect and in a
+euphuistic style. Besides the great Maimuni, there were few able or
+willing to write Hebrew "as she should be spoke." The early German
+Maskilim, in trying to escape the Scylla of Rabbinism, fell victims to
+the Charybdis of Germanism. They possessed originality neither of style
+nor of sentiment, neither of rhyme nor of reason. Hebrew poetry was an
+adaptation of current German poetry. The very best the period produced,
+the _Mosaïde_ of Wessely, was influenced by and largely an imitation of
+Klopstock and others. Like English classic poetry, it is pretty in form
+but poor in spirit. The element of nationality, or distinctiveness, the
+life-giving and soul-uplifting element in all poetry, as Delitzsch
+justly maintains it to be, was lacking in the German Maskilim, anxious
+for naturalization as they were. It was the Slavonic Maskilim who
+mastered Hebrew in its purity, as it had not been mastered since the day
+of Judah Halevi. In those days of transition the diligent student can
+find, in germ, what was later to develop into the resplendent poetical
+flowers produced by the Lebensohns, the Gordons, Dolitzky, Schapiro,
+Mane, and Bialik.
+
+The Slavonic contributors to the Meassef, the first Hebrew literary
+periodical (1784-1811), were not conspicuous in number, but if quality
+can compensate for quantity, they made up for it by the value of their
+articles. Dubno and Maimon enriched the early issues, the one with
+poetry, the other with philosophy; and when it began to struggle for its
+existence, and was on the point of giving up the ghost, Shalom Cohen
+(1772-1845) came to the rescue, and, as editor, prolonged its existence
+by a few years. Among the best articles in the Meassef are those of
+Isaac Halevi Satanov (1733-1805). This "conglomeration of contrasts,"
+whom Delitzsch regards as the restorer of Hebrew poetry to its primitive
+beauty and purity, was the embodiment of the period in which he lived.
+"He was," we are told, "a thorough master of Jewish traditional lore,
+and at the same time a most advanced thinker, a profound physicist, and
+an inspired poet; a master of the old school and at the same time the
+founder of the new school, the national-classical, of Hebrew poetry."
+His pure and precise style, his good-natured, Horace-like, delicate, yet
+unmistakable, humor, he showed in a series of books bearing the name of
+Asaf, which still must be counted among the gems of Hebrew
+literature.[36]
+
+Satanov was greatly in favor of expanding the Hebrew language, but the
+first to borrow expressions from the Talmud literature or coin words of
+his own was Mendel Levin, also of Satanov, Podolia (1741-1819), the
+friend of Mendelssohn while in Berlin, the inspirer of Perl and Krochmal
+while in Brody, the companion of Zeitlin and Schick while in Mohilev.
+The Meassefim, the name generally applied to all who participated in the
+publication of the Meassef, were shocked by what they regarded a
+profanation of the sacred tongue. Their idea was that Hebrew was to be
+utilized as a means of introducing Western civilization. Afterwards it
+was to be relegated once more to the holy Ark. To Levin Hebrew had a far
+higher significance. Not only should Western civilization be introduced
+into Jewry through its means, but Hebrew itself should be so perfected
+as to take a place by the side of the more modern and cultivated
+languages. It should find adequate expressions for the new thoughts and
+ideas which the new learning would introduce into it directly or
+indirectly. The medieval translations from the Arabic should be
+retranslated into the new Hebrew, he held, and he furnished an example
+by recasting the first part of Maimuni's _Moreh Nebukim_. His modernized
+version, lucid and fluent, printed alongside of Ibn Tibbon's, presents a
+striking contrast to the stiffness and obscurity of the Provençal
+scholar's. Levin was also the first to write in the Yiddish, or
+Judeo-German, dialect, for the instruction of the masses, which made him
+the butt of more than one satire. But what was generally regarded as a
+degrading task was fraught with the greatest consequences to the
+Haskalah. To this day Yiddish has continued an important medium for
+disseminating culture among Russian Jews, both in the Old World and in
+the New.[37]
+
+The century remarkable among other things for encyclopedia
+enterprises,--_Chambers' Encyclopedia_ in England, the _Universal
+Lexicon_ in Germany, and that wonderful and monumental work, the
+_Encyclopédie_ in France--saw, before its close, a similar attempt, in
+miniature, in Hebrew and by a Slavonic Maskil. Whether the Hebrew
+encyclopedist was influenced by the example of Dr. Tobias Cohn's
+_Ma'aseh Tobiah_ mentioned above, or was unconsciously imbued with the
+prevailing tendency of the times, it is impossible to tell. In any
+event, he resorted to the same means, and presented the Jewish world
+with a volume containing a little of every science known, under the
+innocent name _The Book of the Covenant_ (_Sefer ha-Berit_, Brünn,
+1797).
+
+The book appeared anonymously. This, the author assures us, was due not
+to humbleness of spirit, but to a vow. His diligence and constant
+application had greatly impaired his eyes. He vowed that if God restored
+his sight, and enabled him to finish his task, he would publish the book
+without disclosing his authorship. God hearkened unto his prayers, and
+the work was soon completed. But an unforeseen trouble arose. His book
+was ascribed "by some to the sage of Berlin, by others to the Gaon of
+Vilna, and by many to the united efforts of a coterie of scholars, for
+it could not be believed that so many and diverse sciences could be
+mastered by one person." Moreover, the author was censured for being
+afraid to come out openly and boldly as a champion of Haskalah.[38] In
+spite of obstacles and strictures, the book met with success surpassing
+the author's expectations. It found its way not only into Russia,
+Poland, and Germany, but even into France, Italy, England, Holland, and
+Palestine. An edition of two thousand copies was entirely exhausted,
+unusual at a time when books were costly and money was scarce, and
+another edition was issued. What Phinehas Elijah (Hurwitz) of Vilna had
+sown in tears, he lived to reap in joy.
+
+There was a crying need in Russia for a work of the sort. In Germany the
+very Government encouraged organizations and publications aiming at
+enlightenment. Accordingly, a Society for the Promotion of the Good and
+the Noble was started, and the Meassef was published. In Russo-Poland
+not even a Hebrew printing-press was permitted, and certainly no
+periodical publications would have been tolerated. Phinehas Elijah,
+therefore, grasped the opportunity, and showed himself equal to it. His
+aim was, like that of the French encyclopedists, to lead his readers
+"through nature to God." He gives an account of the various sciences,
+natural and philosophical, as a prolegomenon to the study of theology,
+even of the mystic teachings of Vital's _Gates of Holiness_. Withal he
+evinces a sound intellect and refined, if rudimentary, taste. He decries
+the "ancestor worship" that rendered the Jew of his day a fossil
+specimen of an extinct species. The present is superior to the past, "a
+dwarf on a giant's shoulder seeth farther than doth the giant himself."
+He ridicules the base and degrading habit of dedicating books to
+"benefactors, friends, lovers, parents, men, or women." His work was
+written for the glory of God, and he dedicates it to eternal,
+all-conquering truth.[39]
+
+All these Maskilim, so many hands reaching out into the light, were both
+the cause and the consequence of the longing for enlightenment
+characteristic at all times of the Slavonic Jew. Graetz and his
+followers among the latter-day Maskilim delighted in calling them "they
+that walk in darkness." Facts, however, prove that at no time before
+Nicholas I was education per se regarded with the least suspicion,
+though the Talmud was given the preference. As in the pre-Haskalah
+period, the greatest Talmudists deemed it a sacred duty to perfect
+themselves in some branch of secular science. When, in 1710, a terrible
+plague broke out in his native town, Rabbi Jonathan of Risenci (Grodno)
+vowed that, "if he were spared, he would disseminate a knowledge of
+astronomy among his countrymen." To fulfil the vow he went to Germany
+(1725), where, though blind, he devoted himself assiduously first to the
+acquisition of astronomy, then to writing on it.[40] Baruch Yavan of
+Volhynia, who more than any one exposed the impostures of Jacob Frank,
+"spoke and wrote Hebrew, Polish, German, and probably French," and his
+accomplishments and address won him the admiration of Count Brühl, the
+virtual ruler of Poland, and the favor of the highest officials at St.
+Petersburg. His associate in the righteous fight, Bima Speir of Mohilev,
+was also possessed of a thorough command of the language of Russia, and
+was well posted in its literature, history, and politics. The Pinczovs,
+descendants of Rabbi Polack, connected with the most eminent rabbinical
+families, and themselves famous for piety and erudition, produced many
+works on mathematics and philosophy. Mendelssohn's translation of the
+Pentateuch was at first hailed with joy, and was recommended by the most
+zealous rabbis. Doctor Hurwitz of Vilna did not hesitate to dedicate his
+_'Ammude Bet Yehudah_ to Wessely, who was more popular in Russo-Poland
+than in Germany. The whole edition of his _Yen Lebanon_, which fell flat
+in the latter country, though offered gratis, was sold when introduced
+into the former.[41] Joseph Pesseles' correspondence concerning Dubno,
+with David Friedländer, the disciple of Mendelssohn (1773), proves the
+high esteem in which the liberal-minded savants of Berlin were held in
+Russia. The rabbis of Brest, Slutsk, and Lublin gave laudatory
+recommendations to Judah Löb Margolioth's popular works of natural
+science, which form a little encyclopedia by themselves. Margolioth was
+the grandson of Mordecai Jaffe, himself rabbi successively at Busnov,
+Szebrszyn, Polotsk, Lesla, and Frankfort-on-the-Oder (d. 1811). The
+writings of Baruch Schick of Shklov, referred to above, were accorded
+the same welcome. His translation of Euclid and his treatises on
+trigonometry, astronomy (_'Ammude ha-Shamayim_), and anatomy (_Tiferet
+Adam_) won the admiration of rabbis as well as laymen. Epitaphs of the
+day contain the statement that the deceased was not only "at home in all
+the chambers of the Torah," but also in "philosophy and the seven
+sciences." And this, exaggerated though it may be, must be seen to
+contain a kernel of the truth, when we recall that among Maimon's
+intimate friends was the rabbi of Kletzk, Lithuania; that in the humble
+dwelling of his father there were works on historical, astronomical, and
+philosophical subjects; that the chief rabbi of a neighboring town,
+Rabbi Samson of Slonim, who, according to Fünn, "had in his youth lived
+for a while in Germany, learned the German language there, and made
+himself acquainted in some measure with the sciences," continued his
+study of the sciences, and soon collected a fair library of German
+books.[42] Saadia, Bahya, Halevi, Ibn Ezra, Crescas, Bedersi, Levi ben
+Gerson (whom Goldenthal calls the Hebrew Kant), Albo, Abarbanel, and
+others whose works deserve a high place in the history of Jewish
+philosophy, were on the whole fairly represented in the libraries, and
+diligently studied in the numerous yeshibot and batte midrashim.
+
+Thus the enlightenment which dawned upon France, Germany, and England
+cast a glow even on the Slavonic Jews, despite the Chinese wall of
+disabilities that hemmed them in. Unfortunately, this only helped to
+render them dissatisfied with their wretched lot, without affording them
+the means of ameliorating it. While the Jews in Western Europe profited
+and were encouraged by the example of their Christian neighbors; while,
+in addition to their innate thirst for learning, they had everywhere
+else political and civil preferments to look forward to, in Russo-Poland
+not only were such outside stimuli absent, but the Slavonic Jews had to
+struggle against obstacles and hindrances at every step. No such heaven
+on earth could be dreamed of there. The country was still in a most
+barbarous state. Those who wished to perfect themselves in any of the
+sciences had to leave home and all and go to a foreign land, and had to
+study, as they were bidden to study the Talmud, "lishmah," that is, for
+its own sake. This is the distinguishing feature between the German and
+Slavonic Maskilim during the eighteenth century. The cry of the former
+was, "Become learned, lest the nations say we are not civilized and deny
+us the wealth, respect, and especially the equality we covet!" The
+latter were humbly seeking after the truth, either because they could
+better elucidate the Talmud, or because, as they held, it was _their_
+truth, of which the nations had deprived them during their long
+exile.[43] They were unlike their German brethren in another respect.
+Almost all of them were "self-made men," autodidacts in the truest
+sense. Lacking the advantages of secular schools, they culled their
+first information from scanty, antiquated Hebrew translations. Maimon
+learned the Roman alphabet from the transliteration of the titles on the
+fly-leaves of some Talmudic tracts; Doctor Behr, from Wolff's
+_Mathematics_. But no sooner was the impetus given than it was followed
+by an insatiable craving for more and more of the intellectual manna,
+for a wider and wider horizon. "Look," says Wessely, "look at our
+Russian and Polish brethren who immigrate hither, men great in Torah,
+yet admirers of the sciences, which, without the guiding help of
+teachers, they all master to such perfection as to surpass even a
+Gentile sage!"[44] Such self-education was, of course, not without
+unfavorable results. Never having enjoyed the advantage of a systematic
+elementary training, the enthusiasts sometimes lacked the very rudiments
+of knowledge, though engaged in the profoundest speculations of
+philosophy. "As our mothers in Egypt gave birth to their children before
+the mid-wife came," writes Pinsker somewhat later,[45] "even so it is
+with the intellectual products of our brethren: before one becomes
+acquainted with the grammar of a language, he masters its classic and
+scientific literature!"
+
+Steadily though slowly, brighter, if not better, days were coming.
+"Thought once awakened shall not again slumber." As Carlyle says of the
+French of that period, it became clear for the first time to the
+upturned eyes of the Jews, "that Thought has actually a kind of
+existence in other kingdoms [than the Talmud]; that some glimmerings of
+civilization had dawned here and there on the human species." They begin
+to try all things; they visit Germany, France, Denmark, Holland, even
+England; learn their literatures, study in their universities, and
+contribute their quota to the apologetic, controversial, scientific, and
+philosophic investigations "with a candor and real love of improvement
+which give the best omens of a still higher success." Fortune, indeed,
+has cast them also into a cavern, and they are groping around darkly.
+But this prisoner, too, is a giant, and he will, at length, burst forth
+as a giant into the light of day.
+
+(Notes, pp. 310-314.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE DAWN OF HASKALAH
+
+1794-1840
+
+
+A glimmer of light pierced the Russian sky at the accession of Catherine
+II (1762-1796). This "Semiramis of the North," the admirer of Buffon,
+Montesquieu, Diderot, and, more especially, Voltaire, whose motto, _N'en
+croyez rien_, she adopted, endeavored, and for a while not without
+success, to introduce into her own country the spirit of tolerance which
+pervaded France. Her ukases were intended for all alike, "without
+distinction of religion and nationality." Her regard for her Jewish
+citizens she showed by allowing them to settle in the interior,
+establish printing-presses (January 27, 1783), and become civil and
+Government officers (April 2, 1785). In the edict promulgated by
+Governor-General Chernyshev it is stated that "religious liberty and
+inviolability of property are hereby granted to all subjects of Russia
+and certainly to the Jews; for the humanitarian principles of her
+Majesty do not permit the exclusion of the Jews alone from the favors
+shown to all, so long as they, as faithful subjects, continue to employ
+themselves, as hitherto, with commerce and trade, each according to his
+vocation." That she remained true to her promise, we see from the
+numerous privileges enjoyed by many Jews, who began to frequent Moscow
+and St. Petersburg and reside there for business purposes.
+
+Paul (1796-1801), too, was kindly disposed toward the Jews, and
+permitted them to live in Courland; and when Alexander I (1801-1825)
+became czar, their hopes turned into certainty. Alexander I did, indeed,
+appear a most promising ruler at his accession. The theories he had
+acquired from Laharpe he fully intended to apply to practical life. Like
+Catherine, he wished to rule in equity and promote the welfare of his
+subjects irrespective of race or creed. He ordered a commission to
+investigate the status of the Russian Jews (December 9, 1802). The
+result was the polozheniye (enactment) of December 9, 1804, according to
+which Jews were to be eligible to one-third of all municipal offices;
+they were to be permitted to establish factories, become agriculturists,
+and either attend the schools and colleges of the empire on the same
+footing as subjects of the Christian faith, or, if they desired, found
+and maintain schools of their own. The approach of the great Usurper and
+the crushing defeat the Russians sustained at the battle of Friedland
+(June 4, 1808) also favored the advance of the Jews. As the short, but
+troublous, reign of Paul and his wars with Turkey, Persia, Prussia,
+Poland, and Sweden had impoverished the country and depleted the
+treasury, the shrewd Alexander was not averse from appealing to Jews for
+help. Of course, as in many more enlightened countries and in more
+modern times, most of the privileges were merely paper privileges. Few
+of them ever went into effect. The noble intentions of the enlightened
+rulers were steadily thwarted by bigoted councillors and jealous
+merchants. Every favor shown the Jews aroused a storm of protests, which
+resulted in numerous infringements. The Jews were compelled to pay for
+the good intentions of Catherine with a double tax (June 25, 1794), and,
+during Paul's reign, without the emperor's knowledge, a law was enacted
+requiring of Jews double payment of the guild license. In spite of all
+efforts, the Jews, instead of being emancipated politically, were
+burdened with additional discriminations.[1]
+
+Had not the wheel of progress suddenly stopped revolving, Russian Jews
+might have constituted one of the most useful as well as most
+intellectual elements in the vast empire. As it was, the kindly
+intention of czar or czarina sufficed to arouse them from the asthenia
+to which they were reduced for want of freedom. The times were rife with
+excitement, and the Jewish atmosphere with expectancy. The mighty
+changes which were taking place in Russia and Poland; the dismemberment
+of the latter; the annexation of Balta (1791), Lithuania (1794), and
+Courland (1797) to the former; the short-lived yet potent German rule in
+Byelostok (1793-1807), and the rude but memorable contact with France
+(1807-1812), these and many other important happenings in a brief span
+of time had a telling effect upon the diverse races under the dominion
+of Russia, and among them not the least upon the Jewish race. Everywhere
+the desire for "liberty, equality, and fraternity" began to manifest
+itself. In Courland, the most German of Russian provinces, Georg
+Gottfried Mylich, a Lutheran pastor at Nerft, made a touching appeal
+(ab. 1787) in German on behalf of the Jews, insisting that the word Jew
+"should not be taken to indicate a class of people different from us,
+but only a different religious body; and as regards his nationality, it
+should not hinder him from obtaining citizen's rights and liberties
+equal to those of the people of Sleswick, the Saxons, Danes, Swedes,
+Swiss, French, and Italians, who also live among us." In Poland, Tadeusz
+Czacki, the historian, wrote his _Discourse on the Jews_ (_Rosprava o
+Zhydakh_, Vilna, 1807), in which he deplores that Jews "experienced
+indulgence rarely, oppression often, and contempt nearly always" under
+the most Christian governments, and suggests a plan for reforming their
+condition. But the main appeal for freedom came, as might have been
+expected, from the Jews themselves. Contemporaneous with, if not before,
+Michel Beer's _Appel à la justice des nations et des rois_, a Lithuanian
+Jew, during his imprisonment in Nieszvicz on a false charge, wrote a
+work in Polish on the Jewish problem,[2] while in 1803 Löb, or Leon,
+Nebakhovich, an intimate friend of Count Shakovskoy, published _The Cry
+of the Daughter of Judah_ (_Fopli Docheri Yudeyskoy_), the first defence
+of the Russian Jew in the Russian language. The followers of the
+religion of love are implored to love a Jew because he is a Jew, and
+they are assured that the Jew who preserves his religion undefiled can
+be neither a bad man nor a bad citizen.
+
+But the Jews did not wait for their dreams to be realized. They threw
+themselves into the swirl of their country's ambition, as if they had
+never received anything other than the tenderness of a devoted mother at
+her hands. They were "kindled in a common blaze" of patriotism with the
+rest of the population. That in spite of all accusations to the contrary
+they remained loyal to Poland, is amply proved by the history of that
+unfortunate country. The characteristic kapota of the Polish Jew, his
+whole garb, including the yarmulka (under cap), is simply the old Polish
+costume, which the Jews retained after the Poles had adopted the German
+form of dress.[3] "When, in the year 1794," says Czacki, "despair armed
+the [Polish] capital, the Jews were not afraid of death, but, mingling
+with the troops and the populace, they proved that danger did not
+terrify them, and that the cause of the fatherland was dear to them."
+With the permission of Kosciusko, Colonel Joselovich Berek, later killed
+at the battle of Kotzk (1809), formed a regiment of light cavalry
+consisting entirely of Jews, which distinguished itself especially at
+the siege of Warsaw. Most of the members perished in defence of the
+suburb of Praga. In the agony of death, Rabbi Hayyim longed for good
+tidings, that he might die in peace. And when the fight was over,
+Zbitkover expended two barrels of money, one filled with gold ducats and
+one with silver rubles, for the live and dead soldiers who were brought
+to him.[4] Indeed, Prince Czartorisky was so convinced of their
+patriotism, that he always advocated the same rights for the Polish Jews
+as were claimed for the Polish Gentiles, entrusted his children to the
+care of Mendel Levin of Satanov, and instructed his son, Prince
+Ladislaus, always to remain their friend.[5]
+
+But when, in spite of struggle and sacrifice, the doom "finis Poloniae"
+was sounded, and a large portion of the once powerful empire was
+incorporated into Russia, we find the Jews bearing their sorrow
+patiently, and willingly performing their duties as subjects to their
+new masters. Their attachment to their czar and country was not shaken
+in the least when, in 1812, Napoleon made them flattering promises to
+secure their services in his behalf. Rabbi Shneor Zalman, the eminent
+leader of the Lithuanian Hasidim, hearing of the invasion of the French
+army, spent many days in prayer and fasting for the success of the
+Russians, and fled on the Sabbath day, not to be contaminated by contact
+with the "godless French." When Napoleon was finally defeated, the event
+was celebrated both at home and in the synagogue, and Russian soldiers
+were everywhere welcomed by Jews with gifts and good cheer.[6]
+Lilienthal relates that the Jews succeeded in intercepting a courier who
+carried the plan of operations of the French army, and Alexander
+declared in a dispatch that Jews had opened the eyes of the Russians,
+and the Government, therefore, felt itself bound to them by eternal
+gratitude.[7] It is to this proof of patriotism that some attribute
+Alexander's interest in the Jews and his order that three deputies
+should reside in St. Petersburg to represent them in Russia, and in
+Poland a committee consisting of three Christians and eight Jews should
+be appointed to devise ways and means of ameliorating their
+condition.[8]
+
+The times were promising in other respects. In that critical period, the
+Government, reposing but little confidence in Russian merchants, whose
+business motto was "No swindle, no sale," allowed several Jews to become
+Government contractors (podradchiki). These, while rendering valuable
+services, amassed considerable fortunes. Notwithstanding the law
+restricting Jewish residence to the Pale of Settlement, Catherine II
+speaks of Jews who resided in St. Petersburg for many years, and lodged
+in the house of a priest, who had been her confessor. Moreover, Jews
+contributed not a little to the liberal policy of Alexander I. Among
+them were Eliezer Dillon of Nieszvicz (d. 1838), who was honored by the
+emperor with a gold medal "for faithful and conscientious services," and
+was given an audience by his Majesty, at which he pleaded the cause of
+his coreligionists;[9] Nathan Notkin, who mitigated the possible effect
+of Senator Dyerzhavin's baneful opinions concerning Jews, as expressed
+in his report (_Mnyenie_, September, 1800), and who suggested the
+establishment of schools for children and for adults in Yekaterinoslav
+and elsewhere; Abraham Peretz, the personal friend of Speransky,
+Dyerzhavin, and Potemkin, and a brilliant financier, whose high standing
+enabled him to be a power for good in the councils concerning Jews;[10]
+and his father-in-law, Joshua Zeitlin (1724-1822). Zeitlin was a rare
+phenomenon, reminding one of the golden days of Jewish Spain. His
+knowledge of finance and political economy won him the admiration of
+Prince Potemkin, the protection of Czarina Catherine, and the esteem of
+Alexander I, who appointed him court councillor (nadvorny sovyetnik).
+But his mercantile pursuits did not hinder him from study, and his high
+living did not interfere with his high thinking. His palatial home at
+Ustye, in Mohilev, became a refuge for all needy Talmudists and
+Maskilim, whom he helped with the liberality of a Maecenas; he conducted
+an extensive correspondence on rabbinic literature, and for many years
+supported Doctor Schick and Mendel Levin. For Doctor Schick he built a
+laboratory, and filled his library with rare manuscripts and works on
+Jewish and secular subjects.[11]
+
+Even among the conservative Talmudists signs of improvement were not
+wanting. The Gaon became the centre of a group of enlightened friends
+and disciples, who continued in his footsteps after his death. His son,
+Rabbi Abraham, who published and edited many of his works, a task
+requiring no small amount of acumen and Talmudic erudition,[12] was also
+the author of books on geography, mathematics, and physics. His pupils,
+such as Doctor Schick and Rabbi Benjamin and Rabbi Zelmele, influenced
+their contemporaries either directly, by bringing them in touch with the
+new learning, or indirectly, by reforming the school system and the
+method of Talmud study.[13] Of Rabbi Zelmele, who like his master became
+the hero of a wonder-biography written by his disciple Ezekiel Feivel of
+Plungian, we are told that he regarded grammar as indispensable to a
+thorough knowledge of the Bible and the Talmud, pleaded for a return to
+the order of study prescribed in the _Pirke Abot_, and complained that,
+owing to the neglect of Aramaic, the benefits of comparative philology
+were lost and unknown. He declared also that while he believed in all
+the Bible contains, the stories in the Talmud are, for the most part,
+legends and parables used for the purpose of illustration.[14]
+
+[Illustration: MAX LILIENTHAL, 1815-1882]
+
+Towering above all the disciples of the Gaon, the most outspoken in
+behalf of enlightenment is Manasseh of Ilye (1767-1831). At a very early
+age he attracted the attention of Talmudists by his originality and
+boldness. In his unflinching determination to get at the truth, he did
+not shrink from criticising Rashi and the _Shulhan 'Aruk_, and dared to
+interpret some parts of the Mishnah differently from the explanation
+given in the Gemara. With all his admiration for the Gaon, but for whom,
+he claimed, the Torah would have been forgotten, he also had points of
+sympathy with the Hasidim, for whose leader, Shneor Zalman of Ladi, he
+had the highest respect. Like many of his contemporaries, he determined
+to go to Berlin. He started on his way, but was stopped at Königsberg by
+some orthodox coreligionists, and compelled to return to Russia. This
+did not prevent his perfecting himself in German, Polish, natural
+philosophy, mechanics, and even strategics. On the last subject he wrote
+a book, which was burnt by his friends, "lest the Government suspect
+that Jews are making preparations for war!" But it is not so much his
+Talmudic or secular scholarship that makes him interesting to us to-day.
+His true greatness is revealed by his attempts, the first made in his
+generation perhaps, to reconcile the Hasidim with the Mitnaggedim, and
+these in turn with the Maskilim. He spoke a good word for manual labor,
+and proved from the Talmud that burdensome laws should be abolished. His
+_Pesher Dabar_ (Vilna, 1807) and _Alfe Menasheh_ (ibid., 1827, 1860) are
+monuments to the advanced views of the author. In the Hebrew literature
+of his time, they are equalled only by the _'Ammude Bet Yehudah_ and the
+_Hekal 'Oneg_ of Doctor Hurwitz.[15]
+
+This short period of enlightenment and tolerance, inaugurated by a
+semblance of equality, indicates the native optimism of the Slavonic
+Jew. For a while a cessation of hostilities was evident in the camp of
+Israel. The reforms introduced by the Gaon, and propagated by his
+disciples, began to bear fruit. Hasidism itself underwent a radical
+change under the leadership of Rabbi Shneor Zalman of Ladi (1747-1813)
+and Jacob Joseph of Polonnoy, who, unlike their colleagues of the
+Ukraine, were learned in the Talmud and familiar with the sciences.
+Protests by Hasidim themselves against the irreverent spirit that
+developed after the death of the Besht, had in fact been heard before.
+The saintly and retiring Abraham Malak (d. 1780) had denounced, in no
+uncertain terms, the gross conception held by the Hasidim of the sublime
+teachings of their own sect. He drew a beautiful picture of the ideal
+zaddik, who is "so absorbed in meditation on the Divine wisdom that he
+cannot descend to the lower steps upon which ordinary people stand."[16]
+But the more active Rabbi Shneor, or Zalman Ladier, as he was usually
+called, insisted on putting the zaddik on a par with the rabbi, whose
+duty it is not to work miracles but to teach righteousness. Assuming for
+his followers the name HaBaD, the three letters of which are the
+initials of the Hebrew words for Wisdom, Reason, and Knowledge, he
+furthered the cause of enlightenment in the only way possible among his
+adherents.[17] How well he succeeded may be inferred from the fact,
+trivial though it be, that the biography of the Besht, _The Praises of
+the Besht_ (_Shibhe ha-Besht_), by Dob Bär, published in Berdichev
+(1815), omits many of the legends about the Master included in the
+version published the same year in Kopys. The omission can be explained
+only on the ground that the editor, Judah Löb, who was the son of the
+author, did not wish to give offence, or he had outgrown the credulity
+of his father.[18]
+
+The feeling of tolerance manifested itself also in the Jewish attitude
+towards the Gentiles. "O that we were identified with the nations of our
+time, created by the same God, children of one Father, and did not hate
+each other because we are at variance in some views!" This exclamation
+of Doctor Hurwitz[19] found an echo in the works of the other Maskilim
+that wrote in Hebrew, but more especially of those who used a European
+language. They were deeply interested in whatever marked a step forward
+in their country's civilization. The opening of a gymnasium in Mitau
+(1775) was a joyful occasion, which inspired Hurwitz's Hebrew muse, and
+at the centennial celebration of the surrender of Riga to Peter the
+Great (July 4, 1810), the craving of the Jewish heart, avowed in a
+German poem, was expressed "in the name of the local Hebrew community to
+their Christian compatriots." The last stanza runs as follows:
+
+  Grant us, who, like you, worship the God above,
+  Also on earth to enjoy equality with you!
+  To-day, while your hearts are open to love,
+  Let us seal our happiness with your love, too![20]
+
+This desire for naturalization brought with it an attempt at
+"Russification." To show the beauty of the Russian language, Baruch
+Czatzskes of Volhynia translated some of the poems of Khersakov into
+Hebrew, and others published manuals for the study of Russian and
+Polish.[21] Among the first books issued from the newly-established
+printing-press in Shklov, the centre of Jewish wealth, refinement, and
+culture at that time, was the _Zeker Rab_ with a German translation
+(1804). In an appendix thereto the Shklov Maskilim announced their
+intention to publish a weekly, the first in the Hebrew tongue. Yiddish
+was also resorted to as a medium for educating the masses, and as early
+as 1813 some Vilna Jews applied to the Government for permission to
+publish a paper in that language, though it was not until ten years
+later (1823-1824) that a Yiddish periodical, Der Beobachter an der
+Weichsel, appeared in Warsaw. Nor do we hear of any opposition to the
+Government decrees, issued probably at the request of Dillon, Notkin,
+Peretz, or Nebakhovich, that the elders of the kahals in and after 1808,
+and the rabbis of the congregations in and after 1812, be conversant
+with either Russian, German, or Polish. This sudden Russification of the
+Jews amounted sometimes to no more than a superficial imitation of
+Russian civilization, which pious rabbis as well as liberal-minded men
+like Schick, Margolioth, Ilye, and Hurwitz, felt impelled to call a halt
+to. Jews, especially the rich, aped the Polish pans. Their wives dressed
+in Parisian gowns of the latest fashion, and their homes were conducted
+in a manner so luxurious as to arouse the envy of the noblemen. Israel
+waxed fat and kicked. Their greatest care was to become wealthy; they
+pampered their bodies at the expense of the impoverishment of their
+souls, and some feared that "with the passing away of the elder
+generation there would not remain a man capable of filling the position
+of rabbi."[22]
+
+The privilege of attending public schools and colleges further
+stimulated the Russification of the Jews. As soon as these institutions
+of learning were thrown open to them, numerous Jewish youths made
+headway in all branches taught, especially in medicine. That Alexander's
+benign decree of November 10, 1811, issued through the Secretary of
+State Speransky, was not always executed by his officials goes without
+saying. Simeon Levy Wolf, one of the first Russo-Jewish graduates, was
+denied his degree of doctor of jurisprudence in Dorpat unless he
+embraced Christianity.[23] When, in 1819, some of the Vilna graduates
+applied for the privilege of not paying the double tax, they were told
+that they must first renounce their faith, an exception being made only
+in favor of Arthur Parlovich. Still the number of Jewish graduate
+physicians was on the increase. Osip Yakovlevich Liboschüts, who was the
+son of the famous physician of Vilna, took his doctor degree at Dorpat
+(1806), became court physician in St. Petersburg, where he founded a
+hospital for children, and wrote extensively in French on the flora of
+his country.[24] The medical institute of Vilna (1803-1833), afterwards
+transferred to Kiev, became the centre of attraction for the Russian
+Jewry. Padua, Berlin, Königsberg, Göttingen, Copenhagen, Halle,
+Amsterdam, Cambridge, and London were for a third of a century replaced
+by the home of the Gaon and of Doctor Liboschüts. The first students
+were recruited from the bet ha-midrash, and they frequently joined, as
+in former days, knowledge of the Law with the practice of their chosen
+profession. Such were Isaac Markusevich, whose annotations to the
+_Shulhan 'Aruk_ (ab. 1830) were published fifty years later;[25] Joseph
+Rosensohn, the promising Talmudist who became rabbi of Pyosk at the age
+of nineteen;[26] and Kusselyevsky of Nieszvicz, a stipendiary of a
+Polish nobleman and a great favorite with Professor Frank. Because of
+his proficiency, he was exempted from serving as a vratch (interne), and
+for his piety and learning he was addressed by Jews and Gentiles as
+"rabbi."[27]
+
+With what dreams such happenings filled the Jewish heart! "Thank God,"
+writes a merchant of the first guild in reply to an inquiry from distant
+Bokhara, "thank God, we dwell in peace under the sovereignty of our czar
+Alexander, who has shown us his mercy, and has put us in every respect
+on an equality with all the inhabitants of the land."[28] But a rude
+awakening was soon to make the Jews aware that their visions of better
+days were still far from realization. In 1815, Alexander I formed the
+acquaintance of Baroness Krüdener, and since then, to the satisfaction
+of Prince Galitzin, "with what giant strides the emperor advanced in the
+pathway of religion!" His humanitarian deeds gave way to a profound
+religious mysticism. He experienced a revulsion of feeling toward
+reforms in his vast empire, and, as always, the Jews were the first
+victims of an ill-boding change. The kindly monarch who, at Paris, had
+said to a Russo-Jewish deputation, _J'enleverai le joug de vos épaules_,
+began to make their yoke heavier than he had found it. The enlightened
+czar, who, in striking a medal commemorating the emancipation of the
+Jews of his empire, had anticipated Napoleon by a year, suddenly became
+a bigoted tyrant, whose efforts were devoted to converting the same Jews
+to Christianity. He who had claimed that his greatest reward would be to
+produce a Mendelssohn, now resorted to various expedients, to render
+education unpalatable to the Jews. The Jewish assemblymen, who, in 1816,
+soon after the Franco-Russian war, had been convoked to St. Petersburg,
+were not allowed to meet; and when, two years later, they did meet,
+their every attempt was baffled by the Government. Jews were expelled
+systematically from St. Petersburg (1818). They were forbidden to employ
+Christians as servants (May 4, 1820), to immigrate into Russia from
+abroad (August 10, 1824), and reside in the towns and villages of
+Mohilev and Vitebsk (January 13, 1825). Several years after the double
+poll and guild tax had been abolished in Courland (November 8, 1807), it
+was restored with an additional impost on meat from cattle slaughtered
+according to the Jewish rite (korobka). All this impoverished the Jews
+to such an extent that they were forced to sell the cravats of their
+praying shawls (taletim), in order to defray the expense of a second
+deputation to St. Petersburg.[29]
+
+Had Alexander I been satisfied with merely restricting the Jews' rights,
+the favorable attitude towards enlightenment we have noticed above would
+probably have remained unaltered. Unfortunately, Alexander became a
+fanatic conversionist. It was a time when missionary zeal became
+endemic, and Baroness Krüdener's influence was strengthened. The
+Reverend Lewis Way, having founded (1808) the London Society for
+Promoting Christianity among the Jews, made a tour through Europe,
+everywhere urging the Gentiles to enfranchise the Jews as an inducement
+to them to embrace Christianity, the only means of hastening the advent
+of the Apostolic millennium. His _Mémoires sur l'état des israélites_
+presented to the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (October 11, 1818) and his
+visit to Russia resulted in an imperial ukase (March 25, 1817)
+organizing a Committee of Guardians for Israelitish Christians
+(Izrailskiye Christyanye). The members of this association were to be
+granted land in the northern or southern provinces of Russia and to
+enjoy special privileges. The bait proved tempting, and, as a
+consequence, some prominent Maskilim, too weak to resist the
+allurements, precipitated themselves into the Greek Catholic fold.
+Abraham Peretz, financier and champion of Jews' rights, consented to be
+converted, as also Löb Nebakhovich, the dramatist, whose plays were
+produced in the Imperial theatre of St. Petersburg and performed in the
+presence of the emperor.[30] Equally bad, if not worse, for the cause of
+Haskalah was the conduct of those who, disdaining, or unable, to profess
+the new religion, discarded every vestige of traditional Judaism, and
+deemed it their duty to set an example of infidelity and sometimes
+immorality to their less enlightened coreligionists. What Leroy-Beaulieu
+says of Maimon, "that type of the most cultured Jew to be found before
+the French Revolution," might more justly be applied to many a less
+prominent Maskil after him: "Despite his learning and philosophy he sank
+deeper than the most degraded of his fellow-men, because in repudiating
+his ancestral faith he had lost the staff which, through all their
+humiliations, served as a prop even to the most debased of ancient
+Jews."[31]
+
+Haskalah thus having become synonymous with apostasy or licentiousness,
+we can easily understand why the unsophisticated among the Russian Jews
+were so bitterly opposed to it from the time the sad truth dawned upon
+them, until, under Alexander II, their suspicions were somewhat
+dissipated. Previous to the latter part of the reign of Alexander I the
+"struggle groups" in Russian Jewry were at first Frankists and
+anti-Frankists, and afterwards Hasidim and Mitnaggedim. It was a
+conflict, not between religion and science, but between religion and
+what was regarded as superstition. Secular instruction, far from being
+opposed, was, as we have seen, sought and disseminated. Long after the
+pious element in Germany had been aroused to the dangers that lurked in
+the wake of their "Aufklärung," and had begun to endeavor to check its
+further progress by excommunication and other methods, the Russian Jews
+remained "seekers after light." They might have condemned a Maskil, they
+had not yet condemned Haskalah. Mendelssohn's German translation was
+welcomed in Russia at its first appearance no less than in Germany, but
+when some of the children of Rabbi Moses ben Menahem embraced the
+Christian faith, and their father, as was natural, was suspected of
+skepticism, the _Biur_ and the Meassefim were pronounced, like libraries
+by Sir Anthony Absolute, to be "an evergreen tree of diabolical
+knowledge." So also with Wessely's Epistles, which were destroyed in
+public, together with Polonnoy's _Toledot Ya'akob Yosef_. Haskalah
+itself was not impugned, and as theretofore translations and original
+works on science were encouraged, and the wish was entertained that
+"many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased."[32]
+
+But the latest experiences in their own country put Haskalah in a very
+different light from that in which they were wont to regard it. Formerly
+the opposition to it had been limited to the very land that gave it
+birth. Because of their determination to study, Solomon Maimon was
+denied admission to Berlin, Manasseh of Ilye was stopped in Königsberg,
+and Abba Glusk Leczeka, better known as "the Glusker Maggid," the
+subject of a poem by Chamisso, was persecuted everywhere. It was Rabbi
+Levin, of Berlin, who prohibited the publication of Wessely's works, and
+insisted that the author be expelled from the city.[33] It was Rabbi
+Ezekiel Landau of Prague who, though approving of Wessely's _Yen
+Lebanon_, opposed the translation of the Pentateuch by Mendelssohn,
+while Rabbi Horowitz of Hamburg denounced it in unmeasured terms,
+admonishing his hearers to shun the work as unclean, and approving the
+action of those persons who had publicly burnt it in Vilna (1782). Moses
+Sofer of Pressburg adopted as his motto, "Touch not the works of the
+Dessauer" (Mendelssohn),[34] and seldom allowed an opportunity to pass
+without denouncing the Maskilim of his country. Now the clarion note of
+anti-Haskalah, sounded by these luminaries in Israel, found an echo
+among the Jews in Russia. They had discovered, to their great sorrow,
+that like Elisha ben Abuya, the apostate in the Talmud, "those who once
+entered the paradise [of enlightenment] returned no more." The very name
+of the seat of Haskalah was an abomination to the pious. To be called
+"Berlinchick" or "Deitschel" was tantamount to being called infidel and
+epicurean, anarchist and outlaw. The old instinct of self-preservation,
+which turned Jews from lambs into lions, holding their ground to the
+last, asserted itself again. As the Talmudic rabbis excluded certain
+books from the Canon, as the study of even the Jewish philosophers was
+later proscribed by certain French rabbis, so the Russian rabbis laid
+the ban upon whatever savored of German "Aufklärerei."
+
+Thus began the bitter fight against Haskalah, in which Hasidim and
+Mitnaggedim, forgetting their differences, joined hands, and stood
+shoulder to shoulder. For, after all, was not Judaism in both these
+phases endangered by the new and aggressive enemy from the West? And did
+not the two have enough in common to become one in the hour of great
+need? Hasidism, in fact, was Judaism emotionalized, and since, beginning
+with Rabbi Shneor Zalman of Ladi, it, too, advocated the study of the
+Talmud, the distinction between it and Mitnaggedism was hardly
+perceptible. The study of the Zohar and Cabbala was equally cultivated
+by both; Isaac Luria and Hayyim Vital were equally venerated by both,
+and hero worship was common to both. The _Ascension of Elijah_ (Gaon) is
+as full of miracles as _The Praises of the Besht_. It is no wonder,
+then, that the animosities, which reached their acme during the last few
+years of the Gaon's life, were weakened after his death, and that the
+compromise, pleaded for by Doctor Hurwitz and Manasseh Ilye, was somehow
+effected. But it was otherwise with the Haskalah. "Verily," says the
+zaddik Menahem Mendel of Vitebsk, "verily, grammar is useful; that our
+great ones indulged in the study thereof I also know; but what is to be
+done since the wicked and sinful have taken possession of it?" In the
+same manner does Rabbi Hayyim of Volozhin inveigh against the followers
+of Mendelssohn, because of the latitudinarian habits of the Maskilim,
+who "despise the counsel of their betters, and go after the dictates of
+their hearts."[35] Both saw in Haskalah a deadly foe to their dearest
+ideals, a blight upon their most cherished hopes, and, like Elizabeta
+Petrovna, they would not derive even a benefit from the enemies of their
+religion.
+
+Still, Alexander I approached his object only tentatively. Haskalah
+during his reign was like the Leviathan in the Talmud legend which
+resembled an island, so that wayfarers approached it to moor under its
+lee and find shelter in its shade, but as soon as they began to walk and
+cook on it, it would turn and submerge them in the stormy and bottomless
+sea. The Jews were invited or induced to forsake their religion, and
+only the less discerning were caught in the snare. It remained for the
+"terrible incarnation of autocracy," Nicholas I (1825-1855), or, as his
+Jewish subjects called him, Haman II, to fill their cup of woe to
+overflowing and employ every available means to convert them to his own
+religion.
+
+Nicholas's one aim was "to diminish the number of Jews in the empire,"
+but not by expulsion, the means employed by Ferdinand and Isabella. He
+knew too well their value as citizens to allow them to migrate. He would
+diminish their numbers by forced baptism. Baptized Jews were exempted
+from the payment of taxes for three years; Jewish criminals could have
+their punishment commuted or could obtain a pardon by ceasing to be
+Jews. But as these inducements could naturally appeal only to
+comparatively few, more stringent measures were resorted to. Hitherto
+the Jews had been excused from military service, paying an annual sum of
+money for the privilege. On September 7, 1827, an ukase was issued
+requiring them not only to pay the same amount as theretofore, but also
+to serve in the army; and while Christians had to furnish only seven
+recruits per thousand, and only at certain intervals, the Jews had to
+contribute ten recruits for each thousand, and that at every
+conscription. The only exception was made in the case of the Karaites,
+who, according to Nicholas's decision, had emigrated from Palestine
+before the Christian era, and could not therefore have participated in
+the crucifixion of Jesus. Jews found outside of their native towns
+without passports, and those in arrears with their taxes, frequently
+even those who, having lagged behind in their payment to the Government,
+eventually discharged their obligations, were to be seized and sentenced
+to serve in the army, and this meant a lifetime, or at least twenty-five
+years, of the most abject slavery imaginable. This grievous measure
+caused the utmost misery. No Jewish youth leaving home could be sure of
+returning and seeing his dear ones again. The scum of the Jewish
+population (poimshchiki, or "catchers") made it their profession to
+ensnare helpless young men or poor itinerant students suspected of the
+Haskalah heresy, destroy their passports, and deliver them up as
+poimaniki (recruits), to spare the rich who paid for the substitutes. To
+form an idea of the time we need but read some of the numerous
+folk-songs of that day. Here is one of many:
+
+  Quietly I walk in the street,
+  When behind me I hear the rush of feet.
+  Woes have come and sought me,
+  Alas, had I bethought me.
+
+  "Your passport," they ask. Alas, it is lost!
+  "Then serve the White Czar!" that is the cost.
+  Woe has come and sought me,
+  Alas, had I bethought me.
+
+  There are many rooms, they take me to one,
+  And strip from my body the poor homespun.
+  Woe has come and sought me,
+  Alas, had I bethought me.
+
+  They take me to another room,
+  The uniform,--that is my doom.
+  Woe has come and sought me,
+  Alas, had I bethought me.
+
+  Rather than wear the cap of the czar,
+  To study the Torah were better by far.
+  Woe has come and sought me,
+  Alas, had I bethought me.
+
+  Rather than eat of the czar's black bread,
+  I'd study the Scriptures head by head.
+  Woes have come and sought me,
+  Alas, had I bethought me.
+
+Yet this was not all. Knowing that it is easier to convert the children
+than their elders, the Government of Nicholas I, out-Heroding Herod,
+inaugurated a system so cruel as to fill with terror and pity the heart
+of the most ferocious barbarian. Infants were torn from their mothers,
+boys of the age of twelve, sometimes of ten and eight, were herded like
+cattle, sent to distant parts of Russia, and there distributed as
+chattels among the officers of the army. Many of these Cantonists, as
+they were called, either died on the way, or were killed off when they
+resisted conversion. Those who survived sometimes returned to Judaism,
+and formed the nucleus of Jewish settlements in the interior of Russia.
+These "soldiers of Nicholas" (Nikolayevskiye soldati), with their
+uncouth demeanor and devoted, though ignorant, adherence to the faith of
+their fathers, furnished much material for the folk-songs of the time
+and the novelists of the somewhat happier reigns of Nicholas's
+successors.[36]
+
+One of these Cantonists, the first to give a description of the life of
+his fellow-sufferers, was Wolf Nachlass, or Alexander Alekseyev. For
+many years he remained faithful to the religion of his forefathers,
+though he had been pressed into the service at the age of ten. About
+1845 he changed his views, became an ardent Greek Catholic, and
+converted five hundred Cantonists, to the great delight of Nicholas I,
+who thanked him in person for his zeal. He lost his leg, and during the
+long illness that followed Nachlass settled in Novgorod, and wrote
+several works on Jewish customs and on missionary topics.
+
+Less horrifying, but equally aiming at disintegration, was Nicholas's
+scheme of colonization. What better means was there for "diminishing the
+number of Jews" than to scatter them over the wilderness of Russia and
+leave them to shift for themselves? This, of course, was necessarily a
+slow process and one involving some expense, but it was fraught with
+great importance not only for the Russian Church, but for Russian trade
+and agriculture as well.
+
+"Back to the soil!" Was not this the cry of the romantic Maskilim in
+Germany, in Galicia, and particularly in Russia? And have not country
+life and field labor been depicted by them in the most glowing colors?
+Here was an opportunity to save the honor of the Jewish name and also
+ameliorate the material condition of the Russian Jews. The permission
+given to them by Alexander I to establish themselves as farmers in the
+frigid yet free Siberian steppes was greeted with enthusiasm by all.
+Nicholas's ukase was hailed with joy. Elias Mitauer and Meyer
+Mendelssohn, at the head of seventy families from Courland, were the
+first to migrate to the new region (1836), and they were followed by
+hundreds more. Indeed, the exodus assumed such proportions that the
+Christians in the parts of the country abandoned by the colonists
+complained of the decline in business and the depreciation of property.
+The movement was heartily approved by the rabbis; the populace, its
+imagination stimulated, began to dream dreams and see visions of
+brighter days, and all gave vent to their hopefulness in songs of
+gladness and gratitude, in strains like these:[37]
+
+  Who lives so free
+    As the farmer on his land?
+  His farm his companion is,
+    His never-failing friend.
+
+  His sleep to him is sweet
+    After a hearty meal;
+  Neither grief nor worry
+    The farmer-man doth feel.
+
+  He rises very early
+    To start betimes his toil,
+  Healthy and very happy
+    On his ever-smiling soil.
+
+  O blessings on our czar,
+    Czar Nikolai, then be,
+  Who granted us this gladness,
+    And bade the Jews be free.
+
+Alas, this joy was of short duration! Very soon Nicholas became
+suspicious of his Siberian colonization scheme, that it was in reality a
+philanthropic measure, and in place of saving the Jew's soul it only
+promoted his physical well-being. This suspicion grew into a conviction
+when he learned that the Jewish community at Tomsk, still faithful to
+the heritage of Israel, applied for permission to appoint a spiritual
+leader. The autocrat, therefore, signed an ukase checking settlement in
+the hitherto free land, depriving honest men of the privilege enjoyed by
+the worst of criminals, and enrolling the children of those already
+there among the military Cantonists (January 5, 1837).
+
+Then began real misery. Believing at first that the czar's intentions
+were sincere, many Jews had sold their hut and land and left for
+Siberia. No sooner were they there than they were sent, on foot, to
+Kherson. The decree of the "little father" was executed in--no other
+phrase can describe it so well--Russian fashion. The innocent Jews who
+had come to Siberia by invitation were seized, treated as vagabonds, and
+deported to their destination. Want and suffering produced contagious
+diseases, and many became a burden to the Jews of Kremenchug and such
+Christians as could not witness unmoved the infernal comedy played by
+the defender of the Greek Catholic Church. Help could be rendered only
+secretly, and those who dared complain were severely punished.
+
+At the same time that this was taking place in the wilderness of
+Siberia, a phenomenon of rare occurrence was to be witnessed in the very
+heart of the Jewish Pale, in Lithuania. Aroused by the wretched
+condition of his coreligionists, Solomon Posner (1780-1848) determined
+to erect cloth factories exclusively for Jews. He sent to Germany for
+experts to teach them the trade. These Jewish workingmen proved so
+industrious and intelligent that before the end of three years they
+surpassed their teachers in mechanical skill. But this attempt of Posner
+was only prefatory to the greater and more arduous task he set himself.
+It was nothing less than the establishment of a colony in which some of
+the most Utopian theories would be applied to actual life. Ten years
+after Robert Owen founded his communistic settlement at New Harmony,
+Indiana, several hundred robust Russian Jews settled on some of the
+thousands of acres in Lithuania that were lying fallow for want of
+tillers. With these farmers Posner hoped to realize his Utopia. He
+provided every family with sufficient land, the necessary agricultural
+implements, as well as with horses, cows, etc., free of charge, for a
+term of twenty-five years. In return, the members of the community
+pledged themselves to use simple homespun for their apparel, black on
+holidays, gray on week-days, not to indulge in the luxuries of city
+life, and to avoid trading of any sort. As time passed, Posner opened
+coeducational technical schools for the children and batte midrashim for
+adults, and soon the homesteads presented the appearance of progressive
+and flourishing farms. Posner's successful effort attracted the
+admiration of Prince Pashkevich, and was both a living protest against
+the accusation of Nicholas that Jews were unfit to be farmers and an
+eloquent plea for the unfortunate victims of a capricious tyrant in
+Siberia and Kherson.[38]
+
+In his efforts to curb the stiff-necked Jews by all manner of fiendish
+persecution, Nicholas did not neglect to try the efficacy of some of the
+plans advocated by Lewis Way. Undismayed by the failure of the Committee
+of Guardians for Israelitish Christians, in which Alexander I had put so
+much confidence, a "Jewish Committee," all the members of which were
+Christians, was organized by imperial decree (May 22, 1825). This
+committee established, in 1829, a school at Warsaw where Christian
+divinity students were to be instructed in rabbinical literature and in
+Judeo-German, in order to be fully equipped for missionary work among
+the Jews. It appointed Abbé Luigi Chiarini to translate, or rather
+expose, the Babylonian Talmud, to which undertaking the Government
+contributed twelve thousand thalers.
+
+To do his work thoroughly, the abbé deemed it advisable to write a
+preliminary dissertation, presenting his aim and views. This he did in
+his _Theory of Judaism_ (_Théorie du judaisme_, Paris, 1830). He
+endeavored to show how worthless, injurious, and immoral were the
+teachings of the Talmud. Only by discarding them would the Jews qualify
+themselves to enjoy the right of citizenship. He proved, to his own
+satisfaction, that ritual murder was enjoined in the Talmud, and this he
+did at a time when many a community was harassed by this fiendish
+accusation. When early death cut short the abbé's effort (1832), the
+Government, still persisting in its plans, engaged the services of
+Ephraim Moses Pinner of Posen, who published specimens of his intended
+translation in his _Compendium_ (Berlin, 1831). But the fickle or
+restless emperor seems to have tired of the plan, or perhaps he found
+Pinner too Jewish for his purposes. Of the twenty-eight volumes planned,
+only one, which was dedicated to Nicholas, appeared during the decade
+following Chiarini's death, and the work was abandoned entirely.[39]
+
+The crusade against the Talmud, thus headed and backed by the
+Government, now broke out in all its fury. Anti-Talmudic works in
+English, French, and German were imported into Russia, translated into
+Hebrew, and scattered among the people. _The Old Paths_, by Alexander
+McCaul, a countryman and colleague of Lewis Way, but surpassing him in
+zeal for the conversion of Jews, was translated into Hebrew and German
+(Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1839) for the edification of those who knew no
+English. Jews themselves, either out of revenge or because they sought
+to ingratiate themselves with the high authorities, joined the movement,
+and openly came out against the Talmud in works modelled after
+Eisenmenger's _Entdecktes Judenthum_. Such were Buchner, author of
+_Worthlessness of the Talmud_ (_Der Talmud in seiner Nichtigkeit_, 2
+vols., Warsaw, 1848), and Temkin, who wrote _The Straight Road_ (_Derek
+Selulah_, St. Petersburg, 1835). The former was instructor in Hebrew and
+Holy Writ in the rabbinical seminary in Warsaw; the latter was a zealous
+convert to the Greek Catholic faith, who spared no effort to make
+Judaism disliked among his former coreligionists.
+
+All these desperate attempts proved of no avail. Judaism was practiced,
+and the Talmud was studied during the reign of Nicholas I more ardently
+than ever before. Their sacred treasures attacked by the Government
+without and by renegades and detractors within, the Russian Jews
+nevertheless clung to them with a tenacity unparalleled even in their
+own history. Danzig's _Life of Man_ (_Hayye Adam_, Vilna, 1810),
+containing all Jewish ritual ceremonies, was followed out to the least
+minutiae. Despite the poverty of the Jews and the comparatively
+exorbitant price the publisher had to charge for the Talmud, and, aside
+from the many sets of former editions in the country and those
+continually imported, and in addition to the Responsa, commentaries,
+Midrashim, and other works directly and indirectly bearing on it, more
+than a dozen editions of the Talmud had appeared in Russia alone since
+the ukase of Catherine II (October 30, 1795) permitting Russian Jews to
+publish Hebrew works in their own country. This ukase had been intended
+originally to exclude seditious literature from Russia, but what was
+unfavorable for the rebellious Poles proved, in a measure, very
+beneficial to the law-abiding Jews. Under the supervision of a censor,
+and with but slight interruptions, the Jews published their own books,
+and in 1806 Slavuta, in Volhynia, saw the first complete edition of the
+Talmud on Russian soil. Then followed another edition in the same place
+(1808-1813), a third in Kopys (1816-1828), and a fourth in Slavuta
+(1817-1822), and several others elsewhere.
+
+The story of the Vilna-Grodno edition of the Talmud is interesting as
+well as illuminating. It depicts the relation of the Jews among
+themselves and to the Government. Begun in 1835, at Ozar, near Grodno,
+an imperial ukase directed the removal of the work to Vilna, the
+metropolis of Russo-Poland. When the publishers, Simhah Ziml and Menahem
+Mann Romm, had completed their work in the new quarters, the copies of
+the book were destroyed by incendiaries (1840). After some time, an
+effort was made by Joseph Eliasberg and Mattathias Strashun to continue
+the publication, but the Warsaw censor prohibited its importation into
+Poland, where the bulk of the subscribers lived. To add to the calamity,
+a feud broke out between the head of the Slavuta publishing company,
+Moses Schapira (1758-1838), and the Vilna publishers. The publication of
+the Talmud had always been supervised by the prominent rabbis of the
+land, and their authorization was necessary to make an edition legal.
+This the rabbi never granted unless the previous edition was entirely
+disposed of. The Slavuta publishers claimed that their edition had not
+been sold out when the Vilna publishers started theirs. The litigation
+continued for some time, and was finally decided in favor of the Vilna
+firm. The publishers of Slavuta, however, having the Polish rabbis and
+zaddikim on their side, continued to publish the Talmud, regardless of
+the protests of Rabbi Akiba Eger and the "great ones" of Lithuania. But
+a terrible misfortune befell the Slavuta publishers. On account of some
+accusation, the two brothers engaged in the business were deported to
+Siberia, and their father, the head of the establishment, died of a
+broken heart. This cleared the field for the Romms of Vilna, who
+continue to prosper to this day, and have now the greatest Hebrew
+publishing house in the world. "It is the finger of God," the pious ones
+said, and studied the Talmud with increased devotion.[40]
+
+The numerous Talmud editions indicate the demand for the work, and the
+multiplicity of yeshibot explains the cause of the demand. We have seen
+how the yeshibot destroyed by Chmielnicki were re-established soon after
+the massacres ceased. Their number increased when the Hasidic movement
+threatened to render the knowledge of the Talmud unpopular; and when the
+Maskilim, too, made them a target for their attacks, there was hardly a
+town in which such institutions were not to be found. But surpassing all
+the yeshibot of the nineteenth century, if not of all centuries, was the
+Yeshibah Tree of Life (Yeshibat 'Ez Hayyim) in the townlet of Volozhin.
+There the cherished hopes of the Gaon were finally realized. Within its
+walls gathered the elect of the Russo-Jewish youth for almost a century.
+
+The founder of this famous yeshibah was Rabbi Hayyim Volozhin, the
+greatest of the Gaon's disciples (1749-1821). A prominent Talmudist at
+twenty-five, he, nevertheless, left his business and household at that
+age, and went to Vilna to become the humble pupil of the Gaon, whose
+method he had followed from the beginning. When he felt himself
+proficient enough in his studies, he returned to his native place, and
+founded (1803) the Tree of Life College, with an enrollment of ten
+students, whom he maintained at his own expense. But soon the fame of
+the yeshibah and its founder spread far and wide, and students flocked
+to it from all corners of Russia and outside of it. In response to Rabbi
+Hayyim's appeal contributions came pouring in, a new and spacious
+school-house was erected, and Volozhin became a Talmudic Oxford. To be a
+student there was both an indication of superiority and a means to
+proficiency. Rabbi Hayyim did away with the "Tag-essen," or "Freitisch"
+custom, and introduced a stipendiary system in its stead, thus fostering
+the self-respect of the students. But they did not as a rule require
+much to satisfy them with their lot. They came to Volozhin "to learn,"
+and they well knew the Talmudic statement, that "no one can attain
+eminence in the Torah unless he is willing to die for its sake."
+
+Rabbi Hayyim was succeeded by his son Rabbi Isaac, who united knowledge
+of secular subjects with profound Talmudic erudition, was active in
+worldly affairs, and played a prominent part in the Jewish history of
+his day. He was of the leading spirits who, in 1842, attended the
+rabbinical conference at St. Petersburg convoked by Nicholas I. The
+number of students increased under his leadership, according to
+Lilienthal, to three hundred. But Rabbi Isaac became so engrossed in
+public affairs that he found he could no longer do justice to his
+position. His two sons-in-law, therefore, took his place, and when the
+older died, in 1854, Rabbi Naphtali Zebi Judah Berlin (1817-1893)
+entered on his useful career, unbroken for forty years, as the dean of
+the greatest seat of learning in the Diaspora. Under his administration
+the Tree of Life College reached both the height of its prosperity and
+the end of its existence (1892).[41]
+
+Thus all the schemes and machinations of the Russian Government
+respecting the Jews proved ineffectual. Nicholas I, with the possible
+exception of Ivan the Terrible, the greatest autocrat in Russian
+history, at whose wish seemingly insuperable obstacles were instantly
+removed, the wink of whose eye was sufficient to kill or revive the
+millions of his crouching slaves--Nicholas I, with all his herculean
+strength, yet found himself helpless in the presence of a handful of
+wretched Jews. Furious at his defeat, he expressed the intention to
+reduce all Jews to Governmental servitude or to make them, like the
+Cossacks, lifelong soldiers. Being advised to postpone the execution of
+this plan and to employ less severe measures meanwhile, he issued the
+Exportation Law of 1843, ordering the expulsion of Jews from the
+fifty-vyerst boundary zone and from the villages within the Pale,
+thereby depriving fifty thousand families at once of their homes and
+their support.
+
+    Those from the country--writes a Russo-Jewish eye-witness of the
+    scenes following the enforcement of this inhuman law--move first
+    to the neighboring cities, and increase the existing poverty,
+    rendering the difficulty of finding profitable employment still
+    greater. God only knows how it will end when the congestion
+    increases still further.... I must also inform you--he
+    proceeds--that these past four months several imperial
+    commissioners have visited the frontier towns on the Lithuanian
+    border, from which the Jews are to be banished, in order that
+    the value of the real estate may be estimated. But how is the
+    valuation calculated? Even one who is acquainted with the
+    venality and unscrupulousness of Russian officers cannot form a
+    correct idea of how this business is conducted. If a man has no
+    connection with those in authority, or cannot obtain powerful
+    intercession, or is unable to give heavy bribes, his property is
+    valued at perhaps five per cent, or is set at so low a figure as
+    to make the appraisal differ little from downright robbery. We,
+    however, are used to such measures, for when they banished us
+    some time past from certain districts of the city of
+    Brest-Litovsk, where for centuries celebrated scholars of our
+    people dwelt, nothing better was done by the crown to compensate
+    us for our houses.[42] The same occurred at the expulsion from
+    St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Nikolayev, Alexandrov, Sebastopol,
+    etc., but as it did not affect so large a mass, nor injure us to
+    so great an extent, we bore the injury silently. Alas, this is
+    not the case at present. We should gladly quit the country,
+    gladly should we emigrate to America, Texas, and especially to
+    Palestine under English protection, if, on the one hand, we had
+    the means and, on the other, the Government would permit us.[43]
+
+This Exportation Law of Nicholas I, the result of a lawsuit between a
+Jew and a nobleman living on the eastern frontier, which had been
+decided by the supreme court in favor of the former, aroused much
+excitement in every civilized country of Europe. It was before
+anti-Semitism was in flower, and the people of the time were more
+responsive even than during the later Kishinev massacres. Indignation
+meetings were held. Both Jews and Gentiles, not only abroad, but even in
+Russia, protested. Prayers were offered for the unfortunate. Crémieux in
+France and Rabbi Philippson in Germany appealed to the public. All to no
+effect. Grief was especially manifest among English Jews, always the
+first to feel when their fellow-Jews in other countries suffer, and
+Grace Aguilar, like Rachel weeping over her children, lamented over her
+Russian brethren:
+
+  Ay, death! for such is exile--fearful doom,
+  From homes expelled yet still to Poland chain'd;
+  Till want and famine mind and life consume,
+  And sorrow's poison'd chalice all is drained.
+  O God, that this should be! that one frail man
+  Hath power to crush a nation 'neath his ban.
+
+At this critical period, Moses Montefiore, encouraged by his success in
+refuting the blood accusation at Damascus, and stimulated by the many
+petitions he had received from Russia, Germany, France, Italy, England,
+and America, undertook the philanthropic mission of interceding with the
+czar on behalf of his coreligionists. It is natural to suspect that no
+trouble is entirely undeserved; it is but human to sympathize with our
+friends, and yet regard their suffering as a judgment rather than a
+misfortune. But Montefiore's trip to Russia dispelled the last trace of
+suspicion against the Russian Jews. In spite of their poverty, he saw
+numerous charitable and educational institutions in every city he
+visited. He found the Jewish men to be the cream of Russia. "He had the
+satisfaction," Doctor Loewe, his secretary, tells us, "of seeing among
+them many well-educated wives, sons, and daughters; their dwellings were
+scrupulously clean, the furniture plain but suitable for the purpose,
+and the appearance of the family healthy." To all his pleadings Count
+Uvarov returned but a single answer: "The Russian Jews are different
+from other Jews; they are orthodox, and believe in the Talmud"[44]--a
+reason for persecution in Holy Russia!
+
+Montefiore's visit to Russia, from which so much had been hoped, did not
+improve the situation in the least. For all his strenuous efforts, he
+was compelled to leave the Jews as destitute as he had found them. Nay,
+they might truthfully have said to the Moses of England what their
+ancestors had said to the Moses of Egypt, "Since thou didst come to
+Pharaoh, the hardness of our lot has increased." From the first of May
+(1844) they were not allowed to continue to earn the pittance necessary
+to maintain life, as, for instance, by the slavish labor of breaking
+stones on the highways, with which three hundred families had barely
+earned dry bread.[45] The great love and respect shown to the uncrowned
+king of Israel proved to the czar's officials the existence of some
+artful design on the part of the Jews, and convinced them especially of
+the disloyalty of Montefiore. The latter, they maintained, was scheming
+to set himself up as the Jewish czar. Hence every movement of his was
+closely watched, every word he uttered carefully noted, and not a few
+Jews were left with memorable tokens for doing homage to the English
+baronet. Their disabilities were not removed, their condition was not
+improved, the hopes they entertained resolved themselves into pleasant
+dreams followed by a sad awakening.[46]
+
+Yet, though his visit did not, as Sir Moses had anticipated, "raise the
+Jews in the estimation of the people," it was not without beneficent
+effect on the Jews themselves. It cemented the "traditional friendship"
+which has always existed between Anglo-Jews and Russo-Jews more than
+between any sets of Jews of the dispersion. It disclosed to the latter
+that there were happier Jews and better countries than their own; that
+there were men who sympathized with them as effectively as could be.
+Above all, it convinced them that a Jew may be highly educated and
+wealthy, and take his place among the noble ones of the earth, and still
+remain a faithful Jew and a loyal son of his persecuted people. "I leave
+you," Sir Moses called to them at parting, "but my heart will ever
+remain with you. When my brethren suffer, I feel it painfully; when they
+have reason to weep, my eyes shed tears." Had Montefiore's visit
+resulted merely in arousing his brethren's self-consciousness, he had
+earned a place in the history of Haskalah, for self-consciousness is the
+most potent factor in the culture of mankind.
+
+Jews from other lands also came to the rescue of their Russian
+coreligionists. Jacques Isaac Altaras, the ship-builder of Marseilles,
+petitioned the czar to allow forty thousand Jewish families to emigrate
+to Algeria. Rabbi Ludwig Philippson, editor of the Allgemeine Zeitung
+des Judenthums, appealed to his countrymen to help the Russian Jews to
+settle in America, Australia, Africa, anywhere away from Russia. But all
+attempts were ineffectual. Though Count Kissilyef assured Montefiore
+that the czar "did not wish to keep them [the Jews], five or six hundred
+thousand might leave altogether," emigration was next to impossible.
+Russia was constantly playing the game of the cat with the mouse. Her
+nails were set and her eyes fixed upon her prey, and yet she made it
+appear to the outside world that she was anxious about the welfare of
+the Jews. For Russian tactics have always been, and still are, the
+despair of the diplomat, a labyrinth through which only they who hold
+the clue can ever hope to find their way.
+
+The condition of the Jews in Russo-Poland was, if possible, even worse
+than in Lithuania and Russia proper. Nothing, in fact, but the
+auto-da-fé was needed to give it the stamp of medieval Spain. As before
+the division of Poland, the Poles suspected the Jews of disloyalty to
+Poland, while the Russians suspected them of disloyalty to Russia.
+Hitherto too proud to soil his hand with a manual or mercantile pursuit,
+the Polish pan, now that the glory of his country had departed, and he
+was deprived of his lordly estates, began to engage in business of all
+kinds, and, finding in the Jewish trader a rival with whose skill and
+diligence he could seldom compete, he became embittered against the
+entire race. This was the cause of the innumerable restrictions, the
+extortion, and exploitation in Russo-Poland, which surpassed those of
+Russia proper.
+
+    The Jewish archives--said Doctor Marcus Jastrow, then Rabbi in
+    Warsaw--were humorously known as "California" or the "Mexican
+    Gold Mines." Jews had to pay at every step. They had to pay a
+    Tagzettel [daily tax] for permission to stay in Warsaw, which
+    permission, however, did not include the luxury of breathing.
+    The latter had to be purchased with an additional ten kopecks
+    per capita. The income from these taxations amounted to over a
+    million and a half, but in spite of all this the Jews were
+    regarded as parasites, as leeches feasting upon the life-blood
+    of their Christian compatriots.[47]
+
+Such is the background upon which the picture of Haskalah is to be
+drawn--black enough to throw into relief the faintest ray of light. The
+Russian Jews, during the reign of Nicholas I, found themselves in a
+position possible only in Russia. They were not allowed to emigrate, nor
+suffered to stay. In 1823 they were expelled from the farms, and had to
+crowd into the cities; in 1838 they were expelled from the cities, and
+forced to go back to the country. Then Siberia was opened to them, but
+when it was found that even the land of the outcasts was hailed as a
+place of refuge by the Jews, they were told to go to Kherson. At last
+arrangements were perfected to allow them to colonize Lithuania--all at
+once even this was interdicted. They had been conquered with the Poles,
+yet were left unprotected against the Poles. Could they help suspecting
+the tyrant of what he really intended to do--of seeking to diminish
+their numbers by conversion? Is it surprising that when he determined to
+open public schools and establish rabbinical seminaries, Jews looked
+upon these, too, as the sugared poison with which he intended to
+extirpate Judaism? Or can we blame them for being determined to the last
+to baffle him? Nicholas did not understand the great lesson taught by
+the history of the Jews and inculcated in the old song,
+
+  To destroy all these people
+  You should let them alone.
+
+All that tyranny could inflict, the Russian Jews endured. Yet their
+number was not diminished. No coercion could make them leave, in a body,
+the old paths they were wont to tread. Nicholas's so-called reforms only
+encouraged a reaction, and the more he afflicted the Jews, the more they
+multiplied and grew. The behalot of 1754, 1764, and 1793 were repeated
+in 1833 and 1843; the missionary propaganda only strengthened the
+devotion of the faithful; and the denial of the means of support only
+increased the stolidity of the sufferers. And if, like some
+stepchildren, they were first beaten till they cried, and then beaten
+because they cried, like some stepchildren they rapidly forgot their lot
+in the happiness of home and the studies of the bet ha-midrash, and
+could sing[48] without bitterness even of the behalah-days, when
+
+  Little boys and little girls
+  Together had been mated,
+  Tishah be-Ab, the wedding day,--
+  Not a soul invited.
+  Only the father and the mother,
+  And also uncle Elye--
+  In his lengthy delye (caftan),
+  With his scanty beard--
+  Jump and jig with each other
+  Like a colt afeared.
+
+(Notes, pp. 314-317.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CONFLICTS AND CONQUESTS
+
+1840-1855
+
+
+The charges brought against the Jews of Russia by henchmen of the czar
+were grave, indeed, only they did not contain a particle of truth. In
+Russia itself, not only Jews and non-Russians but even many Christians
+testified to the innocence of the Jews, and protested against their
+oppressors. Bibikov, the Governor-General of Podolia and Volhynia;
+Diakov, the Governor-General of Smolensk; and Surovyetsky, the noted
+statesman, all write in terms of such praise of their unfortunate
+countrymen of the Jewish faith that their statements would sound
+exaggerated, were it not that many other unprejudiced Russians confirm
+their views.[1] The fact that Nicholas thought the Jews reliable as
+soldiers speaks against the imputation that they were mercenary and
+unpatriotic. Neither was the conventional accusation, that they were a
+people of petty traders, applicable to the Jews in Russia. Laborers of
+all kinds were very common among them. It was they, in fact, who
+rendered all manner of service to their Gentile neighbors, from a
+cobbler's and blacksmith's to producing the most exquisite _objets
+d'art_ and gold and silver engraving. They were equally well represented
+among the clerks and bookkeepers, and the bricklayers and stone-cutters.
+They took up with the most laborious employments, if only they furnished
+them with an honest even though scanty livelihood.[2]
+
+But most unfounded of all was the allegation that Jews were opposed to
+education. The _Memoirs_ of Madame Pauline Wengeroff indicate that even
+among the very strict Jews of her time children were not denied
+instruction in the German, Polish, and Russian literatures. We have seen
+how they availed themselves of the permission, granted to them by
+Alexander I, to attend the schools and universities of the empire. Nor
+did they fail to open schools of their own. No sooner was the
+Franco-Russian war over than Joseph Perl of Galicia founded a school in
+Tarnopol (1813), then under the Russian Government, and two years later
+he drew upon his own resources to build a school-house large enough to
+accommodate the great, steadily growing number of students. In 1822 we
+hear of a school that had been in existence for some time in Uman (the
+Ukraine). It had been established by Meïr Horn, Moses Landau, and Hirsh
+Hurwitz, all of whom were indefatigable laborers in the cause of
+Haskalah in the Ukraine. Perl's school was the pattern and model for a
+multitude of other schools, among them the one founded by Zittenfeld
+(1826) in Odessa, in the faculty of which were Simhah Pinsker, Elijah
+Finkel, the grandson of Elijah Gaon, and Abraham Abele, the eminent
+Talmudist. In 1836 a girls' department was added to it, and when
+Lilienthal visited Odessa (ab. 1843) it had an attendance of from four
+to five hundred pupils of both sexes, the annual expense being
+twenty-eight thousand rubles. A similar school was opened in Kishinev by
+Stern, and in the early "forties" there was hardly a Jewish community of
+note without one or more of such Jewish public institutions. Several
+well-to-do Maskilim not only founded but, like Perl, also maintained
+such schools, and gave instruction in some or all of the subjects taught
+in them.[3]
+
+The "forties" began auspiciously for Haskalah in Russia. On January 15,
+1840, the Riga community, amid pomp and rejoicing, opened the first
+Jewish school affiliated with a university. The teaching staff consisted
+of three Jews and one Christian, with Doctor Max Lilienthal (1815-1882),
+the young, highly recommended, and recently chosen local rabbi, as its
+principal. In the same year, the indefatigable Basilius Stern succeeded
+in forming a committee, of which Hayyim Efrusi and Moses Lichtenstadt
+were members, to deliberate on founding rabbinical seminaries in Russia.
+In 1841, forty-five delegates, representing the six chief committees of
+the Lovers of Enlightenment, assembled in Vilna, and thence issued an
+appeal in which they adopted as their platform the elevation of the
+moral standards of adults by urging them to follow useful trades and
+discouraging the Jewish proclivity to business as much as possible; a
+reform of the prevailing system of the education of the young; the
+combating, if possible the eradication, of Hasidism, the fountainhead,
+as they thought, of ignorance and superstition; the establishment of
+rabbinical seminaries, after the model of those in Padua and Amsterdam,
+to supply congregations with educated rabbis. It was further agreed that
+a Consistory be created, to supervise Jewish affairs and establish
+schools and technical institutes wherever necessary. To these main
+points were added several others of minor importance. The Maskilim of
+Besascz insisted that steps be taken to stop the prevailing custom of
+premature marriages. Those of Brest proposed that Government aid be
+invoked to compel Jews to dress in the German style, to use authorized
+text-books in the hadarim, and interdict the study of the Talmud except
+by those preparing themselves for the rabbinate.[4]
+
+Even in Vilna and Minsk, towns which later put themselves on record as
+opposed to Government schools, the Jews yielded gladly to the
+innovations of such Maskilim as S. Perl, G. Klaczke, I. Bompi, and the
+distinguished philanthropist David Luria, who took the initiative in
+transforming the educational system of these cities. Under the
+superintendence of Luria, the Minsk Talmud Torah became a model
+institution; the training conferred there on the poor and orphaned
+surpassed that given to the children of the rich in their private
+schools. This aroused jealousy in the parents of the latter, and at
+their request Luria organized a merchants' school, for the wealthier
+class. He then established what he called Midrash Ezrahim, or Citizens'
+Institute, in which he met with such success that he attracted the
+attention of the authorities, and received a special acknowledgment from
+the czar.[5]
+
+Russian Jewry was astir with new life. In many places secular education
+was divorced for the first time from rabbinical speculation. Knowledge
+became an end in itself, and learning increased greatly. An
+investigation by Nicholas I convinced all who were interested that
+though the Talmud remained the chief subject of study, the number of
+educated Jews was far greater than commonly supposed. The upliftment of
+the masses was the beau-ideal of every Maskil, and Hebrew and even the
+much-despised Yiddish were employed to effect it. Ignorance was regarded
+as the bane of life, and enlightenment as the panacea for all the ills
+to which their downtrodden brethren were heirs. As their pious
+coreligionists deemed it the universal duty to be well-versed in the
+Talmud, so the Maskilim thought it incumbent upon everybody to be highly
+cultured. No obstacle was great enough to discourage them. They were
+willing martyrs to the goddess of Wisdom, at whose shrine they
+worshipped, and whose cult they spread in the most adverse
+circumstances.
+
+Had the Government not interfered with the efforts of the Maskilim, or
+had it chosen a commission from among the Russian Jews themselves, among
+whom, as soon became evident to Nicholas himself, there were more than
+enough to do justice to an educational inquiry, the Haskalah movement
+would have continued to spread, notwithstanding the obstacles put in its
+way. But Nicholas was determined to reduce the number of Jews also by
+"re-educating" them in accordance with his own ideas. Every attempt made
+by the Jews to educate themselves was, therefore, checked. Even the
+noble efforts of Luria were stopped, his schools were closed, and his
+only rewards were "a gold medal from the czar and a short poem by
+Gottlober."
+
+In Germany, since the time of Mendelssohn, the study of the Talmud had
+been on the wane. The great yeshibot formerly existing in Metz,
+Frankfort, Hamburg, Prague, Fiirth, Halberstadt, etc., disappeared, and
+the reforms introduced in the synagogue and the numerous converts to
+Christianity impressed the outside world with the idea that Judaism
+among German Jews was writhing in the agony of death. If the same
+disintegrating elements were introduced among the Russian Jews, the
+Government believed that they would ultimately come over to the Greek
+Catholic Church of their own accord. Hence it was anxious to learn the
+secret of this power and beamed graciously on several learned Jews of
+Germany.
+
+David Friedländer (1750-1834) was then considered the legitimate
+successor of Mendelssohn, whose friend he had been for more than twenty
+years. He resembled his master in many respects, though he lacked both
+his genius and his sympathy. Mendelssohn translated the Pentateuch and
+the Psalms into German, Friedländer translated the Haftarot (selections
+from the Prophets) and the prayer book. Mendelssohn encouraged the
+publication of the Meassef; he did likewise, and contributed several
+articles to the journal. But, unlike his master, or, as he claimed, like
+his master in secret, he held exceedingly latitudinarian views on
+Judaism. In his later years he advocated abolishing the study of Hebrew
+in the schools and discarding it from the prayer book. He even rejoiced
+that by attending the services in Protestant churches many Jewish
+families were becoming acquainted with the religion he himself would
+have accepted on certain conditions.[6]
+
+It was to Friedländer that Bishop Malchevsky, actuated, as he
+maintained, by a desire to render the Jews worthy of the enjoyment of
+civil rights, applied for suggestions, in 1816, when the missionary zeal
+of Alexander I was first aroused. He responded in a pamphlet, _On the
+Improvement of the Israelites in the Kingdom of Poland_,[7] in which he
+declared that the quickest way of "civilizing" the Jews would be to
+deprive their rabbis of power and influence, to force them to dress in
+the German fashion, and use the Polish language, to admit them to the
+public schools and other educational institutions, and, above all, to
+abrogate the laws discriminating between them and their Gentile
+countrymen.
+
+Friedländer's advice regarding the removal of civil disabilities was
+never executed, but his other suggestions were followed out with more
+vigor than was necessary or good. To do away with the rabbis, and
+consequently with the Talmud, was just what was desired. It was partly
+with this end in view that Alexander I permitted, that is, commanded,
+the establishment of the rabbinical seminary in Warsaw. But when it was
+found that, although the seminary students were provided with all
+necessaries, and notwithstanding the decree that six years from the date
+of its opening none but seminary graduates would be eligible to the
+rabbinical office, few students availed themselves of the opportunity
+afforded, and none obtained positions, the whole plan fell into
+disfavor.[8] The Government, nevertheless, remained as stubbornly
+determined as ever, and unable to turn all the children into Cantonists,
+it decided to have those who remained at home gradually converted by
+means of a method worked out by the Minister of Education, Uvarov. They
+were forced to attend what became known as Government schools, though
+maintained exclusively with Jewish funds. In order to win the confidence
+of the Jews for the project, Doctor Lilienthal, whose speech at the
+dedication of the Riga School secured him a diamond ring as a token of
+the czar's approval, was sent from St. Petersburg on a mission of
+investigation, more especially of persuasion.
+
+For more than three years Lilienthal was one of the most popular
+personages in Europe. The eyes of all who had the amelioration of the
+lot of the Russian Jew at heart, it may be said the eyes of the
+civilized world, were fixed upon him as an epoch-maker in the history of
+the Jews. Nature had formed him, physically and mentally, to be a leader
+among his people, and his training and temperament made it easy for him
+to ingratiate himself into the favor of the great. It seemed that he was
+just the man to be the successful executor of the czar's plan.
+
+The Maskilim, above all, hailed him as the champion of the cause of
+Haskalah. He was their Moses or Ezra, the God-sent redeemer of their
+benighted brethren out of the quagmire of fanaticism. From various
+cities numerous urgent appeals came to him to hasten the execution of
+his great plan. Wherever he went, he was enthusiastically received, a
+truly royal welcome was extended to him. The Vilna community
+appropriated five thousand rubles for the school fund, and pledged
+itself to raise more if it were found necessary; and he was invited also
+to Minsk by the kahal of the city.
+
+Unfortunately, Lilienthal's tactics exposed him to suspicion, and the
+seed of discord was soon sown between him and his former admirers. He
+tried to serve two masters, the czar and the Jews, and he alienated
+both. The pious regarded him as a mere tool in the hands of the
+Government, for, they maintained, _education without emancipation leads
+to conversion_. The enlightened element also lost confidence in one who,
+instead of boldly attacking superstition, preferred, while in Minsk, to
+identify himself not only with the Mitnaggedim, but even with the
+Hasidim. He was also too headstrong and too vain of his achievements.
+Benjamin Mandelstamm, who, as he tell us in his letters, considered
+Lilienthal "as wise as Solomon and as enterprising as Moses," complains
+a little later of his arrogance, and at the last speaks of him with
+contempt. His assumed superiority grieved the Maskilim, and their former
+enthusiasm was rapidly replaced by hatred and persecution. He found it
+necessary to put himself under the protection of the police while in
+Minsk, and when he returned to Vilna his reception was far less hearty
+than it had been before.
+
+In order to regain the confidence of the Russian Jews, Lilienthal
+obtained a permit from the Minister of Education to call an assembly of
+prominent Jews at St. Petersburg, to decide for themselves how to better
+the condition of the existing schools and to consider the practicability
+of establishing rabbinical seminaries. For he, too, like the Maskilim,
+considered the rabbis the chief menace to Haskalah. Rabbinical authority
+was supreme, and if the rabbis could be won over, all would be gained.
+The bell-wethers once secured, the flocks were sure to follow. It took a
+long time for Lilienthal, and still longer for the Maskilim, to find out
+that what they regarded as the cause was in reality the consequence.
+Eight years later Lilienthal himself admitted the sad truth, that the
+rabbinical seminaries in Russia could not effect the coveted end. "It
+must not be lost sight of," says he in his _Sketches of Jewish Life in
+Russia_[9] "that the Russian Jews live strictly in accordance with our
+received laws, and they are sufficiently learned in them to know that
+the many cases of conscience which are of constant occurrence cannot be
+decided understandingly by any one who has but a superficial knowledge
+of the Talmud and of the decisions of the later doctors of the Law, but
+that it requires the study of an entire lifetime to become thoroughly
+acquainted with those stupendous monuments of learning and deep research
+in the great concerns of life."
+
+[Illustration: ALEXANDER ZEDERBAUM, 1816-1893]
+
+After several busy months at St. Petersburg and frequent consultations
+with Count Uvarov, Lilienthal returned to Vilna, and two weeks later he
+published his circular letter, _Maggid Yeshiiah_ (_The Announcer of Good
+Tidings_)[10] The "good tidings" were that an imperial ukase (June 22,
+1842) would convene a council of distinguished Jews at St. Petersburg,
+to deliberate how to "re-educate" the Jews. Accordingly, in the early
+part of April, 1843, the notables, from different places and with
+diametrically opposed views, assembled in the Russian capital.
+Representing the Jews, there were Rabbi Isaac Volozhin, the dean of the
+Tree of Life Yeshibah, perhaps the strongest man present; Rabbi Menahem
+Mendel Shneersohn of Lubavich, leader of the Hasidic reform sect; Joseph
+Heilprin, the financier and banker of Berdichev, and Bezalel (Basilius)
+Stern, principal of the Jewish public schools of Odessa. Representing
+the Government were Count Uvarov, Chevalier Dukstaduchinsky, and others,
+with de Vrochenko, Minister of State, as chairman and Lilienthal as
+secretary. Montefiore of England, Crémieux of France, and Rabbi
+Philippson of Germany had been invited, but they failed to come. The
+council decided to open Jewish public schools in every city where Jews
+reside, and also two rabbinical seminaries, the one in Vilna, the other
+in Zhitomir, the former being considered the Jewish metropolis of the
+northwestern part, the latter, of the southwestern part, of Russia. They
+also proposed to do away with the Judeo-Polish garb, and suggested
+certain alterations in the prayer book.
+
+The delegates met, deliberated, and disbanded, but the tidings announced
+in Lilienthal's epistle did not prove to be good. In one of the fables
+of Kryloff, the Russian Æsop, we are told that once a swan, a pike, and
+a crab, decided to make a trip together. No sooner had they started
+than, in accordance with their nature, the swan began to fly, the pike
+to shuffle along, the crab to crawl backward. It was so with the
+delegation of 1843. Rabbi Isaac, the rabid Mitnagged, could find but
+little to admire in the proposals of Rabbi Menahem Mendel, the ardent
+Hasid, and both were bitterly opposed to the view preached by Doctor
+Lilienthal, that the salvation of the Jews and Judaism would be brought
+about by a system of education adopted in accordance with an ukase by
+Nicholas. Stern, too, had little use for Lilienthal, whom he declared to
+be ignorant of the condition of Russian Jews and incapable of working in
+their behalf. From such discord nothing good could come. The fact is,
+that the few resolutions mentioned had been drawn up beforehand by the
+Government officials, and the time and trouble and expense which the
+council involved were, _à la Russe_, for appearance sake. Finding his
+efforts an utter failure, Lilienthal went to Odessa with letters of
+recommendation from Uvarov to Vorontzov, the patron of Stern, and was
+elected rabbi of that enlightened and wealthy community. But, for some
+inexplicable reason, he suddenly left the city on the plea of visiting
+friends in Germany, and went to the United States, where he remained to
+the end of his life, and became one of the leading rabbis and communal
+workers among his coreligionists whose lines had fallen in pleasanter
+places than the fortunes of those he had left behind in Russia.[11]
+
+For Lilienthal's disillusionment came apace, and he finally recognized
+the error of his ways. In his book, _My Travels in Russia_, published
+both in English and in German, he admits that the opponents of the
+schools he advocated were after all in the right. Education without
+emancipation was indeed the straightest road to conversion. Witness the
+thirty thousand Jewish apostates in St. Petersburg and Moscow alone,
+most of whom hailed from the Baltic provinces, where the Jews were more
+cultured, but not less oppressed, than their brethren.
+
+    Those men--says he--who have acquired from study an idea of the
+    rights of man, and that the Jew ought to enjoy the same
+    privileges as every other citizen; those men who tried, by the
+    knowledge they had obtained, to open for themselves better
+    prospects in life, and now saw every hope frustrated by laws
+    inimical to them only as Jews, ran, from mere despair, into the
+    bosom of the Greek Church. The harassing care for a living, the
+    terrible difficulties in surmounting them forced them, in an
+    hour of distress, to deny their faith. I always compared them
+    with the Anusim [forced converts] of Spain. Among them there is
+    no religious indifference, as is the case in Western Europe and
+    Germany; and I have met with many converted Jews there, who,
+    with tears in their eyes, complained of heart-burnings and pangs
+    of conscience; and they look upon themselves as eternally lost.
+    Those tears will show a heavy balance against Czar Nicholas,
+    when, bereft of his earthly power, he stands before the eternal
+    tribunal.
+
+    The other charge--he says again after refuting several
+    accusations of the kind stated above--the other charge, that the
+    Jews are averse to secular studies, rests upon an equally
+    erroneous foundation. For even in Germany Jewish parents have at
+    length found out that it is absolute folly to let their sons
+    devote themselves to the study of science, since they never can
+    hope for obtaining the least office; and since many a one, after
+    the best years of his youth are passed, tired of waiting, and
+    fearful of not having in his old age any means of support, finds
+    in the baptismal font the last anchor of his shattered hopes.
+    How much more must this consideration have weight in Russia?
+    Nicholas, instead of encouraging the Jews to study, ordered, on
+    the contrary, that all such of them as held offices and insignia
+    of distinction under Alexander should either resign or become
+    apostates. I know myself several collegiate councillors and men
+    attached to the court, who went to the synagogue on the Day of
+    Atonement with the insignia of the order of St. Anna around
+    their neck, and prayed there with devotion and fervor, who still
+    were forced into apostasy. Such instances are not calculated to
+    encourage Jewish parents to let their children study; and it is
+    but too true that many whose inclination led them to study were
+    carried thereby into the bosom of the Christian Church.[12]
+
+After almost half a decade of indefatigable labor, Lilienthal finally
+came to understand the Russian State policy, "to assign a plausible
+reason for every act done by the Government, in order to stand justified
+in the estimation of Europe, whilst they, by throwing dust in the eyes
+of the public, conceal their true purpose." The laws which seemed
+favorable to the Jews, and apparently aimed at promoting culture among
+them, went hand in hand with laws of the most rigorous character. It is
+true that the Jews were not the only unfortunates whom the fanatic
+autocrat wished to Russify, that is, compel to see the pure light of
+Greek Orthodoxy. But they, of course, suffered the most. The slightest
+laws were enforced by the chinovniks (officials) with the knout and the
+leaden lash. When the Judeo-Polish gaberdine, the long side-curls
+(peot), and the wig or turban (knup) fell into disfavor with the
+Government, the miserable offender caught by an officer seldom saved
+himself with the mere sacrifice of knup, coat, peot, and beard. And when
+the time arrived for the execution of the more important laws, such as
+the Exportation Act of April 20, 1843, no fiendish ingenuity could
+surpass the cruelty of the Cossacks. This ukase more than any other, it
+is claimed, embittered Lilienthal against Russia, and caused him to flee
+to where he could say as one awakening from a nightmare: "The horrible
+hatred against the Jews in Russia is nothing more to me than a hazy
+remembrance. My soul is no longer oppressed by frightful pictures of
+tyranny and persecution."[13] He was in the land of the free!
+
+The Lilienthal tragedy thus came to a premature close. The hero
+disappeared at the beginning of the play. He had the potency, but he
+lacked the conditions, for producing great results. His German birth and
+training, the very qualities which recommended him to the Government,
+operated against him when he came to deal with Russian Jews. Yet he
+succeeded in giving a strong impetus to the Haskalah movement, and
+builded better than he knew. The statement in his address at the
+dedication of the Riga school,[14] "This hour we may call the hour of
+the renaissance of the mental education of Israel," which reads like an
+oratorical platitude, was not entirely visionary. The real history of
+Haskalah in Russia commences with Lilienthal.
+
+Time helped greatly to restore, even to deepen, the affection of the
+Maskilim for Lilienthal. A modern critic speaking of "life and
+literature" in Hebrew, pictures him in glowing colors, and finishes his
+description thus:
+
+    I have presented to you, reader, a man of deep culture, known
+    and respected in the highest circles, and yet inseparably
+    connected with his race and religion, and ready to offer his
+    life for their welfare; a man who worked with might and main for
+    others at the sacrifice of his own comfort and advancement; an
+    orator whose exalted phrases shattered the pillars and
+    foundations of ignorance and superstition; a hero who in time of
+    peril was proof against the arrows and missiles of the enemy,
+    and who did not relax his hand from the flag. But what was the
+    fruit he reaped? Mostly ingratitude and persecution, a heart
+    lacerated with despair, a soul writhing under the pangs of
+    frustrated hopes. Such a personality with its fine shades, and
+    with the poetry of the artist superimposed, would afford
+    splendid material for the hero of a novel--a hero to captivate
+    the eye and heart of the reader by his nobility and
+    grandeur.[15]
+
+For a long time Russian officialdom discussed the question, whether the
+establishment of exclusively Jewish schools would prove beneficial, but
+nobody doubted the efficacy of rabbinical seminaries. Yet it was these
+latter institutions that evoked the strongest protests from the Jews.
+The advocates of Haskalah gradually came to recognize the truth, which
+Lilienthal admitted afterwards, that for a Russian rabbi a thorough
+knowledge of the Talmud was absolutely indispensable. But it was with
+the object of discouraging such knowledge that the seminaries had been
+suggested by Uvarov, and it was this study that was almost entirely
+ignored in them. What congregation, many of whose members were profound
+Talmudists, would accept a rabbi to whom unvocalized Hebrew was a snare
+and a stumbling-block? Moreover, the whole atmosphere of the seminaries
+was Christian, nay, military. Not a few members of their faculties or
+boards of governors were discharged police officers or superannuated
+soldiers, and at the head of the seminary in Vilna, the metropolis of
+Russian Jewry, stood an apostate Jew! They became, as it were,
+infirmaries of the bureaucracy, where, at the expense of the Jews, it
+could stow away anyone who had proved a failure or was no longer useful.
+The Government also undertook to provide the graduates with positions,
+patronage which rendered the students insolently independent of their
+coreligionists, and encouraged some of them to indulge in a _modus
+vivendi_ distasteful to their future flocks. The graduates, therefore,
+proved failures as rabbis, and the Government was forced to provide for
+them by appointing them as teachers.[16]
+
+If this was the case with the rabbinical seminaries, we can easily
+imagine the state of the subordinate schools. The Christian principals
+were coarse and uneducated as a rule, and did their best to prejudice
+the children against their religion. Scattered all over the Pale were to
+be found Jews competent to fill positions not only as teachers in
+inferior grades but as professors in the universities. Yet Lilienthal
+was advised (1841) to advertise for three hundred teachers in Germany.
+Finally the Government decided to employ Jews as teachers of Hebrew
+only, the least important subject in the curriculum; for instruction in
+the secular branches none but Christians were eligible. No Jews were
+allowed to become rectors in their own schools, and their salaries were
+so small that they could not support themselves without teaching an
+additional class, which was prohibited. A Jew might, indeed, become an
+"honorable overseer" (pochotny blyustityel), to mediate between pupils
+and parents, but the title was the only pay attached to the office.
+Respectable parents, therefore, kept their children at home, or rather
+in the heder, and many a child's name was on the roll of attendance who
+was not even aware of the existence of the school. "Every year in the
+autumn," relates a writer a quarter of a century later, "there was a
+kind of compulsory recruiting of Jewish children for the Government
+school, accompanied sometimes by struggles between the victims and their
+enemies,--scenes without a parallel, in some respects, in the civilized
+world. I remember how poor mothers and sisters wept with despair when
+some boy of the family was carried off or enlisted by the officers to be
+a pupil of a Government school." Like the poimaniki, the poor and the
+orphaned were compelled, or induced, to fill the class-rooms shunned by
+the rich and respectable, and though the Government not only condemned
+the ancient Hebrew institutions, but declared the twenty thousand
+teachers who imparted instruction in them to be outlaws and criminals,
+the melammedim pursued their vocation as ever, and the hadarim, Talmud
+Torahs, yeshibot, and batte midrashim swarmed with students of the
+prohibited learning.[17]
+
+Nicholas was paid measure for measure, and the cunning of his ministers
+was made of no avail by the shrewdness of his Jewish subjects. The
+report of the Minister of Education, at the end of 1845, shows
+incredible progress. It states that since the ukase of November 13,
+1844, i.e. in the course of a single year, more than two thousand
+schools of different grades were established in various cities of the
+Pale, with more than one hundred and eighty thousand pupils, not
+including the technical schools in Odessa, Riga, Kishinev, Vilna, and
+Uman, with their hundreds of students! The truth was that, instead of
+the reported Russification, there had set in a vigorous reaction, which
+rendered the position more critical. Both sides had become
+desperate.[18] Some Maskilim, emboldened by the interest the Government
+evinced in their efforts, had resorted to all manner of means to
+accomplish their object, and frequently allied themselves with the
+oppressors. The Slavuta publishing house, it is claimed, was closed, and
+the Schapiras met with their tragic end, because "as printers they
+scrupulously abstained from publishing Haskalah literature." Maskilim
+were employed by the authorities as tax collectors, and these, as is
+ever the case with rapacious farmers of taxes, besides executing the
+harsh laws of the tyrant, looked also to their own aggrandizement, and
+harassed their pious coreligionists in all ways conceivable. Many of
+them even hindered the colonization movement, because, if allowed to
+mature, it would deprive them of their income.[19] In addition to this,
+the Jews were now burdened, through the instrumentality of the Maskilim,
+with a tax on the candles lighted on Sabbath eve, yielding annually over
+one million rubles, the greater part of which went into the coffers of
+greedy officials. Another tax, also for the maintenance of the
+newly-organized Government schools, was levied--one kopeck and a half
+per page!--on text-books, whether imported from abroad or published in
+Vilna or Zhitomir, and the text-books were published with unnecessarily
+large type and wide margins to increase the number of pages. The
+abridgment and translation of Maimuni's _Mishneh Torah_ (St. Petersburg,
+1851), superintended by Leon Mandelstamm, cost the Russian Jews tens of
+thousands of rubles, notwithstanding the expenditure of two or three
+millions on their own educational institutions, and at a time when every
+kopeck was needed for the support of the host of victims of fire,
+famine, and cholera, which ravaged many a city. Hence the reaction
+became more and more formidable. The cry grew louder and louder, _Znaty
+nye znayem, shkolles nye zhelayem!_ ("We want no schools!"). The
+opposition, which began in the latter years of Alexander I, reached its
+culmination in the last decade of the reign of Nicholas I. "Israel,"
+laments Mandelstamm, "seems to be even worse than formerly; he is like a
+sick person who has convalesced only to relapse, and the physicians are
+beginning to despair." It was a struggle not unlike that all over Europe
+at the beginning of the Renaissance, a struggle between liberty and
+authority, between this world and other-worldliness, between the spirit
+of the nineteenth century and that of the millenniums which preceded it.
+
+Here is a description, by Morgulis, of the struggles and conquests of
+the new, small, but zealous, group of Maskilim in Russia at about that
+time:[20]
+
+    Those upon whom the sun of civilization and freedom happened to
+    cast a ray of light, showing them the path leading to a new
+    life, were compelled to study the European literatures and
+    sciences in garrets, in cellars, in any nook where they felt
+    themselves secure from interference. Neither unaffiliated Jews
+    nor the outer world knew anything about them. Like rebels they
+    kept their secrets unto themselves, stealthily assembling from
+    time to time, to consider how they might realize their ideal,
+    and disclose to their brethren the fountainhead of the living
+    waters out of which they drank and drew new youth and life.
+    Whatever was novel was accepted with delight. They looked with
+    envy upon the great intellectual progress of their western
+    brethren. Fain would they have had their Jewish countrymen
+    recognize the times and their requirements, but they could not
+    give free utterance to their thoughts. On the contrary, they
+    found it expedient to assume the mask of religion in order to
+    escape the suspicion of alert zealots, and gain, if possible,
+    new recruits. In many places societies were founded under the
+    name of Lovers of the New Haskalah, the members of which
+    observed such secrecy that even their kinsmen and those among
+    whom they dwelt were unaware of their existence. If through the
+    discovery of some forbidden book any of them happened to be
+    detected, he never betrayed his friends. Such a one was usually
+    compelled to marry, so that, being burdened with family cares,
+    he might desist from his unpopular pursuits.
+
+From which it would appear that though the opposition to Haskalah in
+Russia was by no means as violent as had been the opposition to
+enlightenment in France, for instance, or even among the Jews of Germany
+and Austria,[21] it was a bitter and stubborn conflict between parents
+and children in the adjustment of old ideals to a new environment.
+
+Aside from the hindrances which Haskalah encountered because of
+Nicholas's conversionist policy, it was greatly hampered by the
+geographical distribution of the Jews. Here again the czar defeated his
+own end by segregating the three or four million of his Jewish subjects
+in certain districts, technically called the Pale, the greatest ghetto
+the world has ever known. It was a Judea in itself. The Jews there
+seldom came in contact with outside civilization. The languages they
+used were Hebrew as the literary tongue, Yiddish among themselves, and
+the local Slavonic dialect with their non-Jewish neighbors. Russian was
+strange, not only to the great majority of Jews, but to the Russians
+themselves. It was merely the State language, and even the Government
+officials fell back on their mother tongue whenever they were at liberty
+to do so. It was this that made it very difficult for the Jews to be
+Russified.
+
+But even if Russification had been a much easier process, Russian
+civilization was hardly worth the having.[22] To become Russified would
+have meant not only religious but also intellectual suicide. Whatever
+was good in the Russia of that day was an importation. The language was
+scarcely beyond the barbarous state. Its literature possessed neither
+original nor adopted writings, no profound philosophical systems, no
+Rousseau or Goethe, no Franklin or Kant, not even any practical
+information with which to reward the student. The best writers were
+Kryloff, Pushkin, Zhukovsky, and Dyerzhavin. The prices of books were so
+high as to make them unattainable. Karamzin's _History of the Russian
+Empire_ sold at fifty-five rubles per copy. The royal library, which had
+been founded by the Jewish court physician Sanchez, contained only eight
+Russian books during the reign of Alexander I, and not many more were
+added by his successor. The dramatic art developed by the Jewish
+playwright Nebakhovich remained for a long time in the same state as
+when he ceased his work.[23] If Russia was the most powerful, it
+continued to be the most fanatical and uncivilized country in Europe.
+All who had occasion to visit and study it during the first half of the
+nineteenth century testify to its deplorable intellectual status.
+According to a very ingenious and observing writer, quoted by Buckle in
+his _History of Civilization_, it consisted of but two ranks, the
+highest and the lowest, or the nobility and the serfs: _Les marchands,
+qui formaient une classe moyenne, sont en si petit nombre qu'il ne
+peuvent marquer dans l'état; d'ailleurs presque tous sont étrangers_.
+The higher classes were distinguished for "a total absence of all
+rational tastes on literary topics."
+
+    Here [in Russia]--the same writer continues--it is absolutely
+    _mauvais genre_ to discuss a rational subject--pure _pédanterie_
+    to be caught upon any topics beyond dressing, dancing, and a
+    _jolie tournure_. Military prowess is ranked far above scholarly
+    attainment, and a man in a uniform, no matter how depraved,
+    takes precedence of one in plain clothes, whatever his
+    achievements. All the energies of the nation are turned towards
+    the army. Commerce, the law, and the civil employments are held
+    in no esteem; all young men of any consideration betake
+    themselves to the profession of arms. Nothing astonished them
+    more than to see the estimation in which the civil professions,
+    and especially the bar, are held in Great Britain.[24]
+
+How different was the position of the Jews in other countries,
+especially in Germany! Culture streamed upon them from all sides. As
+their numbers were small, and as they lived, in most cases, in the
+larger cities of the empire, their contact with the Christian world was
+immediate and continuous. And then the irresistible fascination of
+German literature, and the easy, almost imperceptible transition from
+the Judeo-German to the Teutonic-German! All this and many minor
+allurements were potent enough to draw even the heretofore callous
+German Jews out of their isolation, and their Germanization by the
+middle of the nineteenth century was an established fact. No wonder,
+then, that, unlike Russian Jewry, the German Jews experienced an
+unprecedented revolution; that the difference between the Mendelssohnian
+generation and the next following was almost as great as that between
+the modern American Jew and his brother in the Orient. No wonder, also,
+that when Haskalah finally took root in Russia, it was purely German for
+fifty years and more; that Nicholas's vigorous attempts, instead of
+making the Slavonic Jews better Russians, merely helped to make those he
+"re-educated" greater admirers of Germany. The most puissant autocrat of
+Russia unwittingly contributed to the downfall of Russian autocracy, and
+Gregori Peretz, the Dekabrist, son of the financier who became converted
+under Alexander I, was the first of those who were to endeavor, with
+book and bomb, to break the backbone of tyranny under Nicholas II.[25]
+
+Till about the "sixties," then, the Russo-Jewish Maskilim were the
+recipients, and the German Jews were the donors. The German Jews wrote,
+the Russian Jews read. Germany was to the Jewish world, during the early
+Haskalah movement, what France, according to Guizot, was to Europe
+during the Renaissance: both received an impetus from the outside in the
+form of raw ideas, and modified them to suit their environment. Berlin
+was still, as it had been during the days of Mendelssohn and Wessely,
+the sanctuary of learning, the citadel of culture. In the highly
+cultivated German literature they found treasures of wisdom and science.
+The poetical gems of Goethe, Schiller, Lessing, and Herder captivated
+their fancy; the philosophy of Kant and Fichte, Schelling and Hegel
+nourished their intellect. Kant continued to be the favorite guide of
+Maimon's countrymen, and in their love for him they interpreted the
+initials of his name to mean "For my soul panteth after thee."[26]
+
+But more efficacious than all other agencies was Mendelssohn's German
+translation of the Bible, and the _Biur_ commentary published therewith.
+Renaissance and Reformation, those mighty, revolutionary forces, have
+entered every country by side-doors, so to say. The Jewish Pale was no
+exception to the rule. What Wycliffe's translation did for England, and
+Luther's for Germany, Mendelssohn's did for Russian Jewry. Like the
+Septuagint, it marked a new epoch in the history of Jewish advancement.
+It is said that Mendelssohn's aim was chiefly to show the grandeur of
+the Hebrew poetry found in the Bible, but by the irony of fate his
+translation displayed to the Russian Jew the beauty and elegance of the
+German language. To the member of the Lovers of the New Haskalah,
+surreptitiously studying the Bible of the "Dessauer," the Hebrew was
+rather a translation of, or commentary on, the German, and served him as
+a bridge to cross over into the otherwise hardly accessible field of
+German literature.
+
+The cities on the borders of Russia were the first strongholds of
+Haskalah, and among them, as noted before, few struggled so intensely
+for their intellectual and civil emancipation as those in the provinces
+of Courland and Livonia. Though their lot was not better than that of
+their coreligionists, yet, having formerly belonged to Germany, and
+being surrounded by a people whose culture was superior to that of the
+rest of Russia, they were the first to adopt western customs, and were
+surpassed only by the Jews in Germany in their desire for reform. Their
+strenuous pleadings for equal rights were, indeed, ineffectual, but this
+did not lessen their admiration for the beauties of civilization, nor
+blind them to its benefits. "Long ago," remarks Lilienthal, "before the
+peculiar Jewish dress was prohibited, a great many could be seen here
+[in Courland] dressed after the German fashion, speaking pure German,
+and having their whole household arranged after the German custom. The
+works of Mendelssohn were not _trefah pasul_ [unclean and unfit], the
+children visited the public schools, the academies, and the
+universities."[27]
+
+The beautiful city of Odessa, on the Black Sea, at that time just out of
+its infancy and full of the virility and aspiration of youth, was also
+in the full glare of the German Haskalah movement. With its wide and
+straight streets, its public and private parks, and its magnificent
+structures, it presents even to-day a marked contrast to other Russian
+cities, and the Russians, not without pride, speak of it as "our little
+Paris." In the upbuilding of this southern metropolis Jews played an
+exceedingly important part. For, as regards the promotion of trade and
+commerce, Russia had outgrown the narrow policy of Elizabeta Petrovna,
+and did not begrudge her Jews the privilege of taking the lead. The
+"enemies of Christ" were permitted, even invited, to accomplish their
+"mission" also in Odessa, and thither they accordingly came, not only
+from Volhynia, Podolia, and Lithuania, but also from Germany, Austria,
+and especially Galicia. Erter, Letteris, Krochmal, Perl, Rapoport,
+Eichenbaum, Pinsker, and Werbel became better known in Russia than in
+their own land. As the Russo-Polish Jews had carried their Talmudic
+learning back to the countries whence they originally received it, so
+the Galician Jews, mostly hailing from the city of Brody, where Israel
+Zamoscz, Mendel Levin, Joseph Hakohen, and others had implanted the
+germs of Haskalah, now reimported it into Russia. The Jews of Odessa
+were, therefore, more cultured than other Russian Jews, not excepting
+those of Riga. Prosperous in business, they lavished money on their
+schools, and their educational system surpassed all others in the
+empire. In 1826 they had the best public school for boys, in 1835 a
+similar one for girls, and in 1852 there existed fifty-nine public
+schools, eleven boarding schools, and four day schools. The children
+attended the Richelieu Lyceum and the "gymnasia" in larger proportion
+than children of other denominations, and they were among the first, not
+only in Russia, but in the whole Diaspora, to establish a
+"choir-synagogue" (1840). "In most of the families," says Lilienthal,
+"can be found a degree of refinement which may easily bear comparison
+with the best French salon." Even Nicholas I found words of praise for
+the Odessa Jews. "Yes," said he, "in Odessa I have also seen Jews, but
+they were men"; while the zaddik "Rabbi Yisrolze" declared that he saw
+"the flames of Gehennah round Odessa."[28]
+
+Warsaw, too, was a beneficiary of Germany, having been occupied by the
+Prussians before it fell to the lot of the Russians. It was there that
+practically the first Jewish weekly journals were published in Yiddish
+and Polish, Der Beobachter an der Weichsel, and Dostrzegacz Nadvisyansky
+(1823). There was opened the first so-called rabbinical seminary, with
+Anton Eisenbaum as principal, and Cylkov, Buchner, and Kramsztyk as
+teachers. The public schools were largely attended, owing to the efforts
+of Mattathias Rosen, and a year after a reformed synagogue had been
+organized in Odessa another was founded in Warsaw, where sermons were
+preached in German by Abraham Meïr Goldschmidt.
+
+But Riga on the Baltic, Odessa on the Black Sea, and Warsaw on the
+Vistula were outdone by some cities in the interior. Haskalah lovers
+multiplied rapidly, and were found in the early "forties" in every city
+of any size in the Pale. "The further we go from Pinsk to Kletzk and
+Nieszvicz," writes a correspondent in the Annalen,[29] "the more we lose
+sight of the fanatics, and the greater grows the number of the
+enlightened." With the establishment of the rabbinical seminaries in
+Zhitomir (1848), this former centre of Hasidism became the nursery of
+Haskalah. The movement was especially strong in Vilna, the "Jerusalem of
+Lithuania," as Napoleon is said to have called it. From time immemorial,
+long before the Gaon's day, it had been famous for its Talmudic
+scholars. "Its yeshibot," says Jacob Emden in the middle of the
+eighteenth century, "were closed neither by day nor by night; many
+scholars came home from the bet ha-midrash but once a week. They
+surpassed their brethren in Poland and in Germany in learning and
+knowledge, and it was regarded of much consequence to secure a rabbi
+from Vilna." Now this "city and mother in Israel" became one of the
+pioneers of Haskalah, all the more because, in addition to the public
+schools and the rabbinical seminary, the Jews were admitted to its
+university on equal terms with the Gentiles. "Within six years,"
+exclaims Mandelstamm, "what a change has come over Vilna! Youths and
+maidens, anxious for the new Haskalah, are now to be met with
+everywhere, nor are any ashamed to learn a trade." The schools exerted a
+salutary influence on the younger generation, and the older people, too,
+began to view life differently, only that they were still reluctant to
+discard their old-fashioned garb. There also, in 1847, the leading
+Maskilim started a reform synagogue, which they named Taharat ha-Kodesh,
+the Essence of Holiness.[30]
+
+It should not be forgotten that, if Lilienthal met with mighty
+opposition, he also had powerful supporters. There were many who, though
+remaining in the background, strongly sympathized with his plan. Indeed,
+the number of educated Jews, as proved by an investigation ordered by
+Nicholas I, was far greater than had been commonly supposed. Not only in
+the border towns, but even in the interior of the Pale, the students of
+German literature and secular science were not few, and Doctor Loewe
+discovered in Hebron an exceptional German scholar in the person of an
+immigrant from Vilna.[31] The tendency of the time is well illustrated
+by an anecdote told by Slonimsky, to the effect that when he went to ask
+the approval of Rabbi Abele of Zaslava on his _Mosde Hokmah_, he found
+that those who came to be examined for ordination received their award
+without delay, while he was put off from week to week. Ill at ease,
+Slonimsky approached the venerable rabbi and demanded an explanation:
+"You grant a semikah [rabbinical diploma] so readily, why do you seem so
+reluctant when a mere haskamah [recommendation] is the matter at issue?"
+To his surprise the reason given was that the rabbi enjoyed his
+scientific debates so much that he would not willingly part with the
+young author.
+
+Stories were told how the deans of the yeshibot were frequently found to
+have mastered the very books they confiscated because of the teachings
+they inculcated. Before the reign of Nicholas I drew to its end,
+Haskalah centres were as numerous as the cities wherein Jews resided. In
+Byelostok the Talmudist Jehiel Michael Zabludovsky was lending German
+books to young Slonimsky, the future inventor and publicist; in
+Vlotslavek Rabbi Joseph Hayyim Caro was writing and preaching in classic
+German; in Zhagory, Hayyim Sack helped Leon Mandelstamm (1809-1889), the
+first Jewish "candidate," or bachelor, in philology to graduate from the
+St. Petersburg University (1844) and the assistant and successor of
+Lilienthal, in the expurgation and German translation of Maimuni's
+_Mishneh Torah_. When, in 1857, Mandelstamm resigned, he was followed by
+Seiberling, for fifteen years the censor of Jewish books in Kiev, upon
+whom a German university conferred the doctor's degree. The
+poverty-stricken Wolf Adelsohn, known as the Hebrew Diogenes, formed a
+group of Seekers after Light in Dubno, while such wealthy merchants as
+Abraham Rathaus, Lilienthal's secretary during his campaign in
+Berdichev, Issachar Bompi, the bibliophile in Minsk, Leon Rosenthal,
+financier and philanthropist in Brest-Litovsk, and Aaron Rabinovich, in
+Kobelyaki (Poltava), promoted enlightenment by precept and example. In
+Vilna, Joseph Sackheim's young son acted as English interpreter when
+Montefiore was entertained by his father, and Jacob Barit, the
+incomparable "Yankele Kovner" (1793-1833) another of Montefiore's
+hosts, was master of Russian, German, and French, and aroused the
+admiration of the Governor-General Nazimov by his learning and his
+ability.
+
+Yes, the Jews began to pay, if they had ever been in debt, for the good
+that had for a while been bestowed upon them by Alexander I. Alexander
+Nebakhovich was a well-known theatrical director, his brother Michael
+was the editor of the first Russian comic paper Yeralash, and Osip
+Rabinovich showed marked ability in serious journalism. In 1842 died
+Abraham Jacob Stern, the greatest inventor Russia had till then
+produced; and, as if to corroborate the statement of the Talmud, that
+when one sun sets another rises, the Demidoff prize of two thousand five
+hundred rubles was the same year awarded to his son-in-law, Hayyim Selig
+Slonimsky (HaZas, 1810-1904) of Byelostok, for the first of his valuable
+inventions. Stern's genius was surpassed, though in a different
+direction, only by that of Elijah Vilna. His first invention was a
+calculating machine, which led to his election as a member of the Warsaw
+Society of the Friends of Science (1817) and to his being received twice
+by Alexander I (1816, 1818), who bestowed upon him an annual pension of
+three hundred and fifty rubles. This invention was followed by another,
+"a topographical wagon for the measurement of level surfaces, an
+invention of great benefit to both civil and military engineers." He
+also constructed an improved threshing and harvesting machine and a
+sickle of immense value to agriculture.[32]
+
+But it is scarcely possible, nor would it be profitable, to enumerate
+either the places or the persons who were, so to speak, inoculated with
+the Haskalah virus. In Grodno, Kovno, Lodz, Minsk, Mohilev, Pinsk,
+Zamoscz, Slutsk, Vitebsk, Zhagory, and other places, they were toiling
+zealously and diligently, these anchorites in the desert of knowledge.
+Among them were men of all classes and callings, from the cloistered
+Talmudist to the worldly merchant. The path of Haskalah was slowly yet
+surely cleared. The efforts of the conservative Maskilim were not devoid
+of some good results, nor even were those of Nicholas, though aimed at
+Christianizing rather than civilizing, entirely wasted. With all their
+shortcomings, and though producing but few rabbis acceptable to
+Russo-Jewish congregations, the seminaries in Warsaw, Zhitomir, and
+Vilna were powers for enlightenment. In them the future prominent
+scientists, scholars, and litterateurs were reared, and there the
+foundations were laid for the activities of Goldfaden, Gurland, Harkavy,
+Kantor, Landau, Levanda, Mandelkern, Paperna, Pumpyansky, Rosenberg,
+Steinberg, and others. Their fate was that of Mendelssohn's Bible
+translation. The end became a means, the means, an end. But they not
+only "brought forth" great men, they rendered no less important a
+service in "bringing out" those already great. Had it not been for their
+professorships, men like Abramovitsch, Lerner, Plungian, Slonimsky,
+Suchastover, and Zweifel, who were not blessed with worldly goods like
+Fünn, Katzenellenbogen, Luria, or Strashun, would probably have sought
+in private teaching or petty trading a source of subsistence, and
+Judaism in general and Russian Jewry in particular would have sustained
+a considerable loss. They helped to prepare the soil, even to implant
+the germ, and
+
+  Once the germ implanted,
+  Its growth, if slow, is sure.
+
+As the history of this period is incomplete without an acquaintance with
+the lives of some of the Maskilim who sowed the seeds that burst into
+blossom under the favorable conditions of the "sixties," I shall select,
+as specimens out of a multitude, the two who, more than any others,
+furthered the cause of Haskalah, Isaac Bär Levinsohn and Mordecai Aaron
+Günzburg.[33]
+
+Isaac Bär Levinsohn of Kremenetz, Volhynia (RiBaL, 1788-1860), was for
+many years a name to conjure with, not only among the Maskilim of all
+shades, but also among their opponents. Long before he reached man's
+estate, he had entered upon the career to which he was to dedicate his
+life. Even in those times of numerous child prodigies, Levinsohn was
+distinguished for his intellectual precocity. At the age of three he was
+ripe for the heder. At nine he was the author of a work on Cabbala. At
+ten he mastered the Talmud, and knew the entire Hebrew Bible by heart.
+But what singled him out among his classmates was his passionate love of
+secular knowledge. The son of Judah Levin, an erudite merchant who knew
+Hebrew and Polish to perfection, the grandson of Jekuthiel Solomon,
+famed for wealth and refinement, he evinced unusual ability in selecting
+and retaining what was good and true in everything he read. At fourteen
+he was familiar with the literatures of several nations, so that during
+the Franco-Russian war (1812) he easily secured an appointment as
+interpreter and secretary in the local police department. But excessive
+study caused ill-health, and at the suggestion of his physicians he went
+to Brody in Galicia, a fortunate incident in the otherwise solitary and
+gloomy life of the future reformer, for next to Germany Galicia played
+an important part in the Haskalah movement in Russia. There he met
+Joseph Perl, the noted educator; Doctor Isaac Erter, the immortal
+satirist; M.H. Letteris, the distinguished poet; S.L. Rapoport, one of
+the first and profoundest of Jewish historians, and Nahman Krochmal, the
+saintly philosopher. Into this circle of "shining ones" Levinsohn was
+introduced, and each and all left an impression, some greater, some
+less, upon his plastic soul. It was there and then, in the congenial
+company of friends of about his own age, that Levinsohn determined to
+devote himself to improving the educational system of his people and
+began to plan his work on _Learning in Israel_ (_Te'udah be-Yisraël_),
+which procured for its author the foremost place in the history of the
+Haskalah movement.
+
+The book was finished in 1823, but, owing to Levinsohn's pecuniary
+circumstances, it remained unpublished till 1828. Meanwhile it
+circulated in manuscript among the leading Maskilim of Russia, Austria,
+and Germany, and established its author's reputation wherever it was
+read. Levinsohn was one of those who understand the persuasive power of
+the still small voice of sweet reasonableness. He knew that a few
+convincing arguments couched in gentle language will accomplish more for
+the furtherance of an ideal than the trumpet call of a hundred clamoring
+militants, and Haskalah will make headway only when it can prove itself
+to be a help, and not a hindrance, to religion. Accordingly, he aimed to
+show that the Tanaim, Amoraim, Saboraim, Geonim, and rabbis of later
+generations were versed in the sciences, were familiar with foreign
+history, and interested in the affairs of the world. But these he quotes
+only as exemplars of broad-mindedness, they must no longer be regarded
+as authorities in secular knowledge. "Art and science," he says, "are
+steadily progressing.... To perfect ourselves in them we must resort to
+non-Jewish sources." This was a bold statement for those times, however
+mildly expressed. The _Te'udah_ became a bone of contention. It was torn
+and burnt by fanatics, exalted to the skies by friends. The new apostle
+of enlightenment was forced to leave the city and reside for a while in
+Berdichev, Nemirov, Ostrog, and Tulchin. But wherever he went, his
+tribulation was sweetened by the enthusiasm of his admirers and the
+consciousness that his toil was not entirely wasted. In Warsaw and in
+Vilna his name was great, and Nicholas presented him with a thousand
+rubles as a mark of appreciation of the book, the fly-leaf of which
+bears the inscription "To science."
+
+In the midst of his more serious studies Levinsohn diverted himself
+occasionally with lighter composition, in which many an antiquated
+custom served as the butt for his biting satire. In his youth he had a
+penchant for poetry, and his poem on the flight, or expulsion, of the
+French from Russia was complimented by the Government. His muse dealt
+with ephemeral themes, but his _bons mots_ are current among his
+countrymen to this day. A novel sort of plagiarism was the fashion of
+the time. Authors attributed their work to others, instead of claiming
+the product of others as their own. Levinsohn's _Hefker Welt_, in
+Yiddish, and _Sayings of the Saints_ and _Valley of the Dead_, in
+Hebrew, belong to this category. But the deep student did not persist
+long in this species of diversion. Wittgenstein, the field-marshal, and
+professors at the Lyceum of his town, supplied him with books, and he,
+an omnivorous reader, plunged again into his graver work, the result of
+which was the little book since translated into English, Russian, and
+German, _Efes Dammim_ (_No Blood!_). As the name indicates, it was
+intended as a defence against the blood, or ritual murder, accusation.
+It was the right word in the right time and place. In Zaslav, Volhynia,
+this monstrous libel had been revived, and popular fury rose to a high
+pitch. Several years later the Damascus Affair stirred the Jewish world
+to determined action, designed to stamp it out once for all. To wage war
+against this superstitious belief seems to have fallen to the lot of
+several of Levinsohn's family. In 1757, when it asserted itself in
+Yampoly, Volhynia, his great-uncle, by the unanimous consent of the
+Council of the Four Countries, was sent to Rome to intercede with the
+Pope. After six years of pleading, he returned to his native land with a
+signed statement addressed to the Polish king and nobles, which declared
+the accusation to be utterly false. Another uncle of his had performed a
+similar task in 1749. True scion of a noble family, Levinsohn followed
+in their wake, and his effort was declared to be a "sharp sword forged
+by a master, to fight for our honor."
+
+Everything was against Levinsohn when he started on his third great
+work, _The House of Judah_ (_Bet Yehudah_). He found himself poor, sick,
+and alone, and deprived of his fine library. In those days, and for a
+long time before and afterwards, Hebrew authors were paid in kind. In
+return for their copyright they received a number of copies of their
+books, which they were at liberty to dispose of as best they could. Now,
+while Levinsohn's copies of his _Bet Yehudah_ were still at the
+publisher's, a fire broke out, and most of them were consumed.
+
+The _Te'udah be-Yisraël_ had been prompted by a desire to prove the
+compatibility of modern civilization with Judaism. Levinsohn's object in
+writing his _Bet Yehudah_ was the reverse. The impetus came from without
+the Jewish camp. The book represents the author's views on certain
+Jewish problems propounded by his Christian friend, Prince Emanuel
+Lieven, just as Mendelssohn's _Jerusalem_ was written at the instigation
+of Lavater. Though there is a similarity in the causes that produced the
+two books, there is a marked difference in their methods. Mendelssohn
+treats his subject as an impartial non-Jewish philosopher might have
+done. He is frequently too reserved, for fear of offending. Levinsohn,
+in Greek-Catholic Russia, is strictly frank. He is conscious of the
+difficulties under which he is laboring. To discuss religion in Russia
+is far from agreeable. "It is," he says, "as if a master, pretending to
+exhibit his skill in racing, were to enter into competition publicly
+with his slave ... and at the same time wink at him to slacken his
+speed." Of one thing he is certain: Judaism is a progressive religion.
+It had been and might be reformed from time to time, but this can and
+must be only along the lines of its own genius. To improve the moral and
+material condition of the Jews by weaning them away from the faith of
+their fathers (as was tried by Nicholas) will not do. On the contrary,
+make them better Jews, and they will be better citizens.
+
+The _Bet Yehudah_ may justly be called the connecting link between the
+_Te'udah_, which preceded it, and _Zerubbabel_, which followed it. The
+latter, though written in Hebrew, was really intended exclusively for
+the Gentile world, as the former had been mainly for the Jewish world.
+It is a continuation, but not yet a conclusion, of the self-assigned
+task of Levinsohn. The Talmud, we have seen, was at that time the object
+of assaults of zealous Christians and disloyal Jews, and hostile works
+against Judaism were the order of the day. Most of them, however, like
+the fabulous snake, vented their poison and died. It was different with
+McCaul's poignant diatribe against the cause of Judaism and the honor of
+the Talmud, which had been translated into many languages. Montefiore,
+while in Russia, urged Levinsohn to defend his people against their
+traducers, and the bed-ridden sage, almost blind and hardly able to hold
+a pen, finally consented. What _Zerubbabel_ accomplished, can be judged
+from the fact that in the second Hebrew edition of McCaul's _Old Paths_
+(1876) are omitted many of the calumnies and aspersions of the first
+edition, published in 1839.
+
+Levinsohn's life was a continuous struggle against an insidious disease,
+which kept him confined to his bed, and prevented him from accepting any
+prominent position. But though, as he said, he had "neither brother,
+wife, child, nor even a sound body," he impressed his personality upon
+Russian Jewry as no one else, save the Gaon, had before him. His breadth
+of view and his sympathetic disposition gradually won him the respect
+and love of all who knew him. The zaddikim Abraham of Turisk and Israel
+Rasiner were his lifelong friends; the Talmudist Strashun acknowledged
+his indebtedness to him, and Rabbi Abele of Vilna remarked jestingly
+that the only fault to be found with the _Te'udah_ was that its author
+was not the Gaon Elijah. He enjoyed prominence in Government circles,
+and Prince Wittgenstein was passionately fond of his company. Above all
+he endeared himself to the Maskilim. To him they looked as to their
+teacher and guide; him they consulted in every emergency. Lebensohn and
+Gottlober, Mandelstamm and Gordon, equally sought his criticism and
+advice. For all he had words of comfort and encouragement. The younger
+Maskilim he warned not to waste their time in idle versification, not to
+become intoxicated with their little learning; and the older ones he
+implored to respect the sentiments of their conservative coreligionists.
+"Take it not amiss," he would say to the latter, "that the great bulk of
+our people hearken not as yet to our new teachings. All beginnings are
+difficult. The drop cannot become a deluge instantaneously. Persevere in
+your laudable ambition, publish your good and readable books, and the
+result, though slow, is sure."
+
+Thus lived and labored the first of the Maskilim, an idealist from
+beginning to end. Persecution did not embitter, nor poverty depress him.
+And when he passed away quietly (February 12, 1860) in the obscure
+little town in which he had been born, and which has become famous
+through him, it was felt that Russia had had her Mendelssohn, too.
+Strange to say, he little suspected the tremendous influence he exerted
+upon the Haskalah movement, but was quite sanguine of the success of his
+fight for "truth and justice among the nations." His work he modestly
+summed up in the epitaph which was inscribed on his tombstone at his
+request:
+
+  Out of nothing God called me to life.
+  Alas, earthly life has passed, and I must
+  Sleep again on the bosom of Mother Nature.
+  Witness this stone. I fought with God's
+  Foes, not with a Sword, but with the Word;
+  I fought for Truth and Justice among the Nations
+  And _Zerubbabel_ and _Efes Dammim_ testify thereto.
+
+Contemporaneous with Isaac Bär Levinsohn, and hardly less distinguished
+and influential, was Mordecai Aaron Günzburg (ReMAG, Salanti, Kovno,
+December 3, 1795--Vilna, November 5, 1846). His family had been
+prominent in many walks of life since the fourteenth century, and,
+whether in the land of the Saxons or of the Slavs, represented the cream
+of the Jewries in which they lived. His father was a Maskil of great
+repute, who had written several treatises, in Hebrew, on algebra,
+geometry, optics, and kindred subjects. He sought to supplement his son
+Mordecai Aaron's heder education with a knowledge of secular sciences.
+But at that time and in that place not many were the books, outside the
+Talmud, accessible to a lad eager for learning, the only ones available
+being such as the _Josippon_, _Zemah David_, and _Sheërit Yisraël_ on
+Jewish History, the _Sefer ha-Berit_, and a Hebrew translation of
+Mendelssohn's _Phaedon_ on general philosophy. But the precocious and
+clear-minded youth did not need much to stimulate his love for history
+and his inclination to philosophy, and his intellectual development
+continued in spite of the untoward circumstances in which he happened to
+be placed.
+
+Though he was "given" in marriage at a very early age, the proverbial
+"millstone" weighed but lightly upon the neck of young Günzburg. He
+never discontinued the habit of secluding himself in his study for
+hours, sometimes for days, at a time, and there writing down his
+thoughts in painstaking penmanship. These productions, with all their
+crudity, promised, according to a keen critic, the flowers which would
+one day "ripen into delicious fruit, not only pleasant to the sight but
+also delicious to the taste." In fact, even his religious views
+underwent but slight modification in later and maturer years. Ceremonial
+laws, or minhagim, were to him a social compact among the members of a
+sect. He who transgresses them is, _eo ipso_, excluded from the sect, as
+he who disregards the social code, though not immoral, is ostracized
+from society. This led him to the logical conclusion that every Jew must
+comply with the customs of his people, though his opinion as to their
+moral value may differ from that of the rest. He believed in freedom of
+thought, but would not concede freedom of action or even of expression,
+and would say with Bolingbroke, "Freedom belongs to a man as a rational
+creature, he lies under the restraint as a member of society."
+
+At these conclusions, Günzburg arrived only after a long, severe, though
+silent, struggle in the seclusion of his closet. His active mind would
+not at first surrender unconditionally to the coercion of custom. But
+his conception of ceremonialism served him in good stead on many an
+occasion in his eventful life. Being an expedient to preserve harmony,
+it may and must vary with change of conditions. Accordingly, Günzburg
+always accommodated himself to his environment. In Vilna he subscribed
+to the regulations of the _Shulhan 'Aruk_, in Mitau he quickly and
+completely became Germanized. Such adaptability rendered him conspicuous
+wherever he went, and as early as 1829 his name was included among the
+learned of Livonia, Esthland, and Courland in the Biographical
+Dictionary then published by Recke and Napyersky.
+
+His claim to fame, however, consists in the influence he exerted upon
+Russian Jews. Like Levinsohn, he was a constructive force. In his
+younger days, he had inveighed against the benighted rabbis and the
+antiquated garb, but moderation came with discretion. He would not sweep
+away by force the accumulation of hundreds of years. Judaism needed
+reforms of some sort, but these could not be brought about by the
+Russo-German-doctor-rabbis, men who could rede the seven riddles of the
+world, but whose knowledge of their own people and its spiritual
+treasures was close to the zero point. "For a rabbi," writes he, "Torah
+must be the integer, science the cipher. Had Aristotle embraced Judaism,
+notwithstanding his unparalleled erudition, he would still remain a
+sage, never become a rabbi." But he was as little satisfied with the
+exclusively Talmudistic rabbis. "O ye modern rabbis," he calls out in
+one of his essays, in which he stigmatizes Lilienthal's plans as the
+"gourd of Jonah," "you who stand in the place of seer and prophet of
+yore, is it not your duty to rise above the people, to intervene between
+them and the Government? And how can you expect to accomplish it, if the
+language and regulations of our country are entirely unknown to you?"
+
+The impress Günzburg left upon Hebrew literature is of special
+importance. Until his time, despite the examples set by Satanov and
+Levin, Hebrew was stamped with the hallmark of medievalism. Like the
+Spanish entertainment in Dryden's _Mock Astrologer_, at which everything
+at the table tasted of nothing but red pepper, so the literature of that
+day was dominated by the style and spirit of the Talmud and saturated
+with its subtleties. Astronomy, philosophy, mathematics, and poetry
+swarmed with puns, alliterations, pedantic allusions; they were
+overladen with irrelevant notes and interwoven with quaint and strained
+interpretations. Günzburg was the first, with the exception of Erter
+perhaps, to try to remedy the evil. "Every writer," he maintained,
+"should guard himself against the fastidiousness or stiffness which
+results from pedantry, and take great pains not only with the content of
+his thoughts, but with the language in which these thoughts are
+couched." Simplicity, perspicuity, and conciseness, these he taught by
+precept and example, and though he was accused of "Germanizing" the
+Hebrew language, he persisted in his labor until he attained the
+foremost rank among the neo-Hebraic litterateurs.
+
+In Günzburg we find the artistic temperament developed to a degree rare
+among Hebraists of even more recent years. He wrote only in moments of
+inspiration. At times he passed weeks and months without penning a line,
+but when once aroused he wrote unceasingly until he finished what he had
+begun. He was careful in the choice of his words, careful in the choice
+of his books, and would recommend nothing but the best. "I may not have
+genius enough," he would say, "to distinguish between better and best,
+but I do not lack common sense, to differentiate tares from weeds."
+Above all, he possessed a sense of honor, the greatest stimulus, as he
+maintained, to noble endeavors. "For as marriage is necessary to
+perpetuate the race, and food to sustain the individual, so is honor to
+the existence of the superior man."
+
+Of the fifty years of his active life more than one-half was spent in
+literary labor. His books obtained a wide circulation, and, though they
+were rather expensive, became rare soon after their publication. Yet,
+strange to say, this eminent Hebraist seldom, if ever, lauds the
+beauties of the "daughter of Eber" (Hebrew) like his fellow-Maskilim
+since the days of the Meassefim, nor does he even think it incumbent on
+a Jew to be conversant with it.
+
+    Three periods have passed over me--he writes to a friend--since
+    I dedicated myself to Hebrew. As a youth I loved it as a Jewish
+    lad loves his betrothed, not because he is enamored of her
+    charms, but because his parents have chosen her for him; as I
+    grew older, I continued to love it as a Jewish man loves his
+    wife, not because of real affection, but because she is the only
+    one he knows; now that I am old, I still love her, as an elderly
+    Jew loves his helpmate: he is aware that she lacks many of the
+    accomplishments of which more educated women can boast, but, for
+    all that, remembering her faithfulness in the past, he loves her
+    also in the present, and loves her till he dies.
+
+Günzburg was different from most of his contemporaries in another
+respect. He was a voluminous writer, but only a few of his books and
+essays bear on what we now call Jewish science. Zunz, Geiger, and Jost,
+seeing that Judaism was gradually losing its hold upon their Jewish
+countrymen, resorted to exploring and narrating, in German, the
+wonderful story of their race, in the hope of renewing its ebbing
+strength. Levinsohn, living amid a different environment, deemed it best
+to convince his fellow-Jews that secular knowledge was necessary, and
+religion sanctioned their pursuit thereof. Günzburg, the man of letters,
+determined to teach through the vehicle of Hebrew the true and the
+beautiful wherever he found it. He felt called upon to reveal to his
+brethren the grandeur of the world beyond the dingy ghetto, to tell them
+the stories not contained in the Midrash, _Josippon_, or the biographies
+of rabbis and zaddikim. He translated Campe's _Discovery of the New
+World_, compiled a history of ancient civilization, and narrated the
+epochal event of the nineteenth century, the conflict between Russia and
+France. He taught his fellow-Jews to think correctly and logically, to
+clothe their thoughts in beautiful expressions, and revealed his
+innermost being to them in his autobiography, _Abi'ezer_. As a writer he
+appears neither erudite nor profound. We cannot apply to his works what
+we may safely say of Elijah Vilna's and Levinsohn's, that "there is
+solid metal enough in them to fit out whole circulating libraries, were
+it beaten into the usual filigree." But he was elegant, cultured,
+intelligent, honorable; one who joined a feeling heart to a love for
+art; a Moses who struck from the rock of the Hebrew tongue refreshing
+streams for those thirsting for knowledge; a most amiable personality,
+and an altogether unusual character during the century-long struggle
+between light and darkness in the Jewry of Russia.
+
+[Illustration: PEREZ BEN MOSHEH SMOLENSKIN, 1842-1885]
+
+(Notes, pp. 318-322.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+RUSSIFICATION, REFORMATION, AND ASSIMILATION
+
+1856-1881
+
+
+The year 1856 will always be remembered as the _annus mirabilis_ in the
+history of Russia. It marked at once the cessation of the Crimean war
+and the accession of the most liberal and benevolent monarch Russia ever
+had. On January 16, the heir apparent signified his consent to accept
+Austrian intervention, which resulted in the Treaty of Paris (March 30),
+granting the Powers involved "peace with honor"; and in August, in the
+Cathedral of the Assumption at Moscow, amidst unprecedented rejoicing,
+the czarevich placed the imperial crown upon his head. From that time
+reform followed reform. The condition of the soldiers, who had virtually
+been slaves under Nicholas I, was greatly improved, and a proclamation
+was issued for the emancipation of the peasants, slaves not for a
+limited time only, but for life and from generation to generation. It
+cost the United States five years of fratricidal agony, a billion of
+dollars, and about half a million of lives, to liberate five or six
+millions of negroes; Russia, in one memorable day (February 19, 1861),
+liberated nearly twenty-two millions of muzhiks (peasants), and gave
+them full freedom, by a mere stroke of the pen of the "tsar
+osvobodityel," the Liberator Czar, Alexander II (1856-1881).
+
+Other innovations, of less magnitude but nevertheless of far-reaching
+importance, were introduced later. Capital punishment, which still
+disgraces human justice in more enlightened states, was unconditionally
+abolished; the number of offences amenable to corporal punishment was
+gradually reduced, until, on April 29, 1863, all the horrors of the
+gauntlet, the spur, the lash, the cat, and the brand, were consigned to
+eternal oblivion. The barbarous system of the judiciary was replaced by
+one that could render justice "speedy, righteous, merciful, and
+equitable." Railway communication, postal and telegraph service, police
+protection, the improvement of the existing universities, the opening of
+many new primary schools, and the introduction of compulsory school
+attendance, told speedily on the intellectual development of the people.
+In the words of Shumakr, Russia experienced "a complete inward revival."
+Old customs seemed to disappear, all things were become new. New life,
+new hope, new aspirations throbbed in the hearts of the subjects of the
+gigantic empire, and better times were knocking at their doors. _Joli
+tout le monde, le diable est mort!_
+
+This era of great reforms and the resuscitation of all that is good and
+noble in the Slavonic soul brought about also a moral regeneration. The
+colossus who, according to Turgenief, preferred to sleep an endless
+sleep, with a jug of vodka in his clutched fingers, proved that he, too,
+was human, with a feeling, human heart beating in his bosom. With the
+restoration of peace and the abolition of serfhood, there began a
+removal of prejudice even against Jews. Hitherto the foremost
+litterateurs in Russia, imitating the writers of other lands, had
+painted the Jew as a monstrosity. Pushkin's prisoner, Gogol's traitor,
+Lermontoff's spy, and Turgenief's Zhid (Jew) were caricatures and
+libels, equal in acrimony, and not inferior in art, to Shakespeare's
+Shylock and Dickens's Fagin. But now the best and ablest men of letters
+signed a protest against such unjust and impossible characters.
+
+    Two thousand years of cruel suffering and affliction--said the
+    historian and humanitarian Professor Granovsky, of the
+    University of Moscow--have at last erased the bloody boundary
+    line separating the Jews from humanity. The honor of this
+    reconciliation, which is becoming firmer from day to day,
+    belongs to our age. The civic status of the Jews is now
+    established in most European countries, and even in the places
+    that are still backward their condition is improved, if not by
+    law, then by enlightenment.
+
+And law and enlightenment radiated their sunshine also upon the Jews of
+rejuvenated Russia. The Cantonist system was abolished for good; the
+high schools and universities were opened to Jews without
+discrimination; and the Governments lying outside the Pale were made
+accessible to Jewish scholars, professional men, manufacturers,
+wholesale merchants, and skilled laborers (March 16, 1859; November 27,
+1861).[1] Through the efforts of Wolf Kaplan, one of Günzburg's noted
+pupils, the persecution of Jews by Germans in Riga was stopped, and the
+eminent publicist Katkoff undertook to defend them in the newspaper
+Russkiya Vyedomosti. Nazimov, the Governor-General of Vilna, Mukhlinsky,
+who inspected the Jewish schools in western Russia, Artzimovich, of
+southern Russia, and many other prominent personages arose as champions
+of the Jews.[2]
+
+The physician and pedagogue Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov (1810-1881), the
+superintendent of the Odessa and Kiev school districts, is especially
+deserving of honorable mention in the history of Haskalah. Of all the
+Russians of the period who gloried in their liberal convictions, he was
+the most liberal. In him the last vestige of prejudice and race
+distinction disappeared, and he conscientiously devoted himself to the
+study, not only of the present, but also of the past of the Jews, to be
+in a better position to lend them his assistance. To the Jews he
+appealed to unite and spread enlightenment among the masses by peaceful
+means. To the Gentiles, again, he did not hesitate to point out the good
+qualities of the Jews, and in an article on the Odessa Talmud Torah he
+held up the institution as a model for the public elementary schools. He
+admired especially the enthusiasm with which Jewish youths devoted
+themselves to the acquisition of knowledge. "Where are religion,
+morality, enlightenment, and the modern spirit," asked he, "when these
+Jews, who, with courage and self-sacrifice, engage in the struggle
+against prejudices centuries old, meet no one here to sympathize with
+them and extend a helping hand to them?" His liberality carried him so
+far that he established a fund for the support of indigent Jewish
+students at the University of Kiev, and he advocated strenuously the
+award of prizes and scholarships to deserving Jewish students. Such as
+he were rare in any land, but nowhere so rare as in Russia.[3]
+
+Pirogov took the initiative in reorganizing the Jewish schools. It
+required little observation to understand that they had proved a
+failure. Instead of attracting the Jewish masses to secular education,
+they only repelled them. The remedy was not far to seek. "The abolition
+of these schools" said Count Kotzebu, "would drive the Jews back to
+their fanaticism and isolation. It is necessary to make the Jews useful
+citizens, and I see no other means of achieving this than by their
+education." Pirogov's first move was to order that Jewish instead of
+Christian principals be put at their head, and he set an example by
+appointing Rosenzweig to that office. The curriculum was changed, making
+the lower schools correspond with our grammar schools, and adapting
+their studies to the needs of those who must discontinue schooling at a
+comparatively early age. The higher schools were arranged so as to
+prepare the pupils for the gymnasium. The salaries of the teachers were
+raised, and books and necessaries were provided for pupils too poor to
+afford them.
+
+The Government's attention having been directed by General Zelenoy to
+the Jewish agricultural colonies in southern Russia, Marcus Gurovich was
+appointed to work out a plan to provide them with graded schools. He
+proposed that secular and sacred subjects alike be taught by Jewish
+teachers, and these were to be cautioned to be careful not to offend the
+religious sensibilities of the parents. The plan appealed to the
+colonists, and they looked forward anxiously to its fulfilment. Having
+waited in vain till 1868, they offered to defray the expenses of the
+schools involved, if the Government would advance the money at the
+first. Accordingly, ten schools for boys and two for girls were opened
+in that year.
+
+Such disinterested efforts on their behalf would have evoked the
+gratitude of Jews at any time and in every country, how much more in
+Russia, and following close upon the darkest period in their history!
+The struggle for liberty all over Europe in 1848--the spring of
+nations--had confirmed Nicholas in his policy of exclusion. The last
+five years of his reign had surpassed the preceding in cruelty and
+tyranny. The "Don Quixote of Politics," finding that his attempts to
+quarantine Russia against European influences had proved futile, that
+the nationalities constituting the empire remained as distinct as ever,
+and the desired homogeneity was still far from becoming a reality,
+finally had lost patience and had determined to execute his
+conversionist policy at all hazards. He had increased the conscription
+duties, already unbearable (January 8, 1852; August 16, 1852),
+restricted the study of Hebrew and Hebrew subjects still further in the
+Government schools, and, as if to embitter the lives of the Jew by all
+means available, insisted on the use of the Mitnaggedic ritual even in
+communities exclusively or largely Hasidic.[4] Even the blood accusation
+had been revived, and the statements in the pamphlet entitled
+_Information about the Killing of Christians by Jews for the Purpose of
+Obtaining Their Blood_, which Skripitzyn, "the manager of Jewish affairs
+in Russia," published in 1844, found many believers in Government
+circles, and caused the Saratoff affair which, though suppressed, ruined
+numerous Jewish families, and made the breach between Jew and Gentile
+wider than ever.[5]
+
+Now all this was changed. Christians championed the cause of Jews. The
+Government, too, appeared to be sincerely anxious for the welfare of its
+Jewish subjects. It not only promised, but frequently also performed.
+The Jews were allowed to follow their religious predilections
+unhindered. The schools were reorganized with rabbinical graduates as
+their teachers and principals. The Rabbinical Assembly, which, though
+established by Nicholas (May 26, 1848), had rarely been called together,
+was summoned to St. Petersburg, and there spent six months in 1857 and
+five in 1861 in deliberating on means of improving the intellectual and
+material standing of the Jews. The "learned Jew" (uchony Yevrey) Moses
+Berlin was invited to become an adviser in the Department of Public
+Worship (1856), to be consulted concerning the Jewish religion whenever
+occasion required. Permission was granted to publish Jewish periodicals
+in Russian, Polish, Hebrew, and Yiddish (1860), and on April 26, 1862,
+the restriction was removed that limited Jewish publishing houses and
+printing-presses to Vilna and Zhitomir. The Russia Montefiore saw on his
+visit in 1872, how different from the Russia he had left in 1846!
+
+These auspicious signs renewed the hope of the Maskilim and intensified
+their zeal. They were convinced of the noble intentions of the Liberator
+Czar; they were confident that the emperor who emancipated the muzhiks,
+and expunged many a _kromye Yevreyev_ ("except the Jews") which his
+father was wont to add to the few privileges he granted his Christian
+subjects, would ultimately remove the civil disabilities of the Jews
+altogether. In a very popular song, written by Eliakum Zunser (Vilna,
+1836-New York, 1913), then a rising and beloved Badhan (bard) writing in
+Yiddish and Hebrew, Alexander II was likened to an angel of God who
+finds the flower of Judah soiled by dirt and trampled in the dust. He
+rescues it, and revives it with living water, and plants it in his
+garden, where it flourishes once more.[6] The poets hailed him as the
+savior and redeemer of Israel. All that the Jews needed was to make
+themselves deserving of his kindness, and worthy of the citizenship they
+saw in store for them. In Russian, in Hebrew, and in Yiddish, in prose
+and in poetry, the one theme uppermost in the mind of all was
+enlightenment, or rather Russification. From all quarters the reveille
+was sounded. Abraham Bär Gottlober (1811-1899) exclaimed:
+
+  Awake, Israel, and, Judah, arise!
+  Shake off the dust, open wide thine eyes!
+  Justice sprouteth, righteousness is here,
+  Thy sin is forgot, thou hast naught to fear.[7]
+
+More impressively still Judah Löb Gordon (1831-1892) called:
+
+  Arise, my people, 'tis time for waking!
+  Lo, the night is o'er, the day is breaking!
+  Arise and see where'er thou turn'st thy face,
+  How changed are both our time and place.[8]
+
+And in Yiddish, too, an anonymous poet echoed the strain:
+
+  Arise, my people, awake from thy dreaming,
+  In foolishness be not immersed!
+  Clear is the sky, brightly the sun is beaming;
+  The clouds are now utterly dispersed!
+
+Rapid growth is sometimes the cause of disease, and sudden changes the
+cause of disappointment. This was true of the swift progress of Haskalah
+during the reign of Alexander II. To comprehend fully the tragedies that
+took place frequently at that time, the disillusionments that embittered
+the lives of many of the Maskilim, the breaking up of homes and bruising
+of hearts, one should read _Youthful Sins_ (_Plattot Neurim_, 1876) by
+Moses Löb Lilienblum. The author lays bare a heart ulcerated and mangled
+by an obsolete education, a meaningless existence, and a forlorn hope.
+The hero of this little work, masterly less by reason of its artistic
+finish than the earnestness that pervades it from beginning to end, is
+"one of the slain of the Babylonian Talmud, whose spiritual life is
+artificially maintained by a literature itself dead." His diary and
+letters grant a glimpse into his innermost being; his childhood wasted
+in a methodless acquisition of futile learning; his boyhood blighted by
+a union with a wife chosen for him by his parents; his manhood mortified
+by the realization that in a world thrilling with life and activity he
+led the existence of an Egyptian mummy. Impatient to save the few years
+allotted to him on earth, and undeterred by the entreaties and the
+threats of his wife, he leaves for Odessa, the Mecca of the Maskilim,
+and begins to prepare himself for admission into the gymnasium. "While
+there is a drop of blood in my veins," he writes to his forsaken wife,
+"I shall try to finish my course of studies. Though the physicians
+declare that consumption and death must be the inevitable consequence of
+such application, I will not desist. I will rather die like a man than
+live like a dog." And on and on he plods over his Latin, his French, his
+history, geography, and grammar. Two more years and the university will
+be opened to him, and he will read law, and defend the honor of his
+people. But in the midst of his ceaseless toil the spectre of his simple
+wife and his former innocent life appears before him and "will not
+down." Is Haskalah worth the sacrifices he and his like are daily
+bringing on its altar? Is not the materialism of the emancipated
+Maskilim often greater than the medievalism of the fanatical Hasidim? In
+his native town, gloomy as it was, there was at least the glow of
+sincerity. Haskalah had to be snatched by stealth, but it was sweeter
+because thus snatched. In Odessa, where the fruit of the tree of
+knowledge could be obtained for the asking, it turned into the apples of
+Sodom. The "lishmah" ideal, the love of culture for its own sake,
+yielded to the greed which changes everything into a commodity to profit
+by. Yet, since life demands it, what a pity that his early training had
+incapacitated him from following the beaten path! He concludes his
+self-indictment thus, "I have taken an inventory of the business of my
+life, and I am heartbroken, because I find that in striking the balance
+there remains on the credit side only a cipher!"
+
+But the tide of Haskalah was not to be stemmed. The "blessed heritage of
+noble passion," the burning desire for enlightenment and improvement
+asserted itself at all hazards. The note of despair was lost in the call
+for action. Odessa continued to be in the forefront. There technical
+institutes for boys and girls were established in addition to the
+previously existing public schools. A society by the name of Trud
+(Labor) was organized (October 11, 1864), for the purpose of teaching
+useful trades. Its school has ever since been the crown of the
+institutions of the sort. It was provided with the most modern
+improvements, a workshop for mechanics and an iron foundry, and it
+offered a post-graduate course. A similar trade school (remeslenoye
+uchilishche) had been in existence since May 1, 1862, in Zhitomir,
+where, besides geometry, mechanics, chemistry, physics, etc.,
+instruction was given in carpentry, turning, tin, copper, and blacksmith
+work.[9] Through the efforts of Rabbi Solomon Zalkind Minor a Sabbath
+School and a Night School for artisans were opened in Minsk (1861), and
+a reference and circulating library for the general public (1863), and
+similar educational institutions were soon called into existence in many
+other cities.
+
+Those were the days of organizing and consolidating among Jews and
+Gentiles alike. At the time when Abraham Lincoln was proclaiming his
+famous "United we stand, divided we fall," Julius Slovacki in Poland
+pleaded the cause of the peasantry of his country, and the Alliance
+Israélite Universelle issued a call to the entire house of Israel "to
+defend the honor of the Jewish name wherever it is attacked; to
+encourage, by all means at our disposal, the pursuit of useful
+handicrafts; to combat, where necessary, the ignorance and vice
+engendered by oppression; to work, by the power of persuasion and by all
+the moral influences at our command, for the emancipation of our
+brethren who still suffer under the burden of exceptional legislation;
+to hasten and solidify complete enfranchisement by the intellectual and
+moral regeneration of our brethren." A powerful movement for the
+upliftment of the masses was also taking hold of the educated classes
+among the Russians. Professor Kostomarov started a systematic campaign
+for the education of the common people. A species of philanthropic
+intoxication seized upon the more enlightened Russian youth. A society
+of Narodniki, or Common People, so-called, was organized. Young men and
+women renounced high rank, and students came out of their seclusion and
+joined the people, dressed in their garb, spoke their dialect, led their
+life, and, having won their confidence, gradually opened their minds to
+value the blessings of education, and their hearts to desire them. These
+examples from within and without resulted in a similar attempt among the
+Russian Jews. An organization was perfected (December, 1863) which
+exercised a great civilizing influence for almost half a century, the
+Society for the Promotion of Haskalah among the Jews of Russia.
+
+To the credit of the Jewish financiers be it said that they were always
+the banner bearers of enlightenment. It had been so with German
+Aufklärung, when Ben-David, Itzig, Friedländer, and Jacobson, laid the
+corner-stone of the intellectual rebirth of their people. It was more
+especially so in Russia during the "sixties." Odessa was the most
+enlightened, because it was the wealthiest, of Jewish communities, as
+the benumbing poverty of the Pale was largely to blame for the
+unfriendly attitude towards whatever did not bear the stamp of
+Jewishness on its surface. The Society for the Promotion of Haskalah,
+too, owes its existence to some of the most prominent Russo-Jewish
+merchants. Its original officers were Joseph Yosel Günzburg, President;
+his son Horace Günzburg, First Vice-president; Rabbi A. Neuman, Second
+Vice-president; the Brodskys, and, the most active of them all, its
+Secretary, Leon Rosenthal (1817-1887). Busy as he was with his financial
+affairs, Rosenthal devoted considerable time to the propagation of
+enlightenment among his coreligionists. Many a youthful Maskil was
+indebted to him for material as well as moral support, and it was due to
+him that Osip Rabinovich finally succeeded in publishing the Razsvyet
+(Dawn, 1860), the first journal in Russian devoted to Jewish interests.
+
+The Society for the Promotion of Enlightenment was not unlike the
+Alliance Israélite Universelle, only on a smaller scale. Its object was
+"to spread the knowledge of the Russian language among the Jews, to
+publish and assist others in publishing, in Russian as well as in
+Hebrew, useful works and journals, to aid in carrying out the purposes
+of the Society, and, further, to assist the young in devoting themselves
+to the pursuit of science and knowledge." For several years, owing to
+the indifference of the public, it had a hard struggle to live up to its
+ideal. But continuously, if slowly, it gained in membership, so that in
+1884 it had an affiliation of 545. During the first twenty years of its
+existence its income amounted to 338,685 rubles, its expenditures to
+309,998 rubles. In 1880 it endowed an agricultural college for Jewish
+boys. When, in the same year, medical schools for women were opened, and
+Jewish girls in large numbers took up the study of medicine, the Society
+set aside the sum of 18,900 rubles for the support of the needy among
+them. Many a young man was aided in the pursuit of his chosen career by
+the Society. It directed its activities principally to the younger
+generation, yet it did not neglect the older. With its assistance
+Sabbath Schools and Evening Schools were opened in Berdichev, Zhitomir,
+Poltava, and other cities; libraries were founded; interesting Hebrew
+books on scientific subjects were published. Thus it had a two-fold
+object: in those who were drifting away it aimed to reawaken knowledge
+or love of Judaism by translating some of the most important Jewish
+books into Russian (the Haggadah, in 1871, the prayer book, Pentateuch,
+and Psalms, in 1872) as well as text-books and catechisms; and it
+popularized science among those who would not or could not read on such
+topics in Russian or other living tongues. In both directions it was a
+power for good among the Jews of Russia.[10]
+
+These united efforts of the Government, the Maskilim, and the Jewish
+financiers produced an effect the like of which had perhaps been
+witnessed only during the Hellenistic craze, in the period of the second
+commonwealth of Judea. Russian Jewry began to "progress" as never
+before. In almost all the large cities, particularly in Odessa, St.
+Petersburg, and Moscow, the Jews were fast becoming Russified.
+Heretofore cooped up, choking each other in the Pale as in a Black Hole,
+they were now wild with an excessive desire for Russification. What
+Maimon said of a few, could now be applied to hundreds and thousands,
+they were "like starving persons suddenly treated to a delicious meal."
+They flocked to the institutions of learning in numbers far exceeding
+their due proportion. They were among the reporters, contributors, and
+editorial writers of some of the most influential Russian journals. They
+entered the professions, and distinguished themselves in art.[11]
+
+The ambition of the wealthy was no longer to have a son-in-law who was
+well-versed in the Torah, but a graduate from a university, the
+possessor of a diploma, the wearer of a uniform. The bahur lost his
+lustre in the presence of the "gymnasiast." This ambition pervaded more
+or less all classes of Russo-Jewish society. A decade or two before,
+especially in the "forties," orthodoxy had been as uncompromising as it
+was unenlightened. "To carry a handkerchief on the Sabbath," as Zunser
+says, "to read a pamphlet of the 'new Haskalah,' or commit some other
+transgression of the sort, was sufficient to stamp one an apikoros
+(heretic)."[12] Reb Israel Salanter, when he learned that his son had
+gone to Berlin to study medicine, removed his shoes, and sat down on the
+ground to observe shivah (seven days of mourning). When Mattes der
+Sheinker (saloon-keeper) discovered that his boy Motke (later famous as
+Mark Antokolsky) had been playing truant from the heder, and had hidden
+himself in the garret to carve figures, he beat him unmercifully,
+because he had broken the second commandment. This was greatly altered
+in the latter part of the "seventies." Jacob Prelooker has a different
+story to tell.
+
+    A remarkable change--he says[13]--had taken place in the minds
+    of my parents since I had overcome all difficulties and become a
+    student of a royal college. Not only were they reconciled to me,
+    but they were distinctly proud of me. Old Rabbi Abraham now
+    delighted in conversation and discussion with his grandson, who
+    seemed to him almost like an inhabitant of another world, of the
+    _terra incognita_ of modern knowledge and science. In the town
+    inhabited chiefly by Jews the very appearance of the rabbi's
+    grandson in the uniform of a royal college created an immense
+    sensation, and I became naturally the hero of the day. The older
+    generation lamented that now an end would be put to the very
+    existence of Israel and the sacred synagogue, while the younger
+    people envied me and were inspired to follow my example.
+
+Such scenes occurred not only in Pinsk, but, not infrequently, in other
+towns of the Pale as well.
+
+The striving for intellectual enlightenment manifested itself in the
+refining of religious customs. Though Russian Jewry "has never
+experienced any of the ritualistic struggles that Germany has
+witnessed,"[14] yet reform and Haskalah always went hand in hand. The
+attacks on tradition by the Maskilim of the "forties" and the early
+"fifties" were mild and guarded compared with the assaults by the
+generation that followed. With the appearance of the periodicals the
+combat was intensified. Ha-Meliz, and, later, Ha-Shahar in Hebrew, and
+Kol Mebasser in Yiddish were the organs of those who were dissatisfied
+with the old, and sought to introduce the new. It was in the latter that
+_Dos Polische Yingel_ (_The Polish Boy_), by Linetzky, first appeared,
+and it proved so popular that the editor published it in book form long
+before it was finished in the periodical. In an article on _The Ways of
+the Talmud_, by Moses Löb Lilienblum, the prevailing Jewish religious
+observances were vehemently attacked. This was followed by another
+article from the pen of Gordon, _Wisdom for Those Who Wander in Spirit_,
+with suggestions for adapting religion to the needs of the times, and a
+still more powerful one, _The Chaotic World_, by Smolenskin. The muse
+ceased to content herself with "flame-songs that burn their pathway" to
+the heart. She preferred to appeal to the head. She no longer tried
+
+  In strains as sweet
+  As angels use ... to whisper peace.
+
+In cutting criticisms and biting satires she exposed time-honored but
+time-worn beliefs and practices. Gordon was a militant reformer in his
+younger days, and so were Menahem Mendel Dolitzky and the lesser poets
+of the period. Needless to say, the Jewish-Russian press was an enemy of
+ultra-orthodoxy. Osip Rabinovich, the leading Russo-Jewish journalist,
+made his debut with an article in which he denounced the superstitious
+customs of his people in unmeasured terms.[15] The motto chosen for the
+Razsvyet (1860) was "Let there be light," and the platform it adopted
+was to elevate the masses by teaching them to lead the life of all
+nations, participate in their civilization and progress, and preserve,
+increase, and improve the national heritage of Israel.[16]
+
+Yet journalists and poets were outdone by scholars and novelists in the
+battle for reform. Lebensohn's didactic drama _Emet we-Emunah_ (_Truth
+and Faith_, Vilna, 1867, 1870), in which he attempts to reconcile true
+religion with the teachings of science, was mild compared with _Dos
+Polische Yingel_ or Shatzkes' radical interpretations of the stories of
+the rabbis in his _Ha-Mafteah_ (_The Key_, Warsaw, 1866-1869), and both
+were surpassed by Raphael Kohn's clever little work _Hut ha-Meshullash_
+(_The Triple Cord_, Odessa, 1874), in which many prohibited things are
+ingeniously proved permissible according to the Talmud. But the most
+outspoken advocate of reform was Abraham Mapu (1808-1867), author of the
+first realistic novel, or novel of any kind, in Hebrew literature, the
+_'Ayit Zabua'_ (_The Painted Vulture_). His Rabbi Zadok, the
+miracle-worker, who exploits superstition for his own aggrandizement;
+Rabbi Gaddiel, the honest but mistaken henchman of Rabbi Zadok; Ga'al,
+the parvenu, who seeks to obliterate an unsavory past by fawning upon
+both; the Shadkan, or marriage-broker, who pretends to be the ambassador
+of Heaven, to unite men and women on earth,--in these and similar types
+drawn from life and depicted vividly, Mapu held up to the execration of
+the world the hypocrites who "do the deeds of Zimri and claim the reward
+of Phinehas," whose outward piety is often a cloak for inner impurity,
+and whose ceremonialism is their skin-deep religion. These characters
+served for many years as weapons in the hands of the combatants enlisted
+in the army arrayed for "the struggle between light and darkness."
+
+The waves of the Renaissance and the Reformation sweeping over Russian
+Jewry reached even the sacred precincts of the synagogues, the batte
+midrashim, and the yeshibot. The Tree of Life College in Volozhin became
+a foster-home of Haskalah. The rendezvous of the brightest Russo-Jewish
+youths, it was the centre in which grew science and culture, and whence
+they were disseminated far and wide over the Pale. Hebrew, German, and
+Russian were surreptitiously studied and taught. Buckle and Spencer,
+Turgenief and Tolstoi were secretly passed from hand to hand, and read
+and studied with avidity. Some students advocated openly the
+transformation of the yeshibah into a rabbinical seminary on the order
+of the Berlin Hochschule. The new learning found an ardent supporter in
+Zebi Hirsh Dainov, "the Slutsker Maggid" (1832-1877), who preached
+Russification and Reformation from the pulpits of the synagogues, and
+whom the Society for the Promotion of Haskalah employed as its
+mouthpiece among the less advanced.[17] In the existing reform
+synagogues, in Riga, Odessa, Warsaw, and Vilna, and even in more
+conservative communities, sermons began to be preached in Russian.
+Solomon Zalkind Minor, who lectured in German, acquired a reputation as
+a preacher in Russian since his election to the rabbinate of Minsk
+(1860). He was called "the Jellinek of Russia" by the Maskilim.[18]
+Aaron Elijah Pumpyansky began to preach in Russian at Ponevezh, in Kovno
+(1861). Germanization at last gave way to Russification. Even in Odessa,
+where German culture predominated during the reign of Nicholas I, it was
+found necessary, for the sake of the younger generation, to elect, as
+associate to the German Doctor Schwabacher, Doctor Solomon Mandelkern to
+preach in Russian. Similar changes were made in other communities. In
+the Polish provinces the Reformation was making even greater strides.
+There the Jews, whether reform, like Doctor Marcus Jastrow, or orthodox
+like Rabbi Berish Meisels, identified themselves with the Poles, and
+participated in their cultural and political aspirations, which were
+frequently antagonistic to Russification. A society which called itself
+Poles of the Mosaic Persuasion was organized in Warsaw, an organ of
+extreme liberalism was founded in the weekly Israelita, and, with the
+election of Isaac Kramsztyk to the rabbinate, German was replaced (1852)
+by the native Polish as the language of the pulpit.
+
+Some champions of reform did not rest satisfied with mere innovations
+and improvements. They went so far as to discard Judaism altogether and
+improvise religions of their own. Moses Rosensohn of Vilna was the
+first, in his works _Advice and Help_ (_'Ezrah we-Tushiah_, Vilna, 1870)
+and _The Peace of Brothers_ (_Shelom Ahim_, ibid.), to suggest a way to
+cosmopolitanism and universalism through Judaism.[19] In 1879, Jacob
+Gordin founded in Yelisavetgrad a sort of ethical culture society called
+Bibleitsy (also Dukhovnoye Bibleyskoye Bratstvo, Spiritual Bible
+Brotherhood), which obtained a considerable following among the workmen
+of the section. It advocated the abolition of ritual observances, even
+prayer, and the hastening of the era of the brotherhood of man. It
+preached, in the words of one of its leaders, that "our morality is our
+religion. God, the acme of highest reason, of surest truth, and of the
+most sublime justice, does not demand useless external forms and
+ceremonies."[20] Following the organization of the Bibleitsy, and based
+on almost the same principles, branches of a Jewish sect, which called
+itself New Israel (Novy Izrail), were started almost simultaneously in
+Odessa and Kishinev. In the former city, the organization was headed by
+Jacob Prelooker, in the latter, by Joseph Rabinowitz. Prelooker, who
+after graduating from the seminary at Zhitomir became a school-master at
+Odessa, sought to bring about a consolidation between his own people and
+Russian Dissenters (Raskolniki: the Molocans, Stundists, and
+Dukhobortzi). The theme of his book, _New Israel_, is a "reformed
+synagogue, a mitigation of the cleavage between Jew and Christian, and
+recognition of a common brotherhood in religion." Rabinowitz went still
+further, and preached on actual conversion to one of the more liberal
+forms of Christianity.[21]
+
+These sects, which sprang up in church and synagogue during the latter
+part of the "seventies," were the outcome of political and social as
+well as religious unrest. Alexander II fulfilled the expectation which
+the first years of his reign aroused in Jewish hearts no more than
+Catherine II and Alexander I. Those who had hoped for equal rights were
+doomed to disappointment. Most of the reforms of the Liberator Czar
+proved a failure owing to the antipathy and machinations of his
+untrustworthy officials. Russia was split between two diametrically
+opposed parties, the extreme radicals and the extreme reactionaries,
+waging an internecine war with each other. The former originated with
+the young Russians that had served in the European campaigns during the
+Napoleonic invasion, and who, in imitation of the secret organizations
+which had so greatly contributed to the liberation of Germany, united to
+throw off the yoke of autocracy in Russia. These secret orders, the
+Southern, the Northern, the United Slavonian, and the Polish, Alexander
+I had endeavored in vain to suppress, and the drastic measures taken by
+Nicholas I against the Dekabrists (1825) proved of no avail. Nor did the
+reforms of Alexander II help to heal the breach. On the contrary, seeing
+that the constitution they expected from the Liberator Czar was not
+forthcoming, and the democracy they hoped for was far from being
+realized, they became desperate, and determined to demand their rights
+by force. The peasants, too, sobering up from the intoxication, the
+figurative as well as the literal, caused by the vodka drunk in honor of
+their newly-acquired volyushka (sweet liberty), discovered that the
+emancipation ukase of the czar had been craftily intercepted by the
+bureaucrats, and their dream of owning the land they had hitherto
+cultivated as serfs would never come true. Russia was rife with
+discontent, and disaffection assumed a national range. The cry was
+raised for a "new freedom." A certain Anton Petrov impersonated the
+czar, and gathered around him ten thousand Russians. Pamphlets entitled
+_Land and Liberty_ (_Zemlya i Volya_) were spread broadcast among the
+masses, the mind of the populace was inflamed, and attempts on the life
+of the czar ensued.
+
+The extreme reactionaries, consisting mostly of nobles who had become
+impoverished by the emancipation of the serfs, grasped the opportunity
+to point out to the bewildered czar the evil of his liberal policy.
+Slavophilism was rampant. Men like Turgenief, Dostoyevsky, and Tolstoi,
+were condemned as "Westernists," or German sympathizers, the enemies of
+Russia. At the recommendation of Princess Helena Petrovna, the czar
+engaged as the teacher of his children a comparatively unknown professor
+of history, Pobyedonostsev, who later became the soul of Russian
+despotism. This man, meek as a dove and cunning as a serpent, easily
+ingratiated himself with the czar, and soon there began "a war upon
+ideas, a crusade of ignorance." "Karakazov's pistol-shot," as Turgenief
+says, "drove back into the shade the phantom of liberty, the appearance
+of which all Russia had hailed with acclamations. From that moment to
+the end of his life, the emperor devoted himself to the undoing of all
+he had accomplished. If he could have cancelled with one stroke the
+glorious ukase that had proclaimed the emancipation of the serfs, he
+would have been only too glad to disgrace himself."[22]
+
+And again, as it had been during the reign of Alexander I after his
+acquaintance with Baroness Krüdener, so it was with the reign of
+Alexander II after his acquaintance with Pobyedonostsev. The status of
+the Jews constituted the first indication of the ill-boding change. How
+little the officials had been in sympathy with the reformatory efforts
+of their czar, even when the atmosphere had been filled with peace and
+good-will to all including the Jews, is shown by the fact that when, in
+1863, through the efforts of Doctor Schwabacher, the Jewish community of
+Odessa applied for a charter to build a Home for Aged Hebrews, the
+charter, though granted by the higher authorities, was withheld for over
+twenty years! The reaction flaunted its power once again, and sat
+enthroned in Tsarskoye Syelo. The few rights the Jews had enjoyed were
+rescinded one by one. Not satisfied with this, the Slavophils tried,
+under every pretext, to stop the progress of the Jewish people. Every
+now and then the Society for the Promotion of Haskalah would send some
+of the brighter seminary students to complete their education in Breslau
+or Berlin, but at the command of the Government this was soon
+discontinued. It was the intention of the same organization, from its
+very incipiency, to have the Bible translated under its auspices into
+Russian, but it took ten long years before this praiseworthy undertaking
+could be begun, because of the obstacles the Government placed in the
+way of its execution. Fortunately, the indomitable courage of the
+Maskilim could not be subdued. Young men went, or were sent, to Germany
+to prepare themselves for the rabbinate as before; the Bible and the
+Book of Common Prayer, too, were translated secretly by Wohl, Gordon,
+Steinberg, and Leon Mandelstamm, and published in Germany, whence they
+were smuggled into Russia.[23]
+
+More direct and equally inexplicable, save on the ground of animosity to
+whatever was not Slavonic, was the ukase to close the Sabbath Schools
+and the Evening Schools, the only means of educating the laboring men
+(1870). In 1871, the first of a series of massacres (pogromy) took place
+in the centre of Jewish culture, Odessa. In 1872, permission was denied
+to the ladies of that city to organize a society for the purpose of
+maintaining trade schools, to teach poor Jewish girls handicrafts. The
+two rabbinical seminaries, of Vilna and Zhitomir, were closed in 1873,
+and replaced by institutes for teachers, which were managed in the
+spirit that had prevailed under Nicholas I. And in 1878 the absurd blood
+accusation, against which four popes, Innocent IV, Paul III, Gregory X,
+and Clement XIV, issued their bulls, declaring it a baseless and wicked
+superstition, and which not only the Polish kings Boreslav V, Casimir
+III, Casimir IV, and Stephen Bathòry, but also Alexander I (March 18,
+1817), branded as a diabolic invention--that dreadful accusation which
+even the commission of Nicholas, despite Durnovo's efforts, had
+denounced as a disgrace and an abomination, was revived by the newspaper
+Grazhdanin. The ghost of medievalism began to stalk abroad once more in
+erstwhile enlightened Russia and under the aegis of the Liberator Czar.
+
+As often before in Jewish history, the Jews helped not a little to
+aggravate the untoward conditions. At the instigation of a number of
+students of the Yeshibah Tree of Life, the doors of that noble
+institution were closed (1879), to open again after two years of
+untiring efforts on the part of its self-sacrificing dean, the renowned
+Naphtali Zebi Judah Berlin. But at the worst this was the result of
+mistaken zeal for the cause of Haskalah. What was more detrimental was
+the disgrace brought upon the Jewish name by several converts to
+Christianity. A certain Jacob Brafmann, having proved a failure in all
+he undertook, tried at the last the business of Christianity, and
+succeeded therein. He was appointed professor of Hebrew in the seminary
+of Minsk, and the Holy Synod charged him with the duty of devising means
+to promulgate Christianity among the Jews. Finding the times auspicious,
+he devoted himself to writing libellous articles about his former
+coreligionists, and wound up with a _Book on the Kahal_ (_Kniga Kahala_,
+Vilna, 1869), in which he quoted forged "transactions," to the effect
+that Judaism tolerates and even recommends illegality and immorality
+among its adherents. In a conference of Jews and Gentiles convoked by
+Governor-General Kaufman (1871), Barit proved the falsity and forgery of
+Brafmann's documents. But, as usual, the defence was forgotten, the
+charges remained.[24] A certain Lutostansky poisoned the public mind by
+caricaturing the Jews, and aroused an anti-Semitic agitation among his
+countrymen. The consequence was that even the liberals began to be
+suspicious, and the prospect of better days was blighted by the hatred
+which broke out in fiendish fury, in lightnings and thunders which
+astounded the world under Alexander III.
+
+It was but natural that the Jews that had become completely Russified
+should enlist in the ranks of the extreme liberals. They found
+themselves in every way as progressive and patriotic as the Christian
+Russians. The language of Russia became their language, its manners and
+aspirations their manners and aspirations. They contributed more than
+any other nationality to Russifying Odessa, which, owing to its great
+foreign population, was known as the un-Russian city of Russia.
+Proportionately to their numbers, they promoted the trade and industry,
+the science and literature of their country more than the Russians
+themselves. Yet the coveted equality was denied them, and the
+emancipation granted to the degraded muzhiks was withheld from them,
+because of a religion they hardly professed. They were like Faust when
+he found himself tempted but not satisfied by the pleasures of life,
+when food hovered before his eager lips while he begged for nourishment
+in vain. The liberals, on the other hand, preached and practiced the
+doctrine of equal rights to all. Socialism, or nihilism, also appealed
+to the Jews from its idealistic side, for never did the Jews cease to be
+democrats and dreamers. In the schools and universities, which they were
+now permitted to attend, they heard the new teachings and imbibed the
+novel ideas.
+
+Those, therefore, who disdained conversion allied themselves with the
+secret organizations. "The torrent which had been dammed up in one
+channel rushed violently into another." A Hebrew monthly, Ha-Emet
+(Truth, Vienna, 1877), devoted to the cause of communism, was started by
+Aaron Liebermann ("Arthur Freeman"), in which, in the language of the
+oldest and greatest socialists, the doctrines of Karl Marx were
+inculcated among the Hebrew-reading public. The more completely
+Russified element took a leading part in the activities of the Narodnaya
+Volya (Rights of the People), propagating socialism among the Russian
+masses, either by word of mouth or as editors and coworkers in the
+"underground" publications. Not a few went to Berlin, where, though
+opulent, they sought employment in factories, the better to disseminate
+socialism among the working classes. Others, like Aaronson, Achselrod,
+Deutsch, Horowitz, Vilenkin, and Zukerman, fled to Switzerland, whence,
+under the assumed names of Marx, Lassalle, Jacoby, etc., or united in a
+League for the Emancipation of Labor, they directed the socialistic
+movement in Russia.[25] Chernichevsky's _What to Do_, Gogol's _Dead
+Souls_, Turgenief's _Virgin Soil_ and _Fathers and Sons_, the doctrines
+of Pisarev and Bielinsky, and of the other writers who then had their
+greatest vogue, were eagerly read and frequently copied by Jewish young
+gymnasiasts and passed on to their Christian schoolmates. The
+revolutionary spirit seized on men and women alike. Women left their
+husbands, girls their devoted parents, and threw themselves into the
+swirl of nihilism with a vigor and self-sacrifice almost incredible.
+When a squad of police came to disperse the crowd clamoring for "land
+and liberty" in front of the Kazanskaya Church in St. Petersburg, a
+Jewish maiden of sixteen, taking the place of the leader, inspired her
+comrades with such enthusiasm that the efforts of the police were
+ineffectual.[26] By 1878, Russia became honeycombed with secret
+societies. It fell into spasms of nihilism. One general after another
+was assassinated. Attempts were made to wreck the train on which the
+czar was travelling (1879) and blow up the palace in which he resided
+(1880). Finally, on March 13, 1881, after many hairbreadth escapes, the
+carefully laid plans of the revolutionists succeeded, and the Liberator
+Czar was no more.
+
+Thus was the deep-rooted yearning for enlightenment finally let loose,
+and the gyves of tradition were at last removed. The Maskilim of the
+"forties" and "fifties" were antiquated in the "sixties" and
+"seventies." They began to see that the fears of the orthodox and their
+denunciations of Haskalah were not altogether unfounded. A young
+generation had grown up who had never experienced the strife and
+struggles of the fathers, and who lacked the submissive temper that had
+characterized their ancestors. Faster and farther they rushed on their
+headlong way to destruction, while the parents sat and wept. When, in
+1872, in Vilna, the police arrested forty Jewish young men suspected of
+nihilistic tendencies, Governor-General Patapov "invited" the
+representatives of the community to a conference. As soon as they
+arrived, Patapov turned on them in this wise, "In addition to all other
+good qualities which you Jews possess, about the only thing you need is
+to become nihilists, too!" Amazed and panic-stricken, the trembling Jews
+denied the allegation and protested their innocence, to which the
+Governor-General replied, "Your children are, at any rate; they have
+become so through the bad education you have given them." "Pardon me,
+General," was the answer of "Yankele Kovner" (Jacob Barit), who was one
+of the representatives, "This is not quite right. As long as _we_
+educated our children there were no nihilists among us; but as soon as
+you took the education of our children into your hands, behold the
+result." The foundations of religion were undermined. Parental authority
+was disregarded. Youths and maidens were lured by the enchanting voice
+of the siren of assimilation. The naïve words which Turgenief put into
+the mouth of Samuel Abraham, the Lithuanian Jew, might have been,
+indeed, were, spoken by many others in actual life. "Our children," he
+complains, "have no longer our beliefs; they do not say our prayers, nor
+have they your beliefs; no more do they say your prayers; they do not
+pray at all, and they believe in nothing."[27] The struggle between
+Hasidim and Mitnaggedim ended with the conversionist policy of Nicholas
+I, which united them against the Maskilim. The struggle between these
+anti-Maskilim and the Maskilim had ceased in the golden days of
+Alexander II. But the clouds were gathering and overspreading the camp
+of Haskalah. The days in which the seekers after light united in one
+common aim were gone. Russification, assimilation, universalism, and
+nihilism rent asunder the ties that held them together. Judah Löb
+Gordon, the same poet who, fifteen years before, had rejoiced with
+exceeding joy "when Haskalah broke forth like water," now laments over
+the effect thereof in the following strain:
+
+  And our children, the coming generation,
+  From childhood, alas, are strangers to our nation--
+  Ah, how my heart for them doth bleed!
+  Farther and faster they are ever drifting,
+  Who knows how far they will be shifting?
+  Maybe till whence they can ne'er recede!
+
+Amidst the disaffection, discord, and dejection that mark the latter
+part of the reign of Alexander II, one Maskil stands out pre-eminently
+in interest and importance,--one whom assimilation did not attract nor
+reformation mislead, who under all the mighty changes remained loyal to
+the ideals ascribed to the Gaon and advocated by Levinsohn,--Perez ben
+Mosheh Smolenskin (Mohilev, February 25, 1842-Meran, Austria, February
+1, 1885).[28]
+
+Smolenskin was endowed with the ability and courage that characterize
+the born leader. He possessed an iron will and unflinching
+determination, before which obstacles had to yield, and persecution
+found itself powerless. His talent to grasp and appreciate the true and
+the beautiful rendered him the oracle of the thousands who, to this day,
+are proud to call themselves his disciples. To him Haskalah was not
+merely acquaintance with general culture, or even its acquisition. It
+was the realization of one's individuality as a Jew and a man. Gordon's
+advice, to be a Jew at home and a man abroad, found little favor in his
+estimation; for Haskalah meant the evolution of a Jewish man _sui
+generis_. He equally abhorred the fanaticism of the benighted orthodox
+and the Laodicean lukewarmness of the advanced Maskilim. To fight and,
+if possible, eradicate both, he undertook the publication of The Dawn
+(Ha-Shahar, Vienna, 1869), a magazine in which he declared "war against
+the darkness of the Middle Ages and war against the indifference of
+to-day!"
+
+    Not like the former days are these days, he says in his foreword
+    to Ha-Shahar. Thirty or twenty years ago we had to fight the
+    enemy within. Sanctimonious fanatics with their power of
+    darkness sought to persecute us, lest their folly or knavery be
+    exposed to the light of day.... Now that they, who hitherto have
+    walked in darkness, are beginning to discern the error of their
+    ways, lo and behold, those who have seen the light are closing
+    their eyes against it.... Therefore let them know beforehand
+    that, as I have stretched out my hand against those who, under
+    the cloak of holiness, endeavor to exclude enlightenment from
+    the house of Jacob, even so will I lift up my hand against the
+    other hypocrites who, under the pretext of tolerance, strive to
+    alienate the children of Israel from the heritage of their
+    fathers!
+
+That the salvation of the Jews lies in their distinctiveness, and that
+renationalization will prove the only solution of the Jewish problem, is
+the central thought of Smolenskin's journalistic efforts. Jews are
+disliked, he maintains, not because of their religious persuasion, nor
+for their reputed wealth, but because they are weak and defenceless.
+What they need is strength and courage, but these they will never regain
+save in a land of their own. Twelve years before the tornado of
+persecution broke out in Russia he had predicted it, and even welcomed
+it as a means of arousing the Jews to their duties as a people and their
+place as a nation, and that his conclusion was correct, the awakening
+which followed proved unmistakably.
+
+For Smolenskin Jews never ceased to be a nation, and to him the Jew who
+sought refuge in assimilation was nothing less than a traitor. He was
+thus the forerunner of Pinsker, and of Herzl a decade later. Indeed, in
+the resurrection of the national hope he was the first to remove the
+shroud. According to him, "the eternal people" have every characteristic
+that goes to make a nation. Their common country is still Palestine,
+loved by them with all the fervor of patriotism; their common language
+had never ceased to be Hebrew; their common religion consists in the
+basic principles of Judaism, in which they all agree.
+
+    You wish--thus he addresses himself to the assimilationists--you
+    wish to be like the other people? So do I. Be, I pray you, be
+    like them. Search and find knowledge, avoid and forsake
+    superstition, above all be not ashamed of the rock whence you
+    were hewn. Yes, be like the other peoples, proud of your
+    literature, jealous of your self-respect, hopeful, even as all
+    persecuted peoples are hopeful, of the speedy arrival of the day
+    when we, too, shall reinhabit the land which once was, and still
+    is, our own.
+
+But as the soil of Palestine, however regarded, is at present
+inaccessible to Jews as a national entity, the language once spoken in
+Palestine is so much the more to be cherished and cultivated by the
+exiled people.
+
+    You ask me--he calls out again--what good a dead language can do
+    us? I will tell you. It confers honor on us, girds us with
+    strength, unites us into one. All nations seek to perpetuate
+    their names. All conquered peoples dream of a day when they will
+    regain their independence.... We have neither monuments nor a
+    country at present. Only one relic still remains from the ruins
+    of our ancient glory--the Hebrew language. Those, therefore, who
+    discard the Hebrew tongue betray the Hebrew nation, and are
+    traitors both to their race and their religion.
+
+No less trenchant and outspoken was he against the serried array of
+self-styled "reformers" of Judaism. He could not forgive the German
+rabbis and Russian Maskilim for presuming to "dictate" to their
+coreligionists what to select and what to reject in matters religious.
+The whole movement he condemned as a mere imitation of Protestant
+Christianity. To renovate Judaism! What a stigma on a religion that had
+endured through the ages, and is rich in all that makes for holiness and
+right living! The old garment needs no new patches. It still fits and
+will fit "the eternal people" till time is no more. Since the reform
+movement in Germany went back to the time of Mendelssohn, Smolenskin
+hurled the missiles of his criticism against the Berlin sage, forgetting
+that for more than half a century his example and encouragement had
+served to awaken a love of knowledge in the hearts of his countrymen.
+But he saw that in the home of Haskalah, the _Biur_, and the Meassefim,
+apostasy increased, Hebrew was almost forgotten, and Judaism was
+declining, and he blamed the pellucid water at the source of the stream
+for the muddy pool at its mouth. Mendelssohn, however, lacked no
+defenders among his Russo-Jewish coreligionists, and their sentiments
+were voiced by Abraham Bär Gottlober in an opposition periodical, The
+Light of Day (Ha-Boker Or, Lublin, 1876). "Why," exclaimed the editor,
+"were it not for him and his reforms ... were it not for that grand and
+noble personality ... neither you nor I should have been what we are!"
+It was only the sad sincerity of Smolenskin that mitigated the errors he
+had committed in regard to the history of his people and the theology of
+its religion.
+
+But the militant editor of Ha-Shahan, who wielded his pen like a
+halberd, to deal out blows to those of whose views he disapproved,
+became as tender as a father when he set out to write about the people.
+His love for the masses whom he knew so well was almost boundless.
+Underlying their superstitions, crudities, and absurdities is the
+"prophetic consciousness," of which they have never been entirely
+divested. The heder is indeed far from what a school should be, and the
+yeshibah is hardly to be tolerated in a civilized community; yet what
+spiritual feasts, what noble endeavors, and what unselfish devotion are
+witnessed within their dingy walls! Jewish observances are sometimes
+cumbersome and sometimes incompatible with modern life, but what beauty
+of holiness, what irresistible influences emanate and radiate from most
+of them! Under an uninviting exterior and beneath the accumulated drift
+of countless generations he discerned the precious jewel of
+self-sacrifice for an ideal. It was this sympathy and broad-mindedness,
+expressed in his _Ha-Toëh_, his _Simhat Hanef_, _Keburat Hamor_, _Gemul
+Yesharim_, and _Ha-Yerushah_ that will ever endear him to the Hebrew
+reader.
+
+Such, in brief, was the life of the man who bore the chief part in
+framing and moulding the Haskalah of the "eighties," which was devoted
+to the development of Hebrew literature and the rejuvenation of the
+Hebrew people. Loving the Hebrew tongue with a passion surpassing
+everything else, he censured the German Jewish savants for writing their
+learned works in the vernacular, and was on the alert to discover and
+bring out new talent and win over the indifferent and estranged.
+Dreaming of the redemption of his people, he paved the way for the
+Zionistic movement, which spread with tremendous rapidity after his
+death. And his sincerity and ability were repaid in the only coin the
+poor possess--in love and admiration. Pilgrimages were made, sometimes
+on foot, to behold the editor of Ha-Shahar and the author of _Ha-Toëh_.
+The greatest journalists in St. Petersburg united in honoring him when
+he visited the Russian capital in 1881. And when he was snatched away in
+the midst of his usefulness, a victim of unremitting devotion to his
+people, not only Maskilim, but Mitnaggedim and Hasidim felt that "a
+prince and a mighty one had fallen in Israel!"
+
+(Notes, pp. 322-327.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE AWAKENING
+
+1881-1905
+
+
+The reign of Alexander III, like that of Nicholas I, was devoid of even
+that faint glamor of liberalism which, in the days of Alexander I and
+Alexander II, had aroused deceptive hopes of better times. During the
+thirteen years of Alexander III's autocracy (1881-1894) not a ray of
+light was permitted to penetrate into Holy Russia. On May 14, 1881, the
+manifesto prohibiting the slightest infringement of the absolute power
+of the czar was promulgated, to continue unbroken till the
+Russo-Japanese war.
+
+The liberal current which had carried away his predecessors when they
+first mounted the throne was checked, the sluices of Slavophilism were
+opened, the history of Russian thinkers became again, as Herzen said, "a
+long list of martyrs and a register of convicts."
+
+Nicholas Ignatiev, a rabid reactionary, a second Jeffreys, became chief
+of the Ministry of the Interior; Katkoff, a repentant liberal and exile,
+was appointed the czar's chief adviser, the Richelieu behind the throne;
+and Pobyedonostsev, whom Turgenief called the "Russian Torquemada,"
+obtained supremacy over Melikoff, and was appointed procurator of the
+Holy Synod. With such as these at the head of the Russian bureaucracy,
+there may have been some foundations for the rumor that an imperial
+ukase decreed the pillage and slaughter of the Jews, and the muzhiks,
+obedient to the behests of the "little father," and smarting under the
+pain of disappointment, vented their venom on their Jewish compatriots.
+Before the new czar had been on his throne three months, Russia was
+drenched with Jewish blood. There began saturnalia of rape, plunder, and
+murder, the like of which had been witnessed nowhere in Europe. For half
+a year the pogroms which began in Yelisavetgrad (April 27, 28) swept
+like a tornado over southern Russia, visiting more than one hundred and
+sixty communities with fire and sword, resulting in outrages on women,
+in the murder of old and young, in the ruin of millions of dollars of
+property. The Black Hundreds of the nineteenth century put to shame the
+Haidamacks of the eighteenth and the Cossacks of the seventeenth. In the
+words of the Bishop of Canterbury to Sir Moses Montefiore, it looked "as
+if the enemy of mankind was let loose to destroy the souls of so many
+Christians and the bodies of so many Jewish people."
+
+But it would be a vain attempt, and out of keeping with the object of
+this work, to describe in detail the "bloody assizes" and the infernal
+tragedies that ensued upon the accession of Alexander III; the moral
+degeneracy and the economic ruin that spread over the mighty empire; the
+shudder that passed over the civilized world, and was expressed in
+indignation meetings held everywhere, especially in Great Britain and in
+the United States (February, 1882), to protest, "in the name of
+civilization, against the spirit of medieval persecution thus revived in
+Russia." Suffice it to say that even when the mob, tired of carnage,
+ceased its work of extermination, the bloodthirstiness of those in
+authority was not assuaged. Such a policy was inaugurated against the
+Jews as would, according to Pobyedonostsev, "force one-third of them to
+emigrate, another third to embrace Christianity, and the remainder to
+die of starvation." With this in view, his Majesty the Emperor,
+"prompted by a desire to protect the Jews against the Christians," was
+graciously pleased to give his assent to the Resolutions of the
+Committee of Ministers, on the third of May, 1882, i.e. to the notorious
+"temporary measures," or "May laws," framed by Ignatiev, against the
+will of the Council of the Empire.
+
+These "temporary measures" have remained in force to this day. With them
+was resuscitated all the inimical legislation of the past, beginning
+with the time of Elizabeta Petrovna. What was favorable was suppressed;
+the unfavorable was most rigorously enforced. Jews living outside the
+Pale were driven back into it on the slightest pretext and in the most
+inhuman manner. To increase the already unendurable congestion, the Pale
+was made smaller than before. In accordance with the first clause of the
+"May laws," Jews were expelled from the villages within the Pale itself.
+In 1888 the districts of Rostov and Taganrog, which till then had
+belonged to the Pale, and had been developed largely through Jewish
+enterprise, were torn away and amalgamated with the Don district, in
+which Jews were not permitted to reside. This was followed by expulsions
+from St. Petersburg (1890), Moscow, (1891), Novgorod, Riga, and Yalta
+(1893), and the abrogation of the time-honored privileges of the Jews of
+Bokhara (1896). Even those who, as skilled artisans or discharged
+soldiers, had been privileged to reside wherever they chose, were
+expelled with their wives and the children born in their adopted city.
+Their only salvation lay in conversion. Converts were especially
+favored, and were offered liberal inducements. By becoming a convert to
+the Orthodox Russian Church, a Jew is immediately freed from all the
+degrading restrictions on his freedom of movement and his choice of a
+profession. Converts, without distinction of sex, are helped financially
+by an immediate payment of sums from thirteen to thirty rubles, and
+until recently were granted freedom from taxation for five years. If a
+candidate for Greek Christianity is married, his conversion procures him
+a divorce, and, unless she likewise is converted, his wife may not marry
+again. By conversion, a Jew may escape the consequence of any misdeed
+against a fellow-Jew, for, to quote the Russian code, "in actions
+concerning Jews who have embraced Christianity Jews may not be admitted
+as witnesses, if any objection is raised against them as such." The
+penal code provides that Jews shall pay twice and treble the amount of
+the fine to which non-Jews are liable under similar circumstances. Jews
+were excluded from the professions to which they had turned in the
+"sixties" and "seventies," and in which they had been eminently
+successful; they were not allowed to hold any civil or municipal office;
+they were forbidden even to be nurses in the hospitals or to give
+private instruction to children in the homes.
+
+And still persecution did not cease. Not satisfied with starving the
+bodies of five millions of Jews, Russian legislators were determined to
+crush them intellectually. The Slavophils could not brook seeing
+"non-Russians" surpass their own people in the higher walks of life. The
+Jews, finally successful in emancipating themselves from the trammels of
+rabbinism, had transferred their extraordinary devotion from the Talmud
+to secular studies. They filled the schools and the universities of the
+empire with zealous and intelligent pupils, who carried off most of the
+honors. They contributed forty-eight pupils to the gymnasia out of every
+ten thousand, while the Christians contributed only twenty-two. This was
+regarded an unpardonable sin. "These Jews have the audacity to excel us
+pure Russians," Pobyedonostsev is reported to have exclaimed, and
+measures were taken to suppress their dangerous tendency. As early as
+1875 a law was passed withholding from Jewish students the stipends they
+had hitherto received from a fund set aside for that purpose. In 1882
+the number of Jewish students in the Military Academy of Medicine was
+limited to five per cent, and later it was reduced to zero. Thereafter
+one professional school after another adopted a percentage provision,
+and some excluded Jews altogether. Finally, "seeing that many Jewish
+young men, eager to benefit by a higher classical, technical, or
+professional education," presented themselves every year for admission
+to the universities, that they passed their examination and continued
+their studies at the various schools of the empire, the Government
+deemed it "desirable to put a stop to a state of affairs which is so
+unsatisfactory." Consequently the ministry limited the attendance of
+Jews residing in places within the Pale to ten per cent in all schools
+and universities (December 5, 1886; June 26, 1887), in places without
+the Pale to five per cent, and in Moscow and St. Petersburg to three per
+cent, of the total number of pupils in each school and university. Of
+the four hundred young Jews who had successfully passed their
+matriculation examination at the beginning of the scholastic year
+1887-1888, and had thus acquired the right of entering the university,
+three hundred and twenty-six were refused admission, and in many schools
+and universities they were denied even the small per cent the law
+permitted.
+
+When, nevertheless, in spite of the many restrictions, the Jew at last
+obtained the coveted degree, the Government rendered it nugatory by
+depriving him of the right of enjoying the fruit of his labor and
+self-sacrifice. He could not practice as an army physician or jurist,
+nor obtain a position as an engineer or a Government or municipal clerk.
+In the army, he was not allowed to hold any office, and, though he might
+be an expert chemist, he could never fill the post of a dispenser (March
+1, 1888). He was excluded from the schools for the training of officers,
+and if he passed the examination on the subjects taught there, his
+certificate could not contain the usual statement that there "was no
+objection to admitting him to the military schools."[1]
+
+These restrictive measures were not relaxed when Alexander III was
+succeeded by his son Nicholas II (1894). If anything, they were more
+rigorously executed, and the mob was encouraged to multiply its outrages
+upon the defenceless Jews. The closing years of the nineteenth century
+wiped out the promises of its opening years. Blood accusations followed
+by riots became of frequent occurrence. Irkutsk (1896), Shpola, and Kiev
+(1897), Kantakuzov (Kherson), Vladimir, and Nikolayev (1899) gave the
+Jews a foretaste of what they had to expect when the Black Hundreds,
+encouraged by the Government and incited by Kruzhevan and Pronin, would
+be let loose to enact the scenes that took place in Kishinev and Homel
+before the Russo-Japanese war, and in hundreds of towns after it. The
+difficulties in the way of securing an education were increased. Russia
+did not believe in an "irreducible minimum" where the rights of her Jews
+were concerned. Under Nicholas II the number of Jewish women admitted to
+medical schools was put at three per cent of the total number of
+students; the newly-established School for Engineers in Moscow was
+closed to Jewish young men altogether; and the students of both sexes in
+the schools were constantly harassed by the police because of the harsh
+laws concerning the rights of residence. Some splendidly equipped
+institutions of learning were allowed to remain almost empty rather than
+admit Jewish students.[2]
+
+This was the worst punishment of all, the most relentless vengeance
+wreaked on a helpless victim. "Of all the laws which swept down upon
+them from St. Petersburg and Moscow," says Leroy-Beaulieu with
+characteristic insight into the soul of Israel, "those which they [the
+Jews] find hardest to bear are the regulations that block their entrance
+to the Russian universities." The bloodless weighed heavier than the
+bloody pogroms. Consumed with a desire for education, wealthy Russian
+Jews made an attempt to establish higher schools of their own, without
+even drawing upon the surplus money of the kosher-meat fund, which had
+originally been created for such purposes. Baron de Hirsch, too, offered
+two million dollars for the higher and technical education of the Jews.
+But every attempt proved fruitless. Baron de Hirsch's munificence was
+flatly refused. In the school which Mr. Weinstein opened at Vinitza,
+Podolia, no more than eight Jews were allowed to attend among eighty
+Christians, and in the one at Gorlovka, founded by another Jew
+(Polyakov), only five per cent were admitted.[3]
+
+Writers are wont to speak of this as a reactionary period. The
+description applies to the Russians; among the Jews it was a period of
+reawakening.[4] They were disillusioned. They saw that Russification
+without emancipation, as their unsophisticated fathers had told
+Lilienthal, meant extermination. The first and worst pogroms were
+perpetrated in those places where the Jews were like their Russian
+neighbors in every respect, except in the eyes of the law, and with the
+approval of some who were devotees of the Narodnaya Volya. The Jewish
+consciousness reasserted itself. If Pobyedonostsev accomplished his
+fiendish design as regards emigration, more than a million Jews having
+left Russia within the last twenty years; if he has almost succeeded in
+causing them to die of starvation; yet his hope of forcing a third of
+them to conversion was a disappointment and a delusion. The Jews showed
+that the traditional description applied to them, "stiff-necked," was
+not undeserved. While the Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and Armenians have
+undergone conversion in multitudes, they whose suffering by far exceeded
+that of any other "non-Russian" nationality remained, with insignificant
+exceptions, loyal to the religion of their fathers.[5]
+
+    The Russian Jews--says Zunser--sobered down from the orgies of
+    assimilation, and its worshippers abandoned their idol. Those
+    who had almost forgotten that they were of the camp of Israel
+    began to return to its tents. The Jewish physicians, jurists,
+    technologists, and the entire so-called Jewish "intelligentia,"
+    who heretofore had never cared to speak a word of Yiddish to a
+    Jew, resumed their native tongue; they began to send their
+    children to the Jewish hadarim, and adopted once more Jewish
+    ways and customs. Several hundred Jewish university students,
+    proverbially irreligious, sent to Vilna for tefillin
+    [phylacteries]!
+
+In many cities fasts were observed and prayers for forgiveness offered,
+and the prodigal sons of Israel repaired to the synagogue, participated
+in the services, and wept with their more steadfast though equally
+unfortunate coreligionists. Many converts, too, began to feel qualms of
+conscience, and endeavored to make up for their youthful indiscretions.
+Some of them fled to places of safety, and returned to Judaism. The
+gifted young poet Simon Yakovlevich Nadsohn died of a broken heart.
+Sorkin, the classmate and friend of Levanda, committed suicide, while
+Levanda, the great novelist of assimilation, was so affected by the
+massacres and their consequences, that he became melancholy, and died in
+an asylum for the insane.[6]
+
+If this was the fate of the assimilated and estranged, one may guess the
+effect of the reaction on the religious. If the students of the
+universities sacrificed their careers, their daily bread, for the
+austere satisfaction of discharging their moral obligation to the best
+of their knowledge, the students of the Law, always loyal to the
+heritage of their people, became more zealous than ever. Lilienblum who,
+in 1877, believed that life without a university education was not worth
+living, became a repentant sinner. Russian Jewry seethed with religious
+enthusiasm. Moses Isaac Darshan, "the Khelmer Maggid," preached for six
+hours at a time to crowded synagogues. Asher Israelit, less trenchant,
+but equally effective, exhorted crowds to repentance. Zebi Hirsh
+Masliansky, a finished orator, went from town to town, and aroused a
+love for whatever was connected with the history and religion of the
+Jewish people. In Kovno those who were preparing themselves for the
+rabbinate formed something like a new sect, the Mussarnikes (Moralists),
+which practiced asceticism and self-abnegation to an extraordinary
+degree.[7]
+
+[Illustration: MOSES LÖB LILIENBLUM, 1843-1910]
+
+Those, however, were most affected who had been misled by dreams of
+assimilation. They suffered most, for they lost most. Their hopes were
+blighted, their hearts broken. The leading-strings proved to be a
+halter. They saw they had little to expect at the hands of those they
+had believed to have become fully civilized, and they were embittered
+toward civilization, which had showed them flowers, but had given them
+no fruit. In a work, _Sinat 'Olam le-'Am 'Olam_ (_Eternal Hatred for the
+Eternal People_, Warsaw, 1882), Nahum Sokolov proved, like Smolenskin
+before him, that anti-Semitism was ineradicable, that the fight against
+the Jews was a fight to the death, that even emancipation helps little
+to remove the animosity innate in one people against another, and until
+the "end of days" foretold by the prophets of yore there will never
+cease the eternal hatred to the eternal people. This became the dominant
+opinion. It dawned upon many that the only salvation for the Jews lay in
+becoming a nation once more. A yearning for a new fatherland and a new
+country seized young and old. The times were auspicious. Cosmopolitanism
+was everywhere giving place to nationalism. The little Balkan States had
+broken the yoke of Ottoman rule, and become self-governing nations since
+1878. In Poland, Hungary, and Ireland, home rule was advocated with
+fervor that threatened a revolution. Italy and Germany became united
+under their own king or emperor. And the Russian Jews, tired of the
+constant conflicts with the surrounding peoples, experienced the desire
+which had prompted their ancestors to be like all the other nations.
+
+Sokolov's sentiments were reinforced in an anonymous pamphlet written by
+Doctor Leo Pinsker (1821-1891), one of the foremost physicians of
+Odessa. His _Auto-Emancipation_ (Berlin, 1882) is now recognized as the
+forerunner of Herzl's _Judenstaat_, which appeared fifteen years later.
+Pinsker accepts as an axiom what Sokolov had tried to demonstrate as a
+proposition. Jew-hatred, he claims, like Lombroso in his work on
+anti-Semitism, is a "platonic hatred," a hereditary mental disease,
+which two thousand years' duration has so aggravated as to render it
+incurable. As the Jewish problem is international, it can be solved only
+by nationalism. He admits some of the charges brought against the Jews
+by anti-Semites, but Jewish failings result from Christian intolerance.
+In a land of their own they will develop into a Muster-nation, a model
+people.
+
+    The wretches--cries he--they mock the eagle that once soared
+    sky-high, and saw divinity itself, because he can no longer fly
+    after his wings are broken! Give us but our independence, allow
+    us to take care of ourselves, grant us but a little strip of
+    land like that of the Servians and Rumanians, give us a chance
+    to lead a national existence, and then prate about our lacking
+    manly virtues. What we lack is not genius (Genialität) but
+    self-consciousness (Selbstgefühl) and appreciation of our value
+    as men (Bewusstsein der Menschenwürde), of which we were
+    deprived by you!
+
+Of course, it requires many years and a great expenditure of money to
+establish a nation on a firm basis. But in Pinsker's dictionary the word
+"impossible" does not exist. "Far, very far," says he, "is the haven of
+rest towards which our souls are turning. We know not even whether it be
+East or West. But be the road never so long, it cannot seem too long to
+the wanderers of two thousand years."
+
+Pinsker's impassioned appeal made a deep impression. It was obvious that
+colonization would be the shortest road to renationalization. But as to
+the place in which the colonies should be established, no agreement
+could be reached. Pinsker, like Herzl after him, left the problem
+unsolved. Some preferred America or even Spain. In southern Russia a
+society, 'Am 'Olam (The Eternal Nation), was organized on communistic
+principles. It sent an advance guard to the United States, where, as the
+Sons of the Free, they established several settlements, the best-known
+of which was New Odessa, in Oregon.[8] The majority, however, preferred
+Palestine, the land which, in weal or woe, in pain or pleasure, remains
+ever dear to the Jewish heart; the land to which the ancient exiles by
+the waters of Babylon had vowed that sooner than forget her would their
+right hands forget their cunning and their tongues cleave to the roofs
+of their mouths; the possession whereof had been held out as the most
+alluring promise, and to be deprived of which the prophets had regarded
+as the severest punishment.
+
+Zionism, even Territorialism, among the Russian Jews is by no means
+solely the result of modern anti-Semitism. At the same time that
+Mordecai Manuel Noah was planning his Jewish state Ararat in western New
+York (1825), Gregori Peretz, who, as a child, had been converted, with
+his father, to the dominant religion, and had been advanced to the rank
+of an officer in his Majesty's army, was dreaming of the
+renationalization of his alienated brethren. As a leading figure in the
+councils of the Dekabrists, he never ceased his efforts until his
+comrades accepted the restoration of Israel to his pristine place among
+the nations of the earth as part of their revolutionary programme. But
+with the suppression of the Dekabrists by Nicholas I the scheme died
+"a-borning," and sank into oblivion. Later, David Gordon revived the
+yearnings of Judah Halevi by his articles in the weekly Ha-Maggid
+(1863), which he edited in Lyck, Prussia. Smolenskin's writings resound
+with a love for Zion from the very beginning of his literary career. And
+a rising young Hebraist, Eliezer ben Yehudah, while still a student of
+medicine, wrote, in 1878, and again in 1880, stirring letters to the
+editor of Ha-Shahar, in which he advocated the return to the Holy Land
+and the revival of the holy tongue as a _conditio sine qua non_ for the
+realization of the Jewish mission. These views, at first advocated by
+the Hebrew-writing and Hebrew-reading Maskilim, gradually filtered into
+the various strata of Russo-Jewish society, and when the clouds began to
+gather fast in Russia's sky, and the change in the monarch's policy
+augured the approach of evil times, Zionism rapidly made enthusiastic
+converts even among the most Russified of the Jewish youth. On November
+6, 1884, for the first time in history, a Jewish international assembly
+was held at Kattowitz, near the Russian frontier, where representatives
+from all classes and different countries met and decided to colonize
+Palestine with Jewish farmers.
+
+Since then Haskalah in Russia has become nationalistic and Palestinian.
+Even those who were at first opposed to it gradually grew friendly, and
+finally became "lovers of Zion" (Hobebe Zion). Among the Russo-Jewish
+students in Vienna, Smolenskin, the militant Zionist, organized an
+academic society, Kadimah, a name which, meaning Eastward and Forward,
+contains the philosophy of Zionism in a nutshell. Seeing that the
+Alliance Israélite Universelle encouraged emigration to America, both he
+and Ben Yehudah published violent attacks on the French society, and
+endeavored to thwart its plans as far as possible.[9] The Hebrew weekly
+Ha-Meliz, published in St. Petersburg, was a staunch supporter of the
+movement, and a little later Ha-Zefirah, published in Warsaw, which was
+at first indifferent, if not antagonistic, joined the ranks. In Russian,
+too, the Razsvyet and especially the Buduchnost spread Zionism among
+their readers, while books, pamphlets, and poems were published in
+Yiddish for circulation among the masses. In addition to the Hobebe Zion
+societies formed in many cities, secret societies were organized, such
+as the famous Bene Mosheh (Sons of Moses), which had for its object the
+moral and intellectual improvement of the future citizens of the Jewish
+Republic; the Bilu (initials of Bet Ya'akob leku we-nelekah, "O House of
+Jacob, come and let us go"), formed by Israel Belkind, who went to
+Palestine with his fellow-students of the University of Kharkov, and
+founded the colony of Gederah; and the Hillul (Hereb la-Adonaï
+u-le-Arzenu, "A sword for God and our land"), the members of which
+pledged themselves to remove any obstacle to the cause of nationalism,
+even at the cost of their lives. The Bone Zion (Builders of Zion), a
+sort of Masonic fraternity, was a very potent secret society, which
+undertook to constitute itself a provisional Jewish Government, and
+assiduously watched the Zionistic societies and their leaders in every
+portion of the globe.[10]
+
+These dreamy youths, however, heartbroken and disgusted with a
+civilization which had failed to redeem its promises, proved but poor
+material for laying the foundations for a future nation. It was as with
+the Darien Company organized by William Paterson when Scotland was
+sorely distressed, and the Champ d'Asile, by the remnant of Napoleon's
+grand army--a fine idea, but the men and the means were wanting to
+execute it. The colonies in Palestine fared no better than those in
+America. They were opposed by the Government from without and by many of
+the orthodox Jews from within. The former, though claiming to be glad to
+see the Jews emigrate, though declaring to the Jewish delegation that
+pleaded for mercy, _Zapadnaya graniza dlya vas otkrita_ ("the Western
+frontier is open to you"), was still, Pharaoh-like, reluctant to see so
+many "undesirable citizens" leave, and prohibited the formation of
+organizations to accomplish the end. The orthodox were against the
+movement on religious grounds, because it was "forcing the end" of
+Israel's trouble before the destined day of God arrived.[11] But with
+the "nineties" the movement received a strong impetus. Alexander
+Zederbaum, the publisher of Ha-Meliz, succeeded in obtaining a charter
+(February 9, 1890) for the Association for the Aid of Colonization in
+Palestine and Syria. Such eminent rabbis as Mordecai Eliasberg, his son
+Jonathan, Samuel Mohilever, N.Z.Y. Berlin, and Mordecai Joffe espoused
+the cause, and set the example for their less prominent colleagues. When
+the question arose whether Jewish agriculturists in Palestine are
+obliged to observe the Biblical injunction not to till the ground in the
+seventh year (shemittah), Rabbi Isaac Elhanan Spector of Kovno, the
+leading rabbi and Talmudist of his time, decided, in opposition to the
+Jerusalem rabbinate, that the law had ceased to be effective with the
+destruction of the Temple. Baron Edmond de Rothschild of Paris also came
+to the rescue of the colonists, and, more important still, there began
+an immigration of Russo-Jewish farmers into Palestine, of the class,
+numbering about ninety-five thousand souls, whom Arnold White described
+as "an active, well set-up, sun-burnt, muscular, agricultural people,
+marked by all the characteristics of a peasantry of the highest
+character." With them the colonies began to flourish, the debts were
+paid off, and a better regime set in. "There was no crime or
+drunkenness," says Bentwich, "in those settlements, and the only usurer
+was a Russian peasant, who charged the Jewish borrowers thirty-six per
+cent for loans. If ever I saw practical religion carried into daily
+life, it was among those brave and sober Hebrew ploughmen."[12]
+
+Whatever may be one's views on Zionism, there can be no doubt that it
+has proved a power for good in Russia. It introduced new ideals and
+revived old expectations. It has accomplished, in a measure, the fond
+hope of the Maskilim and awakened within the Russian Jew a feeling of
+self-respect and a "consciousness of human worth." Different and
+contending elements it has coalesced into one. It has, above all,
+brought back to the fold the doubting Thomases and careless Gallios,
+even the avowed scoffers, among the Jewish youth, and imbued them with
+courage and pride,[13] and given them a new shibboleth, _Meine Kunst der
+Welt, mein Leben meinem Volke_ ("My art for the world, my life for my
+people").
+
+"We have seen our youths return to us," writes Lilienblum,[14] "and our
+hearts were filled with joy. In their restoration we found balm for our
+wounds, and with rapturous wonderment we asked 'who has borne us
+these?'" The poets welcomed them with songs. Gordon, whose sorrow had
+silenced his muse, was inspired once more and called:
+
+  Behold our sons, of whom we despaired,
+  Return to us, the great and the small;
+  God's grace is not ended, our power's unimpaired,
+  Again we shall live, and rise after the fall!
+
+Frug sang in Russian:
+
+                              My own Nation,
+  Thou art not alone; thy sons behold
+  Coming back in crowds as in days of old!
+
+And Zunser represented Rachel as soliloquizing in Yiddish:
+
+  Through the windows what am I seeing,
+  Like turtle-doves hitherward fleeing?
+  Are my Joseph and Benjamin knocking at my door?
+  O Heavens, O mighty wonder!
+  Those are my children yonder!
+  Yes, my dearest and my truest coming home once more!
+
+But Zionism is not exclusively either a political or a religious
+movement. It is both plus something else; it is eminently educational.
+It has produced novelists and poets, whose writings are full of the
+virility and beauty of a rejuvenated nation. In Jaffa it established a
+high school (Bet ha-Sefer), it inspired Doctor Chazanowicz to establish
+a national library, and ways and means are being considered to establish
+a national university in Palestine.
+
+Even among the devotees of the arts it has given rise to a new romantic
+school, young painters and sculptors who are depicting their
+Judenschmerz.
+
+    Their cunning hands--says Mr. Leo Mielziner--have mastered the
+    technique of their art, be it in Moscow or Munich, or Berlin, or
+    Paris, but the heart which inspires their brush or mallet
+    pulsates in Palestine. The wandering Jew in them pauses, not to
+    portray the impression of the foreign lands and stranger
+    customs, but to depict his own suffering, his own Heimweh, his
+    own aspirations.
+
+Struck, Ashkenasi, Maimon, Hirszenberg, Gottlieb, Epstein, Löbschütz,
+and Schatz are the leaders of this new movement. The last-named,
+together with Ephraim Moses Lilien of Galicia, perhaps the greatest
+Jewish illustrator of our time, has founded a national school, Bezalel,
+to propagate Jewish art in Palestine, on the same principles on which
+the great national art schools of other countries are based. The
+language of instruction is Hebrew.
+
+Meanwhile the Society for the Promotion of Haskalah continued its work
+of Russification and general civilization. After 1880 its activity was
+greatly enhanced, and its members worked with renewed zeal. It opened
+elementary schools, and expended large sums on stipends for students,
+and the publication of useful and scholarly books. The branch in Odessa
+secured two hundred and thirty-one new members in one year (1900),
+making the total in that city alone nine hundred and sixty-eight. It
+organized a bureau of information on pedagogic subjects, and through the
+liberality of Kalonymos Wissotzky instituted prizes for original works
+in Hebrew or Russian. Individual philanthropists did their utmost to
+counterbalance the restrictions on education.[15]
+
+Trade schools were opened by the Committee for the Promotion of a
+Knowledge of Trade and Agriculture among the Jews of Russia, in Minsk,
+Vilna, and Vitebsk, besides fifteen manual training schools for boys and
+twenty for girls, in which the indigent pupils are provided with food,
+clothes, and books. In 1900 thirteen new schools were opened in Kherson
+and Yekaterinoslav, to supply the educational demand of the thirty-eight
+colonies existing in those Governments. In the vicinity of Minsk a
+Junior Republic was organized, and in many cities art and choral
+societies were formed.[16]
+
+The desire for self-help and the tendency towards organization, to which
+Zionism gave an impetus, was rapidly reflected in every sphere of
+Russo-Jewish activity. In a series of works and articles, Jacob Wolf
+Mendlin, who studied under Lassalle, pointed out the importance of the
+co-operative system. Accordingly, a union was organized by the Jewish
+salesmen in Warsaw. In 1897 a conference of Jewish workingmen was held
+in that city and Der allgemeine jüdische Arbeiterbund in Littauen,
+Polen, und Russland (Federation of Jewish Labor Unions in Lithuania,
+Poland, and Russia) was perfected. It published three papers as its
+organs, Die Arbeiterstimme, Der jüdischer Arbeiter, and, in Switzerland,
+Letzte Nachrichten. Soon workmen's associations and artisans' clubs
+appeared wherever there was a sufficient number of Jewish tailors,
+hatters, bookbinders, etc., for the purpose of increasing and improving
+the value of their production, and to do away with middlemen and
+money-lenders. They organized a tailors', dyers', and shoemakers' union
+in Kharkov, and a carpenters' union in Minsk, for mutual support in the
+struggle for existence, and for the construction of sanitary
+workingmen's houses. The cultural desire of the handicraftsmen,
+constituting twelve per cent of the Russo-Jewish population and
+occasionally fifty-two per cent (Odessa), seventy-three per cent
+(Kovno), and even ninety per cent (Byelostok), is phenomenal. Their
+object is not only physical improvement. Their highest aim is that their
+members be enabled, by means of efficient night schools and private
+instruction, to acquire elementary and higher education; in the words of
+the constitution of the carpenters' union of Minsk, "to protect their
+material interests, raise their moral and intellectual status, and
+foster efforts of self-help."[17]
+
+The Hebrew teachers, a class which, though more respected, underwent as
+hard a struggle as the workingmen, banded themselves together in 1899 in
+the Society for Aiding Hebrew Teachers of the Province of Vilna. Their
+president was Michael Wolper, the inspector of the Hebrew Institute and
+successor to Wohl as censor of Hebrew publications. Similar attempts
+were made in Bessarabia. Rabbi Shachor, chairman of the Hebrew Teachers'
+Association of Yekaterinoslav, was instrumental in opening a normal
+school conducted on Chautauqua principles, and so advanced the cause of
+education considerably.[18]
+
+With the establishment of the rabbinical seminaries and the ukase (May
+3, 1855) that only such may officiate as rabbis as have completed a
+prescribed course of study, Russian Jewry was placed in a sore
+predicament. It was a very difficult task to find men who united secular
+knowledge with that thorough mastery of Talmudic literature which the
+Jews of Russia exact from their rabbis. Every community was compelled to
+appoint two rabbis: an orthodox rabbi (dukhovny rabbin) and a "crown,"
+or Government, rabbi (kazyony rabbin). The people recognized only the
+authority of the former, the Government that of the latter. The
+consequence was that a man with a mere high-school education would apply
+for, and would often receive, the position of crown-rabbi. His duties
+consisted in merely keeping a register of marriages, births, and deaths,
+administering the oath, and the like. The many lawyers and physicians
+who were debarred from practicing their professions sought to become
+candidates for the rabbinate. To avoid the unpleasant results which
+followed, Rabbi Chernovich of Odessa and Rabbi I.J. Reines of Lyda
+established seminaries in Odessa and Lyda, to take the place and to
+continue the teaching of the Vilna and the Volozhin yeshibot, which had
+been closed, and to furnish proper rabbis for the various
+congregations.[19]
+
+The century-long struggle for enlightenment had a telling effect. What
+the early Maskilim had only dreamed of finally came to be. The
+metamorphosis was so great and so general as to be hardly credible. It
+was shown by Mr. Landman, in a paper read before the Russo-Jewish
+Historical Society of Odessa, that while among the Gentiles of that city
+the reading public constituted seven per cent of the population, among
+Jews it was no less than thirty-three per cent, and twenty-five per cent
+of all readers were Jewish women.[20] By 1905 there were two Yiddish and
+three Hebrew dailies, besides several weekly, monthly, and quarterly
+periodicals and annuals in Yiddish, Hebrew, and Russian, notwithstanding
+the fact that a numerous class depended on the general Russian literary
+output for their mental pabulum.
+
+As the number of those who read Hebrew was still considerable, Abraham
+Löb Shalkovich (Ben Avigdor) began, with the assistance of a number of
+Maskilim, the publication of "penny literature" (Sifre Agorah, Warsaw,
+1893). Shortly afterwards the Ahiasaf Society and, a little later, the
+Tushiyah Society were founded. The object was to edit and publish "good
+and useful books in the Hebrew language for the spread of knowledge and
+the teaching of morality and culture among the Hebrew youth, also
+scientific books in all departments of learning." Both these
+associations have done admirable work. They have published many good
+text-books for teaching Hebrew and Jewish history, an illustrated
+periodical for children, Olam Katan (The Little World), and numerous
+works of interest to the adult. Among their publications were, besides
+the original writings of Peretz, Taviov, Frischman, Berdichevsky,
+Chernikhovsky, and others, also translations from Bogrov, Byron, Frug,
+Hugo, Nordau, Shakespeare, Spencer, Zangwill, Zola, critical biographies
+of Aristotle, Copernicus, George Eliot, Heine, Lassalle, Nietzsche,
+Rousseau, and a great many equally famous men of letters, which followed
+each other in promiscuous but uninterrupted succession, all handsomely
+printed and prettily bound, and sold at a moderate price.
+
+One evil, however, remained, in the face of which both the Maskilim and
+the financiers found themselves utterly helpless, the evil of the
+exclusion of Jews from the universities. They could found elementary and
+high schools for the young, night schools and Sabbath Schools for the
+adult working-men, but to establish a university was an absolute
+impossibility. Jewish youths were again compelled, as in the days of
+Tobias Cohn and Solomon Maimon, to seek in foreign lands the education
+denied them in their own. Austria, Switzerland, France, and chiefly
+Germany, became once more the Meccas whither Russo-Jewish graduates
+repaired to finish their studies, and where they formed a sort of Latin
+Quarters of their own, and led almost a communal life. Their numbers in
+the German universities grew to such proportions, and their material
+condition became so wretched, that a society was organized in Berlin for
+the express purpose of helping them. On the other hand, the authorities
+protested (1906) against expending the funds granted each year for
+German educational institutions on the education of non-Germans, and the
+Akademischer Club of Berlin passed resolutions demanding a regulation
+against their admission. In Leipsic alone, of the six hundred and
+sixty-two foreign students who attended the university, three hundred
+and forty, or over one-half, are Russian Jews (1906). Of the five
+hundred and eighty-six students enrolled in the Commercial University,
+three hundred and twenty-two are foreigners, among whom Russians
+predominate, and of the eight hundred students who attend the Royal
+Conservatory of Music, three hundred are foreigners, also mostly
+Russians. Russians constitute two hundred and two of the three hundred
+and forty-seven pupils in the Dresden Polytechnicum, and sixty out of
+one hundred and thirty-seven in the Dresden Veterinary College, while in
+the Freiberg School of Mines and in the Tharand Forestry Academy they
+are in a majority, though they pay twice, and in some places three
+times, the amount of tuition fee required from the native students. The
+proportion is still greater in the Swiss universities of Basle, Berne,
+Geneva, Lausanne, and Zurich, where they sometimes constitute
+three-fourths of the entire student body in the medical schools (Geneva,
+1907).
+
+And as for the progress made by the Russo-Jewish woman, it is wonderful,
+indeed. It is hardly a quarter of a century since attention began to be
+given to her mental development, and yet she has seldom lagged behind
+her sisters in more enlightened lands, and has lately attained to a
+proud height. Vilna, with her "many well-educated wives," attracted the
+attention of Montefiore in the early "forties"; Tarnopol speaks in terms
+of high praise of the Jewish women of Odessa in the "sixties"; they
+"charm by their culture, by the ease and precision with which they speak
+several European languages, by the correctness of their judgment, and
+the beauty of their conversation."[21] The memoirs of Madame Pauline
+Wengeroff throw a sidelight also on the accomplishments of her sisters
+in the less enlightened districts of Russian Jewry. But in the last
+quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth century,
+their advance was prodigious.[22] When decent Jewish women were
+prohibited to reside in St. Petersburg, some of the Jewish female
+students, at the risk of their reputation, secured the yellow ticket of
+the prostitute rather than sacrifice their education. But the majority
+went to other countries. The press has lately been interested in what
+these seekers for light in foreign lands have accomplished, and reported
+the successes of Fanny Berlin, who graduated from the University of
+Berne as doctor of law _summa cum laude_, and of Miss Kanyevsky of
+Zinkoff (Poltava), who was the first woman to take her degree as
+engineer at the Ecole des Pontes et Chaussees, in Paris.
+
+    It is a curious fact--remarks a correspondent in the Pall Mall
+    Gazette--the majority [of lady doctors practicing in Paris] are
+    Russian Jewesses, just as are the greatest number of young women
+    medical students. At a rough calculation there are three hundred
+    ladies pursuing medical studies at the various schools, and
+    working side by side with the male students. The reason of the
+    invasion of the Jewess is, of course, the disabilities that
+    exist in Russia for those of the faith of Israel ...
+    disabilities that are hardly lessened in Germany. Moreover,
+    there exists only one university in Russia, and that is in St.
+    Petersburg. Some of the women who graduate in medicine do
+    extremely well afterwards in practice, and are greatly in vogue
+    in the highest society in Paris.... The lady doctor who is also
+    a Russian subject has likewise found a field for her energies in
+    China, where Russian influence is so dominant at the present
+    moment.
+
+Another writer, in Harper's Bazaar, speaking of girl-students in Paris,
+has this to say:
+
+    The Russian students are an interesting class in Paris. There
+    are some one hundred and thirty of them in all, nearly all
+    Hebrews, as the Russian universities admit only about four Jews
+    to every hundred students. Their monthly allowance from their
+    families is often no more than twenty dollars, and out of that
+    they must pay board, room-rent, and all outside expenses. These
+    Russian "new women" are extraordinary students. Mlle. Lepinska,
+    one of the first to graduate in medicine, presented a thesis six
+    hundred and sixty pages long to her astonished professors.
+
+With pitying admiration the world looks on the struggle for
+enlightenment of these brave sons and daughters of Judah. Their trials
+and tribulations, their heart-burnings and disappointments, have
+inspired poets and painters, novelists and playwrights. From Chamisso's
+_Abba Glusk Leczeka_ to Korolenko's _Skazanye o Florye Rimlyaninye_,
+czars have died or have been assassinated, statesmen have risen and
+fallen, but the Russian Jew, like the heroes of the poem or novel, did
+not wait to conquer by submitting. Thanks to his indomitable spirit he
+has made unexampled progress. Within the last twenty-five years he has
+not only emancipated himself, but he is now the most potent factor in
+the struggle for the emancipation of his countrymen. Within these years
+he has become the recognized torch-bearer of liberty and enlightenment
+in darkest Russia. Uvarov justified his inhuman treatment of the Jews by
+the plea that they are "orthodox and believers in the Talmud." The
+latest excuse (1904) of von Plehve was that "if we admitted Jews to our
+universities without restriction, they would surpass our Russian
+students and dominate our intellectual life." But neither the former
+prevails, nor the latter, nor their henchmen who fill the columns of the
+Grazhdanin, Kievlyanin, Novoye Vremya, and the like. The words and
+writings of such noble and world-famous Russians as Popoff, Demidov,
+Strogonoff, Bershadsky, Shchedrin, Tolstoi, and the cream of the Russian
+"intelligentia," as well as such foreigners as Mommsen, Gladstone,
+Leroy-Beaulieu, and Michael Davitt, will have their salutary effect. The
+consciousness of the Russian people will awaken. The attitude lately
+manifested both in St. Petersburg and the provinces against the
+_Kontrabandisti_, a libellous play written by an apostate Jew, Levin,
+will become more and more general. Then the heroic effort and the
+unexampled progress of the Russian Jews will be more fully appreciated,
+and a patriotic nation will gratefully acknowledge its indebtedness to
+that smallest but most energetic and self-sacrificing portion of its
+heterogeneous population, the Jews, who have done so much, not only for
+Jewish Russians, but for Christian Russians as well, to hasten the time
+when "many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased."
+
+(Notes, pp. 327-330.)
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE NOTES
+
+AZJ  = Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums, Leipsic, 1837--
+FKI  = Fünn, Keneset Yisraël, Warsaw, 1860.
+FKN  = Fünn, Kiryah Ne'emanah, Vilna, 1860.
+FSL  = Fünn, Safah le-Ne'emanim, Vilna, 1881.
+GMC  = Ginzberg and Marek, Yevreyskiya Narodniya Pyesni, St. Petersburg,
+       1901.
+HUH  = Harkavy, Ha-Yehudim u-Sefat ha-Selavim, Vilna, 1867.
+JE   = Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols., New York, 1901-1906.
+LBJ  = Levinsohn, Bet Yehudah, Warsaw, 1901.
+LTI  = Levinsohn, Te'udah be-Yisraël, Warsaw, 1901.
+WMG  = Wengeroff, Memoiren einer Grossrautter, i., Berlin, 1908.
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE PRE-HASKALAH PERIOD
+
+?-1648
+
+(pp. 17-52)
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Mention might, indeed, be made of Dr. Zunz's pioneer work
+in his Aelteste Nachrichten über Juden und jüdische Gelehrte in Polen,
+Slavonien, Russland (Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin, 1875, iii. 82-87),
+and Firkovich, who, in his Abne Zikkaron (Vilna, 1872), threw much light
+on the history of the Crimean Jews. The best contributions to the
+subject, however, are those of Harkavy, Russ i Russkiye v Sred. Yevr.
+Lit. (Voskhod, 1881), and Malishevsky, Yevreyi v Yuzhnoy Rossii i Kieve,
+v. x-xii. Vyekakh, St. Petersburg, 1878.]
+
+[Footnote 2: LTI, p. 33, n. 2; LBJ, ii. 94, n. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See JE, s.v. Azov, and Kertch. See also Fishberg, The Jews:
+A Study of Race and Environment, New York, 1911, pp. 150, 192-194.]
+
+[Footnote 4: See Judah Halevi's Kuzari, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Minor, Rukovodstvo, Moscow, 1881, iv; Ha-Pardes, St.
+Petersburg, 1902, p. 155.]
+
+[Footnote 6: HUH, pp. 31-32, 69-76.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Yevrey Minister, Voskhod, 1885, v. 105 f.]
+
+[Footnote 8: JE, i. 112, 119, 223; viii. 652.]
+
+[Footnote 9: The synagogue in Brest-Litovsk, which Saul Wahl built in
+memory of his wife Deborah, was demolished in 1836. WMG, p. 84.]
+
+[Footnote 10: HUH, pp. 77-134.]
+
+[Footnote 11: JE, x. 569.]
+
+[Footnote 12: The story of Zacharias de Guizolfi deserves to be given at
+greater length. He was a prince and ruler of the Taman peninsula near
+the Black Sea (1419). After he had been unsuccessful in a war against
+the Turks, Czar Ivan III sent him a message sealed with the gold seal
+(March 14, 1484) as follows:
+
+"By the grace of God, the great ruler of the Russian land, the Grand
+Duke Ivan Vassilyevich, czar of all the Russias, to Skariya the Hebrew.
+
+"You have written to us through Gabriel Patrov, our guest, that you
+desire to come to us. It is our wish that you do so. When you are with
+us, we shall give you evidence of our favorable disposition toward you.
+Should you wish to serve us, we will confer honors upon you. But should
+you not wish to remain with us, and prefer to return to your country,
+you shall be free to go."
+
+For some reason or other, Zacharias never accomplished his contemplated
+trip, notwithstanding the many inducements repeatedly offered by the
+czar during a period of eighteen years. Perhaps it was because of the
+disturbances which rendered transportation dangerous; possibly because
+he preferred to serve the khan rather than the czar, for we find him, in
+1500, a resident of Circassia. See JE, vi. 107-108; vi. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 13: E.g. Barakha, the hero (1601), Ilyash Karaimovich, the
+starosta (1637), and Motve Borokhovich, the colonel (1647). See JE, ii.
+128; iv. 283; ix. 40.]
+
+[Footnote 14: See Czacki, Rosprava o Zhydakh, Vilna, 1807, p. 93;
+Buchholtz, Geschichte der Juden in Riga, Riga, 1899, p. 3; Mann, Sheerit
+Yisraël, Vilna, 1818, ch. 30; Virga, Shebet Yehudah, Hanover, 1856, pp.
+147 f., and Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, ix. 480.]
+
+[Footnote 15: The Subbotniki, Dukhobortzi, and the other dissenting, but
+non-Jewish, sects are not referred to here, though they may have
+received their inspiration from Jews or through Judaism.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Voskhod, 1881, i. 73-75; JE, vii. 487-488; ix. 570;
+Bramson, K Istorii Pervonachalnaho Obrazovaniya Russkikh Yevreyev, St.
+Petersburg, 1896, pp. 4-6.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Sternberg, Die Proselyten im xvi. und xvii. Jahrhundert,
+AZJ, 1863, pp. 67-68 (ibid, in L'univers Israelite, 1863, pp. 272 f.);
+Mandelkern, Dibre Yeme Russyah, Warsaw, 1875, pp. 231 f.; Yevreyskaya
+Enziklopedya, s.v. Zhidostvuyushchikh; Bedrzhidsky in Zhurnal
+Ministerstva Narodnaho Prosvyeshchanya, St. Petersburg, 1912, pp.
+106-122; Jewish Ledger, Jan., 1902, p. 3; Emden, Megillat Sefer, ed.
+Cohan, p. 207, Warsaw, 1896. On Count Pototzki, see Ger Zedek, in
+Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, St. Petersburg, 1892; Gershuni, Sketches of
+Jewish Life and History, New York, 1873, pp. 158-224 (also
+Introduction), and S.L. Gordon's ballad in Ha-Shiloah (Ger Zedek), i.
+431. On Pototzki and Zaremba, see Gere Zedek (Anon.), Johannisberg,
+1862. On modern Russian Gerim, see Die Welt, July 5, 1907, pp. 16-17
+(Palestine), B'nai B'rith News, May 13, 1913 (United States), and
+Leroy-Beaulieu, Israel among the Nations, Engl. transl., New York, 1900,
+p. 110, n. 1; Yiddishes Tageblatt, July 16 and 23, 1913, Gerim in
+Russland, and Vieder vegen Gerim; JE, i. 336; vii. 369-370, 489.]
+
+[Footnote 18: HUH, pp. 3, 21 f.; Minor, op. cit., p. 4; Yevreyskiya
+Nadpisi, St. Petersburg, 1884, p. 217; Sefer ha-Yashar, no. 522; Eben
+ha-'Ezer, no. 118. On [Hebrew: Bn'n Hrogi] see Monatsschrift, xxii.
+514.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Catalogue de Rossi, in. 200; Ha-Maggid, 1860, pp. 299-302;
+HUH, pp. 33, 40.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Autobiography, p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 21: LBJ, ii. 95, n.; Ha-'Ibri, New York, viii., no. 33; Lehem
+ha-Panim, Hil. Nedarim, no. 228.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Nishmat Hayyim, Lemberg, 1858, p. 83a; Azulaï, Shem
+ha-Gedolim, s.v. Horowitz; FKN, p. 74, and Ha-Maggid, in. 159. Cf.
+Sheerit Yisraël, ch. 32, and Edelman, Gedulat Shaül, London, 1854.
+Reifman, in Ha-Maggid, claims that to Luria belongs the honor of being
+the first-known Jewish author.]
+
+[Footnote 23: See Zikronot, ed. Cohan, pp. 62-66, 90, 313, 336, 380,
+passim; Schechter, Studies in Judaism, Philadelphia, 1908, ii. 132.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Margoliuth, Hibbure Likkutim, Venice, 1715, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Horowitz, Frankfurter Rabbinen, Frankfort-on-the-Main,
+1883, pp. 30-35; FKN, pp. 73-91; Emden, op. cit, p. 125; and
+biographies.]
+
+[Footnote 26: LTI, ii. 81, n.; Hannover, Yeven Mezulah, Warsaw, 1872, p.
+7b.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Zunz, Literaturgeschichte, pp. 433-435, 442; Buber, Anshe
+Shem, Cracow, 1895, pp. 307-309; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 396; JE,
+xi. 217; Bikkure ha-'Ittim, 1830, p. 43. Jacob of Gnesen, I suspect,
+must have lived in Russia.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, pp. 235, 240; Benjacob,
+op. cit, p. 396.]
+
+[Footnote 29: JE, xii. 265-266: "Enfin les incrédules les plus
+déterminés n'out presque rien allégué qui ne soit dans le Rampart de la
+Foi du Rabbin Isaac."]
+
+[Footnote 30: Nusbaum, Historya Zhidóv, i. p. 180; Edelman, op. cit,
+attributes the coming of Saul Wahl to this cause.]
+
+[Footnote 31: The Elim (Amsterdam, 1629), if not, as the Karaites
+maintain, actually the work of Zerah Troki, was surely the result of the
+problems submitted by him to Delmedigo.]
+
+[Footnote 32: JE, iv. 504; vii. 264; xii. 266; Ha-Eshkol, iii. and iv.
+(R.M. Jarre); LTI, ii. 80; Benjacob, op. cit, no. 1428.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Zunz, Ritus, Berlin, 1859, p. 73, and Gottesdienstliche
+Vorträge, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1892, p. 452, n.a.; Wessely, Dibre
+Shalom we-Emet, ii. 7; Benjacob, op. cit., no. 1187.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Voskhod, 1893, i. 79; New Era Illustrated Magazine, v.;
+FNI, p. 28 f.; JE, i. 113; ii. 22, 622; xii. 265.]
+
+[Footnote 35: JE, vii. 454.]
+
+[Footnote 36: JE, i. 372; iv. 140; Ha-Yekeb, 1894, p. 68.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Bersohn, Tobiasz Cohn, Warsaw, 1872.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Cf. FKN, pp. 38-42 (Vilna constitution); Hannover, op.
+cit., p. 23a; Ha-Modia' la-Hadashim, II. i. II, and JE, s.v. Council,
+Kahal, Lithuania, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 39: See GMC, pp. 59 f., and compare with this Lermontoff's
+Cossack Cradle-Song, which may be taken as a type:
+
+  Sleep, my child, my little darling, sleep, I sing to thee;
+    Silently the soft white moonbeams fall on thee and me.
+  I will tell thee fairy stories in my lullaby;
+    Sleep, my child, my pretty darling, sleep, I sing to thee.
+  Lo, I see the day approaching when the warriors meet;
+    Then wilt thou grasp thy rifle and mount thy charger fleet.
+  I will broider in thy saddle colors fair to see,
+   Sleep, my child, my little darling, sleep, I sing to thee.
+  Then my Cossack boy, my hero brave and proud and gay,
+    Waves one farewell to his mother and rides far away.
+  Oh, what sorrow, pain and anguish then my soul shall fill,
+    As I pray by day and night that God will keep thee still!
+  Thou shalt take a saint's pure image to the battlefield,
+    Look upon it when thou prayest, may it be thy shield.
+  And when battles fierce are raging, give one thought to me;
+    Sleep, my darling, calmly, sweetly, sleep, I sing to thee.
+
+  --Westminster Gazette.
+
+See Güdemann, Quellen zur Geschichte des Unterrichts, Berlin, 1891, pp.
+285-286; Ha-Boker Or, i. 315 (on Dubno); Ha-Meliz, 1894, no. 254 (on
+Mohilev); Zunz, Gottesdienstliche Vorträge, pp. 122g and 470a; cf.
+Weiss, Zikronotaï, Warsaw, 1895, pp. 53-83.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Cf. Güdemann, Geschichte des Erziehungswesens, iii. 94,
+n., and see Dembitzer, Kelilat Yofi, Introduction, and Meassef, St.
+Petersburg, 1902, p. 205, n.]
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+DAYS OF TRANSITION
+
+1648-1794
+
+(pp. 53-109)
+
+
+[Footnote 1: JE, s.v. Bratzlav.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In the diary of a Polish squire we find the following item:
+"Jan. 5. As the lessee Herszka had not yet paid me the rental of 91
+gulden, I went to his house to get my debt. According to the contract, I
+can arrest him and his wife for as long as I wish, until he settles the
+bill, and so I ordered him locked up in the pig-sty and left his wife
+and his sons in the inn. The youngest son, however, I took with me to
+the palace to be instructed in the rudiments of our religion. The boy is
+unusually bright and shall be baptized. I already wrote to our priest
+concerning it, and he promised to come to prepare him. Leisza at first
+stubbornly refused to make the sign of the cross and repeat our prayers,
+but Strelicki administered a sound whipping, and to-day he even ate ham.
+Our venerable priest Bonapari ... is inventing all manner of means to
+break his stiff-neckedness." Meassef, St. Petersburg, 1902, pp.
+192-193.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See Wolkonsky, Pictures of Russian History and Literature,
+Boston, 1897, p. 136.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Orshansky, in Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, ii. 207.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Meassef, St. Petersburg, 1902, p. 195; Beck and Brann,
+Yevreyskaya Istoriya, p. 326; JE, iv. 155; xi. 113.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Meassef, p. 200. On Russia at the time of Peter the Great,
+see Macaulay, History of England, ch. xxiii., where he describes the
+"savage ignorance and the squalid poverty of the barbarous country." In
+that country "there was neither literature nor science, neither school
+nor college. It was not till more than a hundred years after the
+invention of printing that a single printing-press had been introduced
+into the Russian empire, and that printing-press speedily perished in a
+fire, which was supposed to have been kindled by priests." When Pyoter
+Vyeliki (Peter the Great), while in London, saw the archiepiscopal
+library, he declared that "he had never imagined that there were so many
+printed volumes in the world." See also Carlyle, History of Frederick
+the Great, iv. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 7: FKN, pp. 126-132; Voskhod, 1893; on the Hasidim and
+Mitnaggedim see below.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Ma'aseh Tobiah, p. 18; Meassef, pp. 206-209; Geiger (Melo
+Hofnayim, Berlin, 1840, pp. 1-29) published Delmedigo's corroboration of
+this statement.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Rapoport, Etan ha-'Ezrahi, Ostrog, 1776, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Cf. Zederbaum, Keter Kehunnah, pp. 72-74, 84, 121, etc.,
+and Ha-Shiloah, xxi. 165; Schechter, Studies in Judaism, i.,
+Philadelphia, 1896, i. 17 f., and Greenstone, The Messiah Idea in Jewish
+History, pp. 237 f. According to some, Judah he-Hasid and his followers
+went to Palestine in the expectation, not of the Messiah, but of
+Shabbataï Zebi, who was believed to have been in hiding for forty years,
+in imitation of the retirement of Moses in Midian for a similar period
+of years. "The ruins of Rabbi Judah he-Hasid's synagogue" and Yeshibah
+in Jerusalem still keep the memory of the event fresh in the minds of
+Palestinian Jews.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Among the many wonderful episodes in the life of the
+master, his biographer mentions also that he could swallow down the
+largest gobletful in a single gulp (Shibhe ha-Besht, Berdichev, 1815,
+pp. 7-8). The best, though not an impartial work on Hasidism is
+Zweifel's Shalom 'al Yisraël, 4 vols., Zhitomir, 1868-1872.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Ha-Boker Or, iv. 103-105: [Hebrew: H'fkormot Mn Nshmot
+M'lh Hngon.]]
+
+[Footnote 13: Cf. Emden, op. cit., p. 185, and Shimush, Amsterdam, 1785,
+pp. 78-80, with Pardes, ii. 204-214.]
+
+[Footnote 14: See Schechter, op. cit., pp. 73-93; Silber, Elijah Gaon,
+1906; Levin, 'Aliyat Eliyahu, Vilna, 1856, and FKN, pp. 133-155.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Levin, op. cit., pp. 28-30.]
+
+[Footnote 16: See Ha-Bikkurim, i. 1-26; ii. 1-20; Ha-Zeman (monthly),
+1903, ii. 6; Plungian, Ben Porat, Vilna, 1858, p. 33; Keneset Yisraël,
+iii. 152 seq.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Sirkes (Bayit Hadash, Cracow, 1631, p. 40) decides that
+Jews may employ in their synagogue melodies used in the church, since
+"music is neither Jewish nor Christian, but is governed by universal
+laws." See also Hayyim ben Bezalel's Wikkuah Mayim Hayyim, Introduction,
+and passim.]
+
+[Footnote 18: See J.S. Raisin, Sect, Creed and Custom in Judaism,
+Philadelphia, 1907, p. 9, and ch. viii.; Ha-Meliz, x. 186, 192-194.]
+
+[Footnote 19: See Ha-Zeman (monthly), 1903, ii. 7.; Shklov, Euclidus,
+Introduction; Keneset Yisraël, 1887, and Hagra on Orah Hayyim, Shklov,
+1803, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 20: See Graetz, op. cit, xi. 590, 604, 606. The Gaon, who as a
+rule was very mild, lost patience with the Hasidim and wielded the
+weapons of the kuni (or stocks and exposures) and excommunication
+without mercy. The Hasidim were also accused of being not only religious
+dissenters but revolutionaries. Zeitlin, quoted in Yiddishes Tageblatt,
+from the Moment, March, 1913.]
+
+[Footnote 21: See Karpeles, Time of Mendelssohn, p. 297; Kayserling,
+Mendelssohn, p. 12; Ha-Meliz, 1900, nos. 194-196.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Epstein, Geburat ha-Ari, Vilna, 1870, p. 29; Rabinovich,
+Zunz, Warsaw, 1896; Wessely, op. cit., ii.; Linda, Reshit Limmudim,
+Berlin, 1789, and Ha-Zeman (monthly), ii. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Delitzsch, Zur Geschichte der jüdischen Poesie, Leipsic,
+1836, p. 118; Bernfeld, Dor Tahapukot, Warsaw, 1897, pp. 88 f. Dubno
+also edited Luzzatto's La-Yesharim Tehillah, which, according to
+Slouschz, marks the beginning of the renaissance in Hebrew
+belles-lettres.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Published in Berlin in 1793. It was translated into
+English by Murray (Solomon Maimon, Boston, 1888) and into Hebrew by
+Taviov (Warsaw, 1899).]
+
+[Footnote 25: Bernfeld, op. cit., ii. 66 f. JE, s.v. Maimon; and
+Autobiography (Engl. transl.), p. 217. For Maimon's system of philosophy
+and also for a complete bibliography of his writings, see Kunz, Die
+Philosophic Salomon Maimons, Heidelberg, 1912, pp. xxv, 531.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Wolff, Maimoniana, Berlin, 1813, p. 177.]
+
+[Footnote 27: How touching and suggestive is the word [Hebrew: Shbi]] in
+an acrostic at the end of his Introduction to his Gibe'at ha-Moreh, a
+commentary on the Moreh Nebukim:
+
+  'hobi ykr kor'
+  'bi vshm shmi hd'
+  Shbi bmlt bhtboknn]
+
+[Footnote 28: See Murray's Introduction to the Autobiography; Auerbach,
+Dichter und Kaufmann; Zangwill, Nathan the Wise and Solomon the Fool.]
+
+[Footnote 29: FKI, p. 196.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Maggid, Toledot Mishpehot Ginzberg, pp. 52-53; Emden,
+Sheëlat Ya'abez, Altona, 1739, p. 65 a.]
+
+[Footnote 31: FKN, pp. 109-114, 269; FKI, p. 300.]
+
+[Footnote 32: FKI, p. 394; Delitzsch, op. cit, p. 84.]
+
+[Footnote 33: L'univers Israélite, liii. 831-841: "C'est, vous le voyez,
+un juif polonais qui contribua puissamment à l'émancipation des juifs de
+France. Et je me demande si le Judaisme du monde entier ne doit pas
+rendre hommage à notre coreligionnaire polonais autant peut-être qu' à
+Menasse ben Israël." FKI, p. 333; Ha-Meliz, ii. no. 50; Shulammit, iii.
+425; Graetz, op. cit. (Engl. transl.), v. 443.]
+
+[Footnote 34: See Berliner, Festschrift, 1903, pp. 1-4.]
+
+[Footnote 35: See Ha-Meliz, viii. nos. 11, 22, 23; FSL, p. 139;
+Monatsschrift, xxiv, 348-357.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Delitzsch, op. cit., pp. 115-118; Ha-Zeman (monthly), ii.
+23 f.]
+
+[Footnote 37: See Meassef, 1788, p. 32, and Levin's ed. of Moreh
+Nebukim, Zolkiev, 1829, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Ha-Meassef, 1809, pp. 68-75, 136-171.]
+
+[Footnote 39: See Sefer ha-Berit, Introduction, and Weissberg,
+Aufklärungsliteratur, Vienna, 1898, p. 83.]
+
+[Footnote 40: FKI, p. 428.]
+
+[Footnote 41: See Emden, Torat ha-Kenaot, pp. 123-127, and Hitabkut
+(Pinczov's letters); Voskhod, 1882, nos. viii-ix; FSL, pp. 136-137;
+Friedrichsfeld, Zeker Zaddik, p. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Maimon, Autobiography, pp. 106-107; FSL, p. 135.]
+
+[Footnote 43: See LTI, ii. 96, n. 1, and Yellin and Abrahams,
+Maimonides, p. 160, and reference on p. 330, n. 72; Ha-Zeman (monthly),
+i. 102-103; Margolioth, Bet Middot, p. 20. Heine's admiration for these
+idealists or those who succeeded them is well worth quoting. In his
+essay on Poland, he says: "In spite of the barbaric fur cap which covers
+his head and the even more barbaric ideas which fill it, I value the
+Polish Jew much more than many a German Jew with his Bolivar on his head
+and his Jean Paul inside of it.... The Polish Jew in his unclean furred
+coat, with his populous beard and his smell of garlic and his Jewish
+jargon, is nevertheless dearer to me than many a Westerner in all the
+glory of his stocks and bonds."]
+
+[Footnote 44: Op. cit. Letter ii.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Likkute Kadmoniot, Vilna, 1860, Introduction.]
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE DAWN OF HASKALAH
+
+1794-1840
+
+(pp. 110-161)
+
+
+[Footnote 1: See Orshansky, in Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, ii. 240;
+Drabkin, in Monatsschrift, xix-xx.]
+
+[Footnote 2: FKN, pp. 27, 303.]
+
+[Footnote 3: JE, iv. 301; Plungian, op. cit, p. 59.]
+
+[Footnote 4: FKN, p. 193.]
+
+[Footnote 5: JE, iv. 407.]
+
+[Footnote 6: FKN, p. 193; Jellinek, Kuntres ha-Rambam, pp. 39f.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Occident, v. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Jost, Culturgeschichte, Berlin, 1847, p. 302.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Steinschneider, 'Ir Vilna, 1900, p. 146.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Voskhod, 1881, ii. 29-30; 1900, p. 55.]
+
+[Footnote 11: FKN, pp. 277-279.]
+
+[Footnote 12: See Rabinovitz, Ma'amar 'al ha-Defosat ha-Talmud, Munich,
+1876, p. 112. Cf. Zweifel, op. cit., iv. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 13: FKN, pp. 277-279.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Toledot Adam, pp. 14 b, 16 b, 24 b, 75 b, 84 a.]
+
+[Footnote 15: See Plungian, op cit., pp. 46-47, 91; Voskhod, 1900, ix.
+77; Ha-Zeman (monthly), 1903, iii. 22-30; see also Die Zukunft, New
+York, July, 1913, pp. 713 f.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Voskhod, Dec., 1890, pp. 142 f.; Ha-Boker Or, Jan., 1881.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Voskhod, 1888, iii. 37 f; Rodkinson, Toledot 'Ammude
+HaBaD.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Cohan, Rabbi Yisraël Ba'al Shem Tob, 1900, p. 67.]
+
+[Footnote 19: 'Ammude Bet Yehudah, xxvii., and see Ha-Zeman (monthly),
+ii. 8-15.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Buchholtz, op. cit., Beilage 14, pp. 137-138.]
+
+[Footnote 21: See Weissberg, op. cit., p. 53; Talmud Leshon Russiah,
+Vilna, 1825; Moda' li-Bene Binah, ibid., 1826; cf. Baër Heteb,
+Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Helel ben Shahar, Warsaw, 1804, Introduction, and p. 81.
+See Peri ha-Arez Yashan, Letter 2, quoted by Dubnow, Pardes, ii.
+210-211.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Keneset Yisraël, i. 138; Morgulis, Voprosi Yevreyskoy
+Zhizni, pp. 7-10.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Enziklopedichesky Slovar, St. Petersburg, 1895, xvii.
+642.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Ha-Shahar, x. 44-52; FKN, p. 33; Ha-Boker Or, i. 145-146.]
+
+[Footnote 26: FSL, p. 164.]
+
+[Footnote 27: See Günzburg, Ha-Debir, Warsaw, 1883, ii. 55;
+Israelitische Annalen, 1840, p. 263.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Ha-Zeman (monthly), iii. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Minor, op. cit, p. 46; Lerner, Yevreyi v Novorossiskom
+Kraye, Odessa, 1901, p. 234; Monatsschrift, xviii. 234 f., 477 f., 551
+f.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Voskhod, 1881, i-iii; Ha-Zeman (monthly), iii. 11-14.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Op. cit, pp. 208-209.]
+
+[Footnote 32: Cf. Graetz, xi. 50; Kayserling, op. cit, p. 288; Fünn,
+Sofre Yisraël, Vilna, 1891, pp. 138-143; WMG, p. 135.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Graetz, xi. 590, 604, 606; Annalen, xx. 467; Kayserling,
+op. cit., p. 307; Landshut, Toledot Anshe Shem, p. 85.]
+
+[Footnote 34: [Hebrew: Yd Tshlhu 'l Rm''d Bsfri]. Weiss, Zikronotaï, p.
+58, n.; Ha-Zeman (monthly), i. and iii. 18-19.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Zweifel, op. cit., pp. 35-40, and Ha-Hasidut we-ha-Musar
+in Ha-Meliz, 1897; Toledot Mishpehot Shneersohn, in Ha-Asif, v. 35-40,
+and Nefesh Hayyim, iii. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Mandelkern, Dibre Yeme Russyah, iii. 98; American
+Israelite, nos. 15, 18, etc. (My Travels in Russia); Gordon, Ha-Azamot
+ha-Yebashot, Odessa, 1899; AZJ, 1854, p. 22; Zunser, Biography, New
+York, 1905, pp. 15-19 (Engl. transl., pp. 14-18); Shenot Ra'inu Ra'ah,
+in Ha-Meliz, 1860; Sefer ha-Shanah, iii. 82-101, and GMC, nos. 43-50.
+One of these songs runs as follows:
+
+  On the streets in tears we're wading,
+  In our bairns' blood we might be bathing;
+  What a misfortune, ah, wellaway--
+  Will never dawn the better day?
+
+  Little infants from heder are torn,
+  And forced to wear the soldier's uniform;
+  What a misfortune, etc.
+
+  Our leaders, rabbis, and honored elders,
+  E'en help to impress them for the czar's soldiers;
+  What a misfortune, etc.
+
+  Seven sons has Zushe Rakover,
+  Yet not a one for the army is over;
+  What a misfortune, etc.
+
+  Leah, the widow, has an only son,
+  And for the kahal's sins he's gone;
+  What a misfortune, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 37: GMC, no. 42. On similar enthusiasm among the Galician
+Maskilim, see Erter, Kol Kore, in Ha-Zofeh le-Bet Yisrael, Warsaw, 1890,
+pp. 131-133.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Elk, Die jüdischen Kolonien in Russland,
+Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1886, pp. 28-53, 60-80, 119-140, 153-160,
+205-208; Jastrow, Beleuchtungen, etc., Hamburg, 1859, pp. 109-113.]
+
+[Footnote 39: See Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin, 1875, pp, 279-290;
+Jost, Freimüthige Beleuchtung, Berlin, 1830; and Culturgeschichte, pp.
+302-303.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Rabinovitz, op. cit., pp. 11-18.]
+
+[Footnote 41: On Volozhin, see Ha-Kerem, 1887, pp. 67-77; Bikkurim,
+1865, pp. 6-45; Ozar ha-Sifrut, iii.; Ha-Asif, iii.; Ha-Meliz, 1900,
+nos. 16-18; Schechter, op. cit., i. 93-98; Horowitz, Derek 'Ez
+ha-Hayyim, Cracow, 1895. The yeshibah was reopened under the deanship of
+Rabbi Raphael Shapira of Bobruisk, and still exists, though in a rather
+precarious condition.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Read the vivid description in WMG, p. 147.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Occident, ii. 563-564.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Uvarov's opinion of the Talmud was "razvrashchal i
+raz-vrashchayet" ("it has been degrading and is degrading"). Nicholas
+granted special privileges to the Karaites, and claimed they were the
+genuine Israelites, chiefly because they did not follow the precepts of
+the Talmud.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Occident, ii. 562-563.]
+
+[Footnote 46: See Loewe, Diaries of Sir Moses and Lady Montefiore,
+London, 1890, i. 100, 231, 311-312, passim; Günzburg, Debir, ii. 99-108;
+(Dick), Ha-Oreah, Königsberg, 1860.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Günzburg, op. cit., pp. 115-117, 122-125; Leket Amarim
+(suppl. to Ha-Meliz), St. Petersburg, 1887, pp. 81-86; AZJ, ix. nos.
+46-50; x. nos. 5, 49, etc.; Jastrow, op. cit., p. 12, Lubliner, De la
+condition politique .... dans le royaume de Pologne, Brussels, 1860
+(especially pp. 44-45).]
+
+[Footnote 48: GMC, no. 255.]
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CONFLICTS AND CONQUESTS
+
+1840-1855
+
+(pp. 162-221)
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Diakov states that "when the population degenerated in West
+Russia, business and industry declined, and the number of the rich
+greatly diminished, while the nobles, embittered against the Government,
+did absolutely nothing for their country, the Jews formed an
+exception.... There is no doubt that they are doing their utmost for the
+regeneration of our land, despite the restrictions heaped upon them
+without any cause" (Elk, op. cit., p. 41 seq.). Surovyetsky likewise
+maintains that "after the devastation of Poland because of the numerous
+wars, the ruining of so many cities, and the almost total extermination
+of their inhabitants ... the Jews alone effected the regeneration of our
+trade. They alone upheld our tottering industries .... We may safely
+affirm that without them, without their characteristic mobility, we
+should never have recovered our commerce and wealth" (Jastrow, op. cit.,
+p. 12).]
+
+[Footnote 2: See AZJ, April 29, 1844, and Orient, 1844, P-224, in which
+the correspondent adds: "It is a touching sight to see these laborers
+(as longshoremen), for the most part aged, perform their fatiguing
+duties in the streets during the hottest seasons, endeavoring to lighten
+their heavy burdens by the repetition of Biblical and Talmudic
+passages."]
+
+[Footnote 3: Ozar ha-Sifrut, 1877; Annalen, 1839, pp. 345-346, and 1841,
+no. 31. Bikkure ha-'Ittim, 1821, pp. 168-172; FSL, p. 150; Paperna,
+Ha-Derammah (Eichenbaum's letter); Ha-Boker Or, 1879, pp. 691-698;
+Occident, v. 255; Pirhe Zafon, ii. 216-217; Ha-Maggid, 1863, p. 348;
+Orient, 1841, p. 266; Lapin, Keset ha-Sofer, Berlin, 1857, p. 8, and
+Morgulis, op. cit., p. 48.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Jost, Culturgeschichte, pp. 308-309; Morgulis, op. cit., p.
+27; Atlas, Mah Lefanim u-mah Leaher, Warsaw, 1898, pp. 44 f.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Sbornik of the Minister of Education, iii. 140; Ha-Shahar,
+iv. 569.]
+
+[Footnote 6: See An die Verehrer, Freunde und Schüler, etc., Leipsic,
+1823, pp. 122-125.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Ueber die Verbesserung der Israeliten im Königreich Polen,
+Berlin, 1819.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften, pp. 296-297; Jost, op. cit, p.
+304; Jastrow, op. cit, pp. 41 f.; and Zederbaum, Kohelet, St.
+Petersburg, 1881, p. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Occident, v. 493.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Maggid Yeshu'ah, Vilna, September, 1842. It is reproduced,
+together with many Haskalah reminiscences, by Gottlober in Ha-Boker Or,
+iv. (Ha-Gizrah we-ha-Binyah). According to Gottlober the Hebrew is
+Fünn's translation from the original German. Yet Hebrew letters (Leket
+Amarim, St. Petersburg, 1888) were published in Lilienthal's name.]
+
+[Footnote 11: See AZJ, 1842, no. 41; Mandelstamm, Hazon la-Moëd, Vienna,
+1877, pp. 19, 21, 25-27; Leket Amarim, pp. 86-89; Kohelet, p. 12;
+Morgulis, op. cit, p. 55; Ha-Pardes, pp. 186-199; Nathanson, Sefer
+ha-Zikronot, Warsaw, 1878, p. 70; Lilienthal, in American Israelite,
+1854 (My Travels in Russia), and Jüdisches Volksblatt, 1856 (Meine
+Reisen in Russland), and Der Zeitgeist, 1882, p. 149.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Occident, v. 252, 296.]
+
+[Footnote 13: WMG, pp. 185-200; AZJ, 1844, pp. 75, 247; 1845, pp.
+304-305; 1846, p. 18; American Israelite, i. 156.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Rede, etc., Riga, 1840, p. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Ha-Pardes, i. 202-203. See Bramson, op. cit., pp. 26-27;
+WMG, p. 118.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Ha-Kokabim, 1868, pp. 61-78; Ha-Kerem, 1887, pp. 41-62;
+Zweifel, op. cit, pp. 55-56.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Ha-Mizpah, 1882, p. 17; Kohelet, p. 16; Sbornik of the
+Minister of Education, 1840, pp. 340, 436-437, and Supplement, pp.
+35-38; Prelooker, Under the Czar and Queen Victoria, London, pp. 4-5;
+cf. AZJ, 1846, p. 86.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Elk, op. cit, ch. iii.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Occident, v. 493; Nathanson, Sefat Emet, p. 92;
+Mandelstamm, op. cit., pp. 31-32, and Morgulis, op. cit, pp. 102-147.
+
+On tax collectors, cf. the English ballad quoted by Macaulay (History of
+England, ch. iii.):
+
+  Like plundering soldiers they'd enter the door,
+  And made a distress on the goods of the poor,
+  While frightened poor children distractedly cried;
+  This nothing abated their insolent pride.
+
+And the Yiddish folk song (GMC, no. 55):
+
+  The excise young fellows,
+  They are tremendously wild:
+  They shave their beards,
+  And ride on horses,
+  Wear overshoes,
+  And eat with unwashed hands.
+
+Their lack of confidence in the permanence of the schools is expressed
+in the following song (GMC, no. 53):
+
+  May we soon be released from the Jewish Goless,
+  When we shall be expelled from the Gentile Scholess (schools).
+
+On the struggle to retain the so-called Jewish mode of dress, see I.M.
+D(ick), Die Yiddishe Kleider Umwechslung, Vilna, 1844.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Op. cit., pp. 12-13; cf. Letteris, in Moreh Nebuke
+ha-Zeman, Introduction, pp. xv-xvi; Bramson, op. cit., pp. 34-35, 43-44,
+and Levanda, Ocherki Proshlaho, St. Petersburg, 1876.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Cf. Buckle, History of Civilization, New York, 1880, ii.
+529-538.]
+
+[Footnote 22: "Fifty years ago," says Mr. Rubinow (Bulletin of the
+Bureau of Labor, no. 72, Washington, Sept., 1907, p. 578), "the
+educational standard of the [Russian] Jews was higher than that of the
+Russian people at large is at present."]
+
+[Footnote 23: Mandelkern, op. cit., iii. 33.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Buckle, op. cit., pp. 140-142, notes 33-37.]
+
+[Footnote 25: The same phenomenon was witnessed to a certain extent also
+in Galicia, where for a while Haskalah flourished in great splendor.
+There, too, the charm and fecundity of German literature, the similarity
+of Yiddish to German, and the privileges the Austrian Government
+accorded them, proved too strong a temptation for the Jews, and many of
+those who became enlightened were rapidly assimilated with their Gentile
+countrymen. While, therefore, in Galicia the Haskalah movement lasted
+longer than in Germany, it had ceased long before it reached its fullest
+development in Russia. Austrian civilization accelerated the
+assimilation of the educated, Polish prejudice retarded the progress of
+the masses. So that though Erter, Letteris, Krochmal, Goldenberg,
+Mieses, Rapoport, Perl, and Schorr exerted a great influence in Russia,
+their own country remained unaffected. Many of them, like A. Peretz,
+Eichenbaum, Feder, Pinsker, Werbel, and Rosenfeld emigrated to Russia,
+where they found a wider field for their activities, while others, like
+Professor Ludwig Gumplowicz, the sociologist, Marmorek, the physician,
+and Scheps, the litterateur, became alienated from their former
+coreligionists.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Keneset Yisraël, iii. 84; Gottlober, Za'ar Ba'ale Hayyim,
+Zhitomir, 1868: [Hebrew: T'rng Nfshi 'lid Ki] (comp. Ps. xlii, and Shir
+ha-Kabod, last verse).]
+
+[Footnote 27: Occident, v. 243. Cf. Buchholtz, op. cit., pp. 82-116.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Occident, v. 255; Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, ii. 207-210.]
+
+[Footnote 29: 1840, no. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Emden, Megillat Sefer, p. 5; Günzburg, Debir, ii. 105-106;
+Mandelstamm, op. cit, i. 3-4, 11; Annalen, 1841, no. 31.]
+
+[Footnote 31: FKN, pp. 246-247; Günzburg, op. cit., i. 48. Moses Reines
+also points out the fact that the prominent rabbis did not withhold
+their approval of the most typical Haskalah works when their authors
+were not suspected of heresy, as shown by Abele's haskamah on
+Levinsohn's Te'udah be-Yisraël, Tiktin's on Günzburg's Toledot ha-Arez,
+and Malbim's on Zweifel's Sanegor (Ozar ha-Sifrut, 1888, p. 61).]
+
+[Footnote 32: Ha-Boker Or, 1879, no. 4; FKI, pp. 537-538, 1132;
+Ha-Lebanon, 1872, no. 35; Ha-Zefirah, 1879, no. 9; Jewish Chronicle, May
+4, 1877; Keneset Yisraël, 1887, pp. 157-162; Ha-Meliz, ix. (1889), nos.
+198-199, 201, 232; Jost, op. cit., p. 305. Da'at Kedoshim, St.
+Petersburg, 1897, pp. 19, 22, 27.]
+
+[Footnote 33: These biographical sketches, first published respectively
+in the New Era Illustrated Magazine (1905, pp. 387-396) and the American
+Israelite (April 25, 1907), are drawn from the following sources;
+Houzner, I.B. Levinsohn (Russian), Odessa, 1862; Nathanson, Sefer
+ha-Zikronot (Heb.), Warsaw, 1878; Yiddishe Bibliotek (Yid.), Kiev, 1888;
+also Annalen, 1839, no. 17; Ha-Maggid, 1863, p. 381; Ha-Zefirah, 1900,
+p. 197; Maggid, op. cit., pp. 86-115; Günzburg, Debir, i. and ii.,
+Warsaw, 1883; Kiryat Sefer, Vilna, 1835 (esp. Letters 85-93, 101-102);
+Abi'ezer, Vilna, 1863; Lebensohn, Kiryat Soferim, Vilna, 1847; Pardes,
+i. 192; Recke und Napyersky, Allgemeines Schriftsteller und Gelehrten
+Lexicon der Provinzen Livland, Esthland und Kurland, Mitau, 1829, pp.
+147-148; and the works referred to in the text.]
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+RUSSIFICATION, REFORMATION, AND ASSIMILATION
+
+1856-1881
+
+(pp. 222-267)
+
+
+[Footnote 1: San Donato, The Jewish Question, St. Petersburg, 1883, p.
+36.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Ha-Meliz, 1888, nos. 95, 163; Gordon, Iggerot, Warsaw,
+1894, ii., and Russky Vyestnik, 1858, i. 126.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Scholz, Die Juden in Russland, Berlin, 1900, pp. 102-107;
+Hessen, Galeriya, p. 23; Voskhod, 1881, v. 1893; viii; Russky Yevrey,
+1882, i.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Second Complete Russian Code, xxv, nos. 24, 768; xxvii.
+nos. 26, 508.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Voskhod, October, 1881; Chwolson, Die Blutanklage,
+Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1901, p. 117.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Zunser, Biography, p. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Kol Shire Mahallalel, i. 79-91.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Kol Shire YeLeG, i. 43.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Bramson, op. cit, pp. 52-54; Russky Yevrey, 1879, nos.
+16-17.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Rosenthal, Toledot Hebrat Marbe Haskalah, i. 3, 19, 103,
+158-159; ii. Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 11: How happy the Maskilim of that time were to save their
+fellows from the darkness of ignorance can be seen from the following
+anecdote told by a Maskil in a retrospective mood (Ha-Shiloah, xvii.,
+257-258): "Among the first of our young men to enter the gymnasium of my
+native town of Mohilev were Ackselrod and the Leventhal brothers. The
+former began to give instruction while he was still in the third grade
+.... One morning he suddenly disappeared. After several days of anxious
+search it was discovered that he had left on foot for Shklov, a distance
+of about thirty vyersts, and while there he succeeded in persuading
+fifteen boys to leave the yeshibah and come with him to Mohilev, where,
+like a puissant warrior returning in triumph, he went with his little
+army to the different homes to secure board and lodging for them while
+they were being prepared for admission into the gymnasium."]
+
+[Footnote 12: Op. cit., p. 35 (Engl. transl., p. 26).]
+
+[Footnote 13: Op. cit., p. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Max Raisin, The Reform Movement, etc. (reprint from the
+Year Book of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, xvi.),
+Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Odessky Yevrey, 1847 (Novaya Yevreyskaya Synagoga v
+Odessa).]
+
+[Footnote 16: Hessen, op. cit., p. 68; Voskhod, 1881, p. 132.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Rosenthal, op. cit., p. 70; Gordon, Iggerot, nos. 60-62;
+Ha-Meliz, xx, nos. 8, 11, 13.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Voskhod, 1900, v.; Sefer ha-Shanah, ii. 288-290.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Ha-Meliz, 1899, no. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Ben Sion, Yevrey Reformatory, St. Petersburg, 1882. In his
+manifesto (Ha-Meliz, April 21, 1881) Gordon declared: "We have discarded
+the dusty Talmud. We cannot rest satisfied, in questions of religion,
+with the worm-eaten carcass, with the observances of rabbinical
+Judaism." See Ha-Shiloah, ii. 53. See also Kahan, Meahore ha-Pargud
+(reprint from Ha-Meliz, 1885), St. Petersburg, 1886.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Prelooker, op. cit., pp. 24 f.; Voskhod, Feb. 3, 1886;
+Razsvyet, 1881, no. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Duprey, Great Masters of Russian Literature (Engl. transl.
+Dole, New York, 1886), p. 151.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Rosenthal, op. cit, i. 66, 103, 158-159; Ha-Maggid, 1868,
+p. 18. Cf. McClintock and Strong, Biblical, Theological and
+Ecclesiastical Cyclopedia, New York, 1891, ii. 805. The beautiful
+synagogue which the Jews began to erect in Moscow at the cost of half a
+million rubles was declared by Pobyednostsev to be "too high and
+imposing," and they were compelled to destroy the cupola and deform the
+interior. Nevertheless it had to remain a "dead" synagogue, until
+Nicholas II was pleased to give permission to open it.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Shereshevsky, O Knigie Kahala, St. Petersburg, 1872;
+Seiberling, Gegen Brafmann's Buch des Kahals, Vienna, 1881; Ha-Shahar,
+iv. 621; xi. 242.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Prelooker, Heroes and Heroines of Russia, London, p. 120;
+Ha-Shiloah, xvii. 257-263.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Zederbaum, 'Ayin Zofiyah, Warsaw, 1877, pp. 7-8;
+Prelooker, Under the Czar, etc., pp. 8-21.]
+
+[Footnote 27: It may not be superfluous to quote here the vivid picture
+given of the period I am now describing by Eliakum Zunser in his
+interesting autobiography; the more, as it is depicted very much in the
+style of the Maskilim of to-day:
+
+"It is an accepted law in hygiene that the digestive system must not be
+overburdened at any one time by too much food, that eating must not be
+done hastily, and, above all, great care must be taken to choose
+wholesome and digestible food. These principles are still more important
+to one who is hungry, who has abstained from food for any length of
+time. He should select the healthy and light foods, and partake of
+little at first until the powers of digestion are fully restored. Should
+he neglect to observe these simple rules, he will ruin his digestive
+system, the food will turn into poison, and he may contract a stubborn
+disease which no physician will be able to cure.
+
+"This is exactly what happened to our Russian Jews from 1860 to 1880.
+For many long centuries they had endured an intellectual fast. The
+Government had debarred them from the world's culture. They were closely
+packed together in the narrow and dark ghettos. They knew of their
+synagogues, yeshibot, and prayer-houses (Kloisen) on the one hand, and
+of their little stores on the other. That there was a great world beyond
+and without, a world of culture, education, and civilization, of this
+they had only heard. A great many of them strove to break through the
+bounds that confined them and step into the world of light and life; but
+the Cossack, lead-laden whip in hand, stood there ready to drive them
+back.
+
+"The thirst for education and civilization became daily more intense,
+and reached the utmost limits of endurance. Five million Russian Jews
+raised their hands to the Government and pleaded for mercy: 'Release us
+from this ghetto! We, too, are human beings! Give us breathing space!
+Give us light! We are faint and starving!' And the Cossack promptly
+answered 'Nazad ('Back!') Here you are and here you remain--not a step
+further!'
+
+"And all at once, lo! there came a light! Alexander II, as soon as he
+ascended the throne, opened wide the doors of the ghetto, and the
+Russian Jews, young and old, men and women, rushed to the new culture.
+All crowded to the dainty dish, and no time was lost in making up for
+the intellectual fast.
+
+"But here happened what usually occurs after a long fast. The wiser
+partook of food with discretion. They selected the ingredients which
+were wholesome, and which their system could digest. All unripe,
+objectionable food they rejected; their main object was to select the
+food which the Jewish system could assimilate. The governing principle
+was to unite Jewish learning with the new culture. They knew that among
+the new delicacies there were many that were injurious and unhealthy,
+though the defects were disguised by alluring spices; but those who had
+not lost the innate, unerring Jewish scent found no difficulty in
+distinguishing that which was sound from the injurious, and they remain
+strong and faithful Jews to this day.
+
+"Others, and they formed the greater part of the Russian Jews, seized
+things as they came. Nay, the more dangerous the delicacy, the more the
+relish with which it was devoured. And these delicacies were gorged at
+such a rate as to cause constitutional disorder. They who were a little
+wiser somehow shook off the objectionable matter, and became 'whole'
+again; and a great number 'died,' and a still greater number are
+dangerously 'sick' to this very day.
+
+"The sick among our Russian brethren, those who partook in dangerous
+quantities of the unwholesome delicacies, believed that they would solve
+all difficulties by 'Russification,' that is, by abandoning the old
+Jewish culture and adopting Russian mannerisms and customs--by ceasing
+to lead Jewish lives and by leading the lives of Russians. A great
+number of Jewish literary men of those times believed that if the
+Russian Jews would become 'Russified,' and would adopt modern
+civilization, they would receive full and equal rights, on the same
+terms as the other nationalities. These literary men were dazzled by the
+little liberty Alexander II granted the Russian Jews, and they did not
+understand that he pursued the same object as his father, Nicholas I. In
+the days of Alexander II, many more Jews were converted to Christianity
+than in the bitter days of Nicholas I; and many who were not converted
+remained but caricatures of real Jews.
+
+"The so-called 'Jewish Aristocracy' in Russia, and especially the
+wealthy Jews of North Russia, of St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kharkov,
+Russified at top speed. They removed from their homes and their
+home-life anything that was in the least degree Jewish. They shattered
+all that for thousands of years had been holy and dear to the Jew. Like
+apes they imitated the manners and customs of the Christians. The
+younger children did not even know that they were descended from Jews,
+as was the case in the first 'pogroms,' when the children asked their
+parents: 'Why do they beat us? Are we, too, Jews (Razve vy tozhe
+Yevrey)?'"]
+
+[Footnote 28: For a full biography see Brainin, Perez ben Mosheh
+Smolenskin, Warsaw, 1896; Keneset Yisraël, i. 249-286; Ha-Shiloah, i.
+82-92, and his works, especially Ha-Toëh be-Darke ha-Hayyim, Vienna,
+1876.]
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE AWAKENING
+
+1881-1905
+
+(pp. 268-303)
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Most of this is based on Persecution of the Jews in Russia,
+Philadelphia, 1891, pp. 8-18, 22, 35, 51-82, 184-185; Frederick, The New
+Exodus, London, 1892, pp. 192-208; Errera, Les juifs russes, Brussels,
+1893, pp. 29, 43 f., 89-90, 188-189. Between 1883 and 1885, the Mining
+Institute and Engineering Institute for Public Roads adopted the five
+per cent limit, the Kharkov Technical Institute a ten per cent limit,
+and the Veterinary Institute, of the same city, the only one of the sort
+in Russia, excluded Jews altogether.
+
+"My zemlyakes" (countrymen), says a reminiscent writer, "soon after they
+had finished their course in engineering, had taken each a different
+road. One became a crown-rabbi, one a flour merchant, a third a
+bookkeeper, but none of them could, on account of his religion, legally
+pursue his chosen vocation" (Yiddishes Tageblatt, New York, May 13,
+1908).]
+
+[Footnote 2: Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor (Engl. transl., New
+York, 1908), pp. 70, 90-91. "Out of 266 students admitted to the Kharkov
+University in 1901, only 8 were Jews, though at least 12 had 'finished
+the gymnasium,' not only with the 'highest possible' marks, but with
+gold medals. At the Technological Institute of the same city, 7 were
+Jews in a total of 240, though 12 applying for admission had received
+the 'highest possible' marks. At the Kiev University, of 580 new
+students, 32, all of them medallists, were Jews. How many applied for
+admission, the daily and weekly press, from which these figures are
+taken, did not report."]
+
+[Footnote 3: Ner ha-Ma'arabi, vii, 27.]
+
+[Footnote 4: "He who claims that a spirit of reaction has affected our
+people as a whole," says Moses Reines (Ozar ha-Sifrut, ii. 45), "is
+greatly mistaken. That the children of the poor from whom learning
+cometh forth still forsake their city and country and acquire knowledge,
+... that societies for the spread of Haskalah are formed every day, ...
+that strict and pious Jews send their sons and daughters to where they
+can obtain enlightenment, that rabbis, dayyanim, and maggidim urge their
+children to become proficient in the requirements of the times ... write
+for the press ... and deplore the gezerot (restrictions) regarding
+admission to schools--all this proves convincingly that they do not see
+right who complain that our entire nation is going backward."]
+
+[Footnote 5: See Ha-Maggid, 1899, no. 160. While in 1848 there were 2446
+and in 1854, 4439 converts, in 1860-1880 there were from 350 to 450 per
+annum, in 1881, 572, in 1882, 610, and in 1883, 461 converts. With the
+spread of Zionism conversions continued to diminish, and, while there
+were relapses during the renewed pogroms of 1891 and 1901, they
+decreased materially, though the Jewish population is constantly on the
+increase.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Autobiography, pp. 42-51. See also Kahan, Meahore
+ha-Pargud, pp. 15-17.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Ha-Meliz, 1900, no. 123; Luah Ahiasaf, 5696, p. 312;
+Zablotzky and Massel, Ha-Yizhari, Manchester, 1895, Introduction;
+Ha-Meliz, xxxvii, no. 36; The Menorah, April, 1904.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Yalkut Ma'arabi, 1904, pp. 46 f.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Ha-Shahar, x. 511, 30; Habazelet, 1882, no. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Ha-Le'om, 1906, nos. 21-22; Belkind, in Ha-Zefirah, no.
+46, 1913; Lubarsky and Lewin-Epstein, Derek Hayyim, New York, 1905.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Greenstone, The Messiah Idea in Jewish History, ch. viii.]
+
+[Footnote 12: The Progress of Zionism, pp. 3-4; cf. Voskhod, 1895, iv.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Zamenhof's new universal language was primarily intended
+to be the international language of his people, "who are speechless, and
+therefore without hope, scattered over the world, and hence unable to
+understand one another, obliged to take their culture from strange and
+hostile sources."]
+
+[Footnote 14: Ahiasaf, iv.; Gordon, op. cit., i. xxi; Razsvyet, 1882,
+i.; Magil's Kobez (Collection), no. 3, p. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Ha-Meliz, 1899, no. 256; 1901, no. 2; weekly Voskhod,
+1893, no. 40; monthly Voskhod, 1894, iv. Some Jewish financiers erected
+gymnasia in Vilna and Warsaw, improved the condition of the hadarim, and
+turned many Talmud Torahs into technical schools. Of the Lodz Talmud
+Torah a writer says that "no Jewish community, even outside of Russia,
+possesses such an institution, not excepting the Hirsch schools in
+Galicia."]
+
+[Footnote 16: London, Unter jüdischen Proletariern, 1898, pp. 81-83;
+Bramson, K Istorii, etc., pp. 63-69, 71-74; Ha-Meliz, xli., no. 246
+(1901, no, 35); Ha-Zefirah, xxix., no. 285; and the Jewish Gazette, July
+16, 1909 (Kunst und Nationalismus). The Ha-Zamir (a choral society),
+founded in Lodz by Nissan Schapira, counts its members by the
+thousands.]
+
+[Footnote 17: London, op. cit, pp. 64-74; Ha-Meliz, 1900, nos. 192-193;
+Rubinow, op. cit., pp. 530-532, 548-553, 561-566.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Ha-Meliz, 1901, nos. 20, 27, 36, 54, 95.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Atlas, Mah Lefanim u-mah Leaher, pp. 53 f.; Ha-Meliz,
+1900, no. 47; 1901, no. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Ha-Meliz, 1901, no. 87.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Réflexions sur l'état des israélites russes, Odessa, 1871,
+pp. 121-122.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Kayserling, Die jüdischen Frauen, Leipsic, 1879, pp.
+306-313; Rubinow, op. cit., p. 581. The Russian Jewess has already
+produced several writers above the average (Einhorn, Mosessohn, Ben
+Yehudah, Sarah and Eva Schapira) in Hebrew, has given Russian literature
+at least one novelist of note (Rachel Khin), has furnished leaders in
+the movement for the emancipation of women (Maria Saker), and especially
+for the liberation of Russia (Finger, Helfman, Levinsohn, Novinsky,
+Rabinovich). According to Mr. Rabinow, the Russo-Jewish "women and girls
+use every available means" to obtain an education, and at least fifty
+per cent of them possess a knowledge of Russian in addition to their
+vernacular Yiddish.]
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+An asterisk (*) marks a book or periodical of especial importance.
+
+
+Antin, The Promised Land, Boston and New York, 1912.
+
+Atlas, Mah Lefanim u-mah Leaher, Warsaw, 1898.
+
+
+Baskerville, The Polish Jew, New York, 1906.
+
+Ben Sion, Yevreyi Reformatory, St. Petersburg, 1882.
+
+Bentwich, The Progress of Zionism, New York, 1899.
+
+Bernfeld, Dor Tahapukot, Warsaw, 1897.
+
+Bershadsky, Zhurnal Ministerstva Narodnaho Prosvyeshchaniya, St.
+Petersburg, 1912.
+
+Bersohn, Tobiasz Cohn, Warsaw, 1872.
+
+Blaustein, Memoirs, New York, 1813, pt. I.
+
+*Brafmann, Kniga Kahala, Vilna, 1869.
+
+*Brainin, Perez ben Moses Smolenskin, Warsaw, 1896.
+
+*Bramson, K Istorii Pervonachalnaho Obrazovaniya Russkikh Yevreyev, St.
+Petersburg, 1896.
+
+*Buchholtz, Geschichte der Juden in Riga, Riga, 1899.
+
+
+Chwolson, Die Blutanklage, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1901.
+
+Cohan, Rabbi Yisraël Ba'al Shem Tob, 1900.
+
+Cohn, Ma'aseh Tobiah, Venice, 1707.
+
+*Czacki, Rosprava o Zhydakh, Vilna, 1807.
+
+
+Delitzsch, Zur Geschichte der jüdischen Poesie, Leipsic, 1836.
+
+*[Dick], Ha-Oreah, Königsberg, 1860.
+
+*D[ick], Yiddishe Kleider Umwechslung, Vilna, 1844.
+
+*Dob Bär, Shibhe ha-Besht, Berdichev, 1815.
+
+Duprey, Great Masters of Russian Literature (Engl. transl.), New York,
+1886.
+
+
+Edelman, Gedulat Shaül, London, 1854.
+
+*Elk, Die jüdischen Kolonien in Russland, Frankfort on-the-Main, 1886.
+
+Emden, Megillat Sefer, ed. Cohan, Warsaw, 1896.
+
+Epstein, Geburat ha-Ari, Vilna, 1870.
+
+*Errera, Les juifs russes, Brussels, 1893.
+
+Erter, Ha-Zofeh le-Bet Yisraël, Warsaw, 1890.
+
+Ezekiel Feivel, Toledot Adam, Warsaw, 1854.
+
+
+Firkovich, Abne Zikkaron, Vilna, 1872.
+
+Fishberg, The Jews: A Study of Race and Environment, New York, 1911.
+
+*Frederick, The New Exodus, London, 1892.
+
+Friedländer, An die Verehrer, Freunde, und Schüler, etc., Leipsic, 1823.
+
+*Frledländer, Ueber die Verbesserung der Israeliten im Königreich Polen,
+Berlin, 1819.
+
+Friedrichsfeld, Zeker Zaddik, Amsterdam, 1809.
+
+*Fünn, Keneset Yisraël, Warsaw, 1860.
+
+*Fünn, Kiryah Ne'emanah, Vilna, 1860.
+
+Fünn, Safah le-Ne'emanim, Vilna, 1881.
+
+Fünn, Sofre Yisraël, Vilna, 1891.
+
+
+Geiger, Melo Hofnayim, Berlin, 1840.
+
+Gershuni, Mein Entrinung vun Katorga, New York, 1907.
+
+Gershuni, Sketches of Jewish Life and History, New York, 1873.
+
+Ger Zedek, Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, St. Petersburg, 1892.
+
+*Ginzberg and Marek, Yevreyskiya Narodniya Pyesni, St. Petersburg, 1901.
+
+*Glückel von Hameln, Zikronot, ed. Cohan, 1896.
+
+Gordon, Ha-Azamot ha-Yebashot, Odessa, 1899.
+
+*Gordon, Iggerot, Warsaw, 1894.
+
+Gordon, Kol Shire YeLeG, Vilna, 1898.
+
+*Gottlober, Ha-Gizrah we-ha-Binyah, in Ha-Boker Or, iv.
+
+Gottlober, Za'ar Ba'ale Hayyim, Zhitomir, 1868.
+
+Gottlober, Zikronot mi-Yeme Ne'uraï, Warsaw, 1800.
+
+Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, Leipsic, 1866-1882, 11 vols. (also in
+Hebrew, Dibre Yeme Yisraël, Warsaw, 1905).
+
+Greenstone, The Messiah Idea in Jewish History, Philadelphia, 1906.
+
+*Güdemann, Geschichte des Erziehunghswesens und der Cultur der
+abendländischen Juden, Vienna, 1880 and 1884.
+
+Güdemann, Quellen zur Geschichte des Unterrichts, Berlin, 1891.
+
+*Günzburg, Abi'ezer, Vilna, 1863.
+
+*Günzburg, Ha-Debir, Warsaw, 1883.
+
+Günzburg, Ha-Moriah, Warsaw, 1878 ("Kikayon Yonah").
+
+Günzburg, Kiryat Sefer, Vilna, 1835.
+
+Günzburg, Maggid Emet, Leipsic, 1843.
+
+
+*Halevi, Kuzari, Introduction.
+
+*Hannover, Yeven Mezulah, Warsaw, 1872.
+
+*Harkavy, Ha-Yehudim u-Sefat ha-Selavim, Vilna, 1867.
+
+*Harkavy, Russ i Russkiye v Srednikh Yevropeyskaya Literatura, Voskhod,
+1881.
+
+Horowitz, Derek 'Ez ha-Hayyim, Cracow, 1895.
+
+*Houzner, I.B. Levinsohn (Russian), Odessa, 1862.
+
+Hurwitz, 'Ammude Bet Yehudah, 1765.
+
+Hurwitz, Hekal 'Oneg, Grodno, 1797.
+
+Hurwitz (Phinehas Elijah), Sefer ha-Berit, Brünn, 1897.
+
+
+Ilye, Alfe Menasheh, Vilna, 1827.
+
+Ilye, Pesher Dabar, Vilna, 1807.
+
+Izgur, Shalosh Tekufot, Niezhin, 1898.
+
+
+*Jastrow, Beleuchtungen, etc., Hamburg, 1859.
+
+*Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols., New York, 1901-1906.
+
+Jost, Culturgeschichte, Berlin, 1847.
+
+Jost, Freimüthige Beleuchtung, Berlin, 1830.
+
+
+Kahan, Beërot Nishbarim, St. Petersburg, 1879.
+
+Kahan, Meahore ha-Pargud, St. Petersburg, 1886.
+
+Katz, Le-Korot ha-Yehudim be-Russyah, Polin, we-Lita, Berlin, 1889.
+
+Katz, Toledot Haskalat ha-Yehudim be-Russyah, Ha-Zeman, St. Petersburg,
+1903.
+
+Klausner, Novo Yevreyskaya Literatura, Warsaw, 1900.
+
+Kohen, Megillah 'Afah, in Aben Virga, Shebet Yehudah, ed. Wiener,
+Hanover, 1856.
+
+Kohn, Hut ha-Meshullash, Odessa, 1874.
+
+Kovner, Heker Dabar, Warsaw, 1865.
+
+Kovner, Zevov Perahim, Odessa, 1868.
+
+Kunz, Die Philosophie Salomon Maimons, Heidelberg, 1912.
+
+
+Lapin, Keset ha-Sofer, Berlin, 1857.
+
+Lebensohn, Emet we-Emunah, Vilna, 1867, 1870.
+
+Lebensohn, Kiryat Soferim, Vilna, 1847.
+
+Leket Amarim, supplement to Ha-Meliz, St. Petersburg, 1887.
+
+*Lerner, Yevreyi v Novorossiskom Kraye, Odessa, 1901.
+
+Levanda, Ocherki Proshlaho, St. Petersburg, 1876.
+
+*Levin, Aliyat Eliyahu, Vilna, 1856.
+
+*Levinsohn, Bet Yehudah, Warsaw, 1901.
+
+*Levinsohn, Te'udah be-Yisraël, Warsaw, 1901.
+
+Lilienblum, Derek La'abor Golim, Warsaw, 1899.
+
+Lilienblum, Derek Teshubah, Warsaw, 1899.
+
+*Lilienblum, Hattot Ne'urim, Vienna, 1876.
+
+*Lilienblum, Kehal Refaïm, Odessa, 1870.
+
+*Lilienblum, 'Olam ha-Tohu, in Ha-Shahar, 1873.
+
+Lilienblum, Orhot ha-Talmud, in Ha-Meliz, 1868.
+
+*Lilienthal, Maggid Yeshu'ah, Vilna, 1842.
+
+Lilienthal, Meine Reisen in Russland, Jüdisches Volksblatt, 1856.
+
+*Lilienthal, My Travels in Russia, American Israelite, 1854.
+
+Lilienthal, Rede, Riga, 1840.
+
+Lilienthal, Sketches of Jewish Life in Russia, The Occident, v.
+
+Linetzky, Dos Polische Yingel, Lemberg, 1880.
+
+*Loewe, Diaries of Sir Moses and Lady Montefiore, London, 1890.
+
+*London, Unter jüdischen Proletariern, 1898.
+
+Lubarsky and Lewin-Epstein, Derek Hayyim, New York, 1905.
+
+*Lubliner, De la condition politique... dans le royaume de Pologne,
+Brussels, 1860.
+
+
+*Maggid, Toledot Mishpehot Ginzberg, St. Petersburg, 1899.
+
+*Maimon, Autobiographic, Berlin, 1793; Engl. transl., Boston, 1888; Heb.
+transl., Warsaw, 1899.
+
+*Malishevsky, Yevreyi v Yuzhnoy Rossii i Kieve v. x-xii. Vyekakh, St.
+Petersburg, 1878.
+
+Mandelkern, Dibre Yeme Russyah, Warsaw, 1875.
+
+*Mandelstamm, Hazon la-Moëd, Vienna, 1877.
+
+Mann, Sheërit Yisrael, Vilna, 1818.
+
+*Mapu, 'Ayit Zabua' Warsaw, 1873.
+
+Margolioth, Bet Middot, Prague, 1786.
+
+Minor, Rukovodstvo, Moscow, 1881.
+
+*Morgulis, Voprosi Yevreyskoy Zhizni, St. Petersburg, 1889.
+
+
+Nathanson, Sefat Emet, Warsaw, 1887.
+
+*Nathanson, Sefer ha-Zikronot, Warsaw, 1878.
+
+Nusbaum, Historiya Zhidóv, Warsaw, 1888-1890, 5 vols.
+
+
+Orshansky, Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, ii.
+
+
+Paperna, Ha-Derammah, Odessa, 1867.
+
+*Persecution of the Jews in Russia, Philadelphia, 1891.
+
+Pinsker, Auto-Emancipation, Berlin, 1882.
+
+Pinsker, Likkute Kadmoniot, Vilna, 1860.
+
+Plungian, Ben Porat, Vilna, 1858.
+
+*Polonnoy, Toledot Ya'akob Yosef, Lemberg, 1856.
+
+Prelooker, Heroes and Heroines of Russia, London.
+
+*Prelooker, Under the Czar and Queen Victoria, London.
+
+
+Rabinovitz, Ma'amar 'al ha-Defosat ha-Talmud, Munich, 1876.
+
+Rhine, Leon Gordon. An Appreciation, Philadelphia, 1910.
+
+Rodkinson, Toledot 'Ammude HaBaD, Königsberg, 1876.
+
+Rosensohn, 'Ezah we-Tushiah, Vilna, 1870.
+
+Rosensohn, Shelom Ahim, Vilna, 1870.
+
+*Rosenthal, Toledot Hebrat Marbe Haskalah, i., St. Petersburg, 1885;
+ii., ibid., 1890.
+
+*Rubinow, Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor, No. 72, Washington, Sept.,
+1907.
+
+
+*San Donato, The Jewish Question, St. Petersburg, 1883.
+
+Sbornik of the Ministry of Education, in., St. Petersburg.
+
+Schechter, Studies in Judaism, i., Philadelphia, 1896; ii., ibid., 1908.
+
+*Scholz, Die Juden in Russland, Berlin, 1900.
+
+*Seiberling, Gegen Brafmann's Buch des Kahals, Vienna, 1881.
+
+Shatzkes, Ha-Mafteah, Warsaw, 1866-1869.
+
+*Shereshevsky, O Knigie Kahala, St. Petersburg, 1872.
+
+Silber, Elijah Gaon, New York, 1906.
+
+Slouschz, La renaissance de la littérature hébraïque, Paris, 1903. Heb.,
+Warsaw, 1906; Engl. transl., Philadelphia, 1909.
+
+*Smolenskin, Ha-Toëh be-Darke ha-Hayyim, Vienna, 1876, 4 vols.
+
+Smolenskin, Keburat Hamor, ibid., 1874.
+
+Sokolov, Sinat 'Olam le-'Am 'Olam, Warsaw, 1882.
+
+*Steinschneider, 'Ir Vilna, Vilna, 1900.
+
+Sternberg, Die Proselyten in Polen im xvi und xvii Jahrhundert, AZJ,
+1863, pp. 67-68; L'univers Israélite, 1863, pp. 272-273.
+
+
+*Tarnopol, Réflexions sur l'état des israélites russes, Odessa, 1871.
+
+Troki, Hizzuk Emunah, Leipsic, 1857.
+
+
+*Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, Engl. transl., New York, 1908.
+
+
+Weiss, Zikronotaï, Warsaw, 1895.
+
+Weissberg, Aufklärungsliteratur, Vienna, 1898.
+
+Weissberg, Le-Toledot ha-Sifrut ha-'Ibrit ha-Hadashah be-Polin
+we-Russyah, Mi-Mizrah u-mi-Ma'arab, Berlin, 1895.
+
+*Wengeroff, Memoiren einer Grossmutter, i., Berlin, 1908.
+
+Wessely, Dibre Shalom we-Emet, Berlin, 1782.
+
+Wiener, The History of Yiddish Literature, New York, 1899.
+
+*Wolf, Maimoniana, Berlin, 1813.
+
+Wolkonsky, Pictures of Russian Life and Literature, Boston, 1897.
+
+
+Yevrey Minister, Voskhod, 1885, v.
+
+Yevreyskaya Enziklopedya, St. Petersburg, 14 vols.
+
+
+Zablotzky and Massel, Ha-Yizhari, Manchester, 1895.
+
+*Zederbaum, 'Ayin Zofiyah, Warsaw, 1877.
+
+Zederbaum, Keter Kehunnah, Odessa, 1868.
+
+Zederbaum, Kohelet, St. Petersburg, 1881.
+
+*Zunser, Biography, Yiddish (and Engl. transl.), New York, 1905.
+
+*Zunz, Aelteste Nachrichten über Juden und jüdische Gelehrte in Polen,
+Slavonien, Russland. Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin, 1875, iii. 82-87.
+
+Zweifel, Sanegor, Warsaw, 1894.
+
+*Zweifel, Shalom 'al Yisraël, Zhitomir, 1868-1872, 4 vols.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Abele, Abraham, Talmudist, 164, 199.
+
+_Abi'ezer_, by Günzburg, 220.
+
+Abraham, son of Elijah Gaon, 119.
+
+Abramovich, Andrey, statesman, 22.
+
+Abramovitsch, Solomon Jacob, novelist, 203.
+
+Adelsohn, Wolf, "the Hebrew Diogenes," 200.
+
+Aguilar, Grace, on Russo-Jewish misery, 154.
+
+Ahiasaf Society, 296-297.
+
+Aleksey (Abraham), proselyte-priest, 25.
+
+Alexander I, during his period of tolerance, 111-113;
+  during his period of intolerance, 127-138, 140, 144, 163, 170, 192, 201,
+  249, 251, 253.
+
+Alexander II, referred to, 11, 79, 261;
+  reign of reforms, 222-226;
+  favorable attitude towards Jews, 224-225, 229-231;
+  the Narodniki, 236;
+  change of policy, 248-255;
+  plotted against and assassinated, 255-258.
+
+Alexander III, referred to, 80, 255;
+  restrictions, 268-270;
+  pogroms, 269;
+  "May Laws," 270-273;
+  Jews excluded from schools by, 273-275.
+
+Alexander Jagellon and the Jews, 21.
+
+Allgemeine jüdische Arbeiterbund, Der, in Littauen, Polen, und Russland,
+293.
+
+Alliance Israélite Universelle, programme of, 236;
+  criticism of, 285-286.
+
+Altaras, Jacques Isaac, philanthropist, 157.
+
+America. See United States, the.
+
+'Am 'Olam Society, 283.
+
+Amsterdam, referred to, 22;
+  a place of refuge for Russo-Polish proselytes, 27;
+  elects Russo-Jewish rabbis, 33-34;
+  place of study, 81, 93, 109, 126, 165.
+
+Antokolsky, Mark, sculptor, 241.
+
+Anton, Carl, author, 64.
+
+Apostol, Cossack hetman, 57.
+
+Apotheker, Abraham Ashkenazi, author, 40.
+
+Arbeiterstimme, Die, 293.
+
+Aristotle, 50, 216, 297.
+
+_Ascension of Elijah_, 134.
+
+Ashkenazi, Meïr, envoy of the Khan of the Tatars, 23.
+
+Ashkenazi, Meïr, rabbinical author, quoted, 31, 33.
+
+Ashkenazi, Solomon, statesman, 23.
+
+Assemblies, Jewish, under Alexander I, 117, 128;
+  under Nicholas I, 151, 173, 174-176;
+  in Vilna, 165;
+  under Alexander II, 230;
+  at Kattowitz, 285.
+
+Auerbach, Berthold, on Maimon, 88.
+
+Austria, Haskalah in, 12, 188;
+  influence on Russian Maskilim, 195;
+  place of study for Russian Jews, 285, 298.
+  See also Galicia.
+
+_Auto-Emancipation_, 281-283.
+
+_'Ayit Zabua'_, 244-245.
+
+
+Baku, antiquity of, 20.
+
+Barit, Jacob ("Yankele Kovner"), scholar, 200, 255, 259.
+
+Bathory, Stephen, 59, 253.
+
+Beer, Michel, champion of Jewish rights, 114.
+
+Behalot, 63, 161.
+
+Behr, Issachar Falkensohn, poet, 90-91, 108.
+
+Belkind, Israel, Zionist, 286.
+
+Belzyc, Jacob Nahman, author, 36.
+
+Bene Mosheh Society, 286.
+
+Bennett, Solomon, of Polotzk, engraver, champion of Jewish rights in
+England, 95-96.
+
+Bentwich, on Jewish colonists in Palestine, 289.
+
+Ben Yehudah, Eliezer, Hebraist, 284-285.
+
+Beobachter, Der, an der Weichsel, 124, 196.
+
+Berdichev, 123, 175, 200, 206, 239.
+
+Berek, Joselovich, colonel, 115.
+
+Berlin, 37, 78, 80, 81, 84, 85, 90, 91, 93, 120, 126, 132, 192, 245,
+251, 257, 291, 298.
+
+Berlin, Moses, uchony Yevrey, 230.
+
+Berlin, Naphtali Zebi Judah, dean of Yeshibah, 152, 254, 288.
+
+Bernfeld, on Maimon, 86.
+
+Besht, Israel Baal Shem [Tob], referred to, 65, 122, 123;
+  his life, 66-69;
+  opposition to rabbinism, 67, 70, 71, 75;
+  his influence, 76;
+  his biography, 134.
+
+Bet ha-Midrash, description of the, 50-51.
+
+Bet ha-Sefer, in Jaffa, 290-291.
+
+_Bet Yehudah_, by Levinsohn, 209-210.
+
+Bezalel, school of art, 291.
+
+Bibikov, on Russian Jews, 162.
+
+Bible, the, ancient Russo-Jewish commentaries on, 28;
+  customs of (according to Elijah Vilna), 74;
+  the _Biur_ on, 81, 82;
+  Mendelssohn's translation, 105, 131, 193, 203
+  translated into Russian, 239, 252.
+
+Bibleitsy (Dukhovnoye Bibleyskoye Bratstvo), 247-248.
+
+Bielski, on Jewish proselytes, 27.
+
+Bilu Society, 286.
+
+_Biur_, commentary, collaborators on, 81;
+  welcomed, 82;
+  banned, 132;
+  studied, 193;
+  referred to, 265.
+
+Blood-accusation, 59, 115, 145, 155, 208, 213, 229, 253, 275-276.
+
+Bogdanovich, Judah, merchant, 22.
+
+Bokhara, 127, 271.
+
+Bolingbroke, quoted, 215.
+
+Bompi, Issachar, bibliophile, 166-167, 200.
+
+Bone Zion Society, 286-287.
+
+Book of Common Prayer, old translation of, 30;
+  suggested changes in, 175;
+  new Russian translation, 239, 252.
+
+Brafmann, Jacob, delator, 254.
+
+Bratzlav, 53-54.
+
+Brest-Litovsk, Jewish community in, 20;
+  granted privileges, 21;
+  Talmudists of, 34;
+  persecution of Hasidim in, 76;
+  Haskalah in, 105, 166, 200.
+
+Brody, 195.
+
+Buchner's _Der Talmud in seiner Nichtigkeit_, 146.
+
+Buckle, on Russian civilization, 190;
+  referred to, 245.
+
+Buduchnost, 286.
+
+Byelostok, 113, 199, 201, 294.
+
+
+Calvinism, in Poland, 56.
+
+Cantonists, 138-139, 142, 171, 225.
+
+Carlyle, quoted, 88, 109.
+
+Caro, Joseph Hayyim, rabbi, 200.
+
+Casal, Jonas, physician, 39.
+
+Casimir IV, Jews under, 26, 253.
+
+Catherine II, favors the Jews, 110-111, 112, 147, 249.
+
+Chamisso, on "the Glusker Maggid," 132, 302.
+
+Chaucer on "beggar students," 48.
+
+Chazanowicz, Joseph, Zionist, 291.
+
+Chernichevsky's _What to Do_, 257.
+
+Chernigov, Isaac of, Talmudist, 29.
+
+Chernyshev,  Governor-General, proclaims religious liberty, 110.
+
+Chiarini, Abbé Luigi, anti-Talmudist, 145, 146.
+
+Chmielnicki, Cossack hetman, 48, 52, 53, 54, 58, 64, 77, 149.
+
+Chozi Kokos, statesman, 23, 55.
+
+Chufut-Kale (Rock of the Jews), 19.
+
+Clement VIII, pope, 72.
+
+Clement XIV, pope, 253.
+
+Clermont-Tonnerre, on Zalkind Hurwitz, 93.
+
+Coën, Moses, court physician and statesman, 40-41.
+
+Cohen, Shalom, litterateur, 99.
+
+Cohn, Tobias, physician, 41-42;
+  on Polish Jews, 64;
+  referred to, 101, 298.
+
+Coins, with Hebrew inscriptions, 21.
+
+Colonists, under Nicholas I, 140-144, 160;
+  under Alexander II, 228;
+  in America, 283;
+  in Palestine, 283, 286-289.
+
+Commendoni, on Lithuanian Jews, 24.
+
+Converts to Christianity, 25, 26, 64, 130, 136, 139, 146, 168, 177-178,
+248, 254, 260, 270-273, 278-279, 303.
+
+Cossacks, Jews as, 23-24.
+
+Costume, Jewish, origin of, 115;
+  opposition of Maskilim to, 166, 175;
+  Friedländer opposes, 170;
+  enforced change of, by Government, 179;
+  in Courland, 194.
+
+Council of the Four Countries, 44, 208.
+
+Courland, Jews admitted into, 111;
+  annexed to Russia, 113;
+  taxes in, 129;
+  colonists from, 140;
+  stronghold of Haskalah, 193-194.
+
+Cracow, 27, 78.
+
+Crémieux, Adolphe, statesman, 154, 175.
+
+Crimea, the, 19, 23.
+
+Crusades, the, 18, 52.
+
+Cyril, apostle to Slavonians, 28.
+
+Czacki, Tadeusz, Polish historian, defends Jews, 114;
+  praises them, 115.
+
+Czartorisky, Prince, and the Polish Jews, 94, 116.
+
+Czatzskes, Baruch, translator, 124.
+
+
+Dainov, Zebi Hirsh, "the Slutsker Maggid," 246.
+
+Damascus Affair, the, 155, 208.
+
+Danzig's _Hayye Adam_, 147.
+
+Darshan, Moses Isaac, "the Khelmer Maggid," 280.
+
+_Dead Souls_, by Gogol, 257.
+
+Delacrut, philosopher, 37.
+
+Delitzsch, on Dubno, 81;
+  on Hebrew poetry, 98;
+  on Satanov, 99.
+
+Delmedigo, Joseph, physician, 24.
+
+_Derek Selulah_, by Temkin, 146.
+
+Diakov, on Russian Jews, 162, 318 (n. 1).
+
+Dillon, Eliezer, financier, 118, 125.
+
+Dob Bär, biographer of Besht, 123.
+
+Dolitzky, Menahem Mendel, poet, 98, 243.
+
+_Dos Polische Yingel_, by Linetzky, 242, 244.
+
+Dostrzegacz Nadvisyansky, 196.
+
+Dubno, 65, 200.
+
+Dubno, Solomon, grammarian, 81-82, 98, 105.
+
+Dubnow, Simon, historian, 17.
+
+Dyerzhavin's _Mnyenie_, 118.
+
+
+Edels, Samuel (Maharsha), Talmudist, 72.
+
+_Efes Dammim_, by Levinsohn, 208, 213.
+
+Efrusi, Hayyim, communal worker, 165.
+
+Eger, Akiba, rabbi, 149.
+
+Eisenmenger's _Entdecktes Judenthum_, 146.
+
+Eishishki, antiquity of, 20.
+
+Eliasberg, Jonathan, rabbi, 288.
+
+Eliasberg, Mordecai, rabbi, 288.
+
+Elijah Gaon, 70-76;
+  his curriculum of study, 73, 74;
+  his appreciation of science and influence on Haskalah, 74, 75;
+  reputed to be the author of _Sefer ha-Berit_, 102;
+  his disciples, 119-121, 126, 150;
+  his biography, _Ascension of Elijah_, 134;
+  referred to, 164, 197, 201, 212, 220.
+
+Eliot, George, on Maimon's Autobiography, 88;
+  referred to, 297.
+
+Elizabeta Petrovna, 57, 135, 195.
+
+Emden, Jacob, Talmudist, 78, 91, 94, 197.
+
+England, Russian Jews in, 29, 93-96, 109;
+  sympathy of, 154-157, 270.
+
+_Entdecktes Judenthum_, by Eisenmenger, 146.
+
+Erter, Isaac, satirist, 205, 217.
+
+Esterka, Polish Jewish queen (?), 22.
+
+Euclid, in Hebrew, 105.
+
+Exportation Law of 1843, 152-154, 179.
+
+Eybeschütz, Jonathan, Talmudist, 64, 78.
+
+
+Falk, Hayyim Samuel Jacob, Baal Shem, 93-94.
+
+_Fathers and Sons_, by Turgenief, 257.
+
+Finkel, Elijah, educator, 164.
+
+Folk Songs, 137-138, 141, 161, 232, 316 (n. 36), 320 (n. 19).
+  See also Lullabies.
+
+France, Russian Jews in, 29, 92-93, 96, 109, 298, 300-301.
+
+Franco-Russian war, 116-117, 204.
+
+Frank, physician, 91, 127.
+
+Frank, Jacob (Yankev Leibovich), founder of the Frankists, 64-65, 66,
+69, 104, 131.
+
+"Freitisch," 47, 151.
+
+Friedländer, David, scholar and philanthropist, referred to, 105, 237;
+  on the improvement of Jews in Poland, 169-170.
+
+Frug, Simon, poet, 290, 297.
+
+Fünn, Joseph, historian, 106, 203.
+
+
+Gaden, Stephen von, court physician and statesman, 40.
+
+Galicia, Haskalah in, 12, 321 (n. 25);
+  Hasidism in, 69;
+  referred to, 163, 195, 205, 291.
+  See also Austria.
+
+Germany, Haskalah in, 12;
+  emigration from, 30;
+  Russo-Polish rabbis in, 33-34;
+  Russo-Jewish Maskilim in, 77-91, 104, 106;
+  Hebrew poetry of, 97-98;
+  object of Maskilim in, 99-100, 107;
+  Haskalah encouraged by the Government, 102;
+  by Jewish financiers, 237;
+  opposition to Haskalah in, 105-106, 131-133, 188;
+  state of Judaism in, 168-169;
+  reason for speedy Germanization of Jews in, 191;
+  Jewish science in, 219;
+  influence of, on Russian Maskilim, 192-198;
+  a place of refuge, 252;
+  restrictions against refugees in, 298-299, 301.
+
+Gibbon, Edward, referred to, 24.
+
+Ginzberg, Asher (Ahad Ha-'Am), and Haskalah, 13.
+
+Glückel von Hameln's _Memoirs_, 33.
+
+"Glusker Maggid, the," 132, 302.
+
+Goethe on Maimon, 89:
+  on Behr, 90;
+  referred to, 189, 192.
+
+Gogol's Jewish traitor, 224;
+  influence of his _Dead Souls_, 257.
+
+Gordin, Jacob, ethical culturist, 247.
+
+Gordon, David, litterateur, 284.
+
+Gordon, J.L., and Haskalah, referred to, 13, 252, 261;
+  poetry of, 98;
+  and Levinsohn, 212;
+  on the new era, 232;
+  attacks the Talmud, 243;
+  laments the effect of Haskalah, 260;
+  on Zionism, 290.
+
+Gordon, Jekuthiel, scientist, 92.
+
+Gottlober, Abraham Bär, on Hasidism, 69;
+  on Luria, 168;
+  and Levinsohn, 212;
+  on Russification, 231;
+  defends Mendelssohn, 265.
+
+Graetz, on Maimon, 83;
+  on Slavonic Jews, 103.
+
+Granovsky, on Jewish emancipation, 228.
+
+Grazhdanin, 253, 302.
+
+Gregory X, pope, 253.
+
+Grodno, Jewish community in, 20;
+  a Talmudic centre, 32, 34;
+  scene of martyrdom, 57;
+  persecution of Hasidim in, 76;
+  Talmud published in, 148-149;
+  Maskilim, 201.
+
+Guizolfi, Zacharias de, statesman, 23, 55, 306 (n. 12).
+
+Günzberg, Benjamin Wolf, student, 91.
+
+Günzburg, Horace, financier, 237.
+
+Günzburg, Joseph Yosel, financier, 237.
+
+Günzburg, Mordecai Aaron, 13, 204, 225;
+  his life, 213-221;
+  on Minhagim, 215;
+  his impress on Hebrew literature, 217-219;
+  his _Abi'ezer_, 220.
+
+Gurovich, Marcus, educator, 228.
+
+
+HaBad, reform sect of Hasidim, 122.
+
+Ha-Boker Or, 265.
+
+Ha-Emet, 256.
+
+Haggadah shel Pesah, Russian translation of, 239.
+
+Haidamacks, 59, 269.
+
+Hakohen, Ephraim, rabbi, 34.
+
+Hakohen, Joseph, rabbi, 19, 195.
+
+Hakohen, Raphael, rabbi, 78.
+
+Ha-Maggid, 284.
+
+Ha-Meliz, 242, 286, 288.
+
+Hannover, Nathan, his _Safah Berurah_, 39;
+  his _Yeven Mezulah_, quotation from, 48-49.
+
+Harkavy, Abraham, Orientalist, 17, 29, 203.
+
+Ha-Shahar, 242, 261-262, 265, 267.
+
+Hasidim, 65;
+  their teachings, 66, 67, 150;
+  spread, 69;
+  persecuted by the Mitnaggedim, 76, 131;
+  efforts at reconciliation with Mitnaggedim, 120-121, 260;
+  reformed, 122;
+  united with Mitnaggedim against Haskalah, 134;
+  fought by Maskilim, 168.
+
+Haskalah, definitions of, 12-13;
+  writers on, 14;
+  regarded differently in Germany and Russia, 103-108, 131;
+  opposition to, 132-150, 185-188;
+  in the "forties," 164-197;
+  influence of Germany on, 191-199;
+  in Galicia, 205;
+  Levinsohn's advice on, 212;
+  Günzburg's opinion of, 216;
+  spreads under Alexander II, 230-248;
+  disappointments of, 232-234;
+  and Reform Judaism, 242-248;
+  cosmopolitan, 255-257;
+  romantic and pessimistic, 278-281;
+  Zionistic, 283-291.
+
+_Ha-Toëh be-Darke ha-Hayyim_, 266, 267.
+
+_Hattot Ne'urim_, 232-234.
+
+_Hayye Adam_, by Danzig, 147.
+
+Ha-Zefirah, 286.
+
+Hebrew literature: style, 96, 97, 217-218;
+  poetry, 98;
+  Reform Judaism in, 242-248;
+  necessity of (Smolenskin), 264.
+
+Heder, 46, 184.
+
+Hegel, 86, 192.
+
+Heilprin, Joseph, financier, 175.
+
+Heine, referred to, 297;
+  on Polish Jews, 314 (n. 43).
+
+Helena, Princess, proselyte, 26.
+
+Heller, Yom-Tob Lipman, rabbi, 37.
+
+Herz, Marcus, disciple of Kant, 85.
+
+Herzl, Theodore, Zionist, 263, 281, 283.
+
+Hillul Society, 286.
+
+Hirsch, Baron de, 277.
+
+_Hizzuk Emunah_, Voltaire's opinion on, 37.
+
+Hobebe Zion, 285, 286.
+
+Horn, Meïr, educator, 164.
+
+Horowitz, Isaiah, Cabbalist, 33.
+
+Horowitz, Phinehas, rabbi, 78.
+
+Horowitz, Shabbataï, rabbi, 34.
+
+Horowitz, Shmelke, rabbi, 78.
+
+Horwitz, Aaron Halevi, rabbi, 78.
+
+Hurwitz, Hirsh, educator, 164.
+
+Hurwitz, Hyman, professor, 95.
+
+Hurwitz, Judah Halevi, translator, 92, 105, 121, 123, 125, 134.
+
+[Hurwitz], Phinehas Elijah, encyclopedist, 101-103, 214.
+
+Hurwitz, Zalkind, champion of Jewish rights in France, 92-93.
+
+Huss, influence of, in Poland, 26.
+
+_Hut ha-Meshullash_, by Kohn, 244.
+
+
+Ibn Ezra, Abraham, commentaries on his works, 30, 106.
+
+Ignatiev, Nicholas, 268.
+
+'Illuyim, 47.
+
+Ilye, Manasseh of, Talmudist, 120-121, 125, 132, 134.
+
+_Information about the Killing of Christians_, etc., by Skripitzyii,
+229.
+
+Innocent IV, pope, 253.
+
+Inventions, 201-202.
+
+Israelit, Asher, Maggid, 280.
+
+Israelita, Polish weekly, 247.
+
+Isserles, Moses, rabbi, 50, 78.
+
+Italy, a place of attraction for Russian Jews, 37, 40, 91-92, 126, 165.
+
+Ivan the Terrible, 55-56, 152.
+
+
+Jacob Isaac, court physician, 39.
+
+Jaffe, Daniel, scholar, 90.
+
+Jaffe, Mordecai (Lebushim), Talmudist, 37, 61, 105.
+
+Jastrow, Marcus, rabbi, 159, 246.
+
+Jekuthiel, Solomon, financier, 204.
+
+_Jerusalem_, by Mendelssohn, 209.
+
+Jerusalem, pilgrimage to, 65.
+
+Jesuits, in Poland, 54, 58.
+
+Joffe, Mordecai, rabbi, 288.
+
+Joseph ben Isaac Levi, philosopher, 38.
+
+Josephovich, Abraham, statesman, 21-22.
+
+Josephovich, Michael, nobleman, 21-22.
+
+Judah Halevi, poet and philosopher, 28, 98, 106, 284.
+
+Judah Hasid, mystic, founder of the original Hasidim, 65.
+
+Judaizing heresy. See Proselytism.
+
+_Judex Judaeorum_, 44.
+
+Jüdischer Arbeiter, Der, 293.
+
+
+_Kab ha-Yashar_, referred to, 63.
+
+Kadimah Society, 285.
+
+Kahal, 44;
+  oppression by, 61;
+  denunciation of, 254.
+
+Kalisz, antiquity of, 20.
+
+Kamenetz-Podolsk, antiquity of, 41.
+
+Kant, favorite with Maskilim, 79, 192;
+  on Maimon, 85, 88, 89;
+  referred to, 189.
+
+Kant, the Hebrew, 106.
+
+Kaplan, Wolf, educator, 225.
+
+Karaites, discussions with Rabbanites, 36;
+  with Christians, 37;
+  Nicholas I on, 136.
+
+Katkoff, defends Jews under Alexander II, 225;
+  becomes a reactionary under Alexander III, 269.
+
+Kattowitz, conference of, 285.
+
+Katz, Meir, Talmudist, 61.
+
+Katzenellenbogen, Hayyim, Talmudist, 40.
+
+Katzenellenbogen, Moses, 40.
+
+Kaufman, Governor-General, convokes conference, 255.
+
+Kertch, Archbishop of, tries to convert Jews, 25.
+
+Kharkov, 286.
+
+Khazars, 18, 20, 25.
+
+Khelm, antiquity of, 20.
+
+Khelm, Ephraim of, liturgist, 35.
+
+Kherson, 28, 142, 144, 160, 292.
+
+Kiev, early settlement of Jews in, 19-20;
+  their influence, 23;
+  proselytism in, 25;
+  Talmudists of, 29, 31;
+  University of, 126;
+  expulsions from, 153;
+  referred to, 200, 226, 227, 275.
+
+Kishinev, 154, 164, 185, 248, 276.
+
+Kissilyef, on emigration, 158.
+
+Klaczke, G., educator, 166.
+
+_Kniga Kahala_, 254-255.
+
+Kobrin, Joseph of, liturgist, 35.
+
+Kohen, Naphtali, rabbi, 34.
+
+Kohen, Shabbataï, rabbi and historian, 35-36.
+
+Kohn's _Hut ha-Meshullash_, 244.
+
+Kol Mebasser, 242.
+
+Königsberg, 33, 79, 90, 120, 126, 132.
+
+_Kontrabandisti_, by Levin, 303.
+
+Körner, on Maimon, 89.
+
+Korobka, 129.
+
+Korolenko's _Skazanye O Florye Rimlyaninye_, 302.
+
+Kovno, Government of, 20;
+  city of, 21;
+  Talmudists of, 34;
+  Maskilim in, 201, 246;
+  Mussarnikes in, 280;
+  referred to, 288, 294.
+
+Kramsztyk, Isaac, rabbi, 247.
+
+Krochmal, Nahman, philosopher, 205.
+
+Krüdener, Baroness, 127, 129, 251.
+
+Kruzhevan, 276.
+
+Kryloff, 175, 189.
+
+Kuritzin, Theodore, proselyte, 26.
+
+Kusselyevsky, physician, 127.
+
+
+Ladi, Shneor Zalman of, 116, 122-123.
+
+Landau, Ezekiel, rabbi, 78, 133.
+
+Landau, Moses, educator, 164.
+
+Lassalle, 257, 293, 297.
+
+Lebensohn, Abraham Dob Bar, poet, 98, 212, 244.
+
+Leczeka, Abba, "the Glusker Maggid," 132, 302.
+
+Leibnitz, 79, 88.
+
+Leibov, Baruch, martyr, 57.
+
+Lemberg, court of, 44;
+  fair at, 49.
+
+Leo, the court physician, 23, 39, 55.
+
+Lermontoff's spy, 224.
+
+Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole, on Maimon, 130;
+  on university restrictions, 276-277;
+  referred to, 303.
+
+Lessing, Ephraim, on Israel Zamoscz, 77;
+  on Behr, 90;
+  referred to, 192.
+
+Letteris, Meïr Halevi, poet, 205.
+
+Letzte Nachrichten, 293.
+
+Levanda, Lyev, novelist, 203, 279.
+
+Levin, Judah, merchant, 204.
+
+Levin, Mendel, Hebrew and Yiddish author, 99-101, 116, 119, 195, 217.
+
+Levin's _Kontrabandisti_, 303.
+
+Levinsohn, I.B., and Haskalah, 13;
+  on the settlement of Jews in Russia, 18;
+  on the effect of Chmielnicki's massacres, 52;
+  his life, 204-213;
+  _Te'udah be-Yisraël_, 205-207, 209, 210, 221;
+  _Efes Dammim_, 208, 213;
+  _Bet Yehudah_, 209-210;
+  _Zerubbabel_, 210-211, 213;
+  referred to, 219-220.
+
+Liboschüts, Jacob, physician and philanthropist, 91.
+
+Liboschüts, Osip Yakovlevich, court physician, 126.
+
+Lichtenstadt, Moses, communal worker, 165.
+
+Lieberman, Aaron ("Arthur Freeman"), socialist, 256.
+
+Lieven, Prince Emanuel, 209.
+
+Lilien, Ephraim Moses, artist, 291.
+
+Lilienblum, Moses Löb, skeptic, 232-234;
+  attacks the Talmud, 242;
+  repentant, 279;
+  Zionist, 289-290.
+
+Lilienthal, Max, referred to, 14, 117, 151, 164, 183, 277;
+  opens school in Riga, 165, 170;
+  his personality, 171-172;
+  his _Maggid Yeshu'ah_ and his efforts in behalf of Russian Jews, 174-176;
+  his disillusionment, 177-180;
+  his opinion on Russia, 179;
+  how regarded by Maskilim, 172-173, 180-181;
+  on the Jews of Courland, 194;
+  on the Jews of Odessa, 196;
+  his supporters, 198-199, 200;
+  Günzburg on, 216.
+
+Linetzky's _Dos Polische Yingel_, 242, 244.
+
+"Lishmah" ideal, 107.
+
+Lithuania, Magna Charta of, 21;
+  Jewish merchants of, 22;
+  description by Cardinal Commendoni and by Delmedigo, 24;
+  Talmudic centre, 31-35;
+  status of Jews of, under Ivan the Terrible, 55;
+  after the massacres, 60;
+  opposition to Hasidism in, 65, 69;
+  method of study in, 71-72;
+  inclination to Haskalah in, 105-109;
+  annexed to Russia, 113;
+  Russified, 124-125;
+  colonization in, 143-144, 159;
+  Talmud published in, 148-149;
+  referred to, 195.
+
+Litvack, Judah, deputy, 93.
+
+Livonia, Jewish merchants of, 22;
+  Gentiles remonstrate on behalf of Jews of, 57;
+  stronghold of Haskalah, 193-194.
+
+Loewe, Louis, Orientalist, quoted, 155, 199.
+
+London, 94, 126, 129.
+
+Louis XIV, and the Treaty of Ryswick, 22.
+
+Lover of Enlightenment societies, 165.
+
+Lublin, 31, 34, 40;
+  fair at, 49;
+  Haskalah in, 105.
+
+Lublin, Meïr (Maharam), Talmudist, 72.
+
+Lukas, "the little Jew," 25.
+
+Lullabies, Russo-Jewish, quoted, 46, 309 (n. 39).
+  See also Folk Songs.
+
+Luria, David, philanthropist, 166, 168, 203.
+
+Luria, Solomon, Talmudist, 40;
+  censures the liberality of Isserles, 50;
+  opposes the kahal, 61;
+  his method of study, 72.
+
+Luther's doctrines in Poland, 26.
+
+Luzzatto, Moses Hayyim, poet, 92.
+
+Lyons, Israel, grammarian, 95.
+
+
+_Ma'aseh Tobiah_, 42.
+
+Macaulay, on Russian civilization, 310 (n. 6).
+
+McCaul's _Old Paths_, 146, 211.
+
+_Maggid Yeshu'ah_, by Lilienthal, 174-176.
+
+Maimon, Solomon, 81-89;
+  quoted, 31, 60, 106;
+  Autobiography, 83, 88;
+  his philosophy, 84-87;
+  his contributions to the Meassef, 98;
+  referred to, 108, 130, 132, 192, 298.
+
+Maimuni, commentators on his _Moreh Nebukim_, 38, 84, 89;
+  retranslated by Levin, 100;
+  his _Mishneh Torah_, translated, 186, 200;
+  his Hebrew style, 97.
+
+Malak, Abraham, Hasid, 122.
+
+Malak, Hayyim, Hasid, 65.
+
+Manasseh ben Israel, 32;
+  his _Nishmat Hayyim_, 63;
+  his activity, 96.
+
+Mandelkern, Solomon, rabbi, 203, 246.
+
+Mandelstamm, Benjamin, on Lilienthal, 173;
+  quoted, 186;
+  on Vilna, 198;
+  and Levinsohn, 212.
+
+Mandelstamm, Leon, graduate from University of St. Petersburg, 186, 200,
+252.
+
+Mane, Mordecai Zebi, poet, 98.
+
+Mann, Eliezer, "the Hebrew Socrates," 38.
+
+Mann, Menahem, martyr, 27.
+
+Manoah, Handel, mathematician, 38.
+
+Mapu, Abraham, novelist, 244-245.
+
+Margolioth, Judah Löb, rabbi, 105, 125.
+
+Markusevich, Isaac, physician, 127.
+
+Marx, Karl, his teachings promulgated, 256;
+  his name assumed, 257.
+
+Masliansky, Zebi Hirsh, Maggid, 280.
+
+May laws, 270-275.
+
+Meassef, contributors to, 98-100;
+  condemned, 132;
+  referred to, 265.
+
+_Megillah 'Afah_, 36.
+
+Meisels, Berish, rabbi, 246.
+
+Melammedim, in Germany, 35, 78, 80;
+  in Russia, 47, 294.
+
+_Memorbuch_ of Mayence, 29.
+
+Mendelssohn, Meyer, communal worker, 140.
+
+Mendelssohn, Moses (Rambman, "Dessauer"), appealed to by Mitnaggedim, 75;
+  his contact with Russiam Jews, 76-78;
+  his friends and followers, 81-90, 135;
+  his philosophy, 88;
+  referred to, 92;
+  presumed to be author of _Sefer ha-Berit_, 102;
+  his translation of the Pentateuch, 78, 81, 105, 132, 133, 203;
+  post-Mendelssohnian period in Germany, 168;
+  in Russia, 192, 193;
+  his _Jerusalem_, 209;
+  his _Phaedon_, 214;
+  Alexander I's ideal Jew, 128;
+  the "Russian Mendelssohn," 213;
+  Smolenskin and Gottlober on, 265.
+
+Mendlin, Jacob Wolf, socialist, 293.
+
+Meseritz, Bär of, promoter of Hasidism, 65.
+
+_Midrash Talpiyot_, 63.
+
+Mielziner, Leo, on Zionist artists, 291.
+
+Mikhailovich, Czar Aleksey, 40.
+
+Milman, on Maimon's Autobiography, 88.
+
+Minhagim, according to Elijah Vilna, 73-74;
+  according to M.A. Günzburg, 215.
+
+Minor, Solomon Zalkind, "the Russian Jellinek," 235, 236.
+
+Minsk, 21;
+  Talmudists of, 34,
+  persecution of Hasidim in, 76;
+  schools in, 166-167, 292;
+  reception of Lilienthal in, 172, 173;
+  Maskilim of, 200, 201-235, 246;
+  referred to, 292, 293.
+
+Mirabeau's reference to Hurwitz, 92.
+
+Mitau, 123, 216.
+
+Mitauer, Elias, communal worker, 140.
+
+Mitnaggedim, opposition to Hasidism, 70, 131;
+  efforts of, at reconciliation with Hasidim, 120-121;
+  make common cause with Hasidim against Maskilim, 134, 260.
+
+_Mnyenie_, by Dyerzhavin, 118.
+
+Mohilev, 31, 104, 119, 128, 202.
+
+Moldavia, 40-41.
+
+Molo, Francisco, economist, 22.
+
+Montefiore, Sir Moses, visits Russia, 155-157;
+  invited to Russia, 175;
+  entertained, 200;
+  visit of 1872 to Russia, 230;
+  on the pogroms, 270;
+  on Russo-Jewish women, 299.
+
+Morgulis, Manasseh, litterateur, 14, 187-188.
+
+Morschtyn, George, proselyte (?), 26.
+
+_Mosaïde_, by Wessely, 98.
+
+Moscow, proselytism in, 25, 26;
+  expulsions from, 56, 153, 271;
+  Jews admitted to, 111;
+  converts in, 177;
+  Russification in, 240;
+  restrictions in the University of, 274, 276;
+  referred to, 291.
+
+Moses, martyr, 57.
+
+Mussarnikes, 280.
+
+Muzhiks, emancipation of, 222-223;
+  education of, 236-237;
+  restlessness of, 249-250;
+  socialism among, 257.
+
+Mylich, George Gottfried, Lutheran champion of Jewish rights, 113-114.
+
+
+Nachlass, Wolf, Cantonist, 139.
+
+Napoleon, convokes the Sanhedrin, 93;
+  his invasion of Russia, 112, 113;
+  his defeat, 115-117, 128;
+  on Vilna, 197.
+
+Narodnaya Volya Society, 257, 278.
+
+Narodniki, 236-237.
+
+Nazimov, Governor-General, champion of Jews, 201, 225.
+
+Nebakhovich, Alexander, theatrical director, 201.
+
+Nebakhovich, Leon (Löb), first defender of Russian Jews in Russian, 114,
+    125, 130;
+  dramatist, 189.
+
+Nebakhovich, Michael, editor of comic paper, 201.
+
+Nemirov, 59.
+
+Nemirov, Jehiel Michael of, scholar, 35.
+
+Nestor's Chronicles, 20.
+
+Nicholas I, referred to, 104, 202, 222, 229, 246, 249, 253, 260, 268, 284;
+  his policy, 135-160;
+  his recruiting, 135-139;
+  his colonization scheme, 140-143;
+  attempts at conversion of Jews, 144-147, 188;
+  his Exportation Law, 152-154;
+  his accusations refuted, 162-164;
+  investigates number of learned Jews, 167, 168, 198;
+  outwitted, 184;
+  on Jews of Odessa, 196.
+
+Nicholas II, referred to, 80, 192;
+  persecution of Jews under, 275-277.
+
+Nieszvicz, 82, 114, 118, 127, 197.
+
+Nisanovich, Itshe, physician, 39.
+
+_Nishmat Hayyim_, by Manasseh ben Israel, 63.
+
+Noah, Mordecai Manuel, statesman, 284.
+
+Nomenclature, Russo-Jewish, 30.
+
+Notkin, Nathan, diplomat and philanthropist, 118, 125.
+
+Novgorod, 25, 139, 271.
+
+Novy Israil Society, 248.
+
+
+Odessa, schools in, 164, 185;
+  Lilienthal in, 176;
+  Jewish influences in, 194-197;
+  Talmud Torah of, 226;
+  Haskalah in, 233-235;
+  Russification of, 240, 246, 255;
+  assimilation in, 248;
+  pogromy in, 253;
+  referred to, 251, 292, 294, 295, 296;
+  Jewish women of, 299-300.
+
+'Olam Katan, 297.
+
+_Old Paths_, by McCaul, 146, 211.
+
+Ostrog, 44, 206.
+
+
+Pale, the Jewish, 188, 199, 271, 274.
+
+Palestine, rehabilitation of, 13;
+  settlers from, in Russia, 18, 27;
+  longing for, 153, 283;
+  Smolenskin on, 263-264.
+
+Parlovich, Arthur, physician, 126.
+
+Patapov, Governor-General, convokes a conference, 259.
+
+Paul I, 62, 111, 112.
+
+Paul III, pope, 253.
+
+Pechersky, St. Feodosi, 25.
+
+Peretz, Abraham, diplomat, 118, 125, 130.
+
+Peretz, Gregori, Dekabrist, 192, 249, 284.
+
+Perl, Joseph, educator, 163, 164, 205.
+
+Perl, S., educator, 166.
+
+Persia, immigrants from, 19.
+
+Peter the Great, conquers the Tatars, 54;
+  his attempts to civilize Russia, 56;
+  surrender of Riga to, 123.
+
+_Phaedon_, by Mendelssohn, 214.
+
+Philippson, Ludwig, rabbi, 154, 158, 175.
+
+Phillips, Phinehas, founder of the Anglo-Jewish family, 94.
+
+Pinczows, the, scholars, 104-105.
+
+Pinner, Ephraim Moses, Talmudist, 145.
+
+Pinsk, 76, 197, 202, 242.
+
+Pinsker, Leo, nationalist, 263, 281-283.
+
+Pinsker, Simhah, scholar, 108-109, 164, 195.
+
+Pirogov, Nikolai Ivanovich, liberal school superintendent, 226-228.
+
+Plehve, von, on restrictions, 302.
+
+Plungian, Ezekiel Feiyel, Talmudist, 119, 203.
+
+Pobyedonostsev, influences Alexander II, 250-251;
+  procurator of the Holy Synod, 269;
+  his policy regarding Jews, 270;
+  on Jewish superiority, 273.
+
+Podolia, 60, 64, 69, 162, 195, 277.
+
+Pogodin, on early Russian Jews, 19.
+
+Pogromy, 253, 269-270.
+
+Poimaniki, 136-138, 152, 162, 184.
+
+Poimshchiki, 137.
+
+Polack, Jacob, Talmudist, 72, 104.
+
+Poland, early settlement of Jews in, 20;
+  political eminence of, 22-23;
+  proselytism in, 26;
+  after Chmielnicki's massacres, 53-55;
+  influence of Calvinism in, 56-57;
+  during the rozbior, 58;
+  after the annexation, 113;
+  Jewish loyalty to, 115-116;
+  under Nicholas I, 158-159;
+  use of Polish in, 196;
+  sympathy with, and adoption of language of, 246-247.
+
+Polonnoy, Jacob Joseph of, follower of Besht, 65;
+  his _Toledot Ya'akob Yosef_ burnt in Vilna, 76;
+  mentioned, 122, 132.
+
+Polotsk, 55, 95.
+
+Poltava, 200, 239, 300.
+
+Popes, 72, 253.
+
+Posner, Solomon, philanthropist, 143-144.
+
+Pototzki, Count Valentine, proselyte, 27.
+
+Prayer book. See Book of Common Prayer.
+
+Prelooker, Jacob, 241-242, 248.
+
+Printing-press, permission to establish, 110;
+  first publications from,  124;
+  restrictions removed from use of, 230.
+
+Prochovnik, Abraham, Jewish king of Poland (?), 22.
+
+Proselytism, 18, 20, 24-28.
+
+Public schools, admission of Jews to, 111, 118, 125;
+  exclusion of Jews from, 273-275.
+
+Pumpyansky, Aaron Elijah, rabbi, 203, 246.
+
+Pushkin's prisoner, 224.
+
+
+Querido, Jacob, mystic, 64.
+
+
+Rabbinical seminaries, 144-145, 165, 170, 173, 182, 196, 202-203.
+
+Rabbis, position of, in Russo-Poland, 44-45;
+  required to know Russian, German, or Polish, 125;
+  opposed by Maskilim, 173;
+  Lilienthal on, 174, 181;
+  Günzburg on, 216-217;
+  dukhovny and kazyony, 295-296.
+
+Rabinovich, Osip, litterateur, 201, 238, 243.
+
+Rabinowitz, Joseph, assimilationist, 248.
+
+Rachmailovich, Affras, merchant, 22.
+
+Radziwill, Prince, 24, 39, 62.
+
+Rapoport, Solomon Löb, rabbi, 205.
+
+Rasiner, Israel, zaddik, 211.
+
+Raskolniki, 248.
+
+Rathaus, Abraham, merchant, 200.
+
+Razsvyet, 238, 243-244, 286.
+
+Reform Judaism, and the Haskalah, 242-248;
+  sermons in Russian, 246;
+  Smolenskin on, 264-265.
+
+Reform synagogues, in Odessa, 196;
+  in Warsaw, 197;
+  in Vilna, 198.
+
+Reines, Isaac Jacob, rabbi, 295.
+
+Reis, Joseph, grandfather of Wessely, 77.
+
+Revolutionaries, 192, 248-251, 255-258.
+
+Riesser, Gabriel, champion of Jewish emancipation, 78.
+
+Riga, 123, 164, 170, 180, 185, 195, 197, 225, 246, 271.
+
+Risenci, Jonathan of, rabbi, 104.
+
+Rivkes, Moses, commentator, 34.
+
+Romm, Menahem Mann, publisher, 148-149.
+
+Rosensohn, Joseph, rabbi, 127.
+
+Rosensohn, Moses, reformer, 247.
+
+Rosenthal, Leon, financier, 200, 237-238.
+
+Rothschild, Baron Edmund de, 288.
+
+Rurik, Varangian prince, 19.
+
+Russia, Haskalah in, contrasted with Haskalah in Galicia and Germany, 12;
+  arrival of German Jews in, 18;
+  antiquity of Jews in, 19;
+  privileges of Jews in, 21;
+  Jewish envoys to, 22;
+  mentioned by medieval scholars, 28-29;
+  Sefardim and Ashkenazim resort to, 33-34;
+  scientists in, 37-39;
+  physicians in, 39-42;
+  status of Jews of, before Chmielnicki's uprising, 42-45;
+  Jewish self-government, school system, and mode of living in, 45-52;
+  under Ivan the Terrible, 55-56;
+  under Peter the Great, 56;
+  under Elizabeta Petrovna, 57;
+  state of civilization of, 60, 107;
+  favorable conditions in, under Catherine II, Paul I, and Alexander I,
+    110-128;
+  Jewish patriotism toward, under Alexander I, 117;
+  Russification of Jews of, 124-125;
+  opposition to Haskalah in, 133 f.;
+  Jewish colonization in, 140-144;
+  crusade against the Talmud in, 145-147;
+  opinions of prominent Gentiles on Jews of, 162, 224-225;
+  literature and civilization of, under Nicholas I, 189-190;
+  under Alexander II, 222-226;
+  Jewish contribution to civilization of, 201-202, 255;
+  sermons in, 246;
+  defenders of Jews in, 302-303;
+  Macaulay on civilization of, 310 (n. 6).
+
+
+Sack, Hayyim, financier, 200.
+
+Sackheim, Joseph, merchant, 200.
+
+_Safah Berurah_, by Hannover, 39.
+
+St. Petersburg, Imperial Hermitage in, 19;
+  scene of martyrdom, 57;
+  referred to, 91, 104, 267, 276, 286, 300;
+  Jews permitted in, 111, 117, 126;
+  expelled from, 128, 153, 271;
+  deputation to, 129;
+  rabbinical conferences, 151, 173, 174-176, 230;
+  converts in, 177;
+  first graduate of University of, 200;
+  restriction of students in, 274;
+  Russification in, 240;
+  revolutionaries at, 258.
+
+Salanter, Israel, rabbi, 241.
+
+Samuel ben Avigdor, rabbi, 79.
+
+Samuel ben Mattathias, Talmudist, 40.
+
+Sanchez, Antonio Ribeiro, physician, 57.
+
+Sanhedrin, the, and French Russian Jews, 93.
+
+Satanov, Isaac Halevi, litterateur, 99, 217.
+
+Schapira, Moses, publisher, 148.
+
+Schapiro, Constantin, poet, 98.
+
+Schechter, Solomon, on Hasidism, 69.
+
+Schick, Baruch (Shklover), scientist, 94, 96, 105-106, 119, 125.
+
+Schiller, on Maimon, 89;
+  referred to, 192.
+
+Schools, secular, 163-165, 182-185, 195-196, 227-228, 229, 235, 239,
+  253, 273-274, 276-277, 290-292, 297.
+
+_Sefer ha-Berit_, 102.
+
+Seiberling, Joseph, censor of Hebrew books, 200.
+
+Shabbataï Zebi, pseudo-Messiah, 64, 69.
+
+Shalkovich, Abraham Lob (Ben Avigdor), 296.
+
+Shatzkes' _Ha-Mafteah_, 244.
+
+Shavli, Moses of, writer of polemics, 36.
+
+_Shibhe ha-Besht_, 123, 134.
+
+Shklov, 105, 124.
+
+Shkud, Mikel of, rabbi, 61.
+
+Shneersohn, Menahem Mendel, zaddik, 175, 176.
+
+Shmoilovich, Abraham, merchant, 22.
+
+_Shulhan 'Aruk_, commentators on, 34, 36;
+  its effect on Jewish life, 73;
+  Elijah Vilna on, 74;
+  criticism of, 123;
+  annotations to, 127;
+  referred to, 215.
+
+Siberia, 140-143, 160.
+
+_Sin'at 'Olam le-'Am 'Olam_, 280-281.
+
+Sixtus V, pope, 72.
+
+_Skazanye O Florye Rimlyaninye_, by Korolenko, 302.
+
+Skripitzyn's _Information about the Killing of Christians_, etc., 229.
+
+Slonim, Samson of, rabbi, 106.
+
+Slonimsky, Hayyim Selig, inventor and editor, 199, 200, 201-202, 203.
+
+Slutsk, 76, 105, 202.
+
+"Slutsker Maggid, the," 246.
+
+Smolensk, 21, 162.
+
+Smolenskin, Perez, and Haskalah, 13;
+  his descriptions of the heder and yeshibah, 50, 266;
+  his life, 261-267;
+  his conception  of Haskalah, 261;
+  on nationalism, 262-263, 284;
+  on reformers, 264-265;
+  attacks Mendelssohn, 265;
+  on the prophetic consciousness of the Jewish masses, 266-267;
+  his popularity, 267;
+  organizes the Kadimah, 285;
+  opposes the Alliance Israélite Universelle, 285.
+
+Sobieski, John, 39.
+
+Society for the Promotion of Haskalah among the Russian Jews, 237-239,
+246, 252, 291-292.
+
+Sofer, Moses, rabbi, 133.
+
+Sofer, Shabbataï, rabbi, 36.
+
+Sokolov, Nahum, publicist, 280.
+
+Sosima, monkish proselyte, 26.
+
+Spector, Isaac Elhanan, rabbi, 288.
+
+Speir, Bima, of Mohilev, opponent of Frank, 104.
+
+Spinoza and Maimon compared, 86, 88.
+
+Stern, Abraham Jacob, inventor, 201.
+
+Stern, Bezalel (Basilius), pedagogue, 164, 165, 175, 176.
+
+Strashun, Mattathias, Talmudist, 203.
+
+Surovyetsky, on Russian Jews, 162, 318 (n. 1).
+
+Switzerland, 257, 298, 299, 300.
+
+
+_Talmud, Der, in seiner Nichtigkeit_, by Buchner, 146.
+
+Talmud, the, the study of, 31, 71-72;
+  burnt in public, 70;
+  customs of, according to Elijah Gaon, 74;
+  attacks on, 145-147, 170, 242-248;
+  published in Russia, 147-149;
+  neglected in Germany, 168.
+
+Talmud Torah, the, 47, 184.
+
+Talmudists, ancient Russo-Jewish, 28-30;
+  opposed by Hasidism, 66;
+  in Vilna, 197-198.
+
+Tarnopol, on Russo-Jewish women, 299-300.
+
+Taz, David, rabbi, 34.
+
+Temkin's _Derek Salulah_, 146.
+
+_Te'udah be-Yisraël_, by Levinsohn, 205-207, 209, 210, 212.
+
+_Toledot Ya'akob Yosef_, by Jacob Joseph Polonnoy, 65.
+
+Tolstoi, 245, 250, 302.
+
+Troki, city, 22.
+
+Troki, Abraham, author and physician, 39.
+
+Troki, Isaac ben Abraham, Karaite scholar, 36.
+
+Turgenief, on Russia, 224;
+  his Zhid, 224;
+  referred to, 245, 250;
+  on Alexander II, 251;
+  his _Virgin Soil_, and _Fathers and Sons_, 257;
+  his Lithuanian Jewish character, 259-260.
+
+Tushiyah Society, 296-297.
+
+
+Ukraine, the, Jewish community in, 20;
+  famous for scholars, 35-36;
+  Jewish self-government in, 44;
+  expulsions from, 56-57;
+  state of morality in, 64;
+  Hasidism in, 69, 122;
+  first school in, 164.
+
+Uman, 59, 164.
+
+United States, the, 158, 220, 270, 283.
+
+Uvarov, on persecution, 155, 302;
+  on "re-education," 171, 174, 175, 182.
+
+
+Vassile Lupu, hospodar of Moldavia, 40.
+
+Vassilyevich, Ivan, 23, 26.
+
+Vernacular, the, 18, 29, 30-31, 38, 188, 194, 255.
+
+Vilna, scene of martyrdom, 27;
+  Talmudists of, 34;
+  kahal of, 62;
+  persecution of Hasidim, 76;
+  the last rabbi of, 79;
+  notables of, 91, 92, 124, 150;
+  first graduates from University of, 126-127;
+  opposition to Haskalah in, 133;
+  first publication of the Talmud in, 148-149;
+  first assembly of Maskilim in, 165;
+  innovations in, 166;
+  reception of Lilienthal in, 172, 173;
+  rabbinical seminary at, 175, 186, 202;
+  yeshibot of, 197;
+  Haskalah in, 198, 200, 206, 246;
+  champions of Jews in, 225;
+  referred to, 230, 292, 295.
+
+_Virgin Soil_, by Turgenief, 257.
+
+Vital, Hayyim, Cabbalist, 103, 134.
+
+Vitebsk, 128, 202, 292.
+
+Vitebsk, Menahem Mendel of, zaddik, on Haskalah, 135.
+
+Vladimir, grand duke, 20.
+
+Volhynia, jurisdiction over, 44;
+  massacres in, 60;
+  Hasidism in, 69, 81, 104;
+  first complete edition of the Talmud published in, 148;
+  referred to, 162, 195;
+  blood accusations in, 208.
+
+Volozhin, Hayyim, dean, 135, 150-151, 175, 176.
+
+Volozhin, Isaac of, dean, 151.
+
+Volozhin, yeshibah of, 150-152, 245, 295.
+
+Vosnitzin, Captain, martyr, 27, 57.
+
+
+Wahl, Saul, Jewish Polish king (?), 22.
+
+Warsaw, Jewish community in, 20;
+  persecution in, 58;
+  protest at, 62;
+  defended by Jewish soldiers, 115;
+  first Yiddish paper in, 124;
+  rabbinic college of, 144-145, 170, 202;
+  censor in, 148;
+  condition of, 159;
+  German influence in, 196;
+  Maskilim of, 202, 206, 246;
+  referred to, 286.
+
+Way, Lewis, English missionary, 129-130, 144.
+
+Weigel, Katharina, proselyte, 27.
+
+Wengeroff's _Memoirs_, 163;
+  on Russo-Jewish women, 300.
+
+Wessely, Naphtali Hartwig, quoted, 38;
+  course of study prescribed by, 75;
+  his ancestry, 77;
+  his opinion on Russo-Jewish students, 80, 92, 108;
+  his _Mosaïde_, 98;
+  his _Yen Lebanon_, 105;
+  his Epistles and _Yen Lebanon_ banned, 132, 133, 192.
+
+_What to Do_, by Chernichevsky, 257.
+
+White, on Jewish farmers, 288.
+
+Wissotzky, Kalonymos, philanthropist, 292.
+
+Wohl, censor of Hebrew books, 252, 294.
+
+Wolf, Levy, jurist, 126.
+
+Wolff's _Metaphysics_, 84-86;
+  _Mathematics_, 90, 108.
+
+Wolper, Michael, educator, 294.
+
+Women's education, 45-46, 253, 258, 259, 276, 296, 299-301.
+
+_Words of Peace and Truth_, by Wessely, 75.
+
+Workingmen, Russo-Jewish, 163, 293-294, 318 (n. 2).
+
+
+Yankele Kovner. See Barit, Jacob.
+
+Yaroslav, fair of, 49.
+
+Yaroslav, Aaron, friend of Mendelssohn, 81.
+
+Yavan, Baruch, diplomat, 104.
+
+Yelisavetgrad, 247, 269, 292.
+
+_Yen Lebanon_, by Wessely, 105, 132, 133, 192.
+
+Yeralash, 201.
+
+Yeshibat 'Ez Hayyim, 150-152, 175, 184, 254.
+
+Yeshibot, 32, 46-49, 168.
+
+_Yeven Mezulah_, by Hannover, 48-49.
+
+Yiddish, as spoken by Russian Jews, 38;
+  first used for secular instruction, 100-101, 124;
+  first weekly in, 123, 196;
+  studied for missionary purposes, 145;
+  employed by Maskilim, 167, 232;
+  by Zionists, 286.
+
+
+Zabludovsky, Jehiel Michael, Talmudist, 199.
+
+Zacharias, monkish proselyte, 26.
+
+Zacharias of Kiev, missionary, 25.
+
+Zaddikim, 66, 122, 220.
+
+Zamoscz, city, 90, 202.
+
+Zamoscz, Israel Moses Halevi, instructor of Mendelssohn, 77, 90, 195.
+
+Zamoscz, Reuben of, quoted, 80.
+
+Zamoscz, Solomon of, liturgical poet, 35.
+
+Zangwill, on Maimon, 88;
+  referred to, 297.
+
+Zaremba, proselyte, 27.
+
+Zaslav, fair of, 49;
+  blood accusation in, 208.
+
+Zaslaver, Jacob, Massorite, 36.
+
+Zbitkover, Samuel, financier, 116.
+
+Zederbaum, Alexander, publisher, 288.
+
+Zeitlin, Joshua, financier, 118-119.
+
+_Zeker Rab_, 124.
+
+Zelmele, Talmudist, 119-120.
+
+_Zerubbabel_, by Levinsohn, 210-212, 213.
+
+Zhagory, 200, 202.
+
+Zhitomir, rabbinical seminary at, 175, 186, 197, 202, 248;
+  printing-press in, 230;
+  trade school in, 235;
+  Evening and Sabbath schools in, 239.
+
+Zionism, 267, 284-287:
+  difficulties of, 287-288;
+  effect of, 289-291.
+
+_Zohar_, 63, 134.
+
+Zunser, Eliakum, badhan, on Alexander II, 231;
+  on Orthodoxy, 240-241;
+  on the "intelligentia," 278;
+  on Zionism, 290;
+  on the awakening, 324-327 (n. 27).
+
+
+
+The Lord Baltimore Press
+Baltimore, Md., U.S.A.
+
+
+
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Haskalah Movement in Russia, by Jacob S. Raisin</title>
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Haskalah Movement in Russia, by Jacob S.
+Raisin</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The Haskalah Movement in Russia</p>
+<p>Author: Jacob S. Raisin</p>
+<p>Release Date: May 27, 2005  [eBook #15921]</p>
+<p>Language: En</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HASKALAH MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, David King,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h1>THE HASKALAH MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA</h1>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p><i>And the "Maskilim" shall shine</i></p>
+<p><i>As the brightness of the firmament ...</i></p>
+<p><i>Many shall run to and fro,</i></p>
+<p><i>And knowledge shall be increased</i>.</p>
+<p class="i10">&mdash;Dan. xii. 3-4</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<a name="illus-cohn" id="illus-cohn"></a>
+<center><img height="300" width="228" src="images/illus-cohn.png"
+alt="Tobias Cohn" /></center>
+<center>Tobias Cohn, 1652-1759, From the Frontispiece of his
+Ma'aseh Tobiah</center>
+<h3>BY</h3>
+<h2>JACOB S. RAISIN, PH.D., D.D.</h2>
+<h3>Author of "Sect, Creed and Custom in Judaism," etc.</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5>PHILADELPHIA</h5>
+<h5>THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA</h5>
+<h4>1913</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><i>TO AARON S. RAISIN</i></p>
+<p><i>Your name, dear father, will not be found in the following
+pages, for, like "the waters of the Siloam that run softly," you
+ever preferred to pursue your useful course in unassuming silence.
+Yet, as it is your life, devoted entirely to meditating, learning,
+and teaching, that inspired me in my effort, I dedicate this book
+to you; and I am happy to know that I thus not only dedicate it to
+one of the noblest of Maskilim, but at the same time offer you some
+slight token of the esteem and affection felt for you by</i></p>
+<p><i>Your Son</i>,</p>
+<p><i>JACOB S. RAISIN</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a href="#preface">PREFACE</a></p>
+<p><a href="#chap1">CHAPTER I. THE PRE-HASKALAH PERIOD</a></p>
+<p><a href="#chap2">CHAPTER II. THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION</a></p>
+<p><a href="#chap3">CHAPTER III. THE DAWN OF HASKALAH</a></p>
+<p><a href="#chap4">CHAPTER IV. CONFLICTS AND CONQUESTS</a></p>
+<p><a href="#chap5">CHAPTER V. RUSSIFICATION, REFORMATION, AND
+ASSIMILATION</a></p>
+<p><a href="#chap6">CHAPTER VI. THE AWAKENING</a></p>
+<p><a href="#notes">NOTES</a></p>
+<p><a href="#bibliography">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></p>
+<p><a href="#index">INDEX</a></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a href="#illus-cohn">TOBIAS COHN (1652-1759)</a></p>
+<p><a href="#illus-levinsohn">ISAAC B&Auml;R LEVINSOHN
+(1788-1860)</a></p>
+<p><a href="#illus-lilienthal">MAX LILIENTHAL (1815-1882)</a></p>
+<p><a href="#illus-zederbaum">ALEXANDER ZEDERBAUM
+(1816-1893)</a></p>
+<p><a href="#illus-smolenskin">PEREZ BEN MOSHEH SMOLENSKIN
+(1842-1885)</a></p>
+<p><a href="#illus-lilienblum">MOSES L&Ouml;B LILIENBLUM
+(1843-1910)</a></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>{11}</span>
+<h2><a name="preface" id="preface">PREFACE</a></h2>
+<p>To the lover of mankind the history of the Russo-Jewish
+renaissance is an encouraging and inspiring phenomenon. Seldom has
+a people made such rapid strides forward as the Russian Jews. From
+the melancholy regularity that marked their existence a little more
+than two generations ago, from the darkness of the Middle Ages in
+which they were steeped until the time of Alexander II, they
+emerged suddenly into the life and light of the West, and some of
+the most intrepid devotees of latter-day culture, both in Europe
+and in America, have come from among them. Destitute of everything
+that makes for enlightenment, and under the dominion of a
+Government which sought to extinguish the few rushlights that
+scattered the shadows around them, they nevertheless snatched
+victory from defeat, sloughed off medieval superstition, and,
+disregarding the Dejanira shirt of modern disabilities, compelled
+their countrymen to admit more than once that</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Tho' I've belted you and flayed you,</p>
+<p>By the livin' Gawd that made you,</p>
+<p>You're a better man than I am!</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>{12}</span>
+<p>Similar movements were started in Germany during the latter part
+of the eighteenth century, and in Austria, notably Galicia, at the
+beginning of the nineteenth, but none stirred the mind of the Jews
+to the same degree as the Haskalah movement in Russia during the
+last fifty years. In the former, the removal of restrictions soon
+rendered attempts toward self-emancipation unnecessary on the part
+of Jews, and the few Maskilim among them, satisfied with the
+present, devoted themselves to investigating and elucidating the
+past of their people's history. In Russia the past was all but
+forgotten on account of the immediate duties of the present. The
+energy and acquisitiveness that made the Jews of happier and more
+prosperous lands prominent in every sphere of practical life, were
+directed toward the realm of thought, and the merciless severity
+with which the Government excluded them from the enjoyment of
+things material only increased their ardor for things spiritual and
+intellectual.</p>
+<p>In its wide sense Haskalah denotes enlightenment. Those who
+strove to enlighten their benighted coreligionists or disseminate
+European culture among them, were called Maskilim. A careful
+perusal of this work will reveal the exact ideals these terms
+embody. For Haskalah was not only <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page13" id="page13"></a>{13}</span> progressive, it was also
+aggressive, militant, sometimes destructive. From the days of
+Mordecai G&uuml;nzburg to the time of Asher Ginzberg (Ahad Ha-'Am),
+it changed its tendencies and motives more than once. Levinsohn,
+"the father of the Maskilim," was satisfied with removing the ban
+from secular learning; Gordon wished to see his brethren "Jews at
+home and men abroad"; Smolenskin dreamed of the rehabilitation of
+Jews in Palestine; and Ahad Ha-'Am hopes for the spiritual
+regeneration of his beloved people. Others advocated the levelling
+of all distinctions between Jews and Gentiles, or the upliftment of
+mankind in general and Russia in particular. To each of them
+Haskalah implied different ideals, and through each it promulgated
+diverse doctrines. To trace these varying phases from an indistinct
+glimmering in the eighteenth century to the glorious effulgence of
+the beginning of the twentieth, is the main object of this
+book.</p>
+<p>In pursuance of my end, I have paid particular attention to the
+causes that retarded or accelerated Russo-Jewish cultural advance.
+As these causes originate in the social, economic, and political
+status of the Russian Jew, I frequently portray political events as
+well as the state of knowledge, belief, art, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>{14}</span> and morals
+of the periods under consideration. For this reason also I have
+marked the boundaries of the Haskalah epochs in correspondence to
+the dates of the reigns of the several czars, though the
+correspondence is not always exact.</p>
+<p>Essays have been published, on some of the topics treated in
+these pages, by writers in different languages: in Russian, by
+Bramson, Klausner, and Morgulis; in Hebrew, by Izgur, Katz, and
+Klausner; in German, by Maimon, Lilienthal, Wengeroff, and
+Weissberg; in English, by Lilienthal and Wiener; and in French, by
+Slouschz. The subject as a whole, however, has not been treated.
+Should this work stimulate further research, I shall feel amply
+rewarded. Without prejudice and without partiality, by an honest
+presentation of facts drawn from what I regard as reliable sources,
+I have tried to unfold the story of the struggle of five millions
+of human beings for right living and rational thinking, in the hope
+of throwing light on the ideals and aspirations and the real
+character of the largely prejudged and misunderstood Russian
+Jew.</p>
+<p>In conclusion, I wish to express my gratitude and indebtedness
+to those who encouraged me to proceed with my work after some
+specimens of it had been published in several Jewish periodicals,
+especially <span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id=
+"page15"></a>{15}</span> to Doctor Solomon Schechter, Rabbi Max
+Heller, and Mr. A.S. Freidus, for their courtesy and assistance
+while the work was being written.</p>
+<p>JACOB S. RAISIN.</p>
+<p>E. Las Vegas, N. Mex.,</p>
+<p>Thanksgiving Day, 1909.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>{17}</span>
+<h2><a name="chap1" id="chap1">CHAPTER I</a></h2>
+<h3>THE PRE-HASKALAH PERIOD</h3>
+<h3>?-1648</h3>
+<p>"There is but one key to the present," says Max M&uuml;ller,
+"and that is the past." To understand fully the growth and
+historical development of a people's mind, one must be familiar
+with the conditions that have shaped its present form. It would
+seem necessary, therefore, to introduce a description of the
+Haskalah movement with a rapid survey of the history of the
+Russo-Polish Jews from the time of their emergence from obscurity
+up to the middle of the seventeenth century.</p>
+<p>Among those who laid the foundations for the study of this
+almost unexplored department of Jewish history, the settlement of
+Jews in Russia and their vicissitudes during the dark ages, the
+most prominent are perhaps Isaac B&auml;r Levinsohn, Abraham
+Harkavy, and Simon Dubnow. There is much to be said of each of
+these as writers, scholars, and men. Here they concern us as
+Russo-Jewish historians. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id=
+"page18"></a>{18}</span> What Linnaeus, Agassiz, and Cuvier did in
+the field of natural philosophy, they accomplished in their chosen
+province of Jewish history.<a id="footnotetag1-1" name=
+"footnotetag1-1"></a><a href="#footnote1-1"><sup>1</sup></a>
+Levinsohn was the first to express the opinion that the Russian
+Jews hailed, not from Germany, as is commonly supposed, but from
+the banks of the Volga. This hypothesis, corroborated by tradition,
+Harkavy established as a fact. Originally the vernacular of the
+Jews of Volhynia, Podolia, and Kiev was Russian and Polish, or,
+rather, the two being closely allied, Palaeo-Slavonic. The havoc
+wrought by the Crusades in the Jewish communities of Western Europe
+caused a constant stream of German-Jewish immigrants to pour, since
+1090, into the comparatively free countries of the Slavonians.
+Russo-Poland became the America of the Old World. The Jewish
+settlers from abroad soon outnumbered the native Jews, and they
+spread a new language and new customs wherever they established
+themselves.<a id="footnotetag1-2" name=
+"footnotetag1-2"></a><a href="#footnote1-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+<p>Whether the Jews of Russia were originally pagans from the
+shores of the Black and Caspian Seas, converted to Judaism under
+the Khazars during the eighth century, or Palestinian exiles
+subjugated by their Slavonian conquerors and assimilated with them,
+it is indisputable that they inhabited what we know to-day as
+Russia long before the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id=
+"page19"></a>{19}</span> Varangian prince Rurik came, at the
+invitation of Scythian and Sarmatian savages, to lay the foundation
+of the Muscovite empire. In Feodosia there is a synagogue at least
+a thousand years old. The Greek inscription on a marble slab,
+dating back to 80-81 B.C.E., preserved in the Imperial Hermitage in
+St. Petersburg, makes it certain that they flourished in the Crimea
+before the destruction of the Temple. In a communication to the
+Russian Geographical Society, M. Pogodin makes the statement, that
+there still exist a synagogue and a cemetery in the Crimea that
+belong to the pre-Christian era. Some of the tombstones, bearing
+Jewish names, and decorated with the seven-branched Menorah, date
+back to 157 B.C.E.; while Chufut-Kale, also known as the Rock of
+the Jews (Sela' ha-Yehudim), from the fortress supposed to have
+been built there by the Jews, would prove Jewish settlements to
+have been made there during the Babylonian or Persian
+captivity.<a id="footnotetag1-3" name="footnotetag1-3"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-3"><sup>3</sup></a></p>
+<p>Though the same antiquity cannot be established for other Jewish
+settlements, we know that Kiev, "the mother of Russian cities," had
+many Jews long before the eighth century, who thus antedated the
+Russians as citizens. According to Joseph Hakohen they came there
+from Persia in 690, according <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page20" id="page20"></a>{20}</span> to Malishevsky in 776. It is
+certain that their influence was felt as early as the latter part
+of the tenth century. The Russian Chronicles ascribed to Nestor
+relate that they endeavored, in 986, to induce Grand Duke Vladimir
+to accept their religion. They did not succeed as they had
+succeeded two centuries before with the khan of the Khazars.<a id=
+"footnotetag1-4" name="footnotetag1-4"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-4"><sup>4</sup></a> Yet the grand duke, who had the
+greatest influence in introducing and spreading Greek Catholicism,
+and who is now worshipped as a saint, was always favorably disposed
+toward them.</p>
+<p>There were other places that were inhabited early by Jews. There
+are traditions to the effect that Jews lived in Poland as early as
+the ninth century, and under the Boreslavs (992-1278) they are said
+to have enjoyed considerable privileges, carried on a lively trade,
+and spread as far as Kiev. Chernigov in Little Russia (the
+Ukraine), Baku in South Russia (Transcaucasia), Kalisz and Warsaw,
+Brest and Grodno, in West Russia (Russian Poland), all possess
+Jewish communities of considerable antiquity. In the townlet
+Eishishki, near Vilna, a tombstone set in 1171 was still in
+existence at the end of the last century, and Khelm, Government
+Kovno, has a synagogue to which tradition ascribes an age of eight
+hundred years.<a id="footnotetag1-5" name=
+"footnotetag1-5"></a><a href="#footnote1-5"><sup>5</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>{21}</span>
+<p>The Jewish population in all these communities was prosperous
+and respected. Jews were in favor with the Government, enjoyed
+equal rights with their Gentile neighbors, and were especially
+prominent as traders and farmers of taxes. Their monoxyla, or
+one-oared canoes, loaded with silks, furs, and precious metals,
+issued from the Borysthanes, traversed the Baltic and the Euxine,
+the Oder and the Bosphorus, the Danube and the Black Sea, and
+carried on the commerce between the Turks and the Slavonians. They
+were granted the honorable and lucrative privilege of directing and
+controlling the mints, and that of putting Hebrew as well as
+Slavonic inscriptions on their coins.<a id="footnotetag1-6" name=
+"footnotetag1-6"></a><a href="#footnote1-6"><sup>6</sup></a> In the
+Lithuanian Magna Charta, granted by Vitold in 1388, the Jews of
+Brest were given many rights, and about a year later those of
+Grodno were permitted to engage in all pursuits and occupations,
+and exempted from paying taxes on synagogues and cemeteries. They
+possessed full jurisdiction in their own affairs. Some were raised
+to the nobility, notably the Josephovich brothers, Abraham and
+Michael. Under King Alexander Jagellon, Abraham was assessor of
+Kovno, alderman of Smolensk, and prefect of Minsk; he was called
+"sir" (jastrzhembets), was presented with the estates of Voidung,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>{22}</span>
+Grinkov, and Troki (1509), and appointed Secretary of the Treasury
+in Lithuania (1510). The other brother, Michael, was made "fiscal
+agent to the king." In the eighteenth century, Andrey Abramovich,
+of the same family but not of the Jewish faith, was senator and
+castellan of Brest-Litovsk.<a id="footnotetag1-7" name=
+"footnotetag1-7"></a><a href="#footnote1-7"><sup>7</sup></a> They
+were not unique exceptions. Abraham Shmoilovich of Turisk is spoken
+of as "honorable sir" in leases of large estates. Affras
+Rachmailovich and Judah Bogdanovich figure among the merchant
+princes of Livonia and Lithuania; and Francisco Molo, who settled
+later in Amsterdam, was financial agent of John III of Poland in
+1679. The influence of the last-named was so great with the Dutch
+States-General that the Treaty of Ryswick was concluded with Louis
+XIV, in 1697, through his mediation.<a id="footnotetag1-8" name=
+"footnotetag1-8"></a><a href="#footnote1-8"><sup>8</sup></a></p>
+<p>That Russo-Poland should have elected a Jewish king on two
+occasions, a certain Abraham Prochovnik in 842 and the famous Saul
+Wahl<a id="footnotetag1-9" name="footnotetag1-9"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-9"><sup>9</sup></a> in the sixteenth century, sounds
+legendary; but that there was a Jewish queen, called Esterka, is
+probable, and that some Jews attained to political eminence is
+beyond reasonable doubt.<a id="footnotetag1-10" name=
+"footnotetag1-10"></a><a href="#footnote1-10"><sup>10</sup></a>
+Records have been discovered concerning two envoys, Saul and
+Joseph, who served the Slavonic czar about 960, and an <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>{23}</span> interesting
+story is told of two Jewish soldiers, Ephraim Moisievich and Anbal
+the Jassin, who won the confidence of Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky of
+Kiev, and afterwards became leaders in a conspiracy against him
+(1174).<a id="footnotetag1-11" name="footnotetag1-11"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-11"><sup>11</sup></a> Henry, Duke of Anjou, the
+successor of Sigismud August on the throne of Poland and Lithuania,
+owed his election mainly to the efforts of Solomon Ashkenazi. Ivan
+Vassilyevich, too, had many and important relations with Jews, and
+his favorable attitude towards them is amply proved by the fact
+that his family physician was the Jew Leo (1490). Throughout his
+reign he maintained an uninterrupted friendship with Chozi Kokos, a
+Jew of the Crimea, and he did not hesitate to offer hospitality and
+protection to Zacharias de Guizolfi, though the latter was not in a
+position to reciprocate such favors.<a id="footnotetag1-12" name=
+"footnotetag1-12"></a><a href="#footnote1-12"><sup>12</sup></a></p>
+<p>In addition there are less prominent individuals who received
+honors at the hands of their non-Jewish countrymen. Me&iuml;r
+Ashkenazi of Kaffa, in the Crimea, who was slain by pirates on a
+trip from "Gava to Dakhel," was envoy of the khan of the Tatars to
+the king of Poland in the sixteenth century. Mention is made of
+"Jewish Cossacks," who distinguished themselves on the field of
+battle, and were elevated to the rank of major and colonel.<a id=
+"footnotetag1-13" name="footnotetag1-13"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-13"><sup>13</sup></a> <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page24" id="page24"></a>{24}</span> While the common opinion
+regarding Jews expressed itself in merry England in such ballads as
+"The Jewish Dochter," and "Gernutus, the Jew of Venice," many a
+Little Russian song had the bravery of a Jewish soldier as its
+burden. In everything save religion the Jews were hardly
+distinguishable from their neighbors.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>There are&mdash;writes Cardinal Commendoni, an
+eye-witness&mdash;a great many Jews in these provinces, including
+Lithuania, who are not, as in other places, regarded with
+disrespect. They do not maintain themselves miserably by base
+profits; they are landed proprietors, are engaged in business, and
+even devote themselves to the study of literature and, above all,
+to medicine and astronomy; they hold almost everywhere the
+commission of levying customs duties, are classed among the most
+honest people, wear no outward mark to distinguish them from the
+Christians, and are permitted to carry swords and walk about with
+their arms. In a word they have equal rights with the other
+citizens.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>A similar statement is made by Joseph Delmedigo, who spent many
+years in Livonia and Lithuania as physician to Prince
+Radziwill.<a id="footnotetag1-14" name=
+"footnotetag1-14"></a><a href="#footnote1-14"><sup>14</sup></a></p>
+<p>In his inimitable manner Gibbon describes the fierce struggle
+the Greek Catholic Church had to wage before she obtained a
+foothold in Russia, but he neglects to mention the fact that
+Judaism no less than paganism was among her formidable opponents.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>{25}</span>
+The contest lasted several centuries, and in many places it is
+undecided to this day.<a id="footnotetag1-15" name=
+"footnotetag1-15"></a><a href="#footnote1-15"><sup>15</sup></a> The
+Khazars, who had become proselytes in the eighth century, were
+constantly encroaching upon Russian Christianity. Buoyant as both
+were with the vigor of youth, missionary zeal was at its height
+among the two contending religions. Each made war upon the other.
+We read that Photius of Constantinople sent a message of thanks to
+Archbishop Anthony of Kertch (858-859) for his efforts to convert
+the Jews; that the first Bishop of the Established Church (1035)
+was "Lukas, the little Jew" (Luka Zhidyata), who was appointed to
+his office by Yaroslav; and that St. Feodosi Pechersky was fond of
+conversing with learned Jews on matters of theology.<a id=
+"footnotetag1-16" name="footnotetag1-16"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-16"><sup>16</sup></a> On the other hand, the efforts of
+the Jews were not without success. The baptism of the pious Olga
+marks an era in Russian Christianity, the beginning of the
+"Judaizing heresy," which centuries of persecution only
+strengthened. In 1425, Zacharias of Kiev, who is reputed to have
+"studied astrology, necromancy, and various other magic arts,"
+converted the priest Dionis, the Archbishop Aleksey, and, through
+the latter, many more clergymen of Novgorod, Moscow, and Pskov.
+Aleksey became a devout Jew. He called himself Abraham <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>{26}</span> and his wife
+Sarah. Yet, strange to say, he retained the favor of the Grand Duke
+Ivan Vassilyevich, even after the latter's daughter-in-law,
+Princess Helena, his secretary Theodore Kuritzin, the Archimandrite
+Sosima, the monk Zacharias, and other persons of note had entered
+the fold of Judaism through his influence.</p>
+<p>The "heresy" spread over many parts of the empire, and the
+number of its adherents constantly grew. Archbishop Nikk complains
+that in the very monastery of Moscow there were presumably
+converted Jews, "who had again begun to practice their old Jewish
+religion and demoralize the young monks." In Poland, too,
+proselytism was of frequent occurrence, especially in the fifteenth
+and sixteenth centuries. The religious tolerance of Casimir IV
+(1434-1502) and his immediate successors, and the new doctrines
+preached by Huss and Luther, which permeated the upper classes of
+society, rendered the Poles more liberal on the one hand, and on
+the other the Jews more assertive. We hear of a certain nobleman,
+George Morschtyn, who married a Jewess, Magdalen, and had his
+daughter raised in the religion of her mother. In fact, at a time
+when Jews in Spain assumed the mask of Christianity to escape
+persecution, Russian and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id=
+"page27"></a>{27}</span> Polish Christians by birth could choose,
+with little fear of danger, to lead the Jewish life. It was not
+till about the eighteenth century that the Government began to
+resort to the usual methods of eradicating heresy. Katharina
+Weigel, a lady famous for her beauty, who embraced Judaism, was
+decapitated in Cracow at the instigation of Bishop Peter Gamrat. On
+the deposition of his wife, Captain Vosnitzin of the Polish navy
+was put to death by auto-da-f&eacute; (July 15, 1738). The eminent
+"Ger Zedek," Count Valentine Pototzki, less fortunate than his
+comrade and fellow-convert Zaremba, was burnt at the stake in Vilna
+(May 24, 1749), and his teacher in the Jewish doctrines, Menahem
+Mann, was tortured and executed a few months later, at the age of
+seventy. But these measures proved of little avail. According to
+Martin Bielski, the noted historian, Jews saved their proselytes
+from the impending doom by transporting them to Turkey. Many of
+them sought refuge in Amsterdam. For those who remained behind
+their new coreligionists provided through collections made for that
+purpose in Russia and in Germany. To this day these Russian and
+Polish proselytes adhere steadfastly to their faith, and whether
+they migrate to America or Palestine to escape the persecution
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>{28}</span>
+of their countrymen, they seldom, if ever, indulge in the
+latitudinarianism into which many of longer Jewish lineage fall so
+readily when removed from old moorings.<a id="footnotetag1-17"
+name="footnotetag1-17"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-17"><sup>17</sup></a></p>
+<p>That the Russian Jews of the day were not altogether
+unenlightened, that they not only practiced the Law devoutly, but
+also studied it diligently, and cultivated the learning of the time
+as well, we may safely infer from researches recently made. Cyril,
+or Constantine, "the philosopher," the apostle to the Slavonians,
+acquired a knowledge of Hebrew while at Kherson, and was probably
+aided by Jews in his translation of the Bible into Slavonic.
+Manuscripts of Russo-Jewish commentaries to the Scriptures, written
+as early as 1094 and 1124, are still preserved in the Vatican and
+Bodleian libraries, and copyists were doing fairly good work at
+Azov in 1274.</p>
+<p>Jewish scholars frequented celebrated seats of learning in
+foreign lands. Before the end of the twelfth century traces of them
+are to be found in France, Italy, and Spain. That in the eleventh
+century Judah Halevi of Toledo and Nathan of Rome should have been
+familiar with Russian words cannot but be attributed to their
+contact with Russian Jews. However, in the case of these two
+scholars, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id=
+"page29"></a>{29}</span> it may possibly be ascribed to their great
+erudition or extensive travels. But the many Slavonic expressions
+occurring in the commentaries of Rashi (1040-1105), and employed by
+Joseph Caro (ab. 1140), Benjamin of Tudela (ab. 1160), and Isaac of
+Vienna (ab. 1250), lend color to Harkavy's contention, that Russian
+was once the vernacular of the Russian Jews, and they also argue in
+favor of our contention, that these natives of the "land of
+Canaan"&mdash;as the country of the Slavs was then called in
+Hebrew&mdash;came into personal touch with the "lights and leaders"
+of other Jewish communities. Indeed, Rabbi Moses of Kiev is
+mentioned as one of the pupils of Jacob Tam, the Tosafist of France
+(d. 1170), and Asheri, or Rosh, of Spain is reported to have had
+among his pupils Rabbi Asher and Master (Bahur) Jonathan from
+Russia. From these peripatetic scholars perhaps came the martyrs of
+1270, referred to in the <i>Memorbuch</i> of Mayence. It was Rabbi
+Moses who, while still in Russia, corresponded with Samuel ben Ali,
+head of the Babylonian Academy, and called the attention of Western
+scholars to certain Gaonic decisions. Another rabbi, Isaac, or
+Itshke, of Chernigov, was probably the first Talmudist in England,
+and his decisions were regarded as authoritative on certain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>{30}</span>
+occasions. These and others like them wrote super-commentaries on
+the commentaries of Rashi and Ibn Ezra, the most popular and
+profound scholars medieval Jewry produced, and made copies of the
+works of other authors.<a id="footnotetag1-18" name=
+"footnotetag1-18"></a><a href="#footnote1-18"><sup>18</sup></a></p>
+<p>Soon the Russo-Polish Jews established at home what they had
+been compelled to seek abroad. Hearing of the advantages offered in
+the great North-East, German Jews flocked thither in such numbers
+as to dominate and absorb the original Russians and Poles. A new
+element asserted itself. Names like Ashkenazi, Heilperin, Hurwitz,
+Landau, Luria, Margolis, Schapiro, Weil, Zarfati, etc., variously
+spelled, took the place, through intermarriage and by adoption, of
+the ancient Slavonic nomenclature. The language, manners, modes of
+thought, and, to a certain extent, even the physiognomy of the
+earlier settlers, underwent a more or less radical change. In some
+provinces the conflict lasted longer than in others. To this day
+not a few Russian Jews would seem to be of Slavonic rather than
+Semitic extraction. As late as the sixteenth century there was
+still a demand in certain places for a Russian translation of the
+Hebrew Book of Common Prayer, and in 1635 Rabbi Me&iuml;r
+Ashkenazi, who came from Frankfort-on-the-Main to <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>{31}</span> study in
+Lublin, and was retained as rabbi in Mohilev-on-the-Dnieper, had
+cause to exclaim, "Would to God that our coreligionists all spoke
+the same language&mdash;German."<a id="footnotetag1-19" name=
+"footnotetag1-19"></a><a href="#footnote1-19"><sup>19</sup></a>
+Even Maimon, in the latter half of the eighteenth century, mentions
+one, by no means an exception, who did not "understand the Jewish
+language, and made use, therefore, of the Russian."<a id=
+"footnotetag1-20" name="footnotetag1-20"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-20"><sup>20</sup></a> But by the middle of the
+seventeenth century the amalgamation was almost complete. It
+resulted in a product entirely new. As the invasion of England by
+the Normans produced the Anglo-Saxon, so the inundation of Russia
+by the Germans produced the Slav-Teuton. This is the clue to the
+study of the Haskalah, as will appear from what follows.</p>
+<p>Russo-Poland gradually became the cynosure of the Talmudic
+world, the "Aksanye shel Torah," the asylum of the Law, whence
+"enlargement and deliverance" arose for the traditions which the
+Jews carried with them, through fire and water, during the dreary
+centuries of their dispersion. It became to Jews what Athens was to
+ancient Greece, Rome to medieval Christendom, New England to our
+early colonies. With the invention and importation of the
+printing-press, the publication and acquisition of the Bible, the
+Talmud, and most of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id=
+"page32"></a>{32}</span> the important rabbinic works were
+facilitated. As a consequence, yeshibot, or colleges, for the study
+of Jewish literature, were founded in almost every community. Their
+fame reached distant lands. It became a popular saying that "from
+Kiev shall go forth the Law, and the word of God from Starodub."
+Horodno, the vulgar pronunciation of Grodno, was construed to mean
+Har Adona&iuml;, "the Mount of the Lord." A pious rabbi did not
+hesitate to write to a colleague, "Be it known to the high honor of
+your glory that it is preferable by far to dwell in the land of the
+Russ and promote the study of the Torah in Israel than in the land
+of Israel."<a id="footnotetag1-21" name=
+"footnotetag1-21"></a><a href="#footnote1-21"><sup>21</sup></a>
+Especially the part of Poland ultimately swallowed up by Russia was
+the new Palestine of the Diaspora. Thither flocked all desirous of
+becoming adepts in the dialectics of the rabbis, "of learning how
+to swim in the sea of the Talmud." It was there that the voluminous
+works of Hebrew literature were studied, literally "by day and by
+night," and the subtleties of the Talmudists were developed to a
+degree unprecedented in Jewish history. Thither was sent, from the
+distant Netherlands, the youngest son of Manasseh ben Israel, and
+he "became mighty in the Talmud and master of four languages."
+Thither came, from Prague, the afterwards <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>{33}</span> famous
+Cabbalist, author, and rabbi, Isaiah Horowitz (ab. 1555-1630), and
+there he chose to remain the rest of his days. Thither also went,
+from Frankfort, the above-mentioned Me&iuml;r Ashkenazi, who,
+according to some, was the first author of note in White
+Russia.</p>
+<p>From everywhere they came "to pour water on the hands and sit at
+the feet" of the great ones of the second Palestine.<a id=
+"footnotetag1-22" name="footnotetag1-22"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-22"><sup>22</sup></a></p>
+<p>For Jewish solidarity was more than a word in those days.
+"Sefardim" had not yet learned to boast of aristocratic lineage,
+nor "Ashkenazim" to look down contemptuously upon their Slavonic
+coreligionists. It was before the removal of civil disabilities
+from one portion of the Jewish people had sowed the seed of
+arrogance toward the other less favored portion. Honor was accorded
+to whom it was due, regardless of the locality in which he happened
+to have been born. Gl&uuml;ckel von Hameln states in her
+<i>Memoirs</i> that preference was sometimes given to the decisions
+of the "great ones of Poland," and mentions with pride that her
+brother Shmuel married the daughter of the great Reb Shulem of
+Lemberg.<a id="footnotetag1-23" name="footnotetag1-23"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-23"><sup>23</sup></a> With open arms, Amsterdam,
+Frankfort, F&uuml;rth, Konigsberg, Metz, Prague, and other
+communities renowned for wealth and <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page34" id="page34"></a>{34}</span> learning, welcomed the acute
+Talmudists of Brest, Grodno, Kovno, Lublin, Minsk, and Vilna,
+whenever they were willing or compelled to consider a call. The
+practice of summoning Russo-Polish rabbis to German posts was
+carried so far that it aroused the displeasure of the Western
+scholars, and they complained of being slighted.<a id=
+"footnotetag1-24" name="footnotetag1-24"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-24"><sup>24</sup></a></p>
+<p>The reverence for Slavonic learning was strikingly illustrated
+during the years following the Cossack massacres, when many
+Russo-Polish rabbis fled for safety to foreign lands. Frankfort,
+F&uuml;rth, Prague, and Vienna successively elected the fugitive
+Shabbata&iuml; Horowitz of Ostrog as their religious guide. David
+Taz of Vladimir became rabbi of Steinitz in Moravia; Ephraim
+Hakohen was called to Trebitsch in Moravia and to Ofen in Hungary;
+David of Lyda, to Mayence and Amsterdam, and Naphtali Kohen, to
+Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1704, and later to Breslau. No less
+personages than Isaac Aboab and Saul Morteira welcomed the
+merchant-Talmudist Moses Rivkes of Vilna when he sought refuge in
+Amsterdam, and they entrusted to him the task of editing the
+<i>Shulhan 'Aruk</i>, his marginal notes to which, the <i>Be&euml;r
+ha-Golah</i>, have ever since been printed with the text. In
+addition to rabbis, Lithuania and other provinces furnished
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>{35}</span>
+teachers for the young, melammedim, who exerted considerable
+influence upon the people among whom they lived. Their opinions, we
+are told, were highly valued in the choice of rabbis.<a id=
+"footnotetag1-25" name="footnotetag1-25"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-25"><sup>25</sup></a></p>
+<p>It must not be supposed that supremacy in the Talmud was secured
+at the cost of secular knowledge, or what was then regarded as
+such. Their familiarity with other branches of study was not
+inferior to that of the Jews in better-known lands. Not a few of
+the prominent men united piety with philosophy, and thorough
+knowledge of the Talmud with mastery of one or more of the sciences
+of the time. Data on this phase of the subject might have been much
+more abundant, had not the storm of persecution suddenly swept over
+the communities, destroying them and their records. What we still
+possess indicates what may have been lost. The Ukraine was famous
+for its scholars. Among them was Jehiel Michael of Nemirov, reputed
+to have been "versed in all the sciences of the world."<a id=
+"footnotetag1-26" name="footnotetag1-26"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-26"><sup>26</sup></a> Several of them were poets and
+grammarians. Poems of a liturgical character are still extant in
+which they bemoan their plight or assert their faith hopefully.
+Such were the poems of Ephraim of Khelm, Joseph of Kobrin, Solomon
+of Zamoscz, and Shabbata&iuml; Kohen. The last, eminent as a
+Talmudist, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id=
+"page36"></a>{36}</span> the author of commentaries on the
+<i>Shulhan 'Aruk</i> approved by the leading rabbis of his
+generation, is also known as a very trustworthy historian. His
+<i>Megillah 'Afah</i>, written in classic Hebrew, is a valuable
+source of information on the critical period in which he lived. He
+won the esteem of the Polish nobility by his secular attainments.
+To judge from his correspondence, he must have been on intimate
+terms with Vidrich of Leipsic.<a id="footnotetag1-27" name=
+"footnotetag1-27"></a><a href="#footnote1-27"><sup>27</sup></a> Of
+the grammarians, Jacob Zaslaver wrote on the Massorah, and
+Shabbata&iuml; Sofer was the author of annotations and
+treatises.<a id="footnotetag1-28" name=
+"footnotetag1-28"></a><a href="#footnote1-28"><sup>28</sup></a> Our
+taste in poetry and grammar is no longer the same, but the polemic
+and apologetic writings of those days, called forth by the
+discussions between Rabbanites and Karaites and by the constant
+attacks of Christianity, are still of uncommon interest. Specimens
+of the former kind are the polemics of Moses of Shavli, which
+caused consternation in the camp of the Karaites. Of the apologetic
+writings should be mentioned the reply, in Polish, of Jacob Nahman
+of Belzyc to Martin Chekhovic (Lublin, 1581), and the <i>Hizzuk
+Emunah</i> of the Karaite Isaac ben Abraham of Troki. In the latter
+the weakness of Christianity and the strength of Judaism are
+pointed out with trenchancy never before reached. The work stirred
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>{37}</span>
+up heated discussions among the various Christian sects, with the
+tenets of which the author was intimately acquainted. It was
+translated into Latin (1681, 1705), Yiddish (1717), English (1851),
+and German (1865, 1873). Voltaire says that all the arguments used
+by free-thinkers against Christianity were drawn from it.<a id=
+"footnotetag1-29" name="footnotetag1-29"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-29"><sup>29</sup></a></p>
+<p>In philosophy, mathematics, and medicine, the three main
+branches of medieval knowledge, many Slavonian Jews attained
+eminence. Devout Karaites as well as diligent Talmudists found
+secular learning a diversion and a delight. For the lovers of
+enlightenment Italy, especially Padua, was the centre of
+attraction, as France and Spain had been before, and Germany,
+particularly Berlin, became afterwards.<a id="footnotetag1-30"
+name="footnotetag1-30"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-30"><sup>30</sup></a> Towards the middle of the
+sixteenth century we find young Delacrut at the University of
+Bologna, the philosopher and Cabbalist, known for his commentaries
+to Gikatilla's <i>Sha'are Orah</i> (Cracow, 1600) and Ben Avigdor's
+<i>Mar'eh ha-Ofanim</i> (1720), and his translation of Gossuin's
+<i>L'image du monde</i> (Amsterdam, 1733). His famous disciple
+Mordecai Jaffe (Lebushim) spent ten years in the study of astronomy
+and mathematics before he occupied the rabbinate of Grodno
+(1572)<a id="footnotetag1-31" name="footnotetag1-31"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-31"><sup>31</sup></a> At the request of Yom-Tob Lipman
+Heller, Joseph <span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id=
+"page38"></a>{38}</span> ben Isaac Levi wrote a commentary on
+Maimuni's <i>Moreh Nebukim</i>, which was published with the
+former's annotations, <i>Gibe'at ha-Moreh</i> (Prague, 1611).
+Deservedly or not, Eliezer Mann was called "the Hebrew Socrates";
+and many a Maskil in his study of mathematics turned for guidance
+to Manoah Handel of Brzeszticzka, Volhynia, author and translator
+of several scientific works, who rendered seven Euclidean
+propositions into Hebrew.<a id="footnotetag1-32" name=
+"footnotetag1-32"></a><a href="#footnote1-32"><sup>32</sup></a></p>
+<p>Polyglots they were compelled to be by force of circumstances.
+When the exotic Judeo-German finally asserted itself as the
+vernacular, the language in which they wrote and prayed was still
+the ancient Hebrew, with which every one was familiar, and
+commercial intercourse with their Gentile neighbors was hardly
+feasible without at least a smattering of the local Slavonic
+dialect. "Look at our brethren in Poland," exclaims Wessely many
+years later in his address to his countrymen. "They converse with
+their neighbors in good Polish.... What excuse have we for our
+brogue and jargon?" He might have had still better cause for
+complaint, had he been aware that the Yiddish of the Russo-Polish
+Jews, despite its considerable Slavonic admixture, was purer German
+than that of his contemporaries in Germany, even as the English of
+our New England <span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id=
+"page39"></a>{39}</span> colonies was superior to the Grub Street
+style prevalent in Dr. Johnson's England, and the Spanish of our
+Mexican annexations to the Castilian spoken at the time of
+Coronado. But we are here concerned with their knowledge of foreign
+languages. We shall refer only to the
+Hebrew-German-Italian-Latin-French dictionary <i>Safah Berurah</i>
+(Prague, 1660; Amsterdam, 1701) by the eminent Talmudist Nathan
+Hannover.<a id="footnotetag1-33" name=
+"footnotetag1-33"></a><a href="#footnote1-33"><sup>33</sup></a></p>
+<p>In medicine Jews were pre-eminent in the Slavonic countries, as
+they were everywhere else. They were in great demand as court
+physicians, though several had to pay with their lives "for having
+failed to effect cures." Doctor Leo, who was at the court of Moscow
+in 1490, was mentioned above. Jacob Isaac, the "nobleman of
+Jerusalem" (Yerosalimska shlyakhta), was attached to the court of
+Sigismund, where he was held in high esteem. Prince Radziwill's
+physician was Itshe Nisanovich, and among those in attendance on
+John Sobieski were Jonas Casal and Abraham Troki, the latter the
+author of several works on medicine and natural philosophy.<a id=
+"footnotetag1-34" name="footnotetag1-34"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-34"><sup>34</sup></a></p>
+<p>Medieval Jewish physicians were prone to travel, and those of
+Russo-Poland were no exception. We find them in almost every part
+of the civilized <span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id=
+"page40"></a>{40}</span> world, and their number increases with the
+disappearance of prejudice. Some were noted Talmudists, such as
+Solomon Luria and Samuel ben Mattathias. Abraham Ashkenazi
+Apotheker was not only a compounder of herbs but a healer of souls,
+for the edification of which he wrote his <i>Elixir of Life</i>
+(<i>Sam Hayyim</i>, Prague, 1590). To the same class belong Moses
+Katzenellenbogen and his son Hayyim, who was styled Gaon. In 1657
+Hayyim visited Italy. He was welcomed by the prominent Jews of
+Mantua, Modena, Venice, and Verona, but he preferred to continue
+the practice of his profession in his home town Lublin.<a id=
+"footnotetag1-35" name="footnotetag1-35"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-35"><sup>35</sup></a> Nor may we omit the names of
+Stephen von Gaden and Moses Co&euml;n, because of their high
+standing among their colleagues and the honors conferred upon them
+for their statesmanship. Stephen von Gaden, who with Samuel Collins
+was physician-in-ordinary to Czar Aleksey Mikhailovich, was
+instrumental in removing many disabilities from the Jews of Moscow
+and in the interior of Russia. Moses Co&euml;n, in consequence of
+the Cossack uprising, escaped to Moldavia, and was made court
+physician by the hospodar Vassile Lupu. But for Co&euml;n, Lupu
+would have been dethroned by those who conspired against him. To
+his loyalty may probably be attributed the <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>{41}</span> kind
+treatment Moldavian Jews later enjoyed at the hands of the prince.
+Co&euml;n also exposed the secret alliance between Russia and
+Sweden against Turkey, and his advice was sought by the doge of
+Venice.<a id="footnotetag1-36" name="footnotetag1-36"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-36"><sup>36</sup></a></p>
+<p>The personage who typifies best the enlightened Slavonic Jew of
+the pre-Haskalah period is Tobias Cohn (1652-1729). He was the son
+and grandson of physicians, who practiced at Kamenetz-Podolsk and
+Byelsk, and after 1648 went to Metz. After their father's death, he
+and his older brother returned to Poland, whence Tobias, in turn,
+emigrated first to Italy and then to Turkey. In Adrianople he was
+physician-in-ordinary to five successive sultans. In the history of
+medicine he is remembered as the discoverer of the <i>plica
+polonica</i>, and as the publisher of a Materia Medica in three
+languages. To the student of Haskalah he is interesting, because he
+marks the close of the old and the beginning of the new era. Like
+the Maskilim of a century or two centuries later, he compiled and
+edited an encyclopedia in Hebrew, that "knowledge be increased
+among his coreligionists." His acquaintance with learned works in
+several ancient and modern languages of which he was master,
+enabled him to write his magnum opus, <i>Ma'aseh Tobiah</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>{42}</span>
+with tolerable ease. This work is divided into eight parts, devoted
+respectively to theology, astronomy, pharmacy, hygiene, venereal
+diseases, botany, cosmography, and chemistry. It is illustrated
+with several plates, among them the picture of an astrolabe and one
+of the human body treated as a house. From the numerous editions
+through which it passed (Venice, 1707, 1715, 1728, 1769), we may
+conclude that it met with marked success.<a id="footnotetag1-37"
+name="footnotetag1-37"></a><a href=
+"#footnote1-37"><sup>37</sup></a></p>
+<hr />
+<p>To understand the <i>raison d'&Ecirc;tre</i> of the Haskalah
+movement, it may not be superfluous to cast a glance at the inner
+social and religious life of the Slavonic Jews during pre-Haskalah
+times. The labors of the farmer are crowned with success only when
+nature lends him a helping hand. His soil must be fertile, and
+blessed with frequent showers. Nor would the Maskilim have
+accomplished their aim, had the material they found at hand been
+different from what it was.</p>
+<p>The Jews in the land of the Slavonians were fortunate in being
+regarded as aliens in a country which, as we have seen, they
+inhabited long before those who claimed to be its possessors by
+divine right of conquest. If their position was precarious, their
+sufferings were those of a conquered nation. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>{43}</span> As the whim
+and fancy of the reigning prince, knyaz, varied, they were induced
+one day to settle in the country by the offer of the most
+flattering privileges, and the next day they were expelled, only to
+be requested to return again. Now their synagogues and cemeteries
+were exempt from taxation, now an additional poll-tax or land-tax
+was levied on every Jew (serebshizna); one day they were allowed to
+live unhampered by restrictions, then they were prohibited to wear
+certain garments and ornaments, and commanded to use yellow caps
+and kerchiefs to distinguish them from the Gentiles (1566).</p>
+<p>But all this was the consequence of political subjugation.
+Judged by the standard of the times, they were veritable freemen,
+freer than the Huguenots of France and the Puritans of England.
+They were left unmolested in the administration of their internal
+affairs, and were permitted to appoint their own judges, enforce
+their own laws, and support their own institutions. Forming a state
+within a state, they developed a civilization contrasting strongly
+with that round about them, and comparing favorably with some of
+the features of ours of to-day. Slavonic Jewry was divided into
+four districts, consisting of the more important communities
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>{44}</span>
+(kahals), to which a number of smaller ones (prikahalki) were
+subservient. These, known as the Jewish Assemblies (zbori
+zhidovskiye), met at stated intervals. As in our federal
+Government, the administrative, executive, and legislative
+departments were kept distinct, and those who presided over them
+(roshim) were elected annually by ballot. These roshim, or elders,
+served by turns for periods of one month each. The rabbi of each
+community was the chief judge, and was assisted by several inferior
+judges (dayyanim). For matters of importance there were courts of
+appeal established in Ostrog and Lemberg, the former having
+jurisdiction over Volhynia and the Ukraine, the latter over the
+rest of Jewish Russo-Poland. For inter-kahal litigation, there was
+a supreme court, the Wa'ad Arba' ha-Arazot (the Synod of the Four
+Countries), which held its sessions during the Lublin fair in
+winter and the Yaroslav fair in summer. In cases affecting Jews and
+Gentiles, a decision was given by the <i>judex Judaeorum</i>, who
+held his office by official appointment of the grand duke.</p>
+<p>So far their system of self-government appears almost a
+prototype of our own. The same is true of their municipal
+administration. The rabbi, who had the deciding vote in case of a
+dead-lock, stood <span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id=
+"page45"></a>{45}</span> in the same relation to them as the mayor
+holds to us, only that his term of office, nominally limited to
+three years, was actually for life or during good behavior. Yet the
+power vested in him was only delegated power. A number of
+selectmen, or aldermen, guarded the rights of the community with
+the utmost jealousy, and tolerated no innovation, unless previously
+sanctioned by them. There were also several honorary offices, with
+a one-year tenure, which none could fill who had not had experience
+in an inferior position. The chief duties attached to these offices
+were to appraise the amount of taxation, pay the salaries of the
+rabbi, his dayyanim, and the teachers of the public schools,
+provide for the poor, and, above all, intercede with the
+Government.<a id="footnotetag1-38" name=
+"footnotetag1-38"></a><a href="#footnote1-38"><sup>38</sup></a></p>
+<p>Still more interesting and, for our purpose, more important were
+their public and private institutions of learning. Jews have always
+been noted for the solicitous care they exercise in the education
+of the young. The Slavonic Jews surpassed their brethren of other
+countries in this respect. At times they wrenched the tender bond
+of parental love in their ardor for knowledge. With a republican
+form of government they created an aristocracy, not of wealth or of
+blood, but of intellect. The education <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>{46}</span> of girls
+was, indeed, neglected. To be able to read her prayers in Hebrew
+and to write Yiddish was all that was expected of a mother in
+Israel. It was otherwise with the boys. Every Jew deemed himself in
+duty bound to educate his son. "Learning is the best
+merchandise"&mdash;<i>Torah iz die beste sehorah</i>&mdash;was the
+lesson inculcated from cradle to manhood, the precept followed from
+manhood to old age. All the lullabies transmitted to us from
+earliest times indicate the pursuit of knowledge as the highest
+ambition cherished by mothers for their sons:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Patsch&eacute;, patsch&eacute;, little tootsies,</p>
+<p>We shall buy us little bootsies;</p>
+<p>Little bootsies we shall buy,</p>
+<p>To run to heder we shall try;</p>
+<p>Torah we'll learn and all good ma'alot (qualities),</p>
+<p>On our wedding eve we shall solve sha'alot (ritual
+problems).<a id="footnotetag1-39" name=
+"footnotetag1-39"></a><a href="#footnote1-39"><sup>39</sup></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>To have a scholarly son or son-in-law was the best passport to
+the highest circles, a means of rising from the lowliest to the
+loftiest station in life.</p>
+<p>It is no wonder, then, that schools abounded in every community.
+At the early age of four the child was usually sent to the heder
+(school; literally, room), where he studied until he was ready for
+the yeshibah, the higher "seat" of learning. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>{47}</span> The
+melammedim, teachers, were graded according to their ability, and
+the school year consisted of two terms, zemannim, from the first
+Sabbath after the Holy Days to Passover and from after Passover to
+Rosh ha-Shanah. The boy's intellectual capacities were steadily, if
+not systematically, cultivated, sometimes at the expense of his
+bodily development. It was not unusual for a child of seven or
+eight to handle a difficult problem in the Talmud, a precocity
+characteristic to this day of the children hailing from Slavonic
+countries. Their 'illuyim (prodigies) might furnish ample material
+for more than one volume of <i>les enfants
+c&eacute;l&egrave;bres</i>.</p>
+<p>Nor were the children of the poor left to grow up in ignorance.
+Learning was free, to be had for the asking. More than this,
+stringent measures were taken that no child be without instruction.
+Talmud Torahs were founded even in the smallest kehillot
+(communities), and the students were supplied, not only with books,
+but also with the necessaries of life. Communal and individual
+benefactors furnished clothes, and every member (ba'al ha-bayit)
+had to provide food and lodging for an indigent pupil at least one
+day of each week. The "Freitisch" (free board) was an inseparable
+adjunct to every school. Poor young men were not regarded
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>{48}</span>
+as "beggar students." They were looked upon as earning their living
+by study, even as teachers by instructing. To pray for the dead or
+the living in return for their support is a recent innovation, and
+mostly among other than Slavonic Jews. It is a custom adopted from
+medieval Christianity, and practiced in England by the poor
+student, who, in the words of Chaucer,</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Busily 'gan for the souls to pray</p>
+<p>On them that gave him wherewith to scolay.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>For a faithful and vivid description of the yeshibot we cannot
+do better than transcribe the account given in the pages of the
+little pamphlet <i>Yeven Mezulah</i> in which Nathan Hannover,
+mentioned above, has left us a reliable history of the Cossack
+uprisings and the Kulturgeschichte of his own time.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>I need bring no proof for the statement that nowhere was the
+study of the Law so universal as in Russo-Poland. In every
+community there was a well-paid dean (rosh yeshibah), who, exempt
+from worry about a livelihood, devoted himself exclusively to
+teaching and studying by day and by night. In every kahal, many
+youths, maintained liberally, studied under the guidance of the
+dean. In turn, they instructed the less advanced, who were also
+supported by the community. A kahal of fifty [families] had to
+provide for at least thirty such. They boarded and lodged in the
+homes of their patrons, and frequently received pocket-money in
+addition. Thus there was hardly a house in which the Torah
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>{49}</span>
+was not studied, either by the master of the house, a son, a
+son-in-law, or a student stranger. They always bore in mind the
+dictum of Rabba, "He who loves scholars will have scholarly sons;
+he who welcomes scholars will have scholarly sons-in-law; he who
+admires scholars will become learned himself." No wonder, then,
+that every community swarmed with scholars, that out of every fifty
+of its members at least twenty were far advanced, and had the
+morenu (<i>i.e.</i> bachelor) degree.</p>
+<p>The dean was vested with absolute authority. He could punish an
+offender, whether rich or poor. Everybody respected him, and he
+often received gifts of money or valuables. In all religious
+processions he came first. Then followed the students, then the
+learned, and the rest of the congregation brought up the rear. This
+veneration for the dean prompted many a youth to imitate his
+example, and thus our country was rendered full of the knowledge of
+the Law.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>What became of the students when they were graduated? Let us
+turn once more to Hannover's interesting narrative. The "fairs" of
+those days were much more than opportunities for barter; they
+afforded favorable and attractive occasions for other objects.
+Zaslav and Yaroslav during the summer, Lemberg and Lublin in the
+winter, were "filled with hundreds of deans and thousands of
+students," and one who had a marriageable daughter had but to
+resort thither to have his worries allayed. Therefore, "Jews and
+Jewesses attended these bazaars in magnificent attire, and [each
+season] <span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id=
+"page50"></a>{50}</span> several hundred, sometimes as many as a
+thousand, alliances were consummated."</p>
+<p>That the rabbi, living in a strange land and recalling a
+glorious past, should have indulged in a bit of exaggeration in his
+sorrowful retrospect, is not more than natural; and that his
+picture on the whole is true is proved by similar schools which
+existed in Russia till recently. The descriptions of these
+institutions by Smolenskin as well as writers of less repute are
+graphic and intensely interesting. They constituted a unique world,
+in which the Jewish youth lived and moved until he reached man's
+estate. In later years, when Russian Jewry became infected, so to
+speak, with the Aufkl&auml;rungs-bacilli, they became the nurseries
+of the new learning. But in the earlier time, too, a spirit of
+enlightenment pervaded them. The study of the Talmud fostered in
+them was regarded both as a religious duty and as a means to an
+end, the rabbinate. Even in the Middle Ages Aristotle was a
+favorite with the older students, and Solomon Luria complained that
+in the prayer books of many of them he had noticed the prayer of
+Aristotle, for which he blamed the liberal views of Moses
+Isserles!<a id="footnotetag1-40" name=
+"footnotetag1-40"></a><a href="#footnote1-40"><sup>40</sup></a></p>
+<p>Another typically, though not exclusively, Slavonic Jewish
+institution was the study-hall, or bet <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>{51}</span> ha-midrash.
+As the synagogues gradually became Schulen (schools), so, by a
+contrary process, the bet ha-midrash assumed the function of a
+house of prayer. Its uniqueness it has retained to this day. It was
+at once a library, a reading-room, and a class-room; yet those who
+frequented it were bound by the rigorous laws of none of the three.
+There were no restrictions as to when, or what, or how one should
+study. It was a place in which originality was admired and research
+encouraged. As at a Spartan feast, youth and age commingled, men of
+all ages and diverse attainments exchanged views, and all benefited
+by mutual contact.</p>
+<p>Those whose position precluded devotion to study availed
+themselves at least of the means for mutual improvement at their
+disposal. They organized societies for the study of certain
+branches of Jewish lore, and for the meetings of these societies
+the busiest spared time and the poorest put aside his work. It was
+a people composed of scholars and those who maintained scholars,
+and the scholars, in dress and appearance, represented the
+aristocracy, an aristocracy of the intellect.</p>
+<p>Such was the pre-Haskalah period. From the meagre data at our
+disposal we are justified in concluding, that, left undisturbed,
+the Slavonic Jews <span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id=
+"page52"></a>{52}</span> would have evolved a civilization
+rivalling, if not surpassing, that of the golden era of the Spanish
+Jews. But this was not to be. Their onward march met a sudden and
+terrific check. Hetman Chmielnicki at the head of his savage hordes
+of Russians and Tatars conquered the Poles, and Jews and Catholics
+were subjected to the most inhuman treatment. The descendants of
+those who, in 1090, had escaped the Crusaders fell victims in 1648
+to the more cruel Cossacks. About half a million Jews, it is
+estimated, lost their lives in Chmielnicki's horrible massacres.
+The few communities remaining were utterly demoralized. The
+education of the young was neglected, both sacred and secular
+branches of study were abandoned. And when the storm calmed down,
+they found themselves deprived of the accumulations of centuries,
+forced, like Noah after the deluge, but without his means, to start
+again from the very beginning. Indeed, as Levinsohn remarks, the
+wonder is that, despite the fiendish persecution they endured,
+these unfortunates should have preserved a spark of love of
+knowledge. Yet a little later it was to burst into flame again and
+bring light and warmth to hearts crushed by "man's inhumanity to
+man."</p>
+<p>(Notes, pp. <a href="#notes-1">305-310</a>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>{53}</span>
+<h2><a name="chap2" id="chap2">CHAPTER II</a></h2>
+<h3>THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION</h3>
+<h3>1648-1794</h3>
+<p>The storm of persecution that had been brewing in the sixteenth
+century, and which burst in all its fury by the middle of the
+seventeenth century, was allayed but little by the rivers of blood
+that streamed over the length and breadth of the Slavonic land.
+Half a million Jewish victims were not sufficient to satisfy the
+followers of a religion of love. They only whetted their insatiable
+appetite. The anarchy among the Gentiles increased the misery of
+the Jews. The towns fell into the hands of the Lithuanians, Poles,
+Russians, and Tatars successively, and it was upon the Jews that
+the hounds of war were let loose at each defeat or conquest.
+Determined to exterminate each other, they joined forces in
+exterminating the Jews. When Bratzlav, for instance, was destroyed
+by the Tatars, in 1479, more than four hundred of its six hundred
+Jewish citizens were slain. When the city was attacked by the
+Cossacks <span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id=
+"page54"></a>{54}</span> in 1569, the greater number of the
+plundered and murdered were Jews. The same happened when
+Chmielnicki gained the upper hand in Bratzlav in 1648, again when
+the Russians slaughtered all the inhabitants in 1664, and when the
+Tatars plotted against their victorious enemy, Peter the
+Great.<a id="footnotetag2-1" name="footnotetag2-1"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-1"><sup>1</sup></a> Swedish attacks without and popular
+uprisings within rendered the Polish pan (dubbed among Jews poriz,
+rowdy or ruffian) as reckless as he was irresponsible. The Jew
+became for him a sponge to be squeezed for money, and a clown to
+contribute to his brutal amusements. The subtle and baneful
+influence of the Jesuits succeeded, besides, in introducing
+religion into politics and making the Jew the scapegoat for the
+evils of both. The <i>Judaeus infidelis</i> was the target of abuse
+and persecution. It was only the fear that the Government's
+exchequer might suffer that prevented his being turned into a
+veritable slave. His condition, indeed, was worse than slavery; his
+life was worth less than a beast's. It was frequently taken for the
+mere fun of it, and with impunity. An overseer once ordered all
+Jewish mothers living on the estate to climb to the tree-tops and
+leave their little ones below. He then fired at the children, and
+when the women fell from the trees at the horrible sight, he
+presented <span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id=
+"page55"></a>{55}</span> each with a piece of money, and thanked
+them for the pleasure they had afforded him.<a id="footnotetag2-2"
+name="footnotetag2-2"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+<p>In the cities, though the pan's excesses were bound to be
+somewhat bridled there, the lot of the Jews was equally gloomy.
+They were treated like outlaws, were forbidden to engage in all but
+a few branches of trade or handicraft, or to live with Christians,
+or employ them as servants. In 1720 they were prohibited to build
+new synagogues or even repair the old ones. Sometimes the
+synagogues were locked "by order of ..." until a stipulated amount
+of money bought permission to reopen them. We of to-day can hardly
+imagine what pain a Jew of that time experienced when he hastened
+to the house of God on one of the great Holy Days only to find its
+doors closed by the police!</p>
+<p>Their status was no better in Lithuania and Great Russia. The
+accession of Ivan IV, the Terrible (1533-1584), dealt their former
+comparative prosperity a blow from which it has not recovered to
+this day. As if to remove the impression of liberalism made by his
+predecessor and obliterate from memory his amicable relations with
+Doctor Leo, de Guizolfi, and Chozi Kolos, this monster czar, with
+the fiendishness of a Caligula, but lacking the accomplishments of
+his heathen prototype, delighted <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page56" id="page56"></a>{56}</span> to invent tortures for
+inoffensive Jews. He expelled them from Moscow, and deprived them
+of the right of travel from place to place. During his occupancy of
+Polotsk he ordered all Jews residing there either to become
+converts to Greek Catholicism or choose between being drowned in
+the Dwina and burnt at the stake.</p>
+<p>But even the removal of the terrible czar and the dawn of the
+century of reason and humanitarianism failed to effect a change for
+the better in the condition of the Slavonic Jews. For a while it
+appeared as if the Zeitgeist might penetrate even into
+Russo-Poland, and the Renaissance and the Reformation would not
+pass over the eastern portion of Europe without beneficent results.
+In Lithuania Calvinism threatened to oust Catholicism, science and
+culture began to be pursued, and Jewish and Gentile children
+attended the same schools. The successors of Ivan IV were men of
+better breeding, and the praiseworthy attempts of Peter the Great
+to introduce Western civilization are known to all.<a id=
+"footnotetag2-3" name="footnotetag2-3"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-3"><sup>3</sup></a> But Slavonic soil has never been
+susceptible to the elevating influences that have transformed the
+rest of Europe. Every reformatory effort was nipped in the bud. The
+lot of the Jews accordingly grew from bad to worse. In 1727 they
+were expelled <span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id=
+"page57"></a>{57}</span> from the Ukraine and other provinces, and
+they were recalled, "for the benefit of the citizens," only at the
+instance of Apostol, the hetman of the very Cossacks that had
+massacred them in 1648. Baruch Leibov was burned alive in St.
+Petersburg, in 1738, for having dared "insult the Christian
+religion by building a synagogue in the village of Zvyerovichi," an
+offence that was aggravated by the suspicion that he had converted
+the Russian Captain Vosnitzin to Judaism. The same fate was, in
+1783, meted out to Moses, a Jewish tailor, for refusing to accept
+Christianity, and in 1790 a Jew was quartered in Grodno, though the
+king had declined to sign his death warrant. In some places Jews
+had to contribute towards the maintenance of churches, and in
+Slutsk the law, enacted there in 1766, remains unrevoked to this
+day. Elizabeta Petrovna did not imitate Ivan III. When she
+discovered that Sanchez, her physician, was of the Jewish
+persuasion, she discharged him without notice, after eighteen years
+of faithful service. Similarly, when the Livonian merchants
+remonstrated, maintaining that the exclusion of Jews from their
+fairs was fraught with disastrous consequences to the commerce of
+the country, she is reported to have replied, "From the enemies of
+Christ I will not receive even a benefit."<a id="footnotetag2-4"
+name="footnotetag2-4"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-4"><sup>4</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>{58}</span>
+<p>But worse things were yet to come, the worst since Chmielnicki's
+massacres. The bitterness of both Poles and Russians against the
+Jews grew especially intense as the days of the rozbior, the
+Partition of Poland, drew near (1794). The Poles, forgetting the
+many examples of loyalty and self-sacrifice shown by Jews in times
+of peace and war, suspected them of being treacherous and
+unreliable; while the Russians, though denying the patriotism of
+their own Jews, persisted in the accusation that Polish Jews spent
+money lavishly in fomenting rebellion and anarchy. The pupils of
+the Jesuits found great delight in attacks upon the Jews, which
+frequently culminated in riot and bloodshed and the payment of
+money by Jews to Catholic institutions. "What appalling
+spectacles," exclaims a Christian writer, "must we witness in the
+capital [Warsaw] on solemn holidays. Students and even adults in
+noisy mobs assault the Jews, and sometimes beat them with sticks.
+We have seen a gang waylay a Jew, stop his horses, and strike him
+till he fell from the wagon. How can we look with indifference on
+such a survival of barbarism?" The commonest manifestations of
+hatred and superstition, however, were, as in other countries, the
+charge that Jews were magicians, using the black art to avenge
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>{59}</span>
+themselves on their persecutors, and that they used Christian blood
+for their observance of the Passover. The latter crime, the
+imputing of which was sternly prohibited by an edict of the liberal
+Bathory, in 1576, was so frequently laid at their door, that in the
+short period of sixty years (1700-1760) not less than twenty such
+accusations were brought against them, ending each time in the
+massacre of Jews by infuriated mobs. Even more shocking, if
+possible, was the frequent extermination of whole communities by
+the brigand bands known as Haidamacks. They added the "Massacre of
+Uman" (1768) to the Jewish calendar of misfortunes, the most
+terrible slaughter, equalled, perhaps, only by that of Nemirov in
+1648.<a id="footnotetag2-5" name="footnotetag2-5"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-5"><sup>5</sup></a></p>
+<p>That all this should have left a marked impression on the
+mentality and intellectuality of the Jews, is little to be wondered
+at. The marvel is that they should have maintained their
+superiority over their surroundings, and continued to be a
+law-abiding and God-fearing people. While among the Russians and
+Poles the nobles who learned to read or write formed a rare
+exception, there was hardly one among the Jews, the very lowliest
+of them, who could not read Hebrew, and even translate it into the
+vernacular. Maimon tells us that in his early youth <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>{60}</span> he became
+the family tutor of "a miserable farmer in a still more miserable
+village," who yet was ambitious of giving his children an education
+of some kind.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>Fortunately for the Jews of those times&mdash;says a
+writer&mdash;their civilization was by far superior to that of the
+Christians. The rabbi, though in no way inferior to the priest
+mentally, was immeasurably above him morally. The students of the
+yeshibot, despite their exclusive devotion to the study of the
+Talmud, yet were better equipped for intellectual work, were of
+broader minds and better manners, than the pupils of the Jesuits.
+And the Jewish ba'ale battim, with an education as good as that of
+the Gentile shlyakhta, had a more ennobling and elevating object in
+life.<a id="footnotetag2-6" name="footnotetag2-6"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-6"><sup>6</sup></a></p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>It is remarkable how quickly they recuperated from the blows
+they received. In 1648 thousands of people were killed, whole
+communities exterminated, Volhynia, Podolia, and a great part of
+Lithuania utterly ruined. In 1660, in those very places, we hear
+again of Jewish settlements, with synagogues and schools and a
+system of education of the kind described in the preceding chapter,
+and we hear of the Council of Lithuania struggling to re-establish
+and cement the shattered foundation of their self-government. Yet
+all their efforts improved the demoralized condition of the country
+but <span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id=
+"page61"></a>{61}</span> little. As always in national crises, the
+individual was sacrificed to the community, and deprived of the few
+rights remaining to him. The kehillot became brutally oppressive.
+There were no longer men of the stamp of Abraham Rapoport, Solomon
+Luria, Mordecai Jaffe, and Me&iuml;r Katz, to put their feet on the
+neck of tyranny. Without special permission no one could buy or
+sell, or move from one place to another, or learn a trade or
+practice a profession. Rabbinism became synonymous with rigorism,
+the coercion of untold customs became unbearable, and the spirit of
+Judaism was lost in a heap of innumerable rites. The Jew's every
+act had to be sanctioned by religion. He knew of the outward world
+only from the heavy taxes he paid in order to be allowed to exist,
+and from the bloody riots with which his people was frequently
+visited.</p>
+<p>What could result from such a state of affairs but poverty,
+material and spiritual, with all the suffering it engenders? Those
+at the head of the kehillot, being responsible solely to the
+Government, often had to deliver the full tale of bricks like the
+Jewish overseers in Egypt, though no straw was given to them. On
+one occasion Rabbi Mikel of Shkud was arrested because the kahal
+could not pay the thousand gulden it owed. In 1767, the whole kahal
+of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id=
+"page62"></a>{62}</span> Vilna went to Warsaw to protest against
+intolerable taxation. Such protests were usually of little avail.
+On the other hand, a few powerful families throve at the expense of
+their oppressed coreligionists. This aroused a spirit of animosity
+and a clamor for the abolition of the kahal institution. Jewish
+autonomy was more and more encroached upon. Rabbinates were bought
+and sold, and the aid of the Government was invoked in religious
+controversies. A question regarding the preferable form of prayer
+was submitted to the decision of Paul I. In 1777, Prince Radziwill
+decided who should officiate as rabbi in so important a centre of
+Judaism as Vilna,<a id="footnotetag2-7" name=
+"footnotetag2-7"></a><a href="#footnote2-7"><sup>7</sup></a> and in
+1804 the Government issued a "regulation" depriving the kahal of
+its judicial functions altogether.</p>
+<p>What was even more disastrous was the spiritual poverty of the
+masses. Seldom have the awful warnings of the great lawgiver been
+fulfilled so literally as during the eighteenth century:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>And upon them that remain of you, I will send a faintness into
+their hearts in the land of their enemies; and the sound of a
+shaken leaf shall chase them; and they shall flee as fleeing from a
+sword; and they shall fall, when none pursueth. And they shall fall
+one upon another, as it were before a sword, when none <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>{63}</span> pursueth:
+and ye shall have no power to stand before your enemies (Lev. 26:
+36-37).</p>
+<p>But the Lord shall give thee there a trembling heart, and
+failing of eyes, and sorrow of mind. And thy life shall hang in
+doubt before thee; and thou shalt fear day and night, and thou
+shalt have none assurance of thy life (Deut. 29: 65-66).</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Having learned from sad experience that there was no crime their
+foes were incapable of perpetrating, they gave credence to every
+rumor as to an established fact. A report that boys and girls were
+to be prohibited from marrying before a certain age resulted in
+behalot (panics), during which children of the tenderest ages were
+united as husband and wife (1754, 1764, 1793). Mysticism became
+rampant. "Messiah" after "Messiah" "revealed" himself as the one
+promised to redeem Israel from all his troubles. Love of God began
+to be tinged with fear of the devil, and incantations to take the
+place of religious belief. The <i>Zohar</i> and works full of
+superstition, such as the <i>Kab ha-Yashar</i>, <i>Midrash
+Talpiyot</i>, and <i>Nishmat Hayyim</i>, the first studied by men,
+the others by both sexes, but mostly by women, prepared their minds
+for all sorts of mongrel beliefs. "In no land," says Tobias Cohn,
+"is the practice of summoning up devils and spirits by means of the
+Cabbalistic <span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id=
+"page64"></a>{64}</span> abracadabra so prevalent, and the belief
+in dreams and visions so strong, as in Poland."<a id=
+"footnotetag2-8" name="footnotetag2-8"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-8"><sup>8</sup></a> All this, though it strengthened
+religious fervor in some, undermined it in others. Sects came into
+being, struggled, and, having brought added misery upon their
+followers, disappeared. Jewish criminals escaped justice by
+invoking the power of the Catholic priesthood and promising to
+become converted to Christianity.<a id="footnotetag2-9" name=
+"footnotetag2-9"></a><a href="#footnote2-9"><sup>9</sup></a> And
+now and then even Talmudists left the fold, as, for instance, Carl
+Anton, the Courland pupil of Eybesch&uuml;tz, who became professor
+of Hebrew at Hamsted, and wrote numerous works on Judaism. Others
+hoped to win the favor of the Gentiles by preaching a mixture of
+Judaism and Catholicism. In many places, especially in the Ukraine,
+the seat of learning that had suffered most from the ravages of the
+Cossacks, the state of morals sank very low, owing to the teaching
+of Jacob Querido, the self-proclaimed son of the pseudo-Messiah
+Shabbata&iuml; Zebi, "that the sinfulness of the world can be
+overcome only by a super-abundance of sin." This paved the way for
+the last of the long list of Messiahs, Jacob (Yankev Leibovich)
+Frank of Podolia. His experiences, adventures, and hairbreadth
+escapes, his entire career, beginning with his return from his
+travels in Turkey, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id=
+"page65"></a>{65}</span> through his conversion to Catholicism
+(1759), to the day of his death as "Baron von Offenbach," would
+furnish material for a stirring drama. As if to counteract this
+demoralizing tendency, a new sect, known as Hasidim, originating in
+Lithuania and headed by Judah Hasid of Dubno and Hayyim Malak,
+taught its devotees to hasten the advent of the Messiah by doing
+penance for the sins of Israel. They were so firmly convinced of
+the efficacy of fasts and prayers that they went to Jerusalem by
+hundreds to witness the impending redemption (ab. 1706). But the
+ascetic Hasidim and the epicurean Frankists were alike doomed to
+disappear or to be swallowed up by a new Hasidism, combining the
+teachings and aspirations of both, the sect founded by Israel Baal
+Shem, or Besht (ab. 1698-1759), and fully developed by Bar of
+Meseritz and Jacob Joseph of Polonnoy.</p>
+<a name="illus-levinsohn" id="illus-levinsohn"></a>
+<center><img width="200" height="280" src=
+"images/illus-levinsohn.png" alt="Isaac Levinsohn" /></center>
+<center>Isaac B&auml;r Levinsohn, 1788-1860</center>
+<p>Time was when all writers on the subject, usually Maskilim,
+thought it their duty to cast a stone at Hasidism. They described
+it as a Chinese wall shutting the Jews in and shutting the world
+out. It is becoming more and more plainly recognized and admitted,
+that it was, in reality, an attempt at reform rendered imperative
+by the tyranny of the kahal, the rigorism of the rabbis, the
+superciliousness <span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id=
+"page66"></a>{66}</span> of the learned classes, and the
+superstition of the masses. Its aim was to bring about a deep
+psychologic improvement, to change not so much the belief as the
+believer. It insisted on purity rather than profundity of thought.
+Unable to remove the galling yoke, it gave strength to its wearers
+by prohibiting sadness and asceticism, and emphasizing joy and
+fellowship as important elements in the fabric of its theology.</p>
+<p>Hasidism was thus a plant the seeds of which had been sown by
+the various sects. Like the former Hasidim, or even the Assideans
+of nearly two thousand years before, their latter-day namesakes
+rigidly adhered to the laws of Levitical purification, and, to a
+certain extent, led a communistic life. In addition they accepted,
+in a modified form, certain customs and beliefs of the Catholic
+church that had been adopted by the followers of Frank. The prayers
+to the saints (zaddikim), the conception of faith as the fountain
+of salvation, even the belief in a trinity consisting of the
+Godhead, the Shekinah, and the Holy Ghost, these and other exotic
+doctrines introduced by the Cabbala took root and grew in the
+vineyard of Hasidism.<a id="footnotetag2-10" name=
+"footnotetag2-10"></a><a href="#footnote2-10"><sup>10</sup></a></p>
+<p>The founder of the sect has an interesting history. In his
+childhood he gave no evidence of future <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>{67}</span> greatness.
+His education was of a low order, but his feeling heart and
+sympathetic soul won him the esteem of all that knew him. The woods
+possessed the same charm for him as for Wordsworth or Whitman. With
+the latter especially he seems to have much in common. While a
+child, he absented himself frequently from the narrow and noisy
+heder, and spent the day in the quiet of the neighboring woods.
+When he grew up, he accepted the menial position of a school usher.
+His office was to go from house to house, arouse the sleeping
+children, dress them, and bring them to heder. But the time soon
+came when humble and obscure Israel "revealed" himself to the
+world. Owing to his tact and knowledge of human nature, combined
+with the conditions of the times, his teachings spread rapidly. He
+was speedily crowned with the glory of a "good name" (Baal Shem
+Tob), and in the end he was immortalized.</p>
+<p>From such a man we can expect only originality, not profundity.
+Indeed, his whole life was a protest against the subtleties of the
+Talmudists and the ceremonies, meaningless to him, which they
+introduced into Judaism. His object was to remove the petrified
+rabbinical restrictions (gezerot) and develop the emotional side of
+the Jew in their stead. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id=
+"page68"></a>{68}</span> He was primarily a man of action, and had
+little love for the rabbis, their passivity, world-weariness, and
+pride of intellect. It is said that when he "overheard the sounds
+of eager, loud discussions issuing from a rabbinical college,
+closing his ears with his hands, [he] declared that it was such
+disputants who delayed the redemption of Israel from captivity."
+Men like these, who study the Law for the sake of knowing, not of
+feeling, cannot claim any merit for it. They deserve to be called
+"Jewish devils." Only he is worthy of reward who is virtuous rather
+than innocent, who does what he is afraid to do, who, as Jacob
+Joseph of Polonnoy puts it, "acquires evil thoughts and converts
+them into holy ones." No asceticism for him. All kinds of human
+feelings deserve our respect, for it is not the body that feels but
+the soul, and the soul, "being a part of God on high, cannot
+possibly have an absolutely bad tendency." Men may not be
+heresy-hunters and fault-finders, for none is free from heresy and
+faults himself: the face he brings to the mirror, he finds
+reflected in it. Yea, even the followers of Abraham possess evil
+propensities, and noble qualities frequently belong to the
+disciples of Balaam himself.<a id="footnotetag2-11" name=
+"footnotetag2-11"></a><a href="#footnote2-11"><sup>11</sup></a></p>
+<p>These democratic principles put the most <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>{69}</span> ignorant Jew
+in Russia on an equality with the erudite Lithuanian. No wonder
+that they obtained such strong hold on the people of the Ukraine,
+the province shorn of all its glory. Hasidism invaded Podolia and
+Volhynia, swept over Galicia and Hungary, and found adherents even
+in many a large community in Western Russia and Prussia. It brought
+cheer and happiness in its wake, and rendered the unfortunate Jew
+forgetful of his misery. Gottlober maintains that the inspiring
+melodies of the Hasidic hymns were largely responsible for the
+spread of the movement, even as Moody attributed the success of his
+revivals to the singing of Sankey. For, as Doctor Schechter has it,
+"the Besht was a religious revivalist in the best sense, full of
+burning faith in his God and his cause; convinced of the value of
+his teaching and his truth."<a id="footnotetag2-12" name=
+"footnotetag2-12"></a><a href="#footnote2-12"><sup>12</sup></a></p>
+<p>One province there was to which the Besht could not penetrate,
+at least not without a long siege and great losses. In Lithuania
+the inroads of Hasidism were strenuously opposed, and its advance
+disputed step by step. The Lithuanian Jews, to whom the Talmud was
+as dear as ever, could not countenance a movement sprung, as they
+believed, from the seed sown by Shabbata&iuml; Zebi, an opponent of
+the Talmud, and by Jacob Frank, at whose instigation the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>{70}</span>
+Bishop of Kamenetz ordered the Talmud to be publicly burnt.<a id=
+"footnotetag2-13" name="footnotetag2-13"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-13"><sup>13</sup></a></p>
+<p>The opponents (Mitnaggedim) of Hasidism were headed by a leader
+who was as typical an exponent of the cause he espoused as the
+Besht was of his. Among the students of Jewish literature since the
+close of the Talmud, few have surpassed, or even equalled, Elijah
+of Vilna (1720-1797). Not inappropriately he was called Gaon and
+Hasid, for in mental and moral attainments he was unique in his
+generation. As the Besht was noted in his early life for dulness
+and indifference, so Elijah was remarkable for diligence and
+versatility. His life, like the Besht's, became the nucleus of many
+wonderful tales, which his biographer narrates with painstaking
+exactness. They present the picture of a man diametrically
+different from Israel Baal Shem Tob. Every year, we are told, added
+to the marvellous development of the young intellectual giant. When
+he was six years old, none but Rabbi Moses Margolioth, the renowned
+Talmudist and author, was competent enough to teach him. At seven,
+he worsted the chief rabbi of his native city in a Talmudic
+discussion. At nine, there was nothing in Jewish literature with
+which he was not familiar, and he turned to other studies to
+satisfy <span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id=
+"page71"></a>{71}</span> his craving for knowledge. And at
+thirteen, he was acknowledged by his fellows as the greatest of
+Talmudists.<a id="footnotetag2-14" name=
+"footnotetag2-14"></a><a href="#footnote2-14"><sup>14</sup></a> He
+had neither guide nor teacher. All unaided he discovered the path
+of truth. He held neither a rabbinical nor any other public office.
+He was as retiring as the Besht was aggressive. Nevertheless his
+word was law, and his influence immense. The centenary of his death
+(1897) was celebrated among all classes with the solemnity which
+the memories of "men of God" inspire.<a id="footnotetag2-15" name=
+"footnotetag2-15"></a><a href="#footnote2-15"><sup>15</sup></a></p>
+<p>Now, this Gaon of Vilna, or Hagra, was perhaps no less
+dissatisfied with prevailing conditions than the Besht, but his
+remedy for them was as different as the two personalities were
+unlike. He did not desire to abolish the Talmud, but rather to
+render it more attractive, by making its acquisition easier and
+putting its study on a scientific basis. Even in Lithuania, the
+citadel of the Talmud, the development of Talmudic learning had
+been hampered. In accordance with a Talmudic principle, mankind is
+continually degenerating, not only physically, but morally and
+mentally as well. It holds that if "the ancients were angels, we
+are mere men; if they were but men, we are asses." This high regard
+for antiquity produced a belief in the infallibility of the rabbis
+on the part of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id=
+"page72"></a>{72}</span> Mitnaggedim, similar to that in their
+zaddikim by the Hasidim. No scholar of a later generation dared
+disagree with the statement of a rabbi of a previous generation.
+But as authorities sometimes conflict with each other, the
+Talmudists regarded it their duty to reconcile them or to prove, in
+the words of the ancient sages, that "these as well as those are
+the words of the living God." Similarly, the popes declared that,
+despite their contradictions, the Biblical translations of Sixtus V
+and Clement VIII were both correct.</p>
+<p>It is true that Lithuanian Talmudists were not always the slaves
+of authority which they ultimately became. A study of the works of
+the early Slavonian rabbis, before and after Rabbi Polack, shows
+that they were free from unhealthy awe of their predecessors, and
+sometimes were audaciously independent. Neither Solomon Luria
+(Maharshal), Samuel Edels (Maharsha), or Me&iuml;r Lublin (Maharam)
+refrained from criticising and amending whenever they deemed it
+necessary. But in the course of time the casuistic method,
+originally a mere pastime, became the approved method of study, and
+produced what is known as pilpul. Scholars wasted days and nights
+in heaping Ossa upon Pelion, in reconciling difficulties which no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>{73}</span>
+logic could harmonize. Here the Gaon found the first and most
+urgent need for reform. The Talmudists, he declared, were not
+infallible. Every one may interpret the Mishnah in accordance with
+reason, even if the interpretation be not in keeping with the
+traditional meaning as construed by the Amoraim.<a id=
+"footnotetag2-16" name="footnotetag2-16"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-16"><sup>16</sup></a></p>
+<p>His views on religion were equally liberal. The same process of
+reasoning which, spun out to its logical conclusion, led to pilpul
+in the schools, produced, when turned into the channel of religion,
+the over-piety culminating in the <i>Shulhan 'Aruk</i>. This
+remarkable book, with the euphonious name <i>The Ready Table</i>,
+prescribed enough regulations to keep one busy from early morning
+till late at night. The Jews found themselves bound hand and foot
+by ceremonial trammels and weighted down by a burden of innumerable
+customs. The spirit of freedom that had animated Slavonian Judaism
+during the Middle Ages had fled. The breadth of view that had
+marked the decision of many of its rabbis was gone.<a id=
+"footnotetag2-17" name="footnotetag2-17"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-17"><sup>17</sup></a> Judaism was a mere mummy of its
+former self. Here, too, the Gaon came to the rescue. Rightly or
+wrongly, he "established the importance of Minhagim [religious
+ceremonies] according to their antiquity or primitivism, regarding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>{74}</span>
+those which have originated since the codification of the
+<i>Shulhan 'Aruk</i> as not binding at all; those which have been
+adopted since the Talmudic period to be subject to change by common
+consent; while those of the Bible and in the Talmud were to him
+fundamental and unalterable."<a id="footnotetag2-18" name=
+"footnotetag2-18"></a><a href="#footnote2-18"><sup>18</sup></a></p>
+<p>But the Gaon's influence on the Haskalah movement by far
+surpassed his influence on the study of the Talmud or on the
+ceremonials of the synagogue. Many, in point of fact, regard him as
+the originator of the movement. As he was the first to oppose the
+authority of the Talmudists, so he was the first to inveigh against
+the educational system among the Jews of his day and country. The
+mania for distinction in rabbinical learning plunged the child into
+the mazes of Talmudic casuistry as soon as he could read;
+frequently he had not read the Bible or studied the rudiments of
+grammar. The Gaon insisted that every one should first master the
+twenty-four books of the Bible, their etymology, prosody, and
+syntax, then the six divisions of the Mishnah with the important
+commentaries and the suggested emendations, and finally the Talmud
+in general, without wasting much time on pilpul, which brings no
+practical result. "These few lines," says a writer, "contain a more
+thorough course of study <span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id=
+"page75"></a>{75}</span> than Wessely suggested in his <i>Words of
+Peace and Truth</i>. Though they did not entirely change the system
+in vogue&mdash;for great is the power of habit&mdash;they produced
+a wholesome effect, which was visible in a short time among the
+people." Furthermore, the Gaon exhorted the Talmudists to study
+secular science, since, "if one is ignorant of the other sciences,
+one is a hundredfold more ignorant of the sciences of the Torah,
+for the two are inseparably connected." He set the example by
+writing, not only on the most important Hebrew books, Biblical,
+Talmudic, and Cabbalistic, but also on algebra, geometry,
+trigonometry, astronomy, and grammar.<a id="footnotetag2-19" name=
+"footnotetag2-19"></a><a href="#footnote2-19"><sup>19</sup></a> And
+his example served as an impetus and encouragement to the Maskilim
+in spreading knowledge among their coreligionists.</p>
+<p>Such was the man who led the crusade against the converts to
+Hasidism. But even he could not stem the current. In their despair,
+the Lithuanian Jews turned to their coreligionists in Germany, and
+implored their assistance in eradicating, or at least suppressing,
+the threatened invasion. The great learning and literary ability of
+the "divine philosopher, Rabbi Moses ben Menahem" (Mendelssohn,
+1729-1786), were appealed to for help. Not a stone was left
+unturned to crush the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id=
+"page76"></a>{76}</span> new sect (kat), so called. Volumes of the
+<i>Toledot Ya'akob Yosef</i>, in which Rabbi Jacob Joseph of
+Polonnoy set forth the principles of the Besht, were burnt in the
+market-place in Vilna. Intermarriage, social intercourse of any
+kind, was prohibited between Hasidim and Mitnaggedim. In Vilna,
+Grodno, Brest, Slutsk, Minsk, Pinsk, etc., the ban was hurled
+against the dissenters by the most prominent rabbis. Israel was
+divided into two hostile camps.<a id="footnotetag2-20" name=
+"footnotetag2-20"></a><a href="#footnote2-20"><sup>20</sup></a> But
+soon everything was changed. Hasidim and Mitnaggedim discovered
+that while they were fighting each other, a common enemy was
+undermining the ground on which they stood. The Haskalah was
+steadily drawing recruits from both, and it threatened ultimately
+to become more dangerous to both than they were to each other.</p>
+<p>From the South had come the impulse of religious revivalism
+through the followers of the Besht, and the North was showing signs
+of awakening through the reforms of the Gaon. At the same time a
+ray of enlightenment from the West pierced through the night. To
+make the regeneration of Slavonic Judaism complete, the element of
+estheticism had to be added to emotionalism and reason. From the
+warm South came Besht, from the studious North Hagra, and Rambman
+(Mendelssohn) <span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id=
+"page77"></a>{77}</span> made his appearance from the enlightened
+West. The triumvirate was complete.</p>
+<p>Not that Mendelssohn ever visited or resided in Russo-Poland.
+But the gentle, cultured little savant of Berlin, with whose lips,
+Carlyle tells us, Socrates spoke like Socrates in German as in no
+other modern language, "for his own character was Socratic," was at
+no period of his life wholly cut off from influencing Slavonic Jews
+and from being influenced by them. As a lad Mendelssohn was
+instructed by Israel Moses Halevi of Zamoscz (ab. 1700-1772). This
+teacher of his, who is credited with several inventions, and of
+whom Lessing says, in a letter to Mendelssohn, that he was "one of
+the first to arouse a love for science in the hearts of Jews,"
+imbued him with love for philosophy. When Mendelssohn emerged from
+obscurity, and, despite ill-health and ignorance, attained culture
+and breeding, his associate, who was with him the most important
+factor in German Haskalah, was the renowned Naphtali, or Hartwig,
+Wessely, whose grandfather Joseph Reis had been among the fugitives
+from the Cossack massacres in 1648. And when he became famous, and
+took his place among the greatest of his age, he still sought
+diversion and instruction among the Slavonian <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>{78}</span> Jews, and
+boasted of being a descendant of one of them, Moses Isserles of
+Cracow. As formerly with the Talmud, the Haskalah seemed, at the
+time of Mendelssohn, to be moving from the East westward, through
+the agency of the Slavonic Jews pouring perennially into Germany.
+Positions, from the lowly melammed's to the honorable chief rabbi's
+in prominent communities, were filled almost exclusively by them.
+The cause of Judaism seems to have been entrusted to them. Ezekiel
+Landau, whose tactful intercession helped greatly to establish
+peace between the Emden-Eybesch&uuml;tz factions, was rabbi of
+Prague for almost forty years (1755-1793); the equally prominent,
+but at first somewhat less liberal Phinehas Horowitz was rabbi and
+dean in Frankfort-on-the-Main for over thirty years (1771-1805);
+his brother Shmelke, regarded as a saint, was chief rabbi of
+Moravia (1775). Another Horwitz, Aaron Halevi, was rabbi of Berlin,
+one of those who favored Mendelssohn's translation of the
+Pentateuch; while the cultured and profound Talmudist Raphael
+Hakohen, whose grandson, Gabriel Riesser, became the greatest
+champion of Jewish emancipation Germany has yet produced, was
+offered the rabbinate of Berlin (1771). He declined the post, and
+finally became chief rabbi <span class="pagenum"><a name="page79"
+id="page79"></a>{79}</span> (1776-1803) of the united congregations
+of Altona, Hamburg, and Wandsbeck. It is also recorded that Samuel
+ben Avigdor, the last rabbi of Vilna, held the rabbinate of
+K&ouml;nigsberg,<a id="footnotetag2-21" name=
+"footnotetag2-21"></a><a href="#footnote2-21"><sup>21</sup></a> and
+there certainly must have been many more who, because of their
+inferior positions, cannot be so easily traced. Besides, Germany,
+as we have seen, was the common fatherland of the greater part of
+both Slavonic and Teutonic Jews. It never remained a <i>terra
+incognita</i> to the former for any length of time. Its proximity
+to Russia, the business relations between the Jews of the two
+countries, intermarriage, and, with a few insignificant exceptions,
+the identity of language, made the Jews of both countries come into
+closer contact than was possible with any other Jews. For the
+studious, Germany possessed the attraction which the "land of
+universities" exerts upon seekers after knowledge the world over.
+To whom, indeed, could the profound and abstruse speculations of
+Leibnitz and Kant make a stronger appeal than to the Jew who had
+been initiated into metaphysical abstractions from his very
+childhood? It is no wonder, then, that immigration from
+Russo-Poland into Germany was constantly on the increase, until,
+under Alexander II, the advancement of Russian civilization put a
+stop in a measure to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id=
+"page80"></a>{80}</span> these roamings, to be resumed under
+Alexander III and Nicholas II.</p>
+<p>The Russo-Polish youth, therefore, found himself quite at home
+in the country of Mendelssohn, and thither, in case of necessity,
+he would go. In the eleventh century Jews had gone from Germany to
+Poland. In the eighteenth they retraced their steps from Poland to
+Germany. Outnumbering by far those who went there from choice or by
+invitation, were those compelled to go in search of a livelihood.
+"When I reached the age of twenty, peaceful and comfortable in my
+father's house, I began to hope that henceforth I should pursue my
+studies uninterrupted. But all at once my father lost his fortune,
+and I was forced to go somewhere to provide for myself. So I became
+a melammed in Berlin." This piece of autobiography in the preface
+to a Talmudic treatise by Reuben of Zamoscz might have been written
+by many others, too. But there were also the goodly number led
+thither by thirst for knowledge, whose remarkable abilities
+attracted the admiration of Jew and Gentile alike. Wessely the poet
+and Linda the mathematician more than once expressed surprise at
+the amount of learning many of the poor immigrants were found to
+possess.<a id="footnotetag2-22" name="footnotetag2-22"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-22"><sup>22</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>{81}</span>
+<p>Among these immigrants were two who may justly be regarded as
+the conducting medium through which the Haskalah currents were
+transmitted from Germany to Russo-Poland: Solomon Dubno, the
+indefatigable laborer in the province of Jewish science, and
+Solomon Maimon, the brilliant but unfortunate philosopher, both of
+them teachers in the house of Mendelssohn.</p>
+<p>Solomon Dubno (1738-1813) was all his life a bee in search of
+flowers, to turn their sweetness into honey. Having exhausted the
+knowledge of his Volhynian instructors, he went to Galicia, where
+he became proficient in Hebrew grammar and Biblical exegesis.
+Thence, attracted by its rich collection of books, he left for
+Amsterdam, where he spent five years in study and research. Finally
+he settled in Berlin, and earned a livelihood by teaching among
+others the children of Mendelssohn. The gentle disposition and
+profound learning of the Polish emigrant made a favorable
+impression on the Berlin sage, who invited him to participate in
+his translation of the Bible, which revolutionized the Judaism of
+the nineteenth century more than the Septuagint that of the first
+century. The result was the <i>Biur</i> (commentary), which he,
+together with his countryman, Aaron Yaroslav, also a <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page82" id="page82"></a>{82}</span> teacher,
+wrote on several books of the Bible. Comparatively few of Dubno's
+works have been published, but judging from such as are known we
+may safely pronounce him a master of the Massorah and a scholar of
+unusual attainments. Of his poems Delitzsch says that they are "in
+the truest sense Hebrew in expression, Biblical in imagery and
+subject-matter, medieval in rhyme and rhythm, and in general
+genuinely Jewish in manner of treatment,"&mdash;laudation which
+this exacting critic bestowed on no other Hebrew poet of his time.
+It was mainly through the endeavors of Dubno that Mendelssohn's
+Pentateuch, later regarded with suspicion, was everywhere bought
+and studied eagerly.<a id="footnotetag2-23" name=
+"footnotetag2-23"></a><a href="#footnote2-23"><sup>23</sup></a></p>
+<p>One better known to the outside world than Dubno, and who has
+engraved his name forever on the history of theology and
+philosophy, was Solomon Maimon (Nieszvicz, Lithuania,
+1754&mdash;Niedersiegersdorf, Silesia, 1800). In his famous
+autobiography is mirrored the lot of hundreds of his countrymen
+who, like him, left their homes and hearths, their nearest and
+dearest, and led a wretched and miserable existence, all because
+they were anxious to be <i>ma'amike be-hakmah</i> ("delvers in
+knowledge"), as he himself might have said, and avail themselves of
+the opportunities for acquiring <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page83" id="page83"></a>{83}</span> the truth and wisdom
+unattainable in their own land.</p>
+<p>But Maimon was doomed to suffer abroad even more than at home.
+He was one of those unfortunates whose sufferings are regarded as
+well-deserved. His exceptional ability was never to develop to its
+fullest capacity. Great injustice has been done to him, not only by
+the rabid orthodox, who denied him a grave in their cemetery, but
+even by the enlightened historian Graetz. Fortunately he left
+behind him his <i>Lebensgeschichte</i>, among the best of its kind
+in German literature, in which, with the frankness of a Rousseau,
+he described the events of his short and checkered career.<a id=
+"footnotetag2-24" name="footnotetag2-24"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-24"><sup>24</sup></a></p>
+<p>From this admirable work, in which he neither hides his follies
+nor flaunts his talents, we learn that Maimon possessed rare
+virtues. His sympathy for the poor, his ready helpfulness even at
+the sacrifice of himself, rendered him as uncommon in moral action
+as in philosophic speculation. To the English reader a striking
+parallelism suggests itself between him and his contemporary Oliver
+Goldsmith. Both were afflicted with generosity above their
+fortunes; both had a "knack at hoping," which led frequently to
+their undoing; neither could subscribe easily to the "decent
+formalities of rigid virtue"; and, as <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>{84}</span> of the
+latter we may also say of the former, in the language of a
+reviewer, "He had lights and shadows, virtues and
+foibles&mdash;vices you cannot call them, be you never so
+unkind."</p>
+<p>As Goldsmith came to London, so came Maimon to Berlin, "without
+friends, recommendation, money, or impudence." His only luggage was
+two manuscripts: a commentary on the works of Maimuni, whose name
+he had adopted, and to whom he paid divine reverence; and a
+treatise in which he attempted to rationalize the recondite
+doctrines of the Cabbala, and which he always kept by him "as a
+monument of the struggle of the human mind after perfection in
+spite of all hindrances which were put in its way." The little
+bundle, which, to the zealot Jewish elders of that community,
+seemed sufficient indication that Maimon was tainted with heresy,
+and that his intentions were to devote himself to the study of
+science and philosophy, proved a great impediment to entering
+Berlin; and when, after a long, incredible struggle, he was finally
+admitted, he found himself incapable of earning a livelihood. In
+his childlike na&iuml;vet&eacute; he was betrayed by the very
+persons upon whom he relied most. All this could not deaden his
+love for knowledge and truth. By chance he obtained Wolff's
+<i>Metaphysics</i>, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id=
+"page85"></a>{85}</span> and this marked a new epoch in his life.
+"Not only the sublime science in itself," says he, "but also the
+order and mathematical method of the celebrated author, the
+precision of his explanations, the exactness of his reasoning, and
+the scientific arrangement of his expositions&mdash;all this
+kindled a new light in my mind."</p>
+<p>So profound a thinker could not for long be a mere pupil.
+Wolff's argument <i>a posteriori</i> for the existence of God, in
+accordance with his philosophic hobby, the "principle of sufficient
+reason," displeased him wholly. A Hebrew letter to Mendelssohn, in
+which he shook the foundation of the <i>Metaphysics</i> by means of
+his irrefutable ontology, won him the admiration of the Berlin
+sage, who invited him to become his daily guest.</p>
+<p>Maimon's intellect unfolded from day to day, until, some time
+afterwards, he astonished the philosophic world by his great work,
+<i>Die Transcendentale Philosophie</i> (Berlin, 1790), in reference
+to which Kant wrote to his beloved disciple Marcus Herz: "A mere
+glance at it enabled me to recognize its merits, and showed me,
+that not only had none of my opponents understood me and the main
+problem so well, but very few could claim so much penetration as
+Herr Maimon in profound inquiries <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page86" id="page86"></a>{86}</span> of this sort." He demolished
+the prevalent Leibnitzo-Wolffian system in it, and proved that even
+the Kantian theory, though irrefutable from a dogmatic point of
+view, is exposed to severe attacks from the skeptic's point of
+view.</p>
+<p>Thenceforth he became a leading figure in philosophic
+controversy. In 1793 he published <i>Ueber die Progresse der
+Philosophie</i>; in 1794, <i>Versuch einer neuen Logik</i>, and
+<i>Die Kategorien des Aristoteles</i>, and, three years later,
+<i>Kritische Untersuchungen &uuml;ber den menschlichen Geist</i>
+(Berlin, 1797), wherein he originated a speculative, monistic
+idealism, which pervaded not only philosophy, but all sciences
+during the first half of the nineteenth century, the system by
+which Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel were influenced. According to
+Bernfeld, he was the greatest Jewish philosopher since the time of
+Spinoza, with whose depth of reasoning he combined an ease and
+straightforwardness of illustration characteristic of Benjamin
+Franklin.<a id="footnotetag2-25" name=
+"footnotetag2-25"></a><a href="#footnote2-25"><sup>25</sup></a></p>
+<p>With all this he remained an ardent lover of the Talmud to the
+last. In fact, his philosophy is distinctively Jewish. Like
+Spinoza, he exhibited the effects of the Cabbala and of rabbinic
+speculation, with which he had been familiar from childhood. The
+honor of the Talmudic sages was always dear <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>{87}</span> to him, and
+he never mentioned them without expressing profound respect.
+Persecuted though he was by his German coreligionists, he never
+bore them a grudge. As a man he loved them as brothers, but as a
+philosopher he could not subscribe to their views implicitly. But
+for friends and benefactors his affection was unusually strong.
+With what love he talks of Mendelssohn in the chapter dedicated to
+him in his autobiography, even though "he could not explain the
+persistency of Mendelssohn and the Wolffians generally in adhering
+to their system, except as a political dodge, and a piece of
+hypocrisy, by which they studiously endeavored to descend to the
+mode of thinking common to the popular mind!" His devotion to his
+wife was not diminished even after he had been compelled to divorce
+her because of his supposed heretical proclivities. "When the
+subject [of his divorce] came up in conversation, it was easy,"
+says his biographer,<a id="footnotetag2-26" name=
+"footnotetag2-26"></a><a href="#footnote2-26"><sup>26</sup></a> "to
+read in his face the deep sorrow he felt: his liveliness then faded
+away sensibly. By and by he would become perfectly silent, was
+incapable of further entertainment, and went home earlier than
+usual." Of his Russo-Polish brethren he speaks in the highest
+terms. He cannot bestow too much praise on their care for the poor
+and the sick, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id=
+"page88"></a>{88}</span> he always hoped once more to see his
+native land, to whose king he dedicated his <i>Transcendental
+Philosophy</i>. "For," says he, "the Polish Jews are, indeed, for
+the most part not enlightened by science; their manners and way of
+life are still rude, but they are loyal to the religion of their
+fathers and to the laws of their country."<a id="footnotetag2-27"
+name="footnotetag2-27"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-27"><sup>27</sup></a></p>
+<p>It is because I regard him as the greatest Maskil of his time
+that I have dwelt on Maimon at such length. Mendelssohn's
+philosophy, if he had an original system, has long since passed
+into oblivion; Maimon's will be studied as long as Spinoza,
+Leibnitz, and Kant are in vogue. His importance to us does not lie
+in the circumstance that his autobiography&mdash;"that wonderful
+bit of Autobiography," as George Eliot speaks of it, or "that
+curious and rare book," as Dean Milman calls it&mdash;and the
+pictures drawn of him by Berthold Auerbach and Israel
+Zangwill<a id="footnotetag2-28" name="footnotetag2-28"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-28"><sup>28</sup></a> have made him the hero of some of
+the world's best biographies and novels. Over and above this, he is
+the prototype of his unfortunate countrymen during the days of
+transition. He embodied the aspiration, courage, and
+disappointments of them all, and if, as Carlyle said, "the history
+of the world is the history of its great men," Maimon's life should
+be studied by all interested in <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page89" id="page89"></a>{89}</span> the Kulturkampf of the
+Russo-Polish and of the German Jews in the eighteenth century.</p>
+<p>What could he not have accomplished, he to whom Kant and Goethe,
+Schiller and K&ouml;rner paid tributes of unstinted praise, had he
+not been doomed to suffer and to starve. Only at the last moment,
+before he was silenced forever, was he able to say, <i>Ich bin
+ruhig</i> ("I am at peace"). Yet, in spite of the difficulties and
+impediments besetting him at every step, his promise of greatness
+and usefulness was not belied. In the Introduction to his
+commentary on Maimuni's <i>Guide to the Perplexed (Gibe'at
+ha-Moreh)</i>, in which he attempted to reconcile his master's
+system with that of modern philosophy&mdash;even as the master had
+tried to reconcile Judaism with Aristotelianism&mdash;he gave a
+brief sketch of the development of modern thought. This part of his
+work was assiduously studied by his compatriots. Among his
+unpublished writings was found a work on mathematical physics,
+<i>Ta'alumot Hokmah</i>, and in his Talmudic treatise, <i>Heshek
+Shelomoh</i>, he inserted a dissertation, <i>Ma'aseh Hosheb</i>, on
+arithmetic, like a skilful physician putting a healing, though to
+some it may appear a repelling, balm into a delicious, attractive
+capsule.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>{90}</span>
+<p>The story of Maimon, as I have said, is the story of many of the
+peripatetic apostles of Haskalah, and his experience was more or
+less also theirs. Issachar Falkensohn Behr (or B&auml;r Falkensohn,
+1746-1796?), without funds, friends, or rudimentary knowledge of
+the subjects necessary for admission into a public school, left his
+native city of Zamosez with the determination to enter the
+university of "Little Berlin," as K&ouml;nigsberg was called. Too
+poor to carry out his plan, he tramped to Berlin. Through the
+influence of his relatives and countrymen, Israel Moses Halevi and
+Daniel Jaffe, he was introduced to Mendelssohn, and was enabled to
+devote himself systematically to the study of German, the alphabet
+of which he had learned from Wolff's treatise on mathematics, and
+to French, Latin, physics, philosophy, and medicine. In a very
+short time he mastered them all, especially German. His <i>Gedichte
+eines polnischen Juden</i> (Mitau and Leipsic, 1772) caused no
+little stir among the poets. Lessing and Goethe, close observers of
+symptoms of enlightenment among the Jews, expressed themselves
+differently as to the real merit of the collection; but both
+concurred with Boie, who, writing to Knebel, the friend of Goethe,
+remarked concerning them, "You are right; the <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>{91}</span> Jewish
+nation promises much after it is once awakened."<a id=
+"footnotetag2-29" name="footnotetag2-29"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-29"><sup>29</sup></a></p>
+<p>For one reason or another we find that some Slavonic Jewish
+youths preferred other places to Berlin for the pursuit of their
+studies. Such were Benjamin Wolf G&uuml;nzberg and Jacob
+Libosch&uuml;ts. The former was probably the only Jew at the
+G&ouml;ttingen University. It was from there that he inquired of
+Jacob Emden "whether it was permissible to dissect on the Sabbath,"
+and his thesis for the doctor's degree was <i>De medica ex
+Talmudicis illustrata</i> (G&ouml;ttingen, 1743).<a id=
+"footnotetag2-30" name="footnotetag2-30"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-30"><sup>30</sup></a> Libosch&uuml;ts studied at the
+University of Halle. After graduation, finding that as a Jew he
+could not settle in St. Petersburg, he established himself in
+Vilna, where he became celebrated as a diplomat, philanthropist,
+and, more especially, expert physician. When Professor Frank was
+asked who would take care of the public health in his absence, he
+is reported to have said, <i>Deus et Judaeus</i>, "God and the Jew"
+[Libosch&uuml;ts]!</p>
+<p>In their deep-rooted love for learning, they sometimes ventured
+even beyond the German boundaries, into countries whose language
+and customs had little in common with theirs. Padua continued to be
+the resort of Russo-Polish Jews that it had <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page92" id="page92"></a>{92}</span> been before
+1648. Moses Hayyim Luzzatto found an ardent admirer and zealous
+propagandist of his principles in the young medical student
+Jekuthiel Gordon (ab. 1729), who wrote concerning his master to
+friends in Vienna and Vilna.<a id="footnotetag2-31" name=
+"footnotetag2-31"></a><a href="#footnote2-31"><sup>31</sup></a>
+Judah Halevi Hurwitz (d. 1797), whose work <i>'Ammude Bet
+Yehudah</i> (Amsterdam, 1765) was highly recommended by Mendelssohn
+and Wessely, was a graduate of the same famous institution. In
+addition to his medical and philosophic attainments, he wrote a
+number of poems, and he was among the first to translate fables
+from German into Hebrew.<a id="footnotetag2-32" name=
+"footnotetag2-32"></a><a href="#footnote2-32"><sup>32</sup></a></p>
+<p>The story of Zalkind Hurwitz (1740-1812), "le fameux," as he was
+called by a French writer, is interesting. Starting, as usual, by
+going to Berlin, and succeeding, as usual, in gaining the
+friendship of Mendelssohn, he then visited Nancy, Metz, and
+Strasburg, and finally settled in Paris. Like Doctor Behr, he had
+to resort to peddling as a means for a livelihood. The rudiments of
+French he acquired from any book he chanced to obtain.
+Nevertheless, he soon became proficient in the language of his
+adopted country, and wrote his excellent <i>Apologie des juifs</i>,
+which, crowned by the Academy of Metz and quoted by Mirabeau, was
+largely instrumental in removing the disabilities of the Jews in
+France. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id=
+"page93"></a>{93}</span> Clermont-Tonnerre, the advocate of Jewish
+emancipation, said of him, <i>Le juif polonais seul avait
+parl&eacute; en philosophe</i>. He was suggested as a member of the
+Sanhedrin convoked by Napoleon in 1807. Though for some reason he
+never enjoyed the honor of membership in it, he was, nevertheless,
+the ruling spirit in the august assembly, and later generations
+have paid him the homage he deserves.<a id="footnotetag2-33" name=
+"footnotetag2-33"></a><a href="#footnote2-33"><sup>33</sup></a></p>
+<p>Where Hurwitz failed, another of his countrymen was to succeed.
+Judah Litvack (1776-1836) removed from Berlin to Amsterdam, became
+prominent among the Dutch mathematicians, and wrote a Dutch work,
+<i>Verhandeling over de Profgetallen Gen. ii</i> (Amsterdam, 1817),
+which appeared in a second edition four years after the first. The
+author was elected a member of the Mathesis Artium Genetrix
+Society, and appointed one of the deputation sent to the Sanhedrin
+(February 12, 1807), before which he delivered a discourse in the
+German language.</p>
+<p>The "distant isles of the sea," the British Islands,
+Russo-Polish Jews seem to have frequented ever since the
+Restoration, probably contemporaneously with the settlement of the
+Spanish Jews. The famous mystic Hayyim Samuel Jacob Falk, one of
+the many Baal-Shems who flourished in <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>{94}</span> Podolia at
+the beginning of the eighteenth century, settled in London before
+1750, and became the subject of many wonder stories. Sussman
+Shesnovzi, apparently a countryman of his, describes him, in a
+letter to Jacob Emden, as "standing alone in his generation by
+reason of his knowledge of holy mysteries." That this was the
+opinion of many and prominent personages may be inferred from the
+fact that among his callers were such distinguished visitors as the
+Marchese de Crona, Baron de Neuhoff, Prince Czartorisky, and the
+Duke of Orleans. The confidence of such as these brought Falk a
+considerable fortune, a large part of which he bequeathed to a
+charity fund, the interest of which the overseers of the United
+Synagogue still distribute annually among the poor.<a id=
+"footnotetag2-34" name="footnotetag2-34"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-34"><sup>34</sup></a> Shortly before "Doctor" Falk's
+death (1782), there settled in London Phinehas Phillips of
+Krotoschin, the founder of the Phillips family, which has furnished
+two Lord Mayors to the city of London.</p>
+<p>It was not merely because of its business facilities that
+England appealed to the Slavonic Jews. Baruch Shklover, or Schick
+(1740-1812), went thither to study medicine, and it was from
+English literature that he selected the material for his <i>Keneh
+ha-Middah</i> (Prague, 1784; Shklov, 1793), on trigonometry.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>{95}</span>
+It would appear that the first Hebrew book, <i>Toledot Ya'akob</i>,
+printed for a Jew in England, was, as the name of the author,
+Eisenstadt, suggests, that of a Slavonic Jew. Although a
+silversmith by profession, Israel Lyons (d. 1770) was appointed
+teacher of Hebrew at the University of Cambridge. He acquired
+repute as a Hebrew scholar, and published, in 1757, the
+<i>Scholar's Instructor</i>, or <i>Hebrew Grammar</i> (4th ed.,
+1823), and in 1768 a treatise printed by the Cambridge Press,
+<i>Observations and Inquiries Relating to Various Parts of
+Scripture History</i>. In the same chosen field labored Hyman
+Hurwitz (1770-1844), the friend of Coleridge, who founded the
+Highgate Academy (1799), and wrote an <i>Introduction to Hebrew
+Grammar</i>, <i>Vindica Hebraica</i>, and <i>Hebrew Tales</i>,
+which were translated into various languages. He finally became
+professor of Hebrew in University College, London.</p>
+<p>A younger contemporary of Abrahamson, the Jewish German
+medallist, was Solomon (Yom Tob) Bennett (1780-1841), the engraver
+of Polotsk, who spent a number of years at Copenhagen and Berlin in
+perfecting himself in his art. Among his works is a highly praised
+bas-relief of Frederick II, which was much admired by the
+professors of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id=
+"page96"></a>{96}</span> the Academy. An ardent lover of liberty,
+of which there was little more in Germany at that time than in
+Russia, he left for England, where he spent the remaining years of
+his life, in Bristol. Besides being an artist and an engraver he
+was a profound theologian, anxious to defend the cause of Judaism
+against enemies within and without. The enemy within he attacked in
+his cutting criticism of Solomon Cohen's <i>Rudiments of
+Religion</i>, and the enemy outside, in his other work, <i>The
+Constancy of Israel</i> (<i>Nezah Yisra&euml;l</i>, London, 1809).
+He also wrote expositions on many important Biblical topics, such
+as sacrifices (1815) and the Temple (1824). Having pointed out the
+defects of the Authorized Version (1834), he was ambitious of
+publishing a complete revised translation of the Bible. Specimens
+appeared in 1841. Death intervened and frustrated his plans. As
+Schick was the first Jew to translate from English into Hebrew, so
+Bennett was the first after Manasseh ben Israel to write in English
+in behalf of his people.<a id="footnotetag2-35" name=
+"footnotetag2-35"></a><a href="#footnote2-35"><sup>35</sup></a></p>
+<p>If the contributions of Slavonic Jews to Latin, German, French,
+Dutch, and English literature were not less considerable at that
+time than those of the Jews residing in the countries where these
+languages were respectively used as media, they <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>{97}</span> excelled
+them in Hebrew literature. In the renaissance of the holy tongue,
+they played the most important part from the first. The striving
+for knowledge, not for the purpose of obtaining a coveted
+privilege, but for its own sake, became an irresistible passion,
+and it was accompanied by an unquenchable desire to disseminate
+knowledge among the masses, to make learning and wisdom common
+property. The Hebrew language being the best vehicle for the
+purpose, it was soon impressed into the service of Haskalah. The
+pioneer Maskilim learned to handle it with ease and clearness that
+would do credit to a modern writer in a much more developed
+European language.</p>
+<p>From the middle of the fifteenth to the latter part of the
+eighteenth century, Hebrew literature consisted, if a few scattered
+books on philosophy, mostly translations from the Arabic, are
+excepted, mainly of Talmudic disquisitions, written in the rabbinic
+dialect and in a euphuistic style. Besides the great Maimuni, there
+were few able or willing to write Hebrew "as she should be spoke."
+The early German Maskilim, in trying to escape the Scylla of
+Rabbinism, fell victims to the Charybdis of Germanism. They
+possessed originality neither of style nor of sentiment, neither of
+rhyme nor of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page98" id=
+"page98"></a>{98}</span> reason. Hebrew poetry was an adaptation of
+current German poetry. The very best the period produced, the
+<i>Mosa&iuml;de</i> of Wessely, was influenced by and largely an
+imitation of Klopstock and others. Like English classic poetry, it
+is pretty in form but poor in spirit. The element of nationality,
+or distinctiveness, the life-giving and soul-uplifting element in
+all poetry, as Delitzsch justly maintains it to be, was lacking in
+the German Maskilim, anxious for naturalization as they were. It
+was the Slavonic Maskilim who mastered Hebrew in its purity, as it
+had not been mastered since the day of Judah Halevi. In those days
+of transition the diligent student can find, in germ, what was
+later to develop into the resplendent poetical flowers produced by
+the Lebensohns, the Gordons, Dolitzky, Schapiro, Mane, and
+Bialik.</p>
+<p>The Slavonic contributors to the Meassef, the first Hebrew
+literary periodical (1784-1811), were not conspicuous in number,
+but if quality can compensate for quantity, they made up for it by
+the value of their articles. Dubno and Maimon enriched the early
+issues, the one with poetry, the other with philosophy; and when it
+began to struggle for its existence, and was on the point of giving
+up the ghost, Shalom Cohen (1772-1845) came to <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>{99}</span> the rescue,
+and, as editor, prolonged its existence by a few years. Among the
+best articles in the Meassef are those of Isaac Halevi Satanov
+(1733-1805). This "conglomeration of contrasts," whom Delitzsch
+regards as the restorer of Hebrew poetry to its primitive beauty
+and purity, was the embodiment of the period in which he lived. "He
+was," we are told, "a thorough master of Jewish traditional lore,
+and at the same time a most advanced thinker, a profound physicist,
+and an inspired poet; a master of the old school and at the same
+time the founder of the new school, the national-classical, of
+Hebrew poetry." His pure and precise style, his good-natured,
+Horace-like, delicate, yet unmistakable, humor, he showed in a
+series of books bearing the name of Asaf, which still must be
+counted among the gems of Hebrew literature.<a id="footnotetag2-36"
+name="footnotetag2-36"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-36"><sup>36</sup></a></p>
+<p>Satanov was greatly in favor of expanding the Hebrew language,
+but the first to borrow expressions from the Talmud literature or
+coin words of his own was Mendel Levin, also of Satanov, Podolia
+(1741-1819), the friend of Mendelssohn while in Berlin, the
+inspirer of Perl and Krochmal while in Brody, the companion of
+Zeitlin and Schick while in Mohilev. The Meassefim, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id=
+"page100"></a>{100}</span> name generally applied to all who
+participated in the publication of the Meassef, were shocked by
+what they regarded a profanation of the sacred tongue. Their idea
+was that Hebrew was to be utilized as a means of introducing
+Western civilization. Afterwards it was to be relegated once more
+to the holy Ark. To Levin Hebrew had a far higher significance. Not
+only should Western civilization be introduced into Jewry through
+its means, but Hebrew itself should be so perfected as to take a
+place by the side of the more modern and cultivated languages. It
+should find adequate expressions for the new thoughts and ideas
+which the new learning would introduce into it directly or
+indirectly. The medieval translations from the Arabic should be
+retranslated into the new Hebrew, he held, and he furnished an
+example by recasting the first part of Maimuni's <i>Moreh
+Nebukim</i>. His modernized version, lucid and fluent, printed
+alongside of Ibn Tibbon's, presents a striking contrast to the
+stiffness and obscurity of the Proven&ccedil;al scholar's. Levin
+was also the first to write in the Yiddish, or Judeo-German,
+dialect, for the instruction of the masses, which made him the butt
+of more than one satire. But what was generally regarded as a
+degrading task was fraught with the greatest <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>{101}</span>
+consequences to the Haskalah. To this day Yiddish has continued an
+important medium for disseminating culture among Russian Jews, both
+in the Old World and in the New.<a id="footnotetag2-37" name=
+"footnotetag2-37"></a><a href="#footnote2-37"><sup>37</sup></a></p>
+<p>The century remarkable among other things for encyclopedia
+enterprises,&mdash;<i>Chambers' Encyclopedia</i> in England, the
+<i>Universal Lexicon</i> in Germany, and that wonderful and
+monumental work, the <i>Encyclop&eacute;die</i> in
+France&mdash;saw, before its close, a similar attempt, in
+miniature, in Hebrew and by a Slavonic Maskil. Whether the Hebrew
+encyclopedist was influenced by the example of Dr. Tobias Cohn's
+<i>Ma'aseh Tobiah</i> mentioned above, or was unconsciously imbued
+with the prevailing tendency of the times, it is impossible to
+tell. In any event, he resorted to the same means, and presented
+the Jewish world with a volume containing a little of every science
+known, under the innocent name <i>The Book of the Covenant</i>
+(<i>Sefer ha-Berit</i>, Br&uuml;nn, 1797).</p>
+<p>The book appeared anonymously. This, the author assures us, was
+due not to humbleness of spirit, but to a vow. His diligence and
+constant application had greatly impaired his eyes. He vowed that
+if God restored his sight, and enabled him to finish his task, he
+would publish the book <span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id=
+"page102"></a>{102}</span> without disclosing his authorship. God
+hearkened unto his prayers, and the work was soon completed. But an
+unforeseen trouble arose. His book was ascribed "by some to the
+sage of Berlin, by others to the Gaon of Vilna, and by many to the
+united efforts of a coterie of scholars, for it could not be
+believed that so many and diverse sciences could be mastered by one
+person." Moreover, the author was censured for being afraid to come
+out openly and boldly as a champion of Haskalah.<a id=
+"footnotetag2-38" name="footnotetag2-38"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-38"><sup>38</sup></a> In spite of obstacles and
+strictures, the book met with success surpassing the author's
+expectations. It found its way not only into Russia, Poland, and
+Germany, but even into France, Italy, England, Holland, and
+Palestine. An edition of two thousand copies was entirely
+exhausted, unusual at a time when books were costly and money was
+scarce, and another edition was issued. What Phinehas Elijah
+(Hurwitz) of Vilna had sown in tears, he lived to reap in joy.</p>
+<p>There was a crying need in Russia for a work of the sort. In
+Germany the very Government encouraged organizations and
+publications aiming at enlightenment. Accordingly, a Society for
+the Promotion of the Good and the Noble was started, and the
+Meassef was published. In Russo-Poland <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>{103}</span> not even
+a Hebrew printing-press was permitted, and certainly no periodical
+publications would have been tolerated. Phinehas Elijah, therefore,
+grasped the opportunity, and showed himself equal to it. His aim
+was, like that of the French encyclopedists, to lead his readers
+"through nature to God." He gives an account of the various
+sciences, natural and philosophical, as a prolegomenon to the study
+of theology, even of the mystic teachings of Vital's <i>Gates of
+Holiness</i>. Withal he evinces a sound intellect and refined, if
+rudimentary, taste. He decries the "ancestor worship" that rendered
+the Jew of his day a fossil specimen of an extinct species. The
+present is superior to the past, "a dwarf on a giant's shoulder
+seeth farther than doth the giant himself." He ridicules the base
+and degrading habit of dedicating books to "benefactors, friends,
+lovers, parents, men, or women." His work was written for the glory
+of God, and he dedicates it to eternal, all-conquering truth.<a id=
+"footnotetag2-39" name="footnotetag2-39"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-39"><sup>39</sup></a></p>
+<p>All these Maskilim, so many hands reaching out into the light,
+were both the cause and the consequence of the longing for
+enlightenment characteristic at all times of the Slavonic Jew.
+Graetz and his followers among the latter-day Maskilim delighted in
+calling them "they that walk in darkness." <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>{104}</span> Facts,
+however, prove that at no time before Nicholas I was education per
+se regarded with the least suspicion, though the Talmud was given
+the preference. As in the pre-Haskalah period, the greatest
+Talmudists deemed it a sacred duty to perfect themselves in some
+branch of secular science. When, in 1710, a terrible plague broke
+out in his native town, Rabbi Jonathan of Risenci (Grodno) vowed
+that, "if he were spared, he would disseminate a knowledge of
+astronomy among his countrymen." To fulfil the vow he went to
+Germany (1725), where, though blind, he devoted himself assiduously
+first to the acquisition of astronomy, then to writing on it.<a id=
+"footnotetag2-40" name="footnotetag2-40"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-40"><sup>40</sup></a> Baruch Yavan of Volhynia, who
+more than any one exposed the impostures of Jacob Frank, "spoke and
+wrote Hebrew, Polish, German, and probably French," and his
+accomplishments and address won him the admiration of Count
+Br&uuml;hl, the virtual ruler of Poland, and the favor of the
+highest officials at St. Petersburg. His associate in the righteous
+fight, Bima Speir of Mohilev, was also possessed of a thorough
+command of the language of Russia, and was well posted in its
+literature, history, and politics. The Pinczovs, descendants of
+Rabbi Polack, connected with the most <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>{105}</span> eminent
+rabbinical families, and themselves famous for piety and erudition,
+produced many works on mathematics and philosophy. Mendelssohn's
+translation of the Pentateuch was at first hailed with joy, and was
+recommended by the most zealous rabbis. Doctor Hurwitz of Vilna did
+not hesitate to dedicate his <i>'Ammude Bet Yehudah</i> to Wessely,
+who was more popular in Russo-Poland than in Germany. The whole
+edition of his <i>Yen Lebanon</i>, which fell flat in the latter
+country, though offered gratis, was sold when introduced into the
+former.<a id="footnotetag2-41" name="footnotetag2-41"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-41"><sup>41</sup></a> Joseph Pesseles' correspondence
+concerning Dubno, with David Friedl&auml;nder, the disciple of
+Mendelssohn (1773), proves the high esteem in which the
+liberal-minded savants of Berlin were held in Russia. The rabbis of
+Brest, Slutsk, and Lublin gave laudatory recommendations to Judah
+L&ouml;b Margolioth's popular works of natural science, which form
+a little encyclopedia by themselves. Margolioth was the grandson of
+Mordecai Jaffe, himself rabbi successively at Busnov, Szebrszyn,
+Polotsk, Lesla, and Frankfort-on-the-Oder (d. 1811). The writings
+of Baruch Schick of Shklov, referred to above, were accorded the
+same welcome. His translation of Euclid and his treatises on
+trigonometry, astronomy (<i>'Ammude ha-Shamayim</i>), and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id=
+"page106"></a>{106}</span> anatomy (<i>Tiferet Adam</i>) won the
+admiration of rabbis as well as laymen. Epitaphs of the day contain
+the statement that the deceased was not only "at home in all the
+chambers of the Torah," but also in "philosophy and the seven
+sciences." And this, exaggerated though it may be, must be seen to
+contain a kernel of the truth, when we recall that among Maimon's
+intimate friends was the rabbi of Kletzk, Lithuania; that in the
+humble dwelling of his father there were works on historical,
+astronomical, and philosophical subjects; that the chief rabbi of a
+neighboring town, Rabbi Samson of Slonim, who, according to
+F&uuml;nn, "had in his youth lived for a while in Germany, learned
+the German language there, and made himself acquainted in some
+measure with the sciences," continued his study of the sciences,
+and soon collected a fair library of German books.<a id=
+"footnotetag2-42" name="footnotetag2-42"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-42"><sup>42</sup></a> Saadia, Bahya, Halevi, Ibn Ezra,
+Crescas, Bedersi, Levi ben Gerson (whom Goldenthal calls the Hebrew
+Kant), Albo, Abarbanel, and others whose works deserve a high place
+in the history of Jewish philosophy, were on the whole fairly
+represented in the libraries, and diligently studied in the
+numerous yeshibot and batte midrashim.</p>
+<p>Thus the enlightenment which dawned upon <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>{107}</span> France,
+Germany, and England cast a glow even on the Slavonic Jews, despite
+the Chinese wall of disabilities that hemmed them in.
+Unfortunately, this only helped to render them dissatisfied with
+their wretched lot, without affording them the means of
+ameliorating it. While the Jews in Western Europe profited and were
+encouraged by the example of their Christian neighbors; while, in
+addition to their innate thirst for learning, they had everywhere
+else political and civil preferments to look forward to, in
+Russo-Poland not only were such outside stimuli absent, but the
+Slavonic Jews had to struggle against obstacles and hindrances at
+every step. No such heaven on earth could be dreamed of there. The
+country was still in a most barbarous state. Those who wished to
+perfect themselves in any of the sciences had to leave home and all
+and go to a foreign land, and had to study, as they were bidden to
+study the Talmud, "lishmah," that is, for its own sake. This is the
+distinguishing feature between the German and Slavonic Maskilim
+during the eighteenth century. The cry of the former was, "Become
+learned, lest the nations say we are not civilized and deny us the
+wealth, respect, and especially the equality we covet!" The latter
+were humbly seeking after the truth, either <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>{108}</span> because
+they could better elucidate the Talmud, or because, as they held,
+it was <i>their</i> truth, of which the nations had deprived them
+during their long exile.<a id="footnotetag2-43" name=
+"footnotetag2-43"></a><a href="#footnote2-43"><sup>43</sup></a>
+They were unlike their German brethren in another respect. Almost
+all of them were "self-made men," autodidacts in the truest sense.
+Lacking the advantages of secular schools, they culled their first
+information from scanty, antiquated Hebrew translations. Maimon
+learned the Roman alphabet from the transliteration of the titles
+on the fly-leaves of some Talmudic tracts; Doctor Behr, from
+Wolff's <i>Mathematics</i>. But no sooner was the impetus given
+than it was followed by an insatiable craving for more and more of
+the intellectual manna, for a wider and wider horizon. "Look," says
+Wessely, "look at our Russian and Polish brethren who immigrate
+hither, men great in Torah, yet admirers of the sciences, which,
+without the guiding help of teachers, they all master to such
+perfection as to surpass even a Gentile sage!"<a id=
+"footnotetag2-44" name="footnotetag2-44"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-44"><sup>44</sup></a> Such self-education was, of
+course, not without unfavorable results. Never having enjoyed the
+advantage of a systematic elementary training, the enthusiasts
+sometimes lacked the very rudiments of knowledge, though engaged in
+the profoundest speculations of philosophy. "As our mothers in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id=
+"page109"></a>{109}</span> Egypt gave birth to their children
+before the mid-wife came," writes Pinsker somewhat later,<a id=
+"footnotetag2-45" name="footnotetag2-45"></a><a href=
+"#footnote2-45"><sup>45</sup></a> "even so it is with the
+intellectual products of our brethren: before one becomes
+acquainted with the grammar of a language, he masters its classic
+and scientific literature!"</p>
+<p>Steadily though slowly, brighter, if not better, days were
+coming. "Thought once awakened shall not again slumber." As Carlyle
+says of the French of that period, it became clear for the first
+time to the upturned eyes of the Jews, "that Thought has actually a
+kind of existence in other kingdoms [than the Talmud]; that some
+glimmerings of civilization had dawned here and there on the human
+species." They begin to try all things; they visit Germany, France,
+Denmark, Holland, even England; learn their literatures, study in
+their universities, and contribute their quota to the apologetic,
+controversial, scientific, and philosophic investigations "with a
+candor and real love of improvement which give the best omens of a
+still higher success." Fortune, indeed, has cast them also into a
+cavern, and they are groping around darkly. But this prisoner, too,
+is a giant, and he will, at length, burst forth as a giant into the
+light of day.</p>
+<p>(Notes, pp. <a href="#notes-2">310-314</a>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id=
+"page110"></a>{110}</span>
+<h2><a name="chap3" id="chap3">CHAPTER III</a></h2>
+<h3>THE DAWN OF HASKALAH</h3>
+<h4>1794-1840</h4>
+<p>A glimmer of light pierced the Russian sky at the accession of
+Catherine II (1762-1796). This "Semiramis of the North," the
+admirer of Buffon, Montesquieu, Diderot, and, more especially,
+Voltaire, whose motto, <i>N'en croyez rien</i>, she adopted,
+endeavored, and for a while not without success, to introduce into
+her own country the spirit of tolerance which pervaded France. Her
+ukases were intended for all alike, "without distinction of
+religion and nationality." Her regard for her Jewish citizens she
+showed by allowing them to settle in the interior, establish
+printing-presses (January 27, 1783), and become civil and
+Government officers (April 2, 1785). In the edict promulgated by
+Governor-General Chernyshev it is stated that "religious liberty
+and inviolability of property are hereby granted to all subjects of
+Russia and certainly to the Jews; for the humanitarian <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>{111}</span>
+principles of her Majesty do not permit the exclusion of the Jews
+alone from the favors shown to all, so long as they, as faithful
+subjects, continue to employ themselves, as hitherto, with commerce
+and trade, each according to his vocation." That she remained true
+to her promise, we see from the numerous privileges enjoyed by many
+Jews, who began to frequent Moscow and St. Petersburg and reside
+there for business purposes.</p>
+<p>Paul (1796-1801), too, was kindly disposed toward the Jews, and
+permitted them to live in Courland; and when Alexander I
+(1801-1825) became czar, their hopes turned into certainty.
+Alexander I did, indeed, appear a most promising ruler at his
+accession. The theories he had acquired from Laharpe he fully
+intended to apply to practical life. Like Catherine, he wished to
+rule in equity and promote the welfare of his subjects irrespective
+of race or creed. He ordered a commission to investigate the status
+of the Russian Jews (December 9, 1802). The result was the
+polozheniye (enactment) of December 9, 1804, according to which
+Jews were to be eligible to one-third of all municipal offices;
+they were to be permitted to establish factories, become
+agriculturists, and either attend the schools and colleges of the
+empire <span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id=
+"page112"></a>{112}</span> on the same footing as subjects of the
+Christian faith, or, if they desired, found and maintain schools of
+their own. The approach of the great Usurper and the crushing
+defeat the Russians sustained at the battle of Friedland (June 4,
+1808) also favored the advance of the Jews. As the short, but
+troublous, reign of Paul and his wars with Turkey, Persia, Prussia,
+Poland, and Sweden had impoverished the country and depleted the
+treasury, the shrewd Alexander was not averse from appealing to
+Jews for help. Of course, as in many more enlightened countries and
+in more modern times, most of the privileges were merely paper
+privileges. Few of them ever went into effect. The noble intentions
+of the enlightened rulers were steadily thwarted by bigoted
+councillors and jealous merchants. Every favor shown the Jews
+aroused a storm of protests, which resulted in numerous
+infringements. The Jews were compelled to pay for the good
+intentions of Catherine with a double tax (June 25, 1794), and,
+during Paul's reign, without the emperor's knowledge, a law was
+enacted requiring of Jews double payment of the guild license. In
+spite of all efforts, the Jews, instead of being emancipated
+politically, were burdened with additional discriminations.<a id=
+"footnotetag3-1" name="footnotetag3-1"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id=
+"page113"></a>{113}</span>
+<p>Had not the wheel of progress suddenly stopped revolving,
+Russian Jews might have constituted one of the most useful as well
+as most intellectual elements in the vast empire. As it was, the
+kindly intention of czar or czarina sufficed to arouse them from
+the asthenia to which they were reduced for want of freedom. The
+times were rife with excitement, and the Jewish atmosphere with
+expectancy. The mighty changes which were taking place in Russia
+and Poland; the dismemberment of the latter; the annexation of
+Balta (1791), Lithuania (1794), and Courland (1797) to the former;
+the short-lived yet potent German rule in Byelostok (1793-1807),
+and the rude but memorable contact with France (1807-1812), these
+and many other important happenings in a brief span of time had a
+telling effect upon the diverse races under the dominion of Russia,
+and among them not the least upon the Jewish race. Everywhere the
+desire for "liberty, equality, and fraternity" began to manifest
+itself. In Courland, the most German of Russian provinces, Georg
+Gottfried Mylich, a Lutheran pastor at Nerft, made a touching
+appeal (ab. 1787) in German on behalf of the Jews, insisting that
+the word Jew "should not be taken to indicate a class of people
+different from us, but only a <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page114" id="page114"></a>{114}</span> different religious body;
+and as regards his nationality, it should not hinder him from
+obtaining citizen's rights and liberties equal to those of the
+people of Sleswick, the Saxons, Danes, Swedes, Swiss, French, and
+Italians, who also live among us." In Poland, Tadeusz Czacki, the
+historian, wrote his <i>Discourse on the Jews</i> (<i>Rosprava o
+Zhydakh</i>, Vilna, 1807), in which he deplores that Jews
+"experienced indulgence rarely, oppression often, and contempt
+nearly always" under the most Christian governments, and suggests a
+plan for reforming their condition. But the main appeal for freedom
+came, as might have been expected, from the Jews themselves.
+Contemporaneous with, if not before, Michel Beer's <i>Appel
+&agrave; la justice des nations et des rois</i>, a Lithuanian Jew,
+during his imprisonment in Nieszvicz on a false charge, wrote a
+work in Polish on the Jewish problem,<a id="footnotetag3-2" name=
+"footnotetag3-2"></a><a href="#footnote3-2"><sup>2</sup></a> while
+in 1803 L&ouml;b, or Leon, Nebakhovich, an intimate friend of Count
+Shakovskoy, published <i>The Cry of the Daughter of Judah</i>
+(<i>Fopli Docheri Yudeyskoy</i>), the first defence of the Russian
+Jew in the Russian language. The followers of the religion of love
+are implored to love a Jew because he is a Jew, and they are
+assured that the Jew who preserves his religion undefiled can be
+neither a bad man nor a bad citizen.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id=
+"page115"></a>{115}</span>
+<p>But the Jews did not wait for their dreams to be realized. They
+threw themselves into the swirl of their country's ambition, as if
+they had never received anything other than the tenderness of a
+devoted mother at her hands. They were "kindled in a common blaze"
+of patriotism with the rest of the population. That in spite of all
+accusations to the contrary they remained loyal to Poland, is amply
+proved by the history of that unfortunate country. The
+characteristic kapota of the Polish Jew, his whole garb, including
+the yarmulka (under cap), is simply the old Polish costume, which
+the Jews retained after the Poles had adopted the German form of
+dress.<a id="footnotetag3-3" name="footnotetag3-3"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-3"><sup>3</sup></a> "When, in the year 1794," says
+Czacki, "despair armed the [Polish] capital, the Jews were not
+afraid of death, but, mingling with the troops and the populace,
+they proved that danger did not terrify them, and that the cause of
+the fatherland was dear to them." With the permission of Kosciusko,
+Colonel Joselovich Berek, later killed at the battle of Kotzk
+(1809), formed a regiment of light cavalry consisting entirely of
+Jews, which distinguished itself especially at the siege of Warsaw.
+Most of the members perished in defence of the suburb of Praga. In
+the agony of death, Rabbi Hayyim longed for good tidings, that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id=
+"page116"></a>{116}</span> he might die in peace. And when the
+fight was over, Zbitkover expended two barrels of money, one filled
+with gold ducats and one with silver rubles, for the live and dead
+soldiers who were brought to him.<a id="footnotetag3-4" name=
+"footnotetag3-4"></a><a href="#footnote3-4"><sup>4</sup></a>
+Indeed, Prince Czartorisky was so convinced of their patriotism,
+that he always advocated the same rights for the Polish Jews as
+were claimed for the Polish Gentiles, entrusted his children to the
+care of Mendel Levin of Satanov, and instructed his son, Prince
+Ladislaus, always to remain their friend.<a id="footnotetag3-5"
+name="footnotetag3-5"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-5"><sup>5</sup></a></p>
+<p>But when, in spite of struggle and sacrifice, the doom "finis
+Poloniae" was sounded, and a large portion of the once powerful
+empire was incorporated into Russia, we find the Jews bearing their
+sorrow patiently, and willingly performing their duties as subjects
+to their new masters. Their attachment to their czar and country
+was not shaken in the least when, in 1812, Napoleon made them
+flattering promises to secure their services in his behalf. Rabbi
+Shneor Zalman, the eminent leader of the Lithuanian Hasidim,
+hearing of the invasion of the French army, spent many days in
+prayer and fasting for the success of the Russians, and fled on the
+Sabbath day, not to be contaminated by contact with the "godless
+French." When Napoleon <span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id=
+"page117"></a>{117}</span> was finally defeated, the event was
+celebrated both at home and in the synagogue, and Russian soldiers
+were everywhere welcomed by Jews with gifts and good cheer.<a id=
+"footnotetag3-6" name="footnotetag3-6"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-6"><sup>6</sup></a> Lilienthal relates that the Jews
+succeeded in intercepting a courier who carried the plan of
+operations of the French army, and Alexander declared in a dispatch
+that Jews had opened the eyes of the Russians, and the Government,
+therefore, felt itself bound to them by eternal gratitude.<a id=
+"footnotetag3-7" name="footnotetag3-7"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-7"><sup>7</sup></a> It is to this proof of patriotism
+that some attribute Alexander's interest in the Jews and his order
+that three deputies should reside in St. Petersburg to represent
+them in Russia, and in Poland a committee consisting of three
+Christians and eight Jews should be appointed to devise ways and
+means of ameliorating their condition.<a id="footnotetag3-8" name=
+"footnotetag3-8"></a><a href="#footnote3-8"><sup>8</sup></a></p>
+<p>The times were promising in other respects. In that critical
+period, the Government, reposing but little confidence in Russian
+merchants, whose business motto was "No swindle, no sale," allowed
+several Jews to become Government contractors (podradchiki). These,
+while rendering valuable services, amassed considerable fortunes.
+Notwithstanding the law restricting Jewish residence to the Pale of
+Settlement, Catherine II speaks of Jews who resided in St.
+Petersburg for many years, and <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page118" id="page118"></a>{118}</span> lodged in the house of a
+priest, who had been her confessor. Moreover, Jews contributed not
+a little to the liberal policy of Alexander I. Among them were
+Eliezer Dillon of Nieszvicz (d. 1838), who was honored by the
+emperor with a gold medal "for faithful and conscientious
+services," and was given an audience by his Majesty, at which he
+pleaded the cause of his coreligionists;<a id="footnotetag3-9"
+name="footnotetag3-9"></a><a href="#footnote3-9"><sup>9</sup></a>
+Nathan Notkin, who mitigated the possible effect of Senator
+Dyerzhavin's baneful opinions concerning Jews, as expressed in his
+report (<i>Mnyenie</i>, September, 1800), and who suggested the
+establishment of schools for children and for adults in
+Yekaterinoslav and elsewhere; Abraham Peretz, the personal friend
+of Speransky, Dyerzhavin, and Potemkin, and a brilliant financier,
+whose high standing enabled him to be a power for good in the
+councils concerning Jews;<a id="footnotetag3-10" name=
+"footnotetag3-10"></a><a href="#footnote3-10"><sup>10</sup></a> and
+his father-in-law, Joshua Zeitlin (1724-1822). Zeitlin was a rare
+phenomenon, reminding one of the golden days of Jewish Spain. His
+knowledge of finance and political economy won him the admiration
+of Prince Potemkin, the protection of Czarina Catherine, and the
+esteem of Alexander I, who appointed him court councillor (nadvorny
+sovyetnik). But his mercantile pursuits did not hinder him from
+study, and his <span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id=
+"page119"></a>{119}</span> high living did not interfere with his
+high thinking. His palatial home at Ustye, in Mohilev, became a
+refuge for all needy Talmudists and Maskilim, whom he helped with
+the liberality of a Maecenas; he conducted an extensive
+correspondence on rabbinic literature, and for many years supported
+Doctor Schick and Mendel Levin. For Doctor Schick he built a
+laboratory, and filled his library with rare manuscripts and works
+on Jewish and secular subjects.<a id="footnotetag3-11" name=
+"footnotetag3-11"></a><a href="#footnote3-11"><sup>11</sup></a></p>
+<p>Even among the conservative Talmudists signs of improvement were
+not wanting. The Gaon became the centre of a group of enlightened
+friends and disciples, who continued in his footsteps after his
+death. His son, Rabbi Abraham, who published and edited many of his
+works, a task requiring no small amount of acumen and Talmudic
+erudition,<a id="footnotetag3-12" name=
+"footnotetag3-12"></a><a href="#footnote3-12"><sup>12</sup></a> was
+also the author of books on geography, mathematics, and physics.
+His pupils, such as Doctor Schick and Rabbi Benjamin and Rabbi
+Zelmele, influenced their contemporaries either directly, by
+bringing them in touch with the new learning, or indirectly, by
+reforming the school system and the method of Talmud study.<a id=
+"footnotetag3-13" name="footnotetag3-13"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-13"><sup>13</sup></a> Of Rabbi Zelmele, who like his
+master became the hero of a wonder-biography written by his
+disciple Ezekiel Feivel <span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id=
+"page120"></a>{120}</span> of Plungian, we are told that he
+regarded grammar as indispensable to a thorough knowledge of the
+Bible and the Talmud, pleaded for a return to the order of study
+prescribed in the <i>Pirke Abot</i>, and complained that, owing to
+the neglect of Aramaic, the benefits of comparative philology were
+lost and unknown. He declared also that while he believed in all
+the Bible contains, the stories in the Talmud are, for the most
+part, legends and parables used for the purpose of
+illustration.<a id="footnotetag3-14" name=
+"footnotetag3-14"></a><a href="#footnote3-14"><sup>14</sup></a></p>
+<a name="illus-lilienthal" id="illus-lilienthal"></a>
+<center><img width="200" height="288" src=
+"images/illus-lilienthal.png" alt="Max Lilienthal" /></center>
+<center>Max Lilienthal, 1815-1882</center>
+<p>Towering above all the disciples of the Gaon, the most outspoken
+in behalf of enlightenment is Manasseh of Ilye (1767-1831). At a
+very early age he attracted the attention of Talmudists by his
+originality and boldness. In his unflinching determination to get
+at the truth, he did not shrink from criticising Rashi and the
+<i>Shulhan 'Aruk</i>, and dared to interpret some parts of the
+Mishnah differently from the explanation given in the Gemara. With
+all his admiration for the Gaon, but for whom, he claimed, the
+Torah would have been forgotten, he also had points of sympathy
+with the Hasidim, for whose leader, Shneor Zalman of Ladi, he had
+the highest respect. Like many of his contemporaries, he determined
+to go to Berlin. He started on his way, but was stopped at
+K&ouml;nigsberg <span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id=
+"page121"></a>{121}</span> by some orthodox coreligionists, and
+compelled to return to Russia. This did not prevent his perfecting
+himself in German, Polish, natural philosophy, mechanics, and even
+strategics. On the last subject he wrote a book, which was burnt by
+his friends, "lest the Government suspect that Jews are making
+preparations for war!" But it is not so much his Talmudic or
+secular scholarship that makes him interesting to us to-day. His
+true greatness is revealed by his attempts, the first made in his
+generation perhaps, to reconcile the Hasidim with the Mitnaggedim,
+and these in turn with the Maskilim. He spoke a good word for
+manual labor, and proved from the Talmud that burdensome laws
+should be abolished. His <i>Pesher Dabar</i> (Vilna, 1807) and
+<i>Alfe Menasheh</i> (ibid., 1827, 1860) are monuments to the
+advanced views of the author. In the Hebrew literature of his time,
+they are equalled only by the <i>'Ammude Bet Yehudah</i> and the
+<i>Hekal 'Oneg</i> of Doctor Hurwitz.<a id="footnotetag3-15" name=
+"footnotetag3-15"></a><a href="#footnote3-15"><sup>15</sup></a></p>
+<p>This short period of enlightenment and tolerance, inaugurated by
+a semblance of equality, indicates the native optimism of the
+Slavonic Jew. For a while a cessation of hostilities was evident in
+the camp of Israel. The reforms introduced by the Gaon, and
+propagated by his disciples, began to <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>{122}</span> bear
+fruit. Hasidism itself underwent a radical change under the
+leadership of Rabbi Shneor Zalman of Ladi (1747-1813) and Jacob
+Joseph of Polonnoy, who, unlike their colleagues of the Ukraine,
+were learned in the Talmud and familiar with the sciences. Protests
+by Hasidim themselves against the irreverent spirit that developed
+after the death of the Besht, had in fact been heard before. The
+saintly and retiring Abraham Malak (d. 1780) had denounced, in no
+uncertain terms, the gross conception held by the Hasidim of the
+sublime teachings of their own sect. He drew a beautiful picture of
+the ideal zaddik, who is "so absorbed in meditation on the Divine
+wisdom that he cannot descend to the lower steps upon which
+ordinary people stand."<a id="footnotetag3-16" name=
+"footnotetag3-16"></a><a href="#footnote3-16"><sup>16</sup></a> But
+the more active Rabbi Shneor, or Zalman Ladier, as he was usually
+called, insisted on putting the zaddik on a par with the rabbi,
+whose duty it is not to work miracles but to teach righteousness.
+Assuming for his followers the name HaBaD, the three letters of
+which are the initials of the Hebrew words for Wisdom, Reason, and
+Knowledge, he furthered the cause of enlightenment in the only way
+possible among his adherents.<a id="footnotetag3-17" name=
+"footnotetag3-17"></a><a href="#footnote3-17"><sup>17</sup></a> How
+well he succeeded may be inferred from the fact, trivial though it
+be, that the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id=
+"page123"></a>{123}</span> biography of the Besht, <i>The Praises
+of the Besht</i> (<i>Shibhe ha-Besht</i>), by Dob B&auml;r,
+published in Berdichev (1815), omits many of the legends about the
+Master included in the version published the same year in Kopys.
+The omission can be explained only on the ground that the editor,
+Judah L&ouml;b, who was the son of the author, did not wish to give
+offence, or he had outgrown the credulity of his father.<a id=
+"footnotetag3-18" name="footnotetag3-18"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-18"><sup>18</sup></a></p>
+<p>The feeling of tolerance manifested itself also in the Jewish
+attitude towards the Gentiles. "O that we were identified with the
+nations of our time, created by the same God, children of one
+Father, and did not hate each other because we are at variance in
+some views!" This exclamation of Doctor Hurwitz<a id=
+"footnotetag3-19" name="footnotetag3-19"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-19"><sup>19</sup></a> found an echo in the works of the
+other Maskilim that wrote in Hebrew, but more especially of those
+who used a European language. They were deeply interested in
+whatever marked a step forward in their country's civilization. The
+opening of a gymnasium in Mitau (1775) was a joyful occasion, which
+inspired Hurwitz's Hebrew muse, and at the centennial celebration
+of the surrender of Riga to Peter the Great (July 4, 1810), the
+craving of the Jewish heart, avowed in a German poem, was expressed
+"in the name of the local <span class="pagenum"><a name="page124"
+id="page124"></a>{124}</span> Hebrew community to their Christian
+compatriots." The last stanza runs as follows:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Grant us, who, like you, worship the God above,</p>
+<p>Also on earth to enjoy equality with you!</p>
+<p>To-day, while your hearts are open to love,</p>
+<p>Let us seal our happiness with your love, too!<a id=
+"footnotetag3-20" name="footnotetag3-20"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-20"><sup>20</sup></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>This desire for naturalization brought with it an attempt at
+"Russification." To show the beauty of the Russian language, Baruch
+Czatzskes of Volhynia translated some of the poems of Khersakov
+into Hebrew, and others published manuals for the study of Russian
+and Polish.<a id="footnotetag3-21" name=
+"footnotetag3-21"></a><a href="#footnote3-21"><sup>21</sup></a>
+Among the first books issued from the newly-established
+printing-press in Shklov, the centre of Jewish wealth, refinement,
+and culture at that time, was the <i>Zeker Rab</i> with a German
+translation (1804). In an appendix thereto the Shklov Maskilim
+announced their intention to publish a weekly, the first in the
+Hebrew tongue. Yiddish was also resorted to as a medium for
+educating the masses, and as early as 1813 some Vilna Jews applied
+to the Government for permission to publish a paper in that
+language, though it was not until ten years later (1823-1824) that
+a Yiddish periodical, Der Beobachter an der Weichsel, appeared in
+Warsaw. Nor do <span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id=
+"page125"></a>{125}</span> we hear of any opposition to the
+Government decrees, issued probably at the request of Dillon,
+Notkin, Peretz, or Nebakhovich, that the elders of the kahals in
+and after 1808, and the rabbis of the congregations in and after
+1812, be conversant with either Russian, German, or Polish. This
+sudden Russification of the Jews amounted sometimes to no more than
+a superficial imitation of Russian civilization, which pious rabbis
+as well as liberal-minded men like Schick, Margolioth, Ilye, and
+Hurwitz, felt impelled to call a halt to. Jews, especially the
+rich, aped the Polish pans. Their wives dressed in Parisian gowns
+of the latest fashion, and their homes were conducted in a manner
+so luxurious as to arouse the envy of the noblemen. Israel waxed
+fat and kicked. Their greatest care was to become wealthy; they
+pampered their bodies at the expense of the impoverishment of their
+souls, and some feared that "with the passing away of the elder
+generation there would not remain a man capable of filling the
+position of rabbi."<a id="footnotetag3-22" name=
+"footnotetag3-22"></a><a href="#footnote3-22"><sup>22</sup></a></p>
+<p>The privilege of attending public schools and colleges further
+stimulated the Russification of the Jews. As soon as these
+institutions of learning were thrown open to them, numerous Jewish
+youths made headway in all branches taught, especially in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id=
+"page126"></a>{126}</span> medicine. That Alexander's benign decree
+of November 10, 1811, issued through the Secretary of State
+Speransky, was not always executed by his officials goes without
+saying. Simeon Levy Wolf, one of the first Russo-Jewish graduates,
+was denied his degree of doctor of jurisprudence in Dorpat unless
+he embraced Christianity.<a id="footnotetag3-23" name=
+"footnotetag3-23"></a><a href="#footnote3-23"><sup>23</sup></a>
+When, in 1819, some of the Vilna graduates applied for the
+privilege of not paying the double tax, they were told that they
+must first renounce their faith, an exception being made only in
+favor of Arthur Parlovich. Still the number of Jewish graduate
+physicians was on the increase. Osip Yakovlevich Libosch&uuml;ts,
+who was the son of the famous physician of Vilna, took his doctor
+degree at Dorpat (1806), became court physician in St. Petersburg,
+where he founded a hospital for children, and wrote extensively in
+French on the flora of his country.<a id="footnotetag3-24" name=
+"footnotetag3-24"></a><a href="#footnote3-24"><sup>24</sup></a> The
+medical institute of Vilna (1803-1833), afterwards transferred to
+Kiev, became the centre of attraction for the Russian Jewry. Padua,
+Berlin, K&ouml;nigsberg, G&ouml;ttingen, Copenhagen, Halle,
+Amsterdam, Cambridge, and London were for a third of a century
+replaced by the home of the Gaon and of Doctor Libosch&uuml;ts. The
+first students were recruited from the bet ha-midrash, and they
+frequently joined, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id=
+"page127"></a>{127}</span> as in former days, knowledge of the Law
+with the practice of their chosen profession. Such were Isaac
+Markusevich, whose annotations to the <i>Shulhan 'Aruk</i> (ab.
+1830) were published fifty years later;<a id="footnotetag3-25"
+name="footnotetag3-25"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-25"><sup>25</sup></a> Joseph Rosensohn, the promising
+Talmudist who became rabbi of Pyosk at the age of nineteen;<a id=
+"footnotetag3-26" name="footnotetag3-26"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-26"><sup>26</sup></a> and Kusselyevsky of Nieszvicz, a
+stipendiary of a Polish nobleman and a great favorite with
+Professor Frank. Because of his proficiency, he was exempted from
+serving as a vratch (interne), and for his piety and learning he
+was addressed by Jews and Gentiles as "rabbi."<a id=
+"footnotetag3-27" name="footnotetag3-27"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-27"><sup>27</sup></a></p>
+<p>With what dreams such happenings filled the Jewish heart! "Thank
+God," writes a merchant of the first guild in reply to an inquiry
+from distant Bokhara, "thank God, we dwell in peace under the
+sovereignty of our czar Alexander, who has shown us his mercy, and
+has put us in every respect on an equality with all the inhabitants
+of the land."<a id="footnotetag3-28" name=
+"footnotetag3-28"></a><a href="#footnote3-28"><sup>28</sup></a> But
+a rude awakening was soon to make the Jews aware that their visions
+of better days were still far from realization. In 1815, Alexander
+I formed the acquaintance of Baroness Kr&uuml;dener, and since
+then, to the satisfaction of Prince Galitzin, "with what giant
+strides the emperor advanced in the pathway of religion!" His
+humanitarian deeds gave way <span class="pagenum"><a name="page128"
+id="page128"></a>{128}</span> to a profound religious mysticism. He
+experienced a revulsion of feeling toward reforms in his vast
+empire, and, as always, the Jews were the first victims of an
+ill-boding change. The kindly monarch who, at Paris, had said to a
+Russo-Jewish deputation, <i>J'enleverai le joug de vos
+&eacute;paules</i>, began to make their yoke heavier than he had
+found it. The enlightened czar, who, in striking a medal
+commemorating the emancipation of the Jews of his empire, had
+anticipated Napoleon by a year, suddenly became a bigoted tyrant,
+whose efforts were devoted to converting the same Jews to
+Christianity. He who had claimed that his greatest reward would be
+to produce a Mendelssohn, now resorted to various expedients, to
+render education unpalatable to the Jews. The Jewish assemblymen,
+who, in 1816, soon after the Franco-Russian war, had been convoked
+to St. Petersburg, were not allowed to meet; and when, two years
+later, they did meet, their every attempt was baffled by the
+Government. Jews were expelled systematically from St. Petersburg
+(1818). They were forbidden to employ Christians as servants (May
+4, 1820), to immigrate into Russia from abroad (August 10, 1824),
+and reside in the towns and villages of Mohilev and Vitebsk
+(January 13, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id=
+"page129"></a>{129}</span> 1825). Several years after the double
+poll and guild tax had been abolished in Courland (November 8,
+1807), it was restored with an additional impost on meat from
+cattle slaughtered according to the Jewish rite (korobka). All this
+impoverished the Jews to such an extent that they were forced to
+sell the cravats of their praying shawls (taletim), in order to
+defray the expense of a second deputation to St. Petersburg.<a id=
+"footnotetag3-29" name="footnotetag3-29"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-29"><sup>29</sup></a></p>
+<p>Had Alexander I been satisfied with merely restricting the Jews'
+rights, the favorable attitude towards enlightenment we have
+noticed above would probably have remained unaltered.
+Unfortunately, Alexander became a fanatic conversionist. It was a
+time when missionary zeal became endemic, and Baroness
+Kr&uuml;dener's influence was strengthened. The Reverend Lewis Way,
+having founded (1808) the London Society for Promoting Christianity
+among the Jews, made a tour through Europe, everywhere urging the
+Gentiles to enfranchise the Jews as an inducement to them to
+embrace Christianity, the only means of hastening the advent of the
+Apostolic millennium. His <i>M&eacute;moires sur l'&eacute;tat des
+isra&eacute;lites</i> presented to the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
+(October 11, 1818) and his visit to Russia resulted in an imperial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id=
+"page130"></a>{130}</span> ukase (March 25, 1817) organizing a
+Committee of Guardians for Israelitish Christians (Izrailskiye
+Christyanye). The members of this association were to be granted
+land in the northern or southern provinces of Russia and to enjoy
+special privileges. The bait proved tempting, and, as a
+consequence, some prominent Maskilim, too weak to resist the
+allurements, precipitated themselves into the Greek Catholic fold.
+Abraham Peretz, financier and champion of Jews' rights, consented
+to be converted, as also L&ouml;b Nebakhovich, the dramatist, whose
+plays were produced in the Imperial theatre of St. Petersburg and
+performed in the presence of the emperor.<a id="footnotetag3-30"
+name="footnotetag3-30"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-30"><sup>30</sup></a> Equally bad, if not worse, for
+the cause of Haskalah was the conduct of those who, disdaining, or
+unable, to profess the new religion, discarded every vestige of
+traditional Judaism, and deemed it their duty to set an example of
+infidelity and sometimes immorality to their less enlightened
+coreligionists. What Leroy-Beaulieu says of Maimon, "that type of
+the most cultured Jew to be found before the French Revolution,"
+might more justly be applied to many a less prominent Maskil after
+him: "Despite his learning and philosophy he sank deeper than the
+most degraded of his fellow-men, because in repudiating
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id=
+"page131"></a>{131}</span> his ancestral faith he had lost the
+staff which, through all their humiliations, served as a prop even
+to the most debased of ancient Jews."<a id="footnotetag3-31" name=
+"footnotetag3-31"></a><a href="#footnote3-31"><sup>31</sup></a></p>
+<p>Haskalah thus having become synonymous with apostasy or
+licentiousness, we can easily understand why the unsophisticated
+among the Russian Jews were so bitterly opposed to it from the time
+the sad truth dawned upon them, until, under Alexander II, their
+suspicions were somewhat dissipated. Previous to the latter part of
+the reign of Alexander I the "struggle groups" in Russian Jewry
+were at first Frankists and anti-Frankists, and afterwards Hasidim
+and Mitnaggedim. It was a conflict, not between religion and
+science, but between religion and what was regarded as
+superstition. Secular instruction, far from being opposed, was, as
+we have seen, sought and disseminated. Long after the pious element
+in Germany had been aroused to the dangers that lurked in the wake
+of their "Aufkl&auml;rung," and had begun to endeavor to check its
+further progress by excommunication and other methods, the Russian
+Jews remained "seekers after light." They might have condemned a
+Maskil, they had not yet condemned Haskalah. Mendelssohn's German
+translation was welcomed in Russia at its first appearance no less
+than in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id=
+"page132"></a>{132}</span> Germany, but when some of the children
+of Rabbi Moses ben Menahem embraced the Christian faith, and their
+father, as was natural, was suspected of skepticism, the
+<i>Biur</i> and the Meassefim were pronounced, like libraries by
+Sir Anthony Absolute, to be "an evergreen tree of diabolical
+knowledge." So also with Wessely's Epistles, which were destroyed
+in public, together with Polonnoy's <i>Toledot Ya'akob Yosef</i>.
+Haskalah itself was not impugned, and as theretofore translations
+and original works on science were encouraged, and the wish was
+entertained that "many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be
+increased."<a id="footnotetag3-32" name=
+"footnotetag3-32"></a><a href="#footnote3-32"><sup>32</sup></a></p>
+<p>But the latest experiences in their own country put Haskalah in
+a very different light from that in which they were wont to regard
+it. Formerly the opposition to it had been limited to the very land
+that gave it birth. Because of their determination to study,
+Solomon Maimon was denied admission to Berlin, Manasseh of Ilye was
+stopped in K&ouml;nigsberg, and Abba Glusk Leczeka, better known as
+"the Glusker Maggid," the subject of a poem by Chamisso, was
+persecuted everywhere. It was Rabbi Levin, of Berlin, who
+prohibited the publication of Wessely's works, and insisted that
+the author be expelled from the city.<a id="footnotetag3-33" name=
+"footnotetag3-33"></a><a href="#footnote3-33"><sup>33</sup></a> It
+was Rabbi Ezekiel <span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id=
+"page133"></a>{133}</span> Landau of Prague who, though approving
+of Wessely's <i>Yen Lebanon</i>, opposed the translation of the
+Pentateuch by Mendelssohn, while Rabbi Horowitz of Hamburg
+denounced it in unmeasured terms, admonishing his hearers to shun
+the work as unclean, and approving the action of those persons who
+had publicly burnt it in Vilna (1782). Moses Sofer of Pressburg
+adopted as his motto, "Touch not the works of the Dessauer"
+(Mendelssohn),<a id="footnotetag3-34" name=
+"footnotetag3-34"></a><a href="#footnote3-34"><sup>34</sup></a> and
+seldom allowed an opportunity to pass without denouncing the
+Maskilim of his country. Now the clarion note of anti-Haskalah,
+sounded by these luminaries in Israel, found an echo among the Jews
+in Russia. They had discovered, to their great sorrow, that like
+Elisha ben Abuya, the apostate in the Talmud, "those who once
+entered the paradise [of enlightenment] returned no more." The very
+name of the seat of Haskalah was an abomination to the pious. To be
+called "Berlinchick" or "Deitschel" was tantamount to being called
+infidel and epicurean, anarchist and outlaw. The old instinct of
+self-preservation, which turned Jews from lambs into lions, holding
+their ground to the last, asserted itself again. As the Talmudic
+rabbis excluded certain books from the Canon, as the study of even
+the Jewish philosophers was later proscribed <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>{134}</span> by
+certain French rabbis, so the Russian rabbis laid the ban upon
+whatever savored of German "Aufkl&auml;rerei."</p>
+<p>Thus began the bitter fight against Haskalah, in which Hasidim
+and Mitnaggedim, forgetting their differences, joined hands, and
+stood shoulder to shoulder. For, after all, was not Judaism in both
+these phases endangered by the new and aggressive enemy from the
+West? And did not the two have enough in common to become one in
+the hour of great need? Hasidism, in fact, was Judaism
+emotionalized, and since, beginning with Rabbi Shneor Zalman of
+Ladi, it, too, advocated the study of the Talmud, the distinction
+between it and Mitnaggedism was hardly perceptible. The study of
+the Zohar and Cabbala was equally cultivated by both; Isaac Luria
+and Hayyim Vital were equally venerated by both, and hero worship
+was common to both. The <i>Ascension of Elijah</i> (Gaon) is as
+full of miracles as <i>The Praises of the Besht</i>. It is no
+wonder, then, that the animosities, which reached their acme during
+the last few years of the Gaon's life, were weakened after his
+death, and that the compromise, pleaded for by Doctor Hurwitz and
+Manasseh Ilye, was somehow effected. But it was otherwise with the
+Haskalah. "Verily," says the <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page135" id="page135"></a>{135}</span> zaddik Menahem Mendel of
+Vitebsk, "verily, grammar is useful; that our great ones indulged
+in the study thereof I also know; but what is to be done since the
+wicked and sinful have taken possession of it?" In the same manner
+does Rabbi Hayyim of Volozhin inveigh against the followers of
+Mendelssohn, because of the latitudinarian habits of the Maskilim,
+who "despise the counsel of their betters, and go after the
+dictates of their hearts."<a id="footnotetag3-35" name=
+"footnotetag3-35"></a><a href="#footnote3-35"><sup>35</sup></a>
+Both saw in Haskalah a deadly foe to their dearest ideals, a blight
+upon their most cherished hopes, and, like Elizabeta Petrovna, they
+would not derive even a benefit from the enemies of their
+religion.</p>
+<p>Still, Alexander I approached his object only tentatively.
+Haskalah during his reign was like the Leviathan in the Talmud
+legend which resembled an island, so that wayfarers approached it
+to moor under its lee and find shelter in its shade, but as soon as
+they began to walk and cook on it, it would turn and submerge them
+in the stormy and bottomless sea. The Jews were invited or induced
+to forsake their religion, and only the less discerning were caught
+in the snare. It remained for the "terrible incarnation of
+autocracy," Nicholas I (1825-1855), or, as his Jewish subjects
+called him, Haman II, to fill their cup of woe to overflowing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id=
+"page136"></a>{136}</span> and employ every available means to
+convert them to his own religion.</p>
+<p>Nicholas's one aim was "to diminish the number of Jews in the
+empire," but not by expulsion, the means employed by Ferdinand and
+Isabella. He knew too well their value as citizens to allow them to
+migrate. He would diminish their numbers by forced baptism.
+Baptized Jews were exempted from the payment of taxes for three
+years; Jewish criminals could have their punishment commuted or
+could obtain a pardon by ceasing to be Jews. But as these
+inducements could naturally appeal only to comparatively few, more
+stringent measures were resorted to. Hitherto the Jews had been
+excused from military service, paying an annual sum of money for
+the privilege. On September 7, 1827, an ukase was issued requiring
+them not only to pay the same amount as theretofore, but also to
+serve in the army; and while Christians had to furnish only seven
+recruits per thousand, and only at certain intervals, the Jews had
+to contribute ten recruits for each thousand, and that at every
+conscription. The only exception was made in the case of the
+Karaites, who, according to Nicholas's decision, had emigrated from
+Palestine before the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id=
+"page137"></a>{137}</span> Christian era, and could not therefore
+have participated in the crucifixion of Jesus. Jews found outside
+of their native towns without passports, and those in arrears with
+their taxes, frequently even those who, having lagged behind in
+their payment to the Government, eventually discharged their
+obligations, were to be seized and sentenced to serve in the army,
+and this meant a lifetime, or at least twenty-five years, of the
+most abject slavery imaginable. This grievous measure caused the
+utmost misery. No Jewish youth leaving home could be sure of
+returning and seeing his dear ones again. The scum of the Jewish
+population (poimshchiki, or "catchers") made it their profession to
+ensnare helpless young men or poor itinerant students suspected of
+the Haskalah heresy, destroy their passports, and deliver them up
+as poimaniki (recruits), to spare the rich who paid for the
+substitutes. To form an idea of the time we need but read some of
+the numerous folk-songs of that day. Here is one of many:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Quietly I walk in the street,</p>
+<p>When behind me I hear the rush of feet.</p>
+<p>Woes have come and sought me,</p>
+<p>Alas, had I bethought me.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id=
+"page138"></a>{138}</span></div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>"Your passport," they ask. Alas, it is lost!</p>
+<p>"Then serve the White Czar!" that is the cost.</p>
+<p>Woe has come and sought me,</p>
+<p>Alas, had I bethought me.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>There are many rooms, they take me to one,</p>
+<p>And strip from my body the poor homespun.</p>
+<p>Woe has come and sought me,</p>
+<p>Alas, had I bethought me.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>They take me to another room,</p>
+<p>The uniform,&mdash;that is my doom.</p>
+<p>Woe has come and sought me,</p>
+<p>Alas, had I bethought me.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Rather than wear the cap of the czar,</p>
+<p>To study the Torah were better by far.</p>
+<p>Woe has come and sought me,</p>
+<p>Alas, had I bethought me.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Rather than eat of the czar's black bread,</p>
+<p>I'd study the Scriptures head by head.</p>
+<p>Woes have come and sought me,</p>
+<p>Alas, had I bethought me.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Yet this was not all. Knowing that it is easier to convert the
+children than their elders, the Government of Nicholas I,
+out-Heroding Herod, inaugurated a system so cruel as to fill with
+terror and pity the heart of the most ferocious barbarian. Infants
+were torn from their mothers, boys of the age of twelve, sometimes
+of ten and eight, were <span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id=
+"page139"></a>{139}</span> herded like cattle, sent to distant
+parts of Russia, and there distributed as chattels among the
+officers of the army. Many of these Cantonists, as they were
+called, either died on the way, or were killed off when they
+resisted conversion. Those who survived sometimes returned to
+Judaism, and formed the nucleus of Jewish settlements in the
+interior of Russia. These "soldiers of Nicholas" (Nikolayevskiye
+soldati), with their uncouth demeanor and devoted, though ignorant,
+adherence to the faith of their fathers, furnished much material
+for the folk-songs of the time and the novelists of the somewhat
+happier reigns of Nicholas's successors.<a id="footnotetag3-36"
+name="footnotetag3-36"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-36"><sup>36</sup></a></p>
+<p>One of these Cantonists, the first to give a description of the
+life of his fellow-sufferers, was Wolf Nachlass, or Alexander
+Alekseyev. For many years he remained faithful to the religion of
+his forefathers, though he had been pressed into the service at the
+age of ten. About 1845 he changed his views, became an ardent Greek
+Catholic, and converted five hundred Cantonists, to the great
+delight of Nicholas I, who thanked him in person for his zeal. He
+lost his leg, and during the long illness that followed Nachlass
+settled in Novgorod, and wrote several works on Jewish customs and
+on missionary topics.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id=
+"page140"></a>{140}</span>
+<p>Less horrifying, but equally aiming at disintegration, was
+Nicholas's scheme of colonization. What better means was there for
+"diminishing the number of Jews" than to scatter them over the
+wilderness of Russia and leave them to shift for themselves? This,
+of course, was necessarily a slow process and one involving some
+expense, but it was fraught with great importance not only for the
+Russian Church, but for Russian trade and agriculture as well.</p>
+<p>"Back to the soil!" Was not this the cry of the romantic
+Maskilim in Germany, in Galicia, and particularly in Russia? And
+have not country life and field labor been depicted by them in the
+most glowing colors? Here was an opportunity to save the honor of
+the Jewish name and also ameliorate the material condition of the
+Russian Jews. The permission given to them by Alexander I to
+establish themselves as farmers in the frigid yet free Siberian
+steppes was greeted with enthusiasm by all. Nicholas's ukase was
+hailed with joy. Elias Mitauer and Meyer Mendelssohn, at the head
+of seventy families from Courland, were the first to migrate to the
+new region (1836), and they were followed by hundreds more. Indeed,
+the exodus assumed such proportions that the Christians in the
+parts <span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id=
+"page141"></a>{141}</span> of the country abandoned by the
+colonists complained of the decline in business and the
+depreciation of property. The movement was heartily approved by the
+rabbis; the populace, its imagination stimulated, began to dream
+dreams and see visions of brighter days, and all gave vent to their
+hopefulness in songs of gladness and gratitude, in strains like
+these:<a id="footnotetag3-37" name="footnotetag3-37"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-37"><sup>37</sup></a></p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Who lives so free</p>
+<p class="i2">As the farmer on his land?</p>
+<p>His farm his companion is,</p>
+<p class="i2">His never-failing friend.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>His sleep to him is sweet</p>
+<p class="i2">After a hearty meal;</p>
+<p>Neither grief nor worry</p>
+<p class="i2">The farmer-man doth feel.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>He rises very early</p>
+<p class="i2">To start betimes his toil,</p>
+<p>Healthy and very happy</p>
+<p class="i2">On his ever-smiling soil.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>O blessings on our czar,</p>
+<p class="i2">Czar Nikolai, then be,</p>
+<p>Who granted us this gladness,</p>
+<p class="i2">And bade the Jews be free.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Alas, this joy was of short duration! Very soon Nicholas became
+suspicious of his Siberian colonization <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>{142}</span> scheme,
+that it was in reality a philanthropic measure, and in place of
+saving the Jew's soul it only promoted his physical well-being.
+This suspicion grew into a conviction when he learned that the
+Jewish community at Tomsk, still faithful to the heritage of
+Israel, applied for permission to appoint a spiritual leader. The
+autocrat, therefore, signed an ukase checking settlement in the
+hitherto free land, depriving honest men of the privilege enjoyed
+by the worst of criminals, and enrolling the children of those
+already there among the military Cantonists (January 5, 1837).</p>
+<p>Then began real misery. Believing at first that the czar's
+intentions were sincere, many Jews had sold their hut and land and
+left for Siberia. No sooner were they there than they were sent, on
+foot, to Kherson. The decree of the "little father" was executed
+in&mdash;no other phrase can describe it so well&mdash;Russian
+fashion. The innocent Jews who had come to Siberia by invitation
+were seized, treated as vagabonds, and deported to their
+destination. Want and suffering produced contagious diseases, and
+many became a burden to the Jews of Kremenchug and such Christians
+as could not witness unmoved the infernal comedy played by the
+defender of the Greek Catholic Church. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>{143}</span> Help
+could be rendered only secretly, and those who dared complain were
+severely punished.</p>
+<p>At the same time that this was taking place in the wilderness of
+Siberia, a phenomenon of rare occurrence was to be witnessed in the
+very heart of the Jewish Pale, in Lithuania. Aroused by the
+wretched condition of his coreligionists, Solomon Posner
+(1780-1848) determined to erect cloth factories exclusively for
+Jews. He sent to Germany for experts to teach them the trade. These
+Jewish workingmen proved so industrious and intelligent that before
+the end of three years they surpassed their teachers in mechanical
+skill. But this attempt of Posner was only prefatory to the greater
+and more arduous task he set himself. It was nothing less than the
+establishment of a colony in which some of the most Utopian
+theories would be applied to actual life. Ten years after Robert
+Owen founded his communistic settlement at New Harmony, Indiana,
+several hundred robust Russian Jews settled on some of the
+thousands of acres in Lithuania that were lying fallow for want of
+tillers. With these farmers Posner hoped to realize his Utopia. He
+provided every family with sufficient land, the necessary
+agricultural implements, as well as with horses, cows, etc., free
+of charge, for a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id=
+"page144"></a>{144}</span> term of twenty-five years. In return,
+the members of the community pledged themselves to use simple
+homespun for their apparel, black on holidays, gray on week-days,
+not to indulge in the luxuries of city life, and to avoid trading
+of any sort. As time passed, Posner opened coeducational technical
+schools for the children and batte midrashim for adults, and soon
+the homesteads presented the appearance of progressive and
+flourishing farms. Posner's successful effort attracted the
+admiration of Prince Pashkevich, and was both a living protest
+against the accusation of Nicholas that Jews were unfit to be
+farmers and an eloquent plea for the unfortunate victims of a
+capricious tyrant in Siberia and Kherson.<a id="footnotetag3-38"
+name="footnotetag3-38"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-38"><sup>38</sup></a></p>
+<p>In his efforts to curb the stiff-necked Jews by all manner of
+fiendish persecution, Nicholas did not neglect to try the efficacy
+of some of the plans advocated by Lewis Way. Undismayed by the
+failure of the Committee of Guardians for Israelitish Christians,
+in which Alexander I had put so much confidence, a "Jewish
+Committee," all the members of which were Christians, was organized
+by imperial decree (May 22, 1825). This committee established, in
+1829, a school at Warsaw where Christian divinity students were to
+be instructed <span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id=
+"page145"></a>{145}</span> in rabbinical literature and in
+Judeo-German, in order to be fully equipped for missionary work
+among the Jews. It appointed Abb&eacute; Luigi Chiarini to
+translate, or rather expose, the Babylonian Talmud, to which
+undertaking the Government contributed twelve thousand thalers.</p>
+<p>To do his work thoroughly, the abb&eacute; deemed it advisable
+to write a preliminary dissertation, presenting his aim and views.
+This he did in his <i>Theory of Judaism</i> (<i>Th&eacute;orie du
+judaisme</i>, Paris, 1830). He endeavored to show how worthless,
+injurious, and immoral were the teachings of the Talmud. Only by
+discarding them would the Jews qualify themselves to enjoy the
+right of citizenship. He proved, to his own satisfaction, that
+ritual murder was enjoined in the Talmud, and this he did at a time
+when many a community was harassed by this fiendish accusation.
+When early death cut short the abb&eacute;'s effort (1832), the
+Government, still persisting in its plans, engaged the services of
+Ephraim Moses Pinner of Posen, who published specimens of his
+intended translation in his <i>Compendium</i> (Berlin, 1831). But
+the fickle or restless emperor seems to have tired of the plan, or
+perhaps he found Pinner too Jewish for his purposes. Of the
+twenty-eight volumes planned, only <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page146" id="page146"></a>{146}</span> one, which was dedicated to
+Nicholas, appeared during the decade following Chiarini's death,
+and the work was abandoned entirely.<a id="footnotetag3-39" name=
+"footnotetag3-39"></a><a href="#footnote3-39"><sup>39</sup></a></p>
+<p>The crusade against the Talmud, thus headed and backed by the
+Government, now broke out in all its fury. Anti-Talmudic works in
+English, French, and German were imported into Russia, translated
+into Hebrew, and scattered among the people. <i>The Old Paths</i>,
+by Alexander McCaul, a countryman and colleague of Lewis Way, but
+surpassing him in zeal for the conversion of Jews, was translated
+into Hebrew and German (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1839) for the
+edification of those who knew no English. Jews themselves, either
+out of revenge or because they sought to ingratiate themselves with
+the high authorities, joined the movement, and openly came out
+against the Talmud in works modelled after Eisenmenger's
+<i>Entdecktes Judenthum</i>. Such were Buchner, author of
+<i>Worthlessness of the Talmud</i> (<i>Der Talmud in seiner
+Nichtigkeit</i>, 2 vols., Warsaw, 1848), and Temkin, who wrote
+<i>The Straight Road</i> (<i>Derek Selulah</i>, St. Petersburg,
+1835). The former was instructor in Hebrew and Holy Writ in the
+rabbinical seminary in Warsaw; the latter was a zealous convert to
+the Greek Catholic faith, who spared <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page147" id="page147"></a>{147}</span> no effort to make Judaism
+disliked among his former coreligionists.</p>
+<p>All these desperate attempts proved of no avail. Judaism was
+practiced, and the Talmud was studied during the reign of Nicholas
+I more ardently than ever before. Their sacred treasures attacked
+by the Government without and by renegades and detractors within,
+the Russian Jews nevertheless clung to them with a tenacity
+unparalleled even in their own history. Danzig's <i>Life of Man</i>
+(<i>Hayye Adam</i>, Vilna, 1810), containing all Jewish ritual
+ceremonies, was followed out to the least minutiae. Despite the
+poverty of the Jews and the comparatively exorbitant price the
+publisher had to charge for the Talmud, and, aside from the many
+sets of former editions in the country and those continually
+imported, and in addition to the Responsa, commentaries, Midrashim,
+and other works directly and indirectly bearing on it, more than a
+dozen editions of the Talmud had appeared in Russia alone since the
+ukase of Catherine II (October 30, 1795) permitting Russian Jews to
+publish Hebrew works in their own country. This ukase had been
+intended originally to exclude seditious literature from Russia,
+but what was unfavorable for the rebellious Poles proved, in a
+measure, very beneficial <span class="pagenum"><a name="page148"
+id="page148"></a>{148}</span> to the law-abiding Jews. Under the
+supervision of a censor, and with but slight interruptions, the
+Jews published their own books, and in 1806 Slavuta, in Volhynia,
+saw the first complete edition of the Talmud on Russian soil. Then
+followed another edition in the same place (1808-1813), a third in
+Kopys (1816-1828), and a fourth in Slavuta (1817-1822), and several
+others elsewhere.</p>
+<p>The story of the Vilna-Grodno edition of the Talmud is
+interesting as well as illuminating. It depicts the relation of the
+Jews among themselves and to the Government. Begun in 1835, at
+Ozar, near Grodno, an imperial ukase directed the removal of the
+work to Vilna, the metropolis of Russo-Poland. When the publishers,
+Simhah Ziml and Menahem Mann Romm, had completed their work in the
+new quarters, the copies of the book were destroyed by incendiaries
+(1840). After some time, an effort was made by Joseph Eliasberg and
+Mattathias Strashun to continue the publication, but the Warsaw
+censor prohibited its importation into Poland, where the bulk of
+the subscribers lived. To add to the calamity, a feud broke out
+between the head of the Slavuta publishing company, Moses Schapira
+(1758-1838), and the Vilna publishers. The publication of the
+Talmud had <span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id=
+"page149"></a>{149}</span> always been supervised by the prominent
+rabbis of the land, and their authorization was necessary to make
+an edition legal. This the rabbi never granted unless the previous
+edition was entirely disposed of. The Slavuta publishers claimed
+that their edition had not been sold out when the Vilna publishers
+started theirs. The litigation continued for some time, and was
+finally decided in favor of the Vilna firm. The publishers of
+Slavuta, however, having the Polish rabbis and zaddikim on their
+side, continued to publish the Talmud, regardless of the protests
+of Rabbi Akiba Eger and the "great ones" of Lithuania. But a
+terrible misfortune befell the Slavuta publishers. On account of
+some accusation, the two brothers engaged in the business were
+deported to Siberia, and their father, the head of the
+establishment, died of a broken heart. This cleared the field for
+the Romms of Vilna, who continue to prosper to this day, and have
+now the greatest Hebrew publishing house in the world. "It is the
+finger of God," the pious ones said, and studied the Talmud with
+increased devotion.<a id="footnotetag3-40" name=
+"footnotetag3-40"></a><a href="#footnote3-40"><sup>40</sup></a></p>
+<p>The numerous Talmud editions indicate the demand for the work,
+and the multiplicity of yeshibot explains the cause of the demand.
+We have seen how the yeshibot destroyed by Chmielnicki <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>{150}</span> were
+re-established soon after the massacres ceased. Their number
+increased when the Hasidic movement threatened to render the
+knowledge of the Talmud unpopular; and when the Maskilim, too, made
+them a target for their attacks, there was hardly a town in which
+such institutions were not to be found. But surpassing all the
+yeshibot of the nineteenth century, if not of all centuries, was
+the Yeshibah Tree of Life (Yeshibat 'Ez Hayyim) in the townlet of
+Volozhin. There the cherished hopes of the Gaon were finally
+realized. Within its walls gathered the elect of the Russo-Jewish
+youth for almost a century.</p>
+<p>The founder of this famous yeshibah was Rabbi Hayyim Volozhin,
+the greatest of the Gaon's disciples (1749-1821). A prominent
+Talmudist at twenty-five, he, nevertheless, left his business and
+household at that age, and went to Vilna to become the humble pupil
+of the Gaon, whose method he had followed from the beginning. When
+he felt himself proficient enough in his studies, he returned to
+his native place, and founded (1803) the Tree of Life College, with
+an enrollment of ten students, whom he maintained at his own
+expense. But soon the fame of the yeshibah and its founder spread
+far and wide, and students flocked to it from <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>{151}</span> all
+corners of Russia and outside of it. In response to Rabbi Hayyim's
+appeal contributions came pouring in, a new and spacious
+school-house was erected, and Volozhin became a Talmudic Oxford. To
+be a student there was both an indication of superiority and a
+means to proficiency. Rabbi Hayyim did away with the "Tag-essen,"
+or "Freitisch" custom, and introduced a stipendiary system in its
+stead, thus fostering the self-respect of the students. But they
+did not as a rule require much to satisfy them with their lot. They
+came to Volozhin "to learn," and they well knew the Talmudic
+statement, that "no one can attain eminence in the Torah unless he
+is willing to die for its sake."</p>
+<p>Rabbi Hayyim was succeeded by his son Rabbi Isaac, who united
+knowledge of secular subjects with profound Talmudic erudition, was
+active in worldly affairs, and played a prominent part in the
+Jewish history of his day. He was of the leading spirits who, in
+1842, attended the rabbinical conference at St. Petersburg convoked
+by Nicholas I. The number of students increased under his
+leadership, according to Lilienthal, to three hundred. But Rabbi
+Isaac became so engrossed in public affairs that he found he could
+no longer do justice to his position. His two sons-in-law,
+therefore, took his <span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id=
+"page152"></a>{152}</span> place, and when the older died, in 1854,
+Rabbi Naphtali Zebi Judah Berlin (1817-1893) entered on his useful
+career, unbroken for forty years, as the dean of the greatest seat
+of learning in the Diaspora. Under his administration the Tree of
+Life College reached both the height of its prosperity and the end
+of its existence (1892).<a id="footnotetag3-41" name=
+"footnotetag3-41"></a><a href="#footnote3-41"><sup>41</sup></a></p>
+<p>Thus all the schemes and machinations of the Russian Government
+respecting the Jews proved ineffectual. Nicholas I, with the
+possible exception of Ivan the Terrible, the greatest autocrat in
+Russian history, at whose wish seemingly insuperable obstacles were
+instantly removed, the wink of whose eye was sufficient to kill or
+revive the millions of his crouching slaves&mdash;Nicholas I, with
+all his herculean strength, yet found himself helpless in the
+presence of a handful of wretched Jews. Furious at his defeat, he
+expressed the intention to reduce all Jews to Governmental
+servitude or to make them, like the Cossacks, lifelong soldiers.
+Being advised to postpone the execution of this plan and to employ
+less severe measures meanwhile, he issued the Exportation Law of
+1843, ordering the expulsion of Jews from the fifty-vyerst boundary
+zone and from the villages within the Pale, thereby <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>{153}</span> depriving
+fifty thousand families at once of their homes and their
+support.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>Those from the country&mdash;writes a Russo-Jewish eye-witness
+of the scenes following the enforcement of this inhuman
+law&mdash;move first to the neighboring cities, and increase the
+existing poverty, rendering the difficulty of finding profitable
+employment still greater. God only knows how it will end when the
+congestion increases still further.... I must also inform
+you&mdash;he proceeds&mdash;that these past four months several
+imperial commissioners have visited the frontier towns on the
+Lithuanian border, from which the Jews are to be banished, in order
+that the value of the real estate may be estimated. But how is the
+valuation calculated? Even one who is acquainted with the venality
+and unscrupulousness of Russian officers cannot form a correct idea
+of how this business is conducted. If a man has no connection with
+those in authority, or cannot obtain powerful intercession, or is
+unable to give heavy bribes, his property is valued at perhaps five
+per cent, or is set at so low a figure as to make the appraisal
+differ little from downright robbery. We, however, are used to such
+measures, for when they banished us some time past from certain
+districts of the city of Brest-Litovsk, where for centuries
+celebrated scholars of our people dwelt, nothing better was done by
+the crown to compensate us for our houses.<a id="footnotetag3-42"
+name="footnotetag3-42"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-42"><sup>42</sup></a> The same occurred at the
+expulsion from St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Nikolayev, Alexandrov,
+Sebastopol, etc., but as it did not affect so large a mass, nor
+injure us to so great an extent, we bore the injury silently. Alas,
+this is not the case at present. We should gladly quit the country,
+gladly should we emigrate to America, Texas, and especially to
+Palestine under English protection, if, on the one <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>{154}</span> hand, we
+had the means and, on the other, the Government would permit
+us.<a id="footnotetag3-43" name="footnotetag3-43"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-43"><sup>43</sup></a></p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>This Exportation Law of Nicholas I, the result of a lawsuit
+between a Jew and a nobleman living on the eastern frontier, which
+had been decided by the supreme court in favor of the former,
+aroused much excitement in every civilized country of Europe. It
+was before anti-Semitism was in flower, and the people of the time
+were more responsive even than during the later Kishinev massacres.
+Indignation meetings were held. Both Jews and Gentiles, not only
+abroad, but even in Russia, protested. Prayers were offered for the
+unfortunate. Cr&eacute;mieux in France and Rabbi Philippson in
+Germany appealed to the public. All to no effect. Grief was
+especially manifest among English Jews, always the first to feel
+when their fellow-Jews in other countries suffer, and Grace
+Aguilar, like Rachel weeping over her children, lamented over her
+Russian brethren:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Ay, death! for such is exile&mdash;fearful doom,</p>
+<p>From homes expelled yet still to Poland chain'd;</p>
+<p>Till want and famine mind and life consume,</p>
+<p>And sorrow's poison'd chalice all is drained.</p>
+<p>O God, that this should be! that one frail man</p>
+<p>Hath power to crush a nation 'neath his ban.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id=
+"page155"></a>{155}</span>
+<p>At this critical period, Moses Montefiore, encouraged by his
+success in refuting the blood accusation at Damascus, and
+stimulated by the many petitions he had received from Russia,
+Germany, France, Italy, England, and America, undertook the
+philanthropic mission of interceding with the czar on behalf of his
+coreligionists. It is natural to suspect that no trouble is
+entirely undeserved; it is but human to sympathize with our
+friends, and yet regard their suffering as a judgment rather than a
+misfortune. But Montefiore's trip to Russia dispelled the last
+trace of suspicion against the Russian Jews. In spite of their
+poverty, he saw numerous charitable and educational institutions in
+every city he visited. He found the Jewish men to be the cream of
+Russia. "He had the satisfaction," Doctor Loewe, his secretary,
+tells us, "of seeing among them many well-educated wives, sons, and
+daughters; their dwellings were scrupulously clean, the furniture
+plain but suitable for the purpose, and the appearance of the
+family healthy." To all his pleadings Count Uvarov returned but a
+single answer: "The Russian Jews are different from other Jews;
+they are orthodox, and believe in the Talmud"<a id=
+"footnotetag3-44" name="footnotetag3-44"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-44"><sup>44</sup></a>&mdash;a reason for persecution in
+Holy Russia!</p>
+<p>Montefiore's visit to Russia, from which so <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>{156}</span> much had
+been hoped, did not improve the situation in the least. For all his
+strenuous efforts, he was compelled to leave the Jews as destitute
+as he had found them. Nay, they might truthfully have said to the
+Moses of England what their ancestors had said to the Moses of
+Egypt, "Since thou didst come to Pharaoh, the hardness of our lot
+has increased." From the first of May (1844) they were not allowed
+to continue to earn the pittance necessary to maintain life, as,
+for instance, by the slavish labor of breaking stones on the
+highways, with which three hundred families had barely earned dry
+bread.<a id="footnotetag3-45" name="footnotetag3-45"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-45"><sup>45</sup></a> The great love and respect shown
+to the uncrowned king of Israel proved to the czar's officials the
+existence of some artful design on the part of the Jews, and
+convinced them especially of the disloyalty of Montefiore. The
+latter, they maintained, was scheming to set himself up as the
+Jewish czar. Hence every movement of his was closely watched, every
+word he uttered carefully noted, and not a few Jews were left with
+memorable tokens for doing homage to the English baronet. Their
+disabilities were not removed, their condition was not improved,
+the hopes they entertained resolved themselves into pleasant dreams
+followed by a sad awakening.<a id="footnotetag3-46" name=
+"footnotetag3-46"></a><a href="#footnote3-46"><sup>46</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id=
+"page157"></a>{157}</span>
+<p>Yet, though his visit did not, as Sir Moses had anticipated,
+"raise the Jews in the estimation of the people," it was not
+without beneficent effect on the Jews themselves. It cemented the
+"traditional friendship" which has always existed between
+Anglo-Jews and Russo-Jews more than between any sets of Jews of the
+dispersion. It disclosed to the latter that there were happier Jews
+and better countries than their own; that there were men who
+sympathized with them as effectively as could be. Above all, it
+convinced them that a Jew may be highly educated and wealthy, and
+take his place among the noble ones of the earth, and still remain
+a faithful Jew and a loyal son of his persecuted people. "I leave
+you," Sir Moses called to them at parting, "but my heart will ever
+remain with you. When my brethren suffer, I feel it painfully; when
+they have reason to weep, my eyes shed tears." Had Montefiore's
+visit resulted merely in arousing his brethren's
+self-consciousness, he had earned a place in the history of
+Haskalah, for self-consciousness is the most potent factor in the
+culture of mankind.</p>
+<p>Jews from other lands also came to the rescue of their Russian
+coreligionists. Jacques Isaac Altaras, the ship-builder of
+Marseilles, petitioned the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page158"
+id="page158"></a>{158}</span> czar to allow forty thousand Jewish
+families to emigrate to Algeria. Rabbi Ludwig Philippson, editor of
+the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums, appealed to his countrymen
+to help the Russian Jews to settle in America, Australia, Africa,
+anywhere away from Russia. But all attempts were ineffectual.
+Though Count Kissilyef assured Montefiore that the czar "did not
+wish to keep them [the Jews], five or six hundred thousand might
+leave altogether," emigration was next to impossible. Russia was
+constantly playing the game of the cat with the mouse. Her nails
+were set and her eyes fixed upon her prey, and yet she made it
+appear to the outside world that she was anxious about the welfare
+of the Jews. For Russian tactics have always been, and still are,
+the despair of the diplomat, a labyrinth through which only they
+who hold the clue can ever hope to find their way.</p>
+<p>The condition of the Jews in Russo-Poland was, if possible, even
+worse than in Lithuania and Russia proper. Nothing, in fact, but
+the auto-da-f&eacute; was needed to give it the stamp of medieval
+Spain. As before the division of Poland, the Poles suspected the
+Jews of disloyalty to Poland, while the Russians suspected them of
+disloyalty to Russia. Hitherto too proud to soil his hand with a
+manual <span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id=
+"page159"></a>{159}</span> or mercantile pursuit, the Polish pan,
+now that the glory of his country had departed, and he was deprived
+of his lordly estates, began to engage in business of all kinds,
+and, finding in the Jewish trader a rival with whose skill and
+diligence he could seldom compete, he became embittered against the
+entire race. This was the cause of the innumerable restrictions,
+the extortion, and exploitation in Russo-Poland, which surpassed
+those of Russia proper.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>The Jewish archives&mdash;said Doctor Marcus Jastrow, then Rabbi
+in Warsaw&mdash;were humorously known as "California" or the
+"Mexican Gold Mines." Jews had to pay at every step. They had to
+pay a Tagzettel [daily tax] for permission to stay in Warsaw, which
+permission, however, did not include the luxury of breathing. The
+latter had to be purchased with an additional ten kopecks per
+capita. The income from these taxations amounted to over a million
+and a half, but in spite of all this the Jews were regarded as
+parasites, as leeches feasting upon the life-blood of their
+Christian compatriots.<a id="footnotetag3-47" name=
+"footnotetag3-47"></a><a href="#footnote3-47"><sup>47</sup></a></p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Such is the background upon which the picture of Haskalah is to
+be drawn&mdash;black enough to throw into relief the faintest ray
+of light. The Russian Jews, during the reign of Nicholas I, found
+themselves in a position possible only in Russia. They were not
+allowed to emigrate, nor suffered to stay. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>{160}</span> In 1823
+they were expelled from the farms, and had to crowd into the
+cities; in 1838 they were expelled from the cities, and forced to
+go back to the country. Then Siberia was opened to them, but when
+it was found that even the land of the outcasts was hailed as a
+place of refuge by the Jews, they were told to go to Kherson. At
+last arrangements were perfected to allow them to colonize
+Lithuania&mdash;all at once even this was interdicted. They had
+been conquered with the Poles, yet were left unprotected against
+the Poles. Could they help suspecting the tyrant of what he really
+intended to do&mdash;of seeking to diminish their numbers by
+conversion? Is it surprising that when he determined to open public
+schools and establish rabbinical seminaries, Jews looked upon
+these, too, as the sugared poison with which he intended to
+extirpate Judaism? Or can we blame them for being determined to the
+last to baffle him? Nicholas did not understand the great lesson
+taught by the history of the Jews and inculcated in the old
+song,</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>To destroy all these people</p>
+<p>You should let them alone.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>All that tyranny could inflict, the Russian Jews endured. Yet
+their number was not diminished. <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page161" id="page161"></a>{161}</span> No coercion could make them
+leave, in a body, the old paths they were wont to tread. Nicholas's
+so-called reforms only encouraged a reaction, and the more he
+afflicted the Jews, the more they multiplied and grew. The behalot
+of 1754, 1764, and 1793 were repeated in 1833 and 1843; the
+missionary propaganda only strengthened the devotion of the
+faithful; and the denial of the means of support only increased the
+stolidity of the sufferers. And if, like some stepchildren, they
+were first beaten till they cried, and then beaten because they
+cried, like some stepchildren they rapidly forgot their lot in the
+happiness of home and the studies of the bet ha-midrash, and could
+sing<a id="footnotetag3-48" name="footnotetag3-48"></a><a href=
+"#footnote3-48"><sup>48</sup></a> without bitterness even of the
+behalah-days, when</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Little boys and little girls</p>
+<p>Together had been mated,</p>
+<p>Tishah be-Ab, the wedding day,&mdash;</p>
+<p>Not a soul invited.</p>
+<p>Only the father and the mother,</p>
+<p>And also uncle Elye&mdash;</p>
+<p>In his lengthy delye (caftan),</p>
+<p>With his scanty beard&mdash;</p>
+<p>Jump and jig with each other</p>
+<p>Like a colt afeared.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>(Notes, pp. <a href="#notes-3">314-317</a>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id=
+"page162"></a>{162}</span>
+<h2><a name="chap4" id="chap4">CHAPTER IV</a></h2>
+<h3>CONFLICTS AND CONQUESTS</h3>
+<h4>1840-1855</h4>
+<p>The charges brought against the Jews of Russia by henchmen of
+the czar were grave, indeed, only they did not contain a particle
+of truth. In Russia itself, not only Jews and non-Russians but even
+many Christians testified to the innocence of the Jews, and
+protested against their oppressors. Bibikov, the Governor-General
+of Podolia and Volhynia; Diakov, the Governor-General of Smolensk;
+and Surovyetsky, the noted statesman, all write in terms of such
+praise of their unfortunate countrymen of the Jewish faith that
+their statements would sound exaggerated, were it not that many
+other unprejudiced Russians confirm their views.<a id=
+"footnotetag4-1" name="footnotetag4-1"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-1"><sup>1</sup></a> The fact that Nicholas thought the
+Jews reliable as soldiers speaks against the imputation that they
+were mercenary and unpatriotic. Neither was the conventional
+accusation, that they were a people of petty traders, applicable to
+the Jews in Russia. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id=
+"page163"></a>{163}</span> Laborers of all kinds were very common
+among them. It was they, in fact, who rendered all manner of
+service to their Gentile neighbors, from a cobbler's and
+blacksmith's to producing the most exquisite <i>objets d'art</i>
+and gold and silver engraving. They were equally well represented
+among the clerks and bookkeepers, and the bricklayers and
+stone-cutters. They took up with the most laborious employments, if
+only they furnished them with an honest even though scanty
+livelihood.<a id="footnotetag4-2" name=
+"footnotetag4-2"></a><a href="#footnote4-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+<p>But most unfounded of all was the allegation that Jews were
+opposed to education. The <i>Memoirs</i> of Madame Pauline
+Wengeroff indicate that even among the very strict Jews of her time
+children were not denied instruction in the German, Polish, and
+Russian literatures. We have seen how they availed themselves of
+the permission, granted to them by Alexander I, to attend the
+schools and universities of the empire. Nor did they fail to open
+schools of their own. No sooner was the Franco-Russian war over
+than Joseph Perl of Galicia founded a school in Tarnopol (1813),
+then under the Russian Government, and two years later he drew upon
+his own resources to build a school-house large enough to
+accommodate the great, steadily growing number of students. In 1822
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id=
+"page164"></a>{164}</span> we hear of a school that had been in
+existence for some time in Uman (the Ukraine). It had been
+established by Me&iuml;r Horn, Moses Landau, and Hirsh Hurwitz, all
+of whom were indefatigable laborers in the cause of Haskalah in the
+Ukraine. Perl's school was the pattern and model for a multitude of
+other schools, among them the one founded by Zittenfeld (1826) in
+Odessa, in the faculty of which were Simhah Pinsker, Elijah Finkel,
+the grandson of Elijah Gaon, and Abraham Abele, the eminent
+Talmudist. In 1836 a girls' department was added to it, and when
+Lilienthal visited Odessa (ab. 1843) it had an attendance of from
+four to five hundred pupils of both sexes, the annual expense being
+twenty-eight thousand rubles. A similar school was opened in
+Kishinev by Stern, and in the early "forties" there was hardly a
+Jewish community of note without one or more of such Jewish public
+institutions. Several well-to-do Maskilim not only founded but,
+like Perl, also maintained such schools, and gave instruction in
+some or all of the subjects taught in them.<a id="footnotetag4-3"
+name="footnotetag4-3"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-3"><sup>3</sup></a></p>
+<p>The "forties" began auspiciously for Haskalah in Russia. On
+January 15, 1840, the Riga community, amid pomp and rejoicing,
+opened the first <span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id=
+"page165"></a>{165}</span> Jewish school affiliated with a
+university. The teaching staff consisted of three Jews and one
+Christian, with Doctor Max Lilienthal (1815-1882), the young,
+highly recommended, and recently chosen local rabbi, as its
+principal. In the same year, the indefatigable Basilius Stern
+succeeded in forming a committee, of which Hayyim Efrusi and Moses
+Lichtenstadt were members, to deliberate on founding rabbinical
+seminaries in Russia. In 1841, forty-five delegates, representing
+the six chief committees of the Lovers of Enlightenment, assembled
+in Vilna, and thence issued an appeal in which they adopted as
+their platform the elevation of the moral standards of adults by
+urging them to follow useful trades and discouraging the Jewish
+proclivity to business as much as possible; a reform of the
+prevailing system of the education of the young; the combating, if
+possible the eradication, of Hasidism, the fountainhead, as they
+thought, of ignorance and superstition; the establishment of
+rabbinical seminaries, after the model of those in Padua and
+Amsterdam, to supply congregations with educated rabbis. It was
+further agreed that a Consistory be created, to supervise Jewish
+affairs and establish schools and technical institutes wherever
+necessary. To these main <span class="pagenum"><a name="page166"
+id="page166"></a>{166}</span> points were added several others of
+minor importance. The Maskilim of Besascz insisted that steps be
+taken to stop the prevailing custom of premature marriages. Those
+of Brest proposed that Government aid be invoked to compel Jews to
+dress in the German style, to use authorized text-books in the
+hadarim, and interdict the study of the Talmud except by those
+preparing themselves for the rabbinate.<a id="footnotetag4-4" name=
+"footnotetag4-4"></a><a href="#footnote4-4"><sup>4</sup></a></p>
+<p>Even in Vilna and Minsk, towns which later put themselves on
+record as opposed to Government schools, the Jews yielded gladly to
+the innovations of such Maskilim as S. Perl, G. Klaczke, I. Bompi,
+and the distinguished philanthropist David Luria, who took the
+initiative in transforming the educational system of these cities.
+Under the superintendence of Luria, the Minsk Talmud Torah became a
+model institution; the training conferred there on the poor and
+orphaned surpassed that given to the children of the rich in their
+private schools. This aroused jealousy in the parents of the
+latter, and at their request Luria organized a merchants' school,
+for the wealthier class. He then established what he called Midrash
+Ezrahim, or Citizens' Institute, in which he met with such success
+that he attracted the attention of the <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>{167}</span>
+authorities, and received a special acknowledgment from the
+czar.<a id="footnotetag4-5" name="footnotetag4-5"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-5"><sup>5</sup></a></p>
+<p>Russian Jewry was astir with new life. In many places secular
+education was divorced for the first time from rabbinical
+speculation. Knowledge became an end in itself, and learning
+increased greatly. An investigation by Nicholas I convinced all who
+were interested that though the Talmud remained the chief subject
+of study, the number of educated Jews was far greater than commonly
+supposed. The upliftment of the masses was the beau-ideal of every
+Maskil, and Hebrew and even the much-despised Yiddish were employed
+to effect it. Ignorance was regarded as the bane of life, and
+enlightenment as the panacea for all the ills to which their
+downtrodden brethren were heirs. As their pious coreligionists
+deemed it the universal duty to be well-versed in the Talmud, so
+the Maskilim thought it incumbent upon everybody to be highly
+cultured. No obstacle was great enough to discourage them. They
+were willing martyrs to the goddess of Wisdom, at whose shrine they
+worshipped, and whose cult they spread in the most adverse
+circumstances.</p>
+<p>Had the Government not interfered with the efforts of the
+Maskilim, or had it chosen a <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page168" id="page168"></a>{168}</span> commission from among the
+Russian Jews themselves, among whom, as soon became evident to
+Nicholas himself, there were more than enough to do justice to an
+educational inquiry, the Haskalah movement would have continued to
+spread, notwithstanding the obstacles put in its way. But Nicholas
+was determined to reduce the number of Jews also by "re-educating"
+them in accordance with his own ideas. Every attempt made by the
+Jews to educate themselves was, therefore, checked. Even the noble
+efforts of Luria were stopped, his schools were closed, and his
+only rewards were "a gold medal from the czar and a short poem by
+Gottlober."</p>
+<p>In Germany, since the time of Mendelssohn, the study of the
+Talmud had been on the wane. The great yeshibot formerly existing
+in Metz, Frankfort, Hamburg, Prague, Fiirth, Halberstadt, etc.,
+disappeared, and the reforms introduced in the synagogue and the
+numerous converts to Christianity impressed the outside world with
+the idea that Judaism among German Jews was writhing in the agony
+of death. If the same disintegrating elements were introduced among
+the Russian Jews, the Government believed that they would
+ultimately come over to the Greek Catholic Church of their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id=
+"page169"></a>{169}</span> own accord. Hence it was anxious to
+learn the secret of this power and beamed graciously on several
+learned Jews of Germany.</p>
+<p>David Friedl&auml;nder (1750-1834) was then considered the
+legitimate successor of Mendelssohn, whose friend he had been for
+more than twenty years. He resembled his master in many respects,
+though he lacked both his genius and his sympathy. Mendelssohn
+translated the Pentateuch and the Psalms into German,
+Friedl&auml;nder translated the Haftarot (selections from the
+Prophets) and the prayer book. Mendelssohn encouraged the
+publication of the Meassef; he did likewise, and contributed
+several articles to the journal. But, unlike his master, or, as he
+claimed, like his master in secret, he held exceedingly
+latitudinarian views on Judaism. In his later years he advocated
+abolishing the study of Hebrew in the schools and discarding it
+from the prayer book. He even rejoiced that by attending the
+services in Protestant churches many Jewish families were becoming
+acquainted with the religion he himself would have accepted on
+certain conditions.<a id="footnotetag4-6" name=
+"footnotetag4-6"></a><a href="#footnote4-6"><sup>6</sup></a></p>
+<p>It was to Friedl&auml;nder that Bishop Malchevsky, actuated, as
+he maintained, by a desire to render the Jews worthy of the
+enjoyment of civil rights, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page170"
+id="page170"></a>{170}</span> applied for suggestions, in 1816,
+when the missionary zeal of Alexander I was first aroused. He
+responded in a pamphlet, <i>On the Improvement of the Israelites in
+the Kingdom of Poland</i>,<a id="footnotetag4-7" name=
+"footnotetag4-7"></a><a href="#footnote4-7"><sup>7</sup></a> in
+which he declared that the quickest way of "civilizing" the Jews
+would be to deprive their rabbis of power and influence, to force
+them to dress in the German fashion, and use the Polish language,
+to admit them to the public schools and other educational
+institutions, and, above all, to abrogate the laws discriminating
+between them and their Gentile countrymen.</p>
+<p>Friedl&auml;nder's advice regarding the removal of civil
+disabilities was never executed, but his other suggestions were
+followed out with more vigor than was necessary or good. To do away
+with the rabbis, and consequently with the Talmud, was just what
+was desired. It was partly with this end in view that Alexander I
+permitted, that is, commanded, the establishment of the rabbinical
+seminary in Warsaw. But when it was found that, although the
+seminary students were provided with all necessaries, and
+notwithstanding the decree that six years from the date of its
+opening none but seminary graduates would be eligible to the
+rabbinical office, few students availed themselves of the
+opportunity afforded, and none obtained <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>{171}</span>
+positions, the whole plan fell into disfavor.<a id="footnotetag4-8"
+name="footnotetag4-8"></a><a href="#footnote4-8"><sup>8</sup></a>
+The Government, nevertheless, remained as stubbornly determined as
+ever, and unable to turn all the children into Cantonists, it
+decided to have those who remained at home gradually converted by
+means of a method worked out by the Minister of Education, Uvarov.
+They were forced to attend what became known as Government schools,
+though maintained exclusively with Jewish funds. In order to win
+the confidence of the Jews for the project, Doctor Lilienthal,
+whose speech at the dedication of the Riga School secured him a
+diamond ring as a token of the czar's approval, was sent from St.
+Petersburg on a mission of investigation, more especially of
+persuasion.</p>
+<p>For more than three years Lilienthal was one of the most popular
+personages in Europe. The eyes of all who had the amelioration of
+the lot of the Russian Jew at heart, it may be said the eyes of the
+civilized world, were fixed upon him as an epoch-maker in the
+history of the Jews. Nature had formed him, physically and
+mentally, to be a leader among his people, and his training and
+temperament made it easy for him to ingratiate himself into the
+favor of the great. It seemed that he was <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>{172}</span> just the
+man to be the successful executor of the czar's plan.</p>
+<p>The Maskilim, above all, hailed him as the champion of the cause
+of Haskalah. He was their Moses or Ezra, the God-sent redeemer of
+their benighted brethren out of the quagmire of fanaticism. From
+various cities numerous urgent appeals came to him to hasten the
+execution of his great plan. Wherever he went, he was
+enthusiastically received, a truly royal welcome was extended to
+him. The Vilna community appropriated five thousand rubles for the
+school fund, and pledged itself to raise more if it were found
+necessary; and he was invited also to Minsk by the kahal of the
+city.</p>
+<p>Unfortunately, Lilienthal's tactics exposed him to suspicion,
+and the seed of discord was soon sown between him and his former
+admirers. He tried to serve two masters, the czar and the Jews, and
+he alienated both. The pious regarded him as a mere tool in the
+hands of the Government, for, they maintained, <i>education without
+emancipation leads to conversion</i>. The enlightened element also
+lost confidence in one who, instead of boldly attacking
+superstition, preferred, while in Minsk, to identify himself not
+only with the Mitnaggedim, but even with the Hasidim. He was also
+too headstrong <span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id=
+"page173"></a>{173}</span> and too vain of his achievements.
+Benjamin Mandelstamm, who, as he tell us in his letters, considered
+Lilienthal "as wise as Solomon and as enterprising as Moses,"
+complains a little later of his arrogance, and at the last speaks
+of him with contempt. His assumed superiority grieved the Maskilim,
+and their former enthusiasm was rapidly replaced by hatred and
+persecution. He found it necessary to put himself under the
+protection of the police while in Minsk, and when he returned to
+Vilna his reception was far less hearty than it had been
+before.</p>
+<p>In order to regain the confidence of the Russian Jews,
+Lilienthal obtained a permit from the Minister of Education to call
+an assembly of prominent Jews at St. Petersburg, to decide for
+themselves how to better the condition of the existing schools and
+to consider the practicability of establishing rabbinical
+seminaries. For he, too, like the Maskilim, considered the rabbis
+the chief menace to Haskalah. Rabbinical authority was supreme, and
+if the rabbis could be won over, all would be gained. The
+bell-wethers once secured, the flocks were sure to follow. It took
+a long time for Lilienthal, and still longer for the Maskilim, to
+find out that what they regarded as the cause was in reality the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id=
+"page174"></a>{174}</span> consequence. Eight years later
+Lilienthal himself admitted the sad truth, that the rabbinical
+seminaries in Russia could not effect the coveted end. "It must not
+be lost sight of," says he in his <i>Sketches of Jewish Life in
+Russia</i><a id="footnotetag4-9" name="footnotetag4-9"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-9"><sup>9</sup></a> "that the Russian Jews live
+strictly in accordance with our received laws, and they are
+sufficiently learned in them to know that the many cases of
+conscience which are of constant occurrence cannot be decided
+understandingly by any one who has but a superficial knowledge of
+the Talmud and of the decisions of the later doctors of the Law,
+but that it requires the study of an entire lifetime to become
+thoroughly acquainted with those stupendous monuments of learning
+and deep research in the great concerns of life."</p>
+<a name="illus-zederbaum" id="illus-zederbaum"></a>
+<center><img width="250" height="364" src=
+"images/illus-zederbaum.png" alt="Alexander Zederbaum" /></center>
+<center>Alexander Zederbaum, 1816-1893</center>
+<p>After several busy months at St. Petersburg and frequent
+consultations with Count Uvarov, Lilienthal returned to Vilna, and
+two weeks later he published his circular letter, <i>Maggid
+Yeshiiah</i> (<i>The Announcer of Good Tidings</i>)<a id=
+"footnotetag4-10" name="footnotetag4-10"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-10"><sup>10</sup></a> The "good tidings" were that an
+imperial ukase (June 22, 1842) would convene a council of
+distinguished Jews at St. Petersburg, to deliberate how to
+"re-educate" the Jews. Accordingly, in the early part of April,
+1843, the notables, from different places and with diametrically
+opposed views, assembled in the Russian <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>{175}</span> capital.
+Representing the Jews, there were Rabbi Isaac Volozhin, the dean of
+the Tree of Life Yeshibah, perhaps the strongest man present; Rabbi
+Menahem Mendel Shneersohn of Lubavich, leader of the Hasidic reform
+sect; Joseph Heilprin, the financier and banker of Berdichev, and
+Bezalel (Basilius) Stern, principal of the Jewish public schools of
+Odessa. Representing the Government were Count Uvarov, Chevalier
+Dukstaduchinsky, and others, with de Vrochenko, Minister of State,
+as chairman and Lilienthal as secretary. Montefiore of England,
+Cr&eacute;mieux of France, and Rabbi Philippson of Germany had been
+invited, but they failed to come. The council decided to open
+Jewish public schools in every city where Jews reside, and also two
+rabbinical seminaries, the one in Vilna, the other in Zhitomir, the
+former being considered the Jewish metropolis of the northwestern
+part, the latter, of the southwestern part, of Russia. They also
+proposed to do away with the Judeo-Polish garb, and suggested
+certain alterations in the prayer book.</p>
+<p>The delegates met, deliberated, and disbanded, but the tidings
+announced in Lilienthal's epistle did not prove to be good. In one
+of the fables of Kryloff, the Russian &AElig;sop, we are told that
+once a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id=
+"page176"></a>{176}</span> swan, a pike, and a crab, decided to
+make a trip together. No sooner had they started than, in
+accordance with their nature, the swan began to fly, the pike to
+shuffle along, the crab to crawl backward. It was so with the
+delegation of 1843. Rabbi Isaac, the rabid Mitnagged, could find
+but little to admire in the proposals of Rabbi Menahem Mendel, the
+ardent Hasid, and both were bitterly opposed to the view preached
+by Doctor Lilienthal, that the salvation of the Jews and Judaism
+would be brought about by a system of education adopted in
+accordance with an ukase by Nicholas. Stern, too, had little use
+for Lilienthal, whom he declared to be ignorant of the condition of
+Russian Jews and incapable of working in their behalf. From such
+discord nothing good could come. The fact is, that the few
+resolutions mentioned had been drawn up beforehand by the
+Government officials, and the time and trouble and expense which
+the council involved were, <i>&agrave; la Russe</i>, for appearance
+sake. Finding his efforts an utter failure, Lilienthal went to
+Odessa with letters of recommendation from Uvarov to Vorontzov, the
+patron of Stern, and was elected rabbi of that enlightened and
+wealthy community. But, for some inexplicable reason, he suddenly
+left the city on the plea of visiting friends in <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>{177}</span> Germany,
+and went to the United States, where he remained to the end of his
+life, and became one of the leading rabbis and communal workers
+among his coreligionists whose lines had fallen in pleasanter
+places than the fortunes of those he had left behind in
+Russia.<a id="footnotetag4-11" name="footnotetag4-11"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-11"><sup>11</sup></a></p>
+<p>For Lilienthal's disillusionment came apace, and he finally
+recognized the error of his ways. In his book, <i>My Travels in
+Russia</i>, published both in English and in German, he admits that
+the opponents of the schools he advocated were after all in the
+right. Education without emancipation was indeed the straightest
+road to conversion. Witness the thirty thousand Jewish apostates in
+St. Petersburg and Moscow alone, most of whom hailed from the
+Baltic provinces, where the Jews were more cultured, but not less
+oppressed, than their brethren.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>Those men&mdash;says he&mdash;who have acquired from study an
+idea of the rights of man, and that the Jew ought to enjoy the same
+privileges as every other citizen; those men who tried, by the
+knowledge they had obtained, to open for themselves better
+prospects in life, and now saw every hope frustrated by laws
+inimical to them only as Jews, ran, from mere despair, into the
+bosom of the Greek Church. The harassing care for a living, the
+terrible difficulties in surmounting them forced them, in an hour
+of distress, to deny their faith. I always compared them with the
+Anusim [forced converts] of Spain. Among them there is no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id=
+"page178"></a>{178}</span> religious indifference, as is the case
+in Western Europe and Germany; and I have met with many converted
+Jews there, who, with tears in their eyes, complained of
+heart-burnings and pangs of conscience; and they look upon
+themselves as eternally lost. Those tears will show a heavy balance
+against Czar Nicholas, when, bereft of his earthly power, he stands
+before the eternal tribunal.</p>
+<p>The other charge&mdash;he says again after refuting several
+accusations of the kind stated above&mdash;the other charge, that
+the Jews are averse to secular studies, rests upon an equally
+erroneous foundation. For even in Germany Jewish parents have at
+length found out that it is absolute folly to let their sons devote
+themselves to the study of science, since they never can hope for
+obtaining the least office; and since many a one, after the best
+years of his youth are passed, tired of waiting, and fearful of not
+having in his old age any means of support, finds in the baptismal
+font the last anchor of his shattered hopes. How much more must
+this consideration have weight in Russia? Nicholas, instead of
+encouraging the Jews to study, ordered, on the contrary, that all
+such of them as held offices and insignia of distinction under
+Alexander should either resign or become apostates. I know myself
+several collegiate councillors and men attached to the court, who
+went to the synagogue on the Day of Atonement with the insignia of
+the order of St. Anna around their neck, and prayed there with
+devotion and fervor, who still were forced into apostasy. Such
+instances are not calculated to encourage Jewish parents to let
+their children study; and it is but too true that many whose
+inclination led them to study were carried thereby into the bosom
+of the Christian Church.<a id="footnotetag4-12" name=
+"footnotetag4-12"></a><a href="#footnote4-12"><sup>12</sup></a></p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id=
+"page179"></a>{179}</span>
+<p>After almost half a decade of indefatigable labor, Lilienthal
+finally came to understand the Russian State policy, "to assign a
+plausible reason for every act done by the Government, in order to
+stand justified in the estimation of Europe, whilst they, by
+throwing dust in the eyes of the public, conceal their true
+purpose." The laws which seemed favorable to the Jews, and
+apparently aimed at promoting culture among them, went hand in hand
+with laws of the most rigorous character. It is true that the Jews
+were not the only unfortunates whom the fanatic autocrat wished to
+Russify, that is, compel to see the pure light of Greek Orthodoxy.
+But they, of course, suffered the most. The slightest laws were
+enforced by the chinovniks (officials) with the knout and the
+leaden lash. When the Judeo-Polish gaberdine, the long side-curls
+(peot), and the wig or turban (knup) fell into disfavor with the
+Government, the miserable offender caught by an officer seldom
+saved himself with the mere sacrifice of knup, coat, peot, and
+beard. And when the time arrived for the execution of the more
+important laws, such as the Exportation Act of April 20, 1843, no
+fiendish ingenuity could surpass the cruelty of the Cossacks. This
+ukase more than any other, it is claimed, embittered <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>{180}</span>
+Lilienthal against Russia, and caused him to flee to where he could
+say as one awakening from a nightmare: "The horrible hatred against
+the Jews in Russia is nothing more to me than a hazy remembrance.
+My soul is no longer oppressed by frightful pictures of tyranny and
+persecution."<a id="footnotetag4-13" name=
+"footnotetag4-13"></a><a href="#footnote4-13"><sup>13</sup></a> He
+was in the land of the free!</p>
+<p>The Lilienthal tragedy thus came to a premature close. The hero
+disappeared at the beginning of the play. He had the potency, but
+he lacked the conditions, for producing great results. His German
+birth and training, the very qualities which recommended him to the
+Government, operated against him when he came to deal with Russian
+Jews. Yet he succeeded in giving a strong impetus to the Haskalah
+movement, and builded better than he knew. The statement in his
+address at the dedication of the Riga school,<a id=
+"footnotetag4-14" name="footnotetag4-14"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-14"><sup>14</sup></a> "This hour we may call the hour
+of the renaissance of the mental education of Israel," which reads
+like an oratorical platitude, was not entirely visionary. The real
+history of Haskalah in Russia commences with Lilienthal.</p>
+<p>Time helped greatly to restore, even to deepen, the affection of
+the Maskilim for Lilienthal. A modern critic speaking of "life and
+literature" in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id=
+"page181"></a>{181}</span> Hebrew, pictures him in glowing colors,
+and finishes his description thus:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>I have presented to you, reader, a man of deep culture, known
+and respected in the highest circles, and yet inseparably connected
+with his race and religion, and ready to offer his life for their
+welfare; a man who worked with might and main for others at the
+sacrifice of his own comfort and advancement; an orator whose
+exalted phrases shattered the pillars and foundations of ignorance
+and superstition; a hero who in time of peril was proof against the
+arrows and missiles of the enemy, and who did not relax his hand
+from the flag. But what was the fruit he reaped? Mostly ingratitude
+and persecution, a heart lacerated with despair, a soul writhing
+under the pangs of frustrated hopes. Such a personality with its
+fine shades, and with the poetry of the artist superimposed, would
+afford splendid material for the hero of a novel&mdash;a hero to
+captivate the eye and heart of the reader by his nobility and
+grandeur.<a id="footnotetag4-15" name=
+"footnotetag4-15"></a><a href="#footnote4-15"><sup>15</sup></a></p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>For a long time Russian officialdom discussed the question,
+whether the establishment of exclusively Jewish schools would prove
+beneficial, but nobody doubted the efficacy of rabbinical
+seminaries. Yet it was these latter institutions that evoked the
+strongest protests from the Jews. The advocates of Haskalah
+gradually came to recognize the truth, which Lilienthal admitted
+afterwards, that for a Russian rabbi a thorough knowledge of the
+Talmud was absolutely indispensable. But it was with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id=
+"page182"></a>{182}</span> object of discouraging such knowledge
+that the seminaries had been suggested by Uvarov, and it was this
+study that was almost entirely ignored in them. What congregation,
+many of whose members were profound Talmudists, would accept a
+rabbi to whom unvocalized Hebrew was a snare and a stumbling-block?
+Moreover, the whole atmosphere of the seminaries was Christian,
+nay, military. Not a few members of their faculties or boards of
+governors were discharged police officers or superannuated
+soldiers, and at the head of the seminary in Vilna, the metropolis
+of Russian Jewry, stood an apostate Jew! They became, as it were,
+infirmaries of the bureaucracy, where, at the expense of the Jews,
+it could stow away anyone who had proved a failure or was no longer
+useful. The Government also undertook to provide the graduates with
+positions, patronage which rendered the students insolently
+independent of their coreligionists, and encouraged some of them to
+indulge in a <i>modus vivendi</i> distasteful to their future
+flocks. The graduates, therefore, proved failures as rabbis, and
+the Government was forced to provide for them by appointing them as
+teachers.<a id="footnotetag4-16" name=
+"footnotetag4-16"></a><a href="#footnote4-16"><sup>16</sup></a></p>
+<p>If this was the case with the rabbinical seminaries, we can
+easily imagine the state of the subordinate <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>{183}</span> schools.
+The Christian principals were coarse and uneducated as a rule, and
+did their best to prejudice the children against their religion.
+Scattered all over the Pale were to be found Jews competent to fill
+positions not only as teachers in inferior grades but as professors
+in the universities. Yet Lilienthal was advised (1841) to advertise
+for three hundred teachers in Germany. Finally the Government
+decided to employ Jews as teachers of Hebrew only, the least
+important subject in the curriculum; for instruction in the secular
+branches none but Christians were eligible. No Jews were allowed to
+become rectors in their own schools, and their salaries were so
+small that they could not support themselves without teaching an
+additional class, which was prohibited. A Jew might, indeed, become
+an "honorable overseer" (pochotny blyustityel), to mediate between
+pupils and parents, but the title was the only pay attached to the
+office. Respectable parents, therefore, kept their children at
+home, or rather in the heder, and many a child's name was on the
+roll of attendance who was not even aware of the existence of the
+school. "Every year in the autumn," relates a writer a quarter of a
+century later, "there was a kind of compulsory recruiting of Jewish
+children for the Government <span class="pagenum"><a name="page184"
+id="page184"></a>{184}</span> school, accompanied sometimes by
+struggles between the victims and their enemies,&mdash;scenes
+without a parallel, in some respects, in the civilized world. I
+remember how poor mothers and sisters wept with despair when some
+boy of the family was carried off or enlisted by the officers to be
+a pupil of a Government school." Like the poimaniki, the poor and
+the orphaned were compelled, or induced, to fill the class-rooms
+shunned by the rich and respectable, and though the Government not
+only condemned the ancient Hebrew institutions, but declared the
+twenty thousand teachers who imparted instruction in them to be
+outlaws and criminals, the melammedim pursued their vocation as
+ever, and the hadarim, Talmud Torahs, yeshibot, and batte midrashim
+swarmed with students of the prohibited learning.<a id=
+"footnotetag4-17" name="footnotetag4-17"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-17"><sup>17</sup></a></p>
+<p>Nicholas was paid measure for measure, and the cunning of his
+ministers was made of no avail by the shrewdness of his Jewish
+subjects. The report of the Minister of Education, at the end of
+1845, shows incredible progress. It states that since the ukase of
+November 13, 1844, <i>i.e.</i> in the course of a single year, more
+than two thousand schools of different grades were established in
+various cities of the Pale, with more than one hundred and eighty
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id=
+"page185"></a>{185}</span> thousand pupils, not including the
+technical schools in Odessa, Riga, Kishinev, Vilna, and Uman, with
+their hundreds of students! The truth was that, instead of the
+reported Russification, there had set in a vigorous reaction, which
+rendered the position more critical. Both sides had become
+desperate.<a id="footnotetag4-18" name=
+"footnotetag4-18"></a><a href="#footnote4-18"><sup>18</sup></a>
+Some Maskilim, emboldened by the interest the Government evinced in
+their efforts, had resorted to all manner of means to accomplish
+their object, and frequently allied themselves with the oppressors.
+The Slavuta publishing house, it is claimed, was closed, and the
+Schapiras met with their tragic end, because "as printers they
+scrupulously abstained from publishing Haskalah literature."
+Maskilim were employed by the authorities as tax collectors, and
+these, as is ever the case with rapacious farmers of taxes, besides
+executing the harsh laws of the tyrant, looked also to their own
+aggrandizement, and harassed their pious coreligionists in all ways
+conceivable. Many of them even hindered the colonization movement,
+because, if allowed to mature, it would deprive them of their
+income.<a id="footnotetag4-19" name="footnotetag4-19"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-19"><sup>19</sup></a> In addition to this, the Jews
+were now burdened, through the instrumentality of the Maskilim,
+with a tax on the candles lighted on Sabbath eve, yielding annually
+over one million rubles, the <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page186" id="page186"></a>{186}</span> greater part of which went
+into the coffers of greedy officials. Another tax, also for the
+maintenance of the newly-organized Government schools, was
+levied&mdash;one kopeck and a half per page!&mdash;on text-books,
+whether imported from abroad or published in Vilna or Zhitomir, and
+the text-books were published with unnecessarily large type and
+wide margins to increase the number of pages. The abridgment and
+translation of Maimuni's <i>Mishneh Torah</i> (St. Petersburg,
+1851), superintended by Leon Mandelstamm, cost the Russian Jews
+tens of thousands of rubles, notwithstanding the expenditure of two
+or three millions on their own educational institutions, and at a
+time when every kopeck was needed for the support of the host of
+victims of fire, famine, and cholera, which ravaged many a city.
+Hence the reaction became more and more formidable. The cry grew
+louder and louder, <i>Znaty nye znayem, shkolles nye zhelayem!</i>
+("We want no schools!"). The opposition, which began in the latter
+years of Alexander I, reached its culmination in the last decade of
+the reign of Nicholas I. "Israel," laments Mandelstamm, "seems to
+be even worse than formerly; he is like a sick person who has
+convalesced only to relapse, and the physicians are beginning to
+despair." It was a struggle <span class="pagenum"><a name="page187"
+id="page187"></a>{187}</span> not unlike that all over Europe at
+the beginning of the Renaissance, a struggle between liberty and
+authority, between this world and other-worldliness, between the
+spirit of the nineteenth century and that of the millenniums which
+preceded it.</p>
+<p>Here is a description, by Morgulis, of the struggles and
+conquests of the new, small, but zealous, group of Maskilim in
+Russia at about that time:<a id="footnotetag4-20" name=
+"footnotetag4-20"></a><a href="#footnote4-20"><sup>20</sup></a></p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>Those upon whom the sun of civilization and freedom happened to
+cast a ray of light, showing them the path leading to a new life,
+were compelled to study the European literatures and sciences in
+garrets, in cellars, in any nook where they felt themselves secure
+from interference. Neither unaffiliated Jews nor the outer world
+knew anything about them. Like rebels they kept their secrets unto
+themselves, stealthily assembling from time to time, to consider
+how they might realize their ideal, and disclose to their brethren
+the fountainhead of the living waters out of which they drank and
+drew new youth and life. Whatever was novel was accepted with
+delight. They looked with envy upon the great intellectual progress
+of their western brethren. Fain would they have had their Jewish
+countrymen recognize the times and their requirements, but they
+could not give free utterance to their thoughts. On the contrary,
+they found it expedient to assume the mask of religion in order to
+escape the suspicion of alert zealots, and gain, if possible, new
+recruits. In many places societies were founded under the name of
+Lovers of the New Haskalah, the members of which observed such
+secrecy that even their kinsmen and those among whom they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id=
+"page188"></a>{188}</span> dwelt were unaware of their existence.
+If through the discovery of some forbidden book any of them
+happened to be detected, he never betrayed his friends. Such a one
+was usually compelled to marry, so that, being burdened with family
+cares, he might desist from his unpopular pursuits.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>From which it would appear that though the opposition to
+Haskalah in Russia was by no means as violent as had been the
+opposition to enlightenment in France, for instance, or even among
+the Jews of Germany and Austria,<a id="footnotetag4-21" name=
+"footnotetag4-21"></a><a href="#footnote4-21"><sup>21</sup></a> it
+was a bitter and stubborn conflict between parents and children in
+the adjustment of old ideals to a new environment.</p>
+<p>Aside from the hindrances which Haskalah encountered because of
+Nicholas's conversionist policy, it was greatly hampered by the
+geographical distribution of the Jews. Here again the czar defeated
+his own end by segregating the three or four million of his Jewish
+subjects in certain districts, technically called the Pale, the
+greatest ghetto the world has ever known. It was a Judea in itself.
+The Jews there seldom came in contact with outside civilization.
+The languages they used were Hebrew as the literary tongue, Yiddish
+among themselves, and the local Slavonic dialect with their
+non-Jewish neighbors. Russian was strange, not only to the great
+majority of Jews, but to the Russians themselves. <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>{189}</span> It was
+merely the State language, and even the Government officials fell
+back on their mother tongue whenever they were at liberty to do so.
+It was this that made it very difficult for the Jews to be
+Russified.</p>
+<p>But even if Russification had been a much easier process,
+Russian civilization was hardly worth the having.<a id=
+"footnotetag4-22" name="footnotetag4-22"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-22"><sup>22</sup></a> To become Russified would have
+meant not only religious but also intellectual suicide. Whatever
+was good in the Russia of that day was an importation. The language
+was scarcely beyond the barbarous state. Its literature possessed
+neither original nor adopted writings, no profound philosophical
+systems, no Rousseau or Goethe, no Franklin or Kant, not even any
+practical information with which to reward the student. The best
+writers were Kryloff, Pushkin, Zhukovsky, and Dyerzhavin. The
+prices of books were so high as to make them unattainable.
+Karamzin's <i>History of the Russian Empire</i> sold at fifty-five
+rubles per copy. The royal library, which had been founded by the
+Jewish court physician Sanchez, contained only eight Russian books
+during the reign of Alexander I, and not many more were added by
+his successor. The dramatic art developed by the Jewish playwright
+Nebakhovich remained for a long time <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page190" id="page190"></a>{190}</span> in the same state as when
+he ceased his work.<a id="footnotetag4-23" name=
+"footnotetag4-23"></a><a href="#footnote4-23"><sup>23</sup></a> If
+Russia was the most powerful, it continued to be the most fanatical
+and uncivilized country in Europe. All who had occasion to visit
+and study it during the first half of the nineteenth century
+testify to its deplorable intellectual status. According to a very
+ingenious and observing writer, quoted by Buckle in his <i>History
+of Civilization</i>, it consisted of but two ranks, the highest and
+the lowest, or the nobility and the serfs: <i>Les marchands, qui
+formaient une classe moyenne, sont en si petit nombre qu'il ne
+peuvent marquer dans l'&eacute;tat; d'ailleurs presque tous sont
+&eacute;trangers</i>. The higher classes were distinguished for "a
+total absence of all rational tastes on literary topics."</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>Here [in Russia]&mdash;the same writer continues&mdash;it is
+absolutely <i>mauvais genre</i> to discuss a rational
+subject&mdash;pure <i>p&eacute;danterie</i> to be caught upon any
+topics beyond dressing, dancing, and a <i>jolie tournure</i>.
+Military prowess is ranked far above scholarly attainment, and a
+man in a uniform, no matter how depraved, takes precedence of one
+in plain clothes, whatever his achievements. All the energies of
+the nation are turned towards the army. Commerce, the law, and the
+civil employments are held in no esteem; all young men of any
+consideration betake themselves to the profession of arms. Nothing
+astonished them more than to see the estimation in which the civil
+professions, and especially the bar, are held in Great
+Britain.<a id="footnotetag4-24" name="footnotetag4-24"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-24"><sup>24</sup></a></p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id=
+"page191"></a>{191}</span>
+<p>How different was the position of the Jews in other countries,
+especially in Germany! Culture streamed upon them from all sides.
+As their numbers were small, and as they lived, in most cases, in
+the larger cities of the empire, their contact with the Christian
+world was immediate and continuous. And then the irresistible
+fascination of German literature, and the easy, almost
+imperceptible transition from the Judeo-German to the
+Teutonic-German! All this and many minor allurements were potent
+enough to draw even the heretofore callous German Jews out of their
+isolation, and their Germanization by the middle of the nineteenth
+century was an established fact. No wonder, then, that, unlike
+Russian Jewry, the German Jews experienced an unprecedented
+revolution; that the difference between the Mendelssohnian
+generation and the next following was almost as great as that
+between the modern American Jew and his brother in the Orient. No
+wonder, also, that when Haskalah finally took root in Russia, it
+was purely German for fifty years and more; that Nicholas's
+vigorous attempts, instead of making the Slavonic Jews better
+Russians, merely helped to make those he "re-educated" greater
+admirers of Germany. The most puissant autocrat of Russia
+unwittingly contributed <span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id=
+"page192"></a>{192}</span> to the downfall of Russian autocracy,
+and Gregori Peretz, the Dekabrist, son of the financier who became
+converted under Alexander I, was the first of those who were to
+endeavor, with book and bomb, to break the backbone of tyranny
+under Nicholas II.<a id="footnotetag4-25" name=
+"footnotetag4-25"></a><a href="#footnote4-25"><sup>25</sup></a></p>
+<p>Till about the "sixties," then, the Russo-Jewish Maskilim were
+the recipients, and the German Jews were the donors. The German
+Jews wrote, the Russian Jews read. Germany was to the Jewish world,
+during the early Haskalah movement, what France, according to
+Guizot, was to Europe during the Renaissance: both received an
+impetus from the outside in the form of raw ideas, and modified
+them to suit their environment. Berlin was still, as it had been
+during the days of Mendelssohn and Wessely, the sanctuary of
+learning, the citadel of culture. In the highly cultivated German
+literature they found treasures of wisdom and science. The poetical
+gems of Goethe, Schiller, Lessing, and Herder captivated their
+fancy; the philosophy of Kant and Fichte, Schelling and Hegel
+nourished their intellect. Kant continued to be the favorite guide
+of Maimon's countrymen, and in their love for him they interpreted
+the initials of his name to mean "For my soul panteth after
+thee."<a id="footnotetag4-26" name="footnotetag4-26"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-26"><sup>26</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id=
+"page193"></a>{193}</span>
+<p>But more efficacious than all other agencies was Mendelssohn's
+German translation of the Bible, and the <i>Biur</i> commentary
+published therewith. Renaissance and Reformation, those mighty,
+revolutionary forces, have entered every country by side-doors, so
+to say. The Jewish Pale was no exception to the rule. What
+Wycliffe's translation did for England, and Luther's for Germany,
+Mendelssohn's did for Russian Jewry. Like the Septuagint, it marked
+a new epoch in the history of Jewish advancement. It is said that
+Mendelssohn's aim was chiefly to show the grandeur of the Hebrew
+poetry found in the Bible, but by the irony of fate his translation
+displayed to the Russian Jew the beauty and elegance of the German
+language. To the member of the Lovers of the New Haskalah,
+surreptitiously studying the Bible of the "Dessauer," the Hebrew
+was rather a translation of, or commentary on, the German, and
+served him as a bridge to cross over into the otherwise hardly
+accessible field of German literature.</p>
+<p>The cities on the borders of Russia were the first strongholds
+of Haskalah, and among them, as noted before, few struggled so
+intensely for their intellectual and civil emancipation as those in
+the provinces of Courland and Livonia. Though their <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>{194}</span> lot was
+not better than that of their coreligionists, yet, having formerly
+belonged to Germany, and being surrounded by a people whose culture
+was superior to that of the rest of Russia, they were the first to
+adopt western customs, and were surpassed only by the Jews in
+Germany in their desire for reform. Their strenuous pleadings for
+equal rights were, indeed, ineffectual, but this did not lessen
+their admiration for the beauties of civilization, nor blind them
+to its benefits. "Long ago," remarks Lilienthal, "before the
+peculiar Jewish dress was prohibited, a great many could be seen
+here [in Courland] dressed after the German fashion, speaking pure
+German, and having their whole household arranged after the German
+custom. The works of Mendelssohn were not <i>trefah pasul</i>
+[unclean and unfit], the children visited the public schools, the
+academies, and the universities."<a id="footnotetag4-27" name=
+"footnotetag4-27"></a><a href="#footnote4-27"><sup>27</sup></a></p>
+<p>The beautiful city of Odessa, on the Black Sea, at that time
+just out of its infancy and full of the virility and aspiration of
+youth, was also in the full glare of the German Haskalah movement.
+With its wide and straight streets, its public and private parks,
+and its magnificent structures, it presents even to-day a marked
+contrast to other Russian cities, and the Russians, not without
+pride, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id=
+"page195"></a>{195}</span> speak of it as "our little Paris." In
+the upbuilding of this southern metropolis Jews played an
+exceedingly important part. For, as regards the promotion of trade
+and commerce, Russia had outgrown the narrow policy of Elizabeta
+Petrovna, and did not begrudge her Jews the privilege of taking the
+lead. The "enemies of Christ" were permitted, even invited, to
+accomplish their "mission" also in Odessa, and thither they
+accordingly came, not only from Volhynia, Podolia, and Lithuania,
+but also from Germany, Austria, and especially Galicia. Erter,
+Letteris, Krochmal, Perl, Rapoport, Eichenbaum, Pinsker, and Werbel
+became better known in Russia than in their own land. As the
+Russo-Polish Jews had carried their Talmudic learning back to the
+countries whence they originally received it, so the Galician Jews,
+mostly hailing from the city of Brody, where Israel Zamoscz, Mendel
+Levin, Joseph Hakohen, and others had implanted the germs of
+Haskalah, now reimported it into Russia. The Jews of Odessa were,
+therefore, more cultured than other Russian Jews, not excepting
+those of Riga. Prosperous in business, they lavished money on their
+schools, and their educational system surpassed all others in the
+empire. In 1826 they had the best public school for boys, in 1835
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id=
+"page196"></a>{196}</span> a similar one for girls, and in 1852
+there existed fifty-nine public schools, eleven boarding schools,
+and four day schools. The children attended the Richelieu Lyceum
+and the "gymnasia" in larger proportion than children of other
+denominations, and they were among the first, not only in Russia,
+but in the whole Diaspora, to establish a "choir-synagogue" (1840).
+"In most of the families," says Lilienthal, "can be found a degree
+of refinement which may easily bear comparison with the best French
+salon." Even Nicholas I found words of praise for the Odessa Jews.
+"Yes," said he, "in Odessa I have also seen Jews, but they were
+men"; while the zaddik "Rabbi Yisrolze" declared that he saw "the
+flames of Gehennah round Odessa."<a id="footnotetag4-28" name=
+"footnotetag4-28"></a><a href="#footnote4-28"><sup>28</sup></a></p>
+<p>Warsaw, too, was a beneficiary of Germany, having been occupied
+by the Prussians before it fell to the lot of the Russians. It was
+there that practically the first Jewish weekly journals were
+published in Yiddish and Polish, Der Beobachter an der Weichsel,
+and Dostrzegacz Nadvisyansky (1823). There was opened the first
+so-called rabbinical seminary, with Anton Eisenbaum as principal,
+and Cylkov, Buchner, and Kramsztyk as teachers. The public schools
+were largely attended, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id=
+"page197"></a>{197}</span> owing to the efforts of Mattathias
+Rosen, and a year after a reformed synagogue had been organized in
+Odessa another was founded in Warsaw, where sermons were preached
+in German by Abraham Me&iuml;r Goldschmidt.</p>
+<p>But Riga on the Baltic, Odessa on the Black Sea, and Warsaw on
+the Vistula were outdone by some cities in the interior. Haskalah
+lovers multiplied rapidly, and were found in the early "forties" in
+every city of any size in the Pale. "The further we go from Pinsk
+to Kletzk and Nieszvicz," writes a correspondent in the
+Annalen,<a id="footnotetag4-29" name="footnotetag4-29"></a><a href=
+"#footnote4-29"><sup>29</sup></a> "the more we lose sight of the
+fanatics, and the greater grows the number of the enlightened."
+With the establishment of the rabbinical seminaries in Zhitomir
+(1848), this former centre of Hasidism became the nursery of
+Haskalah. The movement was especially strong in Vilna, the
+"Jerusalem of Lithuania," as Napoleon is said to have called it.
+From time immemorial, long before the Gaon's day, it had been
+famous for its Talmudic scholars. "Its yeshibot," says Jacob Emden
+in the middle of the eighteenth century, "were closed neither by
+day nor by night; many scholars came home from the bet ha-midrash
+but once a week. They surpassed their brethren in Poland and in
+Germany in learning and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id=
+"page198"></a>{198}</span> knowledge, and it was regarded of much
+consequence to secure a rabbi from Vilna." Now this "city and
+mother in Israel" became one of the pioneers of Haskalah, all the
+more because, in addition to the public schools and the rabbinical
+seminary, the Jews were admitted to its university on equal terms
+with the Gentiles. "Within six years," exclaims Mandelstamm, "what
+a change has come over Vilna! Youths and maidens, anxious for the
+new Haskalah, are now to be met with everywhere, nor are any
+ashamed to learn a trade." The schools exerted a salutary influence
+on the younger generation, and the older people, too, began to view
+life differently, only that they were still reluctant to discard
+their old-fashioned garb. There also, in 1847, the leading Maskilim
+started a reform synagogue, which they named Taharat ha-Kodesh, the
+Essence of Holiness.<a id="footnotetag4-30" name=
+"footnotetag4-30"></a><a href="#footnote4-30"><sup>30</sup></a></p>
+<p>It should not be forgotten that, if Lilienthal met with mighty
+opposition, he also had powerful supporters. There were many who,
+though remaining in the background, strongly sympathized with his
+plan. Indeed, the number of educated Jews, as proved by an
+investigation ordered by Nicholas I, was far greater than had been
+commonly supposed. Not only in the border towns, but even in the
+interior <span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id=
+"page199"></a>{199}</span> of the Pale, the students of German
+literature and secular science were not few, and Doctor Loewe
+discovered in Hebron an exceptional German scholar in the person of
+an immigrant from Vilna.<a id="footnotetag4-31" name=
+"footnotetag4-31"></a><a href="#footnote4-31"><sup>31</sup></a> The
+tendency of the time is well illustrated by an anecdote told by
+Slonimsky, to the effect that when he went to ask the approval of
+Rabbi Abele of Zaslava on his <i>Mosde Hokmah</i>, he found that
+those who came to be examined for ordination received their award
+without delay, while he was put off from week to week. Ill at ease,
+Slonimsky approached the venerable rabbi and demanded an
+explanation: "You grant a semikah [rabbinical diploma] so readily,
+why do you seem so reluctant when a mere haskamah [recommendation]
+is the matter at issue?" To his surprise the reason given was that
+the rabbi enjoyed his scientific debates so much that he would not
+willingly part with the young author.</p>
+<p>Stories were told how the deans of the yeshibot were frequently
+found to have mastered the very books they confiscated because of
+the teachings they inculcated. Before the reign of Nicholas I drew
+to its end, Haskalah centres were as numerous as the cities wherein
+Jews resided. In Byelostok the Talmudist Jehiel Michael Zabludovsky
+was lending <span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id=
+"page200"></a>{200}</span> German books to young Slonimsky, the
+future inventor and publicist; in Vlotslavek Rabbi Joseph Hayyim
+Caro was writing and preaching in classic German; in Zhagory,
+Hayyim Sack helped Leon Mandelstamm (1809-1889), the first Jewish
+"candidate," or bachelor, in philology to graduate from the St.
+Petersburg University (1844) and the assistant and successor of
+Lilienthal, in the expurgation and German translation of Maimuni's
+<i>Mishneh Torah</i>. When, in 1857, Mandelstamm resigned, he was
+followed by Seiberling, for fifteen years the censor of Jewish
+books in Kiev, upon whom a German university conferred the doctor's
+degree. The poverty-stricken Wolf Adelsohn, known as the Hebrew
+Diogenes, formed a group of Seekers after Light in Dubno, while
+such wealthy merchants as Abraham Rathaus, Lilienthal's secretary
+during his campaign in Berdichev, Issachar Bompi, the bibliophile
+in Minsk, Leon Rosenthal, financier and philanthropist in
+Brest-Litovsk, and Aaron Rabinovich, in Kobelyaki (Poltava),
+promoted enlightenment by precept and example. In Vilna, Joseph
+Sackheim's young son acted as English interpreter when Montefiore
+was entertained by his father, and Jacob Barit, the incomparable
+"Yankele Kovner" (1793-1833) another of Montefiore's <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>{201}</span> hosts,
+was master of Russian, German, and French, and aroused the
+admiration of the Governor-General Nazimov by his learning and his
+ability.</p>
+<p>Yes, the Jews began to pay, if they had ever been in debt, for
+the good that had for a while been bestowed upon them by Alexander
+I. Alexander Nebakhovich was a well-known theatrical director, his
+brother Michael was the editor of the first Russian comic paper
+Yeralash, and Osip Rabinovich showed marked ability in serious
+journalism. In 1842 died Abraham Jacob Stern, the greatest inventor
+Russia had till then produced; and, as if to corroborate the
+statement of the Talmud, that when one sun sets another rises, the
+Demidoff prize of two thousand five hundred rubles was the same
+year awarded to his son-in-law, Hayyim Selig Slonimsky (HaZas,
+1810-1904) of Byelostok, for the first of his valuable inventions.
+Stern's genius was surpassed, though in a different direction, only
+by that of Elijah Vilna. His first invention was a calculating
+machine, which led to his election as a member of the Warsaw
+Society of the Friends of Science (1817) and to his being received
+twice by Alexander I (1816, 1818), who bestowed upon him an annual
+pension of three hundred and <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page202" id="page202"></a>{202}</span> fifty rubles. This
+invention was followed by another, "a topographical wagon for the
+measurement of level surfaces, an invention of great benefit to
+both civil and military engineers." He also constructed an improved
+threshing and harvesting machine and a sickle of immense value to
+agriculture.<a id="footnotetag4-32" name=
+"footnotetag4-32"></a><a href="#footnote4-32"><sup>32</sup></a></p>
+<p>But it is scarcely possible, nor would it be profitable, to
+enumerate either the places or the persons who were, so to speak,
+inoculated with the Haskalah virus. In Grodno, Kovno, Lodz, Minsk,
+Mohilev, Pinsk, Zamoscz, Slutsk, Vitebsk, Zhagory, and other
+places, they were toiling zealously and diligently, these
+anchorites in the desert of knowledge. Among them were men of all
+classes and callings, from the cloistered Talmudist to the worldly
+merchant. The path of Haskalah was slowly yet surely cleared. The
+efforts of the conservative Maskilim were not devoid of some good
+results, nor even were those of Nicholas, though aimed at
+Christianizing rather than civilizing, entirely wasted. With all
+their shortcomings, and though producing but few rabbis acceptable
+to Russo-Jewish congregations, the seminaries in Warsaw, Zhitomir,
+and Vilna were powers for enlightenment. In them the future
+prominent scientists, scholars, and litterateurs were reared, and
+there the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id=
+"page203"></a>{203}</span> foundations were laid for the activities
+of Goldfaden, Gurland, Harkavy, Kantor, Landau, Levanda,
+Mandelkern, Paperna, Pumpyansky, Rosenberg, Steinberg, and others.
+Their fate was that of Mendelssohn's Bible translation. The end
+became a means, the means, an end. But they not only "brought
+forth" great men, they rendered no less important a service in
+"bringing out" those already great. Had it not been for their
+professorships, men like Abramovitsch, Lerner, Plungian, Slonimsky,
+Suchastover, and Zweifel, who were not blessed with worldly goods
+like F&uuml;nn, Katzenellenbogen, Luria, or Strashun, would
+probably have sought in private teaching or petty trading a source
+of subsistence, and Judaism in general and Russian Jewry in
+particular would have sustained a considerable loss. They helped to
+prepare the soil, even to implant the germ, and</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Once the germ implanted,</p>
+<p>Its growth, if slow, is sure.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>As the history of this period is incomplete without an
+acquaintance with the lives of some of the Maskilim who sowed the
+seeds that burst into blossom under the favorable conditions of the
+"sixties," I shall select, as specimens out of a multitude, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id=
+"page204"></a>{204}</span> two who, more than any others, furthered
+the cause of Haskalah, Isaac B&auml;r Levinsohn and Mordecai Aaron
+G&uuml;nzburg.<a id="footnotetag4-33" name=
+"footnotetag4-33"></a><a href="#footnote4-33"><sup>33</sup></a></p>
+<p>Isaac B&auml;r Levinsohn of Kremenetz, Volhynia (RiBaL,
+1788-1860), was for many years a name to conjure with, not only
+among the Maskilim of all shades, but also among their opponents.
+Long before he reached man's estate, he had entered upon the career
+to which he was to dedicate his life. Even in those times of
+numerous child prodigies, Levinsohn was distinguished for his
+intellectual precocity. At the age of three he was ripe for the
+heder. At nine he was the author of a work on Cabbala. At ten he
+mastered the Talmud, and knew the entire Hebrew Bible by heart. But
+what singled him out among his classmates was his passionate love
+of secular knowledge. The son of Judah Levin, an erudite merchant
+who knew Hebrew and Polish to perfection, the grandson of Jekuthiel
+Solomon, famed for wealth and refinement, he evinced unusual
+ability in selecting and retaining what was good and true in
+everything he read. At fourteen he was familiar with the
+literatures of several nations, so that during the Franco-Russian
+war (1812) he easily secured an appointment as interpreter and
+secretary in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id=
+"page205"></a>{205}</span> local police department. But excessive
+study caused ill-health, and at the suggestion of his physicians he
+went to Brody in Galicia, a fortunate incident in the otherwise
+solitary and gloomy life of the future reformer, for next to
+Germany Galicia played an important part in the Haskalah movement
+in Russia. There he met Joseph Perl, the noted educator; Doctor
+Isaac Erter, the immortal satirist; M.H. Letteris, the
+distinguished poet; S.L. Rapoport, one of the first and profoundest
+of Jewish historians, and Nahman Krochmal, the saintly philosopher.
+Into this circle of "shining ones" Levinsohn was introduced, and
+each and all left an impression, some greater, some less, upon his
+plastic soul. It was there and then, in the congenial company of
+friends of about his own age, that Levinsohn determined to devote
+himself to improving the educational system of his people and began
+to plan his work on <i>Learning in Israel</i> (<i>Te'udah
+be-Yisra&euml;l</i>), which procured for its author the foremost
+place in the history of the Haskalah movement.</p>
+<p>The book was finished in 1823, but, owing to Levinsohn's
+pecuniary circumstances, it remained unpublished till 1828.
+Meanwhile it circulated in manuscript among the leading Maskilim of
+Russia, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id=
+"page206"></a>{206}</span> Austria, and Germany, and established
+its author's reputation wherever it was read. Levinsohn was one of
+those who understand the persuasive power of the still small voice
+of sweet reasonableness. He knew that a few convincing arguments
+couched in gentle language will accomplish more for the furtherance
+of an ideal than the trumpet call of a hundred clamoring militants,
+and Haskalah will make headway only when it can prove itself to be
+a help, and not a hindrance, to religion. Accordingly, he aimed to
+show that the Tanaim, Amoraim, Saboraim, Geonim, and rabbis of
+later generations were versed in the sciences, were familiar with
+foreign history, and interested in the affairs of the world. But
+these he quotes only as exemplars of broad-mindedness, they must no
+longer be regarded as authorities in secular knowledge. "Art and
+science," he says, "are steadily progressing.... To perfect
+ourselves in them we must resort to non-Jewish sources." This was a
+bold statement for those times, however mildly expressed. The
+<i>Te'udah</i> became a bone of contention. It was torn and burnt
+by fanatics, exalted to the skies by friends. The new apostle of
+enlightenment was forced to leave the city and reside for a while
+in Berdichev, Nemirov, Ostrog, and Tulchin. But wherever
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id=
+"page207"></a>{207}</span> he went, his tribulation was sweetened
+by the enthusiasm of his admirers and the consciousness that his
+toil was not entirely wasted. In Warsaw and in Vilna his name was
+great, and Nicholas presented him with a thousand rubles as a mark
+of appreciation of the book, the fly-leaf of which bears the
+inscription "To science."</p>
+<p>In the midst of his more serious studies Levinsohn diverted
+himself occasionally with lighter composition, in which many an
+antiquated custom served as the butt for his biting satire. In his
+youth he had a penchant for poetry, and his poem on the flight, or
+expulsion, of the French from Russia was complimented by the
+Government. His muse dealt with ephemeral themes, but his <i>bons
+mots</i> are current among his countrymen to this day. A novel sort
+of plagiarism was the fashion of the time. Authors attributed their
+work to others, instead of claiming the product of others as their
+own. Levinsohn's <i>Hefker Welt</i>, in Yiddish, and <i>Sayings of
+the Saints</i> and <i>Valley of the Dead</i>, in Hebrew, belong to
+this category. But the deep student did not persist long in this
+species of diversion. Wittgenstein, the field-marshal, and
+professors at the Lyceum of his town, supplied him with books, and
+he, an omnivorous reader, plunged <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page208" id="page208"></a>{208}</span> again into his graver work,
+the result of which was the little book since translated into
+English, Russian, and German, <i>Efes Dammim</i> (<i>No
+Blood!</i>). As the name indicates, it was intended as a defence
+against the blood, or ritual murder, accusation. It was the right
+word in the right time and place. In Zaslav, Volhynia, this
+monstrous libel had been revived, and popular fury rose to a high
+pitch. Several years later the Damascus Affair stirred the Jewish
+world to determined action, designed to stamp it out once for all.
+To wage war against this superstitious belief seems to have fallen
+to the lot of several of Levinsohn's family. In 1757, when it
+asserted itself in Yampoly, Volhynia, his great-uncle, by the
+unanimous consent of the Council of the Four Countries, was sent to
+Rome to intercede with the Pope. After six years of pleading, he
+returned to his native land with a signed statement addressed to
+the Polish king and nobles, which declared the accusation to be
+utterly false. Another uncle of his had performed a similar task in
+1749. True scion of a noble family, Levinsohn followed in their
+wake, and his effort was declared to be a "sharp sword forged by a
+master, to fight for our honor."</p>
+<p>Everything was against Levinsohn when he <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>{209}</span> started
+on his third great work, <i>The House of Judah</i> (<i>Bet
+Yehudah</i>). He found himself poor, sick, and alone, and deprived
+of his fine library. In those days, and for a long time before and
+afterwards, Hebrew authors were paid in kind. In return for their
+copyright they received a number of copies of their books, which
+they were at liberty to dispose of as best they could. Now, while
+Levinsohn's copies of his <i>Bet Yehudah</i> were still at the
+publisher's, a fire broke out, and most of them were consumed.</p>
+<p>The <i>Te'udah be-Yisra&euml;l</i> had been prompted by a desire
+to prove the compatibility of modern civilization with Judaism.
+Levinsohn's object in writing his <i>Bet Yehudah</i> was the
+reverse. The impetus came from without the Jewish camp. The book
+represents the author's views on certain Jewish problems propounded
+by his Christian friend, Prince Emanuel Lieven, just as
+Mendelssohn's <i>Jerusalem</i> was written at the instigation of
+Lavater. Though there is a similarity in the causes that produced
+the two books, there is a marked difference in their methods.
+Mendelssohn treats his subject as an impartial non-Jewish
+philosopher might have done. He is frequently too reserved, for
+fear of offending. Levinsohn, in Greek-Catholic Russia,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id=
+"page210"></a>{210}</span> is strictly frank. He is conscious of
+the difficulties under which he is laboring. To discuss religion in
+Russia is far from agreeable. "It is," he says, "as if a master,
+pretending to exhibit his skill in racing, were to enter into
+competition publicly with his slave ... and at the same time wink
+at him to slacken his speed." Of one thing he is certain: Judaism
+is a progressive religion. It had been and might be reformed from
+time to time, but this can and must be only along the lines of its
+own genius. To improve the moral and material condition of the Jews
+by weaning them away from the faith of their fathers (as was tried
+by Nicholas) will not do. On the contrary, make them better Jews,
+and they will be better citizens.</p>
+<p>The <i>Bet Yehudah</i> may justly be called the connecting link
+between the <i>Te'udah</i>, which preceded it, and
+<i>Zerubbabel</i>, which followed it. The latter, though written in
+Hebrew, was really intended exclusively for the Gentile world, as
+the former had been mainly for the Jewish world. It is a
+continuation, but not yet a conclusion, of the self-assigned task
+of Levinsohn. The Talmud, we have seen, was at that time the object
+of assaults of zealous Christians and disloyal Jews, and hostile
+works against Judaism were the order of the day. Most <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>{211}</span> of them,
+however, like the fabulous snake, vented their poison and died. It
+was different with McCaul's poignant diatribe against the cause of
+Judaism and the honor of the Talmud, which had been translated into
+many languages. Montefiore, while in Russia, urged Levinsohn to
+defend his people against their traducers, and the bed-ridden sage,
+almost blind and hardly able to hold a pen, finally consented. What
+<i>Zerubbabel</i> accomplished, can be judged from the fact that in
+the second Hebrew edition of McCaul's <i>Old Paths</i> (1876) are
+omitted many of the calumnies and aspersions of the first edition,
+published in 1839.</p>
+<p>Levinsohn's life was a continuous struggle against an insidious
+disease, which kept him confined to his bed, and prevented him from
+accepting any prominent position. But though, as he said, he had
+"neither brother, wife, child, nor even a sound body," he impressed
+his personality upon Russian Jewry as no one else, save the Gaon,
+had before him. His breadth of view and his sympathetic disposition
+gradually won him the respect and love of all who knew him. The
+zaddikim Abraham of Turisk and Israel Rasiner were his lifelong
+friends; the Talmudist Strashun acknowledged his indebtedness to
+him, and Rabbi Abele of Vilna <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page212" id="page212"></a>{212}</span> remarked jestingly that the
+only fault to be found with the <i>Te'udah</i> was that its author
+was not the Gaon Elijah. He enjoyed prominence in Government
+circles, and Prince Wittgenstein was passionately fond of his
+company. Above all he endeared himself to the Maskilim. To him they
+looked as to their teacher and guide; him they consulted in every
+emergency. Lebensohn and Gottlober, Mandelstamm and Gordon, equally
+sought his criticism and advice. For all he had words of comfort
+and encouragement. The younger Maskilim he warned not to waste
+their time in idle versification, not to become intoxicated with
+their little learning; and the older ones he implored to respect
+the sentiments of their conservative coreligionists. "Take it not
+amiss," he would say to the latter, "that the great bulk of our
+people hearken not as yet to our new teachings. All beginnings are
+difficult. The drop cannot become a deluge instantaneously.
+Persevere in your laudable ambition, publish your good and readable
+books, and the result, though slow, is sure."</p>
+<p>Thus lived and labored the first of the Maskilim, an idealist
+from beginning to end. Persecution did not embitter, nor poverty
+depress him. And when he passed away quietly (February 12, 1860) in
+the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id=
+"page213"></a>{213}</span> obscure little town in which he had been
+born, and which has become famous through him, it was felt that
+Russia had had her Mendelssohn, too. Strange to say, he little
+suspected the tremendous influence he exerted upon the Haskalah
+movement, but was quite sanguine of the success of his fight for
+"truth and justice among the nations." His work he modestly summed
+up in the epitaph which was inscribed on his tombstone at his
+request:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Out of nothing God called me to life.</p>
+<p>Alas, earthly life has passed, and I must</p>
+<p>Sleep again on the bosom of Mother Nature.</p>
+<p>Witness this stone. I fought with God's</p>
+<p>Foes, not with a Sword, but with the Word;</p>
+<p>I fought for Truth and Justice among the Nations</p>
+<p>And <i>Zerubbabel</i> and <i>Efes Dammim</i> testify
+thereto.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Contemporaneous with Isaac B&auml;r Levinsohn, and hardly less
+distinguished and influential, was Mordecai Aaron G&uuml;nzburg
+(ReMAG, Salanti, Kovno, December 3, 1795&mdash;Vilna, November 5,
+1846). His family had been prominent in many walks of life since
+the fourteenth century, and, whether in the land of the Saxons or
+of the Slavs, represented the cream of the Jewries in which they
+lived. His father was a Maskil of great repute, who had written
+several treatises, in Hebrew, on <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page214" id="page214"></a>{214}</span> algebra, geometry, optics,
+and kindred subjects. He sought to supplement his son Mordecai
+Aaron's heder education with a knowledge of secular sciences. But
+at that time and in that place not many were the books, outside the
+Talmud, accessible to a lad eager for learning, the only ones
+available being such as the <i>Josippon</i>, <i>Zemah David</i>,
+and <i>She&euml;rit Yisra&euml;l</i> on Jewish History, the
+<i>Sefer ha-Berit</i>, and a Hebrew translation of Mendelssohn's
+<i>Phaedon</i> on general philosophy. But the precocious and
+clear-minded youth did not need much to stimulate his love for
+history and his inclination to philosophy, and his intellectual
+development continued in spite of the untoward circumstances in
+which he happened to be placed.</p>
+<p>Though he was "given" in marriage at a very early age, the
+proverbial "millstone" weighed but lightly upon the neck of young
+G&uuml;nzburg. He never discontinued the habit of secluding himself
+in his study for hours, sometimes for days, at a time, and there
+writing down his thoughts in painstaking penmanship. These
+productions, with all their crudity, promised, according to a keen
+critic, the flowers which would one day "ripen into delicious
+fruit, not only pleasant to the sight but also delicious to the
+taste." In fact, even his religious views <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>{215}</span> underwent
+but slight modification in later and maturer years. Ceremonial
+laws, or minhagim, were to him a social compact among the members
+of a sect. He who transgresses them is, <i>eo ipso</i>, excluded
+from the sect, as he who disregards the social code, though not
+immoral, is ostracized from society. This led him to the logical
+conclusion that every Jew must comply with the customs of his
+people, though his opinion as to their moral value may differ from
+that of the rest. He believed in freedom of thought, but would not
+concede freedom of action or even of expression, and would say with
+Bolingbroke, "Freedom belongs to a man as a rational creature, he
+lies under the restraint as a member of society."</p>
+<p>At these conclusions, G&uuml;nzburg arrived only after a long,
+severe, though silent, struggle in the seclusion of his closet. His
+active mind would not at first surrender unconditionally to the
+coercion of custom. But his conception of ceremonialism served him
+in good stead on many an occasion in his eventful life. Being an
+expedient to preserve harmony, it may and must vary with change of
+conditions. Accordingly, G&uuml;nzburg always accommodated himself
+to his environment. In Vilna he subscribed to the regulations of
+the <i>Shulhan 'Aruk</i>, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page216"
+id="page216"></a>{216}</span> in Mitau he quickly and completely
+became Germanized. Such adaptability rendered him conspicuous
+wherever he went, and as early as 1829 his name was included among
+the learned of Livonia, Esthland, and Courland in the Biographical
+Dictionary then published by Recke and Napyersky.</p>
+<p>His claim to fame, however, consists in the influence he exerted
+upon Russian Jews. Like Levinsohn, he was a constructive force. In
+his younger days, he had inveighed against the benighted rabbis and
+the antiquated garb, but moderation came with discretion. He would
+not sweep away by force the accumulation of hundreds of years.
+Judaism needed reforms of some sort, but these could not be brought
+about by the Russo-German-doctor-rabbis, men who could rede the
+seven riddles of the world, but whose knowledge of their own people
+and its spiritual treasures was close to the zero point. "For a
+rabbi," writes he, "Torah must be the integer, science the cipher.
+Had Aristotle embraced Judaism, notwithstanding his unparalleled
+erudition, he would still remain a sage, never become a rabbi." But
+he was as little satisfied with the exclusively Talmudistic rabbis.
+"O ye modern rabbis," he calls out in one of his essays, in which
+he stigmatizes Lilienthal's plans as the "gourd of Jonah,"
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id=
+"page217"></a>{217}</span> "you who stand in the place of seer and
+prophet of yore, is it not your duty to rise above the people, to
+intervene between them and the Government? And how can you expect
+to accomplish it, if the language and regulations of our country
+are entirely unknown to you?"</p>
+<p>The impress G&uuml;nzburg left upon Hebrew literature is of
+special importance. Until his time, despite the examples set by
+Satanov and Levin, Hebrew was stamped with the hallmark of
+medievalism. Like the Spanish entertainment in Dryden's <i>Mock
+Astrologer</i>, at which everything at the table tasted of nothing
+but red pepper, so the literature of that day was dominated by the
+style and spirit of the Talmud and saturated with its subtleties.
+Astronomy, philosophy, mathematics, and poetry swarmed with puns,
+alliterations, pedantic allusions; they were overladen with
+irrelevant notes and interwoven with quaint and strained
+interpretations. G&uuml;nzburg was the first, with the exception of
+Erter perhaps, to try to remedy the evil. "Every writer," he
+maintained, "should guard himself against the fastidiousness or
+stiffness which results from pedantry, and take great pains not
+only with the content of his thoughts, but with the language in
+which these thoughts are couched." Simplicity, perspicuity,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id=
+"page218"></a>{218}</span> and conciseness, these he taught by
+precept and example, and though he was accused of "Germanizing" the
+Hebrew language, he persisted in his labor until he attained the
+foremost rank among the neo-Hebraic litterateurs.</p>
+<p>In G&uuml;nzburg we find the artistic temperament developed to a
+degree rare among Hebraists of even more recent years. He wrote
+only in moments of inspiration. At times he passed weeks and months
+without penning a line, but when once aroused he wrote unceasingly
+until he finished what he had begun. He was careful in the choice
+of his words, careful in the choice of his books, and would
+recommend nothing but the best. "I may not have genius enough," he
+would say, "to distinguish between better and best, but I do not
+lack common sense, to differentiate tares from weeds." Above all,
+he possessed a sense of honor, the greatest stimulus, as he
+maintained, to noble endeavors. "For as marriage is necessary to
+perpetuate the race, and food to sustain the individual, so is
+honor to the existence of the superior man."</p>
+<p>Of the fifty years of his active life more than one-half was
+spent in literary labor. His books obtained a wide circulation,
+and, though they were rather expensive, became rare soon after
+their publication. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id=
+"page219"></a>{219}</span> Yet, strange to say, this eminent
+Hebraist seldom, if ever, lauds the beauties of the "daughter of
+Eber" (Hebrew) like his fellow-Maskilim since the days of the
+Meassefim, nor does he even think it incumbent on a Jew to be
+conversant with it.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>Three periods have passed over me&mdash;he writes to a
+friend&mdash;since I dedicated myself to Hebrew. As a youth I loved
+it as a Jewish lad loves his betrothed, not because he is enamored
+of her charms, but because his parents have chosen her for him; as
+I grew older, I continued to love it as a Jewish man loves his
+wife, not because of real affection, but because she is the only
+one he knows; now that I am old, I still love her, as an elderly
+Jew loves his helpmate: he is aware that she lacks many of the
+accomplishments of which more educated women can boast, but, for
+all that, remembering her faithfulness in the past, he loves her
+also in the present, and loves her till he dies.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>G&uuml;nzburg was different from most of his contemporaries in
+another respect. He was a voluminous writer, but only a few of his
+books and essays bear on what we now call Jewish science. Zunz,
+Geiger, and Jost, seeing that Judaism was gradually losing its hold
+upon their Jewish countrymen, resorted to exploring and narrating,
+in German, the wonderful story of their race, in the hope of
+renewing its ebbing strength. Levinsohn, living amid a different
+environment, deemed it best to convince <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>{220}</span> his
+fellow-Jews that secular knowledge was necessary, and religion
+sanctioned their pursuit thereof. G&uuml;nzburg, the man of
+letters, determined to teach through the vehicle of Hebrew the true
+and the beautiful wherever he found it. He felt called upon to
+reveal to his brethren the grandeur of the world beyond the dingy
+ghetto, to tell them the stories not contained in the Midrash,
+<i>Josippon</i>, or the biographies of rabbis and zaddikim. He
+translated Campe's <i>Discovery of the New World</i>, compiled a
+history of ancient civilization, and narrated the epochal event of
+the nineteenth century, the conflict between Russia and France. He
+taught his fellow-Jews to think correctly and logically, to clothe
+their thoughts in beautiful expressions, and revealed his innermost
+being to them in his autobiography, <i>Abi'ezer</i>. As a writer he
+appears neither erudite nor profound. We cannot apply to his works
+what we may safely say of Elijah Vilna's and Levinsohn's, that
+"there is solid metal enough in them to fit out whole circulating
+libraries, were it beaten into the usual filigree." But he was
+elegant, cultured, intelligent, honorable; one who joined a feeling
+heart to a love for art; a Moses who struck from the rock of the
+Hebrew tongue <span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id=
+"page221"></a>{221}</span> refreshing streams for those thirsting
+for knowledge; a most amiable personality, and an altogether
+unusual character during the century-long struggle between light
+and darkness in the Jewry of Russia.</p>
+<a name="illus-smolenskin" id="illus-smolenskin"></a>
+<center><img width="250" height="366" src=
+"images/illus-smolenskin.png" alt=
+"Perez Ben Moshe Smolenskin" /></center>
+<center>Perez Ben Mosheh Smolenskin, 1842-1885</center>
+<p>(Notes, pp. <a href="#notes-4">318-322</a>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id=
+"page222"></a>{222}</span>
+<h2><a name="chap5" id="chap5">CHAPTER V</a></h2>
+<h3>RUSSIFICATION, REFORMATION, AND ASSIMILATION</h3>
+<h4>1856-1881</h4>
+<p>The year 1856 will always be remembered as the <i>annus
+mirabilis</i> in the history of Russia. It marked at once the
+cessation of the Crimean war and the accession of the most liberal
+and benevolent monarch Russia ever had. On January 16, the heir
+apparent signified his consent to accept Austrian intervention,
+which resulted in the Treaty of Paris (March 30), granting the
+Powers involved "peace with honor"; and in August, in the Cathedral
+of the Assumption at Moscow, amidst unprecedented rejoicing, the
+czarevich placed the imperial crown upon his head. From that time
+reform followed reform. The condition of the soldiers, who had
+virtually been slaves under Nicholas I, was greatly improved, and a
+proclamation was issued for the emancipation of the peasants,
+slaves not for a limited time only, but for life and from
+generation <span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id=
+"page223"></a>{223}</span> to generation. It cost the United States
+five years of fratricidal agony, a billion of dollars, and about
+half a million of lives, to liberate five or six millions of
+negroes; Russia, in one memorable day (February 19, 1861),
+liberated nearly twenty-two millions of muzhiks (peasants), and
+gave them full freedom, by a mere stroke of the pen of the "tsar
+osvobodityel," the Liberator Czar, Alexander II (1856-1881).</p>
+<p>Other innovations, of less magnitude but nevertheless of
+far-reaching importance, were introduced later. Capital punishment,
+which still disgraces human justice in more enlightened states, was
+unconditionally abolished; the number of offences amenable to
+corporal punishment was gradually reduced, until, on April 29,
+1863, all the horrors of the gauntlet, the spur, the lash, the cat,
+and the brand, were consigned to eternal oblivion. The barbarous
+system of the judiciary was replaced by one that could render
+justice "speedy, righteous, merciful, and equitable." Railway
+communication, postal and telegraph service, police protection, the
+improvement of the existing universities, the opening of many new
+primary schools, and the introduction of compulsory school
+attendance, told speedily on the intellectual development of the
+people. In <span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id=
+"page224"></a>{224}</span> the words of Shumakr, Russia experienced
+"a complete inward revival." Old customs seemed to disappear, all
+things were become new. New life, new hope, new aspirations
+throbbed in the hearts of the subjects of the gigantic empire, and
+better times were knocking at their doors. <i>Joli tout le monde,
+le diable est mort!</i></p>
+<p>This era of great reforms and the resuscitation of all that is
+good and noble in the Slavonic soul brought about also a moral
+regeneration. The colossus who, according to Turgenief, preferred
+to sleep an endless sleep, with a jug of vodka in his clutched
+fingers, proved that he, too, was human, with a feeling, human
+heart beating in his bosom. With the restoration of peace and the
+abolition of serfhood, there began a removal of prejudice even
+against Jews. Hitherto the foremost litterateurs in Russia,
+imitating the writers of other lands, had painted the Jew as a
+monstrosity. Pushkin's prisoner, Gogol's traitor, Lermontoff's spy,
+and Turgenief's Zhid (Jew) were caricatures and libels, equal in
+acrimony, and not inferior in art, to Shakespeare's Shylock and
+Dickens's Fagin. But now the best and ablest men of letters signed
+a protest against such unjust and impossible characters.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id=
+"page225"></a>{225}</span>
+<blockquote>
+<p>Two thousand years of cruel suffering and affliction&mdash;said
+the historian and humanitarian Professor Granovsky, of the
+University of Moscow&mdash;have at last erased the bloody boundary
+line separating the Jews from humanity. The honor of this
+reconciliation, which is becoming firmer from day to day, belongs
+to our age. The civic status of the Jews is now established in most
+European countries, and even in the places that are still backward
+their condition is improved, if not by law, then by
+enlightenment.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>And law and enlightenment radiated their sunshine also upon the
+Jews of rejuvenated Russia. The Cantonist system was abolished for
+good; the high schools and universities were opened to Jews without
+discrimination; and the Governments lying outside the Pale were
+made accessible to Jewish scholars, professional men,
+manufacturers, wholesale merchants, and skilled laborers (March 16,
+1859; November 27, 1861).<a id="footnotetag5-1" name=
+"footnotetag5-1"></a><a href="#footnote5-1"><sup>1</sup></a>
+Through the efforts of Wolf Kaplan, one of G&uuml;nzburg's noted
+pupils, the persecution of Jews by Germans in Riga was stopped, and
+the eminent publicist Katkoff undertook to defend them in the
+newspaper Russkiya Vyedomosti. Nazimov, the Governor-General of
+Vilna, Mukhlinsky, who inspected the Jewish schools in western
+Russia, Artzimovich, of southern Russia, and many other prominent
+personages arose as champions of the Jews.<a id="footnotetag5-2"
+name="footnotetag5-2"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id=
+"page226"></a>{226}</span>
+<p>The physician and pedagogue Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov
+(1810-1881), the superintendent of the Odessa and Kiev school
+districts, is especially deserving of honorable mention in the
+history of Haskalah. Of all the Russians of the period who gloried
+in their liberal convictions, he was the most liberal. In him the
+last vestige of prejudice and race distinction disappeared, and he
+conscientiously devoted himself to the study, not only of the
+present, but also of the past of the Jews, to be in a better
+position to lend them his assistance. To the Jews he appealed to
+unite and spread enlightenment among the masses by peaceful means.
+To the Gentiles, again, he did not hesitate to point out the good
+qualities of the Jews, and in an article on the Odessa Talmud Torah
+he held up the institution as a model for the public elementary
+schools. He admired especially the enthusiasm with which Jewish
+youths devoted themselves to the acquisition of knowledge. "Where
+are religion, morality, enlightenment, and the modern spirit,"
+asked he, "when these Jews, who, with courage and self-sacrifice,
+engage in the struggle against prejudices centuries old, meet no
+one here to sympathize with them and extend a helping hand to
+them?" His liberality carried him so far that he established a fund
+for the support <span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id=
+"page227"></a>{227}</span> of indigent Jewish students at the
+University of Kiev, and he advocated strenuously the award of
+prizes and scholarships to deserving Jewish students. Such as he
+were rare in any land, but nowhere so rare as in Russia.<a id=
+"footnotetag5-3" name="footnotetag5-3"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-3"><sup>3</sup></a></p>
+<p>Pirogov took the initiative in reorganizing the Jewish schools.
+It required little observation to understand that they had proved a
+failure. Instead of attracting the Jewish masses to secular
+education, they only repelled them. The remedy was not far to seek.
+"The abolition of these schools" said Count Kotzebu, "would drive
+the Jews back to their fanaticism and isolation. It is necessary to
+make the Jews useful citizens, and I see no other means of
+achieving this than by their education." Pirogov's first move was
+to order that Jewish instead of Christian principals be put at
+their head, and he set an example by appointing Rosenzweig to that
+office. The curriculum was changed, making the lower schools
+correspond with our grammar schools, and adapting their studies to
+the needs of those who must discontinue schooling at a
+comparatively early age. The higher schools were arranged so as to
+prepare the pupils for the gymnasium. The salaries of the teachers
+were raised, and books and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page228"
+id="page228"></a>{228}</span> necessaries were provided for pupils
+too poor to afford them.</p>
+<p>The Government's attention having been directed by General
+Zelenoy to the Jewish agricultural colonies in southern Russia,
+Marcus Gurovich was appointed to work out a plan to provide them
+with graded schools. He proposed that secular and sacred subjects
+alike be taught by Jewish teachers, and these were to be cautioned
+to be careful not to offend the religious sensibilities of the
+parents. The plan appealed to the colonists, and they looked
+forward anxiously to its fulfilment. Having waited in vain till
+1868, they offered to defray the expenses of the schools involved,
+if the Government would advance the money at the first.
+Accordingly, ten schools for boys and two for girls were opened in
+that year.</p>
+<p>Such disinterested efforts on their behalf would have evoked the
+gratitude of Jews at any time and in every country, how much more
+in Russia, and following close upon the darkest period in their
+history! The struggle for liberty all over Europe in 1848&mdash;the
+spring of nations&mdash;had confirmed Nicholas in his policy of
+exclusion. The last five years of his reign had surpassed the
+preceding in cruelty and tyranny. The "Don Quixote of Politics,"
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id=
+"page229"></a>{229}</span> finding that his attempts to quarantine
+Russia against European influences had proved futile, that the
+nationalities constituting the empire remained as distinct as ever,
+and the desired homogeneity was still far from becoming a reality,
+finally had lost patience and had determined to execute his
+conversionist policy at all hazards. He had increased the
+conscription duties, already unbearable (January 8, 1852; August
+16, 1852), restricted the study of Hebrew and Hebrew subjects still
+further in the Government schools, and, as if to embitter the lives
+of the Jew by all means available, insisted on the use of the
+Mitnaggedic ritual even in communities exclusively or largely
+Hasidic.<a id="footnotetag5-4" name="footnotetag5-4"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-4"><sup>4</sup></a> Even the blood accusation had been
+revived, and the statements in the pamphlet entitled <i>Information
+about the Killing of Christians by Jews for the Purpose of
+Obtaining Their Blood</i>, which Skripitzyn, "the manager of Jewish
+affairs in Russia," published in 1844, found many believers in
+Government circles, and caused the Saratoff affair which, though
+suppressed, ruined numerous Jewish families, and made the breach
+between Jew and Gentile wider than ever.<a id="footnotetag5-5"
+name="footnotetag5-5"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-5"><sup>5</sup></a></p>
+<p>Now all this was changed. Christians championed the cause of
+Jews. The Government, too, appeared to be sincerely anxious for the
+welfare of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id=
+"page230"></a>{230}</span> its Jewish subjects. It not only
+promised, but frequently also performed. The Jews were allowed to
+follow their religious predilections unhindered. The schools were
+reorganized with rabbinical graduates as their teachers and
+principals. The Rabbinical Assembly, which, though established by
+Nicholas (May 26, 1848), had rarely been called together, was
+summoned to St. Petersburg, and there spent six months in 1857 and
+five in 1861 in deliberating on means of improving the intellectual
+and material standing of the Jews. The "learned Jew" (uchony
+Yevrey) Moses Berlin was invited to become an adviser in the
+Department of Public Worship (1856), to be consulted concerning the
+Jewish religion whenever occasion required. Permission was granted
+to publish Jewish periodicals in Russian, Polish, Hebrew, and
+Yiddish (1860), and on April 26, 1862, the restriction was removed
+that limited Jewish publishing houses and printing-presses to Vilna
+and Zhitomir. The Russia Montefiore saw on his visit in 1872, how
+different from the Russia he had left in 1846!</p>
+<p>These auspicious signs renewed the hope of the Maskilim and
+intensified their zeal. They were convinced of the noble intentions
+of the Liberator Czar; they were confident that the emperor who
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id=
+"page231"></a>{231}</span> emancipated the muzhiks, and expunged
+many a <i>kromye Yevreyev</i> ("except the Jews") which his father
+was wont to add to the few privileges he granted his Christian
+subjects, would ultimately remove the civil disabilities of the
+Jews altogether. In a very popular song, written by Eliakum Zunser
+(Vilna, 1836-New York, 1913), then a rising and beloved Badhan
+(bard) writing in Yiddish and Hebrew, Alexander II was likened to
+an angel of God who finds the flower of Judah soiled by dirt and
+trampled in the dust. He rescues it, and revives it with living
+water, and plants it in his garden, where it flourishes once
+more.<a id="footnotetag5-6" name="footnotetag5-6"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-6"><sup>6</sup></a> The poets hailed him as the savior
+and redeemer of Israel. All that the Jews needed was to make
+themselves deserving of his kindness, and worthy of the citizenship
+they saw in store for them. In Russian, in Hebrew, and in Yiddish,
+in prose and in poetry, the one theme uppermost in the mind of all
+was enlightenment, or rather Russification. From all quarters the
+reveille was sounded. Abraham B&auml;r Gottlober (1811-1899)
+exclaimed:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Awake, Israel, and, Judah, arise!</p>
+<p>Shake off the dust, open wide thine eyes!</p>
+<p>Justice sprouteth, righteousness is here,</p>
+<p>Thy sin is forgot, thou hast naught to fear.<a id=
+"footnotetag5-7" name="footnotetag5-7"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-7"><sup>7</sup></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id=
+"page232"></a>{232}</span>
+<p>More impressively still Judah L&ouml;b Gordon (1831-1892)
+called:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Arise, my people, 'tis time for waking!</p>
+<p>Lo, the night is o'er, the day is breaking!</p>
+<p>Arise and see where'er thou turn'st thy face,</p>
+<p>How changed are both our time and place.<a id="footnotetag5-8"
+name="footnotetag5-8"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-8"><sup>8</sup></a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>And in Yiddish, too, an anonymous poet echoed the strain:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Arise, my people, awake from thy dreaming,</p>
+<p>In foolishness be not immersed!</p>
+<p>Clear is the sky, brightly the sun is beaming;</p>
+<p>The clouds are now utterly dispersed!</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Rapid growth is sometimes the cause of disease, and sudden
+changes the cause of disappointment. This was true of the swift
+progress of Haskalah during the reign of Alexander II. To
+comprehend fully the tragedies that took place frequently at that
+time, the disillusionments that embittered the lives of many of the
+Maskilim, the breaking up of homes and bruising of hearts, one
+should read <i>Youthful Sins</i> (<i>Plattot Neurim</i>, 1876) by
+Moses L&ouml;b Lilienblum. The author lays bare a heart ulcerated
+and mangled by an obsolete education, a meaningless existence, and
+a forlorn hope. The hero of this little work, masterly less by
+reason of its artistic <span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id=
+"page233"></a>{233}</span> finish than the earnestness that
+pervades it from beginning to end, is "one of the slain of the
+Babylonian Talmud, whose spiritual life is artificially maintained
+by a literature itself dead." His diary and letters grant a glimpse
+into his innermost being; his childhood wasted in a methodless
+acquisition of futile learning; his boyhood blighted by a union
+with a wife chosen for him by his parents; his manhood mortified by
+the realization that in a world thrilling with life and activity he
+led the existence of an Egyptian mummy. Impatient to save the few
+years allotted to him on earth, and undeterred by the entreaties
+and the threats of his wife, he leaves for Odessa, the Mecca of the
+Maskilim, and begins to prepare himself for admission into the
+gymnasium. "While there is a drop of blood in my veins," he writes
+to his forsaken wife, "I shall try to finish my course of studies.
+Though the physicians declare that consumption and death must be
+the inevitable consequence of such application, I will not desist.
+I will rather die like a man than live like a dog." And on and on
+he plods over his Latin, his French, his history, geography, and
+grammar. Two more years and the university will be opened to him,
+and he will read law, and defend the honor of his <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>{234}</span> people.
+But in the midst of his ceaseless toil the spectre of his simple
+wife and his former innocent life appears before him and "will not
+down." Is Haskalah worth the sacrifices he and his like are daily
+bringing on its altar? Is not the materialism of the emancipated
+Maskilim often greater than the medievalism of the fanatical
+Hasidim? In his native town, gloomy as it was, there was at least
+the glow of sincerity. Haskalah had to be snatched by stealth, but
+it was sweeter because thus snatched. In Odessa, where the fruit of
+the tree of knowledge could be obtained for the asking, it turned
+into the apples of Sodom. The "lishmah" ideal, the love of culture
+for its own sake, yielded to the greed which changes everything
+into a commodity to profit by. Yet, since life demands it, what a
+pity that his early training had incapacitated him from following
+the beaten path! He concludes his self-indictment thus, "I have
+taken an inventory of the business of my life, and I am
+heartbroken, because I find that in striking the balance there
+remains on the credit side only a cipher!"</p>
+<p>But the tide of Haskalah was not to be stemmed. The "blessed
+heritage of noble passion," the burning desire for enlightenment
+and improvement asserted itself at all hazards. The note of despair
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id=
+"page235"></a>{235}</span> was lost in the call for action. Odessa
+continued to be in the forefront. There technical institutes for
+boys and girls were established in addition to the previously
+existing public schools. A society by the name of Trud (Labor) was
+organized (October 11, 1864), for the purpose of teaching useful
+trades. Its school has ever since been the crown of the
+institutions of the sort. It was provided with the most modern
+improvements, a workshop for mechanics and an iron foundry, and it
+offered a post-graduate course. A similar trade school (remeslenoye
+uchilishche) had been in existence since May 1, 1862, in Zhitomir,
+where, besides geometry, mechanics, chemistry, physics, etc.,
+instruction was given in carpentry, turning, tin, copper, and
+blacksmith work.<a id="footnotetag5-9" name=
+"footnotetag5-9"></a><a href="#footnote5-9"><sup>9</sup></a>
+Through the efforts of Rabbi Solomon Zalkind Minor a Sabbath School
+and a Night School for artisans were opened in Minsk (1861), and a
+reference and circulating library for the general public (1863),
+and similar educational institutions were soon called into
+existence in many other cities.</p>
+<p>Those were the days of organizing and consolidating among Jews
+and Gentiles alike. At the time when Abraham Lincoln was
+proclaiming his famous "United we stand, divided we fall," Julius
+Slovacki <span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id=
+"page236"></a>{236}</span> in Poland pleaded the cause of the
+peasantry of his country, and the Alliance Isra&eacute;lite
+Universelle issued a call to the entire house of Israel "to defend
+the honor of the Jewish name wherever it is attacked; to encourage,
+by all means at our disposal, the pursuit of useful handicrafts; to
+combat, where necessary, the ignorance and vice engendered by
+oppression; to work, by the power of persuasion and by all the
+moral influences at our command, for the emancipation of our
+brethren who still suffer under the burden of exceptional
+legislation; to hasten and solidify complete enfranchisement by the
+intellectual and moral regeneration of our brethren." A powerful
+movement for the upliftment of the masses was also taking hold of
+the educated classes among the Russians. Professor Kostomarov
+started a systematic campaign for the education of the common
+people. A species of philanthropic intoxication seized upon the
+more enlightened Russian youth. A society of Narodniki, or Common
+People, so-called, was organized. Young men and women renounced
+high rank, and students came out of their seclusion and joined the
+people, dressed in their garb, spoke their dialect, led their life,
+and, having won their confidence, gradually opened their minds to
+value the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id=
+"page237"></a>{237}</span> blessings of education, and their hearts
+to desire them. These examples from within and without resulted in
+a similar attempt among the Russian Jews. An organization was
+perfected (December, 1863) which exercised a great civilizing
+influence for almost half a century, the Society for the Promotion
+of Haskalah among the Jews of Russia.</p>
+<p>To the credit of the Jewish financiers be it said that they were
+always the banner bearers of enlightenment. It had been so with
+German Aufkl&auml;rung, when Ben-David, Itzig, Friedl&auml;nder,
+and Jacobson, laid the corner-stone of the intellectual rebirth of
+their people. It was more especially so in Russia during the
+"sixties." Odessa was the most enlightened, because it was the
+wealthiest, of Jewish communities, as the benumbing poverty of the
+Pale was largely to blame for the unfriendly attitude towards
+whatever did not bear the stamp of Jewishness on its surface. The
+Society for the Promotion of Haskalah, too, owes its existence to
+some of the most prominent Russo-Jewish merchants. Its original
+officers were Joseph Yosel G&uuml;nzburg, President; his son Horace
+G&uuml;nzburg, First Vice-president; Rabbi A. Neuman, Second
+Vice-president; the Brodskys, and, the most active of them all, its
+Secretary, Leon Rosenthal (1817-1887). Busy <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>{238}</span> as he was
+with his financial affairs, Rosenthal devoted considerable time to
+the propagation of enlightenment among his coreligionists. Many a
+youthful Maskil was indebted to him for material as well as moral
+support, and it was due to him that Osip Rabinovich finally
+succeeded in publishing the Razsvyet (Dawn, 1860), the first
+journal in Russian devoted to Jewish interests.</p>
+<p>The Society for the Promotion of Enlightenment was not unlike
+the Alliance Isra&eacute;lite Universelle, only on a smaller scale.
+Its object was "to spread the knowledge of the Russian language
+among the Jews, to publish and assist others in publishing, in
+Russian as well as in Hebrew, useful works and journals, to aid in
+carrying out the purposes of the Society, and, further, to assist
+the young in devoting themselves to the pursuit of science and
+knowledge." For several years, owing to the indifference of the
+public, it had a hard struggle to live up to its ideal. But
+continuously, if slowly, it gained in membership, so that in 1884
+it had an affiliation of 545. During the first twenty years of its
+existence its income amounted to 338,685 rubles, its expenditures
+to 309,998 rubles. In 1880 it endowed an agricultural college for
+Jewish boys. When, in the same year, medical schools for women were
+opened, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id=
+"page239"></a>{239}</span> and Jewish girls in large numbers took
+up the study of medicine, the Society set aside the sum of 18,900
+rubles for the support of the needy among them. Many a young man
+was aided in the pursuit of his chosen career by the Society. It
+directed its activities principally to the younger generation, yet
+it did not neglect the older. With its assistance Sabbath Schools
+and Evening Schools were opened in Berdichev, Zhitomir, Poltava,
+and other cities; libraries were founded; interesting Hebrew books
+on scientific subjects were published. Thus it had a two-fold
+object: in those who were drifting away it aimed to reawaken
+knowledge or love of Judaism by translating some of the most
+important Jewish books into Russian (the Haggadah, in 1871, the
+prayer book, Pentateuch, and Psalms, in 1872) as well as text-books
+and catechisms; and it popularized science among those who would
+not or could not read on such topics in Russian or other living
+tongues. In both directions it was a power for good among the Jews
+of Russia.<a id="footnotetag5-10" name=
+"footnotetag5-10"></a><a href="#footnote5-10"><sup>10</sup></a></p>
+<p>These united efforts of the Government, the Maskilim, and the
+Jewish financiers produced an effect the like of which had perhaps
+been witnessed only during the Hellenistic craze, in the period of
+the second commonwealth of Judea. Russian Jewry <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>{240}</span> began to
+"progress" as never before. In almost all the large cities,
+particularly in Odessa, St. Petersburg, and Moscow, the Jews were
+fast becoming Russified. Heretofore cooped up, choking each other
+in the Pale as in a Black Hole, they were now wild with an
+excessive desire for Russification. What Maimon said of a few,
+could now be applied to hundreds and thousands, they were "like
+starving persons suddenly treated to a delicious meal." They
+flocked to the institutions of learning in numbers far exceeding
+their due proportion. They were among the reporters, contributors,
+and editorial writers of some of the most influential Russian
+journals. They entered the professions, and distinguished
+themselves in art.<a id="footnotetag5-11" name=
+"footnotetag5-11"></a><a href="#footnote5-11"><sup>11</sup></a></p>
+<p>The ambition of the wealthy was no longer to have a son-in-law
+who was well-versed in the Torah, but a graduate from a university,
+the possessor of a diploma, the wearer of a uniform. The bahur lost
+his lustre in the presence of the "gymnasiast." This ambition
+pervaded more or less all classes of Russo-Jewish society. A decade
+or two before, especially in the "forties," orthodoxy had been as
+uncompromising as it was unenlightened. "To carry a handkerchief on
+the Sabbath," as Zunser says, "to read a pamphlet of the 'new
+Haskalah,' <span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id=
+"page241"></a>{241}</span> or commit some other transgression of
+the sort, was sufficient to stamp one an apikoros (heretic)."<a id=
+"footnotetag5-12" name="footnotetag5-12"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-12"><sup>12</sup></a> Reb Israel Salanter, when he
+learned that his son had gone to Berlin to study medicine, removed
+his shoes, and sat down on the ground to observe shivah (seven days
+of mourning). When Mattes der Sheinker (saloon-keeper) discovered
+that his boy Motke (later famous as Mark Antokolsky) had been
+playing truant from the heder, and had hidden himself in the garret
+to carve figures, he beat him unmercifully, because he had broken
+the second commandment. This was greatly altered in the latter part
+of the "seventies." Jacob Prelooker has a different story to
+tell.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>A remarkable change&mdash;he says<a id="footnotetag5-13" name=
+"footnotetag5-13"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-13"><sup>13</sup></a>&mdash;had taken place in the
+minds of my parents since I had overcome all difficulties and
+become a student of a royal college. Not only were they reconciled
+to me, but they were distinctly proud of me. Old Rabbi Abraham now
+delighted in conversation and discussion with his grandson, who
+seemed to him almost like an inhabitant of another world, of the
+<i>terra incognita</i> of modern knowledge and science. In the town
+inhabited chiefly by Jews the very appearance of the rabbi's
+grandson in the uniform of a royal college created an immense
+sensation, and I became naturally the hero of the day. The older
+generation lamented that now an end would be put to the very
+existence of Israel and the sacred synagogue, while the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id=
+"page242"></a>{242}</span> younger people envied me and were
+inspired to follow my example.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Such scenes occurred not only in Pinsk, but, not infrequently,
+in other towns of the Pale as well.</p>
+<p>The striving for intellectual enlightenment manifested itself in
+the refining of religious customs. Though Russian Jewry "has never
+experienced any of the ritualistic struggles that Germany has
+witnessed,"<a id="footnotetag5-14" name=
+"footnotetag5-14"></a><a href="#footnote5-14"><sup>14</sup></a> yet
+reform and Haskalah always went hand in hand. The attacks on
+tradition by the Maskilim of the "forties" and the early "fifties"
+were mild and guarded compared with the assaults by the generation
+that followed. With the appearance of the periodicals the combat
+was intensified. Ha-Meliz, and, later, Ha-Shahar in Hebrew, and Kol
+Mebasser in Yiddish were the organs of those who were dissatisfied
+with the old, and sought to introduce the new. It was in the latter
+that <i>Dos Polische Yingel</i> (<i>The Polish Boy</i>), by
+Linetzky, first appeared, and it proved so popular that the editor
+published it in book form long before it was finished in the
+periodical. In an article on <i>The Ways of the Talmud</i>, by
+Moses L&ouml;b Lilienblum, the prevailing Jewish religious
+observances were vehemently attacked. This was followed by another
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id=
+"page243"></a>{243}</span> article from the pen of Gordon,
+<i>Wisdom for Those Who Wander in Spirit</i>, with suggestions for
+adapting religion to the needs of the times, and a still more
+powerful one, <i>The Chaotic World</i>, by Smolenskin. The muse
+ceased to content herself with "flame-songs that burn their
+pathway" to the heart. She preferred to appeal to the head. She no
+longer tried</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>In strains as sweet</p>
+<p>As angels use ... to whisper peace.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>In cutting criticisms and biting satires she exposed
+time-honored but time-worn beliefs and practices. Gordon was a
+militant reformer in his younger days, and so were Menahem Mendel
+Dolitzky and the lesser poets of the period. Needless to say, the
+Jewish-Russian press was an enemy of ultra-orthodoxy. Osip
+Rabinovich, the leading Russo-Jewish journalist, made his debut
+with an article in which he denounced the superstitious customs of
+his people in unmeasured terms.<a id="footnotetag5-15" name=
+"footnotetag5-15"></a><a href="#footnote5-15"><sup>15</sup></a> The
+motto chosen for the Razsvyet (1860) was "Let there be light," and
+the platform it adopted was to elevate the masses by teaching them
+to lead the life of all nations, participate in their civilization
+and progress, and preserve, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page244"
+id="page244"></a>{244}</span> increase, and improve the national
+heritage of Israel.<a id="footnotetag5-16" name=
+"footnotetag5-16"></a><a href="#footnote5-16"><sup>16</sup></a></p>
+<p>Yet journalists and poets were outdone by scholars and novelists
+in the battle for reform. Lebensohn's didactic drama <i>Emet
+we-Emunah</i> (<i>Truth and Faith</i>, Vilna, 1867, 1870), in which
+he attempts to reconcile true religion with the teachings of
+science, was mild compared with <i>Dos Polische Yingel</i> or
+Shatzkes' radical interpretations of the stories of the rabbis in
+his <i>Ha-Mafteah</i> (<i>The Key</i>, Warsaw, 1866-1869), and both
+were surpassed by Raphael Kohn's clever little work <i>Hut
+ha-Meshullash</i> (<i>The Triple Cord</i>, Odessa, 1874), in which
+many prohibited things are ingeniously proved permissible according
+to the Talmud. But the most outspoken advocate of reform was
+Abraham Mapu (1808-1867), author of the first realistic novel, or
+novel of any kind, in Hebrew literature, the <i>'Ayit Zabua'</i>
+(<i>The Painted Vulture</i>). His Rabbi Zadok, the miracle-worker,
+who exploits superstition for his own aggrandizement; Rabbi
+Gaddiel, the honest but mistaken henchman of Rabbi Zadok; Ga'al,
+the parvenu, who seeks to obliterate an unsavory past by fawning
+upon both; the Shadkan, or marriage-broker, who pretends to be the
+ambassador of Heaven, to unite men and women on earth,&mdash;in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id=
+"page245"></a>{245}</span> these and similar types drawn from life
+and depicted vividly, Mapu held up to the execration of the world
+the hypocrites who "do the deeds of Zimri and claim the reward of
+Phinehas," whose outward piety is often a cloak for inner impurity,
+and whose ceremonialism is their skin-deep religion. These
+characters served for many years as weapons in the hands of the
+combatants enlisted in the army arrayed for "the struggle between
+light and darkness."</p>
+<p>The waves of the Renaissance and the Reformation sweeping over
+Russian Jewry reached even the sacred precincts of the synagogues,
+the batte midrashim, and the yeshibot. The Tree of Life College in
+Volozhin became a foster-home of Haskalah. The rendezvous of the
+brightest Russo-Jewish youths, it was the centre in which grew
+science and culture, and whence they were disseminated far and wide
+over the Pale. Hebrew, German, and Russian were surreptitiously
+studied and taught. Buckle and Spencer, Turgenief and Tolstoi were
+secretly passed from hand to hand, and read and studied with
+avidity. Some students advocated openly the transformation of the
+yeshibah into a rabbinical seminary on the order of the Berlin
+Hochschule. The new learning found an ardent <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>{246}</span> supporter
+in Zebi Hirsh Dainov, "the Slutsker Maggid" (1832-1877), who
+preached Russification and Reformation from the pulpits of the
+synagogues, and whom the Society for the Promotion of Haskalah
+employed as its mouthpiece among the less advanced.<a id=
+"footnotetag5-17" name="footnotetag5-17"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-17"><sup>17</sup></a> In the existing reform
+synagogues, in Riga, Odessa, Warsaw, and Vilna, and even in more
+conservative communities, sermons began to be preached in Russian.
+Solomon Zalkind Minor, who lectured in German, acquired a
+reputation as a preacher in Russian since his election to the
+rabbinate of Minsk (1860). He was called "the Jellinek of Russia"
+by the Maskilim.<a id="footnotetag5-18" name=
+"footnotetag5-18"></a><a href="#footnote5-18"><sup>18</sup></a>
+Aaron Elijah Pumpyansky began to preach in Russian at Ponevezh, in
+Kovno (1861). Germanization at last gave way to Russification. Even
+in Odessa, where German culture predominated during the reign of
+Nicholas I, it was found necessary, for the sake of the younger
+generation, to elect, as associate to the German Doctor
+Schwabacher, Doctor Solomon Mandelkern to preach in Russian.
+Similar changes were made in other communities. In the Polish
+provinces the Reformation was making even greater strides. There
+the Jews, whether reform, like Doctor Marcus Jastrow, or orthodox
+like Rabbi Berish Meisels, identified themselves with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id=
+"page247"></a>{247}</span> Poles, and participated in their
+cultural and political aspirations, which were frequently
+antagonistic to Russification. A society which called itself Poles
+of the Mosaic Persuasion was organized in Warsaw, an organ of
+extreme liberalism was founded in the weekly Israelita, and, with
+the election of Isaac Kramsztyk to the rabbinate, German was
+replaced (1852) by the native Polish as the language of the
+pulpit.</p>
+<p>Some champions of reform did not rest satisfied with mere
+innovations and improvements. They went so far as to discard
+Judaism altogether and improvise religions of their own. Moses
+Rosensohn of Vilna was the first, in his works <i>Advice and
+Help</i> (<i>'Ezrah we-Tushiah</i>, Vilna, 1870) and <i>The Peace
+of Brothers</i> (<i>Shelom Ahim</i>, ibid.), to suggest a way to
+cosmopolitanism and universalism through Judaism.<a id=
+"footnotetag5-19" name="footnotetag5-19"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-19"><sup>19</sup></a> In 1879, Jacob Gordin founded in
+Yelisavetgrad a sort of ethical culture society called Bibleitsy
+(also Dukhovnoye Bibleyskoye Bratstvo, Spiritual Bible
+Brotherhood), which obtained a considerable following among the
+workmen of the section. It advocated the abolition of ritual
+observances, even prayer, and the hastening of the era of the
+brotherhood of man. It preached, in the words of one of its
+leaders, that "our morality <span class="pagenum"><a name="page248"
+id="page248"></a>{248}</span> is our religion. God, the acme of
+highest reason, of surest truth, and of the most sublime justice,
+does not demand useless external forms and ceremonies."<a id=
+"footnotetag5-20" name="footnotetag5-20"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-20"><sup>20</sup></a> Following the organization of the
+Bibleitsy, and based on almost the same principles, branches of a
+Jewish sect, which called itself New Israel (Novy Izrail), were
+started almost simultaneously in Odessa and Kishinev. In the former
+city, the organization was headed by Jacob Prelooker, in the
+latter, by Joseph Rabinowitz. Prelooker, who after graduating from
+the seminary at Zhitomir became a school-master at Odessa, sought
+to bring about a consolidation between his own people and Russian
+Dissenters (Raskolniki: the Molocans, Stundists, and Dukhobortzi).
+The theme of his book, <i>New Israel</i>, is a "reformed synagogue,
+a mitigation of the cleavage between Jew and Christian, and
+recognition of a common brotherhood in religion." Rabinowitz went
+still further, and preached on actual conversion to one of the more
+liberal forms of Christianity.<a id="footnotetag5-21" name=
+"footnotetag5-21"></a><a href="#footnote5-21"><sup>21</sup></a></p>
+<p>These sects, which sprang up in church and synagogue during the
+latter part of the "seventies," were the outcome of political and
+social as well as religious unrest. Alexander II fulfilled the
+expectation which the first years of his reign aroused in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id=
+"page249"></a>{249}</span> Jewish hearts no more than Catherine II
+and Alexander I. Those who had hoped for equal rights were doomed
+to disappointment. Most of the reforms of the Liberator Czar proved
+a failure owing to the antipathy and machinations of his
+untrustworthy officials. Russia was split between two diametrically
+opposed parties, the extreme radicals and the extreme
+reactionaries, waging an internecine war with each other. The
+former originated with the young Russians that had served in the
+European campaigns during the Napoleonic invasion, and who, in
+imitation of the secret organizations which had so greatly
+contributed to the liberation of Germany, united to throw off the
+yoke of autocracy in Russia. These secret orders, the Southern, the
+Northern, the United Slavonian, and the Polish, Alexander I had
+endeavored in vain to suppress, and the drastic measures taken by
+Nicholas I against the Dekabrists (1825) proved of no avail. Nor
+did the reforms of Alexander II help to heal the breach. On the
+contrary, seeing that the constitution they expected from the
+Liberator Czar was not forthcoming, and the democracy they hoped
+for was far from being realized, they became desperate, and
+determined to demand their rights by force. The peasants, too,
+sobering up from the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id=
+"page250"></a>{250}</span> intoxication, the figurative as well as
+the literal, caused by the vodka drunk in honor of their
+newly-acquired volyushka (sweet liberty), discovered that the
+emancipation ukase of the czar had been craftily intercepted by the
+bureaucrats, and their dream of owning the land they had hitherto
+cultivated as serfs would never come true. Russia was rife with
+discontent, and disaffection assumed a national range. The cry was
+raised for a "new freedom." A certain Anton Petrov impersonated the
+czar, and gathered around him ten thousand Russians. Pamphlets
+entitled <i>Land and Liberty</i> (<i>Zemlya i Volya</i>) were
+spread broadcast among the masses, the mind of the populace was
+inflamed, and attempts on the life of the czar ensued.</p>
+<p>The extreme reactionaries, consisting mostly of nobles who had
+become impoverished by the emancipation of the serfs, grasped the
+opportunity to point out to the bewildered czar the evil of his
+liberal policy. Slavophilism was rampant. Men like Turgenief,
+Dostoyevsky, and Tolstoi, were condemned as "Westernists," or
+German sympathizers, the enemies of Russia. At the recommendation
+of Princess Helena Petrovna, the czar engaged as the teacher of his
+children a comparatively unknown professor of history,
+Pobyedonostsev, who <span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id=
+"page251"></a>{251}</span> later became the soul of Russian
+despotism. This man, meek as a dove and cunning as a serpent,
+easily ingratiated himself with the czar, and soon there began "a
+war upon ideas, a crusade of ignorance." "Karakazov's pistol-shot,"
+as Turgenief says, "drove back into the shade the phantom of
+liberty, the appearance of which all Russia had hailed with
+acclamations. From that moment to the end of his life, the emperor
+devoted himself to the undoing of all he had accomplished. If he
+could have cancelled with one stroke the glorious ukase that had
+proclaimed the emancipation of the serfs, he would have been only
+too glad to disgrace himself."<a id="footnotetag5-22" name=
+"footnotetag5-22"></a><a href="#footnote5-22"><sup>22</sup></a></p>
+<p>And again, as it had been during the reign of Alexander I after
+his acquaintance with Baroness Kr&uuml;dener, so it was with the
+reign of Alexander II after his acquaintance with Pobyedonostsev.
+The status of the Jews constituted the first indication of the
+ill-boding change. How little the officials had been in sympathy
+with the reformatory efforts of their czar, even when the
+atmosphere had been filled with peace and good-will to all
+including the Jews, is shown by the fact that when, in 1863,
+through the efforts of Doctor Schwabacher, the Jewish community of
+Odessa applied for a charter <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page252" id="page252"></a>{252}</span> to build a Home for Aged
+Hebrews, the charter, though granted by the higher authorities, was
+withheld for over twenty years! The reaction flaunted its power
+once again, and sat enthroned in Tsarskoye Syelo. The few rights
+the Jews had enjoyed were rescinded one by one. Not satisfied with
+this, the Slavophils tried, under every pretext, to stop the
+progress of the Jewish people. Every now and then the Society for
+the Promotion of Haskalah would send some of the brighter seminary
+students to complete their education in Breslau or Berlin, but at
+the command of the Government this was soon discontinued. It was
+the intention of the same organization, from its very incipiency,
+to have the Bible translated under its auspices into Russian, but
+it took ten long years before this praiseworthy undertaking could
+be begun, because of the obstacles the Government placed in the way
+of its execution. Fortunately, the indomitable courage of the
+Maskilim could not be subdued. Young men went, or were sent, to
+Germany to prepare themselves for the rabbinate as before; the
+Bible and the Book of Common Prayer, too, were translated secretly
+by Wohl, Gordon, Steinberg, and Leon Mandelstamm, and published in
+Germany, whence they were smuggled into Russia.<a id=
+"footnotetag5-23" name="footnotetag5-23"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-23"><sup>23</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id=
+"page253"></a>{253}</span>
+<p>More direct and equally inexplicable, save on the ground of
+animosity to whatever was not Slavonic, was the ukase to close the
+Sabbath Schools and the Evening Schools, the only means of
+educating the laboring men (1870). In 1871, the first of a series
+of massacres (pogromy) took place in the centre of Jewish culture,
+Odessa. In 1872, permission was denied to the ladies of that city
+to organize a society for the purpose of maintaining trade schools,
+to teach poor Jewish girls handicrafts. The two rabbinical
+seminaries, of Vilna and Zhitomir, were closed in 1873, and
+replaced by institutes for teachers, which were managed in the
+spirit that had prevailed under Nicholas I. And in 1878 the absurd
+blood accusation, against which four popes, Innocent IV, Paul III,
+Gregory X, and Clement XIV, issued their bulls, declaring it a
+baseless and wicked superstition, and which not only the Polish
+kings Boreslav V, Casimir III, Casimir IV, and Stephen
+Bath&ograve;ry, but also Alexander I (March 18, 1817), branded as a
+diabolic invention&mdash;that dreadful accusation which even the
+commission of Nicholas, despite Durnovo's efforts, had denounced as
+a disgrace and an abomination, was revived by the newspaper
+Grazhdanin. The ghost of medievalism began to stalk abroad once
+more in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id=
+"page254"></a>{254}</span> erstwhile enlightened Russia and under
+the aegis of the Liberator Czar.</p>
+<p>As often before in Jewish history, the Jews helped not a little
+to aggravate the untoward conditions. At the instigation of a
+number of students of the Yeshibah Tree of Life, the doors of that
+noble institution were closed (1879), to open again after two years
+of untiring efforts on the part of its self-sacrificing dean, the
+renowned Naphtali Zebi Judah Berlin. But at the worst this was the
+result of mistaken zeal for the cause of Haskalah. What was more
+detrimental was the disgrace brought upon the Jewish name by
+several converts to Christianity. A certain Jacob Brafmann, having
+proved a failure in all he undertook, tried at the last the
+business of Christianity, and succeeded therein. He was appointed
+professor of Hebrew in the seminary of Minsk, and the Holy Synod
+charged him with the duty of devising means to promulgate
+Christianity among the Jews. Finding the times auspicious, he
+devoted himself to writing libellous articles about his former
+coreligionists, and wound up with a <i>Book on the Kahal</i>
+(<i>Kniga Kahala</i>, Vilna, 1869), in which he quoted forged
+"transactions," to the effect that Judaism tolerates and even
+recommends illegality and immorality <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page255" id="page255"></a>{255}</span> among its adherents. In a
+conference of Jews and Gentiles convoked by Governor-General
+Kaufman (1871), Barit proved the falsity and forgery of Brafmann's
+documents. But, as usual, the defence was forgotten, the charges
+remained.<a id="footnotetag5-24" name=
+"footnotetag5-24"></a><a href="#footnote5-24"><sup>24</sup></a> A
+certain Lutostansky poisoned the public mind by caricaturing the
+Jews, and aroused an anti-Semitic agitation among his countrymen.
+The consequence was that even the liberals began to be suspicious,
+and the prospect of better days was blighted by the hatred which
+broke out in fiendish fury, in lightnings and thunders which
+astounded the world under Alexander III.</p>
+<p>It was but natural that the Jews that had become completely
+Russified should enlist in the ranks of the extreme liberals. They
+found themselves in every way as progressive and patriotic as the
+Christian Russians. The language of Russia became their language,
+its manners and aspirations their manners and aspirations. They
+contributed more than any other nationality to Russifying Odessa,
+which, owing to its great foreign population, was known as the
+un-Russian city of Russia. Proportionately to their numbers, they
+promoted the trade and industry, the science and literature of
+their country more than the Russians themselves. Yet <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>{256}</span> the
+coveted equality was denied them, and the emancipation granted to
+the degraded muzhiks was withheld from them, because of a religion
+they hardly professed. They were like Faust when he found himself
+tempted but not satisfied by the pleasures of life, when food
+hovered before his eager lips while he begged for nourishment in
+vain. The liberals, on the other hand, preached and practiced the
+doctrine of equal rights to all. Socialism, or nihilism, also
+appealed to the Jews from its idealistic side, for never did the
+Jews cease to be democrats and dreamers. In the schools and
+universities, which they were now permitted to attend, they heard
+the new teachings and imbibed the novel ideas.</p>
+<p>Those, therefore, who disdained conversion allied themselves
+with the secret organizations. "The torrent which had been dammed
+up in one channel rushed violently into another." A Hebrew monthly,
+Ha-Emet (Truth, Vienna, 1877), devoted to the cause of communism,
+was started by Aaron Liebermann ("Arthur Freeman"), in which, in
+the language of the oldest and greatest socialists, the doctrines
+of Karl Marx were inculcated among the Hebrew-reading public. The
+more completely Russified element took a leading <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>{257}</span> part in
+the activities of the Narodnaya Volya (Rights of the People),
+propagating socialism among the Russian masses, either by word of
+mouth or as editors and coworkers in the "underground"
+publications. Not a few went to Berlin, where, though opulent, they
+sought employment in factories, the better to disseminate socialism
+among the working classes. Others, like Aaronson, Achselrod,
+Deutsch, Horowitz, Vilenkin, and Zukerman, fled to Switzerland,
+whence, under the assumed names of Marx, Lassalle, Jacoby, etc., or
+united in a League for the Emancipation of Labor, they directed the
+socialistic movement in Russia.<a id="footnotetag5-25" name=
+"footnotetag5-25"></a><a href="#footnote5-25"><sup>25</sup></a>
+Chernichevsky's <i>What to Do</i>, Gogol's <i>Dead Souls</i>,
+Turgenief's <i>Virgin Soil</i> and <i>Fathers and Sons</i>, the
+doctrines of Pisarev and Bielinsky, and of the other writers who
+then had their greatest vogue, were eagerly read and frequently
+copied by Jewish young gymnasiasts and passed on to their Christian
+schoolmates. The revolutionary spirit seized on men and women
+alike. Women left their husbands, girls their devoted parents, and
+threw themselves into the swirl of nihilism with a vigor and
+self-sacrifice almost incredible. When a squad of police came to
+disperse the crowd clamoring for "land and liberty" in front of the
+Kazanskaya <span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id=
+"page258"></a>{258}</span> Church in St. Petersburg, a Jewish
+maiden of sixteen, taking the place of the leader, inspired her
+comrades with such enthusiasm that the efforts of the police were
+ineffectual.<a id="footnotetag5-26" name=
+"footnotetag5-26"></a><a href="#footnote5-26"><sup>26</sup></a> By
+1878, Russia became honeycombed with secret societies. It fell into
+spasms of nihilism. One general after another was assassinated.
+Attempts were made to wreck the train on which the czar was
+travelling (1879) and blow up the palace in which he resided
+(1880). Finally, on March 13, 1881, after many hairbreadth escapes,
+the carefully laid plans of the revolutionists succeeded, and the
+Liberator Czar was no more.</p>
+<p>Thus was the deep-rooted yearning for enlightenment finally let
+loose, and the gyves of tradition were at last removed. The
+Maskilim of the "forties" and "fifties" were antiquated in the
+"sixties" and "seventies." They began to see that the fears of the
+orthodox and their denunciations of Haskalah were not altogether
+unfounded. A young generation had grown up who had never
+experienced the strife and struggles of the fathers, and who lacked
+the submissive temper that had characterized their ancestors.
+Faster and farther they rushed on their headlong way to
+destruction, while the parents sat and wept. When, in 1872, in
+Vilna, the police arrested forty Jewish young <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>{259}</span> men
+suspected of nihilistic tendencies, Governor-General Patapov
+"invited" the representatives of the community to a conference. As
+soon as they arrived, Patapov turned on them in this wise, "In
+addition to all other good qualities which you Jews possess, about
+the only thing you need is to become nihilists, too!" Amazed and
+panic-stricken, the trembling Jews denied the allegation and
+protested their innocence, to which the Governor-General replied,
+"Your children are, at any rate; they have become so through the
+bad education you have given them." "Pardon me, General," was the
+answer of "Yankele Kovner" (Jacob Barit), who was one of the
+representatives, "This is not quite right. As long as <i>we</i>
+educated our children there were no nihilists among us; but as soon
+as you took the education of our children into your hands, behold
+the result." The foundations of religion were undermined. Parental
+authority was disregarded. Youths and maidens were lured by the
+enchanting voice of the siren of assimilation. The na&iuml;ve words
+which Turgenief put into the mouth of Samuel Abraham, the
+Lithuanian Jew, might have been, indeed, were, spoken by many
+others in actual life. "Our children," he complains, "have no
+longer our beliefs; they do not say our prayers, nor have they your
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id=
+"page260"></a>{260}</span> beliefs; no more do they say your
+prayers; they do not pray at all, and they believe in
+nothing."<a id="footnotetag5-27" name=
+"footnotetag5-27"></a><a href="#footnote5-27"><sup>27</sup></a> The
+struggle between Hasidim and Mitnaggedim ended with the
+conversionist policy of Nicholas I, which united them against the
+Maskilim. The struggle between these anti-Maskilim and the Maskilim
+had ceased in the golden days of Alexander II. But the clouds were
+gathering and overspreading the camp of Haskalah. The days in which
+the seekers after light united in one common aim were gone.
+Russification, assimilation, universalism, and nihilism rent
+asunder the ties that held them together. Judah L&ouml;b Gordon,
+the same poet who, fifteen years before, had rejoiced with
+exceeding joy "when Haskalah broke forth like water," now laments
+over the effect thereof in the following strain:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>And our children, the coming generation,</p>
+<p>From childhood, alas, are strangers to our nation&mdash;</p>
+<p>Ah, how my heart for them doth bleed!</p>
+<p>Farther and faster they are ever drifting,</p>
+<p>Who knows how far they will be shifting?</p>
+<p>Maybe till whence they can ne'er recede!</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Amidst the disaffection, discord, and dejection that mark the
+latter part of the reign of Alexander <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>{261}</span> II, one
+Maskil stands out pre-eminently in interest and
+importance,&mdash;one whom assimilation did not attract nor
+reformation mislead, who under all the mighty changes remained
+loyal to the ideals ascribed to the Gaon and advocated by
+Levinsohn,&mdash;Perez ben Mosheh Smolenskin (Mohilev, February 25,
+1842-Meran, Austria, February 1, 1885).<a id="footnotetag5-28"
+name="footnotetag5-28"></a><a href=
+"#footnote5-28"><sup>28</sup></a></p>
+<p>Smolenskin was endowed with the ability and courage that
+characterize the born leader. He possessed an iron will and
+unflinching determination, before which obstacles had to yield, and
+persecution found itself powerless. His talent to grasp and
+appreciate the true and the beautiful rendered him the oracle of
+the thousands who, to this day, are proud to call themselves his
+disciples. To him Haskalah was not merely acquaintance with general
+culture, or even its acquisition. It was the realization of one's
+individuality as a Jew and a man. Gordon's advice, to be a Jew at
+home and a man abroad, found little favor in his estimation; for
+Haskalah meant the evolution of a Jewish man <i>sui generis</i>. He
+equally abhorred the fanaticism of the benighted orthodox and the
+Laodicean lukewarmness of the advanced Maskilim. To fight and, if
+possible, eradicate both, he undertook the publication of The Dawn
+(Ha-Shahar, Vienna, 1869), a magazine <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>{262}</span> in which
+he declared "war against the darkness of the Middle Ages and war
+against the indifference of to-day!"</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>Not like the former days are these days, he says in his foreword
+to Ha-Shahar. Thirty or twenty years ago we had to fight the enemy
+within. Sanctimonious fanatics with their power of darkness sought
+to persecute us, lest their folly or knavery be exposed to the
+light of day.... Now that they, who hitherto have walked in
+darkness, are beginning to discern the error of their ways, lo and
+behold, those who have seen the light are closing their eyes
+against it.... Therefore let them know beforehand that, as I have
+stretched out my hand against those who, under the cloak of
+holiness, endeavor to exclude enlightenment from the house of
+Jacob, even so will I lift up my hand against the other hypocrites
+who, under the pretext of tolerance, strive to alienate the
+children of Israel from the heritage of their fathers!</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>That the salvation of the Jews lies in their distinctiveness,
+and that renationalization will prove the only solution of the
+Jewish problem, is the central thought of Smolenskin's journalistic
+efforts. Jews are disliked, he maintains, not because of their
+religious persuasion, nor for their reputed wealth, but because
+they are weak and defenceless. What they need is strength and
+courage, but these they will never regain save in a land of their
+own. Twelve years before the tornado of persecution <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>{263}</span> broke out
+in Russia he had predicted it, and even welcomed it as a means of
+arousing the Jews to their duties as a people and their place as a
+nation, and that his conclusion was correct, the awakening which
+followed proved unmistakably.</p>
+<p>For Smolenskin Jews never ceased to be a nation, and to him the
+Jew who sought refuge in assimilation was nothing less than a
+traitor. He was thus the forerunner of Pinsker, and of Herzl a
+decade later. Indeed, in the resurrection of the national hope he
+was the first to remove the shroud. According to him, "the eternal
+people" have every characteristic that goes to make a nation. Their
+common country is still Palestine, loved by them with all the
+fervor of patriotism; their common language had never ceased to be
+Hebrew; their common religion consists in the basic principles of
+Judaism, in which they all agree.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>You wish&mdash;thus he addresses himself to the
+assimilationists&mdash;you wish to be like the other people? So do
+I. Be, I pray you, be like them. Search and find knowledge, avoid
+and forsake superstition, above all be not ashamed of the rock
+whence you were hewn. Yes, be like the other peoples, proud of your
+literature, jealous of your self-respect, hopeful, even as all
+persecuted peoples are hopeful, of the speedy arrival of the day
+when we, too, shall reinhabit the land which once was, and still
+is, our own.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id=
+"page264"></a>{264}</span>
+<p>But as the soil of Palestine, however regarded, is at present
+inaccessible to Jews as a national entity, the language once spoken
+in Palestine is so much the more to be cherished and cultivated by
+the exiled people.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>You ask me&mdash;he calls out again&mdash;what good a dead
+language can do us? I will tell you. It confers honor on us, girds
+us with strength, unites us into one. All nations seek to
+perpetuate their names. All conquered peoples dream of a day when
+they will regain their independence.... We have neither monuments
+nor a country at present. Only one relic still remains from the
+ruins of our ancient glory&mdash;the Hebrew language. Those,
+therefore, who discard the Hebrew tongue betray the Hebrew nation,
+and are traitors both to their race and their religion.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>No less trenchant and outspoken was he against the serried array
+of self-styled "reformers" of Judaism. He could not forgive the
+German rabbis and Russian Maskilim for presuming to "dictate" to
+their coreligionists what to select and what to reject in matters
+religious. The whole movement he condemned as a mere imitation of
+Protestant Christianity. To renovate Judaism! What a stigma on a
+religion that had endured through the ages, and is rich in all that
+makes for holiness and right living! The old garment needs no new
+patches. It still fits and will fit "the eternal people" till time
+is no <span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id=
+"page265"></a>{265}</span> more. Since the reform movement in
+Germany went back to the time of Mendelssohn, Smolenskin hurled the
+missiles of his criticism against the Berlin sage, forgetting that
+for more than half a century his example and encouragement had
+served to awaken a love of knowledge in the hearts of his
+countrymen. But he saw that in the home of Haskalah, the
+<i>Biur</i>, and the Meassefim, apostasy increased, Hebrew was
+almost forgotten, and Judaism was declining, and he blamed the
+pellucid water at the source of the stream for the muddy pool at
+its mouth. Mendelssohn, however, lacked no defenders among his
+Russo-Jewish coreligionists, and their sentiments were voiced by
+Abraham B&auml;r Gottlober in an opposition periodical, The Light
+of Day (Ha-Boker Or, Lublin, 1876). "Why," exclaimed the editor,
+"were it not for him and his reforms ... were it not for that grand
+and noble personality ... neither you nor I should have been what
+we are!" It was only the sad sincerity of Smolenskin that mitigated
+the errors he had committed in regard to the history of his people
+and the theology of its religion.</p>
+<p>But the militant editor of Ha-Shahan, who wielded his pen like a
+halberd, to deal out blows to those of whose views he disapproved,
+became as tender <span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id=
+"page266"></a>{266}</span> as a father when he set out to write
+about the people. His love for the masses whom he knew so well was
+almost boundless. Underlying their superstitions, crudities, and
+absurdities is the "prophetic consciousness," of which they have
+never been entirely divested. The heder is indeed far from what a
+school should be, and the yeshibah is hardly to be tolerated in a
+civilized community; yet what spiritual feasts, what noble
+endeavors, and what unselfish devotion are witnessed within their
+dingy walls! Jewish observances are sometimes cumbersome and
+sometimes incompatible with modern life, but what beauty of
+holiness, what irresistible influences emanate and radiate from
+most of them! Under an uninviting exterior and beneath the
+accumulated drift of countless generations he discerned the
+precious jewel of self-sacrifice for an ideal. It was this sympathy
+and broad-mindedness, expressed in his <i>Ha-To&euml;h</i>, his
+<i>Simhat Hanef</i>, <i>Keburat Hamor</i>, <i>Gemul Yesharim</i>,
+and <i>Ha-Yerushah</i> that will ever endear him to the Hebrew
+reader.</p>
+<p>Such, in brief, was the life of the man who bore the chief part
+in framing and moulding the Haskalah of the "eighties," which was
+devoted to the development of Hebrew literature and the
+rejuvenation of the Hebrew people. Loving the Hebrew <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>{267}</span> tongue
+with a passion surpassing everything else, he censured the German
+Jewish savants for writing their learned works in the vernacular,
+and was on the alert to discover and bring out new talent and win
+over the indifferent and estranged. Dreaming of the redemption of
+his people, he paved the way for the Zionistic movement, which
+spread with tremendous rapidity after his death. And his sincerity
+and ability were repaid in the only coin the poor possess&mdash;in
+love and admiration. Pilgrimages were made, sometimes on foot, to
+behold the editor of Ha-Shahar and the author of
+<i>Ha-To&euml;h</i>. The greatest journalists in St. Petersburg
+united in honoring him when he visited the Russian capital in 1881.
+And when he was snatched away in the midst of his usefulness, a
+victim of unremitting devotion to his people, not only Maskilim,
+but Mitnaggedim and Hasidim felt that "a prince and a mighty one
+had fallen in Israel!"</p>
+<p>(Notes, pp. <a href="#notes-5">322-327</a>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id=
+"page268"></a>{268}</span>
+<h2><a name="chap6" id="chap6">CHAPTER VI</a></h2>
+<h3>THE AWAKENING</h3>
+<h4>1881-1905</h4>
+<p>The reign of Alexander III, like that of Nicholas I, was devoid
+of even that faint glamor of liberalism which, in the days of
+Alexander I and Alexander II, had aroused deceptive hopes of better
+times. During the thirteen years of Alexander III's autocracy
+(1881-1894) not a ray of light was permitted to penetrate into Holy
+Russia. On May 14, 1881, the manifesto prohibiting the slightest
+infringement of the absolute power of the czar was promulgated, to
+continue unbroken till the Russo-Japanese war.</p>
+<p>The liberal current which had carried away his predecessors when
+they first mounted the throne was checked, the sluices of
+Slavophilism were opened, the history of Russian thinkers became
+again, as Herzen said, "a long list of martyrs and a register of
+convicts."</p>
+<p>Nicholas Ignatiev, a rabid reactionary, a second Jeffreys,
+became chief of the Ministry of the Interior; <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>{269}</span> Katkoff,
+a repentant liberal and exile, was appointed the czar's chief
+adviser, the Richelieu behind the throne; and Pobyedonostsev, whom
+Turgenief called the "Russian Torquemada," obtained supremacy over
+Melikoff, and was appointed procurator of the Holy Synod. With such
+as these at the head of the Russian bureaucracy, there may have
+been some foundations for the rumor that an imperial ukase decreed
+the pillage and slaughter of the Jews, and the muzhiks, obedient to
+the behests of the "little father," and smarting under the pain of
+disappointment, vented their venom on their Jewish compatriots.
+Before the new czar had been on his throne three months, Russia was
+drenched with Jewish blood. There began saturnalia of rape,
+plunder, and murder, the like of which had been witnessed nowhere
+in Europe. For half a year the pogroms which began in Yelisavetgrad
+(April 27, 28) swept like a tornado over southern Russia, visiting
+more than one hundred and sixty communities with fire and sword,
+resulting in outrages on women, in the murder of old and young, in
+the ruin of millions of dollars of property. The Black Hundreds of
+the nineteenth century put to shame the Haidamacks of the
+eighteenth and the Cossacks of the seventeenth. In the words of the
+Bishop <span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id=
+"page270"></a>{270}</span> of Canterbury to Sir Moses Montefiore,
+it looked "as if the enemy of mankind was let loose to destroy the
+souls of so many Christians and the bodies of so many Jewish
+people."</p>
+<p>But it would be a vain attempt, and out of keeping with the
+object of this work, to describe in detail the "bloody assizes" and
+the infernal tragedies that ensued upon the accession of Alexander
+III; the moral degeneracy and the economic ruin that spread over
+the mighty empire; the shudder that passed over the civilized
+world, and was expressed in indignation meetings held everywhere,
+especially in Great Britain and in the United States (February,
+1882), to protest, "in the name of civilization, against the spirit
+of medieval persecution thus revived in Russia." Suffice it to say
+that even when the mob, tired of carnage, ceased its work of
+extermination, the bloodthirstiness of those in authority was not
+assuaged. Such a policy was inaugurated against the Jews as would,
+according to Pobyedonostsev, "force one-third of them to emigrate,
+another third to embrace Christianity, and the remainder to die of
+starvation." With this in view, his Majesty the Emperor, "prompted
+by a desire to protect the Jews against the Christians," was
+graciously pleased to give his assent to the Resolutions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id=
+"page271"></a>{271}</span> of the Committee of Ministers, on the
+third of May, 1882, <i>i.e.</i> to the notorious "temporary
+measures," or "May laws," framed by Ignatiev, against the will of
+the Council of the Empire.</p>
+<p>These "temporary measures" have remained in force to this day.
+With them was resuscitated all the inimical legislation of the
+past, beginning with the time of Elizabeta Petrovna. What was
+favorable was suppressed; the unfavorable was most rigorously
+enforced. Jews living outside the Pale were driven back into it on
+the slightest pretext and in the most inhuman manner. To increase
+the already unendurable congestion, the Pale was made smaller than
+before. In accordance with the first clause of the "May laws," Jews
+were expelled from the villages within the Pale itself. In 1888 the
+districts of Rostov and Taganrog, which till then had belonged to
+the Pale, and had been developed largely through Jewish enterprise,
+were torn away and amalgamated with the Don district, in which Jews
+were not permitted to reside. This was followed by expulsions from
+St. Petersburg (1890), Moscow, (1891), Novgorod, Riga, and Yalta
+(1893), and the abrogation of the time-honored privileges of the
+Jews of Bokhara (1896). Even those who, as skilled artisans or
+discharged <span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id=
+"page272"></a>{272}</span> soldiers, had been privileged to reside
+wherever they chose, were expelled with their wives and the
+children born in their adopted city. Their only salvation lay in
+conversion. Converts were especially favored, and were offered
+liberal inducements. By becoming a convert to the Orthodox Russian
+Church, a Jew is immediately freed from all the degrading
+restrictions on his freedom of movement and his choice of a
+profession. Converts, without distinction of sex, are helped
+financially by an immediate payment of sums from thirteen to thirty
+rubles, and until recently were granted freedom from taxation for
+five years. If a candidate for Greek Christianity is married, his
+conversion procures him a divorce, and, unless she likewise is
+converted, his wife may not marry again. By conversion, a Jew may
+escape the consequence of any misdeed against a fellow-Jew, for, to
+quote the Russian code, "in actions concerning Jews who have
+embraced Christianity Jews may not be admitted as witnesses, if any
+objection is raised against them as such." The penal code provides
+that Jews shall pay twice and treble the amount of the fine to
+which non-Jews are liable under similar circumstances. Jews were
+excluded from the professions to which they had turned in the
+"sixties" and "seventies," <span class="pagenum"><a name="page273"
+id="page273"></a>{273}</span> and in which they had been eminently
+successful; they were not allowed to hold any civil or municipal
+office; they were forbidden even to be nurses in the hospitals or
+to give private instruction to children in the homes.</p>
+<p>And still persecution did not cease. Not satisfied with starving
+the bodies of five millions of Jews, Russian legislators were
+determined to crush them intellectually. The Slavophils could not
+brook seeing "non-Russians" surpass their own people in the higher
+walks of life. The Jews, finally successful in emancipating
+themselves from the trammels of rabbinism, had transferred their
+extraordinary devotion from the Talmud to secular studies. They
+filled the schools and the universities of the empire with zealous
+and intelligent pupils, who carried off most of the honors. They
+contributed forty-eight pupils to the gymnasia out of every ten
+thousand, while the Christians contributed only twenty-two. This
+was regarded an unpardonable sin. "These Jews have the audacity to
+excel us pure Russians," Pobyedonostsev is reported to have
+exclaimed, and measures were taken to suppress their dangerous
+tendency. As early as 1875 a law was passed withholding from Jewish
+students the stipends they had hitherto received from a fund set
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id=
+"page274"></a>{274}</span> aside for that purpose. In 1882 the
+number of Jewish students in the Military Academy of Medicine was
+limited to five per cent, and later it was reduced to zero.
+Thereafter one professional school after another adopted a
+percentage provision, and some excluded Jews altogether. Finally,
+"seeing that many Jewish young men, eager to benefit by a higher
+classical, technical, or professional education," presented
+themselves every year for admission to the universities, that they
+passed their examination and continued their studies at the various
+schools of the empire, the Government deemed it "desirable to put a
+stop to a state of affairs which is so unsatisfactory."
+Consequently the ministry limited the attendance of Jews residing
+in places within the Pale to ten per cent in all schools and
+universities (December 5, 1886; June 26, 1887), in places without
+the Pale to five per cent, and in Moscow and St. Petersburg to
+three per cent, of the total number of pupils in each school and
+university. Of the four hundred young Jews who had successfully
+passed their matriculation examination at the beginning of the
+scholastic year 1887-1888, and had thus acquired the right of
+entering the university, three hundred and twenty-six were refused
+admission, and in many schools and <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page275" id="page275"></a>{275}</span> universities they were
+denied even the small per cent the law permitted.</p>
+<p>When, nevertheless, in spite of the many restrictions, the Jew
+at last obtained the coveted degree, the Government rendered it
+nugatory by depriving him of the right of enjoying the fruit of his
+labor and self-sacrifice. He could not practice as an army
+physician or jurist, nor obtain a position as an engineer or a
+Government or municipal clerk. In the army, he was not allowed to
+hold any office, and, though he might be an expert chemist, he
+could never fill the post of a dispenser (March 1, 1888). He was
+excluded from the schools for the training of officers, and if he
+passed the examination on the subjects taught there, his
+certificate could not contain the usual statement that there "was
+no objection to admitting him to the military schools."<a id=
+"footnotetag6-1" name="footnotetag6-1"></a><a href=
+"#footnote6-1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+<p>These restrictive measures were not relaxed when Alexander III
+was succeeded by his son Nicholas II (1894). If anything, they were
+more rigorously executed, and the mob was encouraged to multiply
+its outrages upon the defenceless Jews. The closing years of the
+nineteenth century wiped out the promises of its opening years.
+Blood accusations followed by riots became of frequent occurrence.
+Irkutsk (1896), Shpola, and Kiev <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page276" id="page276"></a>{276}</span> (1897), Kantakuzov
+(Kherson), Vladimir, and Nikolayev (1899) gave the Jews a foretaste
+of what they had to expect when the Black Hundreds, encouraged by
+the Government and incited by Kruzhevan and Pronin, would be let
+loose to enact the scenes that took place in Kishinev and Homel
+before the Russo-Japanese war, and in hundreds of towns after it.
+The difficulties in the way of securing an education were
+increased. Russia did not believe in an "irreducible minimum" where
+the rights of her Jews were concerned. Under Nicholas II the number
+of Jewish women admitted to medical schools was put at three per
+cent of the total number of students; the newly-established School
+for Engineers in Moscow was closed to Jewish young men altogether;
+and the students of both sexes in the schools were constantly
+harassed by the police because of the harsh laws concerning the
+rights of residence. Some splendidly equipped institutions of
+learning were allowed to remain almost empty rather than admit
+Jewish students.<a id="footnotetag6-2" name=
+"footnotetag6-2"></a><a href="#footnote6-2"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+<p>This was the worst punishment of all, the most relentless
+vengeance wreaked on a helpless victim. "Of all the laws which
+swept down upon them from St. Petersburg and Moscow," says
+Leroy-Beaulieu with characteristic insight into the soul of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id=
+"page277"></a>{277}</span> Israel, "those which they [the Jews]
+find hardest to bear are the regulations that block their entrance
+to the Russian universities." The bloodless weighed heavier than
+the bloody pogroms. Consumed with a desire for education, wealthy
+Russian Jews made an attempt to establish higher schools of their
+own, without even drawing upon the surplus money of the kosher-meat
+fund, which had originally been created for such purposes. Baron de
+Hirsch, too, offered two million dollars for the higher and
+technical education of the Jews. But every attempt proved
+fruitless. Baron de Hirsch's munificence was flatly refused. In the
+school which Mr. Weinstein opened at Vinitza, Podolia, no more than
+eight Jews were allowed to attend among eighty Christians, and in
+the one at Gorlovka, founded by another Jew (Polyakov), only five
+per cent were admitted.<a id="footnotetag6-3" name=
+"footnotetag6-3"></a><a href="#footnote6-3"><sup>3</sup></a></p>
+<p>Writers are wont to speak of this as a reactionary period. The
+description applies to the Russians; among the Jews it was a period
+of reawakening.<a id="footnotetag6-4" name=
+"footnotetag6-4"></a><a href="#footnote6-4"><sup>4</sup></a> They
+were disillusioned. They saw that Russification without
+emancipation, as their unsophisticated fathers had told Lilienthal,
+meant extermination. The first and worst pogroms were perpetrated
+in those places where the Jews were like their Russian <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>{278}</span> neighbors
+in every respect, except in the eyes of the law, and with the
+approval of some who were devotees of the Narodnaya Volya. The
+Jewish consciousness reasserted itself. If Pobyedonostsev
+accomplished his fiendish design as regards emigration, more than a
+million Jews having left Russia within the last twenty years; if he
+has almost succeeded in causing them to die of starvation; yet his
+hope of forcing a third of them to conversion was a disappointment
+and a delusion. The Jews showed that the traditional description
+applied to them, "stiff-necked," was not undeserved. While the
+Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and Armenians have undergone conversion
+in multitudes, they whose suffering by far exceeded that of any
+other "non-Russian" nationality remained, with insignificant
+exceptions, loyal to the religion of their fathers.<a id=
+"footnotetag6-5" name="footnotetag6-5"></a><a href=
+"#footnote6-5"><sup>5</sup></a></p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>The Russian Jews&mdash;says Zunser&mdash;sobered down from the
+orgies of assimilation, and its worshippers abandoned their idol.
+Those who had almost forgotten that they were of the camp of Israel
+began to return to its tents. The Jewish physicians, jurists,
+technologists, and the entire so-called Jewish "intelligentia," who
+heretofore had never cared to speak a word of Yiddish to a Jew,
+resumed their native tongue; they began to send their children to
+the Jewish hadarim, and adopted once more Jewish ways and customs.
+Several hundred Jewish university students, proverbially
+irreligious, sent to Vilna for tefillin [phylacteries]!</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id=
+"page279"></a>{279}</span>
+<p>In many cities fasts were observed and prayers for forgiveness
+offered, and the prodigal sons of Israel repaired to the synagogue,
+participated in the services, and wept with their more steadfast
+though equally unfortunate coreligionists. Many converts, too,
+began to feel qualms of conscience, and endeavored to make up for
+their youthful indiscretions. Some of them fled to places of
+safety, and returned to Judaism. The gifted young poet Simon
+Yakovlevich Nadsohn died of a broken heart. Sorkin, the classmate
+and friend of Levanda, committed suicide, while Levanda, the great
+novelist of assimilation, was so affected by the massacres and
+their consequences, that he became melancholy, and died in an
+asylum for the insane.<a id="footnotetag6-6" name=
+"footnotetag6-6"></a><a href="#footnote6-6"><sup>6</sup></a></p>
+<p>If this was the fate of the assimilated and estranged, one may
+guess the effect of the reaction on the religious. If the students
+of the universities sacrificed their careers, their daily bread,
+for the austere satisfaction of discharging their moral obligation
+to the best of their knowledge, the students of the Law, always
+loyal to the heritage of their people, became more zealous than
+ever. Lilienblum who, in 1877, believed that life without a
+university education was not worth living, became a repentant
+sinner. Russian Jewry seethed with <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page280" id="page280"></a>{280}</span> religious enthusiasm. Moses
+Isaac Darshan, "the Khelmer Maggid," preached for six hours at a
+time to crowded synagogues. Asher Israelit, less trenchant, but
+equally effective, exhorted crowds to repentance. Zebi Hirsh
+Masliansky, a finished orator, went from town to town, and aroused
+a love for whatever was connected with the history and religion of
+the Jewish people. In Kovno those who were preparing themselves for
+the rabbinate formed something like a new sect, the Mussarnikes
+(Moralists), which practiced asceticism and self-abnegation to an
+extraordinary degree.<a id="footnotetag6-7" name=
+"footnotetag6-7"></a><a href="#footnote6-7"><sup>7</sup></a></p>
+<a name="illus-lilienblum" id="illus-lilienblum"></a>
+<center><img width="250" height="322" src=
+"images/illus-lilienblum.png" alt="Moses Lilienblum" /></center>
+<center>Moses L&ouml;b Lilienblum, 1843-1910</center>
+<p>Those, however, were most affected who had been misled by dreams
+of assimilation. They suffered most, for they lost most. Their
+hopes were blighted, their hearts broken. The leading-strings
+proved to be a halter. They saw they had little to expect at the
+hands of those they had believed to have become fully civilized,
+and they were embittered toward civilization, which had showed them
+flowers, but had given them no fruit. In a work, <i>Sinat 'Olam
+le-'Am 'Olam</i> (<i>Eternal Hatred for the Eternal People</i>,
+Warsaw, 1882), Nahum Sokolov proved, like Smolenskin before him,
+that anti-Semitism was ineradicable, that the fight against the
+Jews was a fight to the death, that even emancipation <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>{281}</span> helps
+little to remove the animosity innate in one people against
+another, and until the "end of days" foretold by the prophets of
+yore there will never cease the eternal hatred to the eternal
+people. This became the dominant opinion. It dawned upon many that
+the only salvation for the Jews lay in becoming a nation once more.
+A yearning for a new fatherland and a new country seized young and
+old. The times were auspicious. Cosmopolitanism was everywhere
+giving place to nationalism. The little Balkan States had broken
+the yoke of Ottoman rule, and become self-governing nations since
+1878. In Poland, Hungary, and Ireland, home rule was advocated with
+fervor that threatened a revolution. Italy and Germany became
+united under their own king or emperor. And the Russian Jews, tired
+of the constant conflicts with the surrounding peoples, experienced
+the desire which had prompted their ancestors to be like all the
+other nations.</p>
+<p>Sokolov's sentiments were reinforced in an anonymous pamphlet
+written by Doctor Leo Pinsker (1821-1891), one of the foremost
+physicians of Odessa. His <i>Auto-Emancipation</i> (Berlin, 1882)
+is now recognized as the forerunner of Herzl's <i>Judenstaat</i>,
+which appeared fifteen years later. Pinsker accepts as an axiom
+what Sokolov had tried <span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id=
+"page282"></a>{282}</span> to demonstrate as a proposition.
+Jew-hatred, he claims, like Lombroso in his work on anti-Semitism,
+is a "platonic hatred," a hereditary mental disease, which two
+thousand years' duration has so aggravated as to render it
+incurable. As the Jewish problem is international, it can be solved
+only by nationalism. He admits some of the charges brought against
+the Jews by anti-Semites, but Jewish failings result from Christian
+intolerance. In a land of their own they will develop into a
+Muster-nation, a model people.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>The wretches&mdash;cries he&mdash;they mock the eagle that once
+soared sky-high, and saw divinity itself, because he can no longer
+fly after his wings are broken! Give us but our independence, allow
+us to take care of ourselves, grant us but a little strip of land
+like that of the Servians and Rumanians, give us a chance to lead a
+national existence, and then prate about our lacking manly virtues.
+What we lack is not genius (Genialit&auml;t) but self-consciousness
+(Selbstgef&uuml;hl) and appreciation of our value as men
+(Bewusstsein der Menschenw&uuml;rde), of which we were deprived by
+you!</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Of course, it requires many years and a great expenditure of
+money to establish a nation on a firm basis. But in Pinsker's
+dictionary the word "impossible" does not exist. "Far, very far,"
+says he, "is the haven of rest towards which our souls are turning.
+We know not even whether it be East <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page283" id="page283"></a>{283}</span> or West. But be the road
+never so long, it cannot seem too long to the wanderers of two
+thousand years."</p>
+<p>Pinsker's impassioned appeal made a deep impression. It was
+obvious that colonization would be the shortest road to
+renationalization. But as to the place in which the colonies should
+be established, no agreement could be reached. Pinsker, like Herzl
+after him, left the problem unsolved. Some preferred America or
+even Spain. In southern Russia a society, 'Am 'Olam (The Eternal
+Nation), was organized on communistic principles. It sent an
+advance guard to the United States, where, as the Sons of the Free,
+they established several settlements, the best-known of which was
+New Odessa, in Oregon.<a id="footnotetag6-8" name=
+"footnotetag6-8"></a><a href="#footnote6-8"><sup>8</sup></a> The
+majority, however, preferred Palestine, the land which, in weal or
+woe, in pain or pleasure, remains ever dear to the Jewish heart;
+the land to which the ancient exiles by the waters of Babylon had
+vowed that sooner than forget her would their right hands forget
+their cunning and their tongues cleave to the roofs of their
+mouths; the possession whereof had been held out as the most
+alluring promise, and to be deprived of which the prophets had
+regarded as the severest punishment.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id=
+"page284"></a>{284}</span>
+<p>Zionism, even Territorialism, among the Russian Jews is by no
+means solely the result of modern anti-Semitism. At the same time
+that Mordecai Manuel Noah was planning his Jewish state Ararat in
+western New York (1825), Gregori Peretz, who, as a child, had been
+converted, with his father, to the dominant religion, and had been
+advanced to the rank of an officer in his Majesty's army, was
+dreaming of the renationalization of his alienated brethren. As a
+leading figure in the councils of the Dekabrists, he never ceased
+his efforts until his comrades accepted the restoration of Israel
+to his pristine place among the nations of the earth as part of
+their revolutionary programme. But with the suppression of the
+Dekabrists by Nicholas I the scheme died "a-borning," and sank into
+oblivion. Later, David Gordon revived the yearnings of Judah Halevi
+by his articles in the weekly Ha-Maggid (1863), which he edited in
+Lyck, Prussia. Smolenskin's writings resound with a love for Zion
+from the very beginning of his literary career. And a rising young
+Hebraist, Eliezer ben Yehudah, while still a student of medicine,
+wrote, in 1878, and again in 1880, stirring letters to the editor
+of Ha-Shahar, in which he advocated the return to the Holy Land and
+the revival of the holy <span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id=
+"page285"></a>{285}</span> tongue as a <i>conditio sine qua non</i>
+for the realization of the Jewish mission. These views, at first
+advocated by the Hebrew-writing and Hebrew-reading Maskilim,
+gradually filtered into the various strata of Russo-Jewish society,
+and when the clouds began to gather fast in Russia's sky, and the
+change in the monarch's policy augured the approach of evil times,
+Zionism rapidly made enthusiastic converts even among the most
+Russified of the Jewish youth. On November 6, 1884, for the first
+time in history, a Jewish international assembly was held at
+Kattowitz, near the Russian frontier, where representatives from
+all classes and different countries met and decided to colonize
+Palestine with Jewish farmers.</p>
+<p>Since then Haskalah in Russia has become nationalistic and
+Palestinian. Even those who were at first opposed to it gradually
+grew friendly, and finally became "lovers of Zion" (Hobebe Zion).
+Among the Russo-Jewish students in Vienna, Smolenskin, the militant
+Zionist, organized an academic society, Kadimah, a name which,
+meaning Eastward and Forward, contains the philosophy of Zionism in
+a nutshell. Seeing that the Alliance Isra&eacute;lite Universelle
+encouraged emigration to America, both he and Ben Yehudah published
+violent attacks <span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id=
+"page286"></a>{286}</span> on the French society, and endeavored to
+thwart its plans as far as possible.<a id="footnotetag6-9" name=
+"footnotetag6-9"></a><a href="#footnote6-9"><sup>9</sup></a> The
+Hebrew weekly Ha-Meliz, published in St. Petersburg, was a staunch
+supporter of the movement, and a little later Ha-Zefirah, published
+in Warsaw, which was at first indifferent, if not antagonistic,
+joined the ranks. In Russian, too, the Razsvyet and especially the
+Buduchnost spread Zionism among their readers, while books,
+pamphlets, and poems were published in Yiddish for circulation
+among the masses. In addition to the Hobebe Zion societies formed
+in many cities, secret societies were organized, such as the famous
+Bene Mosheh (Sons of Moses), which had for its object the moral and
+intellectual improvement of the future citizens of the Jewish
+Republic; the Bilu (initials of Bet Ya'akob leku we-nelekah, "O
+House of Jacob, come and let us go"), formed by Israel Belkind, who
+went to Palestine with his fellow-students of the University of
+Kharkov, and founded the colony of Gederah; and the Hillul (Hereb
+la-Adona&iuml; u-le-Arzenu, "A sword for God and our land"), the
+members of which pledged themselves to remove any obstacle to the
+cause of nationalism, even at the cost of their lives. The Bone
+Zion (Builders of Zion), a sort of Masonic fraternity, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>{287}</span> was a
+very potent secret society, which undertook to constitute itself a
+provisional Jewish Government, and assiduously watched the
+Zionistic societies and their leaders in every portion of the
+globe.<a id="footnotetag6-10" name="footnotetag6-10"></a><a href=
+"#footnote6-10"><sup>10</sup></a></p>
+<p>These dreamy youths, however, heartbroken and disgusted with a
+civilization which had failed to redeem its promises, proved but
+poor material for laying the foundations for a future nation. It
+was as with the Darien Company organized by William Paterson when
+Scotland was sorely distressed, and the Champ d'Asile, by the
+remnant of Napoleon's grand army&mdash;a fine idea, but the men and
+the means were wanting to execute it. The colonies in Palestine
+fared no better than those in America. They were opposed by the
+Government from without and by many of the orthodox Jews from
+within. The former, though claiming to be glad to see the Jews
+emigrate, though declaring to the Jewish delegation that pleaded
+for mercy, <i>Zapadnaya graniza dlya vas otkrita</i> ("the Western
+frontier is open to you"), was still, Pharaoh-like, reluctant to
+see so many "undesirable citizens" leave, and prohibited the
+formation of organizations to accomplish the end. The orthodox were
+against the movement on religious grounds, because it was "forcing
+the end" of Israel's trouble before <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page288" id="page288"></a>{288}</span> the destined day of God
+arrived.<a id="footnotetag6-11" name="footnotetag6-11"></a><a href=
+"#footnote6-11"><sup>11</sup></a> But with the "nineties" the
+movement received a strong impetus. Alexander Zederbaum, the
+publisher of Ha-Meliz, succeeded in obtaining a charter (February
+9, 1890) for the Association for the Aid of Colonization in
+Palestine and Syria. Such eminent rabbis as Mordecai Eliasberg, his
+son Jonathan, Samuel Mohilever, N.Z.Y. Berlin, and Mordecai Joffe
+espoused the cause, and set the example for their less prominent
+colleagues. When the question arose whether Jewish agriculturists
+in Palestine are obliged to observe the Biblical injunction not to
+till the ground in the seventh year (shemittah), Rabbi Isaac
+Elhanan Spector of Kovno, the leading rabbi and Talmudist of his
+time, decided, in opposition to the Jerusalem rabbinate, that the
+law had ceased to be effective with the destruction of the Temple.
+Baron Edmond de Rothschild of Paris also came to the rescue of the
+colonists, and, more important still, there began an immigration of
+Russo-Jewish farmers into Palestine, of the class, numbering about
+ninety-five thousand souls, whom Arnold White described as "an
+active, well set-up, sun-burnt, muscular, agricultural people,
+marked by all the characteristics of a peasantry of the highest
+character." With them the colonies began to flourish, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>{289}</span> the debts
+were paid off, and a better regime set in. "There was no crime or
+drunkenness," says Bentwich, "in those settlements, and the only
+usurer was a Russian peasant, who charged the Jewish borrowers
+thirty-six per cent for loans. If ever I saw practical religion
+carried into daily life, it was among those brave and sober Hebrew
+ploughmen."<a id="footnotetag6-12" name=
+"footnotetag6-12"></a><a href="#footnote6-12"><sup>12</sup></a></p>
+<p>Whatever may be one's views on Zionism, there can be no doubt
+that it has proved a power for good in Russia. It introduced new
+ideals and revived old expectations. It has accomplished, in a
+measure, the fond hope of the Maskilim and awakened within the
+Russian Jew a feeling of self-respect and a "consciousness of human
+worth." Different and contending elements it has coalesced into
+one. It has, above all, brought back to the fold the doubting
+Thomases and careless Gallios, even the avowed scoffers, among the
+Jewish youth, and imbued them with courage and pride,<a id=
+"footnotetag6-13" name="footnotetag6-13"></a><a href=
+"#footnote6-13"><sup>13</sup></a> and given them a new shibboleth,
+<i>Meine Kunst der Welt, mein Leben meinem Volke</i> ("My art for
+the world, my life for my people").</p>
+<p>"We have seen our youths return to us," writes Lilienblum,<a id=
+"footnotetag6-14" name="footnotetag6-14"></a><a href=
+"#footnote6-14"><sup>14</sup></a> "and our hearts were filled with
+joy. In their restoration we found balm for our wounds,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id=
+"page290"></a>{290}</span> and with rapturous wonderment we asked
+'who has borne us these?'" The poets welcomed them with songs.
+Gordon, whose sorrow had silenced his muse, was inspired once more
+and called:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Behold our sons, of whom we despaired,</p>
+<p>Return to us, the great and the small;</p>
+<p>God's grace is not ended, our power's unimpaired,</p>
+<p>Again we shall live, and rise after the fall!</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Frug sang in Russian:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="i10">My own Nation,</p>
+<p>Thou art not alone; thy sons behold</p>
+<p>Coming back in crowds as in days of old!</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>And Zunser represented Rachel as soliloquizing in Yiddish:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Through the windows what am I seeing,</p>
+<p>Like turtle-doves hitherward fleeing?</p>
+<p>Are my Joseph and Benjamin knocking at my door?</p>
+<p>O Heavens, O mighty wonder!</p>
+<p>Those are my children yonder!</p>
+<p>Yes, my dearest and my truest coming home once more!</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>But Zionism is not exclusively either a political or a religious
+movement. It is both plus something else; it is eminently
+educational. It has produced novelists and poets, whose writings
+are full of the virility and beauty of a rejuvenated nation. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id=
+"page291"></a>{291}</span> Jaffa it established a high school (Bet
+ha-Sefer), it inspired Doctor Chazanowicz to establish a national
+library, and ways and means are being considered to establish a
+national university in Palestine.</p>
+<p>Even among the devotees of the arts it has given rise to a new
+romantic school, young painters and sculptors who are depicting
+their Judenschmerz.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>Their cunning hands&mdash;says Mr. Leo Mielziner&mdash;have
+mastered the technique of their art, be it in Moscow or Munich, or
+Berlin, or Paris, but the heart which inspires their brush or
+mallet pulsates in Palestine. The wandering Jew in them pauses, not
+to portray the impression of the foreign lands and stranger
+customs, but to depict his own suffering, his own Heimweh, his own
+aspirations.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Struck, Ashkenasi, Maimon, Hirszenberg, Gottlieb, Epstein,
+L&ouml;bsch&uuml;tz, and Schatz are the leaders of this new
+movement. The last-named, together with Ephraim Moses Lilien of
+Galicia, perhaps the greatest Jewish illustrator of our time, has
+founded a national school, Bezalel, to propagate Jewish art in
+Palestine, on the same principles on which the great national art
+schools of other countries are based. The language of instruction
+is Hebrew.</p>
+<p>Meanwhile the Society for the Promotion of Haskalah continued
+its work of Russification and <span class="pagenum"><a name=
+"page292" id="page292"></a>{292}</span> general civilization. After
+1880 its activity was greatly enhanced, and its members worked with
+renewed zeal. It opened elementary schools, and expended large sums
+on stipends for students, and the publication of useful and
+scholarly books. The branch in Odessa secured two hundred and
+thirty-one new members in one year (1900), making the total in that
+city alone nine hundred and sixty-eight. It organized a bureau of
+information on pedagogic subjects, and through the liberality of
+Kalonymos Wissotzky instituted prizes for original works in Hebrew
+or Russian. Individual philanthropists did their utmost to
+counterbalance the restrictions on education.<a id=
+"footnotetag6-15" name="footnotetag6-15"></a><a href=
+"#footnote6-15"><sup>15</sup></a></p>
+<p>Trade schools were opened by the Committee for the Promotion of
+a Knowledge of Trade and Agriculture among the Jews of Russia, in
+Minsk, Vilna, and Vitebsk, besides fifteen manual training schools
+for boys and twenty for girls, in which the indigent pupils are
+provided with food, clothes, and books. In 1900 thirteen new
+schools were opened in Kherson and Yekaterinoslav, to supply the
+educational demand of the thirty-eight colonies existing in those
+Governments. In the vicinity of Minsk a Junior Republic was
+organized, and in many cities art and choral societies were
+formed.<a id="footnotetag6-16" name="footnotetag6-16"></a><a href=
+"#footnote6-16"><sup>16</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id=
+"page293"></a>{293}</span>
+<p>The desire for self-help and the tendency towards organization,
+to which Zionism gave an impetus, was rapidly reflected in every
+sphere of Russo-Jewish activity. In a series of works and articles,
+Jacob Wolf Mendlin, who studied under Lassalle, pointed out the
+importance of the co-operative system. Accordingly, a union was
+organized by the Jewish salesmen in Warsaw. In 1897 a conference of
+Jewish workingmen was held in that city and Der allgemeine
+j&uuml;dische Arbeiterbund in Littauen, Polen, und Russland
+(Federation of Jewish Labor Unions in Lithuania, Poland, and
+Russia) was perfected. It published three papers as its organs, Die
+Arbeiterstimme, Der j&uuml;discher Arbeiter, and, in Switzerland,
+Letzte Nachrichten. Soon workmen's associations and artisans' clubs
+appeared wherever there was a sufficient number of Jewish tailors,
+hatters, bookbinders, etc., for the purpose of increasing and
+improving the value of their production, and to do away with
+middlemen and money-lenders. They organized a tailors', dyers', and
+shoemakers' union in Kharkov, and a carpenters' union in Minsk, for
+mutual support in the struggle for existence, and for the
+construction of sanitary workingmen's houses. The cultural desire
+of the handicraftsmen, constituting twelve per <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>{294}</span> cent of
+the Russo-Jewish population and occasionally fifty-two per cent
+(Odessa), seventy-three per cent (Kovno), and even ninety per cent
+(Byelostok), is phenomenal. Their object is not only physical
+improvement. Their highest aim is that their members be enabled, by
+means of efficient night schools and private instruction, to
+acquire elementary and higher education; in the words of the
+constitution of the carpenters' union of Minsk, "to protect their
+material interests, raise their moral and intellectual status, and
+foster efforts of self-help."<a id="footnotetag6-17" name=
+"footnotetag6-17"></a><a href="#footnote6-17"><sup>17</sup></a></p>
+<p>The Hebrew teachers, a class which, though more respected,
+underwent as hard a struggle as the workingmen, banded themselves
+together in 1899 in the Society for Aiding Hebrew Teachers of the
+Province of Vilna. Their president was Michael Wolper, the
+inspector of the Hebrew Institute and successor to Wohl as censor
+of Hebrew publications. Similar attempts were made in Bessarabia.
+Rabbi Shachor, chairman of the Hebrew Teachers' Association of
+Yekaterinoslav, was instrumental in opening a normal school
+conducted on Chautauqua principles, and so advanced the cause of
+education considerably.<a id="footnotetag6-18" name=
+"footnotetag6-18"></a><a href="#footnote6-18"><sup>18</sup></a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id=
+"page295"></a>{295}</span>
+<p>With the establishment of the rabbinical seminaries and the
+ukase (May 3, 1855) that only such may officiate as rabbis as have
+completed a prescribed course of study, Russian Jewry was placed in
+a sore predicament. It was a very difficult task to find men who
+united secular knowledge with that thorough mastery of Talmudic
+literature which the Jews of Russia exact from their rabbis. Every
+community was compelled to appoint two rabbis: an orthodox rabbi
+(dukhovny rabbin) and a "crown," or Government, rabbi (kazyony
+rabbin). The people recognized only the authority of the former,
+the Government that of the latter. The consequence was that a man
+with a mere high-school education would apply for, and would often
+receive, the position of crown-rabbi. His duties consisted in
+merely keeping a register of marriages, births, and deaths,
+administering the oath, and the like. The many lawyers and
+physicians who were debarred from practicing their professions
+sought to become candidates for the rabbinate. To avoid the
+unpleasant results which followed, Rabbi Chernovich of Odessa and
+Rabbi I.J. Reines of Lyda established seminaries in Odessa and
+Lyda, to take the place and to continue the teaching of the Vilna
+and the Volozhin yeshibot, which had been closed, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>{296}</span> and to
+furnish proper rabbis for the various congregations.<a id=
+"footnotetag6-19" name="footnotetag6-19"></a><a href=
+"#footnote6-19"><sup>19</sup></a></p>
+<p>The century-long struggle for enlightenment had a telling
+effect. What the early Maskilim had only dreamed of finally came to
+be. The metamorphosis was so great and so general as to be hardly
+credible. It was shown by Mr. Landman, in a paper read before the
+Russo-Jewish Historical Society of Odessa, that while among the
+Gentiles of that city the reading public constituted seven per cent
+of the population, among Jews it was no less than thirty-three per
+cent, and twenty-five per cent of all readers were Jewish
+women.<a id="footnotetag6-20" name="footnotetag6-20"></a><a href=
+"#footnote6-20"><sup>20</sup></a> By 1905 there were two Yiddish
+and three Hebrew dailies, besides several weekly, monthly, and
+quarterly periodicals and annuals in Yiddish, Hebrew, and Russian,
+notwithstanding the fact that a numerous class depended on the
+general Russian literary output for their mental pabulum.</p>
+<p>As the number of those who read Hebrew was still considerable,
+Abraham L&ouml;b Shalkovich (Ben Avigdor) began, with the
+assistance of a number of Maskilim, the publication of "penny
+literature" (Sifre Agorah, Warsaw, 1893). Shortly afterwards the
+Ahiasaf Society and, a little later, the Tushiyah Society were
+founded. The object was <span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id=
+"page297"></a>{297}</span> to edit and publish "good and useful
+books in the Hebrew language for the spread of knowledge and the
+teaching of morality and culture among the Hebrew youth, also
+scientific books in all departments of learning." Both these
+associations have done admirable work. They have published many
+good text-books for teaching Hebrew and Jewish history, an
+illustrated periodical for children, Olam Katan (The Little World),
+and numerous works of interest to the adult. Among their
+publications were, besides the original writings of Peretz, Taviov,
+Frischman, Berdichevsky, Chernikhovsky, and others, also
+translations from Bogrov, Byron, Frug, Hugo, Nordau, Shakespeare,
+Spencer, Zangwill, Zola, critical biographies of Aristotle,
+Copernicus, George Eliot, Heine, Lassalle, Nietzsche, Rousseau, and
+a great many equally famous men of letters, which followed each
+other in promiscuous but uninterrupted succession, all handsomely
+printed and prettily bound, and sold at a moderate price.</p>
+<p>One evil, however, remained, in the face of which both the
+Maskilim and the financiers found themselves utterly helpless, the
+evil of the exclusion of Jews from the universities. They could
+found elementary and high schools for the young, night schools and
+Sabbath Schools for the adult working-men, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>{298}</span> but to
+establish a university was an absolute impossibility. Jewish youths
+were again compelled, as in the days of Tobias Cohn and Solomon
+Maimon, to seek in foreign lands the education denied them in their
+own. Austria, Switzerland, France, and chiefly Germany, became once
+more the Meccas whither Russo-Jewish graduates repaired to finish
+their studies, and where they formed a sort of Latin Quarters of
+their own, and led almost a communal life. Their numbers in the
+German universities grew to such proportions, and their material
+condition became so wretched, that a society was organized in
+Berlin for the express purpose of helping them. On the other hand,
+the authorities protested (1906) against expending the funds
+granted each year for German educational institutions on the
+education of non-Germans, and the Akademischer Club of Berlin
+passed resolutions demanding a regulation against their admission.
+In Leipsic alone, of the six hundred and sixty-two foreign students
+who attended the university, three hundred and forty, or over
+one-half, are Russian Jews (1906). Of the five hundred and
+eighty-six students enrolled in the Commercial University, three
+hundred and twenty-two are foreigners, among whom Russians
+predominate, and of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id=
+"page299"></a>{299}</span> eight hundred students who attend the
+Royal Conservatory of Music, three hundred are foreigners, also
+mostly Russians. Russians constitute two hundred and two of the
+three hundred and forty-seven pupils in the Dresden Polytechnicum,
+and sixty out of one hundred and thirty-seven in the Dresden
+Veterinary College, while in the Freiberg School of Mines and in
+the Tharand Forestry Academy they are in a majority, though they
+pay twice, and in some places three times, the amount of tuition
+fee required from the native students. The proportion is still
+greater in the Swiss universities of Basle, Berne, Geneva,
+Lausanne, and Zurich, where they sometimes constitute three-fourths
+of the entire student body in the medical schools (Geneva,
+1907).</p>
+<p>And as for the progress made by the Russo-Jewish woman, it is
+wonderful, indeed. It is hardly a quarter of a century since
+attention began to be given to her mental development, and yet she
+has seldom lagged behind her sisters in more enlightened lands, and
+has lately attained to a proud height. Vilna, with her "many
+well-educated wives," attracted the attention of Montefiore in the
+early "forties"; Tarnopol speaks in terms of high praise of the
+Jewish women of Odessa in the "sixties"; <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>{300}</span> they
+"charm by their culture, by the ease and precision with which they
+speak several European languages, by the correctness of their
+judgment, and the beauty of their conversation."<a id=
+"footnotetag6-21" name="footnotetag6-21"></a><a href=
+"#footnote6-21"><sup>21</sup></a> The memoirs of Madame Pauline
+Wengeroff throw a sidelight also on the accomplishments of her
+sisters in the less enlightened districts of Russian Jewry. But in
+the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the
+twentieth century, their advance was prodigious.<a id=
+"footnotetag6-22" name="footnotetag6-22"></a><a href=
+"#footnote6-22"><sup>22</sup></a> When decent Jewish women were
+prohibited to reside in St. Petersburg, some of the Jewish female
+students, at the risk of their reputation, secured the yellow
+ticket of the prostitute rather than sacrifice their education. But
+the majority went to other countries. The press has lately been
+interested in what these seekers for light in foreign lands have
+accomplished, and reported the successes of Fanny Berlin, who
+graduated from the University of Berne as doctor of law <i>summa
+cum laude</i>, and of Miss Kanyevsky of Zinkoff (Poltava), who was
+the first woman to take her degree as engineer at the Ecole des
+Pontes et Chaussees, in Paris.</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>It is a curious fact&mdash;remarks a correspondent in the Pall
+Mall Gazette&mdash;the majority [of lady doctors practicing in
+Paris] are Russian Jewesses, just as are the greatest number of
+young <span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id=
+"page301"></a>{301}</span> women medical students. At a rough
+calculation there are three hundred ladies pursuing medical studies
+at the various schools, and working side by side with the male
+students. The reason of the invasion of the Jewess is, of course,
+the disabilities that exist in Russia for those of the faith of
+Israel ... disabilities that are hardly lessened in Germany.
+Moreover, there exists only one university in Russia, and that is
+in St. Petersburg. Some of the women who graduate in medicine do
+extremely well afterwards in practice, and are greatly in vogue in
+the highest society in Paris.... The lady doctor who is also a
+Russian subject has likewise found a field for her energies in
+China, where Russian influence is so dominant at the present
+moment.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Another writer, in Harper's Bazaar, speaking of girl-students in
+Paris, has this to say:</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>The Russian students are an interesting class in Paris. There
+are some one hundred and thirty of them in all, nearly all Hebrews,
+as the Russian universities admit only about four Jews to every
+hundred students. Their monthly allowance from their families is
+often no more than twenty dollars, and out of that they must pay
+board, room-rent, and all outside expenses. These Russian "new
+women" are extraordinary students. Mlle. Lepinska, one of the first
+to graduate in medicine, presented a thesis six hundred and sixty
+pages long to her astonished professors.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>With pitying admiration the world looks on the struggle for
+enlightenment of these brave sons and daughters of Judah. Their
+trials and tribulations, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page302"
+id="page302"></a>{302}</span> their heart-burnings and
+disappointments, have inspired poets and painters, novelists and
+playwrights. From Chamisso's <i>Abba Glusk Leczeka</i> to
+Korolenko's <i>Skazanye o Florye Rimlyaninye</i>, czars have died
+or have been assassinated, statesmen have risen and fallen, but the
+Russian Jew, like the heroes of the poem or novel, did not wait to
+conquer by submitting. Thanks to his indomitable spirit he has made
+unexampled progress. Within the last twenty-five years he has not
+only emancipated himself, but he is now the most potent factor in
+the struggle for the emancipation of his countrymen. Within these
+years he has become the recognized torch-bearer of liberty and
+enlightenment in darkest Russia. Uvarov justified his inhuman
+treatment of the Jews by the plea that they are "orthodox and
+believers in the Talmud." The latest excuse (1904) of von Plehve
+was that "if we admitted Jews to our universities without
+restriction, they would surpass our Russian students and dominate
+our intellectual life." But neither the former prevails, nor the
+latter, nor their henchmen who fill the columns of the Grazhdanin,
+Kievlyanin, Novoye Vremya, and the like. The words and writings of
+such noble and world-famous Russians as Popoff, Demidov,
+Strogonoff, Bershadsky, Shchedrin, Tolstoi, <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>{303}</span> and the
+cream of the Russian "intelligentia," as well as such foreigners as
+Mommsen, Gladstone, Leroy-Beaulieu, and Michael Davitt, will have
+their salutary effect. The consciousness of the Russian people will
+awaken. The attitude lately manifested both in St. Petersburg and
+the provinces against the <i>Kontrabandisti</i>, a libellous play
+written by an apostate Jew, Levin, will become more and more
+general. Then the heroic effort and the unexampled progress of the
+Russian Jews will be more fully appreciated, and a patriotic nation
+will gratefully acknowledge its indebtedness to that smallest but
+most energetic and self-sacrificing portion of its heterogeneous
+population, the Jews, who have done so much, not only for Jewish
+Russians, but for Christian Russians as well, to hasten the time
+when "many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be
+increased."</p>
+<p>(Notes, pp. <a href="#notes-6">327-330</a>.)</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id=
+"page305"></a>{305}</span>
+<h2><a name="notes" id="notes">NOTES</a></h2>
+<h3>ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE NOTES</h3>
+<p>AZJ = Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums, Leipsic,
+1837&mdash;<br />
+FKI = F&uuml;nn, Keneset Yisra&euml;l, Warsaw, 1860.<br />
+FKN = F&uuml;nn, Kiryah Ne'emanah, Vilna, 1860.<br />
+FSL = F&uuml;nn, Safah le-Ne'emanim, Vilna, 1881.<br />
+GMC = Ginzberg and Marek, Yevreyskiya Narodniya Pyesni, St.
+Petersburg, 1901.<br />
+HUH = Harkavy, Ha-Yehudim u-Sefat ha-Selavim, Vilna, 1867.<br />
+JE = Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols., New York, 1901-1906.<br />
+LBJ = Levinsohn, Bet Yehudah, Warsaw, 1901.<br />
+LTI = Levinsohn, Te'udah be-Yisra&euml;l, Warsaw, 1901.<br />
+WMG = Wengeroff, Memoiren einer Grossrautter, i., Berlin, 1908.</p>
+<h3><a name="notes-1" id="notes-1">CHAPTER I</a></h3>
+<h4>THE PRE-HASKALAH PERIOD</h4>
+<h4>?-1648</h4>
+<h4>(pp. 17-52)</h4>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-1" name=
+"footnote1-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-1">(return)</a>
+<p>Mention might, indeed, be made of Dr. Zunz's pioneer work in his
+Aelteste Nachrichten &uuml;ber Juden und j&uuml;dische Gelehrte in
+Polen, Slavonien, Russland (Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin, 1875,
+iii. 82-87), and Firkovich, who, in his Abne Zikkaron (Vilna,
+1872), threw much light on the history of the Crimean Jews. The
+best contributions to the subject, however, are those of Harkavy,
+Russ i Russkiye v Sred. Yevr. Lit. (Voskhod, 1881), and
+Malishevsky, Yevreyi v Yuzhnoy Rossii i Kieve, v. x-xii. Vyekakh,
+St. Petersburg, 1878.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-2" name=
+"footnote1-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-2">(return)</a>
+<p>LTI, p. 33, n. 2; LBJ, ii. 94, n. 2.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id=
+"page306"></a>{306}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-3" name=
+"footnote1-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-3">(return)</a>
+<p>See JE, s.v. Azov, and Kertch. See also Fishberg, The Jews: A
+Study of Race and Environment, New York, 1911, pp. 150,
+192-194.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-4" name=
+"footnote1-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-4">(return)</a>
+<p>See Judah Halevi's Kuzari, Introduction.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-5" name=
+"footnote1-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-5">(return)</a>
+<p>Minor, Rukovodstvo, Moscow, 1881, iv; Ha-Pardes, St. Petersburg,
+1902, p. 155.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-6" name=
+"footnote1-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-6">(return)</a>
+<p>HUH, pp. 31-32, 69-76.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-7" name=
+"footnote1-7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-7">(return)</a>
+<p>Yevrey Minister, Voskhod, 1885, v. 105 f.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-8" name=
+"footnote1-8"></a><b>Footnote 8:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-8">(return)</a>
+<p>JE, i. 112, 119, 223; viii. 652.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-9" name=
+"footnote1-9"></a><b>Footnote 9:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-9">(return)</a>
+<p>The synagogue in Brest-Litovsk, which Saul Wahl built in memory
+of his wife Deborah, was demolished in 1836. WMG, p. 84.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-10" name=
+"footnote1-10"></a><b>Footnote 10:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-10">(return)</a>
+<p>HUH, pp. 77-134.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-11" name=
+"footnote1-11"></a><b>Footnote 11:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-11">(return)</a>
+<p>JE, x. 569.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-12" name=
+"footnote1-12"></a><b>Footnote 12:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-12">(return)</a>
+<p>The story of Zacharias de Guizolfi deserves to be given at
+greater length. He was a prince and ruler of the Taman peninsula
+near the Black Sea (1419). After he had been unsuccessful in a war
+against the Turks, Czar Ivan III sent him a message sealed with the
+gold seal (March 14, 1484) as follows:</p>
+<p>"By the grace of God, the great ruler of the Russian land, the
+Grand Duke Ivan Vassilyevich, czar of all the Russias, to Skariya
+the Hebrew.</p>
+<p>"You have written to us through Gabriel Patrov, our guest, that
+you desire to come to us. It is our wish that you do so. When you
+are with us, we shall give you evidence of our favorable
+disposition toward you. Should you wish to serve us, we will confer
+honors upon you. But should you not wish to remain with us, and
+prefer to return to your country, you shall be free to go."</p>
+<p>For some reason or other, Zacharias never accomplished his
+contemplated trip, notwithstanding the many inducements repeatedly
+offered by the czar during a period of eighteen years. Perhaps it
+was because of the disturbances which rendered transportation
+dangerous; possibly because he preferred to serve the khan rather
+than the czar, for we find him, in 1500, a resident of Circassia.
+See JE, vi. 107-108; vi. 12.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id=
+"page307"></a>{307}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-13" name=
+"footnote1-13"></a><b>Footnote 13:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-13">(return)</a>
+<p>E.g. Barakha, the hero (1601), Ilyash Karaimovich, the starosta
+(1637), and Motve Borokhovich, the colonel (1647). See JE, ii. 128;
+iv. 283; ix. 40.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-14" name=
+"footnote1-14"></a><b>Footnote 14:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-14">(return)</a>
+<p>See Czacki, Rosprava o Zhydakh, Vilna, 1807, p. 93; Buchholtz,
+Geschichte der Juden in Riga, Riga, 1899, p. 3; Mann, Sheerit
+Yisra&euml;l, Vilna, 1818, ch. 30; Virga, Shebet Yehudah, Hanover,
+1856, pp. 147 f., and Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, ix. 480.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-15" name=
+"footnote1-15"></a><b>Footnote 15:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-15">(return)</a>
+<p>The Subbotniki, Dukhobortzi, and the other dissenting, but
+non-Jewish, sects are not referred to here, though they may have
+received their inspiration from Jews or through Judaism.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-16" name=
+"footnote1-16"></a><b>Footnote 16:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-16">(return)</a>
+<p>Voskhod, 1881, i. 73-75; JE, vii. 487-488; ix. 570; Bramson, K
+Istorii Pervonachalnaho Obrazovaniya Russkikh Yevreyev, St.
+Petersburg, 1896, pp. 4-6.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-17" name=
+"footnote1-17"></a><b>Footnote 17:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-17">(return)</a>
+<p>Sternberg, Die Proselyten im xvi. und xvii. Jahrhundert, AZJ,
+1863, pp. 67-68 (ibid, in L'univers Israelite, 1863, pp. 272 f.);
+Mandelkern, Dibre Yeme Russyah, Warsaw, 1875, pp. 231 f.;
+Yevreyskaya Enziklopedya, s.v. Zhidostvuyushchikh; Bedrzhidsky in
+Zhurnal Ministerstva Narodnaho Prosvyeshchanya, St. Petersburg,
+1912, pp. 106-122; Jewish Ledger, Jan., 1902, p. 3; Emden, Megillat
+Sefer, ed. Cohan, p. 207, Warsaw, 1896. On Count Pototzki, see Ger
+Zedek, in Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, St. Petersburg, 1892; Gershuni,
+Sketches of Jewish Life and History, New York, 1873, pp. 158-224
+(also Introduction), and S.L. Gordon's ballad in Ha-Shiloah (Ger
+Zedek), i. 431. On Pototzki and Zaremba, see Gere Zedek (Anon.),
+Johannisberg, 1862. On modern Russian Gerim, see Die Welt, July 5,
+1907, pp. 16-17 (Palestine), B'nai B'rith News, May 13, 1913
+(United States), and Leroy-Beaulieu, Israel among the Nations,
+Engl. transl., New York, 1900, p. 110, n. 1; Yiddishes Tageblatt,
+July 16 and 23, 1913, Gerim in Russland, and Vieder vegen Gerim;
+JE, i. 336; vii. 369-370, 489.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-18" name=
+"footnote1-18"></a><b>Footnote 18:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-18">(return)</a>
+<p>HUH, pp. 3, 21 f.; Minor, op. cit., p. 4; Yevreyskiya Nadpisi,
+St. Petersburg, 1884, p. 217; Sefer ha-Yashar, no. 522; Eben
+ha-'Ezer, no. 118. On [Hebrew: Bn'n Hrogi] see Monatsschrift, xxii.
+514.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id=
+"page308"></a>{308}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-19" name=
+"footnote1-19"></a><b>Footnote 19:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-19">(return)</a>
+<p>Catalogue de Rossi, in. 200; Ha-Maggid, 1860, pp. 299-302; HUH,
+pp. 33, 40.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-20" name=
+"footnote1-20"></a><b>Footnote 20:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-20">(return)</a>
+<p>Autobiography, p. 39.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-21" name=
+"footnote1-21"></a><b>Footnote 21:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-21">(return)</a>
+<p>LBJ, ii. 95, n.; Ha-'Ibri, New York, viii., no. 33; Lehem
+ha-Panim, Hil. Nedarim, no. 228.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-22" name=
+"footnote1-22"></a><b>Footnote 22:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-22">(return)</a>
+<p>Nishmat Hayyim, Lemberg, 1858, p. 83a; Azula&iuml;, Shem
+ha-Gedolim, s.v. Horowitz; FKN, p. 74, and Ha-Maggid, in. 159. Cf.
+Sheerit Yisra&euml;l, ch. 32, and Edelman, Gedulat Sha&uuml;l,
+London, 1854. Reifman, in Ha-Maggid, claims that to Luria belongs
+the honor of being the first-known Jewish author.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-23" name=
+"footnote1-23"></a><b>Footnote 23:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-23">(return)</a>
+<p>See Zikronot, ed. Cohan, pp. 62-66, 90, 313, 336, 380, passim;
+Schechter, Studies in Judaism, Philadelphia, 1908, ii. 132.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-24" name=
+"footnote1-24"></a><b>Footnote 24:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-24">(return)</a>
+<p>Margoliuth, Hibbure Likkutim, Venice, 1715, Introduction.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-25" name=
+"footnote1-25"></a><b>Footnote 25:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-25">(return)</a>
+<p>Horowitz, Frankfurter Rabbinen, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1883, pp.
+30-35; FKN, pp. 73-91; Emden, op. cit, p. 125; and biographies.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-26" name=
+"footnote1-26"></a><b>Footnote 26:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-26">(return)</a>
+<p>LTI, ii. 81, n.; Hannover, Yeven Mezulah, Warsaw, 1872, p.
+7b.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-27" name=
+"footnote1-27"></a><b>Footnote 27:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-27">(return)</a>
+<p>Zunz, Literaturgeschichte, pp. 433-435, 442; Buber, Anshe Shem,
+Cracow, 1895, pp. 307-309; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 396; JE,
+xi. 217; Bikkure ha-'Ittim, 1830, p. 43. Jacob of Gnesen, I
+suspect, must have lived in Russia.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-28" name=
+"footnote1-28"></a><b>Footnote 28:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-28">(return)</a>
+<p>Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, pp. 235, 240; Benjacob, op.
+cit, p. 396.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-29" name=
+"footnote1-29"></a><b>Footnote 29:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-29">(return)</a>
+<p>JE, xii. 265-266: "Enfin les incr&eacute;dules les plus
+d&eacute;termin&eacute;s n'out presque rien all&eacute;gu&eacute;
+qui ne soit dans le Rampart de la Foi du Rabbin Isaac."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-30" name=
+"footnote1-30"></a><b>Footnote 30:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-30">(return)</a>
+<p>Nusbaum, Historya Zhid&oacute;v, i. p. 180; Edelman, op. cit,
+attributes the coming of Saul Wahl to this cause.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-31" name=
+"footnote1-31"></a><b>Footnote 31:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-31">(return)</a>
+<p>The Elim (Amsterdam, 1629), if not, as the Karaites maintain,
+actually the work of Zerah Troki, was surely the result of the
+problems submitted by him to Delmedigo.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-32" name=
+"footnote1-32"></a><b>Footnote 32:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-32">(return)</a>
+<p>JE, iv. 504; vii. 264; xii. 266; Ha-Eshkol, iii. and iv. (R.M.
+Jarre); LTI, ii. 80; Benjacob, op. cit, no. 1428.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id=
+"page309"></a>{309}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-33" name=
+"footnote1-33"></a><b>Footnote 33:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-33">(return)</a>
+<p>Zunz, Ritus, Berlin, 1859, p. 73, and Gottesdienstliche
+Vortr&auml;ge, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1892, p. 452, n.a.; Wessely,
+Dibre Shalom we-Emet, ii. 7; Benjacob, op. cit., no. 1187.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-34" name=
+"footnote1-34"></a><b>Footnote 34:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-34">(return)</a>
+<p>Voskhod, 1893, i. 79; New Era Illustrated Magazine, v.; FNI, p.
+28 f.; JE, i. 113; ii. 22, 622; xii. 265.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-35" name=
+"footnote1-35"></a><b>Footnote 35:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-35">(return)</a>
+<p>JE, vii. 454.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-36" name=
+"footnote1-36"></a><b>Footnote 36:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-36">(return)</a>
+<p>JE, i. 372; iv. 140; Ha-Yekeb, 1894, p. 68.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-37" name=
+"footnote1-37"></a><b>Footnote 37:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-37">(return)</a>
+<p>Bersohn, Tobiasz Cohn, Warsaw, 1872.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-38" name=
+"footnote1-38"></a><b>Footnote 38:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-38">(return)</a>
+<p>Cf. FKN, pp. 38-42 (Vilna constitution); Hannover, op. cit., p.
+23a; Ha-Modia' la-Hadashim, II. i. II, and JE, s.v. Council, Kahal,
+Lithuania, etc.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-39" name=
+"footnote1-39"></a><b>Footnote 39:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-39">(return)</a>
+<p>See GMC, pp. 59 f., and compare with this Lermontoff's Cossack
+Cradle-Song, which may be taken as a type:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Sleep, my child, my little darling, sleep, I sing to thee;</p>
+<p class="i2">Silently the soft white moonbeams fall on thee and
+me.</p>
+<p>I will tell thee fairy stories in my lullaby;</p>
+<p class="i2">Sleep, my child, my pretty darling, sleep, I sing to
+thee.</p>
+<p>Lo, I see the day approaching when the warriors meet;</p>
+<p class="i2">Then wilt thou grasp thy rifle and mount thy charger
+fleet.</p>
+<p>I will broider in thy saddle colors fair to see,</p>
+<p>Sleep, my child, my little darling, sleep, I sing to thee.</p>
+<p>Then my Cossack boy, my hero brave and proud and gay,</p>
+<p class="i2">Waves one farewell to his mother and rides far
+away.</p>
+<p>Oh, what sorrow, pain and anguish then my soul shall fill,</p>
+<p class="i2">As I pray by day and night that God will keep thee
+still!</p>
+<p>Thou shalt take a saint's pure image to the battlefield,</p>
+<p class="i2">Look upon it when thou prayest, may it be thy
+shield.</p>
+<p>And when battles fierce are raging, give one thought to me;</p>
+<p class="i2">Sleep, my darling, calmly, sweetly, sleep, I sing to
+thee.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&mdash;Westminster Gazette.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>See G&uuml;demann, Quellen zur Geschichte des Unterrichts,
+Berlin, 1891, pp. 285-286; Ha-Boker Or, i. 315 (on Dubno);
+Ha-Meliz, 1894, no. 254 (on Mohilev); Zunz, Gottesdienstliche
+Vortr&auml;ge, pp. 122g and 470a; cf. Weiss, Zikronota&iuml;,
+Warsaw, 1895, pp. 53-83.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id=
+"page310"></a>{310}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote1-40" name=
+"footnote1-40"></a><b>Footnote 40:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag1-40">(return)</a>
+<p>Cf. G&uuml;demann, Geschichte des Erziehungswesens, iii. 94, n.,
+and see Dembitzer, Kelilat Yofi, Introduction, and Meassef, St.
+Petersburg, 1902, p. 205, n.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<h3><a name="notes-2" id="notes-2">CHAPTER II</a></h3>
+<h4>DAYS OF TRANSITION</h4>
+<h4>1648-1794</h4>
+<h4>(pp. 53-109)</h4>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-1" name=
+"footnote2-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-1">(return)</a>
+<p>JE, s.v. Bratzlav.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-2" name=
+"footnote2-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-2">(return)</a>
+<p>In the diary of a Polish squire we find the following item:
+"Jan. 5. As the lessee Herszka had not yet paid me the rental of 91
+gulden, I went to his house to get my debt. According to the
+contract, I can arrest him and his wife for as long as I wish,
+until he settles the bill, and so I ordered him locked up in the
+pig-sty and left his wife and his sons in the inn. The youngest
+son, however, I took with me to the palace to be instructed in the
+rudiments of our religion. The boy is unusually bright and shall be
+baptized. I already wrote to our priest concerning it, and he
+promised to come to prepare him. Leisza at first stubbornly refused
+to make the sign of the cross and repeat our prayers, but Strelicki
+administered a sound whipping, and to-day he even ate ham. Our
+venerable priest Bonapari ... is inventing all manner of means to
+break his stiff-neckedness." Meassef, St. Petersburg, 1902, pp.
+192-193.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-3" name=
+"footnote2-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-3">(return)</a>
+<p>See Wolkonsky, Pictures of Russian History and Literature,
+Boston, 1897, p. 136.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-4" name=
+"footnote2-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-4">(return)</a>
+<p>Orshansky, in Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, ii. 207.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-5" name=
+"footnote2-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-5">(return)</a>
+<p>Meassef, St. Petersburg, 1902, p. 195; Beck and Brann,
+Yevreyskaya Istoriya, p. 326; JE, iv. 155; xi. 113.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-6" name=
+"footnote2-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-6">(return)</a>
+<p>Meassef, p. 200. On Russia at the time of Peter the Great, see
+Macaulay, History of England, ch. xxiii., where he describes the
+"savage ignorance and the squalid poverty of the barbarous
+country." In that country "there was neither literature nor
+science, neither school nor college. It was not till more than a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id=
+"page311"></a>{311}</span> hundred years after the invention of
+printing that a single printing-press had been introduced into the
+Russian empire, and that printing-press speedily perished in a
+fire, which was supposed to have been kindled by priests." When
+Pyoter Vyeliki (Peter the Great), while in London, saw the
+archiepiscopal library, he declared that "he had never imagined
+that there were so many printed volumes in the world." See also
+Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great, iv. 7.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-7" name=
+"footnote2-7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-7">(return)</a>
+<p>FKN, pp. 126-132; Voskhod, 1893; on the Hasidim and Mitnaggedim
+see below.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-8" name=
+"footnote2-8"></a><b>Footnote 8:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-8">(return)</a>
+<p>Ma'aseh Tobiah, p. 18; Meassef, pp. 206-209; Geiger (Melo
+Hofnayim, Berlin, 1840, pp. 1-29) published Delmedigo's
+corroboration of this statement.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-9" name=
+"footnote2-9"></a><b>Footnote 9:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-9">(return)</a>
+<p>Rapoport, Etan ha-'Ezrahi, Ostrog, 1776, Introduction.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-10" name=
+"footnote2-10"></a><b>Footnote 10:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-10">(return)</a>
+<p>Cf. Zederbaum, Keter Kehunnah, pp. 72-74, 84, 121, etc., and
+Ha-Shiloah, xxi. 165; Schechter, Studies in Judaism, i.,
+Philadelphia, 1896, i. 17 f., and Greenstone, The Messiah Idea in
+Jewish History, pp. 237 f. According to some, Judah he-Hasid and
+his followers went to Palestine in the expectation, not of the
+Messiah, but of Shabbata&iuml; Zebi, who was believed to have been
+in hiding for forty years, in imitation of the retirement of Moses
+in Midian for a similar period of years. "The ruins of Rabbi Judah
+he-Hasid's synagogue" and Yeshibah in Jerusalem still keep the
+memory of the event fresh in the minds of Palestinian Jews.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-11" name=
+"footnote2-11"></a><b>Footnote 11:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-11">(return)</a>
+<p>Among the many wonderful episodes in the life of the master, his
+biographer mentions also that he could swallow down the largest
+gobletful in a single gulp (Shibhe ha-Besht, Berdichev, 1815, pp.
+7-8). The best, though not an impartial work on Hasidism is
+Zweifel's Shalom 'al Yisra&euml;l, 4 vols., Zhitomir,
+1868-1872.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-12" name=
+"footnote2-12"></a><b>Footnote 12:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-12">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Boker Or, iv. 103-105: [Hebrew: H'fkormot Mn Nshmot M'lh
+Hngon.]</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-13" name=
+"footnote2-13"></a><b>Footnote 13:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-13">(return)</a>
+<p>Cf. Emden, op. cit., p. 185, and Shimush, Amsterdam, 1785, pp.
+78-80, with Pardes, ii. 204-214.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-14" name=
+"footnote2-14"></a><b>Footnote 14:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-14">(return)</a>
+<p>See Schechter, op. cit., pp. 73-93; Silber, Elijah Gaon, 1906;
+Levin, 'Aliyat Eliyahu, Vilna, 1856, and FKN, pp. 133-155.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-15" name=
+"footnote2-15"></a><b>Footnote 15:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-15">(return)</a>
+<p>Levin, op. cit., pp. 28-30.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id=
+"page312"></a>{312}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-16" name=
+"footnote2-16"></a><b>Footnote 16:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-16">(return)</a>
+<p>See Ha-Bikkurim, i. 1-26; ii. 1-20; Ha-Zeman (monthly), 1903,
+ii. 6; Plungian, Ben Porat, Vilna, 1858, p. 33; Keneset
+Yisra&euml;l, iii. 152 seq.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-17" name=
+"footnote2-17"></a><b>Footnote 17:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-17">(return)</a>
+<p>Sirkes (Bayit Hadash, Cracow, 1631, p. 40) decides that Jews may
+employ in their synagogue melodies used in the church, since "music
+is neither Jewish nor Christian, but is governed by universal
+laws." See also Hayyim ben Bezalel's Wikkuah Mayim Hayyim,
+Introduction, and passim.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-18" name=
+"footnote2-18"></a><b>Footnote 18:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-18">(return)</a>
+<p>See J.S. Raisin, Sect, Creed and Custom in Judaism,
+Philadelphia, 1907, p. 9, and ch. viii.; Ha-Meliz, x. 186,
+192-194.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-19" name=
+"footnote2-19"></a><b>Footnote 19:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-19">(return)</a>
+<p>See Ha-Zeman (monthly), 1903, ii. 7.; Shklov, Euclidus,
+Introduction; Keneset Yisra&euml;l, 1887, and Hagra on Orah Hayyim,
+Shklov, 1803, Introduction.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-20" name=
+"footnote2-20"></a><b>Footnote 20:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-20">(return)</a>
+<p>See Graetz, op. cit, xi. 590, 604, 606. The Gaon, who as a rule
+was very mild, lost patience with the Hasidim and wielded the
+weapons of the kuni (or stocks and exposures) and excommunication
+without mercy. The Hasidim were also accused of being not only
+religious dissenters but revolutionaries. Zeitlin, quoted in
+Yiddishes Tageblatt, from the Moment, March, 1913.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-21" name=
+"footnote2-21"></a><b>Footnote 21:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-21">(return)</a>
+<p>See Karpeles, Time of Mendelssohn, p. 297; Kayserling,
+Mendelssohn, p. 12; Ha-Meliz, 1900, nos. 194-196.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-22" name=
+"footnote2-22"></a><b>Footnote 22:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-22">(return)</a>
+<p>Epstein, Geburat ha-Ari, Vilna, 1870, p. 29; Rabinovich, Zunz,
+Warsaw, 1896; Wessely, op. cit., ii.; Linda, Reshit Limmudim,
+Berlin, 1789, and Ha-Zeman (monthly), ii. 28.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-23" name=
+"footnote2-23"></a><b>Footnote 23:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-23">(return)</a>
+<p>Delitzsch, Zur Geschichte der j&uuml;dischen Poesie, Leipsic,
+1836, p. 118; Bernfeld, Dor Tahapukot, Warsaw, 1897, pp. 88 f.
+Dubno also edited Luzzatto's La-Yesharim Tehillah, which, according
+to Slouschz, marks the beginning of the renaissance in Hebrew
+belles-lettres.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-24" name=
+"footnote2-24"></a><b>Footnote 24:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-24">(return)</a>
+<p>Published in Berlin in 1793. It was translated into English by
+Murray (Solomon Maimon, Boston, 1888) and into Hebrew by Taviov
+(Warsaw, 1899).</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-25" name=
+"footnote2-25"></a><b>Footnote 25:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-25">(return)</a>
+<p>Bernfeld, op. cit., ii. 66 f. JE, s.v. Maimon; and Autobiography
+(Engl. transl.), p. 217. For Maimon's system of philosophy and also
+for a complete bibliography of his writings, see <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>{313}</span> Kunz, Die
+Philosophic Salomon Maimons, Heidelberg, 1912, pp. xxv, 531.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-26" name=
+"footnote2-26"></a><b>Footnote 26:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-26">(return)</a>
+<p>Wolff, Maimoniana, Berlin, 1813, p. 177.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-27" name=
+"footnote2-27"></a><b>Footnote 27:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-27">(return)</a>
+<p>How touching and suggestive is the word [Hebrew: Shbi] in an
+acrostic at the end of his Introduction to his Gibe'at ha-Moreh, a
+commentary on the Moreh Nebukim:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>'hobi ykr kor'</p>
+<p>'bi vshm shmi hd'</p>
+<p>Shbi bmlt bhtboknn</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-28" name=
+"footnote2-28"></a><b>Footnote 28:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-28">(return)</a>
+<p>See Murray's Introduction to the Autobiography; Auerbach,
+Dichter und Kaufmann; Zangwill, Nathan the Wise and Solomon the
+Fool.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-29" name=
+"footnote2-29"></a><b>Footnote 29:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-29">(return)</a>
+<p>FKI, p. 196.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-30" name=
+"footnote2-30"></a><b>Footnote 30:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-30">(return)</a>
+<p>Maggid, Toledot Mishpehot Ginzberg, pp. 52-53; Emden,
+She&euml;lat Ya'abez, Altona, 1739, p. 65 a.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-31" name=
+"footnote2-31"></a><b>Footnote 31:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-31">(return)</a>
+<p>FKN, pp. 109-114, 269; FKI, p. 300.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-32" name=
+"footnote2-32"></a><b>Footnote 32:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-32">(return)</a>
+<p>FKI, p. 394; Delitzsch, op. cit, p. 84.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-33" name=
+"footnote2-33"></a><b>Footnote 33:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-33">(return)</a>
+<p>L'univers Isra&eacute;lite, liii. 831-841: "C'est, vous le
+voyez, un juif polonais qui contribua puissamment &agrave;
+l'&eacute;mancipation des juifs de France. Et je me demande si le
+Judaisme du monde entier ne doit pas rendre hommage &agrave; notre
+coreligionnaire polonais autant peut-&ecirc;tre qu' &agrave;
+Menasse ben Isra&euml;l." FKI, p. 333; Ha-Meliz, ii. no. 50;
+Shulammit, iii. 425; Graetz, op. cit. (Engl. transl.), v. 443.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-34" name=
+"footnote2-34"></a><b>Footnote 34:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-34">(return)</a>
+<p>See Berliner, Festschrift, 1903, pp. 1-4.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-35" name=
+"footnote2-35"></a><b>Footnote 35:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-35">(return)</a>
+<p>See Ha-Meliz, viii. nos. 11, 22, 23; FSL, p. 139; Monatsschrift,
+xxiv, 348-357.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-36" name=
+"footnote2-36"></a><b>Footnote 36:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-36">(return)</a>
+<p>Delitzsch, op. cit., pp. 115-118; Ha-Zeman (monthly), ii. 23
+f.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-37" name=
+"footnote2-37"></a><b>Footnote 37:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-37">(return)</a>
+<p>See Meassef, 1788, p. 32, and Levin's ed. of Moreh Nebukim,
+Zolkiev, 1829, Introduction.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-38" name=
+"footnote2-38"></a><b>Footnote 38:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-38">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Meassef, 1809, pp. 68-75, 136-171.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-39" name=
+"footnote2-39"></a><b>Footnote 39:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-39">(return)</a>
+<p>See Sefer ha-Berit, Introduction, and Weissberg,
+Aufkl&auml;rungsliteratur, Vienna, 1898, p. 83.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-40" name=
+"footnote2-40"></a><b>Footnote 40:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-40">(return)</a>
+<p>FKI, p. 428.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id=
+"page314"></a>{314}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-41" name=
+"footnote2-41"></a><b>Footnote 41:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-41">(return)</a>
+<p>See Emden, Torat ha-Kenaot, pp. 123-127, and Hitabkut (Pinczov's
+letters); Voskhod, 1882, nos. viii-ix; FSL, pp. 136-137;
+Friedrichsfeld, Zeker Zaddik, p. 12.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-42" name=
+"footnote2-42"></a><b>Footnote 42:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-42">(return)</a>
+<p>Maimon, Autobiography, pp. 106-107; FSL, p. 135.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-43" name=
+"footnote2-43"></a><b>Footnote 43:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-43">(return)</a>
+<p>See LTI, ii. 96, n. 1, and Yellin and Abrahams, Maimonides, p.
+160, and reference on p. 330, n. 72; Ha-Zeman (monthly), i.
+102-103; Margolioth, Bet Middot, p. 20. Heine's admiration for
+these idealists or those who succeeded them is well worth quoting.
+In his essay on Poland, he says: "In spite of the barbaric fur cap
+which covers his head and the even more barbaric ideas which fill
+it, I value the Polish Jew much more than many a German Jew with
+his Bolivar on his head and his Jean Paul inside of it.... The
+Polish Jew in his unclean furred coat, with his populous beard and
+his smell of garlic and his Jewish jargon, is nevertheless dearer
+to me than many a Westerner in all the glory of his stocks and
+bonds."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-44" name=
+"footnote2-44"></a><b>Footnote 44:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-44">(return)</a>
+<p>Op. cit. Letter ii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote2-45" name=
+"footnote2-45"></a><b>Footnote 45:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag2-45">(return)</a>
+<p>Likkute Kadmoniot, Vilna, 1860, Introduction.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<h3><a name="notes-3" id="notes-3">CHAPTER III</a></h3>
+<h4>THE DAWN OF HASKALAH</h4>
+<h4>1794-1840</h4>
+<h4>(pp. 110-161)</h4>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-1" name=
+"footnote3-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-1">(return)</a>
+<p>See Orshansky, in Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, ii. 240; Drabkin, in
+Monatsschrift, xix-xx.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-2" name=
+"footnote3-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-2">(return)</a>
+<p>FKN, pp. 27, 303.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-3" name=
+"footnote3-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-3">(return)</a>
+<p>JE, iv. 301; Plungian, op. cit, p. 59.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-4" name=
+"footnote3-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-4">(return)</a>
+<p>FKN, p. 193.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-5" name=
+"footnote3-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-5">(return)</a>
+<p>JE, iv. 407.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-6" name=
+"footnote3-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-6">(return)</a>
+<p>FKN, p. 193; Jellinek, Kuntres ha-Rambam, pp. 39f.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-7" name=
+"footnote3-7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-7">(return)</a>
+<p>Occident, v. 360.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-8" name=
+"footnote3-8"></a><b>Footnote 8:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-8">(return)</a>
+<p>Jost, Culturgeschichte, Berlin, 1847, p. 302.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-9" name=
+"footnote3-9"></a><b>Footnote 9:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-9">(return)</a>
+<p>Steinschneider, 'Ir Vilna, 1900, p. 146.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-10" name=
+"footnote3-10"></a><b>Footnote 10:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-10">(return)</a>
+<p>Voskhod, 1881, ii. 29-30; 1900, p. 55.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id=
+"page315"></a>{315}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-11" name=
+"footnote3-11"></a><b>Footnote 11:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-11">(return)</a>
+<p>FKN, pp. 277-279.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-12" name=
+"footnote3-12"></a><b>Footnote 12:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-12">(return)</a>
+<p>See Rabinovitz, Ma'amar 'al ha-Defosat ha-Talmud, Munich, 1876,
+p. 112. Cf. Zweifel, op. cit., iv. 7.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-13" name=
+"footnote3-13"></a><b>Footnote 13:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-13">(return)</a>
+<p>FKN, pp. 277-279.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-14" name=
+"footnote3-14"></a><b>Footnote 14:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-14">(return)</a>
+<p>Toledot Adam, pp. 14 b, 16 b, 24 b, 75 b, 84 a.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-15" name=
+"footnote3-15"></a><b>Footnote 15:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-15">(return)</a>
+<p>See Plungian, op cit., pp. 46-47, 91; Voskhod, 1900, ix. 77;
+Ha-Zeman (monthly), 1903, iii. 22-30; see also Die Zukunft, New
+York, July, 1913, pp. 713 f.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-16" name=
+"footnote3-16"></a><b>Footnote 16:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-16">(return)</a>
+<p>Voskhod, Dec., 1890, pp. 142 f.; Ha-Boker Or, Jan., 1881.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-17" name=
+"footnote3-17"></a><b>Footnote 17:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-17">(return)</a>
+<p>Voskhod, 1888, iii. 37 f; Rodkinson, Toledot 'Ammude HaBaD.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-18" name=
+"footnote3-18"></a><b>Footnote 18:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-18">(return)</a>
+<p>Cohan, Rabbi Yisra&euml;l Ba'al Shem Tob, 1900, p. 67.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-19" name=
+"footnote3-19"></a><b>Footnote 19:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-19">(return)</a>
+<p>'Ammude Bet Yehudah, xxvii., and see Ha-Zeman (monthly), ii.
+8-15.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-20" name=
+"footnote3-20"></a><b>Footnote 20:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-20">(return)</a>
+<p>Buchholtz, op. cit., Beilage 14, pp. 137-138.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-21" name=
+"footnote3-21"></a><b>Footnote 21:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-21">(return)</a>
+<p>See Weissberg, op. cit., p. 53; Talmud Leshon Russiah, Vilna,
+1825; Moda' li-Bene Binah, ibid., 1826; cf. Ba&euml;r Heteb,
+Introduction.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-22" name=
+"footnote3-22"></a><b>Footnote 22:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-22">(return)</a>
+<p>Helel ben Shahar, Warsaw, 1804, Introduction, and p. 81. See
+Peri ha-Arez Yashan, Letter 2, quoted by Dubnow, Pardes, ii.
+210-211.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-23" name=
+"footnote3-23"></a><b>Footnote 23:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-23">(return)</a>
+<p>Keneset Yisra&euml;l, i. 138; Morgulis, Voprosi Yevreyskoy
+Zhizni, pp. 7-10.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-24" name=
+"footnote3-24"></a><b>Footnote 24:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-24">(return)</a>
+<p>Enziklopedichesky Slovar, St. Petersburg, 1895, xvii. 642.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-25" name=
+"footnote3-25"></a><b>Footnote 25:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-25">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Shahar, x. 44-52; FKN, p. 33; Ha-Boker Or, i. 145-146.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-26" name=
+"footnote3-26"></a><b>Footnote 26:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-26">(return)</a>
+<p>FSL, p. 164.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-27" name=
+"footnote3-27"></a><b>Footnote 27:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-27">(return)</a>
+<p>See G&uuml;nzburg, Ha-Debir, Warsaw, 1883, ii. 55; Israelitische
+Annalen, 1840, p. 263.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-28" name=
+"footnote3-28"></a><b>Footnote 28:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-28">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Zeman (monthly), iii. 10.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-29" name=
+"footnote3-29"></a><b>Footnote 29:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-29">(return)</a>
+<p>Minor, op. cit, p. 46; Lerner, Yevreyi v Novorossiskom Kraye,
+Odessa, 1901, p. 234; Monatsschrift, xviii. 234 f., 477 f., 551
+f.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-30" name=
+"footnote3-30"></a><b>Footnote 30:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-30">(return)</a>
+<p>Voskhod, 1881, i-iii; Ha-Zeman (monthly), iii. 11-14.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-31" name=
+"footnote3-31"></a><b>Footnote 31:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-31">(return)</a>
+<p>Op. cit, pp. 208-209.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-32" name=
+"footnote3-32"></a><b>Footnote 32:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-32">(return)</a>
+<p>Cf. Graetz, xi. 50; Kayserling, op. cit, p. 288; F&uuml;nn,
+Sofre Yisra&euml;l, Vilna, 1891, pp. 138-143; WMG, p. 135.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id=
+"page316"></a>{316}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-33" name=
+"footnote3-33"></a><b>Footnote 33:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-33">(return)</a>
+<p>Graetz, xi. 590, 604, 606; Annalen, xx. 467; Kayserling, op.
+cit., p. 307; Landshut, Toledot Anshe Shem, p. 85.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-34" name=
+"footnote3-34"></a><b>Footnote 34:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-34">(return)</a>
+<p>[Hebrew: Yd Tshlhu 'l Rm''d Bsfri]. Weiss, Zikronota&iuml;, p.
+58, n.; Ha-Zeman (monthly), i. and iii. 18-19.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-35" name=
+"footnote3-35"></a><b>Footnote 35:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-35">(return)</a>
+<p>Zweifel, op. cit., pp. 35-40, and Ha-Hasidut we-ha-Musar in
+Ha-Meliz, 1897; Toledot Mishpehot Shneersohn, in Ha-Asif, v. 35-40,
+and Nefesh Hayyim, iii. 3.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-36" name=
+"footnote3-36"></a><b>Footnote 36:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-36">(return)</a>
+<p>Mandelkern, Dibre Yeme Russyah, iii. 98; American Israelite,
+nos. 15, 18, etc. (My Travels in Russia); Gordon, Ha-Azamot
+ha-Yebashot, Odessa, 1899; AZJ, 1854, p. 22; Zunser, Biography, New
+York, 1905, pp. 15-19 (Engl. transl., pp. 14-18); Shenot Ra'inu
+Ra'ah, in Ha-Meliz, 1860; Sefer ha-Shanah, iii. 82-101, and GMC,
+nos. 43-50. One of these songs runs as follows:</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>On the streets in tears we're wading,</p>
+<p>In our bairns' blood we might be bathing;</p>
+<p>What a misfortune, ah, wellaway&mdash;</p>
+<p>Will never dawn the better day?</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Little infants from heder are torn,</p>
+<p>And forced to wear the soldier's uniform;</p>
+<p>What a misfortune, etc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Our leaders, rabbis, and honored elders,</p>
+<p>E'en help to impress them for the czar's soldiers;</p>
+<p>What a misfortune, etc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Seven sons has Zushe Rakover,</p>
+<p>Yet not a one for the army is over;</p>
+<p>What a misfortune, etc.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Leah, the widow, has an only son,</p>
+<p>And for the kahal's sins he's gone;</p>
+<p>What a misfortune, etc.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id=
+"page317"></a>{317}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-37" name=
+"footnote3-37"></a><b>Footnote 37:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-37">(return)</a>
+<p>GMC, no. 42. On similar enthusiasm among the Galician Maskilim,
+see Erter, Kol Kore, in Ha-Zofeh le-Bet Yisrael, Warsaw, 1890, pp.
+131-133.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-38" name=
+"footnote3-38"></a><b>Footnote 38:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-38">(return)</a>
+<p>Elk, Die j&uuml;dischen Kolonien in Russland,
+Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1886, pp. 28-53, 60-80, 119-140, 153-160,
+205-208; Jastrow, Beleuchtungen, etc., Hamburg, 1859, pp.
+109-113.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-39" name=
+"footnote3-39"></a><b>Footnote 39:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-39">(return)</a>
+<p>See Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin, 1875, pp, 279-290; Jost,
+Freim&uuml;thige Beleuchtung, Berlin, 1830; and Culturgeschichte,
+pp. 302-303.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-40" name=
+"footnote3-40"></a><b>Footnote 40:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-40">(return)</a>
+<p>Rabinovitz, op. cit., pp. 11-18.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-41" name=
+"footnote3-41"></a><b>Footnote 41:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-41">(return)</a>
+<p>On Volozhin, see Ha-Kerem, 1887, pp. 67-77; Bikkurim, 1865, pp.
+6-45; Ozar ha-Sifrut, iii.; Ha-Asif, iii.; Ha-Meliz, 1900, nos.
+16-18; Schechter, op. cit., i. 93-98; Horowitz, Derek 'Ez
+ha-Hayyim, Cracow, 1895. The yeshibah was reopened under the
+deanship of Rabbi Raphael Shapira of Bobruisk, and still exists,
+though in a rather precarious condition.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-42" name=
+"footnote3-42"></a><b>Footnote 42:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-42">(return)</a>
+<p>Read the vivid description in WMG, p. 147.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-43" name=
+"footnote3-43"></a><b>Footnote 43:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-43">(return)</a>
+<p>Occident, ii. 563-564.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-44" name=
+"footnote3-44"></a><b>Footnote 44:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-44">(return)</a>
+<p>Uvarov's opinion of the Talmud was "razvrashchal i
+raz-vrashchayet" ("it has been degrading and is degrading").
+Nicholas granted special privileges to the Karaites, and claimed
+they were the genuine Israelites, chiefly because they did not
+follow the precepts of the Talmud.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-45" name=
+"footnote3-45"></a><b>Footnote 45:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-45">(return)</a>
+<p>Occident, ii. 562-563.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-46" name=
+"footnote3-46"></a><b>Footnote 46:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-46">(return)</a>
+<p>See Loewe, Diaries of Sir Moses and Lady Montefiore, London,
+1890, i. 100, 231, 311-312, passim; G&uuml;nzburg, Debir, ii.
+99-108; (Dick), Ha-Oreah, K&ouml;nigsberg, 1860.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-47" name=
+"footnote3-47"></a><b>Footnote 47:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-47">(return)</a>
+<p>G&uuml;nzburg, op. cit., pp. 115-117, 122-125; Leket Amarim
+(suppl. to Ha-Meliz), St. Petersburg, 1887, pp. 81-86; AZJ, ix.
+nos. 46-50; x. nos. 5, 49, etc.; Jastrow, op. cit., p. 12,
+Lubliner, De la condition politique .... dans le royaume de
+Pologne, Brussels, 1860 (especially pp. 44-45).</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote3-48" name=
+"footnote3-48"></a><b>Footnote 48:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag3-48">(return)</a>
+<p>GMC, no. 255.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id=
+"page318"></a>{318}</span>
+<h3><a name="notes-4" id="notes-4">CHAPTER IV</a></h3>
+<h4>CONFLICTS AND CONQUESTS</h4>
+<h4>1840-1855</h4>
+<h4>(pp. 162-221)</h4>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-1" name=
+"footnote4-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-1">(return)</a>
+<p>Diakov states that "when the population degenerated in West
+Russia, business and industry declined, and the number of the rich
+greatly diminished, while the nobles, embittered against the
+Government, did absolutely nothing for their country, the Jews
+formed an exception.... There is no doubt that they are doing their
+utmost for the regeneration of our land, despite the restrictions
+heaped upon them without any cause" (Elk, op. cit., p. 41 seq.).
+Surovyetsky likewise maintains that "after the devastation of
+Poland because of the numerous wars, the ruining of so many cities,
+and the almost total extermination of their inhabitants ... the
+Jews alone effected the regeneration of our trade. They alone
+upheld our tottering industries .... We may safely affirm that
+without them, without their characteristic mobility, we should
+never have recovered our commerce and wealth" (Jastrow, op. cit.,
+p. 12).</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-2" name=
+"footnote4-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-2">(return)</a>
+<p>See AZJ, April 29, 1844, and Orient, 1844, P-224, in which the
+correspondent adds: "It is a touching sight to see these laborers
+(as longshoremen), for the most part aged, perform their fatiguing
+duties in the streets during the hottest seasons, endeavoring to
+lighten their heavy burdens by the repetition of Biblical and
+Talmudic passages."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-3" name=
+"footnote4-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-3">(return)</a>
+<p>Ozar ha-Sifrut, 1877; Annalen, 1839, pp. 345-346, and 1841, no.
+31. Bikkure ha-'Ittim, 1821, pp. 168-172; FSL, p. 150; Paperna,
+Ha-Derammah (Eichenbaum's letter); Ha-Boker Or, 1879, pp. 691-698;
+Occident, v. 255; Pirhe Zafon, ii. 216-217; Ha-Maggid, 1863, p.
+348; Orient, 1841, p. 266; Lapin, Keset ha-Sofer, Berlin, 1857, p.
+8, and Morgulis, op. cit., p. 48.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-4" name=
+"footnote4-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-4">(return)</a>
+<p>Jost, Culturgeschichte, pp. 308-309; Morgulis, op. cit., p. 27;
+Atlas, Mah Lefanim u-mah Leaher, Warsaw, 1898, pp. 44 f.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id=
+"page319"></a>{319}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-5" name=
+"footnote4-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-5">(return)</a>
+<p>Sbornik of the Minister of Education, iii. 140; Ha-Shahar, iv.
+569.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-6" name=
+"footnote4-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-6">(return)</a>
+<p>See An die Verehrer, Freunde und Sch&uuml;ler, etc., Leipsic,
+1823, pp. 122-125.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-7" name=
+"footnote4-7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-7">(return)</a>
+<p>Ueber die Verbesserung der Israeliten im K&ouml;nigreich Polen,
+Berlin, 1819.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-8" name=
+"footnote4-8"></a><b>Footnote 8:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-8">(return)</a>
+<p>Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften, pp. 296-297; Jost, op. cit, p. 304;
+Jastrow, op. cit, pp. 41 f.; and Zederbaum, Kohelet, St.
+Petersburg, 1881, p. 6.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-9" name=
+"footnote4-9"></a><b>Footnote 9:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-9">(return)</a>
+<p>Occident, v. 493.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-10" name=
+"footnote4-10"></a><b>Footnote 10:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-10">(return)</a>
+<p>Maggid Yeshu'ah, Vilna, September, 1842. It is reproduced,
+together with many Haskalah reminiscences, by Gottlober in Ha-Boker
+Or, iv. (Ha-Gizrah we-ha-Binyah). According to Gottlober the Hebrew
+is F&uuml;nn's translation from the original German. Yet Hebrew
+letters (Leket Amarim, St. Petersburg, 1888) were published in
+Lilienthal's name.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-11" name=
+"footnote4-11"></a><b>Footnote 11:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-11">(return)</a>
+<p>See AZJ, 1842, no. 41; Mandelstamm, Hazon la-Mo&euml;d, Vienna,
+1877, pp. 19, 21, 25-27; Leket Amarim, pp. 86-89; Kohelet, p. 12;
+Morgulis, op. cit, p. 55; Ha-Pardes, pp. 186-199; Nathanson, Sefer
+ha-Zikronot, Warsaw, 1878, p. 70; Lilienthal, in American
+Israelite, 1854 (My Travels in Russia), and J&uuml;disches
+Volksblatt, 1856 (Meine Reisen in Russland), and Der Zeitgeist,
+1882, p. 149.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-12" name=
+"footnote4-12"></a><b>Footnote 12:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-12">(return)</a>
+<p>Occident, v. 252, 296.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-13" name=
+"footnote4-13"></a><b>Footnote 13:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-13">(return)</a>
+<p>WMG, pp. 185-200; AZJ, 1844, pp. 75, 247; 1845, pp. 304-305;
+1846, p. 18; American Israelite, i. 156.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-14" name=
+"footnote4-14"></a><b>Footnote 14:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-14">(return)</a>
+<p>Rede, etc., Riga, 1840, p. 5.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-15" name=
+"footnote4-15"></a><b>Footnote 15:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-15">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Pardes, i. 202-203. See Bramson, op. cit., pp. 26-27; WMG, p.
+118.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-16" name=
+"footnote4-16"></a><b>Footnote 16:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-16">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Kokabim, 1868, pp. 61-78; Ha-Kerem, 1887, pp. 41-62; Zweifel,
+op. cit, pp. 55-56.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-17" name=
+"footnote4-17"></a><b>Footnote 17:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-17">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Mizpah, 1882, p. 17; Kohelet, p. 16; Sbornik of the Minister
+of Education, 1840, pp. 340, 436-437, and Supplement, pp. 35-38;
+Prelooker, Under the Czar and Queen Victoria, London, pp. 4-5; cf.
+AZJ, 1846, p. 86.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-18" name=
+"footnote4-18"></a><b>Footnote 18:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-18">(return)</a>
+<p>Elk, op. cit, ch. iii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id=
+"page320"></a>{320}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-19" name=
+"footnote4-19"></a><b>Footnote 19:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-19">(return)</a>
+<p>Occident, v. 493; Nathanson, Sefat Emet, p. 92; Mandelstamm, op.
+cit., pp. 31-32, and Morgulis, op. cit, pp. 102-147.</p>
+<p>On tax collectors, cf. the English ballad quoted by Macaulay
+(History of England, ch. iii.):</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Like plundering soldiers they'd enter the door,</p>
+<p>And made a distress on the goods of the poor,</p>
+<p>While frightened poor children distractedly cried;</p>
+<p>This nothing abated their insolent pride.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>And the Yiddish folk song (GMC, no. 55):</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>The excise young fellows,</p>
+<p>They are tremendously wild:</p>
+<p>They shave their beards,</p>
+<p>And ride on horses,</p>
+<p>Wear overshoes,</p>
+<p>And eat with unwashed hands.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Their lack of confidence in the permanence of the schools is
+expressed in the following song (GMC, no. 53):</p>
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>May we soon be released from the Jewish Goless,</p>
+<p>When we shall be expelled from the Gentile Scholess
+(schools).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>On the struggle to retain the so-called Jewish mode of dress,
+see I.M. D(ick), Die Yiddishe Kleider Umwechslung, Vilna, 1844.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-20" name=
+"footnote4-20"></a><b>Footnote 20:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-20">(return)</a>
+<p>Op. cit., pp. 12-13; cf. Letteris, in Moreh Nebuke ha-Zeman,
+Introduction, pp. xv-xvi; Bramson, op. cit., pp. 34-35, 43-44, and
+Levanda, Ocherki Proshlaho, St. Petersburg, 1876.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-21" name=
+"footnote4-21"></a><b>Footnote 21:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-21">(return)</a>
+<p>Cf. Buckle, History of Civilization, New York, 1880, ii.
+529-538.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-22" name=
+"footnote4-22"></a><b>Footnote 22:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-22">(return)</a>
+<p>"Fifty years ago," says Mr. Rubinow (Bulletin of the Bureau of
+Labor, no. 72, Washington, Sept., 1907, p. 578), "the educational
+standard of the [Russian] Jews was higher than that of the Russian
+people at large is at present."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-23" name=
+"footnote4-23"></a><b>Footnote 23:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-23">(return)</a>
+<p>Mandelkern, op. cit., iii. 33.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id=
+"page321"></a>{321}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-24" name=
+"footnote4-24"></a><b>Footnote 24:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-24">(return)</a>
+<p>Buckle, op. cit., pp. 140-142, notes 33-37.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-25" name=
+"footnote4-25"></a><b>Footnote 25:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-25">(return)</a>
+<p>The same phenomenon was witnessed to a certain extent also in
+Galicia, where for a while Haskalah flourished in great splendor.
+There, too, the charm and fecundity of German literature, the
+similarity of Yiddish to German, and the privileges the Austrian
+Government accorded them, proved too strong a temptation for the
+Jews, and many of those who became enlightened were rapidly
+assimilated with their Gentile countrymen. While, therefore, in
+Galicia the Haskalah movement lasted longer than in Germany, it had
+ceased long before it reached its fullest development in Russia.
+Austrian civilization accelerated the assimilation of the educated,
+Polish prejudice retarded the progress of the masses. So that
+though Erter, Letteris, Krochmal, Goldenberg, Mieses, Rapoport,
+Perl, and Schorr exerted a great influence in Russia, their own
+country remained unaffected. Many of them, like A. Peretz,
+Eichenbaum, Feder, Pinsker, Werbel, and Rosenfeld emigrated to
+Russia, where they found a wider field for their activities, while
+others, like Professor Ludwig Gumplowicz, the sociologist,
+Marmorek, the physician, and Scheps, the litterateur, became
+alienated from their former coreligionists.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-26" name=
+"footnote4-26"></a><b>Footnote 26:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-26">(return)</a>
+<p>Keneset Yisra&euml;l, iii. 84; Gottlober, Za'ar Ba'ale Hayyim,
+Zhitomir, 1868: [Hebrew: T'rng Nfshi 'lid Ki] (comp. Ps. xlii, and
+Shir ha-Kabod, last verse).</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-27" name=
+"footnote4-27"></a><b>Footnote 27:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-27">(return)</a>
+<p>Occident, v. 243. Cf. Buchholtz, op. cit., pp. 82-116.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-28" name=
+"footnote4-28"></a><b>Footnote 28:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-28">(return)</a>
+<p>Occident, v. 255; Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, ii. 207-210.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-29" name=
+"footnote4-29"></a><b>Footnote 29:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-29">(return)</a>
+<p>1840, no. 9.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-30" name=
+"footnote4-30"></a><b>Footnote 30:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-30">(return)</a>
+<p>Emden, Megillat Sefer, p. 5; G&uuml;nzburg, Debir, ii. 105-106;
+Mandelstamm, op. cit, i. 3-4, 11; Annalen, 1841, no. 31.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-31" name=
+"footnote4-31"></a><b>Footnote 31:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-31">(return)</a>
+<p>FKN, pp. 246-247; G&uuml;nzburg, op. cit., i. 48. Moses Reines
+also points out the fact that the prominent rabbis did not withhold
+their approval of the most typical Haskalah works when their
+authors were not suspected of heresy, as shown by Abele's haskamah
+on Levinsohn's Te'udah be-Yisra&euml;l, Tiktin's on G&uuml;nzburg's
+Toledot ha-Arez, and Malbim's on Zweifel's Sanegor (Ozar ha-Sifrut,
+1888, p. 61).</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id=
+"page322"></a>{322}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-32" name=
+"footnote4-32"></a><b>Footnote 32:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-32">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Boker Or, 1879, no. 4; FKI, pp. 537-538, 1132; Ha-Lebanon,
+1872, no. 35; Ha-Zefirah, 1879, no. 9; Jewish Chronicle, May 4,
+1877; Keneset Yisra&euml;l, 1887, pp. 157-162; Ha-Meliz, ix.
+(1889), nos. 198-199, 201, 232; Jost, op. cit., p. 305. Da'at
+Kedoshim, St. Petersburg, 1897, pp. 19, 22, 27.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote4-33" name=
+"footnote4-33"></a><b>Footnote 33:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag4-33">(return)</a>
+<p>These biographical sketches, first published respectively in the
+New Era Illustrated Magazine (1905, pp. 387-396) and the American
+Israelite (April 25, 1907), are drawn from the following sources;
+Houzner, I.B. Levinsohn (Russian), Odessa, 1862; Nathanson, Sefer
+ha-Zikronot (Heb.), Warsaw, 1878; Yiddishe Bibliotek (Yid.), Kiev,
+1888; also Annalen, 1839, no. 17; Ha-Maggid, 1863, p. 381;
+Ha-Zefirah, 1900, p. 197; Maggid, op. cit., pp. 86-115;
+G&uuml;nzburg, Debir, i. and ii., Warsaw, 1883; Kiryat Sefer,
+Vilna, 1835 (esp. Letters 85-93, 101-102); Abi'ezer, Vilna, 1863;
+Lebensohn, Kiryat Soferim, Vilna, 1847; Pardes, i. 192; Recke und
+Napyersky, Allgemeines Schriftsteller und Gelehrten Lexicon der
+Provinzen Livland, Esthland und Kurland, Mitau, 1829, pp. 147-148;
+and the works referred to in the text.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<h3><a name="notes-5" id="notes-5">CHAPTER V</a></h3>
+<h4>RUSSIFICATION, REFORMATION, AND ASSIMILATION</h4>
+<h4>1856-1881</h4>
+<h4>(pp. 222-267)</h4>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-1" name=
+"footnote5-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-1">(return)</a>
+<p>San Donato, The Jewish Question, St. Petersburg, 1883, p.
+36.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-2" name=
+"footnote5-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-2">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Meliz, 1888, nos. 95, 163; Gordon, Iggerot, Warsaw, 1894,
+ii., and Russky Vyestnik, 1858, i. 126.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-3" name=
+"footnote5-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-3">(return)</a>
+<p>Scholz, Die Juden in Russland, Berlin, 1900, pp. 102-107;
+Hessen, Galeriya, p. 23; Voskhod, 1881, v. 1893; viii; Russky
+Yevrey, 1882, i.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-4" name=
+"footnote5-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-4">(return)</a>
+<p>Second Complete Russian Code, xxv, nos. 24, 768; xxvii. nos. 26,
+508.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-5" name=
+"footnote5-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-5">(return)</a>
+<p>Voskhod, October, 1881; Chwolson, Die Blutanklage,
+Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1901, p. 117.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-6" name=
+"footnote5-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-6">(return)</a>
+<p>Zunser, Biography, p. 28.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id=
+"page323"></a>{323}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-7" name=
+"footnote5-7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-7">(return)</a>
+<p>Kol Shire Mahallalel, i. 79-91.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-8" name=
+"footnote5-8"></a><b>Footnote 8:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-8">(return)</a>
+<p>Kol Shire YeLeG, i. 43.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-9" name=
+"footnote5-9"></a><b>Footnote 9:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-9">(return)</a>
+<p>Bramson, op. cit, pp. 52-54; Russky Yevrey, 1879, nos.
+16-17.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-10" name=
+"footnote5-10"></a><b>Footnote 10:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-10">(return)</a>
+<p>Rosenthal, Toledot Hebrat Marbe Haskalah, i. 3, 19, 103,
+158-159; ii. Introduction.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-11" name=
+"footnote5-11"></a><b>Footnote 11:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-11">(return)</a>
+<p>How happy the Maskilim of that time were to save their fellows
+from the darkness of ignorance can be seen from the following
+anecdote told by a Maskil in a retrospective mood (Ha-Shiloah,
+xvii., 257-258): "Among the first of our young men to enter the
+gymnasium of my native town of Mohilev were Ackselrod and the
+Leventhal brothers. The former began to give instruction while he
+was still in the third grade .... One morning he suddenly
+disappeared. After several days of anxious search it was discovered
+that he had left on foot for Shklov, a distance of about thirty
+vyersts, and while there he succeeded in persuading fifteen boys to
+leave the yeshibah and come with him to Mohilev, where, like a
+puissant warrior returning in triumph, he went with his little army
+to the different homes to secure board and lodging for them while
+they were being prepared for admission into the gymnasium."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-12" name=
+"footnote5-12"></a><b>Footnote 12:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-12">(return)</a>
+<p>Op. cit., p. 35 (Engl. transl., p. 26).</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-13" name=
+"footnote5-13"></a><b>Footnote 13:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-13">(return)</a>
+<p>Op. cit., p. 9.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-14" name=
+"footnote5-14"></a><b>Footnote 14:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-14">(return)</a>
+<p>Max Raisin, The Reform Movement, etc. (reprint from the Year
+Book of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, xvi.),
+Introduction.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-15" name=
+"footnote5-15"></a><b>Footnote 15:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-15">(return)</a>
+<p>Odessky Yevrey, 1847 (Novaya Yevreyskaya Synagoga v Odessa).</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-16" name=
+"footnote5-16"></a><b>Footnote 16:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-16">(return)</a>
+<p>Hessen, op. cit., p. 68; Voskhod, 1881, p. 132.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-17" name=
+"footnote5-17"></a><b>Footnote 17:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-17">(return)</a>
+<p>Rosenthal, op. cit., p. 70; Gordon, Iggerot, nos. 60-62;
+Ha-Meliz, xx, nos. 8, 11, 13.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-18" name=
+"footnote5-18"></a><b>Footnote 18:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-18">(return)</a>
+<p>Voskhod, 1900, v.; Sefer ha-Shanah, ii. 288-290.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-19" name=
+"footnote5-19"></a><b>Footnote 19:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-19">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Meliz, 1899, no. 39.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-20" name=
+"footnote5-20"></a><b>Footnote 20:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-20">(return)</a>
+<p>Ben Sion, Yevrey Reformatory, St. Petersburg, 1882. In his
+manifesto (Ha-Meliz, April 21, 1881) Gordon declared: "We have
+discarded the dusty Talmud. We cannot rest satisfied, in questions
+of religion, with the worm-eaten carcass, with the observances
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id=
+"page324"></a>{324}</span> of rabbinical Judaism." See Ha-Shiloah,
+ii. 53. See also Kahan, Meahore ha-Pargud (reprint from Ha-Meliz,
+1885), St. Petersburg, 1886.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-21" name=
+"footnote5-21"></a><b>Footnote 21:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-21">(return)</a>
+<p>Prelooker, op. cit., pp. 24 f.; Voskhod, Feb. 3, 1886; Razsvyet,
+1881, no. 25.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-22" name=
+"footnote5-22"></a><b>Footnote 22:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-22">(return)</a>
+<p>Duprey, Great Masters of Russian Literature (Engl. transl. Dole,
+New York, 1886), p. 151.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-23" name=
+"footnote5-23"></a><b>Footnote 23:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-23">(return)</a>
+<p>Rosenthal, op. cit, i. 66, 103, 158-159; Ha-Maggid, 1868, p. 18.
+Cf. McClintock and Strong, Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical
+Cyclopedia, New York, 1891, ii. 805. The beautiful synagogue which
+the Jews began to erect in Moscow at the cost of half a million
+rubles was declared by Pobyednostsev to be "too high and imposing,"
+and they were compelled to destroy the cupola and deform the
+interior. Nevertheless it had to remain a "dead" synagogue, until
+Nicholas II was pleased to give permission to open it.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-24" name=
+"footnote5-24"></a><b>Footnote 24:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-24">(return)</a>
+<p>Shereshevsky, O Knigie Kahala, St. Petersburg, 1872; Seiberling,
+Gegen Brafmann's Buch des Kahals, Vienna, 1881; Ha-Shahar, iv. 621;
+xi. 242.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-25" name=
+"footnote5-25"></a><b>Footnote 25:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-25">(return)</a>
+<p>Prelooker, Heroes and Heroines of Russia, London, p. 120;
+Ha-Shiloah, xvii. 257-263.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-26" name=
+"footnote5-26"></a><b>Footnote 26:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-26">(return)</a>
+<p>Zederbaum, 'Ayin Zofiyah, Warsaw, 1877, pp. 7-8; Prelooker,
+Under the Czar, etc., pp. 8-21.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-27" name=
+"footnote5-27"></a><b>Footnote 27:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-27">(return)</a>
+<p>It may not be superfluous to quote here the vivid picture given
+of the period I am now describing by Eliakum Zunser in his
+interesting autobiography; the more, as it is depicted very much in
+the style of the Maskilim of to-day:</p>
+<p>"It is an accepted law in hygiene that the digestive system must
+not be overburdened at any one time by too much food, that eating
+must not be done hastily, and, above all, great care must be taken
+to choose wholesome and digestible food. These principles are still
+more important to one who is hungry, who has abstained from food
+for any length of time. He should select the healthy and light
+foods, and partake of little at first until the powers of digestion
+are fully restored. Should he neglect to observe these simple
+rules, he will ruin his digestive system, the food will
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id=
+"page325"></a>{325}</span> turn into poison, and he may contract a
+stubborn disease which no physician will be able to cure.</p>
+<p>"This is exactly what happened to our Russian Jews from 1860 to
+1880. For many long centuries they had endured an intellectual
+fast. The Government had debarred them from the world's culture.
+They were closely packed together in the narrow and dark ghettos.
+They knew of their synagogues, yeshibot, and prayer-houses
+(Kloisen) on the one hand, and of their little stores on the other.
+That there was a great world beyond and without, a world of
+culture, education, and civilization, of this they had only heard.
+A great many of them strove to break through the bounds that
+confined them and step into the world of light and life; but the
+Cossack, lead-laden whip in hand, stood there ready to drive them
+back.</p>
+<p>"The thirst for education and civilization became daily more
+intense, and reached the utmost limits of endurance. Five million
+Russian Jews raised their hands to the Government and pleaded for
+mercy: 'Release us from this ghetto! We, too, are human beings!
+Give us breathing space! Give us light! We are faint and starving!'
+And the Cossack promptly answered 'Nazad ('Back!') Here you are and
+here you remain&mdash;not a step further!'</p>
+<p>"And all at once, lo! there came a light! Alexander II, as soon
+as he ascended the throne, opened wide the doors of the ghetto, and
+the Russian Jews, young and old, men and women, rushed to the new
+culture. All crowded to the dainty dish, and no time was lost in
+making up for the intellectual fast.</p>
+<p>"But here happened what usually occurs after a long fast. The
+wiser partook of food with discretion. They selected the
+ingredients which were wholesome, and which their system could
+digest. All unripe, objectionable food they rejected; their main
+object was to select the food which the Jewish system could
+assimilate. The governing principle was to unite Jewish learning
+with the new culture. They knew that among the new delicacies there
+were many that were injurious and unhealthy, though the defects
+were disguised by alluring spices; but those who had <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>{326}</span> not lost
+the innate, unerring Jewish scent found no difficulty in
+distinguishing that which was sound from the injurious, and they
+remain strong and faithful Jews to this day.</p>
+<p>"Others, and they formed the greater part of the Russian Jews,
+seized things as they came. Nay, the more dangerous the delicacy,
+the more the relish with which it was devoured. And these
+delicacies were gorged at such a rate as to cause constitutional
+disorder. They who were a little wiser somehow shook off the
+objectionable matter, and became 'whole' again; and a great number
+'died,' and a still greater number are dangerously 'sick' to this
+very day.</p>
+<p>"The sick among our Russian brethren, those who partook in
+dangerous quantities of the unwholesome delicacies, believed that
+they would solve all difficulties by 'Russification,' that is, by
+abandoning the old Jewish culture and adopting Russian mannerisms
+and customs&mdash;by ceasing to lead Jewish lives and by leading
+the lives of Russians. A great number of Jewish literary men of
+those times believed that if the Russian Jews would become
+'Russified,' and would adopt modern civilization, they would
+receive full and equal rights, on the same terms as the other
+nationalities. These literary men were dazzled by the little
+liberty Alexander II granted the Russian Jews, and they did not
+understand that he pursued the same object as his father, Nicholas
+I. In the days of Alexander II, many more Jews were converted to
+Christianity than in the bitter days of Nicholas I; and many who
+were not converted remained but caricatures of real Jews.</p>
+<p>"The so-called 'Jewish Aristocracy' in Russia, and especially
+the wealthy Jews of North Russia, of St. Petersburg, Moscow, and
+Kharkov, Russified at top speed. They removed from their homes and
+their home-life anything that was in the least degree Jewish. They
+shattered all that for thousands of years had been holy and dear to
+the Jew. Like apes they imitated the manners and customs of the
+Christians. The younger children did not even know that they were
+descended from Jews, as was the case in the first <span class=
+"pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>{327}</span>
+'pogroms,' when the children asked their parents: 'Why do they beat
+us? Are we, too, Jews (Razve vy tozhe Yevrey)?'"</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote5-28" name=
+"footnote5-28"></a><b>Footnote 28:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag5-28">(return)</a>
+<p>For a full biography see Brainin, Perez ben Mosheh Smolenskin,
+Warsaw, 1896; Keneset Yisra&euml;l, i. 249-286; Ha-Shiloah, i.
+82-92, and his works, especially Ha-To&euml;h be-Darke ha-Hayyim,
+Vienna, 1876.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<h3><a name="notes-6" id="notes-6">CHAPTER VI</a></h3>
+<h4>THE AWAKENING</h4>
+<h4>1881-1905</h4>
+<h4>(pp. 268-303)</h4>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-1" name=
+"footnote6-1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-1">(return)</a>
+<p>Most of this is based on Persecution of the Jews in Russia,
+Philadelphia, 1891, pp. 8-18, 22, 35, 51-82, 184-185; Frederick,
+The New Exodus, London, 1892, pp. 192-208; Errera, Les juifs
+russes, Brussels, 1893, pp. 29, 43 f., 89-90, 188-189. Between 1883
+and 1885, the Mining Institute and Engineering Institute for Public
+Roads adopted the five per cent limit, the Kharkov Technical
+Institute a ten per cent limit, and the Veterinary Institute, of
+the same city, the only one of the sort in Russia, excluded Jews
+altogether.</p>
+<p>"My zemlyakes" (countrymen), says a reminiscent writer, "soon
+after they had finished their course in engineering, had taken each
+a different road. One became a crown-rabbi, one a flour merchant, a
+third a bookkeeper, but none of them could, on account of his
+religion, legally pursue his chosen vocation" (Yiddishes Tageblatt,
+New York, May 13, 1908).</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-2" name=
+"footnote6-2"></a><b>Footnote 2:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-2">(return)</a>
+<p>Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor (Engl. transl., New York,
+1908), pp. 70, 90-91. "Out of 266 students admitted to the Kharkov
+University in 1901, only 8 were Jews, though at least 12 had
+'finished the gymnasium,' not only with the 'highest possible'
+marks, but with gold medals. At the Technological Institute of the
+same city, 7 were Jews in a total of 240, though 12 applying for
+admission had received the 'highest possible' marks. At the Kiev
+University, of 580 new students, 32, all of them medallists,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id=
+"page328"></a>{328}</span> were Jews. How many applied for
+admission, the daily and weekly press, from which these figures are
+taken, did not report."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-3" name=
+"footnote6-3"></a><b>Footnote 3:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-3">(return)</a>
+<p>Ner ha-Ma'arabi, vii, 27.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-4" name=
+"footnote6-4"></a><b>Footnote 4:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-4">(return)</a>
+<p>"He who claims that a spirit of reaction has affected our people
+as a whole," says Moses Reines (Ozar ha-Sifrut, ii. 45), "is
+greatly mistaken. That the children of the poor from whom learning
+cometh forth still forsake their city and country and acquire
+knowledge, ... that societies for the spread of Haskalah are formed
+every day, ... that strict and pious Jews send their sons and
+daughters to where they can obtain enlightenment, that rabbis,
+dayyanim, and maggidim urge their children to become proficient in
+the requirements of the times ... write for the press ... and
+deplore the gezerot (restrictions) regarding admission to
+schools&mdash;all this proves convincingly that they do not see
+right who complain that our entire nation is going backward."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-5" name=
+"footnote6-5"></a><b>Footnote 5:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-5">(return)</a>
+<p>See Ha-Maggid, 1899, no. 160. While in 1848 there were 2446 and
+in 1854, 4439 converts, in 1860-1880 there were from 350 to 450 per
+annum, in 1881, 572, in 1882, 610, and in 1883, 461 converts. With
+the spread of Zionism conversions continued to diminish, and, while
+there were relapses during the renewed pogroms of 1891 and 1901,
+they decreased materially, though the Jewish population is
+constantly on the increase.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-6" name=
+"footnote6-6"></a><b>Footnote 6:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-6">(return)</a>
+<p>Autobiography, pp. 42-51. See also Kahan, Meahore ha-Pargud, pp.
+15-17.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-7" name=
+"footnote6-7"></a><b>Footnote 7:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-7">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Meliz, 1900, no. 123; Luah Ahiasaf, 5696, p. 312; Zablotzky
+and Massel, Ha-Yizhari, Manchester, 1895, Introduction; Ha-Meliz,
+xxxvii, no. 36; The Menorah, April, 1904.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-8" name=
+"footnote6-8"></a><b>Footnote 8:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-8">(return)</a>
+<p>Yalkut Ma'arabi, 1904, pp. 46 f.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-9" name=
+"footnote6-9"></a><b>Footnote 9:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-9">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Shahar, x. 511, 30; Habazelet, 1882, no. 2.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-10" name=
+"footnote6-10"></a><b>Footnote 10:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-10">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Le'om, 1906, nos. 21-22; Belkind, in Ha-Zefirah, no. 46,
+1913; Lubarsky and Lewin-Epstein, Derek Hayyim, New York, 1905.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-11" name=
+"footnote6-11"></a><b>Footnote 11:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-11">(return)</a>
+<p>Greenstone, The Messiah Idea in Jewish History, ch. viii.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-12" name=
+"footnote6-12"></a><b>Footnote 12:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-12">(return)</a>
+<p>The Progress of Zionism, pp. 3-4; cf. Voskhod, 1895, iv.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id=
+"page329"></a>{329}</span>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-13" name=
+"footnote6-13"></a><b>Footnote 13:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-13">(return)</a>
+<p>Zamenhof's new universal language was primarily intended to be
+the international language of his people, "who are speechless, and
+therefore without hope, scattered over the world, and hence unable
+to understand one another, obliged to take their culture from
+strange and hostile sources."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-14" name=
+"footnote6-14"></a><b>Footnote 14:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-14">(return)</a>
+<p>Ahiasaf, iv.; Gordon, op. cit., i. xxi; Razsvyet, 1882, i.;
+Magil's Kobez (Collection), no. 3, p. 45.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-15" name=
+"footnote6-15"></a><b>Footnote 15:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-15">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Meliz, 1899, no. 256; 1901, no. 2; weekly Voskhod, 1893, no.
+40; monthly Voskhod, 1894, iv. Some Jewish financiers erected
+gymnasia in Vilna and Warsaw, improved the condition of the
+hadarim, and turned many Talmud Torahs into technical schools. Of
+the Lodz Talmud Torah a writer says that "no Jewish community, even
+outside of Russia, possesses such an institution, not excepting the
+Hirsch schools in Galicia."</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-16" name=
+"footnote6-16"></a><b>Footnote 16:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-16">(return)</a>
+<p>London, Unter j&uuml;dischen Proletariern, 1898, pp. 81-83;
+Bramson, K Istorii, etc., pp. 63-69, 71-74; Ha-Meliz, xli., no. 246
+(1901, no, 35); Ha-Zefirah, xxix., no. 285; and the Jewish Gazette,
+July 16, 1909 (Kunst und Nationalismus). The Ha-Zamir (a choral
+society), founded in Lodz by Nissan Schapira, counts its members by
+the thousands.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-17" name=
+"footnote6-17"></a><b>Footnote 17:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-17">(return)</a>
+<p>London, op. cit, pp. 64-74; Ha-Meliz, 1900, nos. 192-193;
+Rubinow, op. cit., pp. 530-532, 548-553, 561-566.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-18" name=
+"footnote6-18"></a><b>Footnote 18:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-18">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Meliz, 1901, nos. 20, 27, 36, 54, 95.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-19" name=
+"footnote6-19"></a><b>Footnote 19:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-19">(return)</a>
+<p>Atlas, Mah Lefanim u-mah Leaher, pp. 53 f.; Ha-Meliz, 1900, no.
+47; 1901, no. 27.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-20" name=
+"footnote6-20"></a><b>Footnote 20:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-20">(return)</a>
+<p>Ha-Meliz, 1901, no. 87.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-21" name=
+"footnote6-21"></a><b>Footnote 21:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-21">(return)</a>
+<p>R&eacute;flexions sur l'&eacute;tat des isra&eacute;lites
+russes, Odessa, 1871, pp. 121-122.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<blockquote class="footnote"><a id="footnote6-22" name=
+"footnote6-22"></a><b>Footnote 22:</b><a href=
+"#footnotetag6-22">(return)</a>
+<p>Kayserling, Die j&uuml;dischen Frauen, Leipsic, 1879, pp.
+306-313; Rubinow, op. cit., p. 581. The Russian Jewess has already
+produced several writers above the average (Einhorn, Mosessohn, Ben
+Yehudah, Sarah and Eva Schapira) in Hebrew, has given Russian
+literature at least one novelist of note (Rachel Khin), has
+furnished leaders in the movement for the emancipation of women
+(Maria Saker), and especially for the liberation of Russia
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id=
+"page330"></a>{330}</span> (Finger, Helfman, Levinsohn, Novinsky,
+Rabinovich). According to Mr. Rabinow, the Russo-Jewish "women and
+girls use every available means" to obtain an education, and at
+least fifty per cent of them possess a knowledge of Russian in
+addition to their vernacular Yiddish.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id=
+"page331"></a>{331}</span>
+<h2><a name="bibliography" id="bibliography">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></h2>
+<p>An asterisk (*) marks a book or periodical of especial
+importance.</p>
+<p>Antin, The Promised Land, Boston and New York, 1912.</p>
+<p>Atlas, Mah Lefanim u-mah Leaher, Warsaw, 1898.</p>
+<p>Baskerville, The Polish Jew, New York, 1906.</p>
+<p>Ben Sion, Yevreyi Reformatory, St. Petersburg, 1882.</p>
+<p>Bentwich, The Progress of Zionism, New York, 1899.</p>
+<p>Bernfeld, Dor Tahapukot, Warsaw, 1897.</p>
+<p>Bershadsky, Zhurnal Ministerstva Narodnaho Prosvyeshchaniya, St.
+Petersburg, 1912.</p>
+<p>Bersohn, Tobiasz Cohn, Warsaw, 1872.</p>
+<p>Blaustein, Memoirs, New York, 1813, pt. I.</p>
+<p>*Brafmann, Kniga Kahala, Vilna, 1869.</p>
+<p>*Brainin, Perez ben Moses Smolenskin, Warsaw, 1896.</p>
+<p>*Bramson, K Istorii Pervonachalnaho Obrazovaniya Russkikh
+Yevreyev, St. Petersburg, 1896.</p>
+<p>*Buchholtz, Geschichte der Juden in Riga, Riga, 1899.</p>
+<p>Chwolson, Die Blutanklage, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1901.</p>
+<p>Cohan, Rabbi Yisra&euml;l Ba'al Shem Tob, 1900.</p>
+<p>Cohn, Ma'aseh Tobiah, Venice, 1707.</p>
+<p>*Czacki, Rosprava o Zhydakh, Vilna, 1807.</p>
+<p>Delitzsch, Zur Geschichte der j&uuml;dischen Poesie, Leipsic,
+1836.</p>
+<p>*[Dick], Ha-Oreah, K&ouml;nigsberg, 1860.</p>
+<p>*D[ick], Yiddishe Kleider Umwechslung, Vilna, 1844.</p>
+<p>*Dob B&auml;r, Shibhe ha-Besht, Berdichev, 1815.</p>
+<p>Duprey, Great Masters of Russian Literature (Engl. transl.), New
+York, 1886.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id=
+"page332"></a>{332}</span>
+<p>Edelman, Gedulat Sha&uuml;l, London, 1854.</p>
+<p>*Elk, Die j&uuml;dischen Kolonien in Russland, Frankfort
+on-the-Main, 1886.</p>
+<p>Emden, Megillat Sefer, ed. Cohan, Warsaw, 1896.</p>
+<p>Epstein, Geburat ha-Ari, Vilna, 1870.</p>
+<p>*Errera, Les juifs russes, Brussels, 1893.</p>
+<p>Erter, Ha-Zofeh le-Bet Yisra&euml;l, Warsaw, 1890.</p>
+<p>Ezekiel Feivel, Toledot Adam, Warsaw, 1854.</p>
+<p>Firkovich, Abne Zikkaron, Vilna, 1872.</p>
+<p>Fishberg, The Jews: A Study of Race and Environment, New York,
+1911.</p>
+<p>*Frederick, The New Exodus, London, 1892.</p>
+<p>Friedl&auml;nder, An die Verehrer, Freunde, und Sch&uuml;ler,
+etc., Leipsic, 1823.</p>
+<p>*Frledl&auml;nder, Ueber die Verbesserung der Israeliten im
+K&ouml;nigreich Polen, Berlin, 1819.</p>
+<p>Friedrichsfeld, Zeker Zaddik, Amsterdam, 1809.</p>
+<p>*F&uuml;nn, Keneset Yisra&euml;l, Warsaw, 1860.</p>
+<p>*F&uuml;nn, Kiryah Ne'emanah, Vilna, 1860.</p>
+<p>F&uuml;nn, Safah le-Ne'emanim, Vilna, 1881.</p>
+<p>F&uuml;nn, Sofre Yisra&euml;l, Vilna, 1891.</p>
+<p>Geiger, Melo Hofnayim, Berlin, 1840.</p>
+<p>Gershuni, Mein Entrinung vun Katorga, New York, 1907.</p>
+<p>Gershuni, Sketches of Jewish Life and History, New York,
+1873.</p>
+<p>Ger Zedek, Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, St. Petersburg, 1892.</p>
+<p>*Ginzberg and Marek, Yevreyskiya Narodniya Pyesni, St.
+Petersburg, 1901.</p>
+<p>*Gl&uuml;ckel von Hameln, Zikronot, ed. Cohan, 1896.</p>
+<p>Gordon, Ha-Azamot ha-Yebashot, Odessa, 1899.</p>
+<p>*Gordon, Iggerot, Warsaw, 1894.</p>
+<p>Gordon, Kol Shire YeLeG, Vilna, 1898.</p>
+<p>*Gottlober, Ha-Gizrah we-ha-Binyah, in Ha-Boker Or, iv.</p>
+<p>Gottlober, Za'ar Ba'ale Hayyim, Zhitomir, 1868.</p>
+<p>Gottlober, Zikronot mi-Yeme Ne'ura&iuml;, Warsaw, 1800.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id=
+"page333"></a>{333}</span>
+<p>Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, Leipsic, 1866-1882, 11 vols. (also
+in Hebrew, Dibre Yeme Yisra&euml;l, Warsaw, 1905).</p>
+<p>Greenstone, The Messiah Idea in Jewish History, Philadelphia,
+1906.</p>
+<p>*G&uuml;demann, Geschichte des Erziehunghswesens und der Cultur
+der abendl&auml;ndischen Juden, Vienna, 1880 and 1884.</p>
+<p>G&uuml;demann, Quellen zur Geschichte des Unterrichts, Berlin,
+1891.</p>
+<p>*G&uuml;nzburg, Abi'ezer, Vilna, 1863.</p>
+<p>*G&uuml;nzburg, Ha-Debir, Warsaw, 1883.</p>
+<p>G&uuml;nzburg, Ha-Moriah, Warsaw, 1878 ("Kikayon Yonah").</p>
+<p>G&uuml;nzburg, Kiryat Sefer, Vilna, 1835.</p>
+<p>G&uuml;nzburg, Maggid Emet, Leipsic, 1843.</p>
+<p>*Halevi, Kuzari, Introduction.</p>
+<p>*Hannover, Yeven Mezulah, Warsaw, 1872.</p>
+<p>*Harkavy, Ha-Yehudim u-Sefat ha-Selavim, Vilna, 1867.</p>
+<p>*Harkavy, Russ i Russkiye v Srednikh Yevropeyskaya Literatura,
+Voskhod, 1881.</p>
+<p>Horowitz, Derek 'Ez ha-Hayyim, Cracow, 1895.</p>
+<p>*Houzner, I.B. Levinsohn (Russian), Odessa, 1862.</p>
+<p>Hurwitz, 'Ammude Bet Yehudah, 1765.</p>
+<p>Hurwitz, Hekal 'Oneg, Grodno, 1797.</p>
+<p>Hurwitz (Phinehas Elijah), Sefer ha-Berit, Br&uuml;nn, 1897.</p>
+<p>Ilye, Alfe Menasheh, Vilna, 1827.</p>
+<p>Ilye, Pesher Dabar, Vilna, 1807.</p>
+<p>Izgur, Shalosh Tekufot, Niezhin, 1898.</p>
+<p>*Jastrow, Beleuchtungen, etc., Hamburg, 1859.</p>
+<p>*Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols., New York, 1901-1906.</p>
+<p>Jost, Culturgeschichte, Berlin, 1847.</p>
+<p>Jost, Freim&uuml;thige Beleuchtung, Berlin, 1830.</p>
+<p>Kahan, Be&euml;rot Nishbarim, St. Petersburg, 1879.</p>
+<p>Kahan, Meahore ha-Pargud, St. Petersburg, 1886.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id=
+"page334"></a>{334}</span>
+<p>Katz, Le-Korot ha-Yehudim be-Russyah, Polin, we-Lita, Berlin,
+1889.</p>
+<p>Katz, Toledot Haskalat ha-Yehudim be-Russyah, Ha-Zeman, St.
+Petersburg, 1903.</p>
+<p>Klausner, Novo Yevreyskaya Literatura, Warsaw, 1900.</p>
+<p>Kohen, Megillah 'Afah, in Aben Virga, Shebet Yehudah, ed.
+Wiener, Hanover, 1856.</p>
+<p>Kohn, Hut ha-Meshullash, Odessa, 1874.</p>
+<p>Kovner, Heker Dabar, Warsaw, 1865.</p>
+<p>Kovner, Zevov Perahim, Odessa, 1868.</p>
+<p>Kunz, Die Philosophie Salomon Maimons, Heidelberg, 1912.</p>
+<p>Lapin, Keset ha-Sofer, Berlin, 1857.</p>
+<p>Lebensohn, Emet we-Emunah, Vilna, 1867, 1870.</p>
+<p>Lebensohn, Kiryat Soferim, Vilna, 1847.</p>
+<p>Leket Amarim, supplement to Ha-Meliz, St. Petersburg, 1887.</p>
+<p>*Lerner, Yevreyi v Novorossiskom Kraye, Odessa, 1901.</p>
+<p>Levanda, Ocherki Proshlaho, St. Petersburg, 1876.</p>
+<p>*Levin, Aliyat Eliyahu, Vilna, 1856.</p>
+<p>*Levinsohn, Bet Yehudah, Warsaw, 1901.</p>
+<p>*Levinsohn, Te'udah be-Yisra&euml;l, Warsaw, 1901.</p>
+<p>Lilienblum, Derek La'abor Golim, Warsaw, 1899.</p>
+<p>Lilienblum, Derek Teshubah, Warsaw, 1899.</p>
+<p>*Lilienblum, Hattot Ne'urim, Vienna, 1876.</p>
+<p>*Lilienblum, Kehal Refa&iuml;m, Odessa, 1870.</p>
+<p>*Lilienblum, 'Olam ha-Tohu, in Ha-Shahar, 1873.</p>
+<p>Lilienblum, Orhot ha-Talmud, in Ha-Meliz, 1868.</p>
+<p>*Lilienthal, Maggid Yeshu'ah, Vilna, 1842.</p>
+<p>Lilienthal, Meine Reisen in Russland, J&uuml;disches Volksblatt,
+1856.</p>
+<p>*Lilienthal, My Travels in Russia, American Israelite, 1854.</p>
+<p>Lilienthal, Rede, Riga, 1840.</p>
+<p>Lilienthal, Sketches of Jewish Life in Russia, The Occident,
+v.</p>
+<p>Linetzky, Dos Polische Yingel, Lemberg, 1880.</p>
+<p>*Loewe, Diaries of Sir Moses and Lady Montefiore, London,
+1890.</p>
+<p>*London, Unter j&uuml;dischen Proletariern, 1898.</p>
+<p>Lubarsky and Lewin-Epstein, Derek Hayyim, New York, 1905.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id=
+"page335"></a>{335}</span>
+<p>*Lubliner, De la condition politique... dans le royaume de
+Pologne, Brussels, 1860.</p>
+<p>*Maggid, Toledot Mishpehot Ginzberg, St. Petersburg, 1899.</p>
+<p>*Maimon, Autobiographic, Berlin, 1793; Engl. transl., Boston,
+1888; Heb. transl., Warsaw, 1899.</p>
+<p>*Malishevsky, Yevreyi v Yuzhnoy Rossii i Kieve v. x-xii.
+Vyekakh, St. Petersburg, 1878.</p>
+<p>Mandelkern, Dibre Yeme Russyah, Warsaw, 1875.</p>
+<p>*Mandelstamm, Hazon la-Mo&euml;d, Vienna, 1877.</p>
+<p>Mann, She&euml;rit Yisrael, Vilna, 1818.</p>
+<p>*Mapu, 'Ayit Zabua' Warsaw, 1873.</p>
+<p>Margolioth, Bet Middot, Prague, 1786.</p>
+<p>Minor, Rukovodstvo, Moscow, 1881.</p>
+<p>*Morgulis, Voprosi Yevreyskoy Zhizni, St. Petersburg, 1889.</p>
+<p>Nathanson, Sefat Emet, Warsaw, 1887.</p>
+<p>*Nathanson, Sefer ha-Zikronot, Warsaw, 1878.</p>
+<p>Nusbaum, Historiya Zhid&oacute;v, Warsaw, 1888-1890, 5 vols.</p>
+<p>Orshansky, Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, ii.</p>
+<p>Paperna, Ha-Derammah, Odessa, 1867.</p>
+<p>*Persecution of the Jews in Russia, Philadelphia, 1891.</p>
+<p>Pinsker, Auto-Emancipation, Berlin, 1882.</p>
+<p>Pinsker, Likkute Kadmoniot, Vilna, 1860.</p>
+<p>Plungian, Ben Porat, Vilna, 1858.</p>
+<p>*Polonnoy, Toledot Ya'akob Yosef, Lemberg, 1856.</p>
+<p>Prelooker, Heroes and Heroines of Russia, London.</p>
+<p>*Prelooker, Under the Czar and Queen Victoria, London.</p>
+<p>Rabinovitz, Ma'amar 'al ha-Defosat ha-Talmud, Munich, 1876.</p>
+<p>Rhine, Leon Gordon. An Appreciation, Philadelphia, 1910.</p>
+<p>Rodkinson, Toledot 'Ammude HaBaD, K&ouml;nigsberg, 1876.</p>
+<p>Rosensohn, 'Ezah we-Tushiah, Vilna, 1870.</p>
+<p>Rosensohn, Shelom Ahim, Vilna, 1870.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id=
+"page336"></a>{336}</span>
+<p>*Rosenthal, Toledot Hebrat Marbe Haskalah, i., St. Petersburg,
+1885; ii., ibid., 1890.</p>
+<p>*Rubinow, Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor, No. 72, Washington,
+Sept., 1907.</p>
+<p>*San Donato, The Jewish Question, St. Petersburg, 1883.</p>
+<p>Sbornik of the Ministry of Education, in., St. Petersburg.</p>
+<p>Schechter, Studies in Judaism, i., Philadelphia, 1896; ii.,
+ibid., 1908.</p>
+<p>*Scholz, Die Juden in Russland, Berlin, 1900.</p>
+<p>*Seiberling, Gegen Brafmann's Buch des Kahals, Vienna, 1881.</p>
+<p>Shatzkes, Ha-Mafteah, Warsaw, 1866-1869.</p>
+<p>*Shereshevsky, O Knigie Kahala, St. Petersburg, 1872.</p>
+<p>Silber, Elijah Gaon, New York, 1906.</p>
+<p>Slouschz, La renaissance de la litt&eacute;rature
+h&eacute;bra&iuml;que, Paris, 1903. Heb., Warsaw, 1906; Engl.
+transl., Philadelphia, 1909.</p>
+<p>*Smolenskin, Ha-To&euml;h be-Darke ha-Hayyim, Vienna, 1876, 4
+vols.</p>
+<p>Smolenskin, Keburat Hamor, ibid., 1874.</p>
+<p>Sokolov, Sinat 'Olam le-'Am 'Olam, Warsaw, 1882.</p>
+<p>*Steinschneider, 'Ir Vilna, Vilna, 1900.</p>
+<p>Sternberg, Die Proselyten in Polen im xvi und xvii Jahrhundert,
+AZJ, 1863, pp. 67-68; L'univers Isra&eacute;lite, 1863, pp.
+272-273.</p>
+<p>*Tarnopol, R&eacute;flexions sur l'&eacute;tat des
+isra&eacute;lites russes, Odessa, 1871.</p>
+<p>Troki, Hizzuk Emunah, Leipsic, 1857.</p>
+<p>*Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, Engl. transl., New
+York, 1908.</p>
+<p>Weiss, Zikronota&iuml;, Warsaw, 1895.</p>
+<p>Weissberg, Aufkl&auml;rungsliteratur, Vienna, 1898.</p>
+<p>Weissberg, Le-Toledot ha-Sifrut ha-'Ibrit ha-Hadashah be-Polin
+we-Russyah, Mi-Mizrah u-mi-Ma'arab, Berlin, 1895.</p>
+<p>*Wengeroff, Memoiren einer Grossmutter, i., Berlin, 1908.</p>
+<p>Wessely, Dibre Shalom we-Emet, Berlin, 1782.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id=
+"page337"></a>{337}</span>
+<p>Wiener, The History of Yiddish Literature, New York, 1899.</p>
+<p>*Wolf, Maimoniana, Berlin, 1813.</p>
+<p>Wolkonsky, Pictures of Russian Life and Literature, Boston,
+1897.</p>
+<p>Yevrey Minister, Voskhod, 1885, v.</p>
+<p>Yevreyskaya Enziklopedya, St. Petersburg, 14 vols.</p>
+<p>Zablotzky and Massel, Ha-Yizhari, Manchester, 1895.</p>
+<p>*Zederbaum, 'Ayin Zofiyah, Warsaw, 1877.</p>
+<p>Zederbaum, Keter Kehunnah, Odessa, 1868.</p>
+<p>Zederbaum, Kohelet, St. Petersburg, 1881.</p>
+<p>*Zunser, Biography, Yiddish (and Engl. transl.), New York,
+1905.</p>
+<p>*Zunz, Aelteste Nachrichten &uuml;ber Juden und j&uuml;dische
+Gelehrte in Polen, Slavonien, Russland. Gesammelte Schriften,
+Berlin, 1875, iii. 82-87.</p>
+<p>Zweifel, Sanegor, Warsaw, 1894.</p>
+<p>*Zweifel, Shalom 'al Yisra&euml;l, Zhitomir, 1868-1872, 4
+vols.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id=
+"page339"></a>{339}</span>
+<h2><a name="index" id="index">INDEX</a></h2>
+<p>Abele, Abraham, Talmudist, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href=
+"#page199">199</a>.<br />
+<i>Abi'ezer</i>, by G&uuml;nzburg, <a href=
+"#page220">220</a>.<br />
+Abraham, son of Elijah Gaon, <a href="#page119">119</a>.<br />
+Abramovich, Andrey, statesman, <a href="#page22">22</a>.<br />
+Abramovitsch, Solomon Jacob, novelist, <a href=
+"#page203">203</a>.<br />
+Adelsohn, Wolf, "the Hebrew Diogenes," <a href=
+"#page200">200</a>.<br />
+Aguilar, Grace, on Russo-Jewish misery, <a href=
+"#page154">154</a>.<br />
+Ahiasaf Society, <a href="#page296">296-297</a>.<br />
+Aleksey (Abraham), proselyte-priest, <a href=
+"#page25">25</a>.<br />
+Alexander I, during his period of tolerance, <a href=
+"#page111">111-113</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;during his period of intolerance, <a href=
+"#page127">127-138</a>, <a href="#page140">140</a>, <a href=
+"#page144">144</a>, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href=
+"#page170">170</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href=
+"#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page249">249</a>, <a href=
+"#page251">251</a>, <a href="#page253">253</a>.<br />
+Alexander II, referred to, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href=
+"#page79">79</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;reign of reforms, <a href="#page222">222-226</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;favorable attitude towards Jews, <a href=
+"#page224">224-225</a>, <a href="#page229">229-231</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;the Narodniki, <a href="#page236">236</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;change of policy, <a href="#page248">248-255</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;plotted against and assassinated, <a href=
+"#page255">255-258</a>.<br />
+Alexander III, referred to, <a href="#page80">80</a>, <a href=
+"#page255">255</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;restrictions, <a href="#page268">268-270</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;pogroms, <a href="#page269">269</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;"May Laws," <a href="#page270">270-273</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jews excluded from schools by, <a href=
+"#page273">273-275</a>.<br />
+Alexander Jagellon and the Jews, <a href="#page21">21</a>.<br />
+Allgemeine j&uuml;dische Arbeiterbund, Der, in Littauen, Polen, und
+Russland, <a href="#page293">293</a>.<br />
+Alliance Isra&eacute;lite Universelle, programme of, <a href=
+"#page236">236</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;criticism of, <a href="#page285">285-286</a>.<br />
+Altaras, Jacques Isaac, philanthropist, <a href=
+"#page157">157</a>.<br />
+America. See <a href="#index-united-states">United States,
+the</a>.<br />
+'Am 'Olam Society, <a href="#page283">283</a>.<br />
+Amsterdam, referred to, <a href="#page22">22</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;a place of refuge for Russo-Polish proselytes, <a href=
+"#page27">27</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;elects Russo-Jewish rabbis, <a href=
+"#page33">33-34</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;place of study, <a href="#page81">81</a>, <a href=
+"#page93">93</a>, <a href="#page109">109</a>, <a href=
+"#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page165">165</a>.<br />
+Antokolsky, Mark, sculptor, <a href="#page241">241</a>.<br />
+Anton, Carl, author, <a href="#page64">64</a>.<br />
+Apostol, Cossack hetman, <a href="#page57">57</a>.<br />
+Apotheker, Abraham Ashkenazi, author, <a href=
+"#page40">40</a>.<br />
+Arbeiterstimme, Die, <a href="#page293">293</a>.<br />
+Aristotle, <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page216">216</a>,
+<a href="#page297">297</a>.<br />
+<i>Ascension of Elijah</i>, <a href="#page134">134</a>.<br />
+Ashkenazi, Me&iuml;r, envoy of the Khan of the Tatars, <a href=
+"#page23">23</a>.<br />
+Ashkenazi, Me&iuml;r, rabbinical author, quoted, <a href=
+"#page31">31</a>, <a href="#page33">33</a>.<br />
+Ashkenazi, Solomon, statesman, <a href="#page23">23</a>.<br />
+Assemblies, Jewish, under Alexander I, <a href="#page117">117</a>,
+<a href="#page128">128</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;under Nicholas I, <a href="#page151">151</a>, <a href=
+"#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page174">174-176</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;in Vilna, <a href="#page165">165</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;under Alexander II, <a href="#page230">230</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;at Kattowitz, <a href="#page285">285</a>.<br />
+Auerbach, Berthold, on Maimon, <a href="#page88">88</a>.<br />
+<a name="index-austria" id="index-austria">Austria</a>, Haskalah
+in, <a href="#page12">12</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;influence on Russian Maskilim, <a href=
+"#page195">195</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;place of study for Russian Jews, <a href=
+"#page285">285</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a>.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;See also <a href="#index-galicia">Galicia</a>.<br />
+<i>Auto-Emancipation</i>, <a href="#page281">281-283</a>.<br />
+<i>'Ayit Zabua'</i>, <a href="#page244">244-245</a>.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id=
+"page340"></a>{340}</span>
+<p>Baku, antiquity of, <a href="#page20">20</a>.<br />
+<a name="index-jacob-barit" id="index-jacob-barit">Barit, Jacob</a>
+("Yankele Kovner"), scholar, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href=
+"#page255">255</a>, <a href="#page259">259</a>.<br />
+Bathory, Stephen, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href=
+"#page253">253</a>.<br />
+Beer, Michel, champion of Jewish rights, <a href=
+"#page114">114</a>.<br />
+Behalot, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a href=
+"#page161">161</a>.<br />
+Behr, Issachar Falkensohn, poet, <a href="#page90">90-91</a>,
+<a href="#page108">108</a>.<br />
+Belkind, Israel, Zionist, <a href="#page286">286</a>.<br />
+Belzyc, Jacob Nahman, author, <a href="#page36">36</a>.<br />
+Bene Mosheh Society, <a href="#page286">286</a>.<br />
+Bennett, Solomon, of Polotzk, engraver, champion of Jewish rights
+in England, <a href="#page95">95-96</a>.<br />
+Bentwich, on Jewish colonists in Palestine, <a href=
+"#page289">289</a>.<br />
+Ben Yehudah, Eliezer, Hebraist, <a href=
+"#page284">284-285</a>.<br />
+Beobachter, Der, an der Weichsel, <a href="#page124">124</a>,
+<a href="#page196">196</a>.<br />
+Berdichev, <a href="#page123">123</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a href=
+"#page239">239</a>.<br />
+Berek, Joselovich, colonel, <a href="#page115">115</a>.<br />
+Berlin, <a href="#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page78">78</a>,
+<a href="#page80">80</a>, <a href="#page81">81</a>, <a href=
+"#page84">84</a>, <a href="#page85">85</a>, <a href=
+"#page90">90</a>, <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href=
+"#page93">93</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href=
+"#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href=
+"#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page245">245</a>, <a href=
+"#page251">251</a>, <a href="#page257">257</a>, <a href=
+"#page291">291</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a>.<br />
+Berlin, Moses, uchony Yevrey, <a href="#page230">230</a>.<br />
+Berlin, Naphtali Zebi Judah, dean of Yeshibah, <a href=
+"#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#page288">288</a>.<br />
+Bernfeld, on Maimon, <a href="#page86">86</a>.<br />
+Besht, Israel Baal Shem [Tob], referred to, <a href=
+"#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href=
+"#page123">123</a>; &nbsp;&nbsp;his life, <a href=
+"#page66">66-69</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opposition to rabbinism, <a href="#page67">67</a>,
+<a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page71">71</a>, <a href=
+"#page75">75</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his influence, <a href="#page76">76</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his biography, <a href="#page134">134</a>.<br />
+Bet ha-Midrash, description of the, <a href=
+"#page50">50-51</a>.<br />
+Bet ha-Sefer, in Jaffa, <a href="#page290">290-291</a>.<br />
+<i>Bet Yehudah</i>, by Levinsohn, <a href=
+"#page209">209-210</a>.<br />
+Bezalel, school of art, <a href="#page291">291</a>.<br />
+Bibikov, on Russian Jews, <a href="#page162">162</a>.<br />
+Bible, the, ancient Russo-Jewish commentaries on, <a href=
+"#page28">28</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;customs of (according to Elijah Vilna), <a href=
+"#page74">74</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;the <i>Biur</i> on, <a href="#page81">81</a>, <a href=
+"#page82">82</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Mendelssohn's translation, <a href="#page105">105</a>,
+<a href="#page131">131</a>, <a href="#page193">193</a>, <a href=
+"#page203">203</a><br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;translated into Russian, <a href="#page239">239</a>,
+<a href="#page252">252</a>.<br />
+Bibleitsy (Dukhovnoye Bibleyskoye Bratstvo), <a href=
+"#page247">247-248</a>.<br />
+Bielski, on Jewish proselytes, <a href="#page27">27</a>.<br />
+Bilu Society, <a href="#page286">286</a>.<br />
+<i>Biur</i>, commentary, collaborators on, <a href=
+"#page81">81</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;welcomed, <a href="#page82">82</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;banned, <a href="#page132">132</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;studied, <a href="#page193">193</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page265">265</a>.<br />
+Blood-accusation, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href=
+"#page115">115</a>, <a href="#page145">145</a>, <a href=
+"#page155">155</a>, <a href="#page208">208</a>, <a href=
+"#page213">213</a>, <a href="#page229">229</a>, <a href=
+"#page253">253</a>, <a href="#page275">275-276</a>.<br />
+Bogdanovich, Judah, merchant, <a href="#page22">22</a>.<br />
+Bokhara, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href=
+"#page271">271</a>.<br />
+Bolingbroke, quoted, <a href="#page215">215</a>.<br />
+Bompi, Issachar, bibliophile, <a href="#page166">166-167</a>,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>.<br />
+Bone Zion Society, <a href="#page286">286-287</a>.<br />
+<a name="index-common-prayer" id="index-common-prayer">Book of
+Common Prayer</a>, old translation of, <a href=
+"#page30">30</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;suggested changes in, <a href="#page175">175</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;new Russian translation, <a href="#page239">239</a>,
+<a href="#page252">252</a>.<br />
+Brafmann, Jacob, delator, <a href="#page254">254</a>.<br />
+Bratzlav, <a href="#page53">53-54</a>.<br />
+Brest-Litovsk, Jewish community in, <a href="#page20">20</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;granted privileges, <a href="#page21">21</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Talmudists of, <a href="#page34">34</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;persecution of Hasidim in, <a href=
+"#page76">76</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Haskalah in, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href=
+"#page166">166</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a>.<br />
+Brody, <a href="#page195">195</a>.<br />
+Buchner's <i>Der Talmud in seiner Nichtigkeit</i>, <a href=
+"#page146">146</a>.<br />
+Buckle, on Russian civilization, <a href="#page190">190</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page245">245</a>.<br />
+Buduchnost, <a href="#page286">286</a>.<br />
+Byelostok, <a href="#page113">113</a>, <a href="#page199">199</a>,
+<a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a>.</p>
+<p>Calvinism, in Poland, <a href="#page56">56</a>.<br />
+Cantonists, <a href="#page138">138-139</a>, <a href=
+"#page142">142</a>, <a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href=
+"#page225">225</a>.<br />
+Carlyle, quoted, <a href="#page88">88</a>, <a href=
+"#page109">109</a>.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id=
+"page341"></a>{341}</span> Caro, Joseph Hayyim, rabbi, <a href=
+"#page200">200</a>.<br />
+Casal, Jonas, physician, <a href="#page39">39</a>.<br />
+Casimir IV, Jews under, <a href="#page26">26</a>, <a href=
+"#page253">253</a>.<br />
+Catherine II, favors the Jews, <a href="#page110">110-111</a>,
+<a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page147">147</a>, <a href=
+"#page249">249</a>.<br />
+Chamisso, on "the Glusker Maggid," <a href="#page132">132</a>,
+<a href="#page302">302</a>.<br />
+Chaucer on "beggar students," <a href="#page48">48</a>.<br />
+Chazanowicz, Joseph, Zionist, <a href="#page291">291</a>.<br />
+Chernichevsky's <i>What to Do</i>, <a href=
+"#page257">257</a>.<br />
+Chernigov, Isaac of, Talmudist, <a href="#page29">29</a>.<br />
+Chernyshev, Governor-General, proclaims religious liberty, <a href=
+"#page110">110</a>.<br />
+Chiarini, Abb&eacute; Luigi, anti-Talmudist, <a href=
+"#page145">145</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>.<br />
+Chmielnicki, Cossack hetman, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#page52">52</a>, <a href="#page53">53</a>, <a href=
+"#page54">54</a>, <a href="#page58">58</a>, <a href=
+"#page64">64</a>, <a href="#page77">77</a>, <a href=
+"#page149">149</a>.<br />
+Chozi Kokos, statesman, <a href="#page23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#page55">55</a>.<br />
+Chufut-Kale (Rock of the Jews), <a href="#page19">19</a>.<br />
+Clement VIII, pope, <a href="#page72">72</a>.<br />
+Clement XIV, pope, <a href="#page253">253</a>.<br />
+Clermont-Tonnerre, on Zalkind Hurwitz, <a href=
+"#page93">93</a>.<br />
+Co&euml;n, Moses, court physician and statesman, <a href=
+"#page40">40-41</a>.<br />
+Cohen, Shalom, litterateur, <a href="#page99">99</a>.<br />
+Cohn, Tobias, physician, <a href="#page41">41-42</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Polish Jews, <a href="#page64">64</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href=
+"#page298">298</a>.<br />
+Coins, with Hebrew inscriptions, <a href="#page21">21</a>.<br />
+Colonists, under Nicholas I, <a href="#page140">140-144</a>,
+<a href="#page160">160</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;under Alexander II, <a href="#page228">228</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;in America, <a href="#page283">283</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;in Palestine, <a href="#page283">283</a>, <a href=
+"#page286">286-289</a>.<br />
+Commendoni, on Lithuanian Jews, <a href="#page24">24</a>.<br />
+Converts to Christianity, <a href="#page25">25</a>, <a href=
+"#page26">26</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>, <a href=
+"#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page136">136</a>, <a href=
+"#page139">139</a>, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#page168">168</a>, <a href="#page177">177-178</a>, <a href=
+"#page248">248</a>, <a href="#page254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#page260">260</a>, <a href="#page270">270-273</a>, <a href=
+"#page278">278-279</a>, <a href="#page303">303</a>.<br />
+Cossacks, Jews as, <a href="#page23">23-24</a>.<br />
+Costume, Jewish, origin of, <a href="#page115">115</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opposition of Maskilim to, <a href="#page166">166</a>,
+<a href="#page175">175</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Friedl&auml;nder opposes, <a href=
+"#page170">170</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;enforced change of, by Government, <a href=
+"#page179">179</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;in Courland, <a href="#page194">194</a>.<br />
+Council of the Four Countries, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href=
+"#page208">208</a>.<br />
+Courland, Jews admitted into, <a href="#page111">111</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;annexed to Russia, <a href="#page113">113</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;taxes in, <a href="#page129">129</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;colonists from, <a href="#page140">140</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;stronghold of Haskalah, <a href=
+"#page193">193-194</a>.<br />
+Cracow, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href="#page78">78</a>.<br />
+Cr&eacute;mieux, Adolphe, statesman, <a href="#page154">154</a>,
+<a href="#page175">175</a>.<br />
+Crimea, the, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a href=
+"#page23">23</a>.<br />
+Crusades, the, <a href="#page18">18</a>, <a href=
+"#page52">52</a>.<br />
+Cyril, apostle to Slavonians, <a href="#page28">28</a>.<br />
+Czacki, Tadeusz, Polish historian, defends Jews, <a href=
+"#page114">114</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;praises them, <a href="#page115">115</a>.<br />
+Czartorisky, Prince, and the Polish Jews, <a href="#page94">94</a>,
+<a href="#page116">116</a>.<br />
+Czatzskes, Baruch, translator, <a href="#page124">124</a>.</p>
+<p>Dainov, Zebi Hirsh, "the Slutsker Maggid," <a href=
+"#page246">246</a>.<br />
+Damascus Affair, the, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href=
+"#page208">208</a>.<br />
+Danzig's <i>Hayye Adam</i>, <a href="#page147">147</a>.<br />
+Darshan, Moses Isaac, "the Khelmer Maggid," <a href=
+"#page280">280</a>.<br />
+<i>Dead Souls</i>, by Gogol, <a href="#page257">257</a>.<br />
+Delacrut, philosopher, <a href="#page37">37</a>.<br />
+Delitzsch, on Dubno, <a href="#page81">81</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Hebrew poetry, <a href="#page98">98</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Satanov, <a href="#page99">99</a>.<br />
+Delmedigo, Joseph, physician, <a href="#page24">24</a>.<br />
+<i>Derek Selulah</i>, by Temkin, <a href="#page146">146</a>.<br />
+Diakov, on Russian Jews, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href=
+"#page318">318</a> (<a href="#footnote4-1">n. 1</a>).<br />
+Dillon, Eliezer, financier, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#page125">125</a>.<br />
+Dob B&auml;r, biographer of Besht, <a href=
+"#page123">123</a>.<br />
+Dolitzky, Menahem Mendel, poet, <a href="#page98">98</a>, <a href=
+"#page243">243</a>.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id=
+"page342"></a>{342}</span> <i>Dos Polische Yingel</i>, by Linetzky,
+<a href="#page242">242</a>, <a href="#page244">244</a>.<br />
+Dostrzegacz Nadvisyansky, <a href="#page196">196</a>.<br />
+Dubno, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a>.<br />
+Dubno, Solomon, grammarian, <a href="#page81">81-82</a>, <a href=
+"#page98">98</a>, <a href="#page105">105</a>.<br />
+Dubnow, Simon, historian, <a href="#page17">17</a>.<br />
+Dyerzhavin's <i>Mnyenie</i>, <a href="#page118">118</a>.</p>
+<p>Edels, Samuel (Maharsha), Talmudist, <a href=
+"#page72">72</a>.<br />
+<i>Efes Dammim</i>, by Levinsohn, <a href="#page208">208</a>,
+<a href="#page213">213</a>.<br />
+Efrusi, Hayyim, communal worker, <a href="#page165">165</a>.<br />
+Eger, Akiba, rabbi, <a href="#page149">149</a>.<br />
+Eisenmenger's <i>Entdecktes Judenthum</i>, <a href=
+"#page146">146</a>.<br />
+Eishishki, antiquity of, <a href="#page20">20</a>.<br />
+Eliasberg, Jonathan, rabbi, <a href="#page288">288</a>.<br />
+Eliasberg, Mordecai, rabbi, <a href="#page288">288</a>.<br />
+Elijah Gaon, <a href="#page70">70-76</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his curriculum of study, <a href="#page73">73</a>,
+<a href="#page74">74</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his appreciation of science and influence on Haskalah,
+<a href="#page74">74</a>, <a href="#page75">75</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;reputed to be the author of <i>Sefer ha-Berit</i>,
+<a href="#page102">102</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his disciples, <a href="#page119">119-121</a>, <a href=
+"#page126">126</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his biography, <i>Ascension of Elijah</i>, <a href=
+"#page134">134</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href=
+"#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href=
+"#page212">212</a>, <a href="#page220">220</a>.<br />
+Eliot, George, on Maimon's Autobiography, <a href=
+"#page88">88</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page297">297</a>.<br />
+Elizabeta Petrovna, <a href="#page57">57</a>, <a href=
+"#page135">135</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a>.<br />
+Emden, Jacob, Talmudist, <a href="#page78">78</a>, <a href=
+"#page91">91</a>, <a href="#page94">94</a>, <a href=
+"#page197">197</a>.<br />
+England, Russian Jews in, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href=
+"#page93">93-96</a>, <a href="#page109">109</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;sympathy of, <a href="#page154">154-157</a>, <a href=
+"#page270">270</a>.<br />
+<i>Entdecktes Judenthum</i>, by Eisenmenger, <a href=
+"#page146">146</a>.<br />
+Erter, Isaac, satirist, <a href="#page205">205</a>, <a href=
+"#page217">217</a>.<br />
+Esterka, Polish Jewish queen (?), <a href="#page22">22</a>.<br />
+Euclid, in Hebrew, <a href="#page105">105</a>.<br />
+Exportation Law of 1843, <a href="#page152">152-154</a>, <a href=
+"#page179">179</a>.<br />
+Eybesch&uuml;tz, Jonathan, Talmudist, <a href="#page64">64</a>,
+<a href="#page78">78</a>.</p>
+<p>Falk, Hayyim Samuel Jacob, Baal Shem, <a href=
+"#page93">93-94</a>.<br />
+<i>Fathers and Sons</i>, by Turgenief, <a href=
+"#page257">257</a>.<br />
+Finkel, Elijah, educator, <a href="#page164">164</a>.<br />
+<a name="index-folk-songs" id="index-folk-songs">Folk Songs</a>,
+<a href="#page137">137-138</a>, <a href="#page141">141</a>,
+<a href="#page161">161</a>, <a href="#page232">232</a>, <a href=
+"#page316">316</a> (n. <a href="#footnote3-36">36</a>), <a href=
+"#page320">320</a> (n. <a href="#footnote4-19">19</a>).<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;See also <a href=
+"#index-lullabies">Lullabies</a>.<br />
+France, Russian Jews in, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href=
+"#page92">92-93</a>, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#page109">109</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a>, <a href=
+"#page300">300-301</a>.<br />
+Franco-Russian war, <a href="#page116">116-117</a>, <a href=
+"#page204">204</a>.<br />
+Frank, physician, <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href=
+"#page127">127</a>.<br />
+Frank, Jacob (Yankev Leibovich), founder of the Frankists, <a href=
+"#page64">64-65</a>, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a href=
+"#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href=
+"#page131">131</a>.<br />
+"Freitisch," <a href="#page47">47</a>, <a href=
+"#page151">151</a>.<br />
+Friedl&auml;nder, David, scholar and philanthropist, referred to,
+<a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page237">237</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on the improvement of Jews in Poland, <a href=
+"#page169">169-170</a>.<br />
+Frug, Simon, poet, <a href="#page290">290</a>, <a href=
+"#page297">297</a>.<br />
+F&uuml;nn, Joseph, historian, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href=
+"#page203">203</a>.</p>
+<p>Gaden, Stephen von, court physician and statesman, <a href=
+"#page40">40</a>.<br />
+<a name="index-galicia" id="index-galicia">Galicia, Haskalah
+in</a>, <a href="#page12">12</a>, <a href="#page321">321</a> (n.
+<a href="#footnote4-25">25</a>);<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Hasidism in, <a href="#page69">69</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href=
+"#page195">195</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>, <a href=
+"#page291">291</a>.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;See also <a href="#index-austria">Austria</a>.<br />
+Germany, Haskalah in, <a href="#page12">12</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;emigration from, <a href="#page30">30</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Russo-Polish rabbis in, <a href=
+"#page33">33-34</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Russo-Jewish Maskilim in, <a href="#page77">77-91</a>,
+<a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Hebrew poetry of, <a href="#page97">97-98</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;object of Maskilim in, <a href="#page99">99-100</a>,
+<a href="#page107">107</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Haskalah encouraged by the Government, <a href=
+"#page102">102</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;by Jewish financiers, <a href="#page237">237</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opposition to Haskalah in, <a href=
+"#page105">105-106</a>, <a href="#page131">131-133</a>, <a href=
+"#page188">188</a>;<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id=
+"page343"></a>{343}</span> &nbsp;&nbsp;state of Judaism in,
+<a href="#page168">168-169</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;reason for speedy Germanization of Jews in, <a href=
+"#page191">191</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jewish science in, <a href="#page219">219</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;influence of, on Russian Maskilim, <a href=
+"#page192">192-198</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;a place of refuge, <a href="#page252">252</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;restrictions against refugees in, <a href=
+"#page298">298-299</a>, <a href="#page301">301</a>.<br />
+Gibbon, Edward, referred to, <a href="#page24">24</a>.<br />
+Ginzberg, Asher (Ahad Ha-'Am), and Haskalah, <a href=
+"#page13">13</a>.<br />
+Gl&uuml;ckel von Hameln's <i>Memoirs</i>, <a href=
+"#page33">33</a>.<br />
+"Glusker Maggid, the," <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href=
+"#page302">302</a>.<br />
+Goethe on Maimon, <a href="#page89">89</a>:<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Behr, <a href="#page90">90</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page189">189</a>, <a href=
+"#page192">192</a>.<br />
+Gogol's Jewish traitor, <a href="#page224">224</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;influence of his <i>Dead Souls</i>, <a href=
+"#page257">257</a>.<br />
+Gordin, Jacob, ethical culturist, <a href="#page247">247</a>.<br />
+Gordon, David, litterateur, <a href="#page284">284</a>.<br />
+Gordon, J.L., and Haskalah, referred to, <a href="#page13">13</a>,
+<a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page261">261</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;poetry of, <a href="#page98">98</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;and Levinsohn, <a href="#page212">212</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on the new era, <a href="#page232">232</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;attacks the Talmud, <a href="#page243">243</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;laments the effect of Haskalah, <a href=
+"#page260">260</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Zionism, <a href="#page290">290</a>.<br />
+Gordon, Jekuthiel, scientist, <a href="#page92">92</a>.<br />
+Gottlober, Abraham B&auml;r, on Hasidism, <a href=
+"#page69">69</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Luria, <a href="#page168">168</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;and Levinsohn, <a href="#page212">212</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Russification, <a href="#page231">231</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;defends Mendelssohn, <a href="#page265">265</a>.<br />
+Graetz, on Maimon, <a href="#page83">83</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Slavonic Jews, <a href="#page103">103</a>.<br />
+Granovsky, on Jewish emancipation, <a href=
+"#page228">228</a>.<br />
+Grazhdanin, <a href="#page253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#page302">302</a>.<br />
+Gregory X, pope, <a href="#page253">253</a>.<br />
+Grodno, Jewish community in, <a href="#page20">20</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;a Talmudic centre, <a href="#page32">32</a>, <a href=
+"#page34">34</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;scene of martyrdom, <a href="#page57">57</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;persecution of Hasidim in, <a href=
+"#page76">76</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Talmud published in, <a href=
+"#page148">148-149</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Maskilim, <a href="#page201">201</a>.<br />
+Guizolfi, Zacharias de, statesman, <a href="#page23">23</a>,
+<a href="#page55">55</a>, <a href="#page306">306</a> (n. <a href=
+"#footnote1-12">12</a>).<br />
+G&uuml;nzberg, Benjamin Wolf, student, <a href=
+"#page91">91</a>.<br />
+G&uuml;nzburg, Horace, financier, <a href="#page237">237</a>.<br />
+G&uuml;nzburg, Joseph Yosel, financier, <a href=
+"#page237">237</a>.<br />
+G&uuml;nzburg, Mordecai Aaron, <a href="#page13">13</a>, <a href=
+"#page204">204</a>, <a href="#page225">225</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his life, <a href="#page213">213-221</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Minhagim, <a href="#page215">215</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his impress on Hebrew literature, <a href=
+"#page217">217-219</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his <i>Abi'ezer</i>, <a href="#page220">220</a>.<br />
+Gurovich, Marcus, educator, <a href="#page228">228</a>.</p>
+<p>HaBad, reform sect of Hasidim, <a href="#page122">122</a>.<br />
+Ha-Boker Or, <a href="#page265">265</a>.<br />
+Ha-Emet, <a href="#page256">256</a>.<br />
+Haggadah shel Pesah, Russian translation of, <a href=
+"#page239">239</a>.<br />
+Haidamacks, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href=
+"#page269">269</a>.<br />
+Hakohen, Ephraim, rabbi, <a href="#page34">34</a>.<br />
+Hakohen, Joseph, rabbi, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a href=
+"#page195">195</a>.<br />
+Hakohen, Raphael, rabbi, <a href="#page78">78</a>.<br />
+Ha-Maggid, <a href="#page284">284</a>.<br />
+Ha-Meliz, <a href="#page242">242</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>,
+<a href="#page288">288</a>.<br />
+Hannover, Nathan, his <i>Safah Berurah</i>, <a href=
+"#page39">39</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his <i>Yeven Mezulah</i>, quotation from, <a href=
+"#page48">48-49</a>.<br />
+Harkavy, Abraham, Orientalist, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href=
+"#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a>.<br />
+Ha-Shahar, <a href="#page242">242</a>, <a href=
+"#page261">261-262</a>, <a href="#page265">265</a>, <a href=
+"#page267">267</a>.<br />
+Hasidim, <a href="#page65">65</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;their teachings, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a href=
+"#page67">67</a>, <a href="#page150">150</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;spread, <a href="#page69">69</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;persecuted by the Mitnaggedim, <a href=
+"#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;efforts at reconciliation with Mitnaggedim, <a href=
+"#page120">120-121</a>, <a href="#page260">260</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;reformed, <a href="#page122">122</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;united with Mitnaggedim against Haskalah, <a href=
+"#page134">134</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;fought by Maskilim, <a href="#page168">168</a>.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id=
+"page344"></a>{344}</span> Haskalah, definitions of, <a href=
+"#page12">12-13</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;writers on, <a href="#page14">14</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;regarded differently in Germany and Russia, <a href=
+"#page103">103-108</a>, <a href="#page131">131</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opposition to, <a href="#page132">132-150</a>, <a href=
+"#page185">185-188</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;in the "forties," <a href="#page164">164-197</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;influence of Germany on, <a href=
+"#page191">191-199</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;in Galicia, <a href="#page205">205</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Levinsohn's advice on, <a href=
+"#page212">212</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;G&uuml;nzburg's opinion of, <a href=
+"#page216">216</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;spreads under Alexander II, <a href=
+"#page230">230-248</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;disappointments of, <a href=
+"#page232">232-234</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;and Reform Judaism, <a href=
+"#page242">242-248</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;cosmopolitan, <a href="#page255">255-257</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;romantic and pessimistic, <a href=
+"#page278">278-281</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Zionistic, <a href="#page283">283-291</a>.<br />
+<i>Ha-To&euml;h be-Darke ha-Hayyim</i>, <a href="#page266">266</a>,
+<a href="#page267">267</a>.<br />
+<i>Hattot Ne'urim</i>, <a href="#page232">232-234</a>.<br />
+<i>Hayye Adam</i>, by Danzig, <a href="#page147">147</a>.<br />
+Ha-Zefirah, <a href="#page286">286</a>.<br />
+Hebrew literature: style, <a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#page97">97</a>, <a href="#page217">217-218</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;poetry, <a href="#page98">98</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Reform Judaism in, <a href=
+"#page242">242-248</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;necessity of (Smolenskin), <a href=
+"#page264">264</a>.<br />
+Heder, <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a href="#page184">184</a>.<br />
+Hegel, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href="#page192">192</a>.<br />
+Heilprin, Joseph, financier, <a href="#page175">175</a>.<br />
+Heine, referred to, <a href="#page297">297</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Polish Jews, <a href="#page314">314</a> (n. <a href=
+"#footnote2-43">43</a>).<br />
+Helena, Princess, proselyte, <a href="#page26">26</a>.<br />
+Heller, Yom-Tob Lipman, rabbi, <a href="#page37">37</a>.<br />
+Herz, Marcus, disciple of Kant, <a href="#page85">85</a>.<br />
+Herzl, Theodore, Zionist, <a href="#page263">263</a>, <a href=
+"#page281">281</a>, <a href="#page283">283</a>.<br />
+Hillul Society, <a href="#page286">286</a>.<br />
+Hirsch, Baron de, <a href="#page277">277</a>.<br />
+<i>Hizzuk Emunah</i>, Voltaire's opinion on, <a href=
+"#page37">37</a>.<br />
+Hobebe Zion, <a href="#page285">285</a>, <a href=
+"#page286">286</a>.<br />
+Horn, Me&iuml;r, educator, <a href="#page164">164</a>.<br />
+Horowitz, Isaiah, Cabbalist, <a href="#page33">33</a>.<br />
+Horowitz, Phinehas, rabbi, <a href="#page78">78</a>.<br />
+Horowitz, Shabbata&iuml;, rabbi, <a href="#page34">34</a>.<br />
+Horowitz, Shmelke, rabbi, <a href="#page78">78</a>.<br />
+Horwitz, Aaron Halevi, rabbi, <a href="#page78">78</a>.<br />
+Hurwitz, Hirsh, educator, <a href="#page164">164</a>.<br />
+Hurwitz, Hyman, professor, <a href="#page95">95</a>.<br />
+Hurwitz, Judah Halevi, translator, <a href="#page92">92</a>,
+<a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a>, <a href=
+"#page123">123</a>, <a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href=
+"#page134">134</a>.<br />
+[Hurwitz], Phinehas Elijah, encyclopedist, <a href=
+"#page101">101-103</a>, <a href="#page214">214</a>.<br />
+Hurwitz, Zalkind, champion of Jewish rights in France, <a href=
+"#page92">92-93</a>.<br />
+Huss, influence of, in Poland, <a href="#page26">26</a>.<br />
+<i>Hut ha-Meshullash</i>, by Kohn, <a href="#page244">244</a>.</p>
+<p>Ibn Ezra, Abraham, commentaries on his works, <a href=
+"#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>.<br />
+Ignatiev, Nicholas, <a href="#page268">268</a>.<br />
+'Illuyim, <a href="#page47">47</a>.<br />
+Ilye, Manasseh of, Talmudist, <a href="#page120">120-121</a>,
+<a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href=
+"#page134">134</a>.<br />
+<i>Information about the Killing of Christians</i>, etc., by
+Skripitzyii, <a href="#page229">229</a>.<br />
+Innocent IV, pope, <a href="#page253">253</a>.<br />
+Inventions, <a href="#page201">201-202</a>.<br />
+Israelit, Asher, Maggid, <a href="#page280">280</a>.<br />
+Israelita, Polish weekly, <a href="#page247">247</a>.<br />
+Isserles, Moses, rabbi, <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href=
+"#page78">78</a>.<br />
+Italy, a place of attraction for Russian Jews, <a href=
+"#page37">37</a>, <a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href=
+"#page91">91-92</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a>, <a href=
+"#page165">165</a>.<br />
+Ivan the Terrible, <a href="#page55">55-56</a>, <a href=
+"#page152">152</a>.</p>
+<p>Jacob Isaac, court physician, <a href="#page39">39</a>.<br />
+Jaffe, Daniel, scholar, <a href="#page90">90</a>.<br />
+Jaffe, Mordecai (Lebushim), Talmudist, <a href="#page37">37</a>,
+<a href="#page61">61</a>, <a href="#page105">105</a>.<br />
+Jastrow, Marcus, rabbi, <a href="#page159">159</a>, <a href=
+"#page246">246</a>.<br />
+Jekuthiel, Solomon, financier, <a href="#page204">204</a>.<br />
+<i>Jerusalem</i>, by Mendelssohn, <a href="#page209">209</a>.<br />
+Jerusalem, pilgrimage to, <a href="#page65">65</a>.<br />
+Jesuits, in Poland, <a href="#page54">54</a>, <a href=
+"#page58">58</a>.<br />
+Joffe, Mordecai, rabbi, <a href="#page288">288</a>.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id=
+"page345"></a>{345}</span> Joseph ben Isaac Levi, philosopher,
+<a href="#page38">38</a>.<br />
+Josephovich, Abraham, statesman, <a href="#page21">21-22</a>.<br />
+Josephovich, Michael, nobleman, <a href="#page21">21-22</a>.<br />
+Judah Halevi, poet and philosopher, <a href="#page28">28</a>,
+<a href="#page98">98</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>, <a href=
+"#page284">284</a>.<br />
+Judah Hasid, mystic, founder of the original Hasidim, <a href=
+"#page65">65</a>.<br />
+Judaizing heresy. See <a href=
+"#index-proselytism">Proselytism</a>.<br />
+<i>Judex Judaeorum</i>, <a href="#page44">44</a>.<br />
+J&uuml;discher Arbeiter, Der, <a href="#page293">293</a>.</p>
+<p><i>Kab ha-Yashar</i>, referred to, <a href=
+"#page63">63</a>.<br />
+Kadimah Society, <a href="#page285">285</a>.<br />
+Kahal, <a href="#page44">44</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;oppression by, <a href="#page61">61</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;denunciation of, <a href="#page254">254</a>.<br />
+Kalisz, antiquity of, <a href="#page20">20</a>.<br />
+Kamenetz-Podolsk, antiquity of, <a href="#page41">41</a>.<br />
+Kant, favorite with Maskilim, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a href=
+"#page192">192</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Maimon, <a href="#page85">85</a>, <a href=
+"#page88">88</a>, <a href="#page89">89</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page189">189</a>.<br />
+Kant, the Hebrew, <a href="#page106">106</a>.<br />
+Kaplan, Wolf, educator, <a href="#page225">225</a>.<br />
+Karaites, discussions with Rabbanites, <a href=
+"#page36">36</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;with Christians, <a href="#page37">37</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Nicholas I on, <a href="#page136">136</a>.<br />
+Katkoff, defends Jews under Alexander II, <a href=
+"#page225">225</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;becomes a reactionary under Alexander III, <a href=
+"#page269">269</a>.<br />
+Kattowitz, conference of, <a href="#page285">285</a>.<br />
+Katz, Meir, Talmudist, <a href="#page61">61</a>.<br />
+Katzenellenbogen, Hayyim, Talmudist, <a href=
+"#page40">40</a>.<br />
+Katzenellenbogen, Moses, <a href="#page40">40</a>.<br />
+Kaufman, Governor-General, convokes conference, <a href=
+"#page255">255</a>.<br />
+Kertch, Archbishop of, tries to convert Jews, <a href=
+"#page25">25</a>.<br />
+Kharkov, <a href="#page286">286</a>.<br />
+Khazars, <a href="#page18">18</a>, <a href="#page20">20</a>,
+<a href="#page25">25</a>.<br />
+Khelm, antiquity of, <a href="#page20">20</a>.<br />
+Khelm, Ephraim of, liturgist, <a href="#page35">35</a>.<br />
+Kherson, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page142">142</a>,
+<a href="#page144">144</a>, <a href="#page160">160</a>, <a href=
+"#page292">292</a>.<br />
+Kiev, early settlement of Jews in, <a href=
+"#page19">19-20</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;their influence, <a href="#page23">23</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;proselytism in, <a href="#page25">25</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Talmudists of, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href=
+"#page31">31</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;University of, <a href="#page126">126</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;expulsions from, <a href="#page153">153</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href=
+"#page226">226</a>, <a href="#page227">227</a>, <a href=
+"#page275">275</a>.<br />
+Kishinev, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>,
+<a href="#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a>, <a href=
+"#page276">276</a>.<br />
+Kissilyef, on emigration, <a href="#page158">158</a>.<br />
+Klaczke, G., educator, <a href="#page166">166</a>.<br />
+<i>Kniga Kahala</i>, <a href="#page254">254-255</a>.<br />
+Kobrin, Joseph of, liturgist, <a href="#page35">35</a>.<br />
+Kohen, Naphtali, rabbi, <a href="#page34">34</a>.<br />
+Kohen, Shabbata&iuml;, rabbi and historian, <a href=
+"#page35">35-36</a>.<br />
+Kohn's <i>Hut ha-Meshullash</i>, <a href="#page244">244</a>.<br />
+Kol Mebasser, <a href="#page242">242</a>.<br />
+K&ouml;nigsberg, <a href="#page33">33</a>, <a href=
+"#page79">79</a>, <a href="#page90">90</a>, <a href=
+"#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a>, <a href=
+"#page132">132</a>.<br />
+<i>Kontrabandisti</i>, by Levin, <a href="#page303">303</a>.<br />
+K&ouml;rner, on Maimon, <a href="#page89">89</a>.<br />
+Korobka, <a href="#page129">129</a>.<br />
+Korolenko's <i>Skazanye O Florye Rimlyaninye</i>, <a href=
+"#page302">302</a>.<br />
+Kovno, Government of, <a href="#page20">20</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;city of, <a href="#page21">21</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Talmudists of, <a href="#page34">34</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Maskilim in, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href=
+"#page246">246</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Mussarnikes in, <a href="#page280">280</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page288">288</a>, <a href=
+"#page294">294</a>.<br />
+Kramsztyk, Isaac, rabbi, <a href="#page247">247</a>.<br />
+Krochmal, Nahman, philosopher, <a href="#page205">205</a>.<br />
+Kr&uuml;dener, Baroness, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href=
+"#page129">129</a>, <a href="#page251">251</a>.<br />
+Kruzhevan, <a href="#page276">276</a>.<br />
+Kryloff, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href=
+"#page189">189</a>.<br />
+Kuritzin, Theodore, proselyte, <a href="#page26">26</a>.<br />
+Kusselyevsky, physician, <a href="#page127">127</a>.</p>
+<p>Ladi, Shneor Zalman of, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href=
+"#page122">122-123</a>.<br />
+Landau, Ezekiel, rabbi, <a href="#page78">78</a>, <a href=
+"#page133">133</a>.<br />
+Landau, Moses, educator, <a href="#page164">164</a>.<br />
+Lassalle, <a href="#page257">257</a>, <a href="#page293">293</a>,
+<a href="#page297">297</a>.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id=
+"page346"></a>{346}</span> Lebensohn, Abraham Dob Bar, poet,
+<a href="#page98">98</a>, <a href="#page212">212</a>, <a href=
+"#page244">244</a>.<br />
+Leczeka, Abba, "the Glusker Maggid," <a href="#page132">132</a>,
+<a href="#page302">302</a>.<br />
+Leibnitz, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a href="#page88">88</a>.<br />
+Leibov, Baruch, martyr, <a href="#page57">57</a>.<br />
+Lemberg, court of, <a href="#page44">44</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;fair at, <a href="#page49">49</a>.<br />
+Leo, the court physician, <a href="#page23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#page39">39</a>, <a href="#page55">55</a>.<br />
+Lermontoff's spy, <a href="#page224">224</a>.<br />
+Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole, on Maimon, <a href=
+"#page130">130</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on university restrictions, <a href=
+"#page276">276-277</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page303">303</a>.<br />
+Lessing, Ephraim, on Israel Zamoscz, <a href=
+"#page77">77</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Behr, <a href="#page90">90</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page192">192</a>.<br />
+Letteris, Me&iuml;r Halevi, poet, <a href="#page205">205</a>.<br />
+Letzte Nachrichten, <a href="#page293">293</a>.<br />
+Levanda, Lyev, novelist, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a href=
+"#page279">279</a>.<br />
+Levin, Judah, merchant, <a href="#page204">204</a>.<br />
+Levin, Mendel, Hebrew and Yiddish author, <a href=
+"#page99">99-101</a>, <a href="#page116">116</a>, <a href=
+"#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a>, <a href=
+"#page217">217</a>.<br />
+Levin's <i>Kontrabandisti</i>, <a href="#page303">303</a>.<br />
+Levinsohn, I.B., and Haskalah, <a href="#page13">13</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on the settlement of Jews in Russia, <a href=
+"#page18">18</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on the effect of Chmielnicki's massacres, <a href=
+"#page52">52</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his life, <a href="#page204">204-213</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Te'udah be-Yisra&euml;l</i>, <a href=
+"#page205">205-207</a>, <a href="#page209">209</a>, <a href=
+"#page210">210</a>, <a href="#page221">221</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Efes Dammim</i>, <a href="#page208">208</a>,
+<a href="#page213">213</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Bet Yehudah</i>, <a href=
+"#page209">209-210</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Zerubbabel</i>, <a href="#page210">210-211</a>,
+<a href="#page213">213</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page219">219-220</a>.<br />
+Libosch&uuml;ts, Jacob, physician and philanthropist, <a href=
+"#page91">91</a>.<br />
+Libosch&uuml;ts, Osip Yakovlevich, court physician, <a href=
+"#page126">126</a>.<br />
+Lichtenstadt, Moses, communal worker, <a href=
+"#page165">165</a>.<br />
+Lieberman, Aaron ("Arthur Freeman"), socialist, <a href=
+"#page256">256</a>.<br />
+Lieven, Prince Emanuel, <a href="#page209">209</a>.<br />
+Lilien, Ephraim Moses, artist, <a href="#page291">291</a>.<br />
+Lilienblum, Moses L&ouml;b, skeptic, <a href=
+"#page232">232-234</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;attacks the Talmud, <a href="#page242">242</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;repentant, <a href="#page279">279</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Zionist, <a href="#page289">289-290</a>.<br />
+Lilienthal, Max, referred to, <a href="#page14">14</a>, <a href=
+"#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page151">151</a>, <a href=
+"#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page183">183</a>, <a href=
+"#page277">277</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opens school in Riga, <a href="#page165">165</a>,
+<a href="#page170">170</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his personality, <a href="#page171">171-172</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his <i>Maggid Yeshu'ah</i> and his efforts in behalf of
+Russian Jews, <a href="#page174">174-176</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his disillusionment, <a href=
+"#page177">177-180</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his opinion on Russia, <a href=
+"#page179">179</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;how regarded by Maskilim, <a href=
+"#page172">172-173</a>, <a href="#page180">180-181</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on the Jews of Courland, <a href=
+"#page194">194</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on the Jews of Odessa, <a href=
+"#page196">196</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his supporters, <a href="#page198">198-199</a>,
+<a href="#page200">200</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;G&uuml;nzburg on, <a href="#page216">216</a>.<br />
+Linetzky's <i>Dos Polische Yingel</i>, <a href="#page242">242</a>,
+<a href="#page244">244</a>.<br />
+"Lishmah" ideal, <a href="#page107">107</a>.<br />
+Lithuania, Magna Charta of, <a href="#page21">21</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jewish merchants of, <a href="#page22">22</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;description by Cardinal Commendoni and by Delmedigo,
+<a href="#page24">24</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Talmudic centre, <a href="#page31">31-35</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;status of Jews of, under Ivan the Terrible, <a href=
+"#page55">55</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;after the massacres, <a href="#page60">60</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opposition to Hasidism in, <a href="#page65">65</a>,
+<a href="#page69">69</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;method of study in, <a href="#page71">71-72</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;inclination to Haskalah in, <a href=
+"#page105">105-109</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;annexed to Russia, <a href="#page113">113</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Russified, <a href="#page124">124-125</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;colonization in, <a href="#page143">143-144</a>,
+<a href="#page159">159</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Talmud published in, <a href=
+"#page148">148-149</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page195">195</a>.<br />
+Litvack, Judah, deputy, <a href="#page93">93</a>.<br />
+Livonia, Jewish merchants of, <a href="#page22">22</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Gentiles remonstrate on behalf of Jews of, <a href=
+"#page57">57</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;stronghold of Haskalah, <a href=
+"#page193">193-194</a>.<br />
+Loewe, Louis, Orientalist, quoted, <a href="#page155">155</a>,
+<a href="#page199">199</a>.<br />
+London, <a href="#page94">94</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a>,
+<a href="#page129">129</a>.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id=
+"page347"></a>{347}</span> Louis XIV, and the Treaty of Ryswick,
+<a href="#page22">22</a>.<br />
+Lover of Enlightenment societies, <a href="#page165">165</a>.<br />
+Lublin, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a href="#page34">34</a>,
+<a href="#page40">40</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;fair at, <a href="#page49">49</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Haskalah in, <a href="#page105">105</a>.<br />
+Lublin, Me&iuml;r (Maharam), Talmudist, <a href=
+"#page72">72</a>.<br />
+Lukas, "the little Jew," <a href="#page25">25</a>.<br />
+<a name="index-lullabies" id="index-lullabies">Lullabies</a>,
+Russo-Jewish, quoted, <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a href=
+"#page309">309</a> (n. <a href="#footnote1-39">39</a>).<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;See also <a href="#index-folk-songs">Folk
+Songs</a>.<br />
+Luria, David, philanthropist, <a href="#page166">166</a>, <a href=
+"#page168">168</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a>.<br />
+Luria, Solomon, Talmudist, <a href="#page40">40</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;censures the liberality of Isserles, <a href=
+"#page50">50</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opposes the kahal, <a href="#page61">61</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his method of study, <a href="#page72">72</a>.<br />
+Luther's doctrines in Poland, <a href="#page26">26</a>.<br />
+Luzzatto, Moses Hayyim, poet, <a href="#page92">92</a>.<br />
+Lyons, Israel, grammarian, <a href="#page95">95</a>.</p>
+<p><i>Ma'aseh Tobiah</i>, <a href="#page42">42</a>.<br />
+Macaulay, on Russian civilization, <a href="#page310">310</a> (n.
+<a href="#footnote2-6">6</a>).<br />
+McCaul's <i>Old Paths</i>, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#page211">211</a>.<br />
+<i>Maggid Yeshu'ah</i>, by Lilienthal, <a href=
+"#page174">174-176</a>.<br />
+Maimon, Solomon, <a href="#page81">81-89</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;quoted, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a href=
+"#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page106">106</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Autobiography, <a href="#page83">83</a>, <a href=
+"#page88">88</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his philosophy, <a href="#page84">84-87</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his contributions to the Meassef, <a href=
+"#page98">98</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page108">108</a>, <a href=
+"#page130">130</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href=
+"#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page298">298</a>.<br />
+Maimuni, commentators on his <i>Moreh Nebukim</i>, <a href=
+"#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page84">84</a>, <a href=
+"#page89">89</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;retranslated by Levin, <a href=
+"#page100">100</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his <i>Mishneh Torah</i>, translated, <a href=
+"#page186">186</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his Hebrew style, <a href="#page97">97</a>.<br />
+Malak, Abraham, Hasid, <a href="#page122">122</a>.<br />
+Malak, Hayyim, Hasid, <a href="#page65">65</a>.<br />
+Manasseh ben Israel, <a href="#page32">32</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his <i>Nishmat Hayyim</i>, <a href=
+"#page63">63</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his activity, <a href="#page96">96</a>.<br />
+Mandelkern, Solomon, rabbi, <a href="#page203">203</a>, <a href=
+"#page246">246</a>.<br />
+Mandelstamm, Benjamin, on Lilienthal, <a href=
+"#page173">173</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;quoted, <a href="#page186">186</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Vilna, <a href="#page198">198</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;and Levinsohn, <a href="#page212">212</a>.<br />
+Mandelstamm, Leon, graduate from University of St. Petersburg,
+<a href="#page186">186</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href=
+"#page252">252</a>.<br />
+Mane, Mordecai Zebi, poet, <a href="#page98">98</a>.<br />
+Mann, Eliezer, "the Hebrew Socrates," <a href=
+"#page38">38</a>.<br />
+Mann, Menahem, martyr, <a href="#page27">27</a>.<br />
+Manoah, Handel, mathematician, <a href="#page38">38</a>.<br />
+Mapu, Abraham, novelist, <a href="#page244">244-245</a>.<br />
+Margolioth, Judah L&ouml;b, rabbi, <a href="#page105">105</a>,
+<a href="#page125">125</a>.<br />
+Markusevich, Isaac, physician, <a href="#page127">127</a>.<br />
+Marx, Karl, his teachings promulgated, <a href=
+"#page256">256</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his name assumed, <a href="#page257">257</a>.<br />
+Masliansky, Zebi Hirsh, Maggid, <a href="#page280">280</a>.<br />
+May laws, <a href="#page270">270-275</a>.<br />
+Meassef, contributors to, <a href="#page98">98-100</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;condemned, <a href="#page132">132</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page265">265</a>.<br />
+<i>Megillah 'Afah</i>, <a href="#page36">36</a>.<br />
+Meisels, Berish, rabbi, <a href="#page246">246</a>.<br />
+Melammedim, in Germany, <a href="#page35">35</a>, <a href=
+"#page78">78</a>, <a href="#page80">80</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;in Russia, <a href="#page47">47</a>, <a href=
+"#page294">294</a>.<br />
+<i>Memorbuch</i> of Mayence, <a href="#page29">29</a>.<br />
+Mendelssohn, Meyer, communal worker, <a href=
+"#page140">140</a>.<br />
+Mendelssohn, Moses (Rambman, "Dessauer"), appealed to by
+Mitnaggedim, <a href="#page75">75</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his contact with Russiam Jews, <a href=
+"#page76">76-78</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his friends and followers, <a href="#page81">81-90</a>,
+<a href="#page135">135</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his philosophy, <a href="#page88">88</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page92">92</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;presumed to be author of <i>Sefer ha-Berit</i>,
+<a href="#page102">102</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his translation of the Pentateuch, <a href=
+"#page78">78</a>, <a href="#page81">81</a>, <a href=
+"#page105">105</a>, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href=
+"#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a>;<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id=
+"page348"></a>{348}</span> &nbsp;&nbsp;post-Mendelssohnian period
+in Germany, <a href="#page168">168</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;in Russia, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href=
+"#page193">193</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his <i>Jerusalem</i>, <a href="#page209">209</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his <i>Phaedon</i>, <a href="#page214">214</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Alexander I's ideal Jew, <a href=
+"#page128">128</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;the "Russian Mendelssohn," <a href=
+"#page213">213</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Smolenskin and Gottlober on, <a href=
+"#page265">265</a>.<br />
+Mendlin, Jacob Wolf, socialist, <a href="#page293">293</a>.<br />
+Meseritz, B&auml;r of, promoter of Hasidism, <a href=
+"#page65">65</a>.<br />
+<i>Midrash Talpiyot</i>, <a href="#page63">63</a>.<br />
+Mielziner, Leo, on Zionist artists, <a href=
+"#page291">291</a>.<br />
+Mikhailovich, Czar Aleksey, <a href="#page40">40</a>.<br />
+Milman, on Maimon's Autobiography, <a href="#page88">88</a>.<br />
+Minhagim, according to Elijah Vilna, <a href=
+"#page73">73-74</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;according to M.A. G&uuml;nzburg, <a href=
+"#page215">215</a>.<br />
+Minor, Solomon Zalkind, "the Russian Jellinek," <a href=
+"#page235">235</a>, <a href="#page236">236</a>.<br />
+Minsk, <a href="#page21">21</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Talmudists of, <a href="#page34">34</a>,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;persecution of Hasidim in, <a href=
+"#page76">76</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;schools in, <a href="#page166">166-167</a>, <a href=
+"#page292">292</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;reception of Lilienthal in, <a href="#page172">172</a>,
+<a href="#page173">173</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Maskilim of, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href=
+"#page201">201-235</a>, <a href="#page246">246</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page292">292</a>, <a href=
+"#page293">293</a>.<br />
+Mirabeau's reference to Hurwitz, <a href="#page92">92</a>.<br />
+Mitau, <a href="#page123">123</a>, <a href=
+"#page216">216</a>.<br />
+Mitauer, Elias, communal worker, <a href="#page140">140</a>.<br />
+Mitnaggedim, opposition to Hasidism, <a href="#page70">70</a>,
+<a href="#page131">131</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;efforts of, at reconciliation with Hasidim, <a href=
+"#page120">120-121</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;make common cause with Hasidim against Maskilim,
+<a href="#page134">134</a>, <a href="#page260">260</a>.<br />
+<i>Mnyenie</i>, by Dyerzhavin, <a href="#page118">118</a>.<br />
+Mohilev, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>,
+<a href="#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#page202">202</a>.<br />
+Moldavia, <a href="#page40">40-41</a>.<br />
+Molo, Francisco, economist, <a href="#page22">22</a>.<br />
+Montefiore, Sir Moses, visits Russia, <a href=
+"#page155">155-157</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;invited to Russia, <a href="#page175">175</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;entertained, <a href="#page200">200</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;visit of 1872 to Russia, <a href=
+"#page230">230</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on the pogroms, <a href="#page270">270</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Russo-Jewish women, <a href=
+"#page299">299</a>.<br />
+Morgulis, Manasseh, litterateur, <a href="#page14">14</a>, <a href=
+"#page187">187-188</a>.<br />
+Morschtyn, George, proselyte (?), <a href="#page26">26</a>.<br />
+<i>Mosa&iuml;de</i>, by Wessely, <a href="#page98">98</a>.<br />
+Moscow, proselytism in, <a href="#page25">25</a>, <a href=
+"#page26">26</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;expulsions from, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href=
+"#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page271">271</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jews admitted to, <a href="#page111">111</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;converts in, <a href="#page177">177</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Russification in, <a href="#page240">240</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;restrictions in the University of, <a href=
+"#page274">274</a>, <a href="#page276">276</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page291">291</a>.<br />
+Moses, martyr, <a href="#page57">57</a>.<br />
+Mussarnikes, <a href="#page280">280</a>.<br />
+Muzhiks, emancipation of, <a href="#page222">222-223</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;education of, <a href="#page236">236-237</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;restlessness of, <a href="#page249">249-250</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;socialism among, <a href="#page257">257</a>.<br />
+Mylich, George Gottfried, Lutheran champion of Jewish rights,
+<a href="#page113">113-114</a>.</p>
+<p>Nachlass, Wolf, Cantonist, <a href="#page139">139</a>.<br />
+Napoleon, convokes the Sanhedrin, <a href="#page93">93</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his invasion of Russia, <a href="#page112">112</a>,
+<a href="#page113">113</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his defeat, <a href="#page115">115-117</a>, <a href=
+"#page128">128</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Vilna, <a href="#page197">197</a>.<br />
+Narodnaya Volya Society, <a href="#page257">257</a>, <a href=
+"#page278">278</a>.<br />
+Narodniki, <a href="#page236">236-237</a>.<br />
+Nazimov, Governor-General, champion of Jews, <a href=
+"#page201">201</a>, <a href="#page225">225</a>.<br />
+Nebakhovich, Alexander, theatrical director, <a href=
+"#page201">201</a>.<br />
+Nebakhovich, Leon (L&ouml;b), first defender of Russian Jews in
+Russian, <a href="#page114">114</a>, <a href="#page125">125</a>,
+<a href="#page130">130</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;dramatist, <a href="#page189">189</a>.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id=
+"page349"></a>{349}</span> Nebakhovich, Michael, editor of comic
+paper, <a href="#page201">201</a>.<br />
+Nemirov, <a href="#page59">59</a>.<br />
+Nemirov, Jehiel Michael of, scholar, <a href=
+"#page35">35</a>.<br />
+Nestor's Chronicles, <a href="#page20">20</a>.<br />
+Nicholas I, referred to, <a href="#page104">104</a>, <a href=
+"#page202">202</a>, <a href="#page222">222</a>, <a href=
+"#page229">229</a>, <a href="#page246">246</a>, <a href=
+"#page249">249</a>, <a href="#page253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#page260">260</a>, <a href="#page268">268</a>, <a href=
+"#page284">284</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his policy, <a href="#page135">135-160</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his recruiting, <a href="#page135">135-139</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his colonization scheme, <a href=
+"#page140">140-143</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;attempts at conversion of Jews, <a href=
+"#page144">144-147</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his Exportation Law, <a href=
+"#page152">152-154</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his accusations refuted, <a href=
+"#page162">162-164</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;investigates number of learned Jews, <a href=
+"#page167">167</a>, <a href="#page168">168</a>, <a href=
+"#page198">198</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;outwitted, <a href="#page184">184</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Jews of Odessa, <a href="#page196">196</a>.<br />
+Nicholas II, referred to, <a href="#page80">80</a>, <a href=
+"#page192">192</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;persecution of Jews under, <a href=
+"#page275">275-277</a>.<br />
+Nieszvicz, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page114">114</a>,
+<a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href=
+"#page197">197</a>.<br />
+Nisanovich, Itshe, physician, <a href="#page39">39</a>.<br />
+<i>Nishmat Hayyim</i>, by Manasseh ben Israel, <a href=
+"#page63">63</a>.<br />
+Noah, Mordecai Manuel, statesman, <a href="#page284">284</a>.<br />
+Nomenclature, Russo-Jewish, <a href="#page30">30</a>.<br />
+Notkin, Nathan, diplomat and philanthropist, <a href=
+"#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page125">125</a>.<br />
+Novgorod, <a href="#page25">25</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a>,
+<a href="#page271">271</a>.<br />
+Novy Israil Society, <a href="#page248">248</a>.</p>
+<p>Odessa, schools in, <a href="#page164">164</a>, <a href=
+"#page185">185</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Lilienthal in, <a href="#page176">176</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jewish influences in, <a href=
+"#page194">194-197</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Talmud Torah of, <a href="#page226">226</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Haskalah in, <a href="#page233">233-235</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Russification of, <a href="#page240">240</a>, <a href=
+"#page246">246</a>, <a href="#page255">255</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;assimilation in, <a href="#page248">248</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;pogromy in, <a href="#page253">253</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page251">251</a>, <a href=
+"#page292">292</a>, <a href="#page294">294</a>, <a href=
+"#page295">295</a>, <a href="#page296">296</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jewish women of, <a href="#page299">299-300</a>.<br />
+'Olam Katan, <a href="#page297">297</a>.<br />
+<i>Old Paths</i>, by McCaul, <a href="#page146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#page211">211</a>.<br />
+Ostrog, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a>.</p>
+<p>Pale, the Jewish, <a href="#page188">188</a>, <a href=
+"#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page271">271</a>, <a href=
+"#page274">274</a>.<br />
+Palestine, rehabilitation of, <a href="#page13">13</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;settlers from, in Russia, <a href="#page18">18</a>,
+<a href="#page27">27</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;longing for, <a href="#page153">153</a>, <a href=
+"#page283">283</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Smolenskin on, <a href="#page263">263-264</a>.<br />
+Parlovich, Arthur, physician, <a href="#page126">126</a>.<br />
+Patapov, Governor-General, convokes a conference, <a href=
+"#page259">259</a>.<br />
+Paul I, <a href="#page62">62</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>,
+<a href="#page112">112</a>.<br />
+Paul III, pope, <a href="#page253">253</a>.<br />
+Pechersky, St. Feodosi, <a href="#page25">25</a>.<br />
+Peretz, Abraham, diplomat, <a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a>.<br />
+Peretz, Gregori, Dekabrist, <a href="#page192">192</a>, <a href=
+"#page249">249</a>, <a href="#page284">284</a>.<br />
+Perl, Joseph, educator, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href=
+"#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page205">205</a>.<br />
+Perl, S., educator, <a href="#page166">166</a>.<br />
+Persia, immigrants from, <a href="#page19">19</a>.<br />
+Peter the Great, conquers the Tatars, <a href=
+"#page54">54</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his attempts to civilize Russia, <a href=
+"#page56">56</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;surrender of Riga to, <a href="#page123">123</a>.<br />
+<i>Phaedon</i>, by Mendelssohn, <a href="#page214">214</a>.<br />
+Philippson, Ludwig, rabbi, <a href="#page154">154</a>, <a href=
+"#page158">158</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>.<br />
+Phillips, Phinehas, founder of the Anglo-Jewish family, <a href=
+"#page94">94</a>.<br />
+Pinczows, the, scholars, <a href="#page104">104-105</a>.<br />
+Pinner, Ephraim Moses, Talmudist, <a href="#page145">145</a>.<br />
+Pinsk, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>,
+<a href="#page202">202</a>, <a href="#page242">242</a>.<br />
+Pinsker, Leo, nationalist, <a href="#page263">263</a>, <a href=
+"#page281">281-283</a>.<br />
+Pinsker, Simhah, scholar, <a href="#page108">108-109</a>, <a href=
+"#page164">164</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a>.<br />
+Pirogov, Nikolai Ivanovich, liberal school superintendent, <a href=
+"#page226">226-228</a>.<br />
+Plehve, von, on restrictions, <a href="#page302">302</a>.<br />
+Plungian, Ezekiel Feiyel, Talmudist, <a href="#page119">119</a>,
+<a href="#page203">203</a>.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id=
+"page350"></a>{350}</span> Pobyedonostsev, influences Alexander II,
+<a href="#page250">250-251</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;procurator of the Holy Synod, <a href=
+"#page269">269</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his policy regarding Jews, <a href=
+"#page270">270</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Jewish superiority, <a href=
+"#page273">273</a>.<br />
+Podolia, <a href="#page60">60</a>, <a href="#page64">64</a>,
+<a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href=
+"#page195">195</a>, <a href="#page277">277</a>.<br />
+Pogodin, on early Russian Jews, <a href="#page19">19</a>.<br />
+Pogromy, <a href="#page253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#page269">269-270</a>.<br />
+Poimaniki, <a href="#page136">136-138</a>, <a href=
+"#page152">152</a>, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href=
+"#page184">184</a>.<br />
+Poimshchiki, <a href="#page137">137</a>.<br />
+Polack, Jacob, Talmudist, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href=
+"#page104">104</a>.<br />
+Poland, early settlement of Jews in, <a href=
+"#page20">20</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;political eminence of, <a href=
+"#page22">22-23</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;proselytism in, <a href="#page26">26</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;after Chmielnicki's massacres, <a href=
+"#page53">53-55</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;influence of Calvinism in, <a href=
+"#page56">56-57</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;during the rozbior, <a href="#page58">58</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;after the annexation, <a href="#page113">113</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jewish loyalty to, <a href=
+"#page115">115-116</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;under Nicholas I, <a href="#page158">158-159</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;use of Polish in, <a href="#page196">196</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;sympathy with, and adoption of language of, <a href=
+"#page246">246-247</a>.<br />
+Polonnoy, Jacob Joseph of, follower of Besht, <a href=
+"#page65">65</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his <i>Toledot Ya'akob Yosef</i> burnt in Vilna,
+<a href="#page76">76</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;mentioned, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href=
+"#page132">132</a>.<br />
+Polotsk, <a href="#page55">55</a>, <a href="#page95">95</a>.<br />
+Poltava, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a>,
+<a href="#page300">300</a>.<br />
+Popes, <a href="#page72">72</a>, <a href="#page253">253</a>.<br />
+Posner, Solomon, philanthropist, <a href=
+"#page143">143-144</a>.<br />
+Pototzki, Count Valentine, proselyte, <a href=
+"#page27">27</a>.<br />
+Prayer book. See <a href="#index-common-prayer">Book of Common
+Prayer</a>.<br />
+Prelooker, Jacob, <a href="#page241">241-242</a>, <a href=
+"#page248">248</a>.<br />
+Printing-press, permission to establish, <a href=
+"#page110">110</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;first publications from, <a href=
+"#page124">124</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;restrictions removed from use of, <a href=
+"#page230">230</a>.<br />
+Prochovnik, Abraham, Jewish king of Poland (?), <a href=
+"#page22">22</a>.<br />
+<a name="index-proselytism" id="index-proselytism">Proselytism</a>,
+<a href="#page18">18</a>, <a href="#page20">20</a>, <a href=
+"#page24">24-28</a>.<br />
+Public schools, admission of Jews to, <a href="#page111">111</a>,
+<a href="#page118">118</a>, <a href="#page125">125</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;exclusion of Jews from, <a href=
+"#page273">273-275</a>.<br />
+Pumpyansky, Aaron Elijah, rabbi, <a href="#page203">203</a>,
+<a href="#page246">246</a>.<br />
+Pushkin's prisoner, <a href="#page224">224</a>.</p>
+<p>Querido, Jacob, mystic, <a href="#page64">64</a>.</p>
+<p>Rabbinical seminaries, <a href="#page144">144-145</a>, <a href=
+"#page165">165</a>, <a href="#page170">170</a>, <a href=
+"#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page182">182</a>, <a href=
+"#page196">196</a>, <a href="#page202">202-203</a>.<br />
+Rabbis, position of, in Russo-Poland, <a href=
+"#page44">44-45</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;required to know Russian, German, or Polish, <a href=
+"#page125">125</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opposed by Maskilim, <a href="#page173">173</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Lilienthal on, <a href="#page174">174</a>, <a href=
+"#page181">181</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;G&uuml;nzburg on, <a href="#page216">216-217</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;dukhovny and kazyony, <a href=
+"#page295">295-296</a>.<br />
+Rabinovich, Osip, litterateur, <a href="#page201">201</a>, <a href=
+"#page238">238</a>, <a href="#page243">243</a>.<br />
+Rabinowitz, Joseph, assimilationist, <a href=
+"#page248">248</a>.<br />
+Rachmailovich, Affras, merchant, <a href="#page22">22</a>.<br />
+Radziwill, Prince, <a href="#page24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#page39">39</a>, <a href="#page62">62</a>.<br />
+Rapoport, Solomon L&ouml;b, rabbi, <a href=
+"#page205">205</a>.<br />
+Rasiner, Israel, zaddik, <a href="#page211">211</a>.<br />
+Raskolniki, <a href="#page248">248</a>.<br />
+Rathaus, Abraham, merchant, <a href="#page200">200</a>.<br />
+Razsvyet, <a href="#page238">238</a>, <a href=
+"#page243">243-244</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>.<br />
+Reform Judaism, and the Haskalah, <a href=
+"#page242">242-248</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;sermons in Russian, <a href="#page246">246</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Smolenskin on, <a href="#page264">264-265</a>.<br />
+Reform synagogues, in Odessa, <a href="#page196">196</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;in Warsaw, <a href="#page197">197</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;in Vilna, <a href="#page198">198</a>.<br />
+Reines, Isaac Jacob, rabbi, <a href="#page295">295</a>.<br />
+Reis, Joseph, grandfather of Wessely, <a href=
+"#page77">77</a>.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id=
+"page351"></a>{351}</span> Revolutionaries, <a href=
+"#page192">192</a>, <a href="#page248">248-251</a>, <a href=
+"#page255">255-258</a>.<br />
+Riesser, Gabriel, champion of Jewish emancipation, <a href=
+"#page78">78</a>.<br />
+Riga, <a href="#page123">123</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>,
+<a href="#page170">170</a>, <a href="#page180">180</a>, <a href=
+"#page185">185</a>, <a href="#page195">195</a>, <a href=
+"#page197">197</a>, <a href="#page225">225</a>, <a href=
+"#page246">246</a>, <a href="#page271">271</a>.<br />
+Risenci, Jonathan of, rabbi, <a href="#page104">104</a>.<br />
+Rivkes, Moses, commentator, <a href="#page34">34</a>.<br />
+Romm, Menahem Mann, publisher, <a href=
+"#page148">148-149</a>.<br />
+Rosensohn, Joseph, rabbi, <a href="#page127">127</a>.<br />
+Rosensohn, Moses, reformer, <a href="#page247">247</a>.<br />
+Rosenthal, Leon, financier, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href=
+"#page237">237-238</a>.<br />
+Rothschild, Baron Edmund de, <a href="#page288">288</a>.<br />
+Rurik, Varangian prince, <a href="#page19">19</a>.<br />
+Russia, Haskalah in, contrasted with Haskalah in Galicia and
+Germany, <a href="#page12">12</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;arrival of German Jews in, <a href=
+"#page18">18</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;antiquity of Jews in, <a href="#page19">19</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;privileges of Jews in, <a href="#page21">21</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jewish envoys to, <a href="#page22">22</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;mentioned by medieval scholars, <a href=
+"#page28">28-29</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Sefardim and Ashkenazim resort to, <a href=
+"#page33">33-34</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;scientists in, <a href="#page37">37-39</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;physicians in, <a href="#page39">39-42</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;status of Jews of, before Chmielnicki's uprising,
+<a href="#page42">42-45</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jewish self-government, school system, and mode of
+living in, <a href="#page45">45-52</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;under Ivan the Terrible, <a href=
+"#page55">55-56</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;under Peter the Great, <a href="#page56">56</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;under Elizabeta Petrovna, <a href=
+"#page57">57</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;state of civilization of, <a href="#page60">60</a>,
+<a href="#page107">107</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;favorable conditions in, under Catherine II, Paul I,
+and Alexander I, <a href="#page110">110-128</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jewish patriotism toward, under Alexander I, <a href=
+"#page117">117</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Russification of Jews of, <a href=
+"#page124">124-125</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opposition to Haskalah in, <a href="#page133">133</a>
+f.;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jewish colonization in, <a href=
+"#page140">140-144</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;crusade against the Talmud in, <a href=
+"#page145">145-147</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opinions of prominent Gentiles on Jews of, <a href=
+"#page162">162</a>, <a href="#page224">224-225</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;literature and civilization of, under Nicholas I,
+<a href="#page189">189-190</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;under Alexander II, <a href=
+"#page222">222-226</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jewish contribution to civilization of, <a href=
+"#page201">201-202</a>, <a href="#page255">255</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;sermons in, <a href="#page246">246</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;defenders of Jews in, <a href=
+"#page302">302-303</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Macaulay on civilization of, <a href="#page310">310</a>
+(n. <a href="#footnote2-6">6</a>).</p>
+<p>Sack, Hayyim, financier, <a href="#page200">200</a>.<br />
+Sackheim, Joseph, merchant, <a href="#page200">200</a>.<br />
+<i>Safah Berurah</i>, by Hannover, <a href="#page39">39</a>.<br />
+St. Petersburg, Imperial Hermitage in, <a href=
+"#page19">19</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;scene of martyrdom, <a href="#page57">57</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href=
+"#page104">104</a>, <a href="#page267">267</a>, <a href=
+"#page276">276</a>, <a href="#page286">286</a>, <a href=
+"#page300">300</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jews permitted in, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href=
+"#page117">117</a>, <a href="#page126">126</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;expelled from, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#page153">153</a>, <a href="#page271">271</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;deputation to, <a href="#page129">129</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;rabbinical conferences, <a href="#page151">151</a>,
+<a href="#page173">173</a>, <a href="#page174">174-176</a>,
+<a href="#page230">230</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;converts in, <a href="#page177">177</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;first graduate of University of, <a href=
+"#page200">200</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;restriction of students in, <a href=
+"#page274">274</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Russification in, <a href="#page240">240</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;revolutionaries at, <a href="#page258">258</a>.<br />
+Salanter, Israel, rabbi, <a href="#page241">241</a>.<br />
+Samuel ben Avigdor, rabbi, <a href="#page79">79</a>.<br />
+Samuel ben Mattathias, Talmudist, <a href="#page40">40</a>.<br />
+Sanchez, Antonio Ribeiro, physician, <a href=
+"#page57">57</a>.<br />
+Sanhedrin, the, and French Russian Jews, <a href=
+"#page93">93</a>.<br />
+Satanov, Isaac Halevi, litterateur, <a href="#page99">99</a>,
+<a href="#page217">217</a>.<br />
+Schapira, Moses, publisher, <a href="#page148">148</a>.<br />
+Schapiro, Constantin, poet, <a href="#page98">98</a>.<br />
+Schechter, Solomon, on Hasidism, <a href="#page69">69</a>.<br />
+Schick, Baruch (Shklover), scientist, <a href="#page94">94</a>,
+<a href="#page96">96</a>, <a href="#page105">105-106</a>, <a href=
+"#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page125">125</a>.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id=
+"page352"></a>{352}</span> Schiller, on Maimon, <a href=
+"#page89">89</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page192">192</a>.<br />
+Schools, secular, <a href="#page163">163-165</a>, <a href=
+"#page182">182-185</a>, <a href="#page195">195-196</a>, <a href=
+"#page227">227-228</a>, <a href="#page229">229</a>, <a href=
+"#page235">235</a>, <a href="#page239">239</a>, <a href=
+"#page253">253</a>, <a href="#page273">273-274</a>, <a href=
+"#page276">276-277</a>, <a href="#page290">290-292</a>, <a href=
+"#page297">297</a>.<br />
+<i>Sefer ha-Berit</i>, <a href="#page102">102</a>.<br />
+Seiberling, Joseph, censor of Hebrew books, <a href=
+"#page200">200</a>.<br />
+Shabbata&iuml; Zebi, pseudo-Messiah, <a href="#page64">64</a>,
+<a href="#page69">69</a>.<br />
+Shalkovich, Abraham Lob (Ben Avigdor), <a href=
+"#page296">296</a>.<br />
+Shatzkes' <i>Ha-Mafteah</i>, <a href="#page244">244</a>.<br />
+Shavli, Moses of, writer of polemics, <a href=
+"#page36">36</a>.<br />
+<i>Shibhe ha-Besht</i>, <a href="#page123">123</a>, <a href=
+"#page134">134</a>.<br />
+Shklov, <a href="#page105">105</a>, <a href=
+"#page124">124</a>.<br />
+Shkud, Mikel of, rabbi, <a href="#page61">61</a>.<br />
+Shneersohn, Menahem Mendel, zaddik, <a href="#page175">175</a>,
+<a href="#page176">176</a>.<br />
+Shmoilovich, Abraham, merchant, <a href="#page22">22</a>.<br />
+<i>Shulhan 'Aruk</i>, commentators on, <a href="#page34">34</a>,
+<a href="#page36">36</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;its effect on Jewish life, <a href=
+"#page73">73</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Elijah Vilna on, <a href="#page74">74</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;criticism of, <a href="#page123">123</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;annotations to, <a href="#page127">127</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page215">215</a>.<br />
+Siberia, <a href="#page140">140-143</a>, <a href=
+"#page160">160</a>.<br />
+<i>Sin'at 'Olam le-'Am 'Olam</i>, <a href=
+"#page280">280-281</a>.<br />
+Sixtus V, pope, <a href="#page72">72</a>.<br />
+<i>Skazanye O Florye Rimlyaninye</i>, by Korolenko, <a href=
+"#page302">302</a>.<br />
+Skripitzyn's <i>Information about the Killing of Christians</i>,
+etc., <a href="#page229">229</a>.<br />
+Slonim, Samson of, rabbi, <a href="#page106">106</a>.<br />
+Slonimsky, Hayyim Selig, inventor and editor, <a href=
+"#page199">199</a>, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href=
+"#page201">201-202</a>, <a href="#page203">203</a>.<br />
+Slutsk, <a href="#page76">76</a>, <a href="#page105">105</a>,
+<a href="#page202">202</a>.<br />
+"Slutsker Maggid, the," <a href="#page246">246</a>.<br />
+Smolensk, <a href="#page21">21</a>, <a href=
+"#page162">162</a>.<br />
+Smolenskin, Perez, and Haskalah, <a href="#page13">13</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his descriptions of the heder and yeshibah, <a href=
+"#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page266">266</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his life, <a href="#page261">261-267</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his conception of Haskalah, <a href=
+"#page261">261</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on nationalism, <a href="#page262">262-263</a>,
+<a href="#page284">284</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on reformers, <a href="#page264">264-265</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;attacks Mendelssohn, <a href="#page265">265</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on the prophetic consciousness of the Jewish masses,
+<a href="#page266">266-267</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his popularity, <a href="#page267">267</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;organizes the Kadimah, <a href=
+"#page285">285</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opposes the Alliance Isra&eacute;lite Universelle,
+<a href="#page285">285</a>.<br />
+Sobieski, John, <a href="#page39">39</a>.<br />
+Society for the Promotion of Haskalah among the Russian Jews,
+<a href="#page237">237-239</a>, <a href="#page246">246</a>,
+<a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href="#page291">291-292</a>.<br />
+Sofer, Moses, rabbi, <a href="#page133">133</a>.<br />
+Sofer, Shabbata&iuml;, rabbi, <a href="#page36">36</a>.<br />
+Sokolov, Nahum, publicist, <a href="#page280">280</a>.<br />
+Sosima, monkish proselyte, <a href="#page26">26</a>.<br />
+Spector, Isaac Elhanan, rabbi, <a href="#page288">288</a>.<br />
+Speir, Bima, of Mohilev, opponent of Frank, <a href=
+"#page104">104</a>.<br />
+Spinoza and Maimon compared, <a href="#page86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#page88">88</a>.<br />
+Stern, Abraham Jacob, inventor, <a href="#page201">201</a>.<br />
+Stern, Bezalel (Basilius), pedagogue, <a href="#page164">164</a>,
+<a href="#page165">165</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href=
+"#page176">176</a>.<br />
+Strashun, Mattathias, Talmudist, <a href="#page203">203</a>.<br />
+Surovyetsky, on Russian Jews, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href=
+"#page318">318</a> (n. <a href="#footnote4-1">1</a>).<br />
+Switzerland, <a href="#page257">257</a>, <a href=
+"#page298">298</a>, <a href="#page299">299</a>, <a href=
+"#page300">300</a>.</p>
+<p><i>Talmud, Der, in seiner Nichtigkeit</i>, by Buchner, <a href=
+"#page146">146</a>.<br />
+Talmud, the, the study of, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a href=
+"#page71">71-72</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;burnt in public, <a href="#page70">70</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;customs of, according to Elijah Gaon, <a href=
+"#page74">74</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;attacks on, <a href="#page145">145-147</a>, <a href=
+"#page170">170</a>, <a href="#page242">242-248</a>;<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id=
+"page353"></a>{353}</span> &nbsp;&nbsp;published in Russia,
+<a href="#page147">147-149</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;neglected in Germany, <a href="#page168">168</a>.<br />
+Talmud Torah, the, <a href="#page47">47</a>, <a href=
+"#page184">184</a>.<br />
+Talmudists, ancient Russo-Jewish, <a href=
+"#page28">28-30</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opposed by Hasidism, <a href="#page66">66</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;in Vilna, <a href="#page197">197-198</a>.<br />
+Tarnopol, on Russo-Jewish women, <a href=
+"#page299">299-300</a>.<br />
+Taz, David, rabbi, <a href="#page34">34</a>.<br />
+Temkin's <i>Derek Salulah</i>, <a href="#page146">146</a>.<br />
+<i>Te'udah be-Yisra&euml;l</i>, by Levinsohn, <a href=
+"#page205">205-207</a>, <a href="#page209">209</a>, <a href=
+"#page210">210</a>, <a href="#page212">212</a>.<br />
+<i>Toledot Ya'akob Yosef</i>, by Jacob Joseph Polonnoy, <a href=
+"#page65">65</a>.<br />
+Tolstoi, <a href="#page245">245</a>, <a href="#page250">250</a>,
+<a href="#page302">302</a>.<br />
+Troki, city, <a href="#page22">22</a>.<br />
+Troki, Abraham, author and physician, <a href=
+"#page39">39</a>.<br />
+Troki, Isaac ben Abraham, Karaite scholar, <a href=
+"#page36">36</a>.<br />
+Turgenief, on Russia, <a href="#page224">224</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his Zhid, <a href="#page224">224</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page245">245</a>, <a href=
+"#page250">250</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Alexander II, <a href="#page251">251</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his <i>Virgin Soil</i>, and <i>Fathers and Sons</i>,
+<a href="#page257">257</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his Lithuanian Jewish character, <a href=
+"#page259">259-260</a>.<br />
+Tushiyah Society, <a href="#page296">296-297</a>.</p>
+<p>Ukraine, the, Jewish community in, <a href=
+"#page20">20</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;famous for scholars, <a href="#page35">35-36</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Jewish self-government in, <a href=
+"#page44">44</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;expulsions from, <a href="#page56">56-57</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;state of morality in, <a href="#page64">64</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Hasidism in, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#page122">122</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;first school in, <a href="#page164">164</a>.<br />
+Uman, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page164">164</a>.<br />
+<a name="index-united-states" id="index-united-states">United
+States</a>, the, <a href="#page158">158</a>, <a href=
+"#page220">220</a>, <a href="#page270">270</a>, <a href=
+"#page283">283</a>.<br />
+Uvarov, on persecution, <a href="#page155">155</a>, <a href=
+"#page302">302</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on "re-education," <a href="#page171">171</a>, <a href=
+"#page174">174</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href=
+"#page182">182</a>.</p>
+<p>Vassile Lupu, hospodar of Moldavia, <a href=
+"#page40">40</a>.<br />
+Vassilyevich, Ivan, <a href="#page23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#page26">26</a>.<br />
+Vernacular, the, <a href="#page18">18</a>, <a href=
+"#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page30">30-31</a>, <a href=
+"#page38">38</a>, <a href="#page188">188</a>, <a href=
+"#page194">194</a>, <a href="#page255">255</a>.<br />
+Vilna, scene of martyrdom, <a href="#page27">27</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Talmudists of, <a href="#page34">34</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;kahal of, <a href="#page62">62</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;persecution of Hasidim, <a href="#page76">76</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;the last rabbi of, <a href="#page79">79</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;notables of, <a href="#page91">91</a>, <a href=
+"#page92">92</a>, <a href="#page124">124</a>, <a href=
+"#page150">150</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;first graduates from University of, <a href=
+"#page126">126-127</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;opposition to Haskalah in, <a href=
+"#page133">133</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;first publication of the Talmud in, <a href=
+"#page148">148-149</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;first assembly of Maskilim in, <a href=
+"#page165">165</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;innovations in, <a href="#page166">166</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;reception of Lilienthal in, <a href="#page172">172</a>,
+<a href="#page173">173</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;rabbinical seminary at, <a href="#page175">175</a>,
+<a href="#page186">186</a>, <a href="#page202">202</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;yeshibot of, <a href="#page197">197</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Haskalah in, <a href="#page198">198</a>, <a href=
+"#page200">200</a>, <a href="#page206">206</a>, <a href=
+"#page246">246</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;champions of Jews in, <a href="#page225">225</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page230">230</a>, <a href=
+"#page292">292</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a>.<br />
+<i>Virgin Soil</i>, by Turgenief, <a href="#page257">257</a>.<br />
+Vital, Hayyim, Cabbalist, <a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href=
+"#page134">134</a>.<br />
+Vitebsk, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page202">202</a>,
+<a href="#page292">292</a>.<br />
+Vitebsk, Menahem Mendel of, zaddik, on Haskalah, <a href=
+"#page135">135</a>.<br />
+Vladimir, grand duke, <a href="#page20">20</a>.<br />
+Volhynia, jurisdiction over, <a href="#page44">44</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;massacres in, <a href="#page60">60</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Hasidism in, <a href="#page69">69</a>, <a href=
+"#page81">81</a>, <a href="#page104">104</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;first complete edition of the Talmud published in,
+<a href="#page148">148</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page162">162</a>, <a href=
+"#page195">195</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;blood accusations in, <a href="#page208">208</a>.<br />
+Volozhin, Hayyim, dean, <a href="#page135">135</a>, <a href=
+"#page150">150-151</a>, <a href="#page175">175</a>, <a href=
+"#page176">176</a>.<br />
+Volozhin, Isaac of, dean, <a href="#page151">151</a>.<br />
+Volozhin, yeshibah of, <a href="#page150">150-152</a>, <a href=
+"#page245">245</a>, <a href="#page295">295</a>.<br />
+Vosnitzin, Captain, martyr, <a href="#page27">27</a>, <a href=
+"#page57">57</a>.</p>
+<p>Wahl, Saul, Jewish Polish king (?), <a href=
+"#page22">22</a>.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id=
+"page354"></a>{354}</span> Warsaw, Jewish community in, <a href=
+"#page20">20</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;persecution in, <a href="#page58">58</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;protest at, <a href="#page62">62</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;defended by Jewish soldiers, <a href=
+"#page115">115</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;first Yiddish paper in, <a href=
+"#page124">124</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;rabbinic college of, <a href="#page144">144-145</a>,
+<a href="#page170">170</a>, <a href="#page202">202</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;censor in, <a href="#page148">148</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;condition of, <a href="#page159">159</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;German influence in, <a href="#page196">196</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Maskilim of, <a href="#page202">202</a>, <a href=
+"#page206">206</a>, <a href="#page246">246</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page286">286</a>.<br />
+Way, Lewis, English missionary, <a href="#page129">129-130</a>,
+<a href="#page144">144</a>.<br />
+Weigel, Katharina, proselyte, <a href="#page27">27</a>.<br />
+Wengeroff's <i>Memoirs</i>, <a href="#page163">163</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Russo-Jewish women, <a href=
+"#page300">300</a>.<br />
+Wessely, Naphtali Hartwig, quoted, <a href="#page38">38</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;course of study prescribed by, <a href=
+"#page75">75</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his ancestry, <a href="#page77">77</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his opinion on Russo-Jewish students, <a href=
+"#page80">80</a>, <a href="#page92">92</a>, <a href=
+"#page108">108</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his <i>Mosa&iuml;de</i>, <a href=
+"#page98">98</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his <i>Yen Lebanon</i>, <a href=
+"#page105">105</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;his Epistles and <i>Yen Lebanon</i> banned, <a href=
+"#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href=
+"#page192">192</a>.<br />
+<i>What to Do</i>, by Chernichevsky, <a href=
+"#page257">257</a>.<br />
+White, on Jewish farmers, <a href="#page288">288</a>.<br />
+Wissotzky, Kalonymos, philanthropist, <a href=
+"#page292">292</a>.<br />
+Wohl, censor of Hebrew books, <a href="#page252">252</a>, <a href=
+"#page294">294</a>.<br />
+Wolf, Levy, jurist, <a href="#page126">126</a>.<br />
+Wolff's <i>Metaphysics</i>, <a href="#page84">84-86</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Mathematics</i>, <a href="#page90">90</a>, <a href=
+"#page108">108</a>.<br />
+Wolper, Michael, educator, <a href="#page294">294</a>.<br />
+Women's education, <a href="#page45">45-46</a>, <a href=
+"#page253">253</a>, <a href="#page258">258</a>, <a href=
+"#page259">259</a>, <a href="#page276">276</a>, <a href=
+"#page296">296</a>, <a href="#page299">299-301</a>.<br />
+<i>Words of Peace and Truth</i>, by Wessely, <a href=
+"#page75">75</a>.<br />
+Workingmen, Russo-Jewish, <a href="#page163">163</a>, <a href=
+"#page293">293-294</a>, <a href="#page318">318</a> (n. <a href=
+"#footnote4-2">2</a>).</p>
+<p>Yankele Kovner. See <a href="#index-jacob-barit">Barit,
+Jacob</a>.<br />
+Yaroslav, fair of, <a href="#page49">49</a>.<br />
+Yaroslav, Aaron, friend of Mendelssohn, <a href=
+"#page81">81</a>.<br />
+Yavan, Baruch, diplomat, <a href="#page104">104</a>.<br />
+Yelisavetgrad, <a href="#page247">247</a>, <a href=
+"#page269">269</a>, <a href="#page292">292</a>.<br />
+<i>Yen Lebanon</i>, by Wessely, <a href="#page105">105</a>,
+<a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href=
+"#page192">192</a>.<br />
+Yeralash, <a href="#page201">201</a>.<br />
+Yeshibat 'Ez Hayyim, <a href="#page150">150-152</a>, <a href=
+"#page175">175</a>, <a href="#page184">184</a>, <a href=
+"#page254">254</a>.<br />
+Yeshibot, <a href="#page32">32</a>, <a href="#page46">46-49</a>,
+<a href="#page168">168</a>.<br />
+<i>Yeven Mezulah</i>, by Hannover, <a href=
+"#page48">48-49</a>.<br />
+Yiddish, as spoken by Russian Jews, <a href="#page38">38</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;first used for secular instruction, <a href=
+"#page100">100-101</a>, <a href="#page124">124</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;first weekly in, <a href="#page123">123</a>, <a href=
+"#page196">196</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;studied for missionary purposes, <a href=
+"#page145">145</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;employed by Maskilim, <a href="#page167">167</a>,
+<a href="#page232">232</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;by Zionists, <a href="#page286">286</a>.</p>
+<p>Zabludovsky, Jehiel Michael, Talmudist, <a href=
+"#page199">199</a>.<br />
+Zacharias, monkish proselyte, <a href="#page26">26</a>.<br />
+Zacharias of Kiev, missionary, <a href="#page25">25</a>.<br />
+Zaddikim, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>,
+<a href="#page220">220</a>.<br />
+Zamoscz, city, <a href="#page90">90</a>, <a href=
+"#page202">202</a>.<br />
+Zamoscz, Israel Moses Halevi, instructor of Mendelssohn, <a href=
+"#page77">77</a>, <a href="#page90">90</a>, <a href=
+"#page195">195</a>.<br />
+Zamoscz, Reuben of, quoted, <a href="#page80">80</a>.<br />
+Zamoscz, Solomon of, liturgical poet, <a href=
+"#page35">35</a>.<br />
+Zangwill, on Maimon, <a href="#page88">88</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;referred to, <a href="#page297">297</a>.<br />
+Zaremba, proselyte, <a href="#page27">27</a>.<br />
+Zaslav, fair of, <a href="#page49">49</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;blood accusation in, <a href="#page208">208</a>.<br />
+Zaslaver, Jacob, Massorite, <a href="#page36">36</a>.<br />
+Zbitkover, Samuel, financier, <a href="#page116">116</a>.<br />
+Zederbaum, Alexander, publisher, <a href="#page288">288</a>.<br />
+Zeitlin, Joshua, financier, <a href="#page118">118-119</a>.<br />
+<i>Zeker Rab</i>, <a href="#page124">124</a>.<br />
+Zelmele, Talmudist, <a href="#page119">119-120</a>.<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id=
+"page355"></a>{355}</span> <i>Zerubbabel</i>, by Levinsohn,
+<a href="#page210">210-212</a>, <a href="#page213">213</a>.<br />
+Zhagory, <a href="#page200">200</a>, <a href=
+"#page202">202</a>.<br />
+Zhitomir, rabbinical seminary at, <a href="#page175">175</a>,
+<a href="#page186">186</a>, <a href="#page197">197</a>, <a href=
+"#page202">202</a>, <a href="#page248">248</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;printing-press in, <a href="#page230">230</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;trade school in, <a href="#page235">235</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Evening and Sabbath schools in, <a href=
+"#page239">239</a>.<br />
+Zionism, <a href="#page267">267</a>, <a href=
+"#page284">284-287</a>:<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;difficulties of, <a href="#page287">287-288</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;effect of, <a href="#page289">289-291</a>.<br />
+<i>Zohar</i>, <a href="#page63">63</a>, <a href=
+"#page134">134</a>.<br />
+Zunser, Eliakum, badhan, on Alexander II, <a href=
+"#page231">231</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Orthodoxy, <a href="#page240">240-241</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on the "intelligentia," <a href=
+"#page278">278</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on Zionism, <a href="#page290">290</a>;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;on the awakening, <a href="#page324">324-327</a> (n.
+<a href="#footnote5-27">27</a>).</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h6>The Lord Baltimore Press<br />
+Baltimore, MD., U.S.A.</h6>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HASKALAH MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 15921-h.txt or 15921-h.zip *******</p>
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@@ -0,0 +1,9638 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Haskalah Movement in Russia, by Jacob S.
+Raisin
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Haskalah Movement in Russia
+
+
+Author: Jacob S. Raisin
+
+Release Date: May 27, 2005  [eBook #15921]
+
+Language: En
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HASKALAH MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, David King, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 15921-h.htm or 15921-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/5/9/2/15921/15921-h/15921-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/5/9/2/15921/15921-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+THE HASKALAH MOVEMENT IN RUSSIA
+
+by
+
+JACOB S. RAISIN, PH.D., D.D.
+
+Author of _Sect, Creed and Custom in Judaism_, etc.
+
+Philadelphia
+The Jewish Publication Society of America
+
+1913
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  _And the "Maskilim" shall shine
+  As the brightness of the firmament ...
+  Many shall run to and fro,
+  And knowledge shall be increased_.
+                       --Dan. xii. 3-4
+
+
+
+[Illustration: TOBIAS COHN
+1652-1759
+FROM THE FRONTISPIECE OF HIS MA'ASEH TOBIAH]
+
+
+
+
+TO AARON S. RAISIN
+
+Your name, dear father, will not be found in the following pages, for,
+like "the waters of the Siloam that run softly," you ever preferred to
+pursue your useful course in unassuming silence. Yet, as it is your
+life, devoted entirely to meditating, learning, and teaching, that
+inspired me in my effort, I dedicate this book to you; and I am happy to
+know that I thus not only dedicate it to one of the noblest of Maskilim,
+but at the same time offer you some slight token of the esteem and
+affection felt for you by
+
+Your Son,
+
+JACOB S. RAISIN
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PREFACE                                                       11
+
+CHAPTER I.   THE PRE-HASKALAH PERIOD                          17
+
+CHAPTER II.  THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION                         53
+
+CHAPTER III. THE DAWN OF HASKALAH                            110
+
+CHAPTER IV.  CONFLICTS AND CONQUESTS                         162
+
+CHAPTER V.   RUSSIFICATION, REFORMATION, AND ASSIMILATION    222
+
+CHAPTER VI.  THE AWAKENING                                   268
+
+NOTES                                                        305
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                 331
+
+INDEX                                                        339
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+TOBIAS COHN (1652-1759)                   Frontispiece
+
+ISAAC BAeR LEVINSOHN (1788-1860)        facing page  64
+
+MAX LILIENTHAL (1815-1882)                "    "   120
+
+ALEXANDER ZEDERBAUM (1816-1893)           "    "   175
+
+PEREZ BEN MOSHEH SMOLENSKIN (1842-1885)   "    "   220
+
+MOSES LOeB LILIENBLUM (1843-1910)          "    "   280
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+To the lover of mankind the history of the Russo-Jewish renaissance is
+an encouraging and inspiring phenomenon. Seldom has a people made such
+rapid strides forward as the Russian Jews. From the melancholy
+regularity that marked their existence a little more than two
+generations ago, from the darkness of the Middle Ages in which they were
+steeped until the time of Alexander II, they emerged suddenly into the
+life and light of the West, and some of the most intrepid devotees of
+latter-day culture, both in Europe and in America, have come from among
+them. Destitute of everything that makes for enlightenment, and under
+the dominion of a Government which sought to extinguish the few
+rushlights that scattered the shadows around them, they nevertheless
+snatched victory from defeat, sloughed off medieval superstition, and,
+disregarding the Dejanira shirt of modern disabilities, compelled their
+countrymen to admit more than once that
+
+  Tho' I've belted you and flayed you,
+  By the livin' Gawd that made you,
+  You're a better man than I am!
+
+Similar movements were started in Germany during the latter part of the
+eighteenth century, and in Austria, notably Galicia, at the beginning of
+the nineteenth, but none stirred the mind of the Jews to the same degree
+as the Haskalah movement in Russia during the last fifty years. In the
+former, the removal of restrictions soon rendered attempts toward
+self-emancipation unnecessary on the part of Jews, and the few Maskilim
+among them, satisfied with the present, devoted themselves to
+investigating and elucidating the past of their people's history. In
+Russia the past was all but forgotten on account of the immediate duties
+of the present. The energy and acquisitiveness that made the Jews of
+happier and more prosperous lands prominent in every sphere of practical
+life, were directed toward the realm of thought, and the merciless
+severity with which the Government excluded them from the enjoyment of
+things material only increased their ardor for things spiritual and
+intellectual.
+
+In its wide sense Haskalah denotes enlightenment. Those who strove to
+enlighten their benighted coreligionists or disseminate European culture
+among them, were called Maskilim. A careful perusal of this work will
+reveal the exact ideals these terms embody. For Haskalah was not only
+progressive, it was also aggressive, militant, sometimes destructive.
+From the days of Mordecai Guenzburg to the time of Asher Ginzberg (Ahad
+Ha-'Am), it changed its tendencies and motives more than once.
+Levinsohn, "the father of the Maskilim," was satisfied with removing the
+ban from secular learning; Gordon wished to see his brethren "Jews at
+home and men abroad"; Smolenskin dreamed of the rehabilitation of Jews
+in Palestine; and Ahad Ha-'Am hopes for the spiritual regeneration of
+his beloved people. Others advocated the levelling of all distinctions
+between Jews and Gentiles, or the upliftment of mankind in general and
+Russia in particular. To each of them Haskalah implied different ideals,
+and through each it promulgated diverse doctrines. To trace these
+varying phases from an indistinct glimmering in the eighteenth century
+to the glorious effulgence of the beginning of the twentieth, is the
+main object of this book.
+
+In pursuance of my end, I have paid particular attention to the causes
+that retarded or accelerated Russo-Jewish cultural advance. As these
+causes originate in the social, economic, and political status of the
+Russian Jew, I frequently portray political events as well as the state
+of knowledge, belief, art, and morals of the periods under
+consideration. For this reason also I have marked the boundaries of the
+Haskalah epochs in correspondence to the dates of the reigns of the
+several czars, though the correspondence is not always exact.
+
+Essays have been published, on some of the topics treated in these
+pages, by writers in different languages: in Russian, by Bramson,
+Klausner, and Morgulis; in Hebrew, by Izgur, Katz, and Klausner; in
+German, by Maimon, Lilienthal, Wengeroff, and Weissberg; in English, by
+Lilienthal and Wiener; and in French, by Slouschz. The subject as a
+whole, however, has not been treated. Should this work stimulate further
+research, I shall feel amply rewarded. Without prejudice and without
+partiality, by an honest presentation of facts drawn from what I regard
+as reliable sources, I have tried to unfold the story of the struggle of
+five millions of human beings for right living and rational thinking, in
+the hope of throwing light on the ideals and aspirations and the real
+character of the largely prejudged and misunderstood Russian Jew.
+
+In conclusion, I wish to express my gratitude and indebtedness to those
+who encouraged me to proceed with my work after some specimens of it had
+been published in several Jewish periodicals, especially to Doctor
+Solomon Schechter, Rabbi Max Heller, and Mr. A.S. Freidus, for their
+courtesy and assistance while the work was being written.
+
+JACOB S. RAISIN.
+
+E. Las Vegas, N. Mex.,
+
+Thanksgiving Day, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE PRE-HASKALAH PERIOD
+
+?-1648
+
+
+"There is but one key to the present," says Max Mueller, "and that is the
+past." To understand fully the growth and historical development of a
+people's mind, one must be familiar with the conditions that have shaped
+its present form. It would seem necessary, therefore, to introduce a
+description of the Haskalah movement with a rapid survey of the history
+of the Russo-Polish Jews from the time of their emergence from obscurity
+up to the middle of the seventeenth century.
+
+Among those who laid the foundations for the study of this almost
+unexplored department of Jewish history, the settlement of Jews in
+Russia and their vicissitudes during the dark ages, the most prominent
+are perhaps Isaac Baer Levinsohn, Abraham Harkavy, and Simon Dubnow.
+There is much to be said of each of these as writers, scholars, and men.
+Here they concern us as Russo-Jewish historians. What Linnaeus, Agassiz,
+and Cuvier did in the field of natural philosophy, they accomplished in
+their chosen province of Jewish history.[1] Levinsohn was the first to
+express the opinion that the Russian Jews hailed, not from Germany, as
+is commonly supposed, but from the banks of the Volga. This hypothesis,
+corroborated by tradition, Harkavy established as a fact. Originally the
+vernacular of the Jews of Volhynia, Podolia, and Kiev was Russian and
+Polish, or, rather, the two being closely allied, Palaeo-Slavonic. The
+havoc wrought by the Crusades in the Jewish communities of Western
+Europe caused a constant stream of German-Jewish immigrants to pour,
+since 1090, into the comparatively free countries of the Slavonians.
+Russo-Poland became the America of the Old World. The Jewish settlers
+from abroad soon outnumbered the native Jews, and they spread a new
+language and new customs wherever they established themselves.[2]
+
+Whether the Jews of Russia were originally pagans from the shores of the
+Black and Caspian Seas, converted to Judaism under the Khazars during
+the eighth century, or Palestinian exiles subjugated by their Slavonian
+conquerors and assimilated with them, it is indisputable that they
+inhabited what we know to-day as Russia long before the Varangian prince
+Rurik came, at the invitation of Scythian and Sarmatian savages, to lay
+the foundation of the Muscovite empire. In Feodosia there is a synagogue
+at least a thousand years old. The Greek inscription on a marble slab,
+dating back to 80-81 B.C.E., preserved in the Imperial Hermitage in St.
+Petersburg, makes it certain that they flourished in the Crimea before
+the destruction of the Temple. In a communication to the Russian
+Geographical Society, M. Pogodin makes the statement, that there still
+exist a synagogue and a cemetery in the Crimea that belong to the
+pre-Christian era. Some of the tombstones, bearing Jewish names, and
+decorated with the seven-branched Menorah, date back to 157 B.C.E.;
+while Chufut-Kale, also known as the Rock of the Jews (Sela'
+ha-Yehudim), from the fortress supposed to have been built there by the
+Jews, would prove Jewish settlements to have been made there during the
+Babylonian or Persian captivity.[3]
+
+Though the same antiquity cannot be established for other Jewish
+settlements, we know that Kiev, "the mother of Russian cities," had many
+Jews long before the eighth century, who thus antedated the Russians as
+citizens. According to Joseph Hakohen they came there from Persia in
+690, according to Malishevsky in 776. It is certain that their influence
+was felt as early as the latter part of the tenth century. The Russian
+Chronicles ascribed to Nestor relate that they endeavored, in 986, to
+induce Grand Duke Vladimir to accept their religion. They did not
+succeed as they had succeeded two centuries before with the khan of the
+Khazars.[4] Yet the grand duke, who had the greatest influence in
+introducing and spreading Greek Catholicism, and who is now worshipped
+as a saint, was always favorably disposed toward them.
+
+There were other places that were inhabited early by Jews. There are
+traditions to the effect that Jews lived in Poland as early as the ninth
+century, and under the Boreslavs (992-1278) they are said to have
+enjoyed considerable privileges, carried on a lively trade, and spread
+as far as Kiev. Chernigov in Little Russia (the Ukraine), Baku in South
+Russia (Transcaucasia), Kalisz and Warsaw, Brest and Grodno, in West
+Russia (Russian Poland), all possess Jewish communities of considerable
+antiquity. In the townlet Eishishki, near Vilna, a tombstone set in 1171
+was still in existence at the end of the last century, and Khelm,
+Government Kovno, has a synagogue to which tradition ascribes an age of
+eight hundred years.[5]
+
+The Jewish population in all these communities was prosperous and
+respected. Jews were in favor with the Government, enjoyed equal rights
+with their Gentile neighbors, and were especially prominent as traders
+and farmers of taxes. Their monoxyla, or one-oared canoes, loaded with
+silks, furs, and precious metals, issued from the Borysthanes, traversed
+the Baltic and the Euxine, the Oder and the Bosphorus, the Danube and
+the Black Sea, and carried on the commerce between the Turks and the
+Slavonians. They were granted the honorable and lucrative privilege of
+directing and controlling the mints, and that of putting Hebrew as well
+as Slavonic inscriptions on their coins.[6] In the Lithuanian Magna
+Charta, granted by Vitold in 1388, the Jews of Brest were given many
+rights, and about a year later those of Grodno were permitted to engage
+in all pursuits and occupations, and exempted from paying taxes on
+synagogues and cemeteries. They possessed full jurisdiction in their own
+affairs. Some were raised to the nobility, notably the Josephovich
+brothers, Abraham and Michael. Under King Alexander Jagellon, Abraham
+was assessor of Kovno, alderman of Smolensk, and prefect of Minsk; he
+was called "sir" (jastrzhembets), was presented with the estates of
+Voidung, Grinkov, and Troki (1509), and appointed Secretary of the
+Treasury in Lithuania (1510). The other brother, Michael, was made
+"fiscal agent to the king." In the eighteenth century, Andrey
+Abramovich, of the same family but not of the Jewish faith, was senator
+and castellan of Brest-Litovsk.[7] They were not unique exceptions.
+Abraham Shmoilovich of Turisk is spoken of as "honorable sir" in leases
+of large estates. Affras Rachmailovich and Judah Bogdanovich figure
+among the merchant princes of Livonia and Lithuania; and Francisco Molo,
+who settled later in Amsterdam, was financial agent of John III of
+Poland in 1679. The influence of the last-named was so great with the
+Dutch States-General that the Treaty of Ryswick was concluded with Louis
+XIV, in 1697, through his mediation.[8]
+
+That Russo-Poland should have elected a Jewish king on two occasions, a
+certain Abraham Prochovnik in 842 and the famous Saul Wahl[9] in the
+sixteenth century, sounds legendary; but that there was a Jewish queen,
+called Esterka, is probable, and that some Jews attained to political
+eminence is beyond reasonable doubt.[10] Records have been discovered
+concerning two envoys, Saul and Joseph, who served the Slavonic czar
+about 960, and an interesting story is told of two Jewish soldiers,
+Ephraim Moisievich and Anbal the Jassin, who won the confidence of
+Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky of Kiev, and afterwards became leaders in a
+conspiracy against him (1174).[11] Henry, Duke of Anjou, the successor
+of Sigismud August on the throne of Poland and Lithuania, owed his
+election mainly to the efforts of Solomon Ashkenazi. Ivan Vassilyevich,
+too, had many and important relations with Jews, and his favorable
+attitude towards them is amply proved by the fact that his family
+physician was the Jew Leo (1490). Throughout his reign he maintained an
+uninterrupted friendship with Chozi Kokos, a Jew of the Crimea, and he
+did not hesitate to offer hospitality and protection to Zacharias de
+Guizolfi, though the latter was not in a position to reciprocate such
+favors.[12]
+
+In addition there are less prominent individuals who received honors at
+the hands of their non-Jewish countrymen. Meir Ashkenazi of Kaffa, in
+the Crimea, who was slain by pirates on a trip from "Gava to Dakhel,"
+was envoy of the khan of the Tatars to the king of Poland in the
+sixteenth century. Mention is made of "Jewish Cossacks," who
+distinguished themselves on the field of battle, and were elevated to
+the rank of major and colonel.[13] While the common opinion regarding
+Jews expressed itself in merry England in such ballads as "The Jewish
+Dochter," and "Gernutus, the Jew of Venice," many a Little Russian song
+had the bravery of a Jewish soldier as its burden. In everything save
+religion the Jews were hardly distinguishable from their neighbors.
+
+    There are--writes Cardinal Commendoni, an eye-witness--a great
+    many Jews in these provinces, including Lithuania, who are not,
+    as in other places, regarded with disrespect. They do not
+    maintain themselves miserably by base profits; they are landed
+    proprietors, are engaged in business, and even devote themselves
+    to the study of literature and, above all, to medicine and
+    astronomy; they hold almost everywhere the commission of levying
+    customs duties, are classed among the most honest people, wear
+    no outward mark to distinguish them from the Christians, and are
+    permitted to carry swords and walk about with their arms. In a
+    word they have equal rights with the other citizens.
+
+A similar statement is made by Joseph Delmedigo, who spent many years in
+Livonia and Lithuania as physician to Prince Radziwill.[14]
+
+In his inimitable manner Gibbon describes the fierce struggle the Greek
+Catholic Church had to wage before she obtained a foothold in Russia,
+but he neglects to mention the fact that Judaism no less than paganism
+was among her formidable opponents. The contest lasted several
+centuries, and in many places it is undecided to this day.[15] The
+Khazars, who had become proselytes in the eighth century, were
+constantly encroaching upon Russian Christianity. Buoyant as both were
+with the vigor of youth, missionary zeal was at its height among the two
+contending religions. Each made war upon the other. We read that Photius
+of Constantinople sent a message of thanks to Archbishop Anthony of
+Kertch (858-859) for his efforts to convert the Jews; that the first
+Bishop of the Established Church (1035) was "Lukas, the little Jew"
+(Luka Zhidyata), who was appointed to his office by Yaroslav; and that
+St. Feodosi Pechersky was fond of conversing with learned Jews on
+matters of theology.[16] On the other hand, the efforts of the Jews were
+not without success. The baptism of the pious Olga marks an era in
+Russian Christianity, the beginning of the "Judaizing heresy," which
+centuries of persecution only strengthened. In 1425, Zacharias of Kiev,
+who is reputed to have "studied astrology, necromancy, and various other
+magic arts," converted the priest Dionis, the Archbishop Aleksey, and,
+through the latter, many more clergymen of Novgorod, Moscow, and Pskov.
+Aleksey became a devout Jew. He called himself Abraham and his wife
+Sarah. Yet, strange to say, he retained the favor of the Grand Duke Ivan
+Vassilyevich, even after the latter's daughter-in-law, Princess Helena,
+his secretary Theodore Kuritzin, the Archimandrite Sosima, the monk
+Zacharias, and other persons of note had entered the fold of Judaism
+through his influence.
+
+The "heresy" spread over many parts of the empire, and the number of its
+adherents constantly grew. Archbishop Nikk complains that in the very
+monastery of Moscow there were presumably converted Jews, "who had again
+begun to practice their old Jewish religion and demoralize the young
+monks." In Poland, too, proselytism was of frequent occurrence,
+especially in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The religious
+tolerance of Casimir IV (1434-1502) and his immediate successors, and
+the new doctrines preached by Huss and Luther, which permeated the upper
+classes of society, rendered the Poles more liberal on the one hand, and
+on the other the Jews more assertive. We hear of a certain nobleman,
+George Morschtyn, who married a Jewess, Magdalen, and had his daughter
+raised in the religion of her mother. In fact, at a time when Jews in
+Spain assumed the mask of Christianity to escape persecution, Russian
+and Polish Christians by birth could choose, with little fear of danger,
+to lead the Jewish life. It was not till about the eighteenth century
+that the Government began to resort to the usual methods of eradicating
+heresy. Katharina Weigel, a lady famous for her beauty, who embraced
+Judaism, was decapitated in Cracow at the instigation of Bishop Peter
+Gamrat. On the deposition of his wife, Captain Vosnitzin of the Polish
+navy was put to death by auto-da-fe (July 15, 1738). The eminent "Ger
+Zedek," Count Valentine Pototzki, less fortunate than his comrade and
+fellow-convert Zaremba, was burnt at the stake in Vilna (May 24, 1749),
+and his teacher in the Jewish doctrines, Menahem Mann, was tortured and
+executed a few months later, at the age of seventy. But these measures
+proved of little avail. According to Martin Bielski, the noted
+historian, Jews saved their proselytes from the impending doom by
+transporting them to Turkey. Many of them sought refuge in Amsterdam.
+For those who remained behind their new coreligionists provided through
+collections made for that purpose in Russia and in Germany. To this day
+these Russian and Polish proselytes adhere steadfastly to their faith,
+and whether they migrate to America or Palestine to escape the
+persecution of their countrymen, they seldom, if ever, indulge in the
+latitudinarianism into which many of longer Jewish lineage fall so
+readily when removed from old moorings.[17]
+
+That the Russian Jews of the day were not altogether unenlightened, that
+they not only practiced the Law devoutly, but also studied it
+diligently, and cultivated the learning of the time as well, we may
+safely infer from researches recently made. Cyril, or Constantine, "the
+philosopher," the apostle to the Slavonians, acquired a knowledge of
+Hebrew while at Kherson, and was probably aided by Jews in his
+translation of the Bible into Slavonic. Manuscripts of Russo-Jewish
+commentaries to the Scriptures, written as early as 1094 and 1124, are
+still preserved in the Vatican and Bodleian libraries, and copyists were
+doing fairly good work at Azov in 1274.
+
+Jewish scholars frequented celebrated seats of learning in foreign
+lands. Before the end of the twelfth century traces of them are to be
+found in France, Italy, and Spain. That in the eleventh century Judah
+Halevi of Toledo and Nathan of Rome should have been familiar with
+Russian words cannot but be attributed to their contact with Russian
+Jews. However, in the case of these two scholars, it may possibly be
+ascribed to their great erudition or extensive travels. But the many
+Slavonic expressions occurring in the commentaries of Rashi (1040-1105),
+and employed by Joseph Caro (ab. 1140), Benjamin of Tudela (ab. 1160),
+and Isaac of Vienna (ab. 1250), lend color to Harkavy's contention, that
+Russian was once the vernacular of the Russian Jews, and they also argue
+in favor of our contention, that these natives of the "land of
+Canaan"--as the country of the Slavs was then called in Hebrew--came
+into personal touch with the "lights and leaders" of other Jewish
+communities. Indeed, Rabbi Moses of Kiev is mentioned as one of the
+pupils of Jacob Tam, the Tosafist of France (d. 1170), and Asheri, or
+Rosh, of Spain is reported to have had among his pupils Rabbi Asher and
+Master (Bahur) Jonathan from Russia. From these peripatetic scholars
+perhaps came the martyrs of 1270, referred to in the _Memorbuch_ of
+Mayence. It was Rabbi Moses who, while still in Russia, corresponded
+with Samuel ben Ali, head of the Babylonian Academy, and called the
+attention of Western scholars to certain Gaonic decisions. Another
+rabbi, Isaac, or Itshke, of Chernigov, was probably the first Talmudist
+in England, and his decisions were regarded as authoritative on certain
+occasions. These and others like them wrote super-commentaries on the
+commentaries of Rashi and Ibn Ezra, the most popular and profound
+scholars medieval Jewry produced, and made copies of the works of other
+authors.[18]
+
+Soon the Russo-Polish Jews established at home what they had been
+compelled to seek abroad. Hearing of the advantages offered in the great
+North-East, German Jews flocked thither in such numbers as to dominate
+and absorb the original Russians and Poles. A new element asserted
+itself. Names like Ashkenazi, Heilperin, Hurwitz, Landau, Luria,
+Margolis, Schapiro, Weil, Zarfati, etc., variously spelled, took the
+place, through intermarriage and by adoption, of the ancient Slavonic
+nomenclature. The language, manners, modes of thought, and, to a certain
+extent, even the physiognomy of the earlier settlers, underwent a more
+or less radical change. In some provinces the conflict lasted longer
+than in others. To this day not a few Russian Jews would seem to be of
+Slavonic rather than Semitic extraction. As late as the sixteenth
+century there was still a demand in certain places for a Russian
+translation of the Hebrew Book of Common Prayer, and in 1635 Rabbi Meir
+Ashkenazi, who came from Frankfort-on-the-Main to study in Lublin, and
+was retained as rabbi in Mohilev-on-the-Dnieper, had cause to exclaim,
+"Would to God that our coreligionists all spoke the same
+language--German."[19] Even Maimon, in the latter half of the eighteenth
+century, mentions one, by no means an exception, who did not "understand
+the Jewish language, and made use, therefore, of the Russian."[20] But
+by the middle of the seventeenth century the amalgamation was almost
+complete. It resulted in a product entirely new. As the invasion of
+England by the Normans produced the Anglo-Saxon, so the inundation of
+Russia by the Germans produced the Slav-Teuton. This is the clue to the
+study of the Haskalah, as will appear from what follows.
+
+Russo-Poland gradually became the cynosure of the Talmudic world, the
+"Aksanye shel Torah," the asylum of the Law, whence "enlargement and
+deliverance" arose for the traditions which the Jews carried with them,
+through fire and water, during the dreary centuries of their dispersion.
+It became to Jews what Athens was to ancient Greece, Rome to medieval
+Christendom, New England to our early colonies. With the invention and
+importation of the printing-press, the publication and acquisition of
+the Bible, the Talmud, and most of the important rabbinic works were
+facilitated. As a consequence, yeshibot, or colleges, for the study of
+Jewish literature, were founded in almost every community. Their fame
+reached distant lands. It became a popular saying that "from Kiev shall
+go forth the Law, and the word of God from Starodub." Horodno, the
+vulgar pronunciation of Grodno, was construed to mean Har Adonai, "the
+Mount of the Lord." A pious rabbi did not hesitate to write to a
+colleague, "Be it known to the high honor of your glory that it is
+preferable by far to dwell in the land of the Russ and promote the study
+of the Torah in Israel than in the land of Israel."[21] Especially the
+part of Poland ultimately swallowed up by Russia was the new Palestine
+of the Diaspora. Thither flocked all desirous of becoming adepts in the
+dialectics of the rabbis, "of learning how to swim in the sea of the
+Talmud." It was there that the voluminous works of Hebrew literature
+were studied, literally "by day and by night," and the subtleties of the
+Talmudists were developed to a degree unprecedented in Jewish history.
+Thither was sent, from the distant Netherlands, the youngest son of
+Manasseh ben Israel, and he "became mighty in the Talmud and master of
+four languages." Thither came, from Prague, the afterwards famous
+Cabbalist, author, and rabbi, Isaiah Horowitz (ab. 1555-1630), and there
+he chose to remain the rest of his days. Thither also went, from
+Frankfort, the above-mentioned Meir Ashkenazi, who, according to some,
+was the first author of note in White Russia.
+
+From everywhere they came "to pour water on the hands and sit at the
+feet" of the great ones of the second Palestine.[22]
+
+For Jewish solidarity was more than a word in those days. "Sefardim" had
+not yet learned to boast of aristocratic lineage, nor "Ashkenazim" to
+look down contemptuously upon their Slavonic coreligionists. It was
+before the removal of civil disabilities from one portion of the Jewish
+people had sowed the seed of arrogance toward the other less favored
+portion. Honor was accorded to whom it was due, regardless of the
+locality in which he happened to have been born. Glueckel von Hameln
+states in her _Memoirs_ that preference was sometimes given to the
+decisions of the "great ones of Poland," and mentions with pride that
+her brother Shmuel married the daughter of the great Reb Shulem of
+Lemberg.[23] With open arms, Amsterdam, Frankfort, Fuerth, Konigsberg,
+Metz, Prague, and other communities renowned for wealth and learning,
+welcomed the acute Talmudists of Brest, Grodno, Kovno, Lublin, Minsk,
+and Vilna, whenever they were willing or compelled to consider a call.
+The practice of summoning Russo-Polish rabbis to German posts was
+carried so far that it aroused the displeasure of the Western scholars,
+and they complained of being slighted.[24]
+
+The reverence for Slavonic learning was strikingly illustrated during
+the years following the Cossack massacres, when many Russo-Polish rabbis
+fled for safety to foreign lands. Frankfort, Fuerth, Prague, and Vienna
+successively elected the fugitive Shabbatai Horowitz of Ostrog as their
+religious guide. David Taz of Vladimir became rabbi of Steinitz in
+Moravia; Ephraim Hakohen was called to Trebitsch in Moravia and to Ofen
+in Hungary; David of Lyda, to Mayence and Amsterdam, and Naphtali Kohen,
+to Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1704, and later to Breslau. No less
+personages than Isaac Aboab and Saul Morteira welcomed the
+merchant-Talmudist Moses Rivkes of Vilna when he sought refuge in
+Amsterdam, and they entrusted to him the task of editing the _Shulhan
+'Aruk_, his marginal notes to which, the _Beer ha-Golah_, have ever
+since been printed with the text. In addition to rabbis, Lithuania and
+other provinces furnished teachers for the young, melammedim, who
+exerted considerable influence upon the people among whom they lived.
+Their opinions, we are told, were highly valued in the choice of
+rabbis.[25]
+
+It must not be supposed that supremacy in the Talmud was secured at the
+cost of secular knowledge, or what was then regarded as such. Their
+familiarity with other branches of study was not inferior to that of the
+Jews in better-known lands. Not a few of the prominent men united piety
+with philosophy, and thorough knowledge of the Talmud with mastery of
+one or more of the sciences of the time. Data on this phase of the
+subject might have been much more abundant, had not the storm of
+persecution suddenly swept over the communities, destroying them and
+their records. What we still possess indicates what may have been lost.
+The Ukraine was famous for its scholars. Among them was Jehiel Michael
+of Nemirov, reputed to have been "versed in all the sciences of the
+world."[26] Several of them were poets and grammarians. Poems of a
+liturgical character are still extant in which they bemoan their plight
+or assert their faith hopefully. Such were the poems of Ephraim of
+Khelm, Joseph of Kobrin, Solomon of Zamoscz, and Shabbatai Kohen. The
+last, eminent as a Talmudist, the author of commentaries on the _Shulhan
+'Aruk_ approved by the leading rabbis of his generation, is also known
+as a very trustworthy historian. His _Megillah 'Afah_, written in
+classic Hebrew, is a valuable source of information on the critical
+period in which he lived. He won the esteem of the Polish nobility by
+his secular attainments. To judge from his correspondence, he must have
+been on intimate terms with Vidrich of Leipsic.[27] Of the grammarians,
+Jacob Zaslaver wrote on the Massorah, and Shabbatai Sofer was the author
+of annotations and treatises.[28] Our taste in poetry and grammar is no
+longer the same, but the polemic and apologetic writings of those days,
+called forth by the discussions between Rabbanites and Karaites and by
+the constant attacks of Christianity, are still of uncommon interest.
+Specimens of the former kind are the polemics of Moses of Shavli, which
+caused consternation in the camp of the Karaites. Of the apologetic
+writings should be mentioned the reply, in Polish, of Jacob Nahman of
+Belzyc to Martin Chekhovic (Lublin, 1581), and the _Hizzuk Emunah_ of
+the Karaite Isaac ben Abraham of Troki. In the latter the weakness of
+Christianity and the strength of Judaism are pointed out with trenchancy
+never before reached. The work stirred up heated discussions among the
+various Christian sects, with the tenets of which the author was
+intimately acquainted. It was translated into Latin (1681, 1705),
+Yiddish (1717), English (1851), and German (1865, 1873). Voltaire says
+that all the arguments used by free-thinkers against Christianity were
+drawn from it.[29]
+
+In philosophy, mathematics, and medicine, the three main branches of
+medieval knowledge, many Slavonian Jews attained eminence. Devout
+Karaites as well as diligent Talmudists found secular learning a
+diversion and a delight. For the lovers of enlightenment Italy,
+especially Padua, was the centre of attraction, as France and Spain had
+been before, and Germany, particularly Berlin, became afterwards.[30]
+Towards the middle of the sixteenth century we find young Delacrut at
+the University of Bologna, the philosopher and Cabbalist, known for his
+commentaries to Gikatilla's _Sha'are Orah_ (Cracow, 1600) and Ben
+Avigdor's _Mar'eh ha-Ofanim_ (1720), and his translation of Gossuin's
+_L'image du monde_ (Amsterdam, 1733). His famous disciple Mordecai Jaffe
+(Lebushim) spent ten years in the study of astronomy and mathematics
+before he occupied the rabbinate of Grodno (1572)[31] At the request of
+Yom-Tob Lipman Heller, Joseph ben Isaac Levi wrote a commentary on
+Maimuni's _Moreh Nebukim_, which was published with the former's
+annotations, _Gibe'at ha-Moreh_ (Prague, 1611). Deservedly or not,
+Eliezer Mann was called "the Hebrew Socrates"; and many a Maskil in his
+study of mathematics turned for guidance to Manoah Handel of
+Brzeszticzka, Volhynia, author and translator of several scientific
+works, who rendered seven Euclidean propositions into Hebrew.[32]
+
+Polyglots they were compelled to be by force of circumstances. When the
+exotic Judeo-German finally asserted itself as the vernacular, the
+language in which they wrote and prayed was still the ancient Hebrew,
+with which every one was familiar, and commercial intercourse with their
+Gentile neighbors was hardly feasible without at least a smattering of
+the local Slavonic dialect. "Look at our brethren in Poland," exclaims
+Wessely many years later in his address to his countrymen. "They
+converse with their neighbors in good Polish.... What excuse have we for
+our brogue and jargon?" He might have had still better cause for
+complaint, had he been aware that the Yiddish of the Russo-Polish Jews,
+despite its considerable Slavonic admixture, was purer German than that
+of his contemporaries in Germany, even as the English of our New England
+colonies was superior to the Grub Street style prevalent in Dr.
+Johnson's England, and the Spanish of our Mexican annexations to the
+Castilian spoken at the time of Coronado. But we are here concerned with
+their knowledge of foreign languages. We shall refer only to the
+Hebrew-German-Italian-Latin-French dictionary _Safah Berurah_ (Prague,
+1660; Amsterdam, 1701) by the eminent Talmudist Nathan Hannover.[33]
+
+In medicine Jews were pre-eminent in the Slavonic countries, as they
+were everywhere else. They were in great demand as court physicians,
+though several had to pay with their lives "for having failed to effect
+cures." Doctor Leo, who was at the court of Moscow in 1490, was
+mentioned above. Jacob Isaac, the "nobleman of Jerusalem" (Yerosalimska
+shlyakhta), was attached to the court of Sigismund, where he was held in
+high esteem. Prince Radziwill's physician was Itshe Nisanovich, and
+among those in attendance on John Sobieski were Jonas Casal and Abraham
+Troki, the latter the author of several works on medicine and natural
+philosophy.[34]
+
+Medieval Jewish physicians were prone to travel, and those of
+Russo-Poland were no exception. We find them in almost every part of the
+civilized world, and their number increases with the disappearance of
+prejudice. Some were noted Talmudists, such as Solomon Luria and Samuel
+ben Mattathias. Abraham Ashkenazi Apotheker was not only a compounder of
+herbs but a healer of souls, for the edification of which he wrote his
+_Elixir of Life_ (_Sam Hayyim_, Prague, 1590). To the same class belong
+Moses Katzenellenbogen and his son Hayyim, who was styled Gaon. In 1657
+Hayyim visited Italy. He was welcomed by the prominent Jews of Mantua,
+Modena, Venice, and Verona, but he preferred to continue the practice of
+his profession in his home town Lublin.[35] Nor may we omit the names of
+Stephen von Gaden and Moses Coen, because of their high standing among
+their colleagues and the honors conferred upon them for their
+statesmanship. Stephen von Gaden, who with Samuel Collins was
+physician-in-ordinary to Czar Aleksey Mikhailovich, was instrumental in
+removing many disabilities from the Jews of Moscow and in the interior
+of Russia. Moses Coen, in consequence of the Cossack uprising, escaped
+to Moldavia, and was made court physician by the hospodar Vassile Lupu.
+But for Coen, Lupu would have been dethroned by those who conspired
+against him. To his loyalty may probably be attributed the kind
+treatment Moldavian Jews later enjoyed at the hands of the prince. Coen
+also exposed the secret alliance between Russia and Sweden against
+Turkey, and his advice was sought by the doge of Venice.[36]
+
+The personage who typifies best the enlightened Slavonic Jew of the
+pre-Haskalah period is Tobias Cohn (1652-1729). He was the son and
+grandson of physicians, who practiced at Kamenetz-Podolsk and Byelsk,
+and after 1648 went to Metz. After their father's death, he and his
+older brother returned to Poland, whence Tobias, in turn, emigrated
+first to Italy and then to Turkey. In Adrianople he was
+physician-in-ordinary to five successive sultans. In the history of
+medicine he is remembered as the discoverer of the _plica polonica_, and
+as the publisher of a Materia Medica in three languages. To the student
+of Haskalah he is interesting, because he marks the close of the old and
+the beginning of the new era. Like the Maskilim of a century or two
+centuries later, he compiled and edited an encyclopedia in Hebrew, that
+"knowledge be increased among his coreligionists." His acquaintance with
+learned works in several ancient and modern languages of which he was
+master, enabled him to write his magnum opus, _Ma'aseh Tobiah_, with
+tolerable ease. This work is divided into eight parts, devoted
+respectively to theology, astronomy, pharmacy, hygiene, venereal
+diseases, botany, cosmography, and chemistry. It is illustrated with
+several plates, among them the picture of an astrolabe and one of the
+human body treated as a house. From the numerous editions through which
+it passed (Venice, 1707, 1715, 1728, 1769), we may conclude that it met
+with marked success.[37]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To understand the _raison d'Etre_ of the Haskalah movement, it may not
+be superfluous to cast a glance at the inner social and religious life
+of the Slavonic Jews during pre-Haskalah times. The labors of the farmer
+are crowned with success only when nature lends him a helping hand. His
+soil must be fertile, and blessed with frequent showers. Nor would the
+Maskilim have accomplished their aim, had the material they found at
+hand been different from what it was.
+
+The Jews in the land of the Slavonians were fortunate in being regarded
+as aliens in a country which, as we have seen, they inhabited long
+before those who claimed to be its possessors by divine right of
+conquest. If their position was precarious, their sufferings were those
+of a conquered nation. As the whim and fancy of the reigning prince,
+knyaz, varied, they were induced one day to settle in the country by the
+offer of the most flattering privileges, and the next day they were
+expelled, only to be requested to return again. Now their synagogues and
+cemeteries were exempt from taxation, now an additional poll-tax or
+land-tax was levied on every Jew (serebshizna); one day they were
+allowed to live unhampered by restrictions, then they were prohibited to
+wear certain garments and ornaments, and commanded to use yellow caps
+and kerchiefs to distinguish them from the Gentiles (1566).
+
+But all this was the consequence of political subjugation. Judged by the
+standard of the times, they were veritable freemen, freer than the
+Huguenots of France and the Puritans of England. They were left
+unmolested in the administration of their internal affairs, and were
+permitted to appoint their own judges, enforce their own laws, and
+support their own institutions. Forming a state within a state, they
+developed a civilization contrasting strongly with that round about
+them, and comparing favorably with some of the features of ours of
+to-day. Slavonic Jewry was divided into four districts, consisting of
+the more important communities (kahals), to which a number of smaller
+ones (prikahalki) were subservient. These, known as the Jewish
+Assemblies (zbori zhidovskiye), met at stated intervals. As in our
+federal Government, the administrative, executive, and legislative
+departments were kept distinct, and those who presided over them
+(roshim) were elected annually by ballot. These roshim, or elders,
+served by turns for periods of one month each. The rabbi of each
+community was the chief judge, and was assisted by several inferior
+judges (dayyanim). For matters of importance there were courts of appeal
+established in Ostrog and Lemberg, the former having jurisdiction over
+Volhynia and the Ukraine, the latter over the rest of Jewish
+Russo-Poland. For inter-kahal litigation, there was a supreme court, the
+Wa'ad Arba' ha-Arazot (the Synod of the Four Countries), which held its
+sessions during the Lublin fair in winter and the Yaroslav fair in
+summer. In cases affecting Jews and Gentiles, a decision was given by
+the _judex Judaeorum_, who held his office by official appointment of
+the grand duke.
+
+So far their system of self-government appears almost a prototype of our
+own. The same is true of their municipal administration. The rabbi, who
+had the deciding vote in case of a dead-lock, stood in the same relation
+to them as the mayor holds to us, only that his term of office,
+nominally limited to three years, was actually for life or during good
+behavior. Yet the power vested in him was only delegated power. A number
+of selectmen, or aldermen, guarded the rights of the community with the
+utmost jealousy, and tolerated no innovation, unless previously
+sanctioned by them. There were also several honorary offices, with a
+one-year tenure, which none could fill who had not had experience in an
+inferior position. The chief duties attached to these offices were to
+appraise the amount of taxation, pay the salaries of the rabbi, his
+dayyanim, and the teachers of the public schools, provide for the poor,
+and, above all, intercede with the Government.[38]
+
+Still more interesting and, for our purpose, more important were their
+public and private institutions of learning. Jews have always been noted
+for the solicitous care they exercise in the education of the young. The
+Slavonic Jews surpassed their brethren of other countries in this
+respect. At times they wrenched the tender bond of parental love in
+their ardor for knowledge. With a republican form of government they
+created an aristocracy, not of wealth or of blood, but of intellect. The
+education of girls was, indeed, neglected. To be able to read her
+prayers in Hebrew and to write Yiddish was all that was expected of a
+mother in Israel. It was otherwise with the boys. Every Jew deemed
+himself in duty bound to educate his son. "Learning is the best
+merchandise"--_Torah iz die beste sehorah_--was the lesson inculcated
+from cradle to manhood, the precept followed from manhood to old age.
+All the lullabies transmitted to us from earliest times indicate the
+pursuit of knowledge as the highest ambition cherished by mothers for
+their sons:
+
+  Patsche, patsche, little tootsies,
+  We shall buy us little bootsies;
+  Little bootsies we shall buy,
+  To run to heder we shall try;
+  Torah we'll learn and all good ma'alot (qualities),
+  On our wedding eve we shall solve sha'alot (ritual problems).[39]
+
+To have a scholarly son or son-in-law was the best passport to the
+highest circles, a means of rising from the lowliest to the loftiest
+station in life.
+
+It is no wonder, then, that schools abounded in every community. At the
+early age of four the child was usually sent to the heder (school;
+literally, room), where he studied until he was ready for the yeshibah,
+the higher "seat" of learning. The melammedim, teachers, were graded
+according to their ability, and the school year consisted of two terms,
+zemannim, from the first Sabbath after the Holy Days to Passover and
+from after Passover to Rosh ha-Shanah. The boy's intellectual capacities
+were steadily, if not systematically, cultivated, sometimes at the
+expense of his bodily development. It was not unusual for a child of
+seven or eight to handle a difficult problem in the Talmud, a precocity
+characteristic to this day of the children hailing from Slavonic
+countries. Their 'illuyim (prodigies) might furnish ample material for
+more than one volume of _les enfants celebres_.
+
+Nor were the children of the poor left to grow up in ignorance. Learning
+was free, to be had for the asking. More than this, stringent measures
+were taken that no child be without instruction. Talmud Torahs were
+founded even in the smallest kehillot (communities), and the students
+were supplied, not only with books, but also with the necessaries of
+life. Communal and individual benefactors furnished clothes, and every
+member (ba'al ha-bayit) had to provide food and lodging for an indigent
+pupil at least one day of each week. The "Freitisch" (free board) was an
+inseparable adjunct to every school. Poor young men were not regarded as
+"beggar students." They were looked upon as earning their living by
+study, even as teachers by instructing. To pray for the dead or the
+living in return for their support is a recent innovation, and mostly
+among other than Slavonic Jews. It is a custom adopted from medieval
+Christianity, and practiced in England by the poor student, who, in the
+words of Chaucer,
+
+  Busily 'gan for the souls to pray
+  On them that gave him wherewith to scolay.
+
+For a faithful and vivid description of the yeshibot we cannot do better
+than transcribe the account given in the pages of the little pamphlet
+_Yeven Mezulah_ in which Nathan Hannover, mentioned above, has left us a
+reliable history of the Cossack uprisings and the Kulturgeschichte of
+his own time.
+
+    I need bring no proof for the statement that nowhere was the
+    study of the Law so universal as in Russo-Poland. In every
+    community there was a well-paid dean (rosh yeshibah), who,
+    exempt from worry about a livelihood, devoted himself
+    exclusively to teaching and studying by day and by night. In
+    every kahal, many youths, maintained liberally, studied under
+    the guidance of the dean. In turn, they instructed the less
+    advanced, who were also supported by the community. A kahal of
+    fifty [families] had to provide for at least thirty such. They
+    boarded and lodged in the homes of their patrons, and frequently
+    received pocket-money in addition. Thus there was hardly a house
+    in which the Torah was not studied, either by the master of the
+    house, a son, a son-in-law, or a student stranger. They always
+    bore in mind the dictum of Rabba, "He who loves scholars will
+    have scholarly sons; he who welcomes scholars will have
+    scholarly sons-in-law; he who admires scholars will become
+    learned himself." No wonder, then, that every community swarmed
+    with scholars, that out of every fifty of its members at least
+    twenty were far advanced, and had the morenu (i.e. bachelor)
+    degree.
+
+    The dean was vested with absolute authority. He could punish an
+    offender, whether rich or poor. Everybody respected him, and he
+    often received gifts of money or valuables. In all religious
+    processions he came first. Then followed the students, then the
+    learned, and the rest of the congregation brought up the rear.
+    This veneration for the dean prompted many a youth to imitate
+    his example, and thus our country was rendered full of the
+    knowledge of the Law.
+
+What became of the students when they were graduated? Let us turn once
+more to Hannover's interesting narrative. The "fairs" of those days were
+much more than opportunities for barter; they afforded favorable and
+attractive occasions for other objects. Zaslav and Yaroslav during the
+summer, Lemberg and Lublin in the winter, were "filled with hundreds of
+deans and thousands of students," and one who had a marriageable
+daughter had but to resort thither to have his worries allayed.
+Therefore, "Jews and Jewesses attended these bazaars in magnificent
+attire, and [each season] several hundred, sometimes as many as a
+thousand, alliances were consummated."
+
+That the rabbi, living in a strange land and recalling a glorious past,
+should have indulged in a bit of exaggeration in his sorrowful
+retrospect, is not more than natural; and that his picture on the whole
+is true is proved by similar schools which existed in Russia till
+recently. The descriptions of these institutions by Smolenskin as well
+as writers of less repute are graphic and intensely interesting. They
+constituted a unique world, in which the Jewish youth lived and moved
+until he reached man's estate. In later years, when Russian Jewry became
+infected, so to speak, with the Aufklaerungs-bacilli, they became the
+nurseries of the new learning. But in the earlier time, too, a spirit of
+enlightenment pervaded them. The study of the Talmud fostered in them
+was regarded both as a religious duty and as a means to an end, the
+rabbinate. Even in the Middle Ages Aristotle was a favorite with the
+older students, and Solomon Luria complained that in the prayer books of
+many of them he had noticed the prayer of Aristotle, for which he blamed
+the liberal views of Moses Isserles![40]
+
+Another typically, though not exclusively, Slavonic Jewish institution
+was the study-hall, or bet ha-midrash. As the synagogues gradually
+became Schulen (schools), so, by a contrary process, the bet ha-midrash
+assumed the function of a house of prayer. Its uniqueness it has
+retained to this day. It was at once a library, a reading-room, and a
+class-room; yet those who frequented it were bound by the rigorous laws
+of none of the three. There were no restrictions as to when, or what, or
+how one should study. It was a place in which originality was admired
+and research encouraged. As at a Spartan feast, youth and age
+commingled, men of all ages and diverse attainments exchanged views, and
+all benefited by mutual contact.
+
+Those whose position precluded devotion to study availed themselves at
+least of the means for mutual improvement at their disposal. They
+organized societies for the study of certain branches of Jewish lore,
+and for the meetings of these societies the busiest spared time and the
+poorest put aside his work. It was a people composed of scholars and
+those who maintained scholars, and the scholars, in dress and
+appearance, represented the aristocracy, an aristocracy of the
+intellect.
+
+Such was the pre-Haskalah period. From the meagre data at our disposal
+we are justified in concluding, that, left undisturbed, the Slavonic
+Jews would have evolved a civilization rivalling, if not surpassing,
+that of the golden era of the Spanish Jews. But this was not to be.
+Their onward march met a sudden and terrific check. Hetman Chmielnicki
+at the head of his savage hordes of Russians and Tatars conquered the
+Poles, and Jews and Catholics were subjected to the most inhuman
+treatment. The descendants of those who, in 1090, had escaped the
+Crusaders fell victims in 1648 to the more cruel Cossacks. About half a
+million Jews, it is estimated, lost their lives in Chmielnicki's
+horrible massacres. The few communities remaining were utterly
+demoralized. The education of the young was neglected, both sacred and
+secular branches of study were abandoned. And when the storm calmed
+down, they found themselves deprived of the accumulations of centuries,
+forced, like Noah after the deluge, but without his means, to start
+again from the very beginning. Indeed, as Levinsohn remarks, the wonder
+is that, despite the fiendish persecution they endured, these
+unfortunates should have preserved a spark of love of knowledge. Yet a
+little later it was to burst into flame again and bring light and warmth
+to hearts crushed by "man's inhumanity to man."
+
+(Notes, pp. 305-310.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION
+
+1648-1794
+
+
+The storm of persecution that had been brewing in the sixteenth century,
+and which burst in all its fury by the middle of the seventeenth
+century, was allayed but little by the rivers of blood that streamed
+over the length and breadth of the Slavonic land. Half a million Jewish
+victims were not sufficient to satisfy the followers of a religion of
+love. They only whetted their insatiable appetite. The anarchy among the
+Gentiles increased the misery of the Jews. The towns fell into the hands
+of the Lithuanians, Poles, Russians, and Tatars successively, and it was
+upon the Jews that the hounds of war were let loose at each defeat or
+conquest. Determined to exterminate each other, they joined forces in
+exterminating the Jews. When Bratzlav, for instance, was destroyed by
+the Tatars, in 1479, more than four hundred of its six hundred Jewish
+citizens were slain. When the city was attacked by the Cossacks in 1569,
+the greater number of the plundered and murdered were Jews. The same
+happened when Chmielnicki gained the upper hand in Bratzlav in 1648,
+again when the Russians slaughtered all the inhabitants in 1664, and
+when the Tatars plotted against their victorious enemy, Peter the
+Great.[1] Swedish attacks without and popular uprisings within rendered
+the Polish pan (dubbed among Jews poriz, rowdy or ruffian) as reckless
+as he was irresponsible. The Jew became for him a sponge to be squeezed
+for money, and a clown to contribute to his brutal amusements. The
+subtle and baneful influence of the Jesuits succeeded, besides, in
+introducing religion into politics and making the Jew the scapegoat for
+the evils of both. The _Judaeus infidelis_ was the target of abuse and
+persecution. It was only the fear that the Government's exchequer might
+suffer that prevented his being turned into a veritable slave. His
+condition, indeed, was worse than slavery; his life was worth less than
+a beast's. It was frequently taken for the mere fun of it, and with
+impunity. An overseer once ordered all Jewish mothers living on the
+estate to climb to the tree-tops and leave their little ones below. He
+then fired at the children, and when the women fell from the trees at
+the horrible sight, he presented each with a piece of money, and thanked
+them for the pleasure they had afforded him.[2]
+
+In the cities, though the pan's excesses were bound to be somewhat
+bridled there, the lot of the Jews was equally gloomy. They were treated
+like outlaws, were forbidden to engage in all but a few branches of
+trade or handicraft, or to live with Christians, or employ them as
+servants. In 1720 they were prohibited to build new synagogues or even
+repair the old ones. Sometimes the synagogues were locked "by order
+of ..." until a stipulated amount of money bought permission to reopen
+them. We of to-day can hardly imagine what pain a Jew of that time
+experienced when he hastened to the house of God on one of the great
+Holy Days only to find its doors closed by the police!
+
+Their status was no better in Lithuania and Great Russia. The accession
+of Ivan IV, the Terrible (1533-1584), dealt their former comparative
+prosperity a blow from which it has not recovered to this day. As if to
+remove the impression of liberalism made by his predecessor and
+obliterate from memory his amicable relations with Doctor Leo, de
+Guizolfi, and Chozi Kolos, this monster czar, with the fiendishness of a
+Caligula, but lacking the accomplishments of his heathen prototype,
+delighted to invent tortures for inoffensive Jews. He expelled them from
+Moscow, and deprived them of the right of travel from place to place.
+During his occupancy of Polotsk he ordered all Jews residing there
+either to become converts to Greek Catholicism or choose between being
+drowned in the Dwina and burnt at the stake.
+
+But even the removal of the terrible czar and the dawn of the century of
+reason and humanitarianism failed to effect a change for the better in
+the condition of the Slavonic Jews. For a while it appeared as if the
+Zeitgeist might penetrate even into Russo-Poland, and the Renaissance
+and the Reformation would not pass over the eastern portion of Europe
+without beneficent results. In Lithuania Calvinism threatened to oust
+Catholicism, science and culture began to be pursued, and Jewish and
+Gentile children attended the same schools. The successors of Ivan IV
+were men of better breeding, and the praiseworthy attempts of Peter the
+Great to introduce Western civilization are known to all.[3] But
+Slavonic soil has never been susceptible to the elevating influences
+that have transformed the rest of Europe. Every reformatory effort was
+nipped in the bud. The lot of the Jews accordingly grew from bad to
+worse. In 1727 they were expelled from the Ukraine and other provinces,
+and they were recalled, "for the benefit of the citizens," only at the
+instance of Apostol, the hetman of the very Cossacks that had massacred
+them in 1648. Baruch Leibov was burned alive in St. Petersburg, in 1738,
+for having dared "insult the Christian religion by building a synagogue
+in the village of Zvyerovichi," an offence that was aggravated by the
+suspicion that he had converted the Russian Captain Vosnitzin to
+Judaism. The same fate was, in 1783, meted out to Moses, a Jewish
+tailor, for refusing to accept Christianity, and in 1790 a Jew was
+quartered in Grodno, though the king had declined to sign his death
+warrant. In some places Jews had to contribute towards the maintenance
+of churches, and in Slutsk the law, enacted there in 1766, remains
+unrevoked to this day. Elizabeta Petrovna did not imitate Ivan III. When
+she discovered that Sanchez, her physician, was of the Jewish
+persuasion, she discharged him without notice, after eighteen years of
+faithful service. Similarly, when the Livonian merchants remonstrated,
+maintaining that the exclusion of Jews from their fairs was fraught with
+disastrous consequences to the commerce of the country, she is reported
+to have replied, "From the enemies of Christ I will not receive even a
+benefit."[4]
+
+But worse things were yet to come, the worst since Chmielnicki's
+massacres. The bitterness of both Poles and Russians against the Jews
+grew especially intense as the days of the rozbior, the Partition of
+Poland, drew near (1794). The Poles, forgetting the many examples of
+loyalty and self-sacrifice shown by Jews in times of peace and war,
+suspected them of being treacherous and unreliable; while the Russians,
+though denying the patriotism of their own Jews, persisted in the
+accusation that Polish Jews spent money lavishly in fomenting rebellion
+and anarchy. The pupils of the Jesuits found great delight in attacks
+upon the Jews, which frequently culminated in riot and bloodshed and the
+payment of money by Jews to Catholic institutions. "What appalling
+spectacles," exclaims a Christian writer, "must we witness in the
+capital [Warsaw] on solemn holidays. Students and even adults in noisy
+mobs assault the Jews, and sometimes beat them with sticks. We have seen
+a gang waylay a Jew, stop his horses, and strike him till he fell from
+the wagon. How can we look with indifference on such a survival of
+barbarism?" The commonest manifestations of hatred and superstition,
+however, were, as in other countries, the charge that Jews were
+magicians, using the black art to avenge themselves on their
+persecutors, and that they used Christian blood for their observance of
+the Passover. The latter crime, the imputing of which was sternly
+prohibited by an edict of the liberal Bathory, in 1576, was so
+frequently laid at their door, that in the short period of sixty years
+(1700-1760) not less than twenty such accusations were brought against
+them, ending each time in the massacre of Jews by infuriated mobs. Even
+more shocking, if possible, was the frequent extermination of whole
+communities by the brigand bands known as Haidamacks. They added the
+"Massacre of Uman" (1768) to the Jewish calendar of misfortunes, the
+most terrible slaughter, equalled, perhaps, only by that of Nemirov in
+1648.[5]
+
+That all this should have left a marked impression on the mentality and
+intellectuality of the Jews, is little to be wondered at. The marvel is
+that they should have maintained their superiority over their
+surroundings, and continued to be a law-abiding and God-fearing people.
+While among the Russians and Poles the nobles who learned to read or
+write formed a rare exception, there was hardly one among the Jews, the
+very lowliest of them, who could not read Hebrew, and even translate it
+into the vernacular. Maimon tells us that in his early youth he became
+the family tutor of "a miserable farmer in a still more miserable
+village," who yet was ambitious of giving his children an education of
+some kind.
+
+    Fortunately for the Jews of those times--says a writer--their
+    civilization was by far superior to that of the Christians. The
+    rabbi, though in no way inferior to the priest mentally, was
+    immeasurably above him morally. The students of the yeshibot,
+    despite their exclusive devotion to the study of the Talmud, yet
+    were better equipped for intellectual work, were of broader
+    minds and better manners, than the pupils of the Jesuits. And
+    the Jewish ba'ale battim, with an education as good as that of
+    the Gentile shlyakhta, had a more ennobling and elevating object
+    in life.[6]
+
+It is remarkable how quickly they recuperated from the blows they
+received. In 1648 thousands of people were killed, whole communities
+exterminated, Volhynia, Podolia, and a great part of Lithuania utterly
+ruined. In 1660, in those very places, we hear again of Jewish
+settlements, with synagogues and schools and a system of education of
+the kind described in the preceding chapter, and we hear of the Council
+of Lithuania struggling to re-establish and cement the shattered
+foundation of their self-government. Yet all their efforts improved the
+demoralized condition of the country but little. As always in national
+crises, the individual was sacrificed to the community, and deprived of
+the few rights remaining to him. The kehillot became brutally
+oppressive. There were no longer men of the stamp of Abraham Rapoport,
+Solomon Luria, Mordecai Jaffe, and Meir Katz, to put their feet on the
+neck of tyranny. Without special permission no one could buy or sell, or
+move from one place to another, or learn a trade or practice a
+profession. Rabbinism became synonymous with rigorism, the coercion of
+untold customs became unbearable, and the spirit of Judaism was lost in
+a heap of innumerable rites. The Jew's every act had to be sanctioned by
+religion. He knew of the outward world only from the heavy taxes he paid
+in order to be allowed to exist, and from the bloody riots with which
+his people was frequently visited.
+
+What could result from such a state of affairs but poverty, material and
+spiritual, with all the suffering it engenders? Those at the head of the
+kehillot, being responsible solely to the Government, often had to
+deliver the full tale of bricks like the Jewish overseers in Egypt,
+though no straw was given to them. On one occasion Rabbi Mikel of Shkud
+was arrested because the kahal could not pay the thousand gulden it
+owed. In 1767, the whole kahal of Vilna went to Warsaw to protest
+against intolerable taxation. Such protests were usually of little
+avail. On the other hand, a few powerful families throve at the expense
+of their oppressed coreligionists. This aroused a spirit of animosity
+and a clamor for the abolition of the kahal institution. Jewish autonomy
+was more and more encroached upon. Rabbinates were bought and sold, and
+the aid of the Government was invoked in religious controversies. A
+question regarding the preferable form of prayer was submitted to the
+decision of Paul I. In 1777, Prince Radziwill decided who should
+officiate as rabbi in so important a centre of Judaism as Vilna,[7] and
+in 1804 the Government issued a "regulation" depriving the kahal of its
+judicial functions altogether.
+
+What was even more disastrous was the spiritual poverty of the masses.
+Seldom have the awful warnings of the great lawgiver been fulfilled so
+literally as during the eighteenth century:
+
+    And upon them that remain of you, I will send a faintness into
+    their hearts in the land of their enemies; and the sound of a
+    shaken leaf shall chase them; and they shall flee as fleeing
+    from a sword; and they shall fall, when none pursueth. And they
+    shall fall one upon another, as it were before a sword, when
+    none pursueth: and ye shall have no power to stand before your
+    enemies (Lev. 26: 36-37).
+
+    But the Lord shall give thee there a trembling heart, and
+    failing of eyes, and sorrow of mind. And thy life shall hang in
+    doubt before thee; and thou shalt fear day and night, and thou
+    shalt have none assurance of thy life (Deut. 29: 65-66).
+
+Having learned from sad experience that there was no crime their foes
+were incapable of perpetrating, they gave credence to every rumor as to
+an established fact. A report that boys and girls were to be prohibited
+from marrying before a certain age resulted in behalot (panics), during
+which children of the tenderest ages were united as husband and wife
+(1754, 1764, 1793). Mysticism became rampant. "Messiah" after "Messiah"
+"revealed" himself as the one promised to redeem Israel from all his
+troubles. Love of God began to be tinged with fear of the devil, and
+incantations to take the place of religious belief. The _Zohar_ and
+works full of superstition, such as the _Kab ha-Yashar_, _Midrash
+Talpiyot_, and _Nishmat Hayyim_, the first studied by men, the others by
+both sexes, but mostly by women, prepared their minds for all sorts of
+mongrel beliefs. "In no land," says Tobias Cohn, "is the practice of
+summoning up devils and spirits by means of the Cabbalistic abracadabra
+so prevalent, and the belief in dreams and visions so strong, as in
+Poland."[8] All this, though it strengthened religious fervor in some,
+undermined it in others. Sects came into being, struggled, and, having
+brought added misery upon their followers, disappeared. Jewish criminals
+escaped justice by invoking the power of the Catholic priesthood and
+promising to become converted to Christianity.[9] And now and then even
+Talmudists left the fold, as, for instance, Carl Anton, the Courland
+pupil of Eybeschuetz, who became professor of Hebrew at Hamsted, and
+wrote numerous works on Judaism. Others hoped to win the favor of the
+Gentiles by preaching a mixture of Judaism and Catholicism. In many
+places, especially in the Ukraine, the seat of learning that had
+suffered most from the ravages of the Cossacks, the state of morals sank
+very low, owing to the teaching of Jacob Querido, the self-proclaimed
+son of the pseudo-Messiah Shabbatai Zebi, "that the sinfulness of the
+world can be overcome only by a super-abundance of sin." This paved the
+way for the last of the long list of Messiahs, Jacob (Yankev Leibovich)
+Frank of Podolia. His experiences, adventures, and hairbreadth escapes,
+his entire career, beginning with his return from his travels in Turkey,
+through his conversion to Catholicism (1759), to the day of his death as
+"Baron von Offenbach," would furnish material for a stirring drama. As
+if to counteract this demoralizing tendency, a new sect, known as
+Hasidim, originating in Lithuania and headed by Judah Hasid of Dubno and
+Hayyim Malak, taught its devotees to hasten the advent of the Messiah by
+doing penance for the sins of Israel. They were so firmly convinced of
+the efficacy of fasts and prayers that they went to Jerusalem by
+hundreds to witness the impending redemption (ab. 1706). But the ascetic
+Hasidim and the epicurean Frankists were alike doomed to disappear or to
+be swallowed up by a new Hasidism, combining the teachings and
+aspirations of both, the sect founded by Israel Baal Shem, or Besht (ab.
+1698-1759), and fully developed by Bar of Meseritz and Jacob Joseph of
+Polonnoy.
+
+[Illustration: ISAAC BAeR LEVINSOHN, 1788-1860]
+
+Time was when all writers on the subject, usually Maskilim, thought it
+their duty to cast a stone at Hasidism. They described it as a Chinese
+wall shutting the Jews in and shutting the world out. It is becoming
+more and more plainly recognized and admitted, that it was, in reality,
+an attempt at reform rendered imperative by the tyranny of the kahal,
+the rigorism of the rabbis, the superciliousness of the learned classes,
+and the superstition of the masses. Its aim was to bring about a deep
+psychologic improvement, to change not so much the belief as the
+believer. It insisted on purity rather than profundity of thought.
+Unable to remove the galling yoke, it gave strength to its wearers by
+prohibiting sadness and asceticism, and emphasizing joy and fellowship
+as important elements in the fabric of its theology.
+
+Hasidism was thus a plant the seeds of which had been sown by the
+various sects. Like the former Hasidim, or even the Assideans of nearly
+two thousand years before, their latter-day namesakes rigidly adhered to
+the laws of Levitical purification, and, to a certain extent, led a
+communistic life. In addition they accepted, in a modified form, certain
+customs and beliefs of the Catholic church that had been adopted by the
+followers of Frank. The prayers to the saints (zaddikim), the conception
+of faith as the fountain of salvation, even the belief in a trinity
+consisting of the Godhead, the Shekinah, and the Holy Ghost, these and
+other exotic doctrines introduced by the Cabbala took root and grew in
+the vineyard of Hasidism.[10]
+
+The founder of the sect has an interesting history. In his childhood he
+gave no evidence of future greatness. His education was of a low order,
+but his feeling heart and sympathetic soul won him the esteem of all
+that knew him. The woods possessed the same charm for him as for
+Wordsworth or Whitman. With the latter especially he seems to have much
+in common. While a child, he absented himself frequently from the narrow
+and noisy heder, and spent the day in the quiet of the neighboring
+woods. When he grew up, he accepted the menial position of a school
+usher. His office was to go from house to house, arouse the sleeping
+children, dress them, and bring them to heder. But the time soon came
+when humble and obscure Israel "revealed" himself to the world. Owing to
+his tact and knowledge of human nature, combined with the conditions of
+the times, his teachings spread rapidly. He was speedily crowned with
+the glory of a "good name" (Baal Shem Tob), and in the end he was
+immortalized.
+
+From such a man we can expect only originality, not profundity. Indeed,
+his whole life was a protest against the subtleties of the Talmudists
+and the ceremonies, meaningless to him, which they introduced into
+Judaism. His object was to remove the petrified rabbinical restrictions
+(gezerot) and develop the emotional side of the Jew in their stead. He
+was primarily a man of action, and had little love for the rabbis, their
+passivity, world-weariness, and pride of intellect. It is said that when
+he "overheard the sounds of eager, loud discussions issuing from a
+rabbinical college, closing his ears with his hands, [he] declared that
+it was such disputants who delayed the redemption of Israel from
+captivity." Men like these, who study the Law for the sake of knowing,
+not of feeling, cannot claim any merit for it. They deserve to be called
+"Jewish devils." Only he is worthy of reward who is virtuous rather than
+innocent, who does what he is afraid to do, who, as Jacob Joseph of
+Polonnoy puts it, "acquires evil thoughts and converts them into holy
+ones." No asceticism for him. All kinds of human feelings deserve our
+respect, for it is not the body that feels but the soul, and the soul,
+"being a part of God on high, cannot possibly have an absolutely bad
+tendency." Men may not be heresy-hunters and fault-finders, for none is
+free from heresy and faults himself: the face he brings to the mirror,
+he finds reflected in it. Yea, even the followers of Abraham possess
+evil propensities, and noble qualities frequently belong to the
+disciples of Balaam himself.[11]
+
+These democratic principles put the most ignorant Jew in Russia on an
+equality with the erudite Lithuanian. No wonder that they obtained such
+strong hold on the people of the Ukraine, the province shorn of all its
+glory. Hasidism invaded Podolia and Volhynia, swept over Galicia and
+Hungary, and found adherents even in many a large community in Western
+Russia and Prussia. It brought cheer and happiness in its wake, and
+rendered the unfortunate Jew forgetful of his misery. Gottlober
+maintains that the inspiring melodies of the Hasidic hymns were largely
+responsible for the spread of the movement, even as Moody attributed the
+success of his revivals to the singing of Sankey. For, as Doctor
+Schechter has it, "the Besht was a religious revivalist in the best
+sense, full of burning faith in his God and his cause; convinced of the
+value of his teaching and his truth."[12]
+
+One province there was to which the Besht could not penetrate, at least
+not without a long siege and great losses. In Lithuania the inroads of
+Hasidism were strenuously opposed, and its advance disputed step by
+step. The Lithuanian Jews, to whom the Talmud was as dear as ever, could
+not countenance a movement sprung, as they believed, from the seed sown
+by Shabbatai Zebi, an opponent of the Talmud, and by Jacob Frank, at
+whose instigation the Bishop of Kamenetz ordered the Talmud to be
+publicly burnt.[13]
+
+The opponents (Mitnaggedim) of Hasidism were headed by a leader who was
+as typical an exponent of the cause he espoused as the Besht was of his.
+Among the students of Jewish literature since the close of the Talmud,
+few have surpassed, or even equalled, Elijah of Vilna (1720-1797). Not
+inappropriately he was called Gaon and Hasid, for in mental and moral
+attainments he was unique in his generation. As the Besht was noted in
+his early life for dulness and indifference, so Elijah was remarkable
+for diligence and versatility. His life, like the Besht's, became the
+nucleus of many wonderful tales, which his biographer narrates with
+painstaking exactness. They present the picture of a man diametrically
+different from Israel Baal Shem Tob. Every year, we are told, added to
+the marvellous development of the young intellectual giant. When he was
+six years old, none but Rabbi Moses Margolioth, the renowned Talmudist
+and author, was competent enough to teach him. At seven, he worsted the
+chief rabbi of his native city in a Talmudic discussion. At nine, there
+was nothing in Jewish literature with which he was not familiar, and he
+turned to other studies to satisfy his craving for knowledge. And at
+thirteen, he was acknowledged by his fellows as the greatest of
+Talmudists.[14] He had neither guide nor teacher. All unaided he
+discovered the path of truth. He held neither a rabbinical nor any other
+public office. He was as retiring as the Besht was aggressive.
+Nevertheless his word was law, and his influence immense. The centenary
+of his death (1897) was celebrated among all classes with the solemnity
+which the memories of "men of God" inspire.[15]
+
+Now, this Gaon of Vilna, or Hagra, was perhaps no less dissatisfied with
+prevailing conditions than the Besht, but his remedy for them was as
+different as the two personalities were unlike. He did not desire to
+abolish the Talmud, but rather to render it more attractive, by making
+its acquisition easier and putting its study on a scientific basis. Even
+in Lithuania, the citadel of the Talmud, the development of Talmudic
+learning had been hampered. In accordance with a Talmudic principle,
+mankind is continually degenerating, not only physically, but morally
+and mentally as well. It holds that if "the ancients were angels, we are
+mere men; if they were but men, we are asses." This high regard for
+antiquity produced a belief in the infallibility of the rabbis on the
+part of the Mitnaggedim, similar to that in their zaddikim by the
+Hasidim. No scholar of a later generation dared disagree with the
+statement of a rabbi of a previous generation. But as authorities
+sometimes conflict with each other, the Talmudists regarded it their
+duty to reconcile them or to prove, in the words of the ancient sages,
+that "these as well as those are the words of the living God."
+Similarly, the popes declared that, despite their contradictions, the
+Biblical translations of Sixtus V and Clement VIII were both correct.
+
+It is true that Lithuanian Talmudists were not always the slaves of
+authority which they ultimately became. A study of the works of the
+early Slavonian rabbis, before and after Rabbi Polack, shows that they
+were free from unhealthy awe of their predecessors, and sometimes were
+audaciously independent. Neither Solomon Luria (Maharshal), Samuel Edels
+(Maharsha), or Meir Lublin (Maharam) refrained from criticising and
+amending whenever they deemed it necessary. But in the course of time
+the casuistic method, originally a mere pastime, became the approved
+method of study, and produced what is known as pilpul. Scholars wasted
+days and nights in heaping Ossa upon Pelion, in reconciling difficulties
+which no logic could harmonize. Here the Gaon found the first and most
+urgent need for reform. The Talmudists, he declared, were not
+infallible. Every one may interpret the Mishnah in accordance with
+reason, even if the interpretation be not in keeping with the
+traditional meaning as construed by the Amoraim.[16]
+
+His views on religion were equally liberal. The same process of
+reasoning which, spun out to its logical conclusion, led to pilpul in
+the schools, produced, when turned into the channel of religion, the
+over-piety culminating in the _Shulhan 'Aruk_. This remarkable book,
+with the euphonious name _The Ready Table_, prescribed enough
+regulations to keep one busy from early morning till late at night. The
+Jews found themselves bound hand and foot by ceremonial trammels and
+weighted down by a burden of innumerable customs. The spirit of freedom
+that had animated Slavonian Judaism during the Middle Ages had fled. The
+breadth of view that had marked the decision of many of its rabbis was
+gone.[17] Judaism was a mere mummy of its former self. Here, too, the
+Gaon came to the rescue. Rightly or wrongly, he "established the
+importance of Minhagim [religious ceremonies] according to their
+antiquity or primitivism, regarding those which have originated since
+the codification of the _Shulhan 'Aruk_ as not binding at all; those
+which have been adopted since the Talmudic period to be subject to
+change by common consent; while those of the Bible and in the Talmud
+were to him fundamental and unalterable."[18]
+
+But the Gaon's influence on the Haskalah movement by far surpassed his
+influence on the study of the Talmud or on the ceremonials of the
+synagogue. Many, in point of fact, regard him as the originator of the
+movement. As he was the first to oppose the authority of the Talmudists,
+so he was the first to inveigh against the educational system among the
+Jews of his day and country. The mania for distinction in rabbinical
+learning plunged the child into the mazes of Talmudic casuistry as soon
+as he could read; frequently he had not read the Bible or studied the
+rudiments of grammar. The Gaon insisted that every one should first
+master the twenty-four books of the Bible, their etymology, prosody, and
+syntax, then the six divisions of the Mishnah with the important
+commentaries and the suggested emendations, and finally the Talmud in
+general, without wasting much time on pilpul, which brings no practical
+result. "These few lines," says a writer, "contain a more thorough
+course of study than Wessely suggested in his _Words of Peace and
+Truth_. Though they did not entirely change the system in vogue--for
+great is the power of habit--they produced a wholesome effect, which was
+visible in a short time among the people." Furthermore, the Gaon
+exhorted the Talmudists to study secular science, since, "if one is
+ignorant of the other sciences, one is a hundredfold more ignorant of
+the sciences of the Torah, for the two are inseparably connected." He
+set the example by writing, not only on the most important Hebrew books,
+Biblical, Talmudic, and Cabbalistic, but also on algebra, geometry,
+trigonometry, astronomy, and grammar.[19] And his example served as an
+impetus and encouragement to the Maskilim in spreading knowledge among
+their coreligionists.
+
+Such was the man who led the crusade against the converts to Hasidism.
+But even he could not stem the current. In their despair, the Lithuanian
+Jews turned to their coreligionists in Germany, and implored their
+assistance in eradicating, or at least suppressing, the threatened
+invasion. The great learning and literary ability of the "divine
+philosopher, Rabbi Moses ben Menahem" (Mendelssohn, 1729-1786), were
+appealed to for help. Not a stone was left unturned to crush the new
+sect (kat), so called. Volumes of the _Toledot Ya'akob Yosef_, in which
+Rabbi Jacob Joseph of Polonnoy set forth the principles of the Besht,
+were burnt in the market-place in Vilna. Intermarriage, social
+intercourse of any kind, was prohibited between Hasidim and Mitnaggedim.
+In Vilna, Grodno, Brest, Slutsk, Minsk, Pinsk, etc., the ban was hurled
+against the dissenters by the most prominent rabbis. Israel was divided
+into two hostile camps.[20] But soon everything was changed. Hasidim and
+Mitnaggedim discovered that while they were fighting each other, a
+common enemy was undermining the ground on which they stood. The
+Haskalah was steadily drawing recruits from both, and it threatened
+ultimately to become more dangerous to both than they were to each
+other.
+
+From the South had come the impulse of religious revivalism through the
+followers of the Besht, and the North was showing signs of awakening
+through the reforms of the Gaon. At the same time a ray of enlightenment
+from the West pierced through the night. To make the regeneration of
+Slavonic Judaism complete, the element of estheticism had to be added to
+emotionalism and reason. From the warm South came Besht, from the
+studious North Hagra, and Rambman (Mendelssohn) made his appearance from
+the enlightened West. The triumvirate was complete.
+
+Not that Mendelssohn ever visited or resided in Russo-Poland. But the
+gentle, cultured little savant of Berlin, with whose lips, Carlyle tells
+us, Socrates spoke like Socrates in German as in no other modern
+language, "for his own character was Socratic," was at no period of his
+life wholly cut off from influencing Slavonic Jews and from being
+influenced by them. As a lad Mendelssohn was instructed by Israel Moses
+Halevi of Zamoscz (ab. 1700-1772). This teacher of his, who is credited
+with several inventions, and of whom Lessing says, in a letter to
+Mendelssohn, that he was "one of the first to arouse a love for science
+in the hearts of Jews," imbued him with love for philosophy. When
+Mendelssohn emerged from obscurity, and, despite ill-health and
+ignorance, attained culture and breeding, his associate, who was with
+him the most important factor in German Haskalah, was the renowned
+Naphtali, or Hartwig, Wessely, whose grandfather Joseph Reis had been
+among the fugitives from the Cossack massacres in 1648. And when he
+became famous, and took his place among the greatest of his age, he
+still sought diversion and instruction among the Slavonian Jews, and
+boasted of being a descendant of one of them, Moses Isserles of Cracow.
+As formerly with the Talmud, the Haskalah seemed, at the time of
+Mendelssohn, to be moving from the East westward, through the agency of
+the Slavonic Jews pouring perennially into Germany. Positions, from the
+lowly melammed's to the honorable chief rabbi's in prominent
+communities, were filled almost exclusively by them. The cause of
+Judaism seems to have been entrusted to them. Ezekiel Landau, whose
+tactful intercession helped greatly to establish peace between the
+Emden-Eybeschuetz factions, was rabbi of Prague for almost forty years
+(1755-1793); the equally prominent, but at first somewhat less liberal
+Phinehas Horowitz was rabbi and dean in Frankfort-on-the-Main for over
+thirty years (1771-1805); his brother Shmelke, regarded as a saint, was
+chief rabbi of Moravia (1775). Another Horwitz, Aaron Halevi, was rabbi
+of Berlin, one of those who favored Mendelssohn's translation of the
+Pentateuch; while the cultured and profound Talmudist Raphael Hakohen,
+whose grandson, Gabriel Riesser, became the greatest champion of Jewish
+emancipation Germany has yet produced, was offered the rabbinate of
+Berlin (1771). He declined the post, and finally became chief rabbi
+(1776-1803) of the united congregations of Altona, Hamburg, and
+Wandsbeck. It is also recorded that Samuel ben Avigdor, the last rabbi
+of Vilna, held the rabbinate of Koenigsberg,[21] and there certainly must
+have been many more who, because of their inferior positions, cannot be
+so easily traced. Besides, Germany, as we have seen, was the common
+fatherland of the greater part of both Slavonic and Teutonic Jews. It
+never remained a _terra incognita_ to the former for any length of time.
+Its proximity to Russia, the business relations between the Jews of the
+two countries, intermarriage, and, with a few insignificant exceptions,
+the identity of language, made the Jews of both countries come into
+closer contact than was possible with any other Jews. For the studious,
+Germany possessed the attraction which the "land of universities" exerts
+upon seekers after knowledge the world over. To whom, indeed, could the
+profound and abstruse speculations of Leibnitz and Kant make a stronger
+appeal than to the Jew who had been initiated into metaphysical
+abstractions from his very childhood? It is no wonder, then, that
+immigration from Russo-Poland into Germany was constantly on the
+increase, until, under Alexander II, the advancement of Russian
+civilization put a stop in a measure to these roamings, to be resumed
+under Alexander III and Nicholas II.
+
+The Russo-Polish youth, therefore, found himself quite at home in the
+country of Mendelssohn, and thither, in case of necessity, he would go.
+In the eleventh century Jews had gone from Germany to Poland. In the
+eighteenth they retraced their steps from Poland to Germany.
+Outnumbering by far those who went there from choice or by invitation,
+were those compelled to go in search of a livelihood. "When I reached
+the age of twenty, peaceful and comfortable in my father's house, I
+began to hope that henceforth I should pursue my studies uninterrupted.
+But all at once my father lost his fortune, and I was forced to go
+somewhere to provide for myself. So I became a melammed in Berlin." This
+piece of autobiography in the preface to a Talmudic treatise by Reuben
+of Zamoscz might have been written by many others, too. But there were
+also the goodly number led thither by thirst for knowledge, whose
+remarkable abilities attracted the admiration of Jew and Gentile alike.
+Wessely the poet and Linda the mathematician more than once expressed
+surprise at the amount of learning many of the poor immigrants were
+found to possess.[22]
+
+Among these immigrants were two who may justly be regarded as the
+conducting medium through which the Haskalah currents were transmitted
+from Germany to Russo-Poland: Solomon Dubno, the indefatigable laborer
+in the province of Jewish science, and Solomon Maimon, the brilliant but
+unfortunate philosopher, both of them teachers in the house of
+Mendelssohn.
+
+Solomon Dubno (1738-1813) was all his life a bee in search of flowers,
+to turn their sweetness into honey. Having exhausted the knowledge of
+his Volhynian instructors, he went to Galicia, where he became
+proficient in Hebrew grammar and Biblical exegesis. Thence, attracted by
+its rich collection of books, he left for Amsterdam, where he spent five
+years in study and research. Finally he settled in Berlin, and earned a
+livelihood by teaching among others the children of Mendelssohn. The
+gentle disposition and profound learning of the Polish emigrant made a
+favorable impression on the Berlin sage, who invited him to participate
+in his translation of the Bible, which revolutionized the Judaism of the
+nineteenth century more than the Septuagint that of the first century.
+The result was the _Biur_ (commentary), which he, together with his
+countryman, Aaron Yaroslav, also a teacher, wrote on several books of
+the Bible. Comparatively few of Dubno's works have been published, but
+judging from such as are known we may safely pronounce him a master of
+the Massorah and a scholar of unusual attainments. Of his poems
+Delitzsch says that they are "in the truest sense Hebrew in expression,
+Biblical in imagery and subject-matter, medieval in rhyme and rhythm,
+and in general genuinely Jewish in manner of treatment,"--laudation
+which this exacting critic bestowed on no other Hebrew poet of his time.
+It was mainly through the endeavors of Dubno that Mendelssohn's
+Pentateuch, later regarded with suspicion, was everywhere bought and
+studied eagerly.[23]
+
+One better known to the outside world than Dubno, and who has engraved
+his name forever on the history of theology and philosophy, was Solomon
+Maimon (Nieszvicz, Lithuania, 1754--Niedersiegersdorf, Silesia, 1800).
+In his famous autobiography is mirrored the lot of hundreds of his
+countrymen who, like him, left their homes and hearths, their nearest
+and dearest, and led a wretched and miserable existence, all because
+they were anxious to be _ma'amike be-hakmah_ ("delvers in knowledge"),
+as he himself might have said, and avail themselves of the opportunities
+for acquiring the truth and wisdom unattainable in their own land.
+
+But Maimon was doomed to suffer abroad even more than at home. He was
+one of those unfortunates whose sufferings are regarded as
+well-deserved. His exceptional ability was never to develop to its
+fullest capacity. Great injustice has been done to him, not only by the
+rabid orthodox, who denied him a grave in their cemetery, but even by
+the enlightened historian Graetz. Fortunately he left behind him his
+_Lebensgeschichte_, among the best of its kind in German literature, in
+which, with the frankness of a Rousseau, he described the events of his
+short and checkered career.[24]
+
+From this admirable work, in which he neither hides his follies nor
+flaunts his talents, we learn that Maimon possessed rare virtues. His
+sympathy for the poor, his ready helpfulness even at the sacrifice of
+himself, rendered him as uncommon in moral action as in philosophic
+speculation. To the English reader a striking parallelism suggests
+itself between him and his contemporary Oliver Goldsmith. Both were
+afflicted with generosity above their fortunes; both had a "knack at
+hoping," which led frequently to their undoing; neither could subscribe
+easily to the "decent formalities of rigid virtue"; and, as of the
+latter we may also say of the former, in the language of a reviewer, "He
+had lights and shadows, virtues and foibles--vices you cannot call them,
+be you never so unkind."
+
+As Goldsmith came to London, so came Maimon to Berlin, "without friends,
+recommendation, money, or impudence." His only luggage was two
+manuscripts: a commentary on the works of Maimuni, whose name he had
+adopted, and to whom he paid divine reverence; and a treatise in which
+he attempted to rationalize the recondite doctrines of the Cabbala, and
+which he always kept by him "as a monument of the struggle of the human
+mind after perfection in spite of all hindrances which were put in its
+way." The little bundle, which, to the zealot Jewish elders of that
+community, seemed sufficient indication that Maimon was tainted with
+heresy, and that his intentions were to devote himself to the study of
+science and philosophy, proved a great impediment to entering Berlin;
+and when, after a long, incredible struggle, he was finally admitted, he
+found himself incapable of earning a livelihood. In his childlike
+naivete he was betrayed by the very persons upon whom he relied most.
+All this could not deaden his love for knowledge and truth. By chance he
+obtained Wolff's _Metaphysics_, and this marked a new epoch in his life.
+"Not only the sublime science in itself," says he, "but also the order
+and mathematical method of the celebrated author, the precision of his
+explanations, the exactness of his reasoning, and the scientific
+arrangement of his expositions--all this kindled a new light in my
+mind."
+
+So profound a thinker could not for long be a mere pupil. Wolff's
+argument _a posteriori_ for the existence of God, in accordance with his
+philosophic hobby, the "principle of sufficient reason," displeased him
+wholly. A Hebrew letter to Mendelssohn, in which he shook the foundation
+of the _Metaphysics_ by means of his irrefutable ontology, won him the
+admiration of the Berlin sage, who invited him to become his daily
+guest.
+
+Maimon's intellect unfolded from day to day, until, some time
+afterwards, he astonished the philosophic world by his great work, _Die
+Transcendentale Philosophie_ (Berlin, 1790), in reference to which Kant
+wrote to his beloved disciple Marcus Herz: "A mere glance at it enabled
+me to recognize its merits, and showed me, that not only had none of my
+opponents understood me and the main problem so well, but very few could
+claim so much penetration as Herr Maimon in profound inquiries of this
+sort." He demolished the prevalent Leibnitzo-Wolffian system in it, and
+proved that even the Kantian theory, though irrefutable from a dogmatic
+point of view, is exposed to severe attacks from the skeptic's point of
+view.
+
+Thenceforth he became a leading figure in philosophic controversy. In
+1793 he published _Ueber die Progresse der Philosophie_; in 1794,
+_Versuch einer neuen Logik_, and _Die Kategorien des Aristoteles_, and,
+three years later, _Kritische Untersuchungen ueber den menschlichen
+Geist_ (Berlin, 1797), wherein he originated a speculative, monistic
+idealism, which pervaded not only philosophy, but all sciences during
+the first half of the nineteenth century, the system by which Fichte,
+Schelling, and Hegel were influenced. According to Bernfeld, he was the
+greatest Jewish philosopher since the time of Spinoza, with whose depth
+of reasoning he combined an ease and straightforwardness of illustration
+characteristic of Benjamin Franklin.[25]
+
+With all this he remained an ardent lover of the Talmud to the last. In
+fact, his philosophy is distinctively Jewish. Like Spinoza, he exhibited
+the effects of the Cabbala and of rabbinic speculation, with which he
+had been familiar from childhood. The honor of the Talmudic sages was
+always dear to him, and he never mentioned them without expressing
+profound respect. Persecuted though he was by his German coreligionists,
+he never bore them a grudge. As a man he loved them as brothers, but as
+a philosopher he could not subscribe to their views implicitly. But for
+friends and benefactors his affection was unusually strong. With what
+love he talks of Mendelssohn in the chapter dedicated to him in his
+autobiography, even though "he could not explain the persistency of
+Mendelssohn and the Wolffians generally in adhering to their system,
+except as a political dodge, and a piece of hypocrisy, by which they
+studiously endeavored to descend to the mode of thinking common to the
+popular mind!" His devotion to his wife was not diminished even after he
+had been compelled to divorce her because of his supposed heretical
+proclivities. "When the subject [of his divorce] came up in
+conversation, it was easy," says his biographer,[26] "to read in his
+face the deep sorrow he felt: his liveliness then faded away sensibly.
+By and by he would become perfectly silent, was incapable of further
+entertainment, and went home earlier than usual." Of his Russo-Polish
+brethren he speaks in the highest terms. He cannot bestow too much
+praise on their care for the poor and the sick, and he always hoped once
+more to see his native land, to whose king he dedicated his
+_Transcendental Philosophy_. "For," says he, "the Polish Jews are,
+indeed, for the most part not enlightened by science; their manners and
+way of life are still rude, but they are loyal to the religion of their
+fathers and to the laws of their country."[27]
+
+It is because I regard him as the greatest Maskil of his time that I
+have dwelt on Maimon at such length. Mendelssohn's philosophy, if he had
+an original system, has long since passed into oblivion; Maimon's will
+be studied as long as Spinoza, Leibnitz, and Kant are in vogue. His
+importance to us does not lie in the circumstance that his
+autobiography--"that wonderful bit of Autobiography," as George Eliot
+speaks of it, or "that curious and rare book," as Dean Milman calls
+it--and the pictures drawn of him by Berthold Auerbach and Israel
+Zangwill[28] have made him the hero of some of the world's best
+biographies and novels. Over and above this, he is the prototype of his
+unfortunate countrymen during the days of transition. He embodied the
+aspiration, courage, and disappointments of them all, and if, as Carlyle
+said, "the history of the world is the history of its great men,"
+Maimon's life should be studied by all interested in the Kulturkampf of
+the Russo-Polish and of the German Jews in the eighteenth century.
+
+What could he not have accomplished, he to whom Kant and Goethe,
+Schiller and Koerner paid tributes of unstinted praise, had he not been
+doomed to suffer and to starve. Only at the last moment, before he was
+silenced forever, was he able to say, _Ich bin ruhig_ ("I am at peace").
+Yet, in spite of the difficulties and impediments besetting him at every
+step, his promise of greatness and usefulness was not belied. In the
+Introduction to his commentary on Maimuni's _Guide to the Perplexed
+(Gibe'at ha-Moreh)_, in which he attempted to reconcile his master's
+system with that of modern philosophy--even as the master had tried to
+reconcile Judaism with Aristotelianism--he gave a brief sketch of the
+development of modern thought. This part of his work was assiduously
+studied by his compatriots. Among his unpublished writings was found a
+work on mathematical physics, _Ta'alumot Hokmah_, and in his Talmudic
+treatise, _Heshek Shelomoh_, he inserted a dissertation, _Ma'aseh
+Hosheb_, on arithmetic, like a skilful physician putting a healing,
+though to some it may appear a repelling, balm into a delicious,
+attractive capsule.
+
+The story of Maimon, as I have said, is the story of many of the
+peripatetic apostles of Haskalah, and his experience was more or less
+also theirs. Issachar Falkensohn Behr (or Baer Falkensohn, 1746-1796?),
+without funds, friends, or rudimentary knowledge of the subjects
+necessary for admission into a public school, left his native city of
+Zamosez with the determination to enter the university of "Little
+Berlin," as Koenigsberg was called. Too poor to carry out his plan, he
+tramped to Berlin. Through the influence of his relatives and
+countrymen, Israel Moses Halevi and Daniel Jaffe, he was introduced to
+Mendelssohn, and was enabled to devote himself systematically to the
+study of German, the alphabet of which he had learned from Wolff's
+treatise on mathematics, and to French, Latin, physics, philosophy, and
+medicine. In a very short time he mastered them all, especially German.
+His _Gedichte eines polnischen Juden_ (Mitau and Leipsic, 1772) caused
+no little stir among the poets. Lessing and Goethe, close observers of
+symptoms of enlightenment among the Jews, expressed themselves
+differently as to the real merit of the collection; but both concurred
+with Boie, who, writing to Knebel, the friend of Goethe, remarked
+concerning them, "You are right; the Jewish nation promises much after
+it is once awakened."[29]
+
+For one reason or another we find that some Slavonic Jewish youths
+preferred other places to Berlin for the pursuit of their studies. Such
+were Benjamin Wolf Guenzberg and Jacob Liboschuets. The former was
+probably the only Jew at the Goettingen University. It was from there
+that he inquired of Jacob Emden "whether it was permissible to dissect
+on the Sabbath," and his thesis for the doctor's degree was _De medica
+ex Talmudicis illustrata_ (Goettingen, 1743).[30] Liboschuets studied at
+the University of Halle. After graduation, finding that as a Jew he
+could not settle in St. Petersburg, he established himself in Vilna,
+where he became celebrated as a diplomat, philanthropist, and, more
+especially, expert physician. When Professor Frank was asked who would
+take care of the public health in his absence, he is reported to have
+said, _Deus et Judaeus_, "God and the Jew" [Liboschuets]!
+
+In their deep-rooted love for learning, they sometimes ventured even
+beyond the German boundaries, into countries whose language and customs
+had little in common with theirs. Padua continued to be the resort of
+Russo-Polish Jews that it had been before 1648. Moses Hayyim Luzzatto
+found an ardent admirer and zealous propagandist of his principles in
+the young medical student Jekuthiel Gordon (ab. 1729), who wrote
+concerning his master to friends in Vienna and Vilna.[31] Judah Halevi
+Hurwitz (d. 1797), whose work _'Ammude Bet Yehudah_ (Amsterdam, 1765)
+was highly recommended by Mendelssohn and Wessely, was a graduate of the
+same famous institution. In addition to his medical and philosophic
+attainments, he wrote a number of poems, and he was among the first to
+translate fables from German into Hebrew.[32]
+
+The story of Zalkind Hurwitz (1740-1812), "le fameux," as he was called
+by a French writer, is interesting. Starting, as usual, by going to
+Berlin, and succeeding, as usual, in gaining the friendship of
+Mendelssohn, he then visited Nancy, Metz, and Strasburg, and finally
+settled in Paris. Like Doctor Behr, he had to resort to peddling as a
+means for a livelihood. The rudiments of French he acquired from any
+book he chanced to obtain. Nevertheless, he soon became proficient in
+the language of his adopted country, and wrote his excellent _Apologie
+des juifs_, which, crowned by the Academy of Metz and quoted by
+Mirabeau, was largely instrumental in removing the disabilities of the
+Jews in France. Clermont-Tonnerre, the advocate of Jewish emancipation,
+said of him, _Le juif polonais seul avait parle en philosophe_. He was
+suggested as a member of the Sanhedrin convoked by Napoleon in 1807.
+Though for some reason he never enjoyed the honor of membership in it,
+he was, nevertheless, the ruling spirit in the august assembly, and
+later generations have paid him the homage he deserves.[33]
+
+Where Hurwitz failed, another of his countrymen was to succeed. Judah
+Litvack (1776-1836) removed from Berlin to Amsterdam, became prominent
+among the Dutch mathematicians, and wrote a Dutch work, _Verhandeling
+over de Profgetallen Gen. ii_ (Amsterdam, 1817), which appeared in a
+second edition four years after the first. The author was elected a
+member of the Mathesis Artium Genetrix Society, and appointed one of the
+deputation sent to the Sanhedrin (February 12, 1807), before which he
+delivered a discourse in the German language.
+
+The "distant isles of the sea," the British Islands, Russo-Polish Jews
+seem to have frequented ever since the Restoration, probably
+contemporaneously with the settlement of the Spanish Jews. The famous
+mystic Hayyim Samuel Jacob Falk, one of the many Baal-Shems who
+flourished in Podolia at the beginning of the eighteenth century,
+settled in London before 1750, and became the subject of many wonder
+stories. Sussman Shesnovzi, apparently a countryman of his, describes
+him, in a letter to Jacob Emden, as "standing alone in his generation by
+reason of his knowledge of holy mysteries." That this was the opinion of
+many and prominent personages may be inferred from the fact that among
+his callers were such distinguished visitors as the Marchese de Crona,
+Baron de Neuhoff, Prince Czartorisky, and the Duke of Orleans. The
+confidence of such as these brought Falk a considerable fortune, a large
+part of which he bequeathed to a charity fund, the interest of which the
+overseers of the United Synagogue still distribute annually among the
+poor.[34] Shortly before "Doctor" Falk's death (1782), there settled in
+London Phinehas Phillips of Krotoschin, the founder of the Phillips
+family, which has furnished two Lord Mayors to the city of London.
+
+It was not merely because of its business facilities that England
+appealed to the Slavonic Jews. Baruch Shklover, or Schick (1740-1812),
+went thither to study medicine, and it was from English literature that
+he selected the material for his _Keneh ha-Middah_ (Prague, 1784;
+Shklov, 1793), on trigonometry. It would appear that the first Hebrew
+book, _Toledot Ya'akob_, printed for a Jew in England, was, as the name
+of the author, Eisenstadt, suggests, that of a Slavonic Jew. Although a
+silversmith by profession, Israel Lyons (d. 1770) was appointed teacher
+of Hebrew at the University of Cambridge. He acquired repute as a Hebrew
+scholar, and published, in 1757, the _Scholar's Instructor_, or _Hebrew
+Grammar_ (4th ed., 1823), and in 1768 a treatise printed by the
+Cambridge Press, _Observations and Inquiries Relating to Various Parts
+of Scripture History_. In the same chosen field labored Hyman Hurwitz
+(1770-1844), the friend of Coleridge, who founded the Highgate Academy
+(1799), and wrote an _Introduction to Hebrew Grammar_, _Vindica
+Hebraica_, and _Hebrew Tales_, which were translated into various
+languages. He finally became professor of Hebrew in University College,
+London.
+
+A younger contemporary of Abrahamson, the Jewish German medallist, was
+Solomon (Yom Tob) Bennett (1780-1841), the engraver of Polotsk, who
+spent a number of years at Copenhagen and Berlin in perfecting himself
+in his art. Among his works is a highly praised bas-relief of Frederick
+II, which was much admired by the professors of the Academy. An ardent
+lover of liberty, of which there was little more in Germany at that time
+than in Russia, he left for England, where he spent the remaining years
+of his life, in Bristol. Besides being an artist and an engraver he was
+a profound theologian, anxious to defend the cause of Judaism against
+enemies within and without. The enemy within he attacked in his cutting
+criticism of Solomon Cohen's _Rudiments of Religion_, and the enemy
+outside, in his other work, _The Constancy of Israel_ (_Nezah Yisrael_,
+London, 1809). He also wrote expositions on many important Biblical
+topics, such as sacrifices (1815) and the Temple (1824). Having pointed
+out the defects of the Authorized Version (1834), he was ambitious of
+publishing a complete revised translation of the Bible. Specimens
+appeared in 1841. Death intervened and frustrated his plans. As Schick
+was the first Jew to translate from English into Hebrew, so Bennett was
+the first after Manasseh ben Israel to write in English in behalf of his
+people.[35]
+
+If the contributions of Slavonic Jews to Latin, German, French, Dutch,
+and English literature were not less considerable at that time than
+those of the Jews residing in the countries where these languages were
+respectively used as media, they excelled them in Hebrew literature. In
+the renaissance of the holy tongue, they played the most important part
+from the first. The striving for knowledge, not for the purpose of
+obtaining a coveted privilege, but for its own sake, became an
+irresistible passion, and it was accompanied by an unquenchable desire
+to disseminate knowledge among the masses, to make learning and wisdom
+common property. The Hebrew language being the best vehicle for the
+purpose, it was soon impressed into the service of Haskalah. The pioneer
+Maskilim learned to handle it with ease and clearness that would do
+credit to a modern writer in a much more developed European language.
+
+From the middle of the fifteenth to the latter part of the eighteenth
+century, Hebrew literature consisted, if a few scattered books on
+philosophy, mostly translations from the Arabic, are excepted, mainly of
+Talmudic disquisitions, written in the rabbinic dialect and in a
+euphuistic style. Besides the great Maimuni, there were few able or
+willing to write Hebrew "as she should be spoke." The early German
+Maskilim, in trying to escape the Scylla of Rabbinism, fell victims to
+the Charybdis of Germanism. They possessed originality neither of style
+nor of sentiment, neither of rhyme nor of reason. Hebrew poetry was an
+adaptation of current German poetry. The very best the period produced,
+the _Mosaide_ of Wessely, was influenced by and largely an imitation of
+Klopstock and others. Like English classic poetry, it is pretty in form
+but poor in spirit. The element of nationality, or distinctiveness, the
+life-giving and soul-uplifting element in all poetry, as Delitzsch
+justly maintains it to be, was lacking in the German Maskilim, anxious
+for naturalization as they were. It was the Slavonic Maskilim who
+mastered Hebrew in its purity, as it had not been mastered since the day
+of Judah Halevi. In those days of transition the diligent student can
+find, in germ, what was later to develop into the resplendent poetical
+flowers produced by the Lebensohns, the Gordons, Dolitzky, Schapiro,
+Mane, and Bialik.
+
+The Slavonic contributors to the Meassef, the first Hebrew literary
+periodical (1784-1811), were not conspicuous in number, but if quality
+can compensate for quantity, they made up for it by the value of their
+articles. Dubno and Maimon enriched the early issues, the one with
+poetry, the other with philosophy; and when it began to struggle for its
+existence, and was on the point of giving up the ghost, Shalom Cohen
+(1772-1845) came to the rescue, and, as editor, prolonged its existence
+by a few years. Among the best articles in the Meassef are those of
+Isaac Halevi Satanov (1733-1805). This "conglomeration of contrasts,"
+whom Delitzsch regards as the restorer of Hebrew poetry to its primitive
+beauty and purity, was the embodiment of the period in which he lived.
+"He was," we are told, "a thorough master of Jewish traditional lore,
+and at the same time a most advanced thinker, a profound physicist, and
+an inspired poet; a master of the old school and at the same time the
+founder of the new school, the national-classical, of Hebrew poetry."
+His pure and precise style, his good-natured, Horace-like, delicate, yet
+unmistakable, humor, he showed in a series of books bearing the name of
+Asaf, which still must be counted among the gems of Hebrew
+literature.[36]
+
+Satanov was greatly in favor of expanding the Hebrew language, but the
+first to borrow expressions from the Talmud literature or coin words of
+his own was Mendel Levin, also of Satanov, Podolia (1741-1819), the
+friend of Mendelssohn while in Berlin, the inspirer of Perl and Krochmal
+while in Brody, the companion of Zeitlin and Schick while in Mohilev.
+The Meassefim, the name generally applied to all who participated in the
+publication of the Meassef, were shocked by what they regarded a
+profanation of the sacred tongue. Their idea was that Hebrew was to be
+utilized as a means of introducing Western civilization. Afterwards it
+was to be relegated once more to the holy Ark. To Levin Hebrew had a far
+higher significance. Not only should Western civilization be introduced
+into Jewry through its means, but Hebrew itself should be so perfected
+as to take a place by the side of the more modern and cultivated
+languages. It should find adequate expressions for the new thoughts and
+ideas which the new learning would introduce into it directly or
+indirectly. The medieval translations from the Arabic should be
+retranslated into the new Hebrew, he held, and he furnished an example
+by recasting the first part of Maimuni's _Moreh Nebukim_. His modernized
+version, lucid and fluent, printed alongside of Ibn Tibbon's, presents a
+striking contrast to the stiffness and obscurity of the Provencal
+scholar's. Levin was also the first to write in the Yiddish, or
+Judeo-German, dialect, for the instruction of the masses, which made him
+the butt of more than one satire. But what was generally regarded as a
+degrading task was fraught with the greatest consequences to the
+Haskalah. To this day Yiddish has continued an important medium for
+disseminating culture among Russian Jews, both in the Old World and in
+the New.[37]
+
+The century remarkable among other things for encyclopedia
+enterprises,--_Chambers' Encyclopedia_ in England, the _Universal
+Lexicon_ in Germany, and that wonderful and monumental work, the
+_Encyclopedie_ in France--saw, before its close, a similar attempt, in
+miniature, in Hebrew and by a Slavonic Maskil. Whether the Hebrew
+encyclopedist was influenced by the example of Dr. Tobias Cohn's
+_Ma'aseh Tobiah_ mentioned above, or was unconsciously imbued with the
+prevailing tendency of the times, it is impossible to tell. In any
+event, he resorted to the same means, and presented the Jewish world
+with a volume containing a little of every science known, under the
+innocent name _The Book of the Covenant_ (_Sefer ha-Berit_, Bruenn,
+1797).
+
+The book appeared anonymously. This, the author assures us, was due not
+to humbleness of spirit, but to a vow. His diligence and constant
+application had greatly impaired his eyes. He vowed that if God restored
+his sight, and enabled him to finish his task, he would publish the book
+without disclosing his authorship. God hearkened unto his prayers, and
+the work was soon completed. But an unforeseen trouble arose. His book
+was ascribed "by some to the sage of Berlin, by others to the Gaon of
+Vilna, and by many to the united efforts of a coterie of scholars, for
+it could not be believed that so many and diverse sciences could be
+mastered by one person." Moreover, the author was censured for being
+afraid to come out openly and boldly as a champion of Haskalah.[38] In
+spite of obstacles and strictures, the book met with success surpassing
+the author's expectations. It found its way not only into Russia,
+Poland, and Germany, but even into France, Italy, England, Holland, and
+Palestine. An edition of two thousand copies was entirely exhausted,
+unusual at a time when books were costly and money was scarce, and
+another edition was issued. What Phinehas Elijah (Hurwitz) of Vilna had
+sown in tears, he lived to reap in joy.
+
+There was a crying need in Russia for a work of the sort. In Germany the
+very Government encouraged organizations and publications aiming at
+enlightenment. Accordingly, a Society for the Promotion of the Good and
+the Noble was started, and the Meassef was published. In Russo-Poland
+not even a Hebrew printing-press was permitted, and certainly no
+periodical publications would have been tolerated. Phinehas Elijah,
+therefore, grasped the opportunity, and showed himself equal to it. His
+aim was, like that of the French encyclopedists, to lead his readers
+"through nature to God." He gives an account of the various sciences,
+natural and philosophical, as a prolegomenon to the study of theology,
+even of the mystic teachings of Vital's _Gates of Holiness_. Withal he
+evinces a sound intellect and refined, if rudimentary, taste. He decries
+the "ancestor worship" that rendered the Jew of his day a fossil
+specimen of an extinct species. The present is superior to the past, "a
+dwarf on a giant's shoulder seeth farther than doth the giant himself."
+He ridicules the base and degrading habit of dedicating books to
+"benefactors, friends, lovers, parents, men, or women." His work was
+written for the glory of God, and he dedicates it to eternal,
+all-conquering truth.[39]
+
+All these Maskilim, so many hands reaching out into the light, were both
+the cause and the consequence of the longing for enlightenment
+characteristic at all times of the Slavonic Jew. Graetz and his
+followers among the latter-day Maskilim delighted in calling them "they
+that walk in darkness." Facts, however, prove that at no time before
+Nicholas I was education per se regarded with the least suspicion,
+though the Talmud was given the preference. As in the pre-Haskalah
+period, the greatest Talmudists deemed it a sacred duty to perfect
+themselves in some branch of secular science. When, in 1710, a terrible
+plague broke out in his native town, Rabbi Jonathan of Risenci (Grodno)
+vowed that, "if he were spared, he would disseminate a knowledge of
+astronomy among his countrymen." To fulfil the vow he went to Germany
+(1725), where, though blind, he devoted himself assiduously first to the
+acquisition of astronomy, then to writing on it.[40] Baruch Yavan of
+Volhynia, who more than any one exposed the impostures of Jacob Frank,
+"spoke and wrote Hebrew, Polish, German, and probably French," and his
+accomplishments and address won him the admiration of Count Bruehl, the
+virtual ruler of Poland, and the favor of the highest officials at St.
+Petersburg. His associate in the righteous fight, Bima Speir of Mohilev,
+was also possessed of a thorough command of the language of Russia, and
+was well posted in its literature, history, and politics. The Pinczovs,
+descendants of Rabbi Polack, connected with the most eminent rabbinical
+families, and themselves famous for piety and erudition, produced many
+works on mathematics and philosophy. Mendelssohn's translation of the
+Pentateuch was at first hailed with joy, and was recommended by the most
+zealous rabbis. Doctor Hurwitz of Vilna did not hesitate to dedicate his
+_'Ammude Bet Yehudah_ to Wessely, who was more popular in Russo-Poland
+than in Germany. The whole edition of his _Yen Lebanon_, which fell flat
+in the latter country, though offered gratis, was sold when introduced
+into the former.[41] Joseph Pesseles' correspondence concerning Dubno,
+with David Friedlaender, the disciple of Mendelssohn (1773), proves the
+high esteem in which the liberal-minded savants of Berlin were held in
+Russia. The rabbis of Brest, Slutsk, and Lublin gave laudatory
+recommendations to Judah Loeb Margolioth's popular works of natural
+science, which form a little encyclopedia by themselves. Margolioth was
+the grandson of Mordecai Jaffe, himself rabbi successively at Busnov,
+Szebrszyn, Polotsk, Lesla, and Frankfort-on-the-Oder (d. 1811). The
+writings of Baruch Schick of Shklov, referred to above, were accorded
+the same welcome. His translation of Euclid and his treatises on
+trigonometry, astronomy (_'Ammude ha-Shamayim_), and anatomy (_Tiferet
+Adam_) won the admiration of rabbis as well as laymen. Epitaphs of the
+day contain the statement that the deceased was not only "at home in all
+the chambers of the Torah," but also in "philosophy and the seven
+sciences." And this, exaggerated though it may be, must be seen to
+contain a kernel of the truth, when we recall that among Maimon's
+intimate friends was the rabbi of Kletzk, Lithuania; that in the humble
+dwelling of his father there were works on historical, astronomical, and
+philosophical subjects; that the chief rabbi of a neighboring town,
+Rabbi Samson of Slonim, who, according to Fuenn, "had in his youth lived
+for a while in Germany, learned the German language there, and made
+himself acquainted in some measure with the sciences," continued his
+study of the sciences, and soon collected a fair library of German
+books.[42] Saadia, Bahya, Halevi, Ibn Ezra, Crescas, Bedersi, Levi ben
+Gerson (whom Goldenthal calls the Hebrew Kant), Albo, Abarbanel, and
+others whose works deserve a high place in the history of Jewish
+philosophy, were on the whole fairly represented in the libraries, and
+diligently studied in the numerous yeshibot and batte midrashim.
+
+Thus the enlightenment which dawned upon France, Germany, and England
+cast a glow even on the Slavonic Jews, despite the Chinese wall of
+disabilities that hemmed them in. Unfortunately, this only helped to
+render them dissatisfied with their wretched lot, without affording them
+the means of ameliorating it. While the Jews in Western Europe profited
+and were encouraged by the example of their Christian neighbors; while,
+in addition to their innate thirst for learning, they had everywhere
+else political and civil preferments to look forward to, in Russo-Poland
+not only were such outside stimuli absent, but the Slavonic Jews had to
+struggle against obstacles and hindrances at every step. No such heaven
+on earth could be dreamed of there. The country was still in a most
+barbarous state. Those who wished to perfect themselves in any of the
+sciences had to leave home and all and go to a foreign land, and had to
+study, as they were bidden to study the Talmud, "lishmah," that is, for
+its own sake. This is the distinguishing feature between the German and
+Slavonic Maskilim during the eighteenth century. The cry of the former
+was, "Become learned, lest the nations say we are not civilized and deny
+us the wealth, respect, and especially the equality we covet!" The
+latter were humbly seeking after the truth, either because they could
+better elucidate the Talmud, or because, as they held, it was _their_
+truth, of which the nations had deprived them during their long
+exile.[43] They were unlike their German brethren in another respect.
+Almost all of them were "self-made men," autodidacts in the truest
+sense. Lacking the advantages of secular schools, they culled their
+first information from scanty, antiquated Hebrew translations. Maimon
+learned the Roman alphabet from the transliteration of the titles on the
+fly-leaves of some Talmudic tracts; Doctor Behr, from Wolff's
+_Mathematics_. But no sooner was the impetus given than it was followed
+by an insatiable craving for more and more of the intellectual manna,
+for a wider and wider horizon. "Look," says Wessely, "look at our
+Russian and Polish brethren who immigrate hither, men great in Torah,
+yet admirers of the sciences, which, without the guiding help of
+teachers, they all master to such perfection as to surpass even a
+Gentile sage!"[44] Such self-education was, of course, not without
+unfavorable results. Never having enjoyed the advantage of a systematic
+elementary training, the enthusiasts sometimes lacked the very rudiments
+of knowledge, though engaged in the profoundest speculations of
+philosophy. "As our mothers in Egypt gave birth to their children before
+the mid-wife came," writes Pinsker somewhat later,[45] "even so it is
+with the intellectual products of our brethren: before one becomes
+acquainted with the grammar of a language, he masters its classic and
+scientific literature!"
+
+Steadily though slowly, brighter, if not better, days were coming.
+"Thought once awakened shall not again slumber." As Carlyle says of the
+French of that period, it became clear for the first time to the
+upturned eyes of the Jews, "that Thought has actually a kind of
+existence in other kingdoms [than the Talmud]; that some glimmerings of
+civilization had dawned here and there on the human species." They begin
+to try all things; they visit Germany, France, Denmark, Holland, even
+England; learn their literatures, study in their universities, and
+contribute their quota to the apologetic, controversial, scientific, and
+philosophic investigations "with a candor and real love of improvement
+which give the best omens of a still higher success." Fortune, indeed,
+has cast them also into a cavern, and they are groping around darkly.
+But this prisoner, too, is a giant, and he will, at length, burst forth
+as a giant into the light of day.
+
+(Notes, pp. 310-314.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE DAWN OF HASKALAH
+
+1794-1840
+
+
+A glimmer of light pierced the Russian sky at the accession of Catherine
+II (1762-1796). This "Semiramis of the North," the admirer of Buffon,
+Montesquieu, Diderot, and, more especially, Voltaire, whose motto, _N'en
+croyez rien_, she adopted, endeavored, and for a while not without
+success, to introduce into her own country the spirit of tolerance which
+pervaded France. Her ukases were intended for all alike, "without
+distinction of religion and nationality." Her regard for her Jewish
+citizens she showed by allowing them to settle in the interior,
+establish printing-presses (January 27, 1783), and become civil and
+Government officers (April 2, 1785). In the edict promulgated by
+Governor-General Chernyshev it is stated that "religious liberty and
+inviolability of property are hereby granted to all subjects of Russia
+and certainly to the Jews; for the humanitarian principles of her
+Majesty do not permit the exclusion of the Jews alone from the favors
+shown to all, so long as they, as faithful subjects, continue to employ
+themselves, as hitherto, with commerce and trade, each according to his
+vocation." That she remained true to her promise, we see from the
+numerous privileges enjoyed by many Jews, who began to frequent Moscow
+and St. Petersburg and reside there for business purposes.
+
+Paul (1796-1801), too, was kindly disposed toward the Jews, and
+permitted them to live in Courland; and when Alexander I (1801-1825)
+became czar, their hopes turned into certainty. Alexander I did, indeed,
+appear a most promising ruler at his accession. The theories he had
+acquired from Laharpe he fully intended to apply to practical life. Like
+Catherine, he wished to rule in equity and promote the welfare of his
+subjects irrespective of race or creed. He ordered a commission to
+investigate the status of the Russian Jews (December 9, 1802). The
+result was the polozheniye (enactment) of December 9, 1804, according to
+which Jews were to be eligible to one-third of all municipal offices;
+they were to be permitted to establish factories, become agriculturists,
+and either attend the schools and colleges of the empire on the same
+footing as subjects of the Christian faith, or, if they desired, found
+and maintain schools of their own. The approach of the great Usurper and
+the crushing defeat the Russians sustained at the battle of Friedland
+(June 4, 1808) also favored the advance of the Jews. As the short, but
+troublous, reign of Paul and his wars with Turkey, Persia, Prussia,
+Poland, and Sweden had impoverished the country and depleted the
+treasury, the shrewd Alexander was not averse from appealing to Jews for
+help. Of course, as in many more enlightened countries and in more
+modern times, most of the privileges were merely paper privileges. Few
+of them ever went into effect. The noble intentions of the enlightened
+rulers were steadily thwarted by bigoted councillors and jealous
+merchants. Every favor shown the Jews aroused a storm of protests, which
+resulted in numerous infringements. The Jews were compelled to pay for
+the good intentions of Catherine with a double tax (June 25, 1794), and,
+during Paul's reign, without the emperor's knowledge, a law was enacted
+requiring of Jews double payment of the guild license. In spite of all
+efforts, the Jews, instead of being emancipated politically, were
+burdened with additional discriminations.[1]
+
+Had not the wheel of progress suddenly stopped revolving, Russian Jews
+might have constituted one of the most useful as well as most
+intellectual elements in the vast empire. As it was, the kindly
+intention of czar or czarina sufficed to arouse them from the asthenia
+to which they were reduced for want of freedom. The times were rife with
+excitement, and the Jewish atmosphere with expectancy. The mighty
+changes which were taking place in Russia and Poland; the dismemberment
+of the latter; the annexation of Balta (1791), Lithuania (1794), and
+Courland (1797) to the former; the short-lived yet potent German rule in
+Byelostok (1793-1807), and the rude but memorable contact with France
+(1807-1812), these and many other important happenings in a brief span
+of time had a telling effect upon the diverse races under the dominion
+of Russia, and among them not the least upon the Jewish race. Everywhere
+the desire for "liberty, equality, and fraternity" began to manifest
+itself. In Courland, the most German of Russian provinces, Georg
+Gottfried Mylich, a Lutheran pastor at Nerft, made a touching appeal
+(ab. 1787) in German on behalf of the Jews, insisting that the word Jew
+"should not be taken to indicate a class of people different from us,
+but only a different religious body; and as regards his nationality, it
+should not hinder him from obtaining citizen's rights and liberties
+equal to those of the people of Sleswick, the Saxons, Danes, Swedes,
+Swiss, French, and Italians, who also live among us." In Poland, Tadeusz
+Czacki, the historian, wrote his _Discourse on the Jews_ (_Rosprava o
+Zhydakh_, Vilna, 1807), in which he deplores that Jews "experienced
+indulgence rarely, oppression often, and contempt nearly always" under
+the most Christian governments, and suggests a plan for reforming their
+condition. But the main appeal for freedom came, as might have been
+expected, from the Jews themselves. Contemporaneous with, if not before,
+Michel Beer's _Appel a la justice des nations et des rois_, a Lithuanian
+Jew, during his imprisonment in Nieszvicz on a false charge, wrote a
+work in Polish on the Jewish problem,[2] while in 1803 Loeb, or Leon,
+Nebakhovich, an intimate friend of Count Shakovskoy, published _The Cry
+of the Daughter of Judah_ (_Fopli Docheri Yudeyskoy_), the first defence
+of the Russian Jew in the Russian language. The followers of the
+religion of love are implored to love a Jew because he is a Jew, and
+they are assured that the Jew who preserves his religion undefiled can
+be neither a bad man nor a bad citizen.
+
+But the Jews did not wait for their dreams to be realized. They threw
+themselves into the swirl of their country's ambition, as if they had
+never received anything other than the tenderness of a devoted mother at
+her hands. They were "kindled in a common blaze" of patriotism with the
+rest of the population. That in spite of all accusations to the contrary
+they remained loyal to Poland, is amply proved by the history of that
+unfortunate country. The characteristic kapota of the Polish Jew, his
+whole garb, including the yarmulka (under cap), is simply the old Polish
+costume, which the Jews retained after the Poles had adopted the German
+form of dress.[3] "When, in the year 1794," says Czacki, "despair armed
+the [Polish] capital, the Jews were not afraid of death, but, mingling
+with the troops and the populace, they proved that danger did not
+terrify them, and that the cause of the fatherland was dear to them."
+With the permission of Kosciusko, Colonel Joselovich Berek, later killed
+at the battle of Kotzk (1809), formed a regiment of light cavalry
+consisting entirely of Jews, which distinguished itself especially at
+the siege of Warsaw. Most of the members perished in defence of the
+suburb of Praga. In the agony of death, Rabbi Hayyim longed for good
+tidings, that he might die in peace. And when the fight was over,
+Zbitkover expended two barrels of money, one filled with gold ducats and
+one with silver rubles, for the live and dead soldiers who were brought
+to him.[4] Indeed, Prince Czartorisky was so convinced of their
+patriotism, that he always advocated the same rights for the Polish Jews
+as were claimed for the Polish Gentiles, entrusted his children to the
+care of Mendel Levin of Satanov, and instructed his son, Prince
+Ladislaus, always to remain their friend.[5]
+
+But when, in spite of struggle and sacrifice, the doom "finis Poloniae"
+was sounded, and a large portion of the once powerful empire was
+incorporated into Russia, we find the Jews bearing their sorrow
+patiently, and willingly performing their duties as subjects to their
+new masters. Their attachment to their czar and country was not shaken
+in the least when, in 1812, Napoleon made them flattering promises to
+secure their services in his behalf. Rabbi Shneor Zalman, the eminent
+leader of the Lithuanian Hasidim, hearing of the invasion of the French
+army, spent many days in prayer and fasting for the success of the
+Russians, and fled on the Sabbath day, not to be contaminated by contact
+with the "godless French." When Napoleon was finally defeated, the event
+was celebrated both at home and in the synagogue, and Russian soldiers
+were everywhere welcomed by Jews with gifts and good cheer.[6]
+Lilienthal relates that the Jews succeeded in intercepting a courier who
+carried the plan of operations of the French army, and Alexander
+declared in a dispatch that Jews had opened the eyes of the Russians,
+and the Government, therefore, felt itself bound to them by eternal
+gratitude.[7] It is to this proof of patriotism that some attribute
+Alexander's interest in the Jews and his order that three deputies
+should reside in St. Petersburg to represent them in Russia, and in
+Poland a committee consisting of three Christians and eight Jews should
+be appointed to devise ways and means of ameliorating their
+condition.[8]
+
+The times were promising in other respects. In that critical period, the
+Government, reposing but little confidence in Russian merchants, whose
+business motto was "No swindle, no sale," allowed several Jews to become
+Government contractors (podradchiki). These, while rendering valuable
+services, amassed considerable fortunes. Notwithstanding the law
+restricting Jewish residence to the Pale of Settlement, Catherine II
+speaks of Jews who resided in St. Petersburg for many years, and lodged
+in the house of a priest, who had been her confessor. Moreover, Jews
+contributed not a little to the liberal policy of Alexander I. Among
+them were Eliezer Dillon of Nieszvicz (d. 1838), who was honored by the
+emperor with a gold medal "for faithful and conscientious services," and
+was given an audience by his Majesty, at which he pleaded the cause of
+his coreligionists;[9] Nathan Notkin, who mitigated the possible effect
+of Senator Dyerzhavin's baneful opinions concerning Jews, as expressed
+in his report (_Mnyenie_, September, 1800), and who suggested the
+establishment of schools for children and for adults in Yekaterinoslav
+and elsewhere; Abraham Peretz, the personal friend of Speransky,
+Dyerzhavin, and Potemkin, and a brilliant financier, whose high standing
+enabled him to be a power for good in the councils concerning Jews;[10]
+and his father-in-law, Joshua Zeitlin (1724-1822). Zeitlin was a rare
+phenomenon, reminding one of the golden days of Jewish Spain. His
+knowledge of finance and political economy won him the admiration of
+Prince Potemkin, the protection of Czarina Catherine, and the esteem of
+Alexander I, who appointed him court councillor (nadvorny sovyetnik).
+But his mercantile pursuits did not hinder him from study, and his high
+living did not interfere with his high thinking. His palatial home at
+Ustye, in Mohilev, became a refuge for all needy Talmudists and
+Maskilim, whom he helped with the liberality of a Maecenas; he conducted
+an extensive correspondence on rabbinic literature, and for many years
+supported Doctor Schick and Mendel Levin. For Doctor Schick he built a
+laboratory, and filled his library with rare manuscripts and works on
+Jewish and secular subjects.[11]
+
+Even among the conservative Talmudists signs of improvement were not
+wanting. The Gaon became the centre of a group of enlightened friends
+and disciples, who continued in his footsteps after his death. His son,
+Rabbi Abraham, who published and edited many of his works, a task
+requiring no small amount of acumen and Talmudic erudition,[12] was also
+the author of books on geography, mathematics, and physics. His pupils,
+such as Doctor Schick and Rabbi Benjamin and Rabbi Zelmele, influenced
+their contemporaries either directly, by bringing them in touch with the
+new learning, or indirectly, by reforming the school system and the
+method of Talmud study.[13] Of Rabbi Zelmele, who like his master became
+the hero of a wonder-biography written by his disciple Ezekiel Feivel of
+Plungian, we are told that he regarded grammar as indispensable to a
+thorough knowledge of the Bible and the Talmud, pleaded for a return to
+the order of study prescribed in the _Pirke Abot_, and complained that,
+owing to the neglect of Aramaic, the benefits of comparative philology
+were lost and unknown. He declared also that while he believed in all
+the Bible contains, the stories in the Talmud are, for the most part,
+legends and parables used for the purpose of illustration.[14]
+
+[Illustration: MAX LILIENTHAL, 1815-1882]
+
+Towering above all the disciples of the Gaon, the most outspoken in
+behalf of enlightenment is Manasseh of Ilye (1767-1831). At a very early
+age he attracted the attention of Talmudists by his originality and
+boldness. In his unflinching determination to get at the truth, he did
+not shrink from criticising Rashi and the _Shulhan 'Aruk_, and dared to
+interpret some parts of the Mishnah differently from the explanation
+given in the Gemara. With all his admiration for the Gaon, but for whom,
+he claimed, the Torah would have been forgotten, he also had points of
+sympathy with the Hasidim, for whose leader, Shneor Zalman of Ladi, he
+had the highest respect. Like many of his contemporaries, he determined
+to go to Berlin. He started on his way, but was stopped at Koenigsberg by
+some orthodox coreligionists, and compelled to return to Russia. This
+did not prevent his perfecting himself in German, Polish, natural
+philosophy, mechanics, and even strategics. On the last subject he wrote
+a book, which was burnt by his friends, "lest the Government suspect
+that Jews are making preparations for war!" But it is not so much his
+Talmudic or secular scholarship that makes him interesting to us to-day.
+His true greatness is revealed by his attempts, the first made in his
+generation perhaps, to reconcile the Hasidim with the Mitnaggedim, and
+these in turn with the Maskilim. He spoke a good word for manual labor,
+and proved from the Talmud that burdensome laws should be abolished. His
+_Pesher Dabar_ (Vilna, 1807) and _Alfe Menasheh_ (ibid., 1827, 1860) are
+monuments to the advanced views of the author. In the Hebrew literature
+of his time, they are equalled only by the _'Ammude Bet Yehudah_ and the
+_Hekal 'Oneg_ of Doctor Hurwitz.[15]
+
+This short period of enlightenment and tolerance, inaugurated by a
+semblance of equality, indicates the native optimism of the Slavonic
+Jew. For a while a cessation of hostilities was evident in the camp of
+Israel. The reforms introduced by the Gaon, and propagated by his
+disciples, began to bear fruit. Hasidism itself underwent a radical
+change under the leadership of Rabbi Shneor Zalman of Ladi (1747-1813)
+and Jacob Joseph of Polonnoy, who, unlike their colleagues of the
+Ukraine, were learned in the Talmud and familiar with the sciences.
+Protests by Hasidim themselves against the irreverent spirit that
+developed after the death of the Besht, had in fact been heard before.
+The saintly and retiring Abraham Malak (d. 1780) had denounced, in no
+uncertain terms, the gross conception held by the Hasidim of the sublime
+teachings of their own sect. He drew a beautiful picture of the ideal
+zaddik, who is "so absorbed in meditation on the Divine wisdom that he
+cannot descend to the lower steps upon which ordinary people stand."[16]
+But the more active Rabbi Shneor, or Zalman Ladier, as he was usually
+called, insisted on putting the zaddik on a par with the rabbi, whose
+duty it is not to work miracles but to teach righteousness. Assuming for
+his followers the name HaBaD, the three letters of which are the
+initials of the Hebrew words for Wisdom, Reason, and Knowledge, he
+furthered the cause of enlightenment in the only way possible among his
+adherents.[17] How well he succeeded may be inferred from the fact,
+trivial though it be, that the biography of the Besht, _The Praises of
+the Besht_ (_Shibhe ha-Besht_), by Dob Baer, published in Berdichev
+(1815), omits many of the legends about the Master included in the
+version published the same year in Kopys. The omission can be explained
+only on the ground that the editor, Judah Loeb, who was the son of the
+author, did not wish to give offence, or he had outgrown the credulity
+of his father.[18]
+
+The feeling of tolerance manifested itself also in the Jewish attitude
+towards the Gentiles. "O that we were identified with the nations of our
+time, created by the same God, children of one Father, and did not hate
+each other because we are at variance in some views!" This exclamation
+of Doctor Hurwitz[19] found an echo in the works of the other Maskilim
+that wrote in Hebrew, but more especially of those who used a European
+language. They were deeply interested in whatever marked a step forward
+in their country's civilization. The opening of a gymnasium in Mitau
+(1775) was a joyful occasion, which inspired Hurwitz's Hebrew muse, and
+at the centennial celebration of the surrender of Riga to Peter the
+Great (July 4, 1810), the craving of the Jewish heart, avowed in a
+German poem, was expressed "in the name of the local Hebrew community to
+their Christian compatriots." The last stanza runs as follows:
+
+  Grant us, who, like you, worship the God above,
+  Also on earth to enjoy equality with you!
+  To-day, while your hearts are open to love,
+  Let us seal our happiness with your love, too![20]
+
+This desire for naturalization brought with it an attempt at
+"Russification." To show the beauty of the Russian language, Baruch
+Czatzskes of Volhynia translated some of the poems of Khersakov into
+Hebrew, and others published manuals for the study of Russian and
+Polish.[21] Among the first books issued from the newly-established
+printing-press in Shklov, the centre of Jewish wealth, refinement, and
+culture at that time, was the _Zeker Rab_ with a German translation
+(1804). In an appendix thereto the Shklov Maskilim announced their
+intention to publish a weekly, the first in the Hebrew tongue. Yiddish
+was also resorted to as a medium for educating the masses, and as early
+as 1813 some Vilna Jews applied to the Government for permission to
+publish a paper in that language, though it was not until ten years
+later (1823-1824) that a Yiddish periodical, Der Beobachter an der
+Weichsel, appeared in Warsaw. Nor do we hear of any opposition to the
+Government decrees, issued probably at the request of Dillon, Notkin,
+Peretz, or Nebakhovich, that the elders of the kahals in and after 1808,
+and the rabbis of the congregations in and after 1812, be conversant
+with either Russian, German, or Polish. This sudden Russification of the
+Jews amounted sometimes to no more than a superficial imitation of
+Russian civilization, which pious rabbis as well as liberal-minded men
+like Schick, Margolioth, Ilye, and Hurwitz, felt impelled to call a halt
+to. Jews, especially the rich, aped the Polish pans. Their wives dressed
+in Parisian gowns of the latest fashion, and their homes were conducted
+in a manner so luxurious as to arouse the envy of the noblemen. Israel
+waxed fat and kicked. Their greatest care was to become wealthy; they
+pampered their bodies at the expense of the impoverishment of their
+souls, and some feared that "with the passing away of the elder
+generation there would not remain a man capable of filling the position
+of rabbi."[22]
+
+The privilege of attending public schools and colleges further
+stimulated the Russification of the Jews. As soon as these institutions
+of learning were thrown open to them, numerous Jewish youths made
+headway in all branches taught, especially in medicine. That Alexander's
+benign decree of November 10, 1811, issued through the Secretary of
+State Speransky, was not always executed by his officials goes without
+saying. Simeon Levy Wolf, one of the first Russo-Jewish graduates, was
+denied his degree of doctor of jurisprudence in Dorpat unless he
+embraced Christianity.[23] When, in 1819, some of the Vilna graduates
+applied for the privilege of not paying the double tax, they were told
+that they must first renounce their faith, an exception being made only
+in favor of Arthur Parlovich. Still the number of Jewish graduate
+physicians was on the increase. Osip Yakovlevich Liboschuets, who was the
+son of the famous physician of Vilna, took his doctor degree at Dorpat
+(1806), became court physician in St. Petersburg, where he founded a
+hospital for children, and wrote extensively in French on the flora of
+his country.[24] The medical institute of Vilna (1803-1833), afterwards
+transferred to Kiev, became the centre of attraction for the Russian
+Jewry. Padua, Berlin, Koenigsberg, Goettingen, Copenhagen, Halle,
+Amsterdam, Cambridge, and London were for a third of a century replaced
+by the home of the Gaon and of Doctor Liboschuets. The first students
+were recruited from the bet ha-midrash, and they frequently joined, as
+in former days, knowledge of the Law with the practice of their chosen
+profession. Such were Isaac Markusevich, whose annotations to the
+_Shulhan 'Aruk_ (ab. 1830) were published fifty years later;[25] Joseph
+Rosensohn, the promising Talmudist who became rabbi of Pyosk at the age
+of nineteen;[26] and Kusselyevsky of Nieszvicz, a stipendiary of a
+Polish nobleman and a great favorite with Professor Frank. Because of
+his proficiency, he was exempted from serving as a vratch (interne), and
+for his piety and learning he was addressed by Jews and Gentiles as
+"rabbi."[27]
+
+With what dreams such happenings filled the Jewish heart! "Thank God,"
+writes a merchant of the first guild in reply to an inquiry from distant
+Bokhara, "thank God, we dwell in peace under the sovereignty of our czar
+Alexander, who has shown us his mercy, and has put us in every respect
+on an equality with all the inhabitants of the land."[28] But a rude
+awakening was soon to make the Jews aware that their visions of better
+days were still far from realization. In 1815, Alexander I formed the
+acquaintance of Baroness Kruedener, and since then, to the satisfaction
+of Prince Galitzin, "with what giant strides the emperor advanced in the
+pathway of religion!" His humanitarian deeds gave way to a profound
+religious mysticism. He experienced a revulsion of feeling toward
+reforms in his vast empire, and, as always, the Jews were the first
+victims of an ill-boding change. The kindly monarch who, at Paris, had
+said to a Russo-Jewish deputation, _J'enleverai le joug de vos epaules_,
+began to make their yoke heavier than he had found it. The enlightened
+czar, who, in striking a medal commemorating the emancipation of the
+Jews of his empire, had anticipated Napoleon by a year, suddenly became
+a bigoted tyrant, whose efforts were devoted to converting the same Jews
+to Christianity. He who had claimed that his greatest reward would be to
+produce a Mendelssohn, now resorted to various expedients, to render
+education unpalatable to the Jews. The Jewish assemblymen, who, in 1816,
+soon after the Franco-Russian war, had been convoked to St. Petersburg,
+were not allowed to meet; and when, two years later, they did meet,
+their every attempt was baffled by the Government. Jews were expelled
+systematically from St. Petersburg (1818). They were forbidden to employ
+Christians as servants (May 4, 1820), to immigrate into Russia from
+abroad (August 10, 1824), and reside in the towns and villages of
+Mohilev and Vitebsk (January 13, 1825). Several years after the double
+poll and guild tax had been abolished in Courland (November 8, 1807), it
+was restored with an additional impost on meat from cattle slaughtered
+according to the Jewish rite (korobka). All this impoverished the Jews
+to such an extent that they were forced to sell the cravats of their
+praying shawls (taletim), in order to defray the expense of a second
+deputation to St. Petersburg.[29]
+
+Had Alexander I been satisfied with merely restricting the Jews' rights,
+the favorable attitude towards enlightenment we have noticed above would
+probably have remained unaltered. Unfortunately, Alexander became a
+fanatic conversionist. It was a time when missionary zeal became
+endemic, and Baroness Kruedener's influence was strengthened. The
+Reverend Lewis Way, having founded (1808) the London Society for
+Promoting Christianity among the Jews, made a tour through Europe,
+everywhere urging the Gentiles to enfranchise the Jews as an inducement
+to them to embrace Christianity, the only means of hastening the advent
+of the Apostolic millennium. His _Memoires sur l'etat des israelites_
+presented to the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (October 11, 1818) and his
+visit to Russia resulted in an imperial ukase (March 25, 1817)
+organizing a Committee of Guardians for Israelitish Christians
+(Izrailskiye Christyanye). The members of this association were to be
+granted land in the northern or southern provinces of Russia and to
+enjoy special privileges. The bait proved tempting, and, as a
+consequence, some prominent Maskilim, too weak to resist the
+allurements, precipitated themselves into the Greek Catholic fold.
+Abraham Peretz, financier and champion of Jews' rights, consented to be
+converted, as also Loeb Nebakhovich, the dramatist, whose plays were
+produced in the Imperial theatre of St. Petersburg and performed in the
+presence of the emperor.[30] Equally bad, if not worse, for the cause of
+Haskalah was the conduct of those who, disdaining, or unable, to profess
+the new religion, discarded every vestige of traditional Judaism, and
+deemed it their duty to set an example of infidelity and sometimes
+immorality to their less enlightened coreligionists. What Leroy-Beaulieu
+says of Maimon, "that type of the most cultured Jew to be found before
+the French Revolution," might more justly be applied to many a less
+prominent Maskil after him: "Despite his learning and philosophy he sank
+deeper than the most degraded of his fellow-men, because in repudiating
+his ancestral faith he had lost the staff which, through all their
+humiliations, served as a prop even to the most debased of ancient
+Jews."[31]
+
+Haskalah thus having become synonymous with apostasy or licentiousness,
+we can easily understand why the unsophisticated among the Russian Jews
+were so bitterly opposed to it from the time the sad truth dawned upon
+them, until, under Alexander II, their suspicions were somewhat
+dissipated. Previous to the latter part of the reign of Alexander I the
+"struggle groups" in Russian Jewry were at first Frankists and
+anti-Frankists, and afterwards Hasidim and Mitnaggedim. It was a
+conflict, not between religion and science, but between religion and
+what was regarded as superstition. Secular instruction, far from being
+opposed, was, as we have seen, sought and disseminated. Long after the
+pious element in Germany had been aroused to the dangers that lurked in
+the wake of their "Aufklaerung," and had begun to endeavor to check its
+further progress by excommunication and other methods, the Russian Jews
+remained "seekers after light." They might have condemned a Maskil, they
+had not yet condemned Haskalah. Mendelssohn's German translation was
+welcomed in Russia at its first appearance no less than in Germany, but
+when some of the children of Rabbi Moses ben Menahem embraced the
+Christian faith, and their father, as was natural, was suspected of
+skepticism, the _Biur_ and the Meassefim were pronounced, like libraries
+by Sir Anthony Absolute, to be "an evergreen tree of diabolical
+knowledge." So also with Wessely's Epistles, which were destroyed in
+public, together with Polonnoy's _Toledot Ya'akob Yosef_. Haskalah
+itself was not impugned, and as theretofore translations and original
+works on science were encouraged, and the wish was entertained that
+"many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased."[32]
+
+But the latest experiences in their own country put Haskalah in a very
+different light from that in which they were wont to regard it. Formerly
+the opposition to it had been limited to the very land that gave it
+birth. Because of their determination to study, Solomon Maimon was
+denied admission to Berlin, Manasseh of Ilye was stopped in Koenigsberg,
+and Abba Glusk Leczeka, better known as "the Glusker Maggid," the
+subject of a poem by Chamisso, was persecuted everywhere. It was Rabbi
+Levin, of Berlin, who prohibited the publication of Wessely's works, and
+insisted that the author be expelled from the city.[33] It was Rabbi
+Ezekiel Landau of Prague who, though approving of Wessely's _Yen
+Lebanon_, opposed the translation of the Pentateuch by Mendelssohn,
+while Rabbi Horowitz of Hamburg denounced it in unmeasured terms,
+admonishing his hearers to shun the work as unclean, and approving the
+action of those persons who had publicly burnt it in Vilna (1782). Moses
+Sofer of Pressburg adopted as his motto, "Touch not the works of the
+Dessauer" (Mendelssohn),[34] and seldom allowed an opportunity to pass
+without denouncing the Maskilim of his country. Now the clarion note of
+anti-Haskalah, sounded by these luminaries in Israel, found an echo
+among the Jews in Russia. They had discovered, to their great sorrow,
+that like Elisha ben Abuya, the apostate in the Talmud, "those who once
+entered the paradise [of enlightenment] returned no more." The very name
+of the seat of Haskalah was an abomination to the pious. To be called
+"Berlinchick" or "Deitschel" was tantamount to being called infidel and
+epicurean, anarchist and outlaw. The old instinct of self-preservation,
+which turned Jews from lambs into lions, holding their ground to the
+last, asserted itself again. As the Talmudic rabbis excluded certain
+books from the Canon, as the study of even the Jewish philosophers was
+later proscribed by certain French rabbis, so the Russian rabbis laid
+the ban upon whatever savored of German "Aufklaererei."
+
+Thus began the bitter fight against Haskalah, in which Hasidim and
+Mitnaggedim, forgetting their differences, joined hands, and stood
+shoulder to shoulder. For, after all, was not Judaism in both these
+phases endangered by the new and aggressive enemy from the West? And did
+not the two have enough in common to become one in the hour of great
+need? Hasidism, in fact, was Judaism emotionalized, and since, beginning
+with Rabbi Shneor Zalman of Ladi, it, too, advocated the study of the
+Talmud, the distinction between it and Mitnaggedism was hardly
+perceptible. The study of the Zohar and Cabbala was equally cultivated
+by both; Isaac Luria and Hayyim Vital were equally venerated by both,
+and hero worship was common to both. The _Ascension of Elijah_ (Gaon) is
+as full of miracles as _The Praises of the Besht_. It is no wonder,
+then, that the animosities, which reached their acme during the last few
+years of the Gaon's life, were weakened after his death, and that the
+compromise, pleaded for by Doctor Hurwitz and Manasseh Ilye, was somehow
+effected. But it was otherwise with the Haskalah. "Verily," says the
+zaddik Menahem Mendel of Vitebsk, "verily, grammar is useful; that our
+great ones indulged in the study thereof I also know; but what is to be
+done since the wicked and sinful have taken possession of it?" In the
+same manner does Rabbi Hayyim of Volozhin inveigh against the followers
+of Mendelssohn, because of the latitudinarian habits of the Maskilim,
+who "despise the counsel of their betters, and go after the dictates of
+their hearts."[35] Both saw in Haskalah a deadly foe to their dearest
+ideals, a blight upon their most cherished hopes, and, like Elizabeta
+Petrovna, they would not derive even a benefit from the enemies of their
+religion.
+
+Still, Alexander I approached his object only tentatively. Haskalah
+during his reign was like the Leviathan in the Talmud legend which
+resembled an island, so that wayfarers approached it to moor under its
+lee and find shelter in its shade, but as soon as they began to walk and
+cook on it, it would turn and submerge them in the stormy and bottomless
+sea. The Jews were invited or induced to forsake their religion, and
+only the less discerning were caught in the snare. It remained for the
+"terrible incarnation of autocracy," Nicholas I (1825-1855), or, as his
+Jewish subjects called him, Haman II, to fill their cup of woe to
+overflowing and employ every available means to convert them to his own
+religion.
+
+Nicholas's one aim was "to diminish the number of Jews in the empire,"
+but not by expulsion, the means employed by Ferdinand and Isabella. He
+knew too well their value as citizens to allow them to migrate. He would
+diminish their numbers by forced baptism. Baptized Jews were exempted
+from the payment of taxes for three years; Jewish criminals could have
+their punishment commuted or could obtain a pardon by ceasing to be
+Jews. But as these inducements could naturally appeal only to
+comparatively few, more stringent measures were resorted to. Hitherto
+the Jews had been excused from military service, paying an annual sum of
+money for the privilege. On September 7, 1827, an ukase was issued
+requiring them not only to pay the same amount as theretofore, but also
+to serve in the army; and while Christians had to furnish only seven
+recruits per thousand, and only at certain intervals, the Jews had to
+contribute ten recruits for each thousand, and that at every
+conscription. The only exception was made in the case of the Karaites,
+who, according to Nicholas's decision, had emigrated from Palestine
+before the Christian era, and could not therefore have participated in
+the crucifixion of Jesus. Jews found outside of their native towns
+without passports, and those in arrears with their taxes, frequently
+even those who, having lagged behind in their payment to the Government,
+eventually discharged their obligations, were to be seized and sentenced
+to serve in the army, and this meant a lifetime, or at least twenty-five
+years, of the most abject slavery imaginable. This grievous measure
+caused the utmost misery. No Jewish youth leaving home could be sure of
+returning and seeing his dear ones again. The scum of the Jewish
+population (poimshchiki, or "catchers") made it their profession to
+ensnare helpless young men or poor itinerant students suspected of the
+Haskalah heresy, destroy their passports, and deliver them up as
+poimaniki (recruits), to spare the rich who paid for the substitutes. To
+form an idea of the time we need but read some of the numerous
+folk-songs of that day. Here is one of many:
+
+  Quietly I walk in the street,
+  When behind me I hear the rush of feet.
+  Woes have come and sought me,
+  Alas, had I bethought me.
+
+  "Your passport," they ask. Alas, it is lost!
+  "Then serve the White Czar!" that is the cost.
+  Woe has come and sought me,
+  Alas, had I bethought me.
+
+  There are many rooms, they take me to one,
+  And strip from my body the poor homespun.
+  Woe has come and sought me,
+  Alas, had I bethought me.
+
+  They take me to another room,
+  The uniform,--that is my doom.
+  Woe has come and sought me,
+  Alas, had I bethought me.
+
+  Rather than wear the cap of the czar,
+  To study the Torah were better by far.
+  Woe has come and sought me,
+  Alas, had I bethought me.
+
+  Rather than eat of the czar's black bread,
+  I'd study the Scriptures head by head.
+  Woes have come and sought me,
+  Alas, had I bethought me.
+
+Yet this was not all. Knowing that it is easier to convert the children
+than their elders, the Government of Nicholas I, out-Heroding Herod,
+inaugurated a system so cruel as to fill with terror and pity the heart
+of the most ferocious barbarian. Infants were torn from their mothers,
+boys of the age of twelve, sometimes of ten and eight, were herded like
+cattle, sent to distant parts of Russia, and there distributed as
+chattels among the officers of the army. Many of these Cantonists, as
+they were called, either died on the way, or were killed off when they
+resisted conversion. Those who survived sometimes returned to Judaism,
+and formed the nucleus of Jewish settlements in the interior of Russia.
+These "soldiers of Nicholas" (Nikolayevskiye soldati), with their
+uncouth demeanor and devoted, though ignorant, adherence to the faith of
+their fathers, furnished much material for the folk-songs of the time
+and the novelists of the somewhat happier reigns of Nicholas's
+successors.[36]
+
+One of these Cantonists, the first to give a description of the life of
+his fellow-sufferers, was Wolf Nachlass, or Alexander Alekseyev. For
+many years he remained faithful to the religion of his forefathers,
+though he had been pressed into the service at the age of ten. About
+1845 he changed his views, became an ardent Greek Catholic, and
+converted five hundred Cantonists, to the great delight of Nicholas I,
+who thanked him in person for his zeal. He lost his leg, and during the
+long illness that followed Nachlass settled in Novgorod, and wrote
+several works on Jewish customs and on missionary topics.
+
+Less horrifying, but equally aiming at disintegration, was Nicholas's
+scheme of colonization. What better means was there for "diminishing the
+number of Jews" than to scatter them over the wilderness of Russia and
+leave them to shift for themselves? This, of course, was necessarily a
+slow process and one involving some expense, but it was fraught with
+great importance not only for the Russian Church, but for Russian trade
+and agriculture as well.
+
+"Back to the soil!" Was not this the cry of the romantic Maskilim in
+Germany, in Galicia, and particularly in Russia? And have not country
+life and field labor been depicted by them in the most glowing colors?
+Here was an opportunity to save the honor of the Jewish name and also
+ameliorate the material condition of the Russian Jews. The permission
+given to them by Alexander I to establish themselves as farmers in the
+frigid yet free Siberian steppes was greeted with enthusiasm by all.
+Nicholas's ukase was hailed with joy. Elias Mitauer and Meyer
+Mendelssohn, at the head of seventy families from Courland, were the
+first to migrate to the new region (1836), and they were followed by
+hundreds more. Indeed, the exodus assumed such proportions that the
+Christians in the parts of the country abandoned by the colonists
+complained of the decline in business and the depreciation of property.
+The movement was heartily approved by the rabbis; the populace, its
+imagination stimulated, began to dream dreams and see visions of
+brighter days, and all gave vent to their hopefulness in songs of
+gladness and gratitude, in strains like these:[37]
+
+  Who lives so free
+    As the farmer on his land?
+  His farm his companion is,
+    His never-failing friend.
+
+  His sleep to him is sweet
+    After a hearty meal;
+  Neither grief nor worry
+    The farmer-man doth feel.
+
+  He rises very early
+    To start betimes his toil,
+  Healthy and very happy
+    On his ever-smiling soil.
+
+  O blessings on our czar,
+    Czar Nikolai, then be,
+  Who granted us this gladness,
+    And bade the Jews be free.
+
+Alas, this joy was of short duration! Very soon Nicholas became
+suspicious of his Siberian colonization scheme, that it was in reality a
+philanthropic measure, and in place of saving the Jew's soul it only
+promoted his physical well-being. This suspicion grew into a conviction
+when he learned that the Jewish community at Tomsk, still faithful to
+the heritage of Israel, applied for permission to appoint a spiritual
+leader. The autocrat, therefore, signed an ukase checking settlement in
+the hitherto free land, depriving honest men of the privilege enjoyed by
+the worst of criminals, and enrolling the children of those already
+there among the military Cantonists (January 5, 1837).
+
+Then began real misery. Believing at first that the czar's intentions
+were sincere, many Jews had sold their hut and land and left for
+Siberia. No sooner were they there than they were sent, on foot, to
+Kherson. The decree of the "little father" was executed in--no other
+phrase can describe it so well--Russian fashion. The innocent Jews who
+had come to Siberia by invitation were seized, treated as vagabonds, and
+deported to their destination. Want and suffering produced contagious
+diseases, and many became a burden to the Jews of Kremenchug and such
+Christians as could not witness unmoved the infernal comedy played by
+the defender of the Greek Catholic Church. Help could be rendered only
+secretly, and those who dared complain were severely punished.
+
+At the same time that this was taking place in the wilderness of
+Siberia, a phenomenon of rare occurrence was to be witnessed in the very
+heart of the Jewish Pale, in Lithuania. Aroused by the wretched
+condition of his coreligionists, Solomon Posner (1780-1848) determined
+to erect cloth factories exclusively for Jews. He sent to Germany for
+experts to teach them the trade. These Jewish workingmen proved so
+industrious and intelligent that before the end of three years they
+surpassed their teachers in mechanical skill. But this attempt of Posner
+was only prefatory to the greater and more arduous task he set himself.
+It was nothing less than the establishment of a colony in which some of
+the most Utopian theories would be applied to actual life. Ten years
+after Robert Owen founded his communistic settlement at New Harmony,
+Indiana, several hundred robust Russian Jews settled on some of the
+thousands of acres in Lithuania that were lying fallow for want of
+tillers. With these farmers Posner hoped to realize his Utopia. He
+provided every family with sufficient land, the necessary agricultural
+implements, as well as with horses, cows, etc., free of charge, for a
+term of twenty-five years. In return, the members of the community
+pledged themselves to use simple homespun for their apparel, black on
+holidays, gray on week-days, not to indulge in the luxuries of city
+life, and to avoid trading of any sort. As time passed, Posner opened
+coeducational technical schools for the children and batte midrashim for
+adults, and soon the homesteads presented the appearance of progressive
+and flourishing farms. Posner's successful effort attracted the
+admiration of Prince Pashkevich, and was both a living protest against
+the accusation of Nicholas that Jews were unfit to be farmers and an
+eloquent plea for the unfortunate victims of a capricious tyrant in
+Siberia and Kherson.[38]
+
+In his efforts to curb the stiff-necked Jews by all manner of fiendish
+persecution, Nicholas did not neglect to try the efficacy of some of the
+plans advocated by Lewis Way. Undismayed by the failure of the Committee
+of Guardians for Israelitish Christians, in which Alexander I had put so
+much confidence, a "Jewish Committee," all the members of which were
+Christians, was organized by imperial decree (May 22, 1825). This
+committee established, in 1829, a school at Warsaw where Christian
+divinity students were to be instructed in rabbinical literature and in
+Judeo-German, in order to be fully equipped for missionary work among
+the Jews. It appointed Abbe Luigi Chiarini to translate, or rather
+expose, the Babylonian Talmud, to which undertaking the Government
+contributed twelve thousand thalers.
+
+To do his work thoroughly, the abbe deemed it advisable to write a
+preliminary dissertation, presenting his aim and views. This he did in
+his _Theory of Judaism_ (_Theorie du judaisme_, Paris, 1830). He
+endeavored to show how worthless, injurious, and immoral were the
+teachings of the Talmud. Only by discarding them would the Jews qualify
+themselves to enjoy the right of citizenship. He proved, to his own
+satisfaction, that ritual murder was enjoined in the Talmud, and this he
+did at a time when many a community was harassed by this fiendish
+accusation. When early death cut short the abbe's effort (1832), the
+Government, still persisting in its plans, engaged the services of
+Ephraim Moses Pinner of Posen, who published specimens of his intended
+translation in his _Compendium_ (Berlin, 1831). But the fickle or
+restless emperor seems to have tired of the plan, or perhaps he found
+Pinner too Jewish for his purposes. Of the twenty-eight volumes planned,
+only one, which was dedicated to Nicholas, appeared during the decade
+following Chiarini's death, and the work was abandoned entirely.[39]
+
+The crusade against the Talmud, thus headed and backed by the
+Government, now broke out in all its fury. Anti-Talmudic works in
+English, French, and German were imported into Russia, translated into
+Hebrew, and scattered among the people. _The Old Paths_, by Alexander
+McCaul, a countryman and colleague of Lewis Way, but surpassing him in
+zeal for the conversion of Jews, was translated into Hebrew and German
+(Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1839) for the edification of those who knew no
+English. Jews themselves, either out of revenge or because they sought
+to ingratiate themselves with the high authorities, joined the movement,
+and openly came out against the Talmud in works modelled after
+Eisenmenger's _Entdecktes Judenthum_. Such were Buchner, author of
+_Worthlessness of the Talmud_ (_Der Talmud in seiner Nichtigkeit_, 2
+vols., Warsaw, 1848), and Temkin, who wrote _The Straight Road_ (_Derek
+Selulah_, St. Petersburg, 1835). The former was instructor in Hebrew and
+Holy Writ in the rabbinical seminary in Warsaw; the latter was a zealous
+convert to the Greek Catholic faith, who spared no effort to make
+Judaism disliked among his former coreligionists.
+
+All these desperate attempts proved of no avail. Judaism was practiced,
+and the Talmud was studied during the reign of Nicholas I more ardently
+than ever before. Their sacred treasures attacked by the Government
+without and by renegades and detractors within, the Russian Jews
+nevertheless clung to them with a tenacity unparalleled even in their
+own history. Danzig's _Life of Man_ (_Hayye Adam_, Vilna, 1810),
+containing all Jewish ritual ceremonies, was followed out to the least
+minutiae. Despite the poverty of the Jews and the comparatively
+exorbitant price the publisher had to charge for the Talmud, and, aside
+from the many sets of former editions in the country and those
+continually imported, and in addition to the Responsa, commentaries,
+Midrashim, and other works directly and indirectly bearing on it, more
+than a dozen editions of the Talmud had appeared in Russia alone since
+the ukase of Catherine II (October 30, 1795) permitting Russian Jews to
+publish Hebrew works in their own country. This ukase had been intended
+originally to exclude seditious literature from Russia, but what was
+unfavorable for the rebellious Poles proved, in a measure, very
+beneficial to the law-abiding Jews. Under the supervision of a censor,
+and with but slight interruptions, the Jews published their own books,
+and in 1806 Slavuta, in Volhynia, saw the first complete edition of the
+Talmud on Russian soil. Then followed another edition in the same place
+(1808-1813), a third in Kopys (1816-1828), and a fourth in Slavuta
+(1817-1822), and several others elsewhere.
+
+The story of the Vilna-Grodno edition of the Talmud is interesting as
+well as illuminating. It depicts the relation of the Jews among
+themselves and to the Government. Begun in 1835, at Ozar, near Grodno,
+an imperial ukase directed the removal of the work to Vilna, the
+metropolis of Russo-Poland. When the publishers, Simhah Ziml and Menahem
+Mann Romm, had completed their work in the new quarters, the copies of
+the book were destroyed by incendiaries (1840). After some time, an
+effort was made by Joseph Eliasberg and Mattathias Strashun to continue
+the publication, but the Warsaw censor prohibited its importation into
+Poland, where the bulk of the subscribers lived. To add to the calamity,
+a feud broke out between the head of the Slavuta publishing company,
+Moses Schapira (1758-1838), and the Vilna publishers. The publication of
+the Talmud had always been supervised by the prominent rabbis of the
+land, and their authorization was necessary to make an edition legal.
+This the rabbi never granted unless the previous edition was entirely
+disposed of. The Slavuta publishers claimed that their edition had not
+been sold out when the Vilna publishers started theirs. The litigation
+continued for some time, and was finally decided in favor of the Vilna
+firm. The publishers of Slavuta, however, having the Polish rabbis and
+zaddikim on their side, continued to publish the Talmud, regardless of
+the protests of Rabbi Akiba Eger and the "great ones" of Lithuania. But
+a terrible misfortune befell the Slavuta publishers. On account of some
+accusation, the two brothers engaged in the business were deported to
+Siberia, and their father, the head of the establishment, died of a
+broken heart. This cleared the field for the Romms of Vilna, who
+continue to prosper to this day, and have now the greatest Hebrew
+publishing house in the world. "It is the finger of God," the pious ones
+said, and studied the Talmud with increased devotion.[40]
+
+The numerous Talmud editions indicate the demand for the work, and the
+multiplicity of yeshibot explains the cause of the demand. We have seen
+how the yeshibot destroyed by Chmielnicki were re-established soon after
+the massacres ceased. Their number increased when the Hasidic movement
+threatened to render the knowledge of the Talmud unpopular; and when the
+Maskilim, too, made them a target for their attacks, there was hardly a
+town in which such institutions were not to be found. But surpassing all
+the yeshibot of the nineteenth century, if not of all centuries, was the
+Yeshibah Tree of Life (Yeshibat 'Ez Hayyim) in the townlet of Volozhin.
+There the cherished hopes of the Gaon were finally realized. Within its
+walls gathered the elect of the Russo-Jewish youth for almost a century.
+
+The founder of this famous yeshibah was Rabbi Hayyim Volozhin, the
+greatest of the Gaon's disciples (1749-1821). A prominent Talmudist at
+twenty-five, he, nevertheless, left his business and household at that
+age, and went to Vilna to become the humble pupil of the Gaon, whose
+method he had followed from the beginning. When he felt himself
+proficient enough in his studies, he returned to his native place, and
+founded (1803) the Tree of Life College, with an enrollment of ten
+students, whom he maintained at his own expense. But soon the fame of
+the yeshibah and its founder spread far and wide, and students flocked
+to it from all corners of Russia and outside of it. In response to Rabbi
+Hayyim's appeal contributions came pouring in, a new and spacious
+school-house was erected, and Volozhin became a Talmudic Oxford. To be a
+student there was both an indication of superiority and a means to
+proficiency. Rabbi Hayyim did away with the "Tag-essen," or "Freitisch"
+custom, and introduced a stipendiary system in its stead, thus fostering
+the self-respect of the students. But they did not as a rule require
+much to satisfy them with their lot. They came to Volozhin "to learn,"
+and they well knew the Talmudic statement, that "no one can attain
+eminence in the Torah unless he is willing to die for its sake."
+
+Rabbi Hayyim was succeeded by his son Rabbi Isaac, who united knowledge
+of secular subjects with profound Talmudic erudition, was active in
+worldly affairs, and played a prominent part in the Jewish history of
+his day. He was of the leading spirits who, in 1842, attended the
+rabbinical conference at St. Petersburg convoked by Nicholas I. The
+number of students increased under his leadership, according to
+Lilienthal, to three hundred. But Rabbi Isaac became so engrossed in
+public affairs that he found he could no longer do justice to his
+position. His two sons-in-law, therefore, took his place, and when the
+older died, in 1854, Rabbi Naphtali Zebi Judah Berlin (1817-1893)
+entered on his useful career, unbroken for forty years, as the dean of
+the greatest seat of learning in the Diaspora. Under his administration
+the Tree of Life College reached both the height of its prosperity and
+the end of its existence (1892).[41]
+
+Thus all the schemes and machinations of the Russian Government
+respecting the Jews proved ineffectual. Nicholas I, with the possible
+exception of Ivan the Terrible, the greatest autocrat in Russian
+history, at whose wish seemingly insuperable obstacles were instantly
+removed, the wink of whose eye was sufficient to kill or revive the
+millions of his crouching slaves--Nicholas I, with all his herculean
+strength, yet found himself helpless in the presence of a handful of
+wretched Jews. Furious at his defeat, he expressed the intention to
+reduce all Jews to Governmental servitude or to make them, like the
+Cossacks, lifelong soldiers. Being advised to postpone the execution of
+this plan and to employ less severe measures meanwhile, he issued the
+Exportation Law of 1843, ordering the expulsion of Jews from the
+fifty-vyerst boundary zone and from the villages within the Pale,
+thereby depriving fifty thousand families at once of their homes and
+their support.
+
+    Those from the country--writes a Russo-Jewish eye-witness of the
+    scenes following the enforcement of this inhuman law--move first
+    to the neighboring cities, and increase the existing poverty,
+    rendering the difficulty of finding profitable employment still
+    greater. God only knows how it will end when the congestion
+    increases still further.... I must also inform you--he
+    proceeds--that these past four months several imperial
+    commissioners have visited the frontier towns on the Lithuanian
+    border, from which the Jews are to be banished, in order that
+    the value of the real estate may be estimated. But how is the
+    valuation calculated? Even one who is acquainted with the
+    venality and unscrupulousness of Russian officers cannot form a
+    correct idea of how this business is conducted. If a man has no
+    connection with those in authority, or cannot obtain powerful
+    intercession, or is unable to give heavy bribes, his property is
+    valued at perhaps five per cent, or is set at so low a figure as
+    to make the appraisal differ little from downright robbery. We,
+    however, are used to such measures, for when they banished us
+    some time past from certain districts of the city of
+    Brest-Litovsk, where for centuries celebrated scholars of our
+    people dwelt, nothing better was done by the crown to compensate
+    us for our houses.[42] The same occurred at the expulsion from
+    St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Nikolayev, Alexandrov, Sebastopol,
+    etc., but as it did not affect so large a mass, nor injure us to
+    so great an extent, we bore the injury silently. Alas, this is
+    not the case at present. We should gladly quit the country,
+    gladly should we emigrate to America, Texas, and especially to
+    Palestine under English protection, if, on the one hand, we had
+    the means and, on the other, the Government would permit us.[43]
+
+This Exportation Law of Nicholas I, the result of a lawsuit between a
+Jew and a nobleman living on the eastern frontier, which had been
+decided by the supreme court in favor of the former, aroused much
+excitement in every civilized country of Europe. It was before
+anti-Semitism was in flower, and the people of the time were more
+responsive even than during the later Kishinev massacres. Indignation
+meetings were held. Both Jews and Gentiles, not only abroad, but even in
+Russia, protested. Prayers were offered for the unfortunate. Cremieux in
+France and Rabbi Philippson in Germany appealed to the public. All to no
+effect. Grief was especially manifest among English Jews, always the
+first to feel when their fellow-Jews in other countries suffer, and
+Grace Aguilar, like Rachel weeping over her children, lamented over her
+Russian brethren:
+
+  Ay, death! for such is exile--fearful doom,
+  From homes expelled yet still to Poland chain'd;
+  Till want and famine mind and life consume,
+  And sorrow's poison'd chalice all is drained.
+  O God, that this should be! that one frail man
+  Hath power to crush a nation 'neath his ban.
+
+At this critical period, Moses Montefiore, encouraged by his success in
+refuting the blood accusation at Damascus, and stimulated by the many
+petitions he had received from Russia, Germany, France, Italy, England,
+and America, undertook the philanthropic mission of interceding with the
+czar on behalf of his coreligionists. It is natural to suspect that no
+trouble is entirely undeserved; it is but human to sympathize with our
+friends, and yet regard their suffering as a judgment rather than a
+misfortune. But Montefiore's trip to Russia dispelled the last trace of
+suspicion against the Russian Jews. In spite of their poverty, he saw
+numerous charitable and educational institutions in every city he
+visited. He found the Jewish men to be the cream of Russia. "He had the
+satisfaction," Doctor Loewe, his secretary, tells us, "of seeing among
+them many well-educated wives, sons, and daughters; their dwellings were
+scrupulously clean, the furniture plain but suitable for the purpose,
+and the appearance of the family healthy." To all his pleadings Count
+Uvarov returned but a single answer: "The Russian Jews are different
+from other Jews; they are orthodox, and believe in the Talmud"[44]--a
+reason for persecution in Holy Russia!
+
+Montefiore's visit to Russia, from which so much had been hoped, did not
+improve the situation in the least. For all his strenuous efforts, he
+was compelled to leave the Jews as destitute as he had found them. Nay,
+they might truthfully have said to the Moses of England what their
+ancestors had said to the Moses of Egypt, "Since thou didst come to
+Pharaoh, the hardness of our lot has increased." From the first of May
+(1844) they were not allowed to continue to earn the pittance necessary
+to maintain life, as, for instance, by the slavish labor of breaking
+stones on the highways, with which three hundred families had barely
+earned dry bread.[45] The great love and respect shown to the uncrowned
+king of Israel proved to the czar's officials the existence of some
+artful design on the part of the Jews, and convinced them especially of
+the disloyalty of Montefiore. The latter, they maintained, was scheming
+to set himself up as the Jewish czar. Hence every movement of his was
+closely watched, every word he uttered carefully noted, and not a few
+Jews were left with memorable tokens for doing homage to the English
+baronet. Their disabilities were not removed, their condition was not
+improved, the hopes they entertained resolved themselves into pleasant
+dreams followed by a sad awakening.[46]
+
+Yet, though his visit did not, as Sir Moses had anticipated, "raise the
+Jews in the estimation of the people," it was not without beneficent
+effect on the Jews themselves. It cemented the "traditional friendship"
+which has always existed between Anglo-Jews and Russo-Jews more than
+between any sets of Jews of the dispersion. It disclosed to the latter
+that there were happier Jews and better countries than their own; that
+there were men who sympathized with them as effectively as could be.
+Above all, it convinced them that a Jew may be highly educated and
+wealthy, and take his place among the noble ones of the earth, and still
+remain a faithful Jew and a loyal son of his persecuted people. "I leave
+you," Sir Moses called to them at parting, "but my heart will ever
+remain with you. When my brethren suffer, I feel it painfully; when they
+have reason to weep, my eyes shed tears." Had Montefiore's visit
+resulted merely in arousing his brethren's self-consciousness, he had
+earned a place in the history of Haskalah, for self-consciousness is the
+most potent factor in the culture of mankind.
+
+Jews from other lands also came to the rescue of their Russian
+coreligionists. Jacques Isaac Altaras, the ship-builder of Marseilles,
+petitioned the czar to allow forty thousand Jewish families to emigrate
+to Algeria. Rabbi Ludwig Philippson, editor of the Allgemeine Zeitung
+des Judenthums, appealed to his countrymen to help the Russian Jews to
+settle in America, Australia, Africa, anywhere away from Russia. But all
+attempts were ineffectual. Though Count Kissilyef assured Montefiore
+that the czar "did not wish to keep them [the Jews], five or six hundred
+thousand might leave altogether," emigration was next to impossible.
+Russia was constantly playing the game of the cat with the mouse. Her
+nails were set and her eyes fixed upon her prey, and yet she made it
+appear to the outside world that she was anxious about the welfare of
+the Jews. For Russian tactics have always been, and still are, the
+despair of the diplomat, a labyrinth through which only they who hold
+the clue can ever hope to find their way.
+
+The condition of the Jews in Russo-Poland was, if possible, even worse
+than in Lithuania and Russia proper. Nothing, in fact, but the
+auto-da-fe was needed to give it the stamp of medieval Spain. As before
+the division of Poland, the Poles suspected the Jews of disloyalty to
+Poland, while the Russians suspected them of disloyalty to Russia.
+Hitherto too proud to soil his hand with a manual or mercantile pursuit,
+the Polish pan, now that the glory of his country had departed, and he
+was deprived of his lordly estates, began to engage in business of all
+kinds, and, finding in the Jewish trader a rival with whose skill and
+diligence he could seldom compete, he became embittered against the
+entire race. This was the cause of the innumerable restrictions, the
+extortion, and exploitation in Russo-Poland, which surpassed those of
+Russia proper.
+
+    The Jewish archives--said Doctor Marcus Jastrow, then Rabbi in
+    Warsaw--were humorously known as "California" or the "Mexican
+    Gold Mines." Jews had to pay at every step. They had to pay a
+    Tagzettel [daily tax] for permission to stay in Warsaw, which
+    permission, however, did not include the luxury of breathing.
+    The latter had to be purchased with an additional ten kopecks
+    per capita. The income from these taxations amounted to over a
+    million and a half, but in spite of all this the Jews were
+    regarded as parasites, as leeches feasting upon the life-blood
+    of their Christian compatriots.[47]
+
+Such is the background upon which the picture of Haskalah is to be
+drawn--black enough to throw into relief the faintest ray of light. The
+Russian Jews, during the reign of Nicholas I, found themselves in a
+position possible only in Russia. They were not allowed to emigrate, nor
+suffered to stay. In 1823 they were expelled from the farms, and had to
+crowd into the cities; in 1838 they were expelled from the cities, and
+forced to go back to the country. Then Siberia was opened to them, but
+when it was found that even the land of the outcasts was hailed as a
+place of refuge by the Jews, they were told to go to Kherson. At last
+arrangements were perfected to allow them to colonize Lithuania--all at
+once even this was interdicted. They had been conquered with the Poles,
+yet were left unprotected against the Poles. Could they help suspecting
+the tyrant of what he really intended to do--of seeking to diminish
+their numbers by conversion? Is it surprising that when he determined to
+open public schools and establish rabbinical seminaries, Jews looked
+upon these, too, as the sugared poison with which he intended to
+extirpate Judaism? Or can we blame them for being determined to the last
+to baffle him? Nicholas did not understand the great lesson taught by
+the history of the Jews and inculcated in the old song,
+
+  To destroy all these people
+  You should let them alone.
+
+All that tyranny could inflict, the Russian Jews endured. Yet their
+number was not diminished. No coercion could make them leave, in a body,
+the old paths they were wont to tread. Nicholas's so-called reforms only
+encouraged a reaction, and the more he afflicted the Jews, the more they
+multiplied and grew. The behalot of 1754, 1764, and 1793 were repeated
+in 1833 and 1843; the missionary propaganda only strengthened the
+devotion of the faithful; and the denial of the means of support only
+increased the stolidity of the sufferers. And if, like some
+stepchildren, they were first beaten till they cried, and then beaten
+because they cried, like some stepchildren they rapidly forgot their lot
+in the happiness of home and the studies of the bet ha-midrash, and
+could sing[48] without bitterness even of the behalah-days, when
+
+  Little boys and little girls
+  Together had been mated,
+  Tishah be-Ab, the wedding day,--
+  Not a soul invited.
+  Only the father and the mother,
+  And also uncle Elye--
+  In his lengthy delye (caftan),
+  With his scanty beard--
+  Jump and jig with each other
+  Like a colt afeared.
+
+(Notes, pp. 314-317.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CONFLICTS AND CONQUESTS
+
+1840-1855
+
+
+The charges brought against the Jews of Russia by henchmen of the czar
+were grave, indeed, only they did not contain a particle of truth. In
+Russia itself, not only Jews and non-Russians but even many Christians
+testified to the innocence of the Jews, and protested against their
+oppressors. Bibikov, the Governor-General of Podolia and Volhynia;
+Diakov, the Governor-General of Smolensk; and Surovyetsky, the noted
+statesman, all write in terms of such praise of their unfortunate
+countrymen of the Jewish faith that their statements would sound
+exaggerated, were it not that many other unprejudiced Russians confirm
+their views.[1] The fact that Nicholas thought the Jews reliable as
+soldiers speaks against the imputation that they were mercenary and
+unpatriotic. Neither was the conventional accusation, that they were a
+people of petty traders, applicable to the Jews in Russia. Laborers of
+all kinds were very common among them. It was they, in fact, who
+rendered all manner of service to their Gentile neighbors, from a
+cobbler's and blacksmith's to producing the most exquisite _objets
+d'art_ and gold and silver engraving. They were equally well represented
+among the clerks and bookkeepers, and the bricklayers and stone-cutters.
+They took up with the most laborious employments, if only they furnished
+them with an honest even though scanty livelihood.[2]
+
+But most unfounded of all was the allegation that Jews were opposed to
+education. The _Memoirs_ of Madame Pauline Wengeroff indicate that even
+among the very strict Jews of her time children were not denied
+instruction in the German, Polish, and Russian literatures. We have seen
+how they availed themselves of the permission, granted to them by
+Alexander I, to attend the schools and universities of the empire. Nor
+did they fail to open schools of their own. No sooner was the
+Franco-Russian war over than Joseph Perl of Galicia founded a school in
+Tarnopol (1813), then under the Russian Government, and two years later
+he drew upon his own resources to build a school-house large enough to
+accommodate the great, steadily growing number of students. In 1822 we
+hear of a school that had been in existence for some time in Uman (the
+Ukraine). It had been established by Meir Horn, Moses Landau, and Hirsh
+Hurwitz, all of whom were indefatigable laborers in the cause of
+Haskalah in the Ukraine. Perl's school was the pattern and model for a
+multitude of other schools, among them the one founded by Zittenfeld
+(1826) in Odessa, in the faculty of which were Simhah Pinsker, Elijah
+Finkel, the grandson of Elijah Gaon, and Abraham Abele, the eminent
+Talmudist. In 1836 a girls' department was added to it, and when
+Lilienthal visited Odessa (ab. 1843) it had an attendance of from four
+to five hundred pupils of both sexes, the annual expense being
+twenty-eight thousand rubles. A similar school was opened in Kishinev by
+Stern, and in the early "forties" there was hardly a Jewish community of
+note without one or more of such Jewish public institutions. Several
+well-to-do Maskilim not only founded but, like Perl, also maintained
+such schools, and gave instruction in some or all of the subjects taught
+in them.[3]
+
+The "forties" began auspiciously for Haskalah in Russia. On January 15,
+1840, the Riga community, amid pomp and rejoicing, opened the first
+Jewish school affiliated with a university. The teaching staff consisted
+of three Jews and one Christian, with Doctor Max Lilienthal (1815-1882),
+the young, highly recommended, and recently chosen local rabbi, as its
+principal. In the same year, the indefatigable Basilius Stern succeeded
+in forming a committee, of which Hayyim Efrusi and Moses Lichtenstadt
+were members, to deliberate on founding rabbinical seminaries in Russia.
+In 1841, forty-five delegates, representing the six chief committees of
+the Lovers of Enlightenment, assembled in Vilna, and thence issued an
+appeal in which they adopted as their platform the elevation of the
+moral standards of adults by urging them to follow useful trades and
+discouraging the Jewish proclivity to business as much as possible; a
+reform of the prevailing system of the education of the young; the
+combating, if possible the eradication, of Hasidism, the fountainhead,
+as they thought, of ignorance and superstition; the establishment of
+rabbinical seminaries, after the model of those in Padua and Amsterdam,
+to supply congregations with educated rabbis. It was further agreed that
+a Consistory be created, to supervise Jewish affairs and establish
+schools and technical institutes wherever necessary. To these main
+points were added several others of minor importance. The Maskilim of
+Besascz insisted that steps be taken to stop the prevailing custom of
+premature marriages. Those of Brest proposed that Government aid be
+invoked to compel Jews to dress in the German style, to use authorized
+text-books in the hadarim, and interdict the study of the Talmud except
+by those preparing themselves for the rabbinate.[4]
+
+Even in Vilna and Minsk, towns which later put themselves on record as
+opposed to Government schools, the Jews yielded gladly to the
+innovations of such Maskilim as S. Perl, G. Klaczke, I. Bompi, and the
+distinguished philanthropist David Luria, who took the initiative in
+transforming the educational system of these cities. Under the
+superintendence of Luria, the Minsk Talmud Torah became a model
+institution; the training conferred there on the poor and orphaned
+surpassed that given to the children of the rich in their private
+schools. This aroused jealousy in the parents of the latter, and at
+their request Luria organized a merchants' school, for the wealthier
+class. He then established what he called Midrash Ezrahim, or Citizens'
+Institute, in which he met with such success that he attracted the
+attention of the authorities, and received a special acknowledgment from
+the czar.[5]
+
+Russian Jewry was astir with new life. In many places secular education
+was divorced for the first time from rabbinical speculation. Knowledge
+became an end in itself, and learning increased greatly. An
+investigation by Nicholas I convinced all who were interested that
+though the Talmud remained the chief subject of study, the number of
+educated Jews was far greater than commonly supposed. The upliftment of
+the masses was the beau-ideal of every Maskil, and Hebrew and even the
+much-despised Yiddish were employed to effect it. Ignorance was regarded
+as the bane of life, and enlightenment as the panacea for all the ills
+to which their downtrodden brethren were heirs. As their pious
+coreligionists deemed it the universal duty to be well-versed in the
+Talmud, so the Maskilim thought it incumbent upon everybody to be highly
+cultured. No obstacle was great enough to discourage them. They were
+willing martyrs to the goddess of Wisdom, at whose shrine they
+worshipped, and whose cult they spread in the most adverse
+circumstances.
+
+Had the Government not interfered with the efforts of the Maskilim, or
+had it chosen a commission from among the Russian Jews themselves, among
+whom, as soon became evident to Nicholas himself, there were more than
+enough to do justice to an educational inquiry, the Haskalah movement
+would have continued to spread, notwithstanding the obstacles put in its
+way. But Nicholas was determined to reduce the number of Jews also by
+"re-educating" them in accordance with his own ideas. Every attempt made
+by the Jews to educate themselves was, therefore, checked. Even the
+noble efforts of Luria were stopped, his schools were closed, and his
+only rewards were "a gold medal from the czar and a short poem by
+Gottlober."
+
+In Germany, since the time of Mendelssohn, the study of the Talmud had
+been on the wane. The great yeshibot formerly existing in Metz,
+Frankfort, Hamburg, Prague, Fiirth, Halberstadt, etc., disappeared, and
+the reforms introduced in the synagogue and the numerous converts to
+Christianity impressed the outside world with the idea that Judaism
+among German Jews was writhing in the agony of death. If the same
+disintegrating elements were introduced among the Russian Jews, the
+Government believed that they would ultimately come over to the Greek
+Catholic Church of their own accord. Hence it was anxious to learn the
+secret of this power and beamed graciously on several learned Jews of
+Germany.
+
+David Friedlaender (1750-1834) was then considered the legitimate
+successor of Mendelssohn, whose friend he had been for more than twenty
+years. He resembled his master in many respects, though he lacked both
+his genius and his sympathy. Mendelssohn translated the Pentateuch and
+the Psalms into German, Friedlaender translated the Haftarot (selections
+from the Prophets) and the prayer book. Mendelssohn encouraged the
+publication of the Meassef; he did likewise, and contributed several
+articles to the journal. But, unlike his master, or, as he claimed, like
+his master in secret, he held exceedingly latitudinarian views on
+Judaism. In his later years he advocated abolishing the study of Hebrew
+in the schools and discarding it from the prayer book. He even rejoiced
+that by attending the services in Protestant churches many Jewish
+families were becoming acquainted with the religion he himself would
+have accepted on certain conditions.[6]
+
+It was to Friedlaender that Bishop Malchevsky, actuated, as he
+maintained, by a desire to render the Jews worthy of the enjoyment of
+civil rights, applied for suggestions, in 1816, when the missionary zeal
+of Alexander I was first aroused. He responded in a pamphlet, _On the
+Improvement of the Israelites in the Kingdom of Poland_,[7] in which he
+declared that the quickest way of "civilizing" the Jews would be to
+deprive their rabbis of power and influence, to force them to dress in
+the German fashion, and use the Polish language, to admit them to the
+public schools and other educational institutions, and, above all, to
+abrogate the laws discriminating between them and their Gentile
+countrymen.
+
+Friedlaender's advice regarding the removal of civil disabilities was
+never executed, but his other suggestions were followed out with more
+vigor than was necessary or good. To do away with the rabbis, and
+consequently with the Talmud, was just what was desired. It was partly
+with this end in view that Alexander I permitted, that is, commanded,
+the establishment of the rabbinical seminary in Warsaw. But when it was
+found that, although the seminary students were provided with all
+necessaries, and notwithstanding the decree that six years from the date
+of its opening none but seminary graduates would be eligible to the
+rabbinical office, few students availed themselves of the opportunity
+afforded, and none obtained positions, the whole plan fell into
+disfavor.[8] The Government, nevertheless, remained as stubbornly
+determined as ever, and unable to turn all the children into Cantonists,
+it decided to have those who remained at home gradually converted by
+means of a method worked out by the Minister of Education, Uvarov. They
+were forced to attend what became known as Government schools, though
+maintained exclusively with Jewish funds. In order to win the confidence
+of the Jews for the project, Doctor Lilienthal, whose speech at the
+dedication of the Riga School secured him a diamond ring as a token of
+the czar's approval, was sent from St. Petersburg on a mission of
+investigation, more especially of persuasion.
+
+For more than three years Lilienthal was one of the most popular
+personages in Europe. The eyes of all who had the amelioration of the
+lot of the Russian Jew at heart, it may be said the eyes of the
+civilized world, were fixed upon him as an epoch-maker in the history of
+the Jews. Nature had formed him, physically and mentally, to be a leader
+among his people, and his training and temperament made it easy for him
+to ingratiate himself into the favor of the great. It seemed that he was
+just the man to be the successful executor of the czar's plan.
+
+The Maskilim, above all, hailed him as the champion of the cause of
+Haskalah. He was their Moses or Ezra, the God-sent redeemer of their
+benighted brethren out of the quagmire of fanaticism. From various
+cities numerous urgent appeals came to him to hasten the execution of
+his great plan. Wherever he went, he was enthusiastically received, a
+truly royal welcome was extended to him. The Vilna community
+appropriated five thousand rubles for the school fund, and pledged
+itself to raise more if it were found necessary; and he was invited also
+to Minsk by the kahal of the city.
+
+Unfortunately, Lilienthal's tactics exposed him to suspicion, and the
+seed of discord was soon sown between him and his former admirers. He
+tried to serve two masters, the czar and the Jews, and he alienated
+both. The pious regarded him as a mere tool in the hands of the
+Government, for, they maintained, _education without emancipation leads
+to conversion_. The enlightened element also lost confidence in one who,
+instead of boldly attacking superstition, preferred, while in Minsk, to
+identify himself not only with the Mitnaggedim, but even with the
+Hasidim. He was also too headstrong and too vain of his achievements.
+Benjamin Mandelstamm, who, as he tell us in his letters, considered
+Lilienthal "as wise as Solomon and as enterprising as Moses," complains
+a little later of his arrogance, and at the last speaks of him with
+contempt. His assumed superiority grieved the Maskilim, and their former
+enthusiasm was rapidly replaced by hatred and persecution. He found it
+necessary to put himself under the protection of the police while in
+Minsk, and when he returned to Vilna his reception was far less hearty
+than it had been before.
+
+In order to regain the confidence of the Russian Jews, Lilienthal
+obtained a permit from the Minister of Education to call an assembly of
+prominent Jews at St. Petersburg, to decide for themselves how to better
+the condition of the existing schools and to consider the practicability
+of establishing rabbinical seminaries. For he, too, like the Maskilim,
+considered the rabbis the chief menace to Haskalah. Rabbinical authority
+was supreme, and if the rabbis could be won over, all would be gained.
+The bell-wethers once secured, the flocks were sure to follow. It took a
+long time for Lilienthal, and still longer for the Maskilim, to find out
+that what they regarded as the cause was in reality the consequence.
+Eight years later Lilienthal himself admitted the sad truth, that the
+rabbinical seminaries in Russia could not effect the coveted end. "It
+must not be lost sight of," says he in his _Sketches of Jewish Life in
+Russia_[9] "that the Russian Jews live strictly in accordance with our
+received laws, and they are sufficiently learned in them to know that
+the many cases of conscience which are of constant occurrence cannot be
+decided understandingly by any one who has but a superficial knowledge
+of the Talmud and of the decisions of the later doctors of the Law, but
+that it requires the study of an entire lifetime to become thoroughly
+acquainted with those stupendous monuments of learning and deep research
+in the great concerns of life."
+
+[Illustration: ALEXANDER ZEDERBAUM, 1816-1893]
+
+After several busy months at St. Petersburg and frequent consultations
+with Count Uvarov, Lilienthal returned to Vilna, and two weeks later he
+published his circular letter, _Maggid Yeshiiah_ (_The Announcer of Good
+Tidings_)[10] The "good tidings" were that an imperial ukase (June 22,
+1842) would convene a council of distinguished Jews at St. Petersburg,
+to deliberate how to "re-educate" the Jews. Accordingly, in the early
+part of April, 1843, the notables, from different places and with
+diametrically opposed views, assembled in the Russian capital.
+Representing the Jews, there were Rabbi Isaac Volozhin, the dean of the
+Tree of Life Yeshibah, perhaps the strongest man present; Rabbi Menahem
+Mendel Shneersohn of Lubavich, leader of the Hasidic reform sect; Joseph
+Heilprin, the financier and banker of Berdichev, and Bezalel (Basilius)
+Stern, principal of the Jewish public schools of Odessa. Representing
+the Government were Count Uvarov, Chevalier Dukstaduchinsky, and others,
+with de Vrochenko, Minister of State, as chairman and Lilienthal as
+secretary. Montefiore of England, Cremieux of France, and Rabbi
+Philippson of Germany had been invited, but they failed to come. The
+council decided to open Jewish public schools in every city where Jews
+reside, and also two rabbinical seminaries, the one in Vilna, the other
+in Zhitomir, the former being considered the Jewish metropolis of the
+northwestern part, the latter, of the southwestern part, of Russia. They
+also proposed to do away with the Judeo-Polish garb, and suggested
+certain alterations in the prayer book.
+
+The delegates met, deliberated, and disbanded, but the tidings announced
+in Lilienthal's epistle did not prove to be good. In one of the fables
+of Kryloff, the Russian AEsop, we are told that once a swan, a pike, and
+a crab, decided to make a trip together. No sooner had they started
+than, in accordance with their nature, the swan began to fly, the pike
+to shuffle along, the crab to crawl backward. It was so with the
+delegation of 1843. Rabbi Isaac, the rabid Mitnagged, could find but
+little to admire in the proposals of Rabbi Menahem Mendel, the ardent
+Hasid, and both were bitterly opposed to the view preached by Doctor
+Lilienthal, that the salvation of the Jews and Judaism would be brought
+about by a system of education adopted in accordance with an ukase by
+Nicholas. Stern, too, had little use for Lilienthal, whom he declared to
+be ignorant of the condition of Russian Jews and incapable of working in
+their behalf. From such discord nothing good could come. The fact is,
+that the few resolutions mentioned had been drawn up beforehand by the
+Government officials, and the time and trouble and expense which the
+council involved were, _a la Russe_, for appearance sake. Finding his
+efforts an utter failure, Lilienthal went to Odessa with letters of
+recommendation from Uvarov to Vorontzov, the patron of Stern, and was
+elected rabbi of that enlightened and wealthy community. But, for some
+inexplicable reason, he suddenly left the city on the plea of visiting
+friends in Germany, and went to the United States, where he remained to
+the end of his life, and became one of the leading rabbis and communal
+workers among his coreligionists whose lines had fallen in pleasanter
+places than the fortunes of those he had left behind in Russia.[11]
+
+For Lilienthal's disillusionment came apace, and he finally recognized
+the error of his ways. In his book, _My Travels in Russia_, published
+both in English and in German, he admits that the opponents of the
+schools he advocated were after all in the right. Education without
+emancipation was indeed the straightest road to conversion. Witness the
+thirty thousand Jewish apostates in St. Petersburg and Moscow alone,
+most of whom hailed from the Baltic provinces, where the Jews were more
+cultured, but not less oppressed, than their brethren.
+
+    Those men--says he--who have acquired from study an idea of the
+    rights of man, and that the Jew ought to enjoy the same
+    privileges as every other citizen; those men who tried, by the
+    knowledge they had obtained, to open for themselves better
+    prospects in life, and now saw every hope frustrated by laws
+    inimical to them only as Jews, ran, from mere despair, into the
+    bosom of the Greek Church. The harassing care for a living, the
+    terrible difficulties in surmounting them forced them, in an
+    hour of distress, to deny their faith. I always compared them
+    with the Anusim [forced converts] of Spain. Among them there is
+    no religious indifference, as is the case in Western Europe and
+    Germany; and I have met with many converted Jews there, who,
+    with tears in their eyes, complained of heart-burnings and pangs
+    of conscience; and they look upon themselves as eternally lost.
+    Those tears will show a heavy balance against Czar Nicholas,
+    when, bereft of his earthly power, he stands before the eternal
+    tribunal.
+
+    The other charge--he says again after refuting several
+    accusations of the kind stated above--the other charge, that the
+    Jews are averse to secular studies, rests upon an equally
+    erroneous foundation. For even in Germany Jewish parents have at
+    length found out that it is absolute folly to let their sons
+    devote themselves to the study of science, since they never can
+    hope for obtaining the least office; and since many a one, after
+    the best years of his youth are passed, tired of waiting, and
+    fearful of not having in his old age any means of support, finds
+    in the baptismal font the last anchor of his shattered hopes.
+    How much more must this consideration have weight in Russia?
+    Nicholas, instead of encouraging the Jews to study, ordered, on
+    the contrary, that all such of them as held offices and insignia
+    of distinction under Alexander should either resign or become
+    apostates. I know myself several collegiate councillors and men
+    attached to the court, who went to the synagogue on the Day of
+    Atonement with the insignia of the order of St. Anna around
+    their neck, and prayed there with devotion and fervor, who still
+    were forced into apostasy. Such instances are not calculated to
+    encourage Jewish parents to let their children study; and it is
+    but too true that many whose inclination led them to study were
+    carried thereby into the bosom of the Christian Church.[12]
+
+After almost half a decade of indefatigable labor, Lilienthal finally
+came to understand the Russian State policy, "to assign a plausible
+reason for every act done by the Government, in order to stand justified
+in the estimation of Europe, whilst they, by throwing dust in the eyes
+of the public, conceal their true purpose." The laws which seemed
+favorable to the Jews, and apparently aimed at promoting culture among
+them, went hand in hand with laws of the most rigorous character. It is
+true that the Jews were not the only unfortunates whom the fanatic
+autocrat wished to Russify, that is, compel to see the pure light of
+Greek Orthodoxy. But they, of course, suffered the most. The slightest
+laws were enforced by the chinovniks (officials) with the knout and the
+leaden lash. When the Judeo-Polish gaberdine, the long side-curls
+(peot), and the wig or turban (knup) fell into disfavor with the
+Government, the miserable offender caught by an officer seldom saved
+himself with the mere sacrifice of knup, coat, peot, and beard. And when
+the time arrived for the execution of the more important laws, such as
+the Exportation Act of April 20, 1843, no fiendish ingenuity could
+surpass the cruelty of the Cossacks. This ukase more than any other, it
+is claimed, embittered Lilienthal against Russia, and caused him to flee
+to where he could say as one awakening from a nightmare: "The horrible
+hatred against the Jews in Russia is nothing more to me than a hazy
+remembrance. My soul is no longer oppressed by frightful pictures of
+tyranny and persecution."[13] He was in the land of the free!
+
+The Lilienthal tragedy thus came to a premature close. The hero
+disappeared at the beginning of the play. He had the potency, but he
+lacked the conditions, for producing great results. His German birth and
+training, the very qualities which recommended him to the Government,
+operated against him when he came to deal with Russian Jews. Yet he
+succeeded in giving a strong impetus to the Haskalah movement, and
+builded better than he knew. The statement in his address at the
+dedication of the Riga school,[14] "This hour we may call the hour of
+the renaissance of the mental education of Israel," which reads like an
+oratorical platitude, was not entirely visionary. The real history of
+Haskalah in Russia commences with Lilienthal.
+
+Time helped greatly to restore, even to deepen, the affection of the
+Maskilim for Lilienthal. A modern critic speaking of "life and
+literature" in Hebrew, pictures him in glowing colors, and finishes his
+description thus:
+
+    I have presented to you, reader, a man of deep culture, known
+    and respected in the highest circles, and yet inseparably
+    connected with his race and religion, and ready to offer his
+    life for their welfare; a man who worked with might and main for
+    others at the sacrifice of his own comfort and advancement; an
+    orator whose exalted phrases shattered the pillars and
+    foundations of ignorance and superstition; a hero who in time of
+    peril was proof against the arrows and missiles of the enemy,
+    and who did not relax his hand from the flag. But what was the
+    fruit he reaped? Mostly ingratitude and persecution, a heart
+    lacerated with despair, a soul writhing under the pangs of
+    frustrated hopes. Such a personality with its fine shades, and
+    with the poetry of the artist superimposed, would afford
+    splendid material for the hero of a novel--a hero to captivate
+    the eye and heart of the reader by his nobility and
+    grandeur.[15]
+
+For a long time Russian officialdom discussed the question, whether the
+establishment of exclusively Jewish schools would prove beneficial, but
+nobody doubted the efficacy of rabbinical seminaries. Yet it was these
+latter institutions that evoked the strongest protests from the Jews.
+The advocates of Haskalah gradually came to recognize the truth, which
+Lilienthal admitted afterwards, that for a Russian rabbi a thorough
+knowledge of the Talmud was absolutely indispensable. But it was with
+the object of discouraging such knowledge that the seminaries had been
+suggested by Uvarov, and it was this study that was almost entirely
+ignored in them. What congregation, many of whose members were profound
+Talmudists, would accept a rabbi to whom unvocalized Hebrew was a snare
+and a stumbling-block? Moreover, the whole atmosphere of the seminaries
+was Christian, nay, military. Not a few members of their faculties or
+boards of governors were discharged police officers or superannuated
+soldiers, and at the head of the seminary in Vilna, the metropolis of
+Russian Jewry, stood an apostate Jew! They became, as it were,
+infirmaries of the bureaucracy, where, at the expense of the Jews, it
+could stow away anyone who had proved a failure or was no longer useful.
+The Government also undertook to provide the graduates with positions,
+patronage which rendered the students insolently independent of their
+coreligionists, and encouraged some of them to indulge in a _modus
+vivendi_ distasteful to their future flocks. The graduates, therefore,
+proved failures as rabbis, and the Government was forced to provide for
+them by appointing them as teachers.[16]
+
+If this was the case with the rabbinical seminaries, we can easily
+imagine the state of the subordinate schools. The Christian principals
+were coarse and uneducated as a rule, and did their best to prejudice
+the children against their religion. Scattered all over the Pale were to
+be found Jews competent to fill positions not only as teachers in
+inferior grades but as professors in the universities. Yet Lilienthal
+was advised (1841) to advertise for three hundred teachers in Germany.
+Finally the Government decided to employ Jews as teachers of Hebrew
+only, the least important subject in the curriculum; for instruction in
+the secular branches none but Christians were eligible. No Jews were
+allowed to become rectors in their own schools, and their salaries were
+so small that they could not support themselves without teaching an
+additional class, which was prohibited. A Jew might, indeed, become an
+"honorable overseer" (pochotny blyustityel), to mediate between pupils
+and parents, but the title was the only pay attached to the office.
+Respectable parents, therefore, kept their children at home, or rather
+in the heder, and many a child's name was on the roll of attendance who
+was not even aware of the existence of the school. "Every year in the
+autumn," relates a writer a quarter of a century later, "there was a
+kind of compulsory recruiting of Jewish children for the Government
+school, accompanied sometimes by struggles between the victims and their
+enemies,--scenes without a parallel, in some respects, in the civilized
+world. I remember how poor mothers and sisters wept with despair when
+some boy of the family was carried off or enlisted by the officers to be
+a pupil of a Government school." Like the poimaniki, the poor and the
+orphaned were compelled, or induced, to fill the class-rooms shunned by
+the rich and respectable, and though the Government not only condemned
+the ancient Hebrew institutions, but declared the twenty thousand
+teachers who imparted instruction in them to be outlaws and criminals,
+the melammedim pursued their vocation as ever, and the hadarim, Talmud
+Torahs, yeshibot, and batte midrashim swarmed with students of the
+prohibited learning.[17]
+
+Nicholas was paid measure for measure, and the cunning of his ministers
+was made of no avail by the shrewdness of his Jewish subjects. The
+report of the Minister of Education, at the end of 1845, shows
+incredible progress. It states that since the ukase of November 13,
+1844, i.e. in the course of a single year, more than two thousand
+schools of different grades were established in various cities of the
+Pale, with more than one hundred and eighty thousand pupils, not
+including the technical schools in Odessa, Riga, Kishinev, Vilna, and
+Uman, with their hundreds of students! The truth was that, instead of
+the reported Russification, there had set in a vigorous reaction, which
+rendered the position more critical. Both sides had become
+desperate.[18] Some Maskilim, emboldened by the interest the Government
+evinced in their efforts, had resorted to all manner of means to
+accomplish their object, and frequently allied themselves with the
+oppressors. The Slavuta publishing house, it is claimed, was closed, and
+the Schapiras met with their tragic end, because "as printers they
+scrupulously abstained from publishing Haskalah literature." Maskilim
+were employed by the authorities as tax collectors, and these, as is
+ever the case with rapacious farmers of taxes, besides executing the
+harsh laws of the tyrant, looked also to their own aggrandizement, and
+harassed their pious coreligionists in all ways conceivable. Many of
+them even hindered the colonization movement, because, if allowed to
+mature, it would deprive them of their income.[19] In addition to this,
+the Jews were now burdened, through the instrumentality of the Maskilim,
+with a tax on the candles lighted on Sabbath eve, yielding annually over
+one million rubles, the greater part of which went into the coffers of
+greedy officials. Another tax, also for the maintenance of the
+newly-organized Government schools, was levied--one kopeck and a half
+per page!--on text-books, whether imported from abroad or published in
+Vilna or Zhitomir, and the text-books were published with unnecessarily
+large type and wide margins to increase the number of pages. The
+abridgment and translation of Maimuni's _Mishneh Torah_ (St. Petersburg,
+1851), superintended by Leon Mandelstamm, cost the Russian Jews tens of
+thousands of rubles, notwithstanding the expenditure of two or three
+millions on their own educational institutions, and at a time when every
+kopeck was needed for the support of the host of victims of fire,
+famine, and cholera, which ravaged many a city. Hence the reaction
+became more and more formidable. The cry grew louder and louder, _Znaty
+nye znayem, shkolles nye zhelayem!_ ("We want no schools!"). The
+opposition, which began in the latter years of Alexander I, reached its
+culmination in the last decade of the reign of Nicholas I. "Israel,"
+laments Mandelstamm, "seems to be even worse than formerly; he is like a
+sick person who has convalesced only to relapse, and the physicians are
+beginning to despair." It was a struggle not unlike that all over Europe
+at the beginning of the Renaissance, a struggle between liberty and
+authority, between this world and other-worldliness, between the spirit
+of the nineteenth century and that of the millenniums which preceded it.
+
+Here is a description, by Morgulis, of the struggles and conquests of
+the new, small, but zealous, group of Maskilim in Russia at about that
+time:[20]
+
+    Those upon whom the sun of civilization and freedom happened to
+    cast a ray of light, showing them the path leading to a new
+    life, were compelled to study the European literatures and
+    sciences in garrets, in cellars, in any nook where they felt
+    themselves secure from interference. Neither unaffiliated Jews
+    nor the outer world knew anything about them. Like rebels they
+    kept their secrets unto themselves, stealthily assembling from
+    time to time, to consider how they might realize their ideal,
+    and disclose to their brethren the fountainhead of the living
+    waters out of which they drank and drew new youth and life.
+    Whatever was novel was accepted with delight. They looked with
+    envy upon the great intellectual progress of their western
+    brethren. Fain would they have had their Jewish countrymen
+    recognize the times and their requirements, but they could not
+    give free utterance to their thoughts. On the contrary, they
+    found it expedient to assume the mask of religion in order to
+    escape the suspicion of alert zealots, and gain, if possible,
+    new recruits. In many places societies were founded under the
+    name of Lovers of the New Haskalah, the members of which
+    observed such secrecy that even their kinsmen and those among
+    whom they dwelt were unaware of their existence. If through the
+    discovery of some forbidden book any of them happened to be
+    detected, he never betrayed his friends. Such a one was usually
+    compelled to marry, so that, being burdened with family cares,
+    he might desist from his unpopular pursuits.
+
+From which it would appear that though the opposition to Haskalah in
+Russia was by no means as violent as had been the opposition to
+enlightenment in France, for instance, or even among the Jews of Germany
+and Austria,[21] it was a bitter and stubborn conflict between parents
+and children in the adjustment of old ideals to a new environment.
+
+Aside from the hindrances which Haskalah encountered because of
+Nicholas's conversionist policy, it was greatly hampered by the
+geographical distribution of the Jews. Here again the czar defeated his
+own end by segregating the three or four million of his Jewish subjects
+in certain districts, technically called the Pale, the greatest ghetto
+the world has ever known. It was a Judea in itself. The Jews there
+seldom came in contact with outside civilization. The languages they
+used were Hebrew as the literary tongue, Yiddish among themselves, and
+the local Slavonic dialect with their non-Jewish neighbors. Russian was
+strange, not only to the great majority of Jews, but to the Russians
+themselves. It was merely the State language, and even the Government
+officials fell back on their mother tongue whenever they were at liberty
+to do so. It was this that made it very difficult for the Jews to be
+Russified.
+
+But even if Russification had been a much easier process, Russian
+civilization was hardly worth the having.[22] To become Russified would
+have meant not only religious but also intellectual suicide. Whatever
+was good in the Russia of that day was an importation. The language was
+scarcely beyond the barbarous state. Its literature possessed neither
+original nor adopted writings, no profound philosophical systems, no
+Rousseau or Goethe, no Franklin or Kant, not even any practical
+information with which to reward the student. The best writers were
+Kryloff, Pushkin, Zhukovsky, and Dyerzhavin. The prices of books were so
+high as to make them unattainable. Karamzin's _History of the Russian
+Empire_ sold at fifty-five rubles per copy. The royal library, which had
+been founded by the Jewish court physician Sanchez, contained only eight
+Russian books during the reign of Alexander I, and not many more were
+added by his successor. The dramatic art developed by the Jewish
+playwright Nebakhovich remained for a long time in the same state as
+when he ceased his work.[23] If Russia was the most powerful, it
+continued to be the most fanatical and uncivilized country in Europe.
+All who had occasion to visit and study it during the first half of the
+nineteenth century testify to its deplorable intellectual status.
+According to a very ingenious and observing writer, quoted by Buckle in
+his _History of Civilization_, it consisted of but two ranks, the
+highest and the lowest, or the nobility and the serfs: _Les marchands,
+qui formaient une classe moyenne, sont en si petit nombre qu'il ne
+peuvent marquer dans l'etat; d'ailleurs presque tous sont etrangers_.
+The higher classes were distinguished for "a total absence of all
+rational tastes on literary topics."
+
+    Here [in Russia]--the same writer continues--it is absolutely
+    _mauvais genre_ to discuss a rational subject--pure _pedanterie_
+    to be caught upon any topics beyond dressing, dancing, and a
+    _jolie tournure_. Military prowess is ranked far above scholarly
+    attainment, and a man in a uniform, no matter how depraved,
+    takes precedence of one in plain clothes, whatever his
+    achievements. All the energies of the nation are turned towards
+    the army. Commerce, the law, and the civil employments are held
+    in no esteem; all young men of any consideration betake
+    themselves to the profession of arms. Nothing astonished them
+    more than to see the estimation in which the civil professions,
+    and especially the bar, are held in Great Britain.[24]
+
+How different was the position of the Jews in other countries,
+especially in Germany! Culture streamed upon them from all sides. As
+their numbers were small, and as they lived, in most cases, in the
+larger cities of the empire, their contact with the Christian world was
+immediate and continuous. And then the irresistible fascination of
+German literature, and the easy, almost imperceptible transition from
+the Judeo-German to the Teutonic-German! All this and many minor
+allurements were potent enough to draw even the heretofore callous
+German Jews out of their isolation, and their Germanization by the
+middle of the nineteenth century was an established fact. No wonder,
+then, that, unlike Russian Jewry, the German Jews experienced an
+unprecedented revolution; that the difference between the Mendelssohnian
+generation and the next following was almost as great as that between
+the modern American Jew and his brother in the Orient. No wonder, also,
+that when Haskalah finally took root in Russia, it was purely German for
+fifty years and more; that Nicholas's vigorous attempts, instead of
+making the Slavonic Jews better Russians, merely helped to make those he
+"re-educated" greater admirers of Germany. The most puissant autocrat of
+Russia unwittingly contributed to the downfall of Russian autocracy, and
+Gregori Peretz, the Dekabrist, son of the financier who became converted
+under Alexander I, was the first of those who were to endeavor, with
+book and bomb, to break the backbone of tyranny under Nicholas II.[25]
+
+Till about the "sixties," then, the Russo-Jewish Maskilim were the
+recipients, and the German Jews were the donors. The German Jews wrote,
+the Russian Jews read. Germany was to the Jewish world, during the early
+Haskalah movement, what France, according to Guizot, was to Europe
+during the Renaissance: both received an impetus from the outside in the
+form of raw ideas, and modified them to suit their environment. Berlin
+was still, as it had been during the days of Mendelssohn and Wessely,
+the sanctuary of learning, the citadel of culture. In the highly
+cultivated German literature they found treasures of wisdom and science.
+The poetical gems of Goethe, Schiller, Lessing, and Herder captivated
+their fancy; the philosophy of Kant and Fichte, Schelling and Hegel
+nourished their intellect. Kant continued to be the favorite guide of
+Maimon's countrymen, and in their love for him they interpreted the
+initials of his name to mean "For my soul panteth after thee."[26]
+
+But more efficacious than all other agencies was Mendelssohn's German
+translation of the Bible, and the _Biur_ commentary published therewith.
+Renaissance and Reformation, those mighty, revolutionary forces, have
+entered every country by side-doors, so to say. The Jewish Pale was no
+exception to the rule. What Wycliffe's translation did for England, and
+Luther's for Germany, Mendelssohn's did for Russian Jewry. Like the
+Septuagint, it marked a new epoch in the history of Jewish advancement.
+It is said that Mendelssohn's aim was chiefly to show the grandeur of
+the Hebrew poetry found in the Bible, but by the irony of fate his
+translation displayed to the Russian Jew the beauty and elegance of the
+German language. To the member of the Lovers of the New Haskalah,
+surreptitiously studying the Bible of the "Dessauer," the Hebrew was
+rather a translation of, or commentary on, the German, and served him as
+a bridge to cross over into the otherwise hardly accessible field of
+German literature.
+
+The cities on the borders of Russia were the first strongholds of
+Haskalah, and among them, as noted before, few struggled so intensely
+for their intellectual and civil emancipation as those in the provinces
+of Courland and Livonia. Though their lot was not better than that of
+their coreligionists, yet, having formerly belonged to Germany, and
+being surrounded by a people whose culture was superior to that of the
+rest of Russia, they were the first to adopt western customs, and were
+surpassed only by the Jews in Germany in their desire for reform. Their
+strenuous pleadings for equal rights were, indeed, ineffectual, but this
+did not lessen their admiration for the beauties of civilization, nor
+blind them to its benefits. "Long ago," remarks Lilienthal, "before the
+peculiar Jewish dress was prohibited, a great many could be seen here
+[in Courland] dressed after the German fashion, speaking pure German,
+and having their whole household arranged after the German custom. The
+works of Mendelssohn were not _trefah pasul_ [unclean and unfit], the
+children visited the public schools, the academies, and the
+universities."[27]
+
+The beautiful city of Odessa, on the Black Sea, at that time just out of
+its infancy and full of the virility and aspiration of youth, was also
+in the full glare of the German Haskalah movement. With its wide and
+straight streets, its public and private parks, and its magnificent
+structures, it presents even to-day a marked contrast to other Russian
+cities, and the Russians, not without pride, speak of it as "our little
+Paris." In the upbuilding of this southern metropolis Jews played an
+exceedingly important part. For, as regards the promotion of trade and
+commerce, Russia had outgrown the narrow policy of Elizabeta Petrovna,
+and did not begrudge her Jews the privilege of taking the lead. The
+"enemies of Christ" were permitted, even invited, to accomplish their
+"mission" also in Odessa, and thither they accordingly came, not only
+from Volhynia, Podolia, and Lithuania, but also from Germany, Austria,
+and especially Galicia. Erter, Letteris, Krochmal, Perl, Rapoport,
+Eichenbaum, Pinsker, and Werbel became better known in Russia than in
+their own land. As the Russo-Polish Jews had carried their Talmudic
+learning back to the countries whence they originally received it, so
+the Galician Jews, mostly hailing from the city of Brody, where Israel
+Zamoscz, Mendel Levin, Joseph Hakohen, and others had implanted the
+germs of Haskalah, now reimported it into Russia. The Jews of Odessa
+were, therefore, more cultured than other Russian Jews, not excepting
+those of Riga. Prosperous in business, they lavished money on their
+schools, and their educational system surpassed all others in the
+empire. In 1826 they had the best public school for boys, in 1835 a
+similar one for girls, and in 1852 there existed fifty-nine public
+schools, eleven boarding schools, and four day schools. The children
+attended the Richelieu Lyceum and the "gymnasia" in larger proportion
+than children of other denominations, and they were among the first, not
+only in Russia, but in the whole Diaspora, to establish a
+"choir-synagogue" (1840). "In most of the families," says Lilienthal,
+"can be found a degree of refinement which may easily bear comparison
+with the best French salon." Even Nicholas I found words of praise for
+the Odessa Jews. "Yes," said he, "in Odessa I have also seen Jews, but
+they were men"; while the zaddik "Rabbi Yisrolze" declared that he saw
+"the flames of Gehennah round Odessa."[28]
+
+Warsaw, too, was a beneficiary of Germany, having been occupied by the
+Prussians before it fell to the lot of the Russians. It was there that
+practically the first Jewish weekly journals were published in Yiddish
+and Polish, Der Beobachter an der Weichsel, and Dostrzegacz Nadvisyansky
+(1823). There was opened the first so-called rabbinical seminary, with
+Anton Eisenbaum as principal, and Cylkov, Buchner, and Kramsztyk as
+teachers. The public schools were largely attended, owing to the efforts
+of Mattathias Rosen, and a year after a reformed synagogue had been
+organized in Odessa another was founded in Warsaw, where sermons were
+preached in German by Abraham Meir Goldschmidt.
+
+But Riga on the Baltic, Odessa on the Black Sea, and Warsaw on the
+Vistula were outdone by some cities in the interior. Haskalah lovers
+multiplied rapidly, and were found in the early "forties" in every city
+of any size in the Pale. "The further we go from Pinsk to Kletzk and
+Nieszvicz," writes a correspondent in the Annalen,[29] "the more we lose
+sight of the fanatics, and the greater grows the number of the
+enlightened." With the establishment of the rabbinical seminaries in
+Zhitomir (1848), this former centre of Hasidism became the nursery of
+Haskalah. The movement was especially strong in Vilna, the "Jerusalem of
+Lithuania," as Napoleon is said to have called it. From time immemorial,
+long before the Gaon's day, it had been famous for its Talmudic
+scholars. "Its yeshibot," says Jacob Emden in the middle of the
+eighteenth century, "were closed neither by day nor by night; many
+scholars came home from the bet ha-midrash but once a week. They
+surpassed their brethren in Poland and in Germany in learning and
+knowledge, and it was regarded of much consequence to secure a rabbi
+from Vilna." Now this "city and mother in Israel" became one of the
+pioneers of Haskalah, all the more because, in addition to the public
+schools and the rabbinical seminary, the Jews were admitted to its
+university on equal terms with the Gentiles. "Within six years,"
+exclaims Mandelstamm, "what a change has come over Vilna! Youths and
+maidens, anxious for the new Haskalah, are now to be met with
+everywhere, nor are any ashamed to learn a trade." The schools exerted a
+salutary influence on the younger generation, and the older people, too,
+began to view life differently, only that they were still reluctant to
+discard their old-fashioned garb. There also, in 1847, the leading
+Maskilim started a reform synagogue, which they named Taharat ha-Kodesh,
+the Essence of Holiness.[30]
+
+It should not be forgotten that, if Lilienthal met with mighty
+opposition, he also had powerful supporters. There were many who, though
+remaining in the background, strongly sympathized with his plan. Indeed,
+the number of educated Jews, as proved by an investigation ordered by
+Nicholas I, was far greater than had been commonly supposed. Not only in
+the border towns, but even in the interior of the Pale, the students of
+German literature and secular science were not few, and Doctor Loewe
+discovered in Hebron an exceptional German scholar in the person of an
+immigrant from Vilna.[31] The tendency of the time is well illustrated
+by an anecdote told by Slonimsky, to the effect that when he went to ask
+the approval of Rabbi Abele of Zaslava on his _Mosde Hokmah_, he found
+that those who came to be examined for ordination received their award
+without delay, while he was put off from week to week. Ill at ease,
+Slonimsky approached the venerable rabbi and demanded an explanation:
+"You grant a semikah [rabbinical diploma] so readily, why do you seem so
+reluctant when a mere haskamah [recommendation] is the matter at issue?"
+To his surprise the reason given was that the rabbi enjoyed his
+scientific debates so much that he would not willingly part with the
+young author.
+
+Stories were told how the deans of the yeshibot were frequently found to
+have mastered the very books they confiscated because of the teachings
+they inculcated. Before the reign of Nicholas I drew to its end,
+Haskalah centres were as numerous as the cities wherein Jews resided. In
+Byelostok the Talmudist Jehiel Michael Zabludovsky was lending German
+books to young Slonimsky, the future inventor and publicist; in
+Vlotslavek Rabbi Joseph Hayyim Caro was writing and preaching in classic
+German; in Zhagory, Hayyim Sack helped Leon Mandelstamm (1809-1889), the
+first Jewish "candidate," or bachelor, in philology to graduate from the
+St. Petersburg University (1844) and the assistant and successor of
+Lilienthal, in the expurgation and German translation of Maimuni's
+_Mishneh Torah_. When, in 1857, Mandelstamm resigned, he was followed by
+Seiberling, for fifteen years the censor of Jewish books in Kiev, upon
+whom a German university conferred the doctor's degree. The
+poverty-stricken Wolf Adelsohn, known as the Hebrew Diogenes, formed a
+group of Seekers after Light in Dubno, while such wealthy merchants as
+Abraham Rathaus, Lilienthal's secretary during his campaign in
+Berdichev, Issachar Bompi, the bibliophile in Minsk, Leon Rosenthal,
+financier and philanthropist in Brest-Litovsk, and Aaron Rabinovich, in
+Kobelyaki (Poltava), promoted enlightenment by precept and example. In
+Vilna, Joseph Sackheim's young son acted as English interpreter when
+Montefiore was entertained by his father, and Jacob Barit, the
+incomparable "Yankele Kovner" (1793-1833) another of Montefiore's
+hosts, was master of Russian, German, and French, and aroused the
+admiration of the Governor-General Nazimov by his learning and his
+ability.
+
+Yes, the Jews began to pay, if they had ever been in debt, for the good
+that had for a while been bestowed upon them by Alexander I. Alexander
+Nebakhovich was a well-known theatrical director, his brother Michael
+was the editor of the first Russian comic paper Yeralash, and Osip
+Rabinovich showed marked ability in serious journalism. In 1842 died
+Abraham Jacob Stern, the greatest inventor Russia had till then
+produced; and, as if to corroborate the statement of the Talmud, that
+when one sun sets another rises, the Demidoff prize of two thousand five
+hundred rubles was the same year awarded to his son-in-law, Hayyim Selig
+Slonimsky (HaZas, 1810-1904) of Byelostok, for the first of his valuable
+inventions. Stern's genius was surpassed, though in a different
+direction, only by that of Elijah Vilna. His first invention was a
+calculating machine, which led to his election as a member of the Warsaw
+Society of the Friends of Science (1817) and to his being received twice
+by Alexander I (1816, 1818), who bestowed upon him an annual pension of
+three hundred and fifty rubles. This invention was followed by another,
+"a topographical wagon for the measurement of level surfaces, an
+invention of great benefit to both civil and military engineers." He
+also constructed an improved threshing and harvesting machine and a
+sickle of immense value to agriculture.[32]
+
+But it is scarcely possible, nor would it be profitable, to enumerate
+either the places or the persons who were, so to speak, inoculated with
+the Haskalah virus. In Grodno, Kovno, Lodz, Minsk, Mohilev, Pinsk,
+Zamoscz, Slutsk, Vitebsk, Zhagory, and other places, they were toiling
+zealously and diligently, these anchorites in the desert of knowledge.
+Among them were men of all classes and callings, from the cloistered
+Talmudist to the worldly merchant. The path of Haskalah was slowly yet
+surely cleared. The efforts of the conservative Maskilim were not devoid
+of some good results, nor even were those of Nicholas, though aimed at
+Christianizing rather than civilizing, entirely wasted. With all their
+shortcomings, and though producing but few rabbis acceptable to
+Russo-Jewish congregations, the seminaries in Warsaw, Zhitomir, and
+Vilna were powers for enlightenment. In them the future prominent
+scientists, scholars, and litterateurs were reared, and there the
+foundations were laid for the activities of Goldfaden, Gurland, Harkavy,
+Kantor, Landau, Levanda, Mandelkern, Paperna, Pumpyansky, Rosenberg,
+Steinberg, and others. Their fate was that of Mendelssohn's Bible
+translation. The end became a means, the means, an end. But they not
+only "brought forth" great men, they rendered no less important a
+service in "bringing out" those already great. Had it not been for their
+professorships, men like Abramovitsch, Lerner, Plungian, Slonimsky,
+Suchastover, and Zweifel, who were not blessed with worldly goods like
+Fuenn, Katzenellenbogen, Luria, or Strashun, would probably have sought
+in private teaching or petty trading a source of subsistence, and
+Judaism in general and Russian Jewry in particular would have sustained
+a considerable loss. They helped to prepare the soil, even to implant
+the germ, and
+
+  Once the germ implanted,
+  Its growth, if slow, is sure.
+
+As the history of this period is incomplete without an acquaintance with
+the lives of some of the Maskilim who sowed the seeds that burst into
+blossom under the favorable conditions of the "sixties," I shall select,
+as specimens out of a multitude, the two who, more than any others,
+furthered the cause of Haskalah, Isaac Baer Levinsohn and Mordecai Aaron
+Guenzburg.[33]
+
+Isaac Baer Levinsohn of Kremenetz, Volhynia (RiBaL, 1788-1860), was for
+many years a name to conjure with, not only among the Maskilim of all
+shades, but also among their opponents. Long before he reached man's
+estate, he had entered upon the career to which he was to dedicate his
+life. Even in those times of numerous child prodigies, Levinsohn was
+distinguished for his intellectual precocity. At the age of three he was
+ripe for the heder. At nine he was the author of a work on Cabbala. At
+ten he mastered the Talmud, and knew the entire Hebrew Bible by heart.
+But what singled him out among his classmates was his passionate love of
+secular knowledge. The son of Judah Levin, an erudite merchant who knew
+Hebrew and Polish to perfection, the grandson of Jekuthiel Solomon,
+famed for wealth and refinement, he evinced unusual ability in selecting
+and retaining what was good and true in everything he read. At fourteen
+he was familiar with the literatures of several nations, so that during
+the Franco-Russian war (1812) he easily secured an appointment as
+interpreter and secretary in the local police department. But excessive
+study caused ill-health, and at the suggestion of his physicians he went
+to Brody in Galicia, a fortunate incident in the otherwise solitary and
+gloomy life of the future reformer, for next to Germany Galicia played
+an important part in the Haskalah movement in Russia. There he met
+Joseph Perl, the noted educator; Doctor Isaac Erter, the immortal
+satirist; M.H. Letteris, the distinguished poet; S.L. Rapoport, one of
+the first and profoundest of Jewish historians, and Nahman Krochmal, the
+saintly philosopher. Into this circle of "shining ones" Levinsohn was
+introduced, and each and all left an impression, some greater, some
+less, upon his plastic soul. It was there and then, in the congenial
+company of friends of about his own age, that Levinsohn determined to
+devote himself to improving the educational system of his people and
+began to plan his work on _Learning in Israel_ (_Te'udah be-Yisrael_),
+which procured for its author the foremost place in the history of the
+Haskalah movement.
+
+The book was finished in 1823, but, owing to Levinsohn's pecuniary
+circumstances, it remained unpublished till 1828. Meanwhile it
+circulated in manuscript among the leading Maskilim of Russia, Austria,
+and Germany, and established its author's reputation wherever it was
+read. Levinsohn was one of those who understand the persuasive power of
+the still small voice of sweet reasonableness. He knew that a few
+convincing arguments couched in gentle language will accomplish more for
+the furtherance of an ideal than the trumpet call of a hundred clamoring
+militants, and Haskalah will make headway only when it can prove itself
+to be a help, and not a hindrance, to religion. Accordingly, he aimed to
+show that the Tanaim, Amoraim, Saboraim, Geonim, and rabbis of later
+generations were versed in the sciences, were familiar with foreign
+history, and interested in the affairs of the world. But these he quotes
+only as exemplars of broad-mindedness, they must no longer be regarded
+as authorities in secular knowledge. "Art and science," he says, "are
+steadily progressing.... To perfect ourselves in them we must resort to
+non-Jewish sources." This was a bold statement for those times, however
+mildly expressed. The _Te'udah_ became a bone of contention. It was torn
+and burnt by fanatics, exalted to the skies by friends. The new apostle
+of enlightenment was forced to leave the city and reside for a while in
+Berdichev, Nemirov, Ostrog, and Tulchin. But wherever he went, his
+tribulation was sweetened by the enthusiasm of his admirers and the
+consciousness that his toil was not entirely wasted. In Warsaw and in
+Vilna his name was great, and Nicholas presented him with a thousand
+rubles as a mark of appreciation of the book, the fly-leaf of which
+bears the inscription "To science."
+
+In the midst of his more serious studies Levinsohn diverted himself
+occasionally with lighter composition, in which many an antiquated
+custom served as the butt for his biting satire. In his youth he had a
+penchant for poetry, and his poem on the flight, or expulsion, of the
+French from Russia was complimented by the Government. His muse dealt
+with ephemeral themes, but his _bons mots_ are current among his
+countrymen to this day. A novel sort of plagiarism was the fashion of
+the time. Authors attributed their work to others, instead of claiming
+the product of others as their own. Levinsohn's _Hefker Welt_, in
+Yiddish, and _Sayings of the Saints_ and _Valley of the Dead_, in
+Hebrew, belong to this category. But the deep student did not persist
+long in this species of diversion. Wittgenstein, the field-marshal, and
+professors at the Lyceum of his town, supplied him with books, and he,
+an omnivorous reader, plunged again into his graver work, the result of
+which was the little book since translated into English, Russian, and
+German, _Efes Dammim_ (_No Blood!_). As the name indicates, it was
+intended as a defence against the blood, or ritual murder, accusation.
+It was the right word in the right time and place. In Zaslav, Volhynia,
+this monstrous libel had been revived, and popular fury rose to a high
+pitch. Several years later the Damascus Affair stirred the Jewish world
+to determined action, designed to stamp it out once for all. To wage war
+against this superstitious belief seems to have fallen to the lot of
+several of Levinsohn's family. In 1757, when it asserted itself in
+Yampoly, Volhynia, his great-uncle, by the unanimous consent of the
+Council of the Four Countries, was sent to Rome to intercede with the
+Pope. After six years of pleading, he returned to his native land with a
+signed statement addressed to the Polish king and nobles, which declared
+the accusation to be utterly false. Another uncle of his had performed a
+similar task in 1749. True scion of a noble family, Levinsohn followed
+in their wake, and his effort was declared to be a "sharp sword forged
+by a master, to fight for our honor."
+
+Everything was against Levinsohn when he started on his third great
+work, _The House of Judah_ (_Bet Yehudah_). He found himself poor, sick,
+and alone, and deprived of his fine library. In those days, and for a
+long time before and afterwards, Hebrew authors were paid in kind. In
+return for their copyright they received a number of copies of their
+books, which they were at liberty to dispose of as best they could. Now,
+while Levinsohn's copies of his _Bet Yehudah_ were still at the
+publisher's, a fire broke out, and most of them were consumed.
+
+The _Te'udah be-Yisrael_ had been prompted by a desire to prove the
+compatibility of modern civilization with Judaism. Levinsohn's object in
+writing his _Bet Yehudah_ was the reverse. The impetus came from without
+the Jewish camp. The book represents the author's views on certain
+Jewish problems propounded by his Christian friend, Prince Emanuel
+Lieven, just as Mendelssohn's _Jerusalem_ was written at the instigation
+of Lavater. Though there is a similarity in the causes that produced the
+two books, there is a marked difference in their methods. Mendelssohn
+treats his subject as an impartial non-Jewish philosopher might have
+done. He is frequently too reserved, for fear of offending. Levinsohn,
+in Greek-Catholic Russia, is strictly frank. He is conscious of the
+difficulties under which he is laboring. To discuss religion in Russia
+is far from agreeable. "It is," he says, "as if a master, pretending to
+exhibit his skill in racing, were to enter into competition publicly
+with his slave ... and at the same time wink at him to slacken his
+speed." Of one thing he is certain: Judaism is a progressive religion.
+It had been and might be reformed from time to time, but this can and
+must be only along the lines of its own genius. To improve the moral and
+material condition of the Jews by weaning them away from the faith of
+their fathers (as was tried by Nicholas) will not do. On the contrary,
+make them better Jews, and they will be better citizens.
+
+The _Bet Yehudah_ may justly be called the connecting link between the
+_Te'udah_, which preceded it, and _Zerubbabel_, which followed it. The
+latter, though written in Hebrew, was really intended exclusively for
+the Gentile world, as the former had been mainly for the Jewish world.
+It is a continuation, but not yet a conclusion, of the self-assigned
+task of Levinsohn. The Talmud, we have seen, was at that time the object
+of assaults of zealous Christians and disloyal Jews, and hostile works
+against Judaism were the order of the day. Most of them, however, like
+the fabulous snake, vented their poison and died. It was different with
+McCaul's poignant diatribe against the cause of Judaism and the honor of
+the Talmud, which had been translated into many languages. Montefiore,
+while in Russia, urged Levinsohn to defend his people against their
+traducers, and the bed-ridden sage, almost blind and hardly able to hold
+a pen, finally consented. What _Zerubbabel_ accomplished, can be judged
+from the fact that in the second Hebrew edition of McCaul's _Old Paths_
+(1876) are omitted many of the calumnies and aspersions of the first
+edition, published in 1839.
+
+Levinsohn's life was a continuous struggle against an insidious disease,
+which kept him confined to his bed, and prevented him from accepting any
+prominent position. But though, as he said, he had "neither brother,
+wife, child, nor even a sound body," he impressed his personality upon
+Russian Jewry as no one else, save the Gaon, had before him. His breadth
+of view and his sympathetic disposition gradually won him the respect
+and love of all who knew him. The zaddikim Abraham of Turisk and Israel
+Rasiner were his lifelong friends; the Talmudist Strashun acknowledged
+his indebtedness to him, and Rabbi Abele of Vilna remarked jestingly
+that the only fault to be found with the _Te'udah_ was that its author
+was not the Gaon Elijah. He enjoyed prominence in Government circles,
+and Prince Wittgenstein was passionately fond of his company. Above all
+he endeared himself to the Maskilim. To him they looked as to their
+teacher and guide; him they consulted in every emergency. Lebensohn and
+Gottlober, Mandelstamm and Gordon, equally sought his criticism and
+advice. For all he had words of comfort and encouragement. The younger
+Maskilim he warned not to waste their time in idle versification, not to
+become intoxicated with their little learning; and the older ones he
+implored to respect the sentiments of their conservative coreligionists.
+"Take it not amiss," he would say to the latter, "that the great bulk of
+our people hearken not as yet to our new teachings. All beginnings are
+difficult. The drop cannot become a deluge instantaneously. Persevere in
+your laudable ambition, publish your good and readable books, and the
+result, though slow, is sure."
+
+Thus lived and labored the first of the Maskilim, an idealist from
+beginning to end. Persecution did not embitter, nor poverty depress him.
+And when he passed away quietly (February 12, 1860) in the obscure
+little town in which he had been born, and which has become famous
+through him, it was felt that Russia had had her Mendelssohn, too.
+Strange to say, he little suspected the tremendous influence he exerted
+upon the Haskalah movement, but was quite sanguine of the success of his
+fight for "truth and justice among the nations." His work he modestly
+summed up in the epitaph which was inscribed on his tombstone at his
+request:
+
+  Out of nothing God called me to life.
+  Alas, earthly life has passed, and I must
+  Sleep again on the bosom of Mother Nature.
+  Witness this stone. I fought with God's
+  Foes, not with a Sword, but with the Word;
+  I fought for Truth and Justice among the Nations
+  And _Zerubbabel_ and _Efes Dammim_ testify thereto.
+
+Contemporaneous with Isaac Baer Levinsohn, and hardly less distinguished
+and influential, was Mordecai Aaron Guenzburg (ReMAG, Salanti, Kovno,
+December 3, 1795--Vilna, November 5, 1846). His family had been
+prominent in many walks of life since the fourteenth century, and,
+whether in the land of the Saxons or of the Slavs, represented the cream
+of the Jewries in which they lived. His father was a Maskil of great
+repute, who had written several treatises, in Hebrew, on algebra,
+geometry, optics, and kindred subjects. He sought to supplement his son
+Mordecai Aaron's heder education with a knowledge of secular sciences.
+But at that time and in that place not many were the books, outside the
+Talmud, accessible to a lad eager for learning, the only ones available
+being such as the _Josippon_, _Zemah David_, and _Sheerit Yisrael_ on
+Jewish History, the _Sefer ha-Berit_, and a Hebrew translation of
+Mendelssohn's _Phaedon_ on general philosophy. But the precocious and
+clear-minded youth did not need much to stimulate his love for history
+and his inclination to philosophy, and his intellectual development
+continued in spite of the untoward circumstances in which he happened to
+be placed.
+
+Though he was "given" in marriage at a very early age, the proverbial
+"millstone" weighed but lightly upon the neck of young Guenzburg. He
+never discontinued the habit of secluding himself in his study for
+hours, sometimes for days, at a time, and there writing down his
+thoughts in painstaking penmanship. These productions, with all their
+crudity, promised, according to a keen critic, the flowers which would
+one day "ripen into delicious fruit, not only pleasant to the sight but
+also delicious to the taste." In fact, even his religious views
+underwent but slight modification in later and maturer years. Ceremonial
+laws, or minhagim, were to him a social compact among the members of a
+sect. He who transgresses them is, _eo ipso_, excluded from the sect, as
+he who disregards the social code, though not immoral, is ostracized
+from society. This led him to the logical conclusion that every Jew must
+comply with the customs of his people, though his opinion as to their
+moral value may differ from that of the rest. He believed in freedom of
+thought, but would not concede freedom of action or even of expression,
+and would say with Bolingbroke, "Freedom belongs to a man as a rational
+creature, he lies under the restraint as a member of society."
+
+At these conclusions, Guenzburg arrived only after a long, severe, though
+silent, struggle in the seclusion of his closet. His active mind would
+not at first surrender unconditionally to the coercion of custom. But
+his conception of ceremonialism served him in good stead on many an
+occasion in his eventful life. Being an expedient to preserve harmony,
+it may and must vary with change of conditions. Accordingly, Guenzburg
+always accommodated himself to his environment. In Vilna he subscribed
+to the regulations of the _Shulhan 'Aruk_, in Mitau he quickly and
+completely became Germanized. Such adaptability rendered him conspicuous
+wherever he went, and as early as 1829 his name was included among the
+learned of Livonia, Esthland, and Courland in the Biographical
+Dictionary then published by Recke and Napyersky.
+
+His claim to fame, however, consists in the influence he exerted upon
+Russian Jews. Like Levinsohn, he was a constructive force. In his
+younger days, he had inveighed against the benighted rabbis and the
+antiquated garb, but moderation came with discretion. He would not sweep
+away by force the accumulation of hundreds of years. Judaism needed
+reforms of some sort, but these could not be brought about by the
+Russo-German-doctor-rabbis, men who could rede the seven riddles of the
+world, but whose knowledge of their own people and its spiritual
+treasures was close to the zero point. "For a rabbi," writes he, "Torah
+must be the integer, science the cipher. Had Aristotle embraced Judaism,
+notwithstanding his unparalleled erudition, he would still remain a
+sage, never become a rabbi." But he was as little satisfied with the
+exclusively Talmudistic rabbis. "O ye modern rabbis," he calls out in
+one of his essays, in which he stigmatizes Lilienthal's plans as the
+"gourd of Jonah," "you who stand in the place of seer and prophet of
+yore, is it not your duty to rise above the people, to intervene between
+them and the Government? And how can you expect to accomplish it, if the
+language and regulations of our country are entirely unknown to you?"
+
+The impress Guenzburg left upon Hebrew literature is of special
+importance. Until his time, despite the examples set by Satanov and
+Levin, Hebrew was stamped with the hallmark of medievalism. Like the
+Spanish entertainment in Dryden's _Mock Astrologer_, at which everything
+at the table tasted of nothing but red pepper, so the literature of that
+day was dominated by the style and spirit of the Talmud and saturated
+with its subtleties. Astronomy, philosophy, mathematics, and poetry
+swarmed with puns, alliterations, pedantic allusions; they were
+overladen with irrelevant notes and interwoven with quaint and strained
+interpretations. Guenzburg was the first, with the exception of Erter
+perhaps, to try to remedy the evil. "Every writer," he maintained,
+"should guard himself against the fastidiousness or stiffness which
+results from pedantry, and take great pains not only with the content of
+his thoughts, but with the language in which these thoughts are
+couched." Simplicity, perspicuity, and conciseness, these he taught by
+precept and example, and though he was accused of "Germanizing" the
+Hebrew language, he persisted in his labor until he attained the
+foremost rank among the neo-Hebraic litterateurs.
+
+In Guenzburg we find the artistic temperament developed to a degree rare
+among Hebraists of even more recent years. He wrote only in moments of
+inspiration. At times he passed weeks and months without penning a line,
+but when once aroused he wrote unceasingly until he finished what he had
+begun. He was careful in the choice of his words, careful in the choice
+of his books, and would recommend nothing but the best. "I may not have
+genius enough," he would say, "to distinguish between better and best,
+but I do not lack common sense, to differentiate tares from weeds."
+Above all, he possessed a sense of honor, the greatest stimulus, as he
+maintained, to noble endeavors. "For as marriage is necessary to
+perpetuate the race, and food to sustain the individual, so is honor to
+the existence of the superior man."
+
+Of the fifty years of his active life more than one-half was spent in
+literary labor. His books obtained a wide circulation, and, though they
+were rather expensive, became rare soon after their publication. Yet,
+strange to say, this eminent Hebraist seldom, if ever, lauds the
+beauties of the "daughter of Eber" (Hebrew) like his fellow-Maskilim
+since the days of the Meassefim, nor does he even think it incumbent on
+a Jew to be conversant with it.
+
+    Three periods have passed over me--he writes to a friend--since
+    I dedicated myself to Hebrew. As a youth I loved it as a Jewish
+    lad loves his betrothed, not because he is enamored of her
+    charms, but because his parents have chosen her for him; as I
+    grew older, I continued to love it as a Jewish man loves his
+    wife, not because of real affection, but because she is the only
+    one he knows; now that I am old, I still love her, as an elderly
+    Jew loves his helpmate: he is aware that she lacks many of the
+    accomplishments of which more educated women can boast, but, for
+    all that, remembering her faithfulness in the past, he loves her
+    also in the present, and loves her till he dies.
+
+Guenzburg was different from most of his contemporaries in another
+respect. He was a voluminous writer, but only a few of his books and
+essays bear on what we now call Jewish science. Zunz, Geiger, and Jost,
+seeing that Judaism was gradually losing its hold upon their Jewish
+countrymen, resorted to exploring and narrating, in German, the
+wonderful story of their race, in the hope of renewing its ebbing
+strength. Levinsohn, living amid a different environment, deemed it best
+to convince his fellow-Jews that secular knowledge was necessary, and
+religion sanctioned their pursuit thereof. Guenzburg, the man of letters,
+determined to teach through the vehicle of Hebrew the true and the
+beautiful wherever he found it. He felt called upon to reveal to his
+brethren the grandeur of the world beyond the dingy ghetto, to tell them
+the stories not contained in the Midrash, _Josippon_, or the biographies
+of rabbis and zaddikim. He translated Campe's _Discovery of the New
+World_, compiled a history of ancient civilization, and narrated the
+epochal event of the nineteenth century, the conflict between Russia and
+France. He taught his fellow-Jews to think correctly and logically, to
+clothe their thoughts in beautiful expressions, and revealed his
+innermost being to them in his autobiography, _Abi'ezer_. As a writer he
+appears neither erudite nor profound. We cannot apply to his works what
+we may safely say of Elijah Vilna's and Levinsohn's, that "there is
+solid metal enough in them to fit out whole circulating libraries, were
+it beaten into the usual filigree." But he was elegant, cultured,
+intelligent, honorable; one who joined a feeling heart to a love for
+art; a Moses who struck from the rock of the Hebrew tongue refreshing
+streams for those thirsting for knowledge; a most amiable personality,
+and an altogether unusual character during the century-long struggle
+between light and darkness in the Jewry of Russia.
+
+[Illustration: PEREZ BEN MOSHEH SMOLENSKIN, 1842-1885]
+
+(Notes, pp. 318-322.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+RUSSIFICATION, REFORMATION, AND ASSIMILATION
+
+1856-1881
+
+
+The year 1856 will always be remembered as the _annus mirabilis_ in the
+history of Russia. It marked at once the cessation of the Crimean war
+and the accession of the most liberal and benevolent monarch Russia ever
+had. On January 16, the heir apparent signified his consent to accept
+Austrian intervention, which resulted in the Treaty of Paris (March 30),
+granting the Powers involved "peace with honor"; and in August, in the
+Cathedral of the Assumption at Moscow, amidst unprecedented rejoicing,
+the czarevich placed the imperial crown upon his head. From that time
+reform followed reform. The condition of the soldiers, who had virtually
+been slaves under Nicholas I, was greatly improved, and a proclamation
+was issued for the emancipation of the peasants, slaves not for a
+limited time only, but for life and from generation to generation. It
+cost the United States five years of fratricidal agony, a billion of
+dollars, and about half a million of lives, to liberate five or six
+millions of negroes; Russia, in one memorable day (February 19, 1861),
+liberated nearly twenty-two millions of muzhiks (peasants), and gave
+them full freedom, by a mere stroke of the pen of the "tsar
+osvobodityel," the Liberator Czar, Alexander II (1856-1881).
+
+Other innovations, of less magnitude but nevertheless of far-reaching
+importance, were introduced later. Capital punishment, which still
+disgraces human justice in more enlightened states, was unconditionally
+abolished; the number of offences amenable to corporal punishment was
+gradually reduced, until, on April 29, 1863, all the horrors of the
+gauntlet, the spur, the lash, the cat, and the brand, were consigned to
+eternal oblivion. The barbarous system of the judiciary was replaced by
+one that could render justice "speedy, righteous, merciful, and
+equitable." Railway communication, postal and telegraph service, police
+protection, the improvement of the existing universities, the opening of
+many new primary schools, and the introduction of compulsory school
+attendance, told speedily on the intellectual development of the people.
+In the words of Shumakr, Russia experienced "a complete inward revival."
+Old customs seemed to disappear, all things were become new. New life,
+new hope, new aspirations throbbed in the hearts of the subjects of the
+gigantic empire, and better times were knocking at their doors. _Joli
+tout le monde, le diable est mort!_
+
+This era of great reforms and the resuscitation of all that is good and
+noble in the Slavonic soul brought about also a moral regeneration. The
+colossus who, according to Turgenief, preferred to sleep an endless
+sleep, with a jug of vodka in his clutched fingers, proved that he, too,
+was human, with a feeling, human heart beating in his bosom. With the
+restoration of peace and the abolition of serfhood, there began a
+removal of prejudice even against Jews. Hitherto the foremost
+litterateurs in Russia, imitating the writers of other lands, had
+painted the Jew as a monstrosity. Pushkin's prisoner, Gogol's traitor,
+Lermontoff's spy, and Turgenief's Zhid (Jew) were caricatures and
+libels, equal in acrimony, and not inferior in art, to Shakespeare's
+Shylock and Dickens's Fagin. But now the best and ablest men of letters
+signed a protest against such unjust and impossible characters.
+
+    Two thousand years of cruel suffering and affliction--said the
+    historian and humanitarian Professor Granovsky, of the
+    University of Moscow--have at last erased the bloody boundary
+    line separating the Jews from humanity. The honor of this
+    reconciliation, which is becoming firmer from day to day,
+    belongs to our age. The civic status of the Jews is now
+    established in most European countries, and even in the places
+    that are still backward their condition is improved, if not by
+    law, then by enlightenment.
+
+And law and enlightenment radiated their sunshine also upon the Jews of
+rejuvenated Russia. The Cantonist system was abolished for good; the
+high schools and universities were opened to Jews without
+discrimination; and the Governments lying outside the Pale were made
+accessible to Jewish scholars, professional men, manufacturers,
+wholesale merchants, and skilled laborers (March 16, 1859; November 27,
+1861).[1] Through the efforts of Wolf Kaplan, one of Guenzburg's noted
+pupils, the persecution of Jews by Germans in Riga was stopped, and the
+eminent publicist Katkoff undertook to defend them in the newspaper
+Russkiya Vyedomosti. Nazimov, the Governor-General of Vilna, Mukhlinsky,
+who inspected the Jewish schools in western Russia, Artzimovich, of
+southern Russia, and many other prominent personages arose as champions
+of the Jews.[2]
+
+The physician and pedagogue Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov (1810-1881), the
+superintendent of the Odessa and Kiev school districts, is especially
+deserving of honorable mention in the history of Haskalah. Of all the
+Russians of the period who gloried in their liberal convictions, he was
+the most liberal. In him the last vestige of prejudice and race
+distinction disappeared, and he conscientiously devoted himself to the
+study, not only of the present, but also of the past of the Jews, to be
+in a better position to lend them his assistance. To the Jews he
+appealed to unite and spread enlightenment among the masses by peaceful
+means. To the Gentiles, again, he did not hesitate to point out the good
+qualities of the Jews, and in an article on the Odessa Talmud Torah he
+held up the institution as a model for the public elementary schools. He
+admired especially the enthusiasm with which Jewish youths devoted
+themselves to the acquisition of knowledge. "Where are religion,
+morality, enlightenment, and the modern spirit," asked he, "when these
+Jews, who, with courage and self-sacrifice, engage in the struggle
+against prejudices centuries old, meet no one here to sympathize with
+them and extend a helping hand to them?" His liberality carried him so
+far that he established a fund for the support of indigent Jewish
+students at the University of Kiev, and he advocated strenuously the
+award of prizes and scholarships to deserving Jewish students. Such as
+he were rare in any land, but nowhere so rare as in Russia.[3]
+
+Pirogov took the initiative in reorganizing the Jewish schools. It
+required little observation to understand that they had proved a
+failure. Instead of attracting the Jewish masses to secular education,
+they only repelled them. The remedy was not far to seek. "The abolition
+of these schools" said Count Kotzebu, "would drive the Jews back to
+their fanaticism and isolation. It is necessary to make the Jews useful
+citizens, and I see no other means of achieving this than by their
+education." Pirogov's first move was to order that Jewish instead of
+Christian principals be put at their head, and he set an example by
+appointing Rosenzweig to that office. The curriculum was changed, making
+the lower schools correspond with our grammar schools, and adapting
+their studies to the needs of those who must discontinue schooling at a
+comparatively early age. The higher schools were arranged so as to
+prepare the pupils for the gymnasium. The salaries of the teachers were
+raised, and books and necessaries were provided for pupils too poor to
+afford them.
+
+The Government's attention having been directed by General Zelenoy to
+the Jewish agricultural colonies in southern Russia, Marcus Gurovich was
+appointed to work out a plan to provide them with graded schools. He
+proposed that secular and sacred subjects alike be taught by Jewish
+teachers, and these were to be cautioned to be careful not to offend the
+religious sensibilities of the parents. The plan appealed to the
+colonists, and they looked forward anxiously to its fulfilment. Having
+waited in vain till 1868, they offered to defray the expenses of the
+schools involved, if the Government would advance the money at the
+first. Accordingly, ten schools for boys and two for girls were opened
+in that year.
+
+Such disinterested efforts on their behalf would have evoked the
+gratitude of Jews at any time and in every country, how much more in
+Russia, and following close upon the darkest period in their history!
+The struggle for liberty all over Europe in 1848--the spring of
+nations--had confirmed Nicholas in his policy of exclusion. The last
+five years of his reign had surpassed the preceding in cruelty and
+tyranny. The "Don Quixote of Politics," finding that his attempts to
+quarantine Russia against European influences had proved futile, that
+the nationalities constituting the empire remained as distinct as ever,
+and the desired homogeneity was still far from becoming a reality,
+finally had lost patience and had determined to execute his
+conversionist policy at all hazards. He had increased the conscription
+duties, already unbearable (January 8, 1852; August 16, 1852),
+restricted the study of Hebrew and Hebrew subjects still further in the
+Government schools, and, as if to embitter the lives of the Jew by all
+means available, insisted on the use of the Mitnaggedic ritual even in
+communities exclusively or largely Hasidic.[4] Even the blood accusation
+had been revived, and the statements in the pamphlet entitled
+_Information about the Killing of Christians by Jews for the Purpose of
+Obtaining Their Blood_, which Skripitzyn, "the manager of Jewish affairs
+in Russia," published in 1844, found many believers in Government
+circles, and caused the Saratoff affair which, though suppressed, ruined
+numerous Jewish families, and made the breach between Jew and Gentile
+wider than ever.[5]
+
+Now all this was changed. Christians championed the cause of Jews. The
+Government, too, appeared to be sincerely anxious for the welfare of its
+Jewish subjects. It not only promised, but frequently also performed.
+The Jews were allowed to follow their religious predilections
+unhindered. The schools were reorganized with rabbinical graduates as
+their teachers and principals. The Rabbinical Assembly, which, though
+established by Nicholas (May 26, 1848), had rarely been called together,
+was summoned to St. Petersburg, and there spent six months in 1857 and
+five in 1861 in deliberating on means of improving the intellectual and
+material standing of the Jews. The "learned Jew" (uchony Yevrey) Moses
+Berlin was invited to become an adviser in the Department of Public
+Worship (1856), to be consulted concerning the Jewish religion whenever
+occasion required. Permission was granted to publish Jewish periodicals
+in Russian, Polish, Hebrew, and Yiddish (1860), and on April 26, 1862,
+the restriction was removed that limited Jewish publishing houses and
+printing-presses to Vilna and Zhitomir. The Russia Montefiore saw on his
+visit in 1872, how different from the Russia he had left in 1846!
+
+These auspicious signs renewed the hope of the Maskilim and intensified
+their zeal. They were convinced of the noble intentions of the Liberator
+Czar; they were confident that the emperor who emancipated the muzhiks,
+and expunged many a _kromye Yevreyev_ ("except the Jews") which his
+father was wont to add to the few privileges he granted his Christian
+subjects, would ultimately remove the civil disabilities of the Jews
+altogether. In a very popular song, written by Eliakum Zunser (Vilna,
+1836-New York, 1913), then a rising and beloved Badhan (bard) writing in
+Yiddish and Hebrew, Alexander II was likened to an angel of God who
+finds the flower of Judah soiled by dirt and trampled in the dust. He
+rescues it, and revives it with living water, and plants it in his
+garden, where it flourishes once more.[6] The poets hailed him as the
+savior and redeemer of Israel. All that the Jews needed was to make
+themselves deserving of his kindness, and worthy of the citizenship they
+saw in store for them. In Russian, in Hebrew, and in Yiddish, in prose
+and in poetry, the one theme uppermost in the mind of all was
+enlightenment, or rather Russification. From all quarters the reveille
+was sounded. Abraham Baer Gottlober (1811-1899) exclaimed:
+
+  Awake, Israel, and, Judah, arise!
+  Shake off the dust, open wide thine eyes!
+  Justice sprouteth, righteousness is here,
+  Thy sin is forgot, thou hast naught to fear.[7]
+
+More impressively still Judah Loeb Gordon (1831-1892) called:
+
+  Arise, my people, 'tis time for waking!
+  Lo, the night is o'er, the day is breaking!
+  Arise and see where'er thou turn'st thy face,
+  How changed are both our time and place.[8]
+
+And in Yiddish, too, an anonymous poet echoed the strain:
+
+  Arise, my people, awake from thy dreaming,
+  In foolishness be not immersed!
+  Clear is the sky, brightly the sun is beaming;
+  The clouds are now utterly dispersed!
+
+Rapid growth is sometimes the cause of disease, and sudden changes the
+cause of disappointment. This was true of the swift progress of Haskalah
+during the reign of Alexander II. To comprehend fully the tragedies that
+took place frequently at that time, the disillusionments that embittered
+the lives of many of the Maskilim, the breaking up of homes and bruising
+of hearts, one should read _Youthful Sins_ (_Plattot Neurim_, 1876) by
+Moses Loeb Lilienblum. The author lays bare a heart ulcerated and mangled
+by an obsolete education, a meaningless existence, and a forlorn hope.
+The hero of this little work, masterly less by reason of its artistic
+finish than the earnestness that pervades it from beginning to end, is
+"one of the slain of the Babylonian Talmud, whose spiritual life is
+artificially maintained by a literature itself dead." His diary and
+letters grant a glimpse into his innermost being; his childhood wasted
+in a methodless acquisition of futile learning; his boyhood blighted by
+a union with a wife chosen for him by his parents; his manhood mortified
+by the realization that in a world thrilling with life and activity he
+led the existence of an Egyptian mummy. Impatient to save the few years
+allotted to him on earth, and undeterred by the entreaties and the
+threats of his wife, he leaves for Odessa, the Mecca of the Maskilim,
+and begins to prepare himself for admission into the gymnasium. "While
+there is a drop of blood in my veins," he writes to his forsaken wife,
+"I shall try to finish my course of studies. Though the physicians
+declare that consumption and death must be the inevitable consequence of
+such application, I will not desist. I will rather die like a man than
+live like a dog." And on and on he plods over his Latin, his French, his
+history, geography, and grammar. Two more years and the university will
+be opened to him, and he will read law, and defend the honor of his
+people. But in the midst of his ceaseless toil the spectre of his simple
+wife and his former innocent life appears before him and "will not
+down." Is Haskalah worth the sacrifices he and his like are daily
+bringing on its altar? Is not the materialism of the emancipated
+Maskilim often greater than the medievalism of the fanatical Hasidim? In
+his native town, gloomy as it was, there was at least the glow of
+sincerity. Haskalah had to be snatched by stealth, but it was sweeter
+because thus snatched. In Odessa, where the fruit of the tree of
+knowledge could be obtained for the asking, it turned into the apples of
+Sodom. The "lishmah" ideal, the love of culture for its own sake,
+yielded to the greed which changes everything into a commodity to profit
+by. Yet, since life demands it, what a pity that his early training had
+incapacitated him from following the beaten path! He concludes his
+self-indictment thus, "I have taken an inventory of the business of my
+life, and I am heartbroken, because I find that in striking the balance
+there remains on the credit side only a cipher!"
+
+But the tide of Haskalah was not to be stemmed. The "blessed heritage of
+noble passion," the burning desire for enlightenment and improvement
+asserted itself at all hazards. The note of despair was lost in the call
+for action. Odessa continued to be in the forefront. There technical
+institutes for boys and girls were established in addition to the
+previously existing public schools. A society by the name of Trud
+(Labor) was organized (October 11, 1864), for the purpose of teaching
+useful trades. Its school has ever since been the crown of the
+institutions of the sort. It was provided with the most modern
+improvements, a workshop for mechanics and an iron foundry, and it
+offered a post-graduate course. A similar trade school (remeslenoye
+uchilishche) had been in existence since May 1, 1862, in Zhitomir,
+where, besides geometry, mechanics, chemistry, physics, etc.,
+instruction was given in carpentry, turning, tin, copper, and blacksmith
+work.[9] Through the efforts of Rabbi Solomon Zalkind Minor a Sabbath
+School and a Night School for artisans were opened in Minsk (1861), and
+a reference and circulating library for the general public (1863), and
+similar educational institutions were soon called into existence in many
+other cities.
+
+Those were the days of organizing and consolidating among Jews and
+Gentiles alike. At the time when Abraham Lincoln was proclaiming his
+famous "United we stand, divided we fall," Julius Slovacki in Poland
+pleaded the cause of the peasantry of his country, and the Alliance
+Israelite Universelle issued a call to the entire house of Israel "to
+defend the honor of the Jewish name wherever it is attacked; to
+encourage, by all means at our disposal, the pursuit of useful
+handicrafts; to combat, where necessary, the ignorance and vice
+engendered by oppression; to work, by the power of persuasion and by all
+the moral influences at our command, for the emancipation of our
+brethren who still suffer under the burden of exceptional legislation;
+to hasten and solidify complete enfranchisement by the intellectual and
+moral regeneration of our brethren." A powerful movement for the
+upliftment of the masses was also taking hold of the educated classes
+among the Russians. Professor Kostomarov started a systematic campaign
+for the education of the common people. A species of philanthropic
+intoxication seized upon the more enlightened Russian youth. A society
+of Narodniki, or Common People, so-called, was organized. Young men and
+women renounced high rank, and students came out of their seclusion and
+joined the people, dressed in their garb, spoke their dialect, led their
+life, and, having won their confidence, gradually opened their minds to
+value the blessings of education, and their hearts to desire them. These
+examples from within and without resulted in a similar attempt among the
+Russian Jews. An organization was perfected (December, 1863) which
+exercised a great civilizing influence for almost half a century, the
+Society for the Promotion of Haskalah among the Jews of Russia.
+
+To the credit of the Jewish financiers be it said that they were always
+the banner bearers of enlightenment. It had been so with German
+Aufklaerung, when Ben-David, Itzig, Friedlaender, and Jacobson, laid the
+corner-stone of the intellectual rebirth of their people. It was more
+especially so in Russia during the "sixties." Odessa was the most
+enlightened, because it was the wealthiest, of Jewish communities, as
+the benumbing poverty of the Pale was largely to blame for the
+unfriendly attitude towards whatever did not bear the stamp of
+Jewishness on its surface. The Society for the Promotion of Haskalah,
+too, owes its existence to some of the most prominent Russo-Jewish
+merchants. Its original officers were Joseph Yosel Guenzburg, President;
+his son Horace Guenzburg, First Vice-president; Rabbi A. Neuman, Second
+Vice-president; the Brodskys, and, the most active of them all, its
+Secretary, Leon Rosenthal (1817-1887). Busy as he was with his financial
+affairs, Rosenthal devoted considerable time to the propagation of
+enlightenment among his coreligionists. Many a youthful Maskil was
+indebted to him for material as well as moral support, and it was due to
+him that Osip Rabinovich finally succeeded in publishing the Razsvyet
+(Dawn, 1860), the first journal in Russian devoted to Jewish interests.
+
+The Society for the Promotion of Enlightenment was not unlike the
+Alliance Israelite Universelle, only on a smaller scale. Its object was
+"to spread the knowledge of the Russian language among the Jews, to
+publish and assist others in publishing, in Russian as well as in
+Hebrew, useful works and journals, to aid in carrying out the purposes
+of the Society, and, further, to assist the young in devoting themselves
+to the pursuit of science and knowledge." For several years, owing to
+the indifference of the public, it had a hard struggle to live up to its
+ideal. But continuously, if slowly, it gained in membership, so that in
+1884 it had an affiliation of 545. During the first twenty years of its
+existence its income amounted to 338,685 rubles, its expenditures to
+309,998 rubles. In 1880 it endowed an agricultural college for Jewish
+boys. When, in the same year, medical schools for women were opened, and
+Jewish girls in large numbers took up the study of medicine, the Society
+set aside the sum of 18,900 rubles for the support of the needy among
+them. Many a young man was aided in the pursuit of his chosen career by
+the Society. It directed its activities principally to the younger
+generation, yet it did not neglect the older. With its assistance
+Sabbath Schools and Evening Schools were opened in Berdichev, Zhitomir,
+Poltava, and other cities; libraries were founded; interesting Hebrew
+books on scientific subjects were published. Thus it had a two-fold
+object: in those who were drifting away it aimed to reawaken knowledge
+or love of Judaism by translating some of the most important Jewish
+books into Russian (the Haggadah, in 1871, the prayer book, Pentateuch,
+and Psalms, in 1872) as well as text-books and catechisms; and it
+popularized science among those who would not or could not read on such
+topics in Russian or other living tongues. In both directions it was a
+power for good among the Jews of Russia.[10]
+
+These united efforts of the Government, the Maskilim, and the Jewish
+financiers produced an effect the like of which had perhaps been
+witnessed only during the Hellenistic craze, in the period of the second
+commonwealth of Judea. Russian Jewry began to "progress" as never
+before. In almost all the large cities, particularly in Odessa, St.
+Petersburg, and Moscow, the Jews were fast becoming Russified.
+Heretofore cooped up, choking each other in the Pale as in a Black Hole,
+they were now wild with an excessive desire for Russification. What
+Maimon said of a few, could now be applied to hundreds and thousands,
+they were "like starving persons suddenly treated to a delicious meal."
+They flocked to the institutions of learning in numbers far exceeding
+their due proportion. They were among the reporters, contributors, and
+editorial writers of some of the most influential Russian journals. They
+entered the professions, and distinguished themselves in art.[11]
+
+The ambition of the wealthy was no longer to have a son-in-law who was
+well-versed in the Torah, but a graduate from a university, the
+possessor of a diploma, the wearer of a uniform. The bahur lost his
+lustre in the presence of the "gymnasiast." This ambition pervaded more
+or less all classes of Russo-Jewish society. A decade or two before,
+especially in the "forties," orthodoxy had been as uncompromising as it
+was unenlightened. "To carry a handkerchief on the Sabbath," as Zunser
+says, "to read a pamphlet of the 'new Haskalah,' or commit some other
+transgression of the sort, was sufficient to stamp one an apikoros
+(heretic)."[12] Reb Israel Salanter, when he learned that his son had
+gone to Berlin to study medicine, removed his shoes, and sat down on the
+ground to observe shivah (seven days of mourning). When Mattes der
+Sheinker (saloon-keeper) discovered that his boy Motke (later famous as
+Mark Antokolsky) had been playing truant from the heder, and had hidden
+himself in the garret to carve figures, he beat him unmercifully,
+because he had broken the second commandment. This was greatly altered
+in the latter part of the "seventies." Jacob Prelooker has a different
+story to tell.
+
+    A remarkable change--he says[13]--had taken place in the minds
+    of my parents since I had overcome all difficulties and become a
+    student of a royal college. Not only were they reconciled to me,
+    but they were distinctly proud of me. Old Rabbi Abraham now
+    delighted in conversation and discussion with his grandson, who
+    seemed to him almost like an inhabitant of another world, of the
+    _terra incognita_ of modern knowledge and science. In the town
+    inhabited chiefly by Jews the very appearance of the rabbi's
+    grandson in the uniform of a royal college created an immense
+    sensation, and I became naturally the hero of the day. The older
+    generation lamented that now an end would be put to the very
+    existence of Israel and the sacred synagogue, while the younger
+    people envied me and were inspired to follow my example.
+
+Such scenes occurred not only in Pinsk, but, not infrequently, in other
+towns of the Pale as well.
+
+The striving for intellectual enlightenment manifested itself in the
+refining of religious customs. Though Russian Jewry "has never
+experienced any of the ritualistic struggles that Germany has
+witnessed,"[14] yet reform and Haskalah always went hand in hand. The
+attacks on tradition by the Maskilim of the "forties" and the early
+"fifties" were mild and guarded compared with the assaults by the
+generation that followed. With the appearance of the periodicals the
+combat was intensified. Ha-Meliz, and, later, Ha-Shahar in Hebrew, and
+Kol Mebasser in Yiddish were the organs of those who were dissatisfied
+with the old, and sought to introduce the new. It was in the latter that
+_Dos Polische Yingel_ (_The Polish Boy_), by Linetzky, first appeared,
+and it proved so popular that the editor published it in book form long
+before it was finished in the periodical. In an article on _The Ways of
+the Talmud_, by Moses Loeb Lilienblum, the prevailing Jewish religious
+observances were vehemently attacked. This was followed by another
+article from the pen of Gordon, _Wisdom for Those Who Wander in Spirit_,
+with suggestions for adapting religion to the needs of the times, and a
+still more powerful one, _The Chaotic World_, by Smolenskin. The muse
+ceased to content herself with "flame-songs that burn their pathway" to
+the heart. She preferred to appeal to the head. She no longer tried
+
+  In strains as sweet
+  As angels use ... to whisper peace.
+
+In cutting criticisms and biting satires she exposed time-honored but
+time-worn beliefs and practices. Gordon was a militant reformer in his
+younger days, and so were Menahem Mendel Dolitzky and the lesser poets
+of the period. Needless to say, the Jewish-Russian press was an enemy of
+ultra-orthodoxy. Osip Rabinovich, the leading Russo-Jewish journalist,
+made his debut with an article in which he denounced the superstitious
+customs of his people in unmeasured terms.[15] The motto chosen for the
+Razsvyet (1860) was "Let there be light," and the platform it adopted
+was to elevate the masses by teaching them to lead the life of all
+nations, participate in their civilization and progress, and preserve,
+increase, and improve the national heritage of Israel.[16]
+
+Yet journalists and poets were outdone by scholars and novelists in the
+battle for reform. Lebensohn's didactic drama _Emet we-Emunah_ (_Truth
+and Faith_, Vilna, 1867, 1870), in which he attempts to reconcile true
+religion with the teachings of science, was mild compared with _Dos
+Polische Yingel_ or Shatzkes' radical interpretations of the stories of
+the rabbis in his _Ha-Mafteah_ (_The Key_, Warsaw, 1866-1869), and both
+were surpassed by Raphael Kohn's clever little work _Hut ha-Meshullash_
+(_The Triple Cord_, Odessa, 1874), in which many prohibited things are
+ingeniously proved permissible according to the Talmud. But the most
+outspoken advocate of reform was Abraham Mapu (1808-1867), author of the
+first realistic novel, or novel of any kind, in Hebrew literature, the
+_'Ayit Zabua'_ (_The Painted Vulture_). His Rabbi Zadok, the
+miracle-worker, who exploits superstition for his own aggrandizement;
+Rabbi Gaddiel, the honest but mistaken henchman of Rabbi Zadok; Ga'al,
+the parvenu, who seeks to obliterate an unsavory past by fawning upon
+both; the Shadkan, or marriage-broker, who pretends to be the ambassador
+of Heaven, to unite men and women on earth,--in these and similar types
+drawn from life and depicted vividly, Mapu held up to the execration of
+the world the hypocrites who "do the deeds of Zimri and claim the reward
+of Phinehas," whose outward piety is often a cloak for inner impurity,
+and whose ceremonialism is their skin-deep religion. These characters
+served for many years as weapons in the hands of the combatants enlisted
+in the army arrayed for "the struggle between light and darkness."
+
+The waves of the Renaissance and the Reformation sweeping over Russian
+Jewry reached even the sacred precincts of the synagogues, the batte
+midrashim, and the yeshibot. The Tree of Life College in Volozhin became
+a foster-home of Haskalah. The rendezvous of the brightest Russo-Jewish
+youths, it was the centre in which grew science and culture, and whence
+they were disseminated far and wide over the Pale. Hebrew, German, and
+Russian were surreptitiously studied and taught. Buckle and Spencer,
+Turgenief and Tolstoi were secretly passed from hand to hand, and read
+and studied with avidity. Some students advocated openly the
+transformation of the yeshibah into a rabbinical seminary on the order
+of the Berlin Hochschule. The new learning found an ardent supporter in
+Zebi Hirsh Dainov, "the Slutsker Maggid" (1832-1877), who preached
+Russification and Reformation from the pulpits of the synagogues, and
+whom the Society for the Promotion of Haskalah employed as its
+mouthpiece among the less advanced.[17] In the existing reform
+synagogues, in Riga, Odessa, Warsaw, and Vilna, and even in more
+conservative communities, sermons began to be preached in Russian.
+Solomon Zalkind Minor, who lectured in German, acquired a reputation as
+a preacher in Russian since his election to the rabbinate of Minsk
+(1860). He was called "the Jellinek of Russia" by the Maskilim.[18]
+Aaron Elijah Pumpyansky began to preach in Russian at Ponevezh, in Kovno
+(1861). Germanization at last gave way to Russification. Even in Odessa,
+where German culture predominated during the reign of Nicholas I, it was
+found necessary, for the sake of the younger generation, to elect, as
+associate to the German Doctor Schwabacher, Doctor Solomon Mandelkern to
+preach in Russian. Similar changes were made in other communities. In
+the Polish provinces the Reformation was making even greater strides.
+There the Jews, whether reform, like Doctor Marcus Jastrow, or orthodox
+like Rabbi Berish Meisels, identified themselves with the Poles, and
+participated in their cultural and political aspirations, which were
+frequently antagonistic to Russification. A society which called itself
+Poles of the Mosaic Persuasion was organized in Warsaw, an organ of
+extreme liberalism was founded in the weekly Israelita, and, with the
+election of Isaac Kramsztyk to the rabbinate, German was replaced (1852)
+by the native Polish as the language of the pulpit.
+
+Some champions of reform did not rest satisfied with mere innovations
+and improvements. They went so far as to discard Judaism altogether and
+improvise religions of their own. Moses Rosensohn of Vilna was the
+first, in his works _Advice and Help_ (_'Ezrah we-Tushiah_, Vilna, 1870)
+and _The Peace of Brothers_ (_Shelom Ahim_, ibid.), to suggest a way to
+cosmopolitanism and universalism through Judaism.[19] In 1879, Jacob
+Gordin founded in Yelisavetgrad a sort of ethical culture society called
+Bibleitsy (also Dukhovnoye Bibleyskoye Bratstvo, Spiritual Bible
+Brotherhood), which obtained a considerable following among the workmen
+of the section. It advocated the abolition of ritual observances, even
+prayer, and the hastening of the era of the brotherhood of man. It
+preached, in the words of one of its leaders, that "our morality is our
+religion. God, the acme of highest reason, of surest truth, and of the
+most sublime justice, does not demand useless external forms and
+ceremonies."[20] Following the organization of the Bibleitsy, and based
+on almost the same principles, branches of a Jewish sect, which called
+itself New Israel (Novy Izrail), were started almost simultaneously in
+Odessa and Kishinev. In the former city, the organization was headed by
+Jacob Prelooker, in the latter, by Joseph Rabinowitz. Prelooker, who
+after graduating from the seminary at Zhitomir became a school-master at
+Odessa, sought to bring about a consolidation between his own people and
+Russian Dissenters (Raskolniki: the Molocans, Stundists, and
+Dukhobortzi). The theme of his book, _New Israel_, is a "reformed
+synagogue, a mitigation of the cleavage between Jew and Christian, and
+recognition of a common brotherhood in religion." Rabinowitz went still
+further, and preached on actual conversion to one of the more liberal
+forms of Christianity.[21]
+
+These sects, which sprang up in church and synagogue during the latter
+part of the "seventies," were the outcome of political and social as
+well as religious unrest. Alexander II fulfilled the expectation which
+the first years of his reign aroused in Jewish hearts no more than
+Catherine II and Alexander I. Those who had hoped for equal rights were
+doomed to disappointment. Most of the reforms of the Liberator Czar
+proved a failure owing to the antipathy and machinations of his
+untrustworthy officials. Russia was split between two diametrically
+opposed parties, the extreme radicals and the extreme reactionaries,
+waging an internecine war with each other. The former originated with
+the young Russians that had served in the European campaigns during the
+Napoleonic invasion, and who, in imitation of the secret organizations
+which had so greatly contributed to the liberation of Germany, united to
+throw off the yoke of autocracy in Russia. These secret orders, the
+Southern, the Northern, the United Slavonian, and the Polish, Alexander
+I had endeavored in vain to suppress, and the drastic measures taken by
+Nicholas I against the Dekabrists (1825) proved of no avail. Nor did the
+reforms of Alexander II help to heal the breach. On the contrary, seeing
+that the constitution they expected from the Liberator Czar was not
+forthcoming, and the democracy they hoped for was far from being
+realized, they became desperate, and determined to demand their rights
+by force. The peasants, too, sobering up from the intoxication, the
+figurative as well as the literal, caused by the vodka drunk in honor of
+their newly-acquired volyushka (sweet liberty), discovered that the
+emancipation ukase of the czar had been craftily intercepted by the
+bureaucrats, and their dream of owning the land they had hitherto
+cultivated as serfs would never come true. Russia was rife with
+discontent, and disaffection assumed a national range. The cry was
+raised for a "new freedom." A certain Anton Petrov impersonated the
+czar, and gathered around him ten thousand Russians. Pamphlets entitled
+_Land and Liberty_ (_Zemlya i Volya_) were spread broadcast among the
+masses, the mind of the populace was inflamed, and attempts on the life
+of the czar ensued.
+
+The extreme reactionaries, consisting mostly of nobles who had become
+impoverished by the emancipation of the serfs, grasped the opportunity
+to point out to the bewildered czar the evil of his liberal policy.
+Slavophilism was rampant. Men like Turgenief, Dostoyevsky, and Tolstoi,
+were condemned as "Westernists," or German sympathizers, the enemies of
+Russia. At the recommendation of Princess Helena Petrovna, the czar
+engaged as the teacher of his children a comparatively unknown professor
+of history, Pobyedonostsev, who later became the soul of Russian
+despotism. This man, meek as a dove and cunning as a serpent, easily
+ingratiated himself with the czar, and soon there began "a war upon
+ideas, a crusade of ignorance." "Karakazov's pistol-shot," as Turgenief
+says, "drove back into the shade the phantom of liberty, the appearance
+of which all Russia had hailed with acclamations. From that moment to
+the end of his life, the emperor devoted himself to the undoing of all
+he had accomplished. If he could have cancelled with one stroke the
+glorious ukase that had proclaimed the emancipation of the serfs, he
+would have been only too glad to disgrace himself."[22]
+
+And again, as it had been during the reign of Alexander I after his
+acquaintance with Baroness Kruedener, so it was with the reign of
+Alexander II after his acquaintance with Pobyedonostsev. The status of
+the Jews constituted the first indication of the ill-boding change. How
+little the officials had been in sympathy with the reformatory efforts
+of their czar, even when the atmosphere had been filled with peace and
+good-will to all including the Jews, is shown by the fact that when, in
+1863, through the efforts of Doctor Schwabacher, the Jewish community of
+Odessa applied for a charter to build a Home for Aged Hebrews, the
+charter, though granted by the higher authorities, was withheld for over
+twenty years! The reaction flaunted its power once again, and sat
+enthroned in Tsarskoye Syelo. The few rights the Jews had enjoyed were
+rescinded one by one. Not satisfied with this, the Slavophils tried,
+under every pretext, to stop the progress of the Jewish people. Every
+now and then the Society for the Promotion of Haskalah would send some
+of the brighter seminary students to complete their education in Breslau
+or Berlin, but at the command of the Government this was soon
+discontinued. It was the intention of the same organization, from its
+very incipiency, to have the Bible translated under its auspices into
+Russian, but it took ten long years before this praiseworthy undertaking
+could be begun, because of the obstacles the Government placed in the
+way of its execution. Fortunately, the indomitable courage of the
+Maskilim could not be subdued. Young men went, or were sent, to Germany
+to prepare themselves for the rabbinate as before; the Bible and the
+Book of Common Prayer, too, were translated secretly by Wohl, Gordon,
+Steinberg, and Leon Mandelstamm, and published in Germany, whence they
+were smuggled into Russia.[23]
+
+More direct and equally inexplicable, save on the ground of animosity to
+whatever was not Slavonic, was the ukase to close the Sabbath Schools
+and the Evening Schools, the only means of educating the laboring men
+(1870). In 1871, the first of a series of massacres (pogromy) took place
+in the centre of Jewish culture, Odessa. In 1872, permission was denied
+to the ladies of that city to organize a society for the purpose of
+maintaining trade schools, to teach poor Jewish girls handicrafts. The
+two rabbinical seminaries, of Vilna and Zhitomir, were closed in 1873,
+and replaced by institutes for teachers, which were managed in the
+spirit that had prevailed under Nicholas I. And in 1878 the absurd blood
+accusation, against which four popes, Innocent IV, Paul III, Gregory X,
+and Clement XIV, issued their bulls, declaring it a baseless and wicked
+superstition, and which not only the Polish kings Boreslav V, Casimir
+III, Casimir IV, and Stephen Bathory, but also Alexander I (March 18,
+1817), branded as a diabolic invention--that dreadful accusation which
+even the commission of Nicholas, despite Durnovo's efforts, had
+denounced as a disgrace and an abomination, was revived by the newspaper
+Grazhdanin. The ghost of medievalism began to stalk abroad once more in
+erstwhile enlightened Russia and under the aegis of the Liberator Czar.
+
+As often before in Jewish history, the Jews helped not a little to
+aggravate the untoward conditions. At the instigation of a number of
+students of the Yeshibah Tree of Life, the doors of that noble
+institution were closed (1879), to open again after two years of
+untiring efforts on the part of its self-sacrificing dean, the renowned
+Naphtali Zebi Judah Berlin. But at the worst this was the result of
+mistaken zeal for the cause of Haskalah. What was more detrimental was
+the disgrace brought upon the Jewish name by several converts to
+Christianity. A certain Jacob Brafmann, having proved a failure in all
+he undertook, tried at the last the business of Christianity, and
+succeeded therein. He was appointed professor of Hebrew in the seminary
+of Minsk, and the Holy Synod charged him with the duty of devising means
+to promulgate Christianity among the Jews. Finding the times auspicious,
+he devoted himself to writing libellous articles about his former
+coreligionists, and wound up with a _Book on the Kahal_ (_Kniga Kahala_,
+Vilna, 1869), in which he quoted forged "transactions," to the effect
+that Judaism tolerates and even recommends illegality and immorality
+among its adherents. In a conference of Jews and Gentiles convoked by
+Governor-General Kaufman (1871), Barit proved the falsity and forgery of
+Brafmann's documents. But, as usual, the defence was forgotten, the
+charges remained.[24] A certain Lutostansky poisoned the public mind by
+caricaturing the Jews, and aroused an anti-Semitic agitation among his
+countrymen. The consequence was that even the liberals began to be
+suspicious, and the prospect of better days was blighted by the hatred
+which broke out in fiendish fury, in lightnings and thunders which
+astounded the world under Alexander III.
+
+It was but natural that the Jews that had become completely Russified
+should enlist in the ranks of the extreme liberals. They found
+themselves in every way as progressive and patriotic as the Christian
+Russians. The language of Russia became their language, its manners and
+aspirations their manners and aspirations. They contributed more than
+any other nationality to Russifying Odessa, which, owing to its great
+foreign population, was known as the un-Russian city of Russia.
+Proportionately to their numbers, they promoted the trade and industry,
+the science and literature of their country more than the Russians
+themselves. Yet the coveted equality was denied them, and the
+emancipation granted to the degraded muzhiks was withheld from them,
+because of a religion they hardly professed. They were like Faust when
+he found himself tempted but not satisfied by the pleasures of life,
+when food hovered before his eager lips while he begged for nourishment
+in vain. The liberals, on the other hand, preached and practiced the
+doctrine of equal rights to all. Socialism, or nihilism, also appealed
+to the Jews from its idealistic side, for never did the Jews cease to be
+democrats and dreamers. In the schools and universities, which they were
+now permitted to attend, they heard the new teachings and imbibed the
+novel ideas.
+
+Those, therefore, who disdained conversion allied themselves with the
+secret organizations. "The torrent which had been dammed up in one
+channel rushed violently into another." A Hebrew monthly, Ha-Emet
+(Truth, Vienna, 1877), devoted to the cause of communism, was started by
+Aaron Liebermann ("Arthur Freeman"), in which, in the language of the
+oldest and greatest socialists, the doctrines of Karl Marx were
+inculcated among the Hebrew-reading public. The more completely
+Russified element took a leading part in the activities of the Narodnaya
+Volya (Rights of the People), propagating socialism among the Russian
+masses, either by word of mouth or as editors and coworkers in the
+"underground" publications. Not a few went to Berlin, where, though
+opulent, they sought employment in factories, the better to disseminate
+socialism among the working classes. Others, like Aaronson, Achselrod,
+Deutsch, Horowitz, Vilenkin, and Zukerman, fled to Switzerland, whence,
+under the assumed names of Marx, Lassalle, Jacoby, etc., or united in a
+League for the Emancipation of Labor, they directed the socialistic
+movement in Russia.[25] Chernichevsky's _What to Do_, Gogol's _Dead
+Souls_, Turgenief's _Virgin Soil_ and _Fathers and Sons_, the doctrines
+of Pisarev and Bielinsky, and of the other writers who then had their
+greatest vogue, were eagerly read and frequently copied by Jewish young
+gymnasiasts and passed on to their Christian schoolmates. The
+revolutionary spirit seized on men and women alike. Women left their
+husbands, girls their devoted parents, and threw themselves into the
+swirl of nihilism with a vigor and self-sacrifice almost incredible.
+When a squad of police came to disperse the crowd clamoring for "land
+and liberty" in front of the Kazanskaya Church in St. Petersburg, a
+Jewish maiden of sixteen, taking the place of the leader, inspired her
+comrades with such enthusiasm that the efforts of the police were
+ineffectual.[26] By 1878, Russia became honeycombed with secret
+societies. It fell into spasms of nihilism. One general after another
+was assassinated. Attempts were made to wreck the train on which the
+czar was travelling (1879) and blow up the palace in which he resided
+(1880). Finally, on March 13, 1881, after many hairbreadth escapes, the
+carefully laid plans of the revolutionists succeeded, and the Liberator
+Czar was no more.
+
+Thus was the deep-rooted yearning for enlightenment finally let loose,
+and the gyves of tradition were at last removed. The Maskilim of the
+"forties" and "fifties" were antiquated in the "sixties" and
+"seventies." They began to see that the fears of the orthodox and their
+denunciations of Haskalah were not altogether unfounded. A young
+generation had grown up who had never experienced the strife and
+struggles of the fathers, and who lacked the submissive temper that had
+characterized their ancestors. Faster and farther they rushed on their
+headlong way to destruction, while the parents sat and wept. When, in
+1872, in Vilna, the police arrested forty Jewish young men suspected of
+nihilistic tendencies, Governor-General Patapov "invited" the
+representatives of the community to a conference. As soon as they
+arrived, Patapov turned on them in this wise, "In addition to all other
+good qualities which you Jews possess, about the only thing you need is
+to become nihilists, too!" Amazed and panic-stricken, the trembling Jews
+denied the allegation and protested their innocence, to which the
+Governor-General replied, "Your children are, at any rate; they have
+become so through the bad education you have given them." "Pardon me,
+General," was the answer of "Yankele Kovner" (Jacob Barit), who was one
+of the representatives, "This is not quite right. As long as _we_
+educated our children there were no nihilists among us; but as soon as
+you took the education of our children into your hands, behold the
+result." The foundations of religion were undermined. Parental authority
+was disregarded. Youths and maidens were lured by the enchanting voice
+of the siren of assimilation. The naive words which Turgenief put into
+the mouth of Samuel Abraham, the Lithuanian Jew, might have been,
+indeed, were, spoken by many others in actual life. "Our children," he
+complains, "have no longer our beliefs; they do not say our prayers, nor
+have they your beliefs; no more do they say your prayers; they do not
+pray at all, and they believe in nothing."[27] The struggle between
+Hasidim and Mitnaggedim ended with the conversionist policy of Nicholas
+I, which united them against the Maskilim. The struggle between these
+anti-Maskilim and the Maskilim had ceased in the golden days of
+Alexander II. But the clouds were gathering and overspreading the camp
+of Haskalah. The days in which the seekers after light united in one
+common aim were gone. Russification, assimilation, universalism, and
+nihilism rent asunder the ties that held them together. Judah Loeb
+Gordon, the same poet who, fifteen years before, had rejoiced with
+exceeding joy "when Haskalah broke forth like water," now laments over
+the effect thereof in the following strain:
+
+  And our children, the coming generation,
+  From childhood, alas, are strangers to our nation--
+  Ah, how my heart for them doth bleed!
+  Farther and faster they are ever drifting,
+  Who knows how far they will be shifting?
+  Maybe till whence they can ne'er recede!
+
+Amidst the disaffection, discord, and dejection that mark the latter
+part of the reign of Alexander II, one Maskil stands out pre-eminently
+in interest and importance,--one whom assimilation did not attract nor
+reformation mislead, who under all the mighty changes remained loyal to
+the ideals ascribed to the Gaon and advocated by Levinsohn,--Perez ben
+Mosheh Smolenskin (Mohilev, February 25, 1842-Meran, Austria, February
+1, 1885).[28]
+
+Smolenskin was endowed with the ability and courage that characterize
+the born leader. He possessed an iron will and unflinching
+determination, before which obstacles had to yield, and persecution
+found itself powerless. His talent to grasp and appreciate the true and
+the beautiful rendered him the oracle of the thousands who, to this day,
+are proud to call themselves his disciples. To him Haskalah was not
+merely acquaintance with general culture, or even its acquisition. It
+was the realization of one's individuality as a Jew and a man. Gordon's
+advice, to be a Jew at home and a man abroad, found little favor in his
+estimation; for Haskalah meant the evolution of a Jewish man _sui
+generis_. He equally abhorred the fanaticism of the benighted orthodox
+and the Laodicean lukewarmness of the advanced Maskilim. To fight and,
+if possible, eradicate both, he undertook the publication of The Dawn
+(Ha-Shahar, Vienna, 1869), a magazine in which he declared "war against
+the darkness of the Middle Ages and war against the indifference of
+to-day!"
+
+    Not like the former days are these days, he says in his foreword
+    to Ha-Shahar. Thirty or twenty years ago we had to fight the
+    enemy within. Sanctimonious fanatics with their power of
+    darkness sought to persecute us, lest their folly or knavery be
+    exposed to the light of day.... Now that they, who hitherto have
+    walked in darkness, are beginning to discern the error of their
+    ways, lo and behold, those who have seen the light are closing
+    their eyes against it.... Therefore let them know beforehand
+    that, as I have stretched out my hand against those who, under
+    the cloak of holiness, endeavor to exclude enlightenment from
+    the house of Jacob, even so will I lift up my hand against the
+    other hypocrites who, under the pretext of tolerance, strive to
+    alienate the children of Israel from the heritage of their
+    fathers!
+
+That the salvation of the Jews lies in their distinctiveness, and that
+renationalization will prove the only solution of the Jewish problem, is
+the central thought of Smolenskin's journalistic efforts. Jews are
+disliked, he maintains, not because of their religious persuasion, nor
+for their reputed wealth, but because they are weak and defenceless.
+What they need is strength and courage, but these they will never regain
+save in a land of their own. Twelve years before the tornado of
+persecution broke out in Russia he had predicted it, and even welcomed
+it as a means of arousing the Jews to their duties as a people and their
+place as a nation, and that his conclusion was correct, the awakening
+which followed proved unmistakably.
+
+For Smolenskin Jews never ceased to be a nation, and to him the Jew who
+sought refuge in assimilation was nothing less than a traitor. He was
+thus the forerunner of Pinsker, and of Herzl a decade later. Indeed, in
+the resurrection of the national hope he was the first to remove the
+shroud. According to him, "the eternal people" have every characteristic
+that goes to make a nation. Their common country is still Palestine,
+loved by them with all the fervor of patriotism; their common language
+had never ceased to be Hebrew; their common religion consists in the
+basic principles of Judaism, in which they all agree.
+
+    You wish--thus he addresses himself to the assimilationists--you
+    wish to be like the other people? So do I. Be, I pray you, be
+    like them. Search and find knowledge, avoid and forsake
+    superstition, above all be not ashamed of the rock whence you
+    were hewn. Yes, be like the other peoples, proud of your
+    literature, jealous of your self-respect, hopeful, even as all
+    persecuted peoples are hopeful, of the speedy arrival of the day
+    when we, too, shall reinhabit the land which once was, and still
+    is, our own.
+
+But as the soil of Palestine, however regarded, is at present
+inaccessible to Jews as a national entity, the language once spoken in
+Palestine is so much the more to be cherished and cultivated by the
+exiled people.
+
+    You ask me--he calls out again--what good a dead language can do
+    us? I will tell you. It confers honor on us, girds us with
+    strength, unites us into one. All nations seek to perpetuate
+    their names. All conquered peoples dream of a day when they will
+    regain their independence.... We have neither monuments nor a
+    country at present. Only one relic still remains from the ruins
+    of our ancient glory--the Hebrew language. Those, therefore, who
+    discard the Hebrew tongue betray the Hebrew nation, and are
+    traitors both to their race and their religion.
+
+No less trenchant and outspoken was he against the serried array of
+self-styled "reformers" of Judaism. He could not forgive the German
+rabbis and Russian Maskilim for presuming to "dictate" to their
+coreligionists what to select and what to reject in matters religious.
+The whole movement he condemned as a mere imitation of Protestant
+Christianity. To renovate Judaism! What a stigma on a religion that had
+endured through the ages, and is rich in all that makes for holiness and
+right living! The old garment needs no new patches. It still fits and
+will fit "the eternal people" till time is no more. Since the reform
+movement in Germany went back to the time of Mendelssohn, Smolenskin
+hurled the missiles of his criticism against the Berlin sage, forgetting
+that for more than half a century his example and encouragement had
+served to awaken a love of knowledge in the hearts of his countrymen.
+But he saw that in the home of Haskalah, the _Biur_, and the Meassefim,
+apostasy increased, Hebrew was almost forgotten, and Judaism was
+declining, and he blamed the pellucid water at the source of the stream
+for the muddy pool at its mouth. Mendelssohn, however, lacked no
+defenders among his Russo-Jewish coreligionists, and their sentiments
+were voiced by Abraham Baer Gottlober in an opposition periodical, The
+Light of Day (Ha-Boker Or, Lublin, 1876). "Why," exclaimed the editor,
+"were it not for him and his reforms ... were it not for that grand and
+noble personality ... neither you nor I should have been what we are!"
+It was only the sad sincerity of Smolenskin that mitigated the errors he
+had committed in regard to the history of his people and the theology of
+its religion.
+
+But the militant editor of Ha-Shahan, who wielded his pen like a
+halberd, to deal out blows to those of whose views he disapproved,
+became as tender as a father when he set out to write about the people.
+His love for the masses whom he knew so well was almost boundless.
+Underlying their superstitions, crudities, and absurdities is the
+"prophetic consciousness," of which they have never been entirely
+divested. The heder is indeed far from what a school should be, and the
+yeshibah is hardly to be tolerated in a civilized community; yet what
+spiritual feasts, what noble endeavors, and what unselfish devotion are
+witnessed within their dingy walls! Jewish observances are sometimes
+cumbersome and sometimes incompatible with modern life, but what beauty
+of holiness, what irresistible influences emanate and radiate from most
+of them! Under an uninviting exterior and beneath the accumulated drift
+of countless generations he discerned the precious jewel of
+self-sacrifice for an ideal. It was this sympathy and broad-mindedness,
+expressed in his _Ha-Toeh_, his _Simhat Hanef_, _Keburat Hamor_, _Gemul
+Yesharim_, and _Ha-Yerushah_ that will ever endear him to the Hebrew
+reader.
+
+Such, in brief, was the life of the man who bore the chief part in
+framing and moulding the Haskalah of the "eighties," which was devoted
+to the development of Hebrew literature and the rejuvenation of the
+Hebrew people. Loving the Hebrew tongue with a passion surpassing
+everything else, he censured the German Jewish savants for writing their
+learned works in the vernacular, and was on the alert to discover and
+bring out new talent and win over the indifferent and estranged.
+Dreaming of the redemption of his people, he paved the way for the
+Zionistic movement, which spread with tremendous rapidity after his
+death. And his sincerity and ability were repaid in the only coin the
+poor possess--in love and admiration. Pilgrimages were made, sometimes
+on foot, to behold the editor of Ha-Shahar and the author of _Ha-Toeh_.
+The greatest journalists in St. Petersburg united in honoring him when
+he visited the Russian capital in 1881. And when he was snatched away in
+the midst of his usefulness, a victim of unremitting devotion to his
+people, not only Maskilim, but Mitnaggedim and Hasidim felt that "a
+prince and a mighty one had fallen in Israel!"
+
+(Notes, pp. 322-327.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE AWAKENING
+
+1881-1905
+
+
+The reign of Alexander III, like that of Nicholas I, was devoid of even
+that faint glamor of liberalism which, in the days of Alexander I and
+Alexander II, had aroused deceptive hopes of better times. During the
+thirteen years of Alexander III's autocracy (1881-1894) not a ray of
+light was permitted to penetrate into Holy Russia. On May 14, 1881, the
+manifesto prohibiting the slightest infringement of the absolute power
+of the czar was promulgated, to continue unbroken till the
+Russo-Japanese war.
+
+The liberal current which had carried away his predecessors when they
+first mounted the throne was checked, the sluices of Slavophilism were
+opened, the history of Russian thinkers became again, as Herzen said, "a
+long list of martyrs and a register of convicts."
+
+Nicholas Ignatiev, a rabid reactionary, a second Jeffreys, became chief
+of the Ministry of the Interior; Katkoff, a repentant liberal and exile,
+was appointed the czar's chief adviser, the Richelieu behind the throne;
+and Pobyedonostsev, whom Turgenief called the "Russian Torquemada,"
+obtained supremacy over Melikoff, and was appointed procurator of the
+Holy Synod. With such as these at the head of the Russian bureaucracy,
+there may have been some foundations for the rumor that an imperial
+ukase decreed the pillage and slaughter of the Jews, and the muzhiks,
+obedient to the behests of the "little father," and smarting under the
+pain of disappointment, vented their venom on their Jewish compatriots.
+Before the new czar had been on his throne three months, Russia was
+drenched with Jewish blood. There began saturnalia of rape, plunder, and
+murder, the like of which had been witnessed nowhere in Europe. For half
+a year the pogroms which began in Yelisavetgrad (April 27, 28) swept
+like a tornado over southern Russia, visiting more than one hundred and
+sixty communities with fire and sword, resulting in outrages on women,
+in the murder of old and young, in the ruin of millions of dollars of
+property. The Black Hundreds of the nineteenth century put to shame the
+Haidamacks of the eighteenth and the Cossacks of the seventeenth. In the
+words of the Bishop of Canterbury to Sir Moses Montefiore, it looked "as
+if the enemy of mankind was let loose to destroy the souls of so many
+Christians and the bodies of so many Jewish people."
+
+But it would be a vain attempt, and out of keeping with the object of
+this work, to describe in detail the "bloody assizes" and the infernal
+tragedies that ensued upon the accession of Alexander III; the moral
+degeneracy and the economic ruin that spread over the mighty empire; the
+shudder that passed over the civilized world, and was expressed in
+indignation meetings held everywhere, especially in Great Britain and in
+the United States (February, 1882), to protest, "in the name of
+civilization, against the spirit of medieval persecution thus revived in
+Russia." Suffice it to say that even when the mob, tired of carnage,
+ceased its work of extermination, the bloodthirstiness of those in
+authority was not assuaged. Such a policy was inaugurated against the
+Jews as would, according to Pobyedonostsev, "force one-third of them to
+emigrate, another third to embrace Christianity, and the remainder to
+die of starvation." With this in view, his Majesty the Emperor,
+"prompted by a desire to protect the Jews against the Christians," was
+graciously pleased to give his assent to the Resolutions of the
+Committee of Ministers, on the third of May, 1882, i.e. to the notorious
+"temporary measures," or "May laws," framed by Ignatiev, against the
+will of the Council of the Empire.
+
+These "temporary measures" have remained in force to this day. With them
+was resuscitated all the inimical legislation of the past, beginning
+with the time of Elizabeta Petrovna. What was favorable was suppressed;
+the unfavorable was most rigorously enforced. Jews living outside the
+Pale were driven back into it on the slightest pretext and in the most
+inhuman manner. To increase the already unendurable congestion, the Pale
+was made smaller than before. In accordance with the first clause of the
+"May laws," Jews were expelled from the villages within the Pale itself.
+In 1888 the districts of Rostov and Taganrog, which till then had
+belonged to the Pale, and had been developed largely through Jewish
+enterprise, were torn away and amalgamated with the Don district, in
+which Jews were not permitted to reside. This was followed by expulsions
+from St. Petersburg (1890), Moscow, (1891), Novgorod, Riga, and Yalta
+(1893), and the abrogation of the time-honored privileges of the Jews of
+Bokhara (1896). Even those who, as skilled artisans or discharged
+soldiers, had been privileged to reside wherever they chose, were
+expelled with their wives and the children born in their adopted city.
+Their only salvation lay in conversion. Converts were especially
+favored, and were offered liberal inducements. By becoming a convert to
+the Orthodox Russian Church, a Jew is immediately freed from all the
+degrading restrictions on his freedom of movement and his choice of a
+profession. Converts, without distinction of sex, are helped financially
+by an immediate payment of sums from thirteen to thirty rubles, and
+until recently were granted freedom from taxation for five years. If a
+candidate for Greek Christianity is married, his conversion procures him
+a divorce, and, unless she likewise is converted, his wife may not marry
+again. By conversion, a Jew may escape the consequence of any misdeed
+against a fellow-Jew, for, to quote the Russian code, "in actions
+concerning Jews who have embraced Christianity Jews may not be admitted
+as witnesses, if any objection is raised against them as such." The
+penal code provides that Jews shall pay twice and treble the amount of
+the fine to which non-Jews are liable under similar circumstances. Jews
+were excluded from the professions to which they had turned in the
+"sixties" and "seventies," and in which they had been eminently
+successful; they were not allowed to hold any civil or municipal office;
+they were forbidden even to be nurses in the hospitals or to give
+private instruction to children in the homes.
+
+And still persecution did not cease. Not satisfied with starving the
+bodies of five millions of Jews, Russian legislators were determined to
+crush them intellectually. The Slavophils could not brook seeing
+"non-Russians" surpass their own people in the higher walks of life. The
+Jews, finally successful in emancipating themselves from the trammels of
+rabbinism, had transferred their extraordinary devotion from the Talmud
+to secular studies. They filled the schools and the universities of the
+empire with zealous and intelligent pupils, who carried off most of the
+honors. They contributed forty-eight pupils to the gymnasia out of every
+ten thousand, while the Christians contributed only twenty-two. This was
+regarded an unpardonable sin. "These Jews have the audacity to excel us
+pure Russians," Pobyedonostsev is reported to have exclaimed, and
+measures were taken to suppress their dangerous tendency. As early as
+1875 a law was passed withholding from Jewish students the stipends they
+had hitherto received from a fund set aside for that purpose. In 1882
+the number of Jewish students in the Military Academy of Medicine was
+limited to five per cent, and later it was reduced to zero. Thereafter
+one professional school after another adopted a percentage provision,
+and some excluded Jews altogether. Finally, "seeing that many Jewish
+young men, eager to benefit by a higher classical, technical, or
+professional education," presented themselves every year for admission
+to the universities, that they passed their examination and continued
+their studies at the various schools of the empire, the Government
+deemed it "desirable to put a stop to a state of affairs which is so
+unsatisfactory." Consequently the ministry limited the attendance of
+Jews residing in places within the Pale to ten per cent in all schools
+and universities (December 5, 1886; June 26, 1887), in places without
+the Pale to five per cent, and in Moscow and St. Petersburg to three per
+cent, of the total number of pupils in each school and university. Of
+the four hundred young Jews who had successfully passed their
+matriculation examination at the beginning of the scholastic year
+1887-1888, and had thus acquired the right of entering the university,
+three hundred and twenty-six were refused admission, and in many schools
+and universities they were denied even the small per cent the law
+permitted.
+
+When, nevertheless, in spite of the many restrictions, the Jew at last
+obtained the coveted degree, the Government rendered it nugatory by
+depriving him of the right of enjoying the fruit of his labor and
+self-sacrifice. He could not practice as an army physician or jurist,
+nor obtain a position as an engineer or a Government or municipal clerk.
+In the army, he was not allowed to hold any office, and, though he might
+be an expert chemist, he could never fill the post of a dispenser (March
+1, 1888). He was excluded from the schools for the training of officers,
+and if he passed the examination on the subjects taught there, his
+certificate could not contain the usual statement that there "was no
+objection to admitting him to the military schools."[1]
+
+These restrictive measures were not relaxed when Alexander III was
+succeeded by his son Nicholas II (1894). If anything, they were more
+rigorously executed, and the mob was encouraged to multiply its outrages
+upon the defenceless Jews. The closing years of the nineteenth century
+wiped out the promises of its opening years. Blood accusations followed
+by riots became of frequent occurrence. Irkutsk (1896), Shpola, and Kiev
+(1897), Kantakuzov (Kherson), Vladimir, and Nikolayev (1899) gave the
+Jews a foretaste of what they had to expect when the Black Hundreds,
+encouraged by the Government and incited by Kruzhevan and Pronin, would
+be let loose to enact the scenes that took place in Kishinev and Homel
+before the Russo-Japanese war, and in hundreds of towns after it. The
+difficulties in the way of securing an education were increased. Russia
+did not believe in an "irreducible minimum" where the rights of her Jews
+were concerned. Under Nicholas II the number of Jewish women admitted to
+medical schools was put at three per cent of the total number of
+students; the newly-established School for Engineers in Moscow was
+closed to Jewish young men altogether; and the students of both sexes in
+the schools were constantly harassed by the police because of the harsh
+laws concerning the rights of residence. Some splendidly equipped
+institutions of learning were allowed to remain almost empty rather than
+admit Jewish students.[2]
+
+This was the worst punishment of all, the most relentless vengeance
+wreaked on a helpless victim. "Of all the laws which swept down upon
+them from St. Petersburg and Moscow," says Leroy-Beaulieu with
+characteristic insight into the soul of Israel, "those which they [the
+Jews] find hardest to bear are the regulations that block their entrance
+to the Russian universities." The bloodless weighed heavier than the
+bloody pogroms. Consumed with a desire for education, wealthy Russian
+Jews made an attempt to establish higher schools of their own, without
+even drawing upon the surplus money of the kosher-meat fund, which had
+originally been created for such purposes. Baron de Hirsch, too, offered
+two million dollars for the higher and technical education of the Jews.
+But every attempt proved fruitless. Baron de Hirsch's munificence was
+flatly refused. In the school which Mr. Weinstein opened at Vinitza,
+Podolia, no more than eight Jews were allowed to attend among eighty
+Christians, and in the one at Gorlovka, founded by another Jew
+(Polyakov), only five per cent were admitted.[3]
+
+Writers are wont to speak of this as a reactionary period. The
+description applies to the Russians; among the Jews it was a period of
+reawakening.[4] They were disillusioned. They saw that Russification
+without emancipation, as their unsophisticated fathers had told
+Lilienthal, meant extermination. The first and worst pogroms were
+perpetrated in those places where the Jews were like their Russian
+neighbors in every respect, except in the eyes of the law, and with the
+approval of some who were devotees of the Narodnaya Volya. The Jewish
+consciousness reasserted itself. If Pobyedonostsev accomplished his
+fiendish design as regards emigration, more than a million Jews having
+left Russia within the last twenty years; if he has almost succeeded in
+causing them to die of starvation; yet his hope of forcing a third of
+them to conversion was a disappointment and a delusion. The Jews showed
+that the traditional description applied to them, "stiff-necked," was
+not undeserved. While the Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and Armenians have
+undergone conversion in multitudes, they whose suffering by far exceeded
+that of any other "non-Russian" nationality remained, with insignificant
+exceptions, loyal to the religion of their fathers.[5]
+
+    The Russian Jews--says Zunser--sobered down from the orgies of
+    assimilation, and its worshippers abandoned their idol. Those
+    who had almost forgotten that they were of the camp of Israel
+    began to return to its tents. The Jewish physicians, jurists,
+    technologists, and the entire so-called Jewish "intelligentia,"
+    who heretofore had never cared to speak a word of Yiddish to a
+    Jew, resumed their native tongue; they began to send their
+    children to the Jewish hadarim, and adopted once more Jewish
+    ways and customs. Several hundred Jewish university students,
+    proverbially irreligious, sent to Vilna for tefillin
+    [phylacteries]!
+
+In many cities fasts were observed and prayers for forgiveness offered,
+and the prodigal sons of Israel repaired to the synagogue, participated
+in the services, and wept with their more steadfast though equally
+unfortunate coreligionists. Many converts, too, began to feel qualms of
+conscience, and endeavored to make up for their youthful indiscretions.
+Some of them fled to places of safety, and returned to Judaism. The
+gifted young poet Simon Yakovlevich Nadsohn died of a broken heart.
+Sorkin, the classmate and friend of Levanda, committed suicide, while
+Levanda, the great novelist of assimilation, was so affected by the
+massacres and their consequences, that he became melancholy, and died in
+an asylum for the insane.[6]
+
+If this was the fate of the assimilated and estranged, one may guess the
+effect of the reaction on the religious. If the students of the
+universities sacrificed their careers, their daily bread, for the
+austere satisfaction of discharging their moral obligation to the best
+of their knowledge, the students of the Law, always loyal to the
+heritage of their people, became more zealous than ever. Lilienblum who,
+in 1877, believed that life without a university education was not worth
+living, became a repentant sinner. Russian Jewry seethed with religious
+enthusiasm. Moses Isaac Darshan, "the Khelmer Maggid," preached for six
+hours at a time to crowded synagogues. Asher Israelit, less trenchant,
+but equally effective, exhorted crowds to repentance. Zebi Hirsh
+Masliansky, a finished orator, went from town to town, and aroused a
+love for whatever was connected with the history and religion of the
+Jewish people. In Kovno those who were preparing themselves for the
+rabbinate formed something like a new sect, the Mussarnikes (Moralists),
+which practiced asceticism and self-abnegation to an extraordinary
+degree.[7]
+
+[Illustration: MOSES LOeB LILIENBLUM, 1843-1910]
+
+Those, however, were most affected who had been misled by dreams of
+assimilation. They suffered most, for they lost most. Their hopes were
+blighted, their hearts broken. The leading-strings proved to be a
+halter. They saw they had little to expect at the hands of those they
+had believed to have become fully civilized, and they were embittered
+toward civilization, which had showed them flowers, but had given them
+no fruit. In a work, _Sinat 'Olam le-'Am 'Olam_ (_Eternal Hatred for the
+Eternal People_, Warsaw, 1882), Nahum Sokolov proved, like Smolenskin
+before him, that anti-Semitism was ineradicable, that the fight against
+the Jews was a fight to the death, that even emancipation helps little
+to remove the animosity innate in one people against another, and until
+the "end of days" foretold by the prophets of yore there will never
+cease the eternal hatred to the eternal people. This became the dominant
+opinion. It dawned upon many that the only salvation for the Jews lay in
+becoming a nation once more. A yearning for a new fatherland and a new
+country seized young and old. The times were auspicious. Cosmopolitanism
+was everywhere giving place to nationalism. The little Balkan States had
+broken the yoke of Ottoman rule, and become self-governing nations since
+1878. In Poland, Hungary, and Ireland, home rule was advocated with
+fervor that threatened a revolution. Italy and Germany became united
+under their own king or emperor. And the Russian Jews, tired of the
+constant conflicts with the surrounding peoples, experienced the desire
+which had prompted their ancestors to be like all the other nations.
+
+Sokolov's sentiments were reinforced in an anonymous pamphlet written by
+Doctor Leo Pinsker (1821-1891), one of the foremost physicians of
+Odessa. His _Auto-Emancipation_ (Berlin, 1882) is now recognized as the
+forerunner of Herzl's _Judenstaat_, which appeared fifteen years later.
+Pinsker accepts as an axiom what Sokolov had tried to demonstrate as a
+proposition. Jew-hatred, he claims, like Lombroso in his work on
+anti-Semitism, is a "platonic hatred," a hereditary mental disease,
+which two thousand years' duration has so aggravated as to render it
+incurable. As the Jewish problem is international, it can be solved only
+by nationalism. He admits some of the charges brought against the Jews
+by anti-Semites, but Jewish failings result from Christian intolerance.
+In a land of their own they will develop into a Muster-nation, a model
+people.
+
+    The wretches--cries he--they mock the eagle that once soared
+    sky-high, and saw divinity itself, because he can no longer fly
+    after his wings are broken! Give us but our independence, allow
+    us to take care of ourselves, grant us but a little strip of
+    land like that of the Servians and Rumanians, give us a chance
+    to lead a national existence, and then prate about our lacking
+    manly virtues. What we lack is not genius (Genialitaet) but
+    self-consciousness (Selbstgefuehl) and appreciation of our value
+    as men (Bewusstsein der Menschenwuerde), of which we were
+    deprived by you!
+
+Of course, it requires many years and a great expenditure of money to
+establish a nation on a firm basis. But in Pinsker's dictionary the word
+"impossible" does not exist. "Far, very far," says he, "is the haven of
+rest towards which our souls are turning. We know not even whether it be
+East or West. But be the road never so long, it cannot seem too long to
+the wanderers of two thousand years."
+
+Pinsker's impassioned appeal made a deep impression. It was obvious that
+colonization would be the shortest road to renationalization. But as to
+the place in which the colonies should be established, no agreement
+could be reached. Pinsker, like Herzl after him, left the problem
+unsolved. Some preferred America or even Spain. In southern Russia a
+society, 'Am 'Olam (The Eternal Nation), was organized on communistic
+principles. It sent an advance guard to the United States, where, as the
+Sons of the Free, they established several settlements, the best-known
+of which was New Odessa, in Oregon.[8] The majority, however, preferred
+Palestine, the land which, in weal or woe, in pain or pleasure, remains
+ever dear to the Jewish heart; the land to which the ancient exiles by
+the waters of Babylon had vowed that sooner than forget her would their
+right hands forget their cunning and their tongues cleave to the roofs
+of their mouths; the possession whereof had been held out as the most
+alluring promise, and to be deprived of which the prophets had regarded
+as the severest punishment.
+
+Zionism, even Territorialism, among the Russian Jews is by no means
+solely the result of modern anti-Semitism. At the same time that
+Mordecai Manuel Noah was planning his Jewish state Ararat in western New
+York (1825), Gregori Peretz, who, as a child, had been converted, with
+his father, to the dominant religion, and had been advanced to the rank
+of an officer in his Majesty's army, was dreaming of the
+renationalization of his alienated brethren. As a leading figure in the
+councils of the Dekabrists, he never ceased his efforts until his
+comrades accepted the restoration of Israel to his pristine place among
+the nations of the earth as part of their revolutionary programme. But
+with the suppression of the Dekabrists by Nicholas I the scheme died
+"a-borning," and sank into oblivion. Later, David Gordon revived the
+yearnings of Judah Halevi by his articles in the weekly Ha-Maggid
+(1863), which he edited in Lyck, Prussia. Smolenskin's writings resound
+with a love for Zion from the very beginning of his literary career. And
+a rising young Hebraist, Eliezer ben Yehudah, while still a student of
+medicine, wrote, in 1878, and again in 1880, stirring letters to the
+editor of Ha-Shahar, in which he advocated the return to the Holy Land
+and the revival of the holy tongue as a _conditio sine qua non_ for the
+realization of the Jewish mission. These views, at first advocated by
+the Hebrew-writing and Hebrew-reading Maskilim, gradually filtered into
+the various strata of Russo-Jewish society, and when the clouds began to
+gather fast in Russia's sky, and the change in the monarch's policy
+augured the approach of evil times, Zionism rapidly made enthusiastic
+converts even among the most Russified of the Jewish youth. On November
+6, 1884, for the first time in history, a Jewish international assembly
+was held at Kattowitz, near the Russian frontier, where representatives
+from all classes and different countries met and decided to colonize
+Palestine with Jewish farmers.
+
+Since then Haskalah in Russia has become nationalistic and Palestinian.
+Even those who were at first opposed to it gradually grew friendly, and
+finally became "lovers of Zion" (Hobebe Zion). Among the Russo-Jewish
+students in Vienna, Smolenskin, the militant Zionist, organized an
+academic society, Kadimah, a name which, meaning Eastward and Forward,
+contains the philosophy of Zionism in a nutshell. Seeing that the
+Alliance Israelite Universelle encouraged emigration to America, both he
+and Ben Yehudah published violent attacks on the French society, and
+endeavored to thwart its plans as far as possible.[9] The Hebrew weekly
+Ha-Meliz, published in St. Petersburg, was a staunch supporter of the
+movement, and a little later Ha-Zefirah, published in Warsaw, which was
+at first indifferent, if not antagonistic, joined the ranks. In Russian,
+too, the Razsvyet and especially the Buduchnost spread Zionism among
+their readers, while books, pamphlets, and poems were published in
+Yiddish for circulation among the masses. In addition to the Hobebe Zion
+societies formed in many cities, secret societies were organized, such
+as the famous Bene Mosheh (Sons of Moses), which had for its object the
+moral and intellectual improvement of the future citizens of the Jewish
+Republic; the Bilu (initials of Bet Ya'akob leku we-nelekah, "O House of
+Jacob, come and let us go"), formed by Israel Belkind, who went to
+Palestine with his fellow-students of the University of Kharkov, and
+founded the colony of Gederah; and the Hillul (Hereb la-Adonai
+u-le-Arzenu, "A sword for God and our land"), the members of which
+pledged themselves to remove any obstacle to the cause of nationalism,
+even at the cost of their lives. The Bone Zion (Builders of Zion), a
+sort of Masonic fraternity, was a very potent secret society, which
+undertook to constitute itself a provisional Jewish Government, and
+assiduously watched the Zionistic societies and their leaders in every
+portion of the globe.[10]
+
+These dreamy youths, however, heartbroken and disgusted with a
+civilization which had failed to redeem its promises, proved but poor
+material for laying the foundations for a future nation. It was as with
+the Darien Company organized by William Paterson when Scotland was
+sorely distressed, and the Champ d'Asile, by the remnant of Napoleon's
+grand army--a fine idea, but the men and the means were wanting to
+execute it. The colonies in Palestine fared no better than those in
+America. They were opposed by the Government from without and by many of
+the orthodox Jews from within. The former, though claiming to be glad to
+see the Jews emigrate, though declaring to the Jewish delegation that
+pleaded for mercy, _Zapadnaya graniza dlya vas otkrita_ ("the Western
+frontier is open to you"), was still, Pharaoh-like, reluctant to see so
+many "undesirable citizens" leave, and prohibited the formation of
+organizations to accomplish the end. The orthodox were against the
+movement on religious grounds, because it was "forcing the end" of
+Israel's trouble before the destined day of God arrived.[11] But with
+the "nineties" the movement received a strong impetus. Alexander
+Zederbaum, the publisher of Ha-Meliz, succeeded in obtaining a charter
+(February 9, 1890) for the Association for the Aid of Colonization in
+Palestine and Syria. Such eminent rabbis as Mordecai Eliasberg, his son
+Jonathan, Samuel Mohilever, N.Z.Y. Berlin, and Mordecai Joffe espoused
+the cause, and set the example for their less prominent colleagues. When
+the question arose whether Jewish agriculturists in Palestine are
+obliged to observe the Biblical injunction not to till the ground in the
+seventh year (shemittah), Rabbi Isaac Elhanan Spector of Kovno, the
+leading rabbi and Talmudist of his time, decided, in opposition to the
+Jerusalem rabbinate, that the law had ceased to be effective with the
+destruction of the Temple. Baron Edmond de Rothschild of Paris also came
+to the rescue of the colonists, and, more important still, there began
+an immigration of Russo-Jewish farmers into Palestine, of the class,
+numbering about ninety-five thousand souls, whom Arnold White described
+as "an active, well set-up, sun-burnt, muscular, agricultural people,
+marked by all the characteristics of a peasantry of the highest
+character." With them the colonies began to flourish, the debts were
+paid off, and a better regime set in. "There was no crime or
+drunkenness," says Bentwich, "in those settlements, and the only usurer
+was a Russian peasant, who charged the Jewish borrowers thirty-six per
+cent for loans. If ever I saw practical religion carried into daily
+life, it was among those brave and sober Hebrew ploughmen."[12]
+
+Whatever may be one's views on Zionism, there can be no doubt that it
+has proved a power for good in Russia. It introduced new ideals and
+revived old expectations. It has accomplished, in a measure, the fond
+hope of the Maskilim and awakened within the Russian Jew a feeling of
+self-respect and a "consciousness of human worth." Different and
+contending elements it has coalesced into one. It has, above all,
+brought back to the fold the doubting Thomases and careless Gallios,
+even the avowed scoffers, among the Jewish youth, and imbued them with
+courage and pride,[13] and given them a new shibboleth, _Meine Kunst der
+Welt, mein Leben meinem Volke_ ("My art for the world, my life for my
+people").
+
+"We have seen our youths return to us," writes Lilienblum,[14] "and our
+hearts were filled with joy. In their restoration we found balm for our
+wounds, and with rapturous wonderment we asked 'who has borne us
+these?'" The poets welcomed them with songs. Gordon, whose sorrow had
+silenced his muse, was inspired once more and called:
+
+  Behold our sons, of whom we despaired,
+  Return to us, the great and the small;
+  God's grace is not ended, our power's unimpaired,
+  Again we shall live, and rise after the fall!
+
+Frug sang in Russian:
+
+                              My own Nation,
+  Thou art not alone; thy sons behold
+  Coming back in crowds as in days of old!
+
+And Zunser represented Rachel as soliloquizing in Yiddish:
+
+  Through the windows what am I seeing,
+  Like turtle-doves hitherward fleeing?
+  Are my Joseph and Benjamin knocking at my door?
+  O Heavens, O mighty wonder!
+  Those are my children yonder!
+  Yes, my dearest and my truest coming home once more!
+
+But Zionism is not exclusively either a political or a religious
+movement. It is both plus something else; it is eminently educational.
+It has produced novelists and poets, whose writings are full of the
+virility and beauty of a rejuvenated nation. In Jaffa it established a
+high school (Bet ha-Sefer), it inspired Doctor Chazanowicz to establish
+a national library, and ways and means are being considered to establish
+a national university in Palestine.
+
+Even among the devotees of the arts it has given rise to a new romantic
+school, young painters and sculptors who are depicting their
+Judenschmerz.
+
+    Their cunning hands--says Mr. Leo Mielziner--have mastered the
+    technique of their art, be it in Moscow or Munich, or Berlin, or
+    Paris, but the heart which inspires their brush or mallet
+    pulsates in Palestine. The wandering Jew in them pauses, not to
+    portray the impression of the foreign lands and stranger
+    customs, but to depict his own suffering, his own Heimweh, his
+    own aspirations.
+
+Struck, Ashkenasi, Maimon, Hirszenberg, Gottlieb, Epstein, Loebschuetz,
+and Schatz are the leaders of this new movement. The last-named,
+together with Ephraim Moses Lilien of Galicia, perhaps the greatest
+Jewish illustrator of our time, has founded a national school, Bezalel,
+to propagate Jewish art in Palestine, on the same principles on which
+the great national art schools of other countries are based. The
+language of instruction is Hebrew.
+
+Meanwhile the Society for the Promotion of Haskalah continued its work
+of Russification and general civilization. After 1880 its activity was
+greatly enhanced, and its members worked with renewed zeal. It opened
+elementary schools, and expended large sums on stipends for students,
+and the publication of useful and scholarly books. The branch in Odessa
+secured two hundred and thirty-one new members in one year (1900),
+making the total in that city alone nine hundred and sixty-eight. It
+organized a bureau of information on pedagogic subjects, and through the
+liberality of Kalonymos Wissotzky instituted prizes for original works
+in Hebrew or Russian. Individual philanthropists did their utmost to
+counterbalance the restrictions on education.[15]
+
+Trade schools were opened by the Committee for the Promotion of a
+Knowledge of Trade and Agriculture among the Jews of Russia, in Minsk,
+Vilna, and Vitebsk, besides fifteen manual training schools for boys and
+twenty for girls, in which the indigent pupils are provided with food,
+clothes, and books. In 1900 thirteen new schools were opened in Kherson
+and Yekaterinoslav, to supply the educational demand of the thirty-eight
+colonies existing in those Governments. In the vicinity of Minsk a
+Junior Republic was organized, and in many cities art and choral
+societies were formed.[16]
+
+The desire for self-help and the tendency towards organization, to which
+Zionism gave an impetus, was rapidly reflected in every sphere of
+Russo-Jewish activity. In a series of works and articles, Jacob Wolf
+Mendlin, who studied under Lassalle, pointed out the importance of the
+co-operative system. Accordingly, a union was organized by the Jewish
+salesmen in Warsaw. In 1897 a conference of Jewish workingmen was held
+in that city and Der allgemeine juedische Arbeiterbund in Littauen,
+Polen, und Russland (Federation of Jewish Labor Unions in Lithuania,
+Poland, and Russia) was perfected. It published three papers as its
+organs, Die Arbeiterstimme, Der juedischer Arbeiter, and, in Switzerland,
+Letzte Nachrichten. Soon workmen's associations and artisans' clubs
+appeared wherever there was a sufficient number of Jewish tailors,
+hatters, bookbinders, etc., for the purpose of increasing and improving
+the value of their production, and to do away with middlemen and
+money-lenders. They organized a tailors', dyers', and shoemakers' union
+in Kharkov, and a carpenters' union in Minsk, for mutual support in the
+struggle for existence, and for the construction of sanitary
+workingmen's houses. The cultural desire of the handicraftsmen,
+constituting twelve per cent of the Russo-Jewish population and
+occasionally fifty-two per cent (Odessa), seventy-three per cent
+(Kovno), and even ninety per cent (Byelostok), is phenomenal. Their
+object is not only physical improvement. Their highest aim is that their
+members be enabled, by means of efficient night schools and private
+instruction, to acquire elementary and higher education; in the words of
+the constitution of the carpenters' union of Minsk, "to protect their
+material interests, raise their moral and intellectual status, and
+foster efforts of self-help."[17]
+
+The Hebrew teachers, a class which, though more respected, underwent as
+hard a struggle as the workingmen, banded themselves together in 1899 in
+the Society for Aiding Hebrew Teachers of the Province of Vilna. Their
+president was Michael Wolper, the inspector of the Hebrew Institute and
+successor to Wohl as censor of Hebrew publications. Similar attempts
+were made in Bessarabia. Rabbi Shachor, chairman of the Hebrew Teachers'
+Association of Yekaterinoslav, was instrumental in opening a normal
+school conducted on Chautauqua principles, and so advanced the cause of
+education considerably.[18]
+
+With the establishment of the rabbinical seminaries and the ukase (May
+3, 1855) that only such may officiate as rabbis as have completed a
+prescribed course of study, Russian Jewry was placed in a sore
+predicament. It was a very difficult task to find men who united secular
+knowledge with that thorough mastery of Talmudic literature which the
+Jews of Russia exact from their rabbis. Every community was compelled to
+appoint two rabbis: an orthodox rabbi (dukhovny rabbin) and a "crown,"
+or Government, rabbi (kazyony rabbin). The people recognized only the
+authority of the former, the Government that of the latter. The
+consequence was that a man with a mere high-school education would apply
+for, and would often receive, the position of crown-rabbi. His duties
+consisted in merely keeping a register of marriages, births, and deaths,
+administering the oath, and the like. The many lawyers and physicians
+who were debarred from practicing their professions sought to become
+candidates for the rabbinate. To avoid the unpleasant results which
+followed, Rabbi Chernovich of Odessa and Rabbi I.J. Reines of Lyda
+established seminaries in Odessa and Lyda, to take the place and to
+continue the teaching of the Vilna and the Volozhin yeshibot, which had
+been closed, and to furnish proper rabbis for the various
+congregations.[19]
+
+The century-long struggle for enlightenment had a telling effect. What
+the early Maskilim had only dreamed of finally came to be. The
+metamorphosis was so great and so general as to be hardly credible. It
+was shown by Mr. Landman, in a paper read before the Russo-Jewish
+Historical Society of Odessa, that while among the Gentiles of that city
+the reading public constituted seven per cent of the population, among
+Jews it was no less than thirty-three per cent, and twenty-five per cent
+of all readers were Jewish women.[20] By 1905 there were two Yiddish and
+three Hebrew dailies, besides several weekly, monthly, and quarterly
+periodicals and annuals in Yiddish, Hebrew, and Russian, notwithstanding
+the fact that a numerous class depended on the general Russian literary
+output for their mental pabulum.
+
+As the number of those who read Hebrew was still considerable, Abraham
+Loeb Shalkovich (Ben Avigdor) began, with the assistance of a number of
+Maskilim, the publication of "penny literature" (Sifre Agorah, Warsaw,
+1893). Shortly afterwards the Ahiasaf Society and, a little later, the
+Tushiyah Society were founded. The object was to edit and publish "good
+and useful books in the Hebrew language for the spread of knowledge and
+the teaching of morality and culture among the Hebrew youth, also
+scientific books in all departments of learning." Both these
+associations have done admirable work. They have published many good
+text-books for teaching Hebrew and Jewish history, an illustrated
+periodical for children, Olam Katan (The Little World), and numerous
+works of interest to the adult. Among their publications were, besides
+the original writings of Peretz, Taviov, Frischman, Berdichevsky,
+Chernikhovsky, and others, also translations from Bogrov, Byron, Frug,
+Hugo, Nordau, Shakespeare, Spencer, Zangwill, Zola, critical biographies
+of Aristotle, Copernicus, George Eliot, Heine, Lassalle, Nietzsche,
+Rousseau, and a great many equally famous men of letters, which followed
+each other in promiscuous but uninterrupted succession, all handsomely
+printed and prettily bound, and sold at a moderate price.
+
+One evil, however, remained, in the face of which both the Maskilim and
+the financiers found themselves utterly helpless, the evil of the
+exclusion of Jews from the universities. They could found elementary and
+high schools for the young, night schools and Sabbath Schools for the
+adult working-men, but to establish a university was an absolute
+impossibility. Jewish youths were again compelled, as in the days of
+Tobias Cohn and Solomon Maimon, to seek in foreign lands the education
+denied them in their own. Austria, Switzerland, France, and chiefly
+Germany, became once more the Meccas whither Russo-Jewish graduates
+repaired to finish their studies, and where they formed a sort of Latin
+Quarters of their own, and led almost a communal life. Their numbers in
+the German universities grew to such proportions, and their material
+condition became so wretched, that a society was organized in Berlin for
+the express purpose of helping them. On the other hand, the authorities
+protested (1906) against expending the funds granted each year for
+German educational institutions on the education of non-Germans, and the
+Akademischer Club of Berlin passed resolutions demanding a regulation
+against their admission. In Leipsic alone, of the six hundred and
+sixty-two foreign students who attended the university, three hundred
+and forty, or over one-half, are Russian Jews (1906). Of the five
+hundred and eighty-six students enrolled in the Commercial University,
+three hundred and twenty-two are foreigners, among whom Russians
+predominate, and of the eight hundred students who attend the Royal
+Conservatory of Music, three hundred are foreigners, also mostly
+Russians. Russians constitute two hundred and two of the three hundred
+and forty-seven pupils in the Dresden Polytechnicum, and sixty out of
+one hundred and thirty-seven in the Dresden Veterinary College, while in
+the Freiberg School of Mines and in the Tharand Forestry Academy they
+are in a majority, though they pay twice, and in some places three
+times, the amount of tuition fee required from the native students. The
+proportion is still greater in the Swiss universities of Basle, Berne,
+Geneva, Lausanne, and Zurich, where they sometimes constitute
+three-fourths of the entire student body in the medical schools (Geneva,
+1907).
+
+And as for the progress made by the Russo-Jewish woman, it is wonderful,
+indeed. It is hardly a quarter of a century since attention began to be
+given to her mental development, and yet she has seldom lagged behind
+her sisters in more enlightened lands, and has lately attained to a
+proud height. Vilna, with her "many well-educated wives," attracted the
+attention of Montefiore in the early "forties"; Tarnopol speaks in terms
+of high praise of the Jewish women of Odessa in the "sixties"; they
+"charm by their culture, by the ease and precision with which they speak
+several European languages, by the correctness of their judgment, and
+the beauty of their conversation."[21] The memoirs of Madame Pauline
+Wengeroff throw a sidelight also on the accomplishments of her sisters
+in the less enlightened districts of Russian Jewry. But in the last
+quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth century,
+their advance was prodigious.[22] When decent Jewish women were
+prohibited to reside in St. Petersburg, some of the Jewish female
+students, at the risk of their reputation, secured the yellow ticket of
+the prostitute rather than sacrifice their education. But the majority
+went to other countries. The press has lately been interested in what
+these seekers for light in foreign lands have accomplished, and reported
+the successes of Fanny Berlin, who graduated from the University of
+Berne as doctor of law _summa cum laude_, and of Miss Kanyevsky of
+Zinkoff (Poltava), who was the first woman to take her degree as
+engineer at the Ecole des Pontes et Chaussees, in Paris.
+
+    It is a curious fact--remarks a correspondent in the Pall Mall
+    Gazette--the majority [of lady doctors practicing in Paris] are
+    Russian Jewesses, just as are the greatest number of young women
+    medical students. At a rough calculation there are three hundred
+    ladies pursuing medical studies at the various schools, and
+    working side by side with the male students. The reason of the
+    invasion of the Jewess is, of course, the disabilities that
+    exist in Russia for those of the faith of Israel ...
+    disabilities that are hardly lessened in Germany. Moreover,
+    there exists only one university in Russia, and that is in St.
+    Petersburg. Some of the women who graduate in medicine do
+    extremely well afterwards in practice, and are greatly in vogue
+    in the highest society in Paris.... The lady doctor who is also
+    a Russian subject has likewise found a field for her energies in
+    China, where Russian influence is so dominant at the present
+    moment.
+
+Another writer, in Harper's Bazaar, speaking of girl-students in Paris,
+has this to say:
+
+    The Russian students are an interesting class in Paris. There
+    are some one hundred and thirty of them in all, nearly all
+    Hebrews, as the Russian universities admit only about four Jews
+    to every hundred students. Their monthly allowance from their
+    families is often no more than twenty dollars, and out of that
+    they must pay board, room-rent, and all outside expenses. These
+    Russian "new women" are extraordinary students. Mlle. Lepinska,
+    one of the first to graduate in medicine, presented a thesis six
+    hundred and sixty pages long to her astonished professors.
+
+With pitying admiration the world looks on the struggle for
+enlightenment of these brave sons and daughters of Judah. Their trials
+and tribulations, their heart-burnings and disappointments, have
+inspired poets and painters, novelists and playwrights. From Chamisso's
+_Abba Glusk Leczeka_ to Korolenko's _Skazanye o Florye Rimlyaninye_,
+czars have died or have been assassinated, statesmen have risen and
+fallen, but the Russian Jew, like the heroes of the poem or novel, did
+not wait to conquer by submitting. Thanks to his indomitable spirit he
+has made unexampled progress. Within the last twenty-five years he has
+not only emancipated himself, but he is now the most potent factor in
+the struggle for the emancipation of his countrymen. Within these years
+he has become the recognized torch-bearer of liberty and enlightenment
+in darkest Russia. Uvarov justified his inhuman treatment of the Jews by
+the plea that they are "orthodox and believers in the Talmud." The
+latest excuse (1904) of von Plehve was that "if we admitted Jews to our
+universities without restriction, they would surpass our Russian
+students and dominate our intellectual life." But neither the former
+prevails, nor the latter, nor their henchmen who fill the columns of the
+Grazhdanin, Kievlyanin, Novoye Vremya, and the like. The words and
+writings of such noble and world-famous Russians as Popoff, Demidov,
+Strogonoff, Bershadsky, Shchedrin, Tolstoi, and the cream of the Russian
+"intelligentia," as well as such foreigners as Mommsen, Gladstone,
+Leroy-Beaulieu, and Michael Davitt, will have their salutary effect. The
+consciousness of the Russian people will awaken. The attitude lately
+manifested both in St. Petersburg and the provinces against the
+_Kontrabandisti_, a libellous play written by an apostate Jew, Levin,
+will become more and more general. Then the heroic effort and the
+unexampled progress of the Russian Jews will be more fully appreciated,
+and a patriotic nation will gratefully acknowledge its indebtedness to
+that smallest but most energetic and self-sacrificing portion of its
+heterogeneous population, the Jews, who have done so much, not only for
+Jewish Russians, but for Christian Russians as well, to hasten the time
+when "many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased."
+
+(Notes, pp. 327-330.)
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE NOTES
+
+AZJ  = Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums, Leipsic, 1837--
+FKI  = Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, Warsaw, 1860.
+FKN  = Fuenn, Kiryah Ne'emanah, Vilna, 1860.
+FSL  = Fuenn, Safah le-Ne'emanim, Vilna, 1881.
+GMC  = Ginzberg and Marek, Yevreyskiya Narodniya Pyesni, St. Petersburg,
+       1901.
+HUH  = Harkavy, Ha-Yehudim u-Sefat ha-Selavim, Vilna, 1867.
+JE   = Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols., New York, 1901-1906.
+LBJ  = Levinsohn, Bet Yehudah, Warsaw, 1901.
+LTI  = Levinsohn, Te'udah be-Yisrael, Warsaw, 1901.
+WMG  = Wengeroff, Memoiren einer Grossrautter, i., Berlin, 1908.
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE PRE-HASKALAH PERIOD
+
+?-1648
+
+(pp. 17-52)
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Mention might, indeed, be made of Dr. Zunz's pioneer work
+in his Aelteste Nachrichten ueber Juden und juedische Gelehrte in Polen,
+Slavonien, Russland (Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin, 1875, iii. 82-87),
+and Firkovich, who, in his Abne Zikkaron (Vilna, 1872), threw much light
+on the history of the Crimean Jews. The best contributions to the
+subject, however, are those of Harkavy, Russ i Russkiye v Sred. Yevr.
+Lit. (Voskhod, 1881), and Malishevsky, Yevreyi v Yuzhnoy Rossii i Kieve,
+v. x-xii. Vyekakh, St. Petersburg, 1878.]
+
+[Footnote 2: LTI, p. 33, n. 2; LBJ, ii. 94, n. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See JE, s.v. Azov, and Kertch. See also Fishberg, The Jews:
+A Study of Race and Environment, New York, 1911, pp. 150, 192-194.]
+
+[Footnote 4: See Judah Halevi's Kuzari, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Minor, Rukovodstvo, Moscow, 1881, iv; Ha-Pardes, St.
+Petersburg, 1902, p. 155.]
+
+[Footnote 6: HUH, pp. 31-32, 69-76.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Yevrey Minister, Voskhod, 1885, v. 105 f.]
+
+[Footnote 8: JE, i. 112, 119, 223; viii. 652.]
+
+[Footnote 9: The synagogue in Brest-Litovsk, which Saul Wahl built in
+memory of his wife Deborah, was demolished in 1836. WMG, p. 84.]
+
+[Footnote 10: HUH, pp. 77-134.]
+
+[Footnote 11: JE, x. 569.]
+
+[Footnote 12: The story of Zacharias de Guizolfi deserves to be given at
+greater length. He was a prince and ruler of the Taman peninsula near
+the Black Sea (1419). After he had been unsuccessful in a war against
+the Turks, Czar Ivan III sent him a message sealed with the gold seal
+(March 14, 1484) as follows:
+
+"By the grace of God, the great ruler of the Russian land, the Grand
+Duke Ivan Vassilyevich, czar of all the Russias, to Skariya the Hebrew.
+
+"You have written to us through Gabriel Patrov, our guest, that you
+desire to come to us. It is our wish that you do so. When you are with
+us, we shall give you evidence of our favorable disposition toward you.
+Should you wish to serve us, we will confer honors upon you. But should
+you not wish to remain with us, and prefer to return to your country,
+you shall be free to go."
+
+For some reason or other, Zacharias never accomplished his contemplated
+trip, notwithstanding the many inducements repeatedly offered by the
+czar during a period of eighteen years. Perhaps it was because of the
+disturbances which rendered transportation dangerous; possibly because
+he preferred to serve the khan rather than the czar, for we find him, in
+1500, a resident of Circassia. See JE, vi. 107-108; vi. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 13: E.g. Barakha, the hero (1601), Ilyash Karaimovich, the
+starosta (1637), and Motve Borokhovich, the colonel (1647). See JE, ii.
+128; iv. 283; ix. 40.]
+
+[Footnote 14: See Czacki, Rosprava o Zhydakh, Vilna, 1807, p. 93;
+Buchholtz, Geschichte der Juden in Riga, Riga, 1899, p. 3; Mann, Sheerit
+Yisrael, Vilna, 1818, ch. 30; Virga, Shebet Yehudah, Hanover, 1856, pp.
+147 f., and Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, ix. 480.]
+
+[Footnote 15: The Subbotniki, Dukhobortzi, and the other dissenting, but
+non-Jewish, sects are not referred to here, though they may have
+received their inspiration from Jews or through Judaism.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Voskhod, 1881, i. 73-75; JE, vii. 487-488; ix. 570;
+Bramson, K Istorii Pervonachalnaho Obrazovaniya Russkikh Yevreyev, St.
+Petersburg, 1896, pp. 4-6.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Sternberg, Die Proselyten im xvi. und xvii. Jahrhundert,
+AZJ, 1863, pp. 67-68 (ibid, in L'univers Israelite, 1863, pp. 272 f.);
+Mandelkern, Dibre Yeme Russyah, Warsaw, 1875, pp. 231 f.; Yevreyskaya
+Enziklopedya, s.v. Zhidostvuyushchikh; Bedrzhidsky in Zhurnal
+Ministerstva Narodnaho Prosvyeshchanya, St. Petersburg, 1912, pp.
+106-122; Jewish Ledger, Jan., 1902, p. 3; Emden, Megillat Sefer, ed.
+Cohan, p. 207, Warsaw, 1896. On Count Pototzki, see Ger Zedek, in
+Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, St. Petersburg, 1892; Gershuni, Sketches of
+Jewish Life and History, New York, 1873, pp. 158-224 (also
+Introduction), and S.L. Gordon's ballad in Ha-Shiloah (Ger Zedek), i.
+431. On Pototzki and Zaremba, see Gere Zedek (Anon.), Johannisberg,
+1862. On modern Russian Gerim, see Die Welt, July 5, 1907, pp. 16-17
+(Palestine), B'nai B'rith News, May 13, 1913 (United States), and
+Leroy-Beaulieu, Israel among the Nations, Engl. transl., New York, 1900,
+p. 110, n. 1; Yiddishes Tageblatt, July 16 and 23, 1913, Gerim in
+Russland, and Vieder vegen Gerim; JE, i. 336; vii. 369-370, 489.]
+
+[Footnote 18: HUH, pp. 3, 21 f.; Minor, op. cit., p. 4; Yevreyskiya
+Nadpisi, St. Petersburg, 1884, p. 217; Sefer ha-Yashar, no. 522; Eben
+ha-'Ezer, no. 118. On [Hebrew: Bn'n Hrogi] see Monatsschrift, xxii.
+514.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Catalogue de Rossi, in. 200; Ha-Maggid, 1860, pp. 299-302;
+HUH, pp. 33, 40.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Autobiography, p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 21: LBJ, ii. 95, n.; Ha-'Ibri, New York, viii., no. 33; Lehem
+ha-Panim, Hil. Nedarim, no. 228.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Nishmat Hayyim, Lemberg, 1858, p. 83a; Azulai, Shem
+ha-Gedolim, s.v. Horowitz; FKN, p. 74, and Ha-Maggid, in. 159. Cf.
+Sheerit Yisrael, ch. 32, and Edelman, Gedulat Shauel, London, 1854.
+Reifman, in Ha-Maggid, claims that to Luria belongs the honor of being
+the first-known Jewish author.]
+
+[Footnote 23: See Zikronot, ed. Cohan, pp. 62-66, 90, 313, 336, 380,
+passim; Schechter, Studies in Judaism, Philadelphia, 1908, ii. 132.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Margoliuth, Hibbure Likkutim, Venice, 1715, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Horowitz, Frankfurter Rabbinen, Frankfort-on-the-Main,
+1883, pp. 30-35; FKN, pp. 73-91; Emden, op. cit, p. 125; and
+biographies.]
+
+[Footnote 26: LTI, ii. 81, n.; Hannover, Yeven Mezulah, Warsaw, 1872, p.
+7b.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Zunz, Literaturgeschichte, pp. 433-435, 442; Buber, Anshe
+Shem, Cracow, 1895, pp. 307-309; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 396; JE,
+xi. 217; Bikkure ha-'Ittim, 1830, p. 43. Jacob of Gnesen, I suspect,
+must have lived in Russia.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, pp. 235, 240; Benjacob,
+op. cit, p. 396.]
+
+[Footnote 29: JE, xii. 265-266: "Enfin les incredules les plus
+determines n'out presque rien allegue qui ne soit dans le Rampart de la
+Foi du Rabbin Isaac."]
+
+[Footnote 30: Nusbaum, Historya Zhidov, i. p. 180; Edelman, op. cit,
+attributes the coming of Saul Wahl to this cause.]
+
+[Footnote 31: The Elim (Amsterdam, 1629), if not, as the Karaites
+maintain, actually the work of Zerah Troki, was surely the result of the
+problems submitted by him to Delmedigo.]
+
+[Footnote 32: JE, iv. 504; vii. 264; xii. 266; Ha-Eshkol, iii. and iv.
+(R.M. Jarre); LTI, ii. 80; Benjacob, op. cit, no. 1428.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Zunz, Ritus, Berlin, 1859, p. 73, and Gottesdienstliche
+Vortraege, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1892, p. 452, n.a.; Wessely, Dibre
+Shalom we-Emet, ii. 7; Benjacob, op. cit., no. 1187.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Voskhod, 1893, i. 79; New Era Illustrated Magazine, v.;
+FNI, p. 28 f.; JE, i. 113; ii. 22, 622; xii. 265.]
+
+[Footnote 35: JE, vii. 454.]
+
+[Footnote 36: JE, i. 372; iv. 140; Ha-Yekeb, 1894, p. 68.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Bersohn, Tobiasz Cohn, Warsaw, 1872.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Cf. FKN, pp. 38-42 (Vilna constitution); Hannover, op.
+cit., p. 23a; Ha-Modia' la-Hadashim, II. i. II, and JE, s.v. Council,
+Kahal, Lithuania, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 39: See GMC, pp. 59 f., and compare with this Lermontoff's
+Cossack Cradle-Song, which may be taken as a type:
+
+  Sleep, my child, my little darling, sleep, I sing to thee;
+    Silently the soft white moonbeams fall on thee and me.
+  I will tell thee fairy stories in my lullaby;
+    Sleep, my child, my pretty darling, sleep, I sing to thee.
+  Lo, I see the day approaching when the warriors meet;
+    Then wilt thou grasp thy rifle and mount thy charger fleet.
+  I will broider in thy saddle colors fair to see,
+   Sleep, my child, my little darling, sleep, I sing to thee.
+  Then my Cossack boy, my hero brave and proud and gay,
+    Waves one farewell to his mother and rides far away.
+  Oh, what sorrow, pain and anguish then my soul shall fill,
+    As I pray by day and night that God will keep thee still!
+  Thou shalt take a saint's pure image to the battlefield,
+    Look upon it when thou prayest, may it be thy shield.
+  And when battles fierce are raging, give one thought to me;
+    Sleep, my darling, calmly, sweetly, sleep, I sing to thee.
+
+  --Westminster Gazette.
+
+See Guedemann, Quellen zur Geschichte des Unterrichts, Berlin, 1891, pp.
+285-286; Ha-Boker Or, i. 315 (on Dubno); Ha-Meliz, 1894, no. 254 (on
+Mohilev); Zunz, Gottesdienstliche Vortraege, pp. 122g and 470a; cf.
+Weiss, Zikronotai, Warsaw, 1895, pp. 53-83.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Cf. Guedemann, Geschichte des Erziehungswesens, iii. 94,
+n., and see Dembitzer, Kelilat Yofi, Introduction, and Meassef, St.
+Petersburg, 1902, p. 205, n.]
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+DAYS OF TRANSITION
+
+1648-1794
+
+(pp. 53-109)
+
+
+[Footnote 1: JE, s.v. Bratzlav.]
+
+[Footnote 2: In the diary of a Polish squire we find the following item:
+"Jan. 5. As the lessee Herszka had not yet paid me the rental of 91
+gulden, I went to his house to get my debt. According to the contract, I
+can arrest him and his wife for as long as I wish, until he settles the
+bill, and so I ordered him locked up in the pig-sty and left his wife
+and his sons in the inn. The youngest son, however, I took with me to
+the palace to be instructed in the rudiments of our religion. The boy is
+unusually bright and shall be baptized. I already wrote to our priest
+concerning it, and he promised to come to prepare him. Leisza at first
+stubbornly refused to make the sign of the cross and repeat our prayers,
+but Strelicki administered a sound whipping, and to-day he even ate ham.
+Our venerable priest Bonapari ... is inventing all manner of means to
+break his stiff-neckedness." Meassef, St. Petersburg, 1902, pp.
+192-193.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See Wolkonsky, Pictures of Russian History and Literature,
+Boston, 1897, p. 136.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Orshansky, in Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, ii. 207.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Meassef, St. Petersburg, 1902, p. 195; Beck and Brann,
+Yevreyskaya Istoriya, p. 326; JE, iv. 155; xi. 113.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Meassef, p. 200. On Russia at the time of Peter the Great,
+see Macaulay, History of England, ch. xxiii., where he describes the
+"savage ignorance and the squalid poverty of the barbarous country." In
+that country "there was neither literature nor science, neither school
+nor college. It was not till more than a hundred years after the
+invention of printing that a single printing-press had been introduced
+into the Russian empire, and that printing-press speedily perished in a
+fire, which was supposed to have been kindled by priests." When Pyoter
+Vyeliki (Peter the Great), while in London, saw the archiepiscopal
+library, he declared that "he had never imagined that there were so many
+printed volumes in the world." See also Carlyle, History of Frederick
+the Great, iv. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 7: FKN, pp. 126-132; Voskhod, 1893; on the Hasidim and
+Mitnaggedim see below.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Ma'aseh Tobiah, p. 18; Meassef, pp. 206-209; Geiger (Melo
+Hofnayim, Berlin, 1840, pp. 1-29) published Delmedigo's corroboration of
+this statement.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Rapoport, Etan ha-'Ezrahi, Ostrog, 1776, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Cf. Zederbaum, Keter Kehunnah, pp. 72-74, 84, 121, etc.,
+and Ha-Shiloah, xxi. 165; Schechter, Studies in Judaism, i.,
+Philadelphia, 1896, i. 17 f., and Greenstone, The Messiah Idea in Jewish
+History, pp. 237 f. According to some, Judah he-Hasid and his followers
+went to Palestine in the expectation, not of the Messiah, but of
+Shabbatai Zebi, who was believed to have been in hiding for forty years,
+in imitation of the retirement of Moses in Midian for a similar period
+of years. "The ruins of Rabbi Judah he-Hasid's synagogue" and Yeshibah
+in Jerusalem still keep the memory of the event fresh in the minds of
+Palestinian Jews.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Among the many wonderful episodes in the life of the
+master, his biographer mentions also that he could swallow down the
+largest gobletful in a single gulp (Shibhe ha-Besht, Berdichev, 1815,
+pp. 7-8). The best, though not an impartial work on Hasidism is
+Zweifel's Shalom 'al Yisrael, 4 vols., Zhitomir, 1868-1872.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Ha-Boker Or, iv. 103-105: [Hebrew: H'fkormot Mn Nshmot
+M'lh Hngon.]]
+
+[Footnote 13: Cf. Emden, op. cit., p. 185, and Shimush, Amsterdam, 1785,
+pp. 78-80, with Pardes, ii. 204-214.]
+
+[Footnote 14: See Schechter, op. cit., pp. 73-93; Silber, Elijah Gaon,
+1906; Levin, 'Aliyat Eliyahu, Vilna, 1856, and FKN, pp. 133-155.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Levin, op. cit., pp. 28-30.]
+
+[Footnote 16: See Ha-Bikkurim, i. 1-26; ii. 1-20; Ha-Zeman (monthly),
+1903, ii. 6; Plungian, Ben Porat, Vilna, 1858, p. 33; Keneset Yisrael,
+iii. 152 seq.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Sirkes (Bayit Hadash, Cracow, 1631, p. 40) decides that
+Jews may employ in their synagogue melodies used in the church, since
+"music is neither Jewish nor Christian, but is governed by universal
+laws." See also Hayyim ben Bezalel's Wikkuah Mayim Hayyim, Introduction,
+and passim.]
+
+[Footnote 18: See J.S. Raisin, Sect, Creed and Custom in Judaism,
+Philadelphia, 1907, p. 9, and ch. viii.; Ha-Meliz, x. 186, 192-194.]
+
+[Footnote 19: See Ha-Zeman (monthly), 1903, ii. 7.; Shklov, Euclidus,
+Introduction; Keneset Yisrael, 1887, and Hagra on Orah Hayyim, Shklov,
+1803, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 20: See Graetz, op. cit, xi. 590, 604, 606. The Gaon, who as a
+rule was very mild, lost patience with the Hasidim and wielded the
+weapons of the kuni (or stocks and exposures) and excommunication
+without mercy. The Hasidim were also accused of being not only religious
+dissenters but revolutionaries. Zeitlin, quoted in Yiddishes Tageblatt,
+from the Moment, March, 1913.]
+
+[Footnote 21: See Karpeles, Time of Mendelssohn, p. 297; Kayserling,
+Mendelssohn, p. 12; Ha-Meliz, 1900, nos. 194-196.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Epstein, Geburat ha-Ari, Vilna, 1870, p. 29; Rabinovich,
+Zunz, Warsaw, 1896; Wessely, op. cit., ii.; Linda, Reshit Limmudim,
+Berlin, 1789, and Ha-Zeman (monthly), ii. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Delitzsch, Zur Geschichte der juedischen Poesie, Leipsic,
+1836, p. 118; Bernfeld, Dor Tahapukot, Warsaw, 1897, pp. 88 f. Dubno
+also edited Luzzatto's La-Yesharim Tehillah, which, according to
+Slouschz, marks the beginning of the renaissance in Hebrew
+belles-lettres.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Published in Berlin in 1793. It was translated into
+English by Murray (Solomon Maimon, Boston, 1888) and into Hebrew by
+Taviov (Warsaw, 1899).]
+
+[Footnote 25: Bernfeld, op. cit., ii. 66 f. JE, s.v. Maimon; and
+Autobiography (Engl. transl.), p. 217. For Maimon's system of philosophy
+and also for a complete bibliography of his writings, see Kunz, Die
+Philosophic Salomon Maimons, Heidelberg, 1912, pp. xxv, 531.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Wolff, Maimoniana, Berlin, 1813, p. 177.]
+
+[Footnote 27: How touching and suggestive is the word [Hebrew: Shbi]] in
+an acrostic at the end of his Introduction to his Gibe'at ha-Moreh, a
+commentary on the Moreh Nebukim:
+
+  'hobi ykr kor'
+  'bi vshm shmi hd'
+  Shbi bmlt bhtboknn]
+
+[Footnote 28: See Murray's Introduction to the Autobiography; Auerbach,
+Dichter und Kaufmann; Zangwill, Nathan the Wise and Solomon the Fool.]
+
+[Footnote 29: FKI, p. 196.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Maggid, Toledot Mishpehot Ginzberg, pp. 52-53; Emden,
+Sheelat Ya'abez, Altona, 1739, p. 65 a.]
+
+[Footnote 31: FKN, pp. 109-114, 269; FKI, p. 300.]
+
+[Footnote 32: FKI, p. 394; Delitzsch, op. cit, p. 84.]
+
+[Footnote 33: L'univers Israelite, liii. 831-841: "C'est, vous le voyez,
+un juif polonais qui contribua puissamment a l'emancipation des juifs de
+France. Et je me demande si le Judaisme du monde entier ne doit pas
+rendre hommage a notre coreligionnaire polonais autant peut-etre qu' a
+Menasse ben Israel." FKI, p. 333; Ha-Meliz, ii. no. 50; Shulammit, iii.
+425; Graetz, op. cit. (Engl. transl.), v. 443.]
+
+[Footnote 34: See Berliner, Festschrift, 1903, pp. 1-4.]
+
+[Footnote 35: See Ha-Meliz, viii. nos. 11, 22, 23; FSL, p. 139;
+Monatsschrift, xxiv, 348-357.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Delitzsch, op. cit., pp. 115-118; Ha-Zeman (monthly), ii.
+23 f.]
+
+[Footnote 37: See Meassef, 1788, p. 32, and Levin's ed. of Moreh
+Nebukim, Zolkiev, 1829, Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Ha-Meassef, 1809, pp. 68-75, 136-171.]
+
+[Footnote 39: See Sefer ha-Berit, Introduction, and Weissberg,
+Aufklaerungsliteratur, Vienna, 1898, p. 83.]
+
+[Footnote 40: FKI, p. 428.]
+
+[Footnote 41: See Emden, Torat ha-Kenaot, pp. 123-127, and Hitabkut
+(Pinczov's letters); Voskhod, 1882, nos. viii-ix; FSL, pp. 136-137;
+Friedrichsfeld, Zeker Zaddik, p. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Maimon, Autobiography, pp. 106-107; FSL, p. 135.]
+
+[Footnote 43: See LTI, ii. 96, n. 1, and Yellin and Abrahams,
+Maimonides, p. 160, and reference on p. 330, n. 72; Ha-Zeman (monthly),
+i. 102-103; Margolioth, Bet Middot, p. 20. Heine's admiration for these
+idealists or those who succeeded them is well worth quoting. In his
+essay on Poland, he says: "In spite of the barbaric fur cap which covers
+his head and the even more barbaric ideas which fill it, I value the
+Polish Jew much more than many a German Jew with his Bolivar on his head
+and his Jean Paul inside of it.... The Polish Jew in his unclean furred
+coat, with his populous beard and his smell of garlic and his Jewish
+jargon, is nevertheless dearer to me than many a Westerner in all the
+glory of his stocks and bonds."]
+
+[Footnote 44: Op. cit. Letter ii.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Likkute Kadmoniot, Vilna, 1860, Introduction.]
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE DAWN OF HASKALAH
+
+1794-1840
+
+(pp. 110-161)
+
+
+[Footnote 1: See Orshansky, in Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, ii. 240;
+Drabkin, in Monatsschrift, xix-xx.]
+
+[Footnote 2: FKN, pp. 27, 303.]
+
+[Footnote 3: JE, iv. 301; Plungian, op. cit, p. 59.]
+
+[Footnote 4: FKN, p. 193.]
+
+[Footnote 5: JE, iv. 407.]
+
+[Footnote 6: FKN, p. 193; Jellinek, Kuntres ha-Rambam, pp. 39f.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Occident, v. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Jost, Culturgeschichte, Berlin, 1847, p. 302.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Steinschneider, 'Ir Vilna, 1900, p. 146.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Voskhod, 1881, ii. 29-30; 1900, p. 55.]
+
+[Footnote 11: FKN, pp. 277-279.]
+
+[Footnote 12: See Rabinovitz, Ma'amar 'al ha-Defosat ha-Talmud, Munich,
+1876, p. 112. Cf. Zweifel, op. cit., iv. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 13: FKN, pp. 277-279.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Toledot Adam, pp. 14 b, 16 b, 24 b, 75 b, 84 a.]
+
+[Footnote 15: See Plungian, op cit., pp. 46-47, 91; Voskhod, 1900, ix.
+77; Ha-Zeman (monthly), 1903, iii. 22-30; see also Die Zukunft, New
+York, July, 1913, pp. 713 f.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Voskhod, Dec., 1890, pp. 142 f.; Ha-Boker Or, Jan., 1881.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Voskhod, 1888, iii. 37 f; Rodkinson, Toledot 'Ammude
+HaBaD.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Cohan, Rabbi Yisrael Ba'al Shem Tob, 1900, p. 67.]
+
+[Footnote 19: 'Ammude Bet Yehudah, xxvii., and see Ha-Zeman (monthly),
+ii. 8-15.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Buchholtz, op. cit., Beilage 14, pp. 137-138.]
+
+[Footnote 21: See Weissberg, op. cit., p. 53; Talmud Leshon Russiah,
+Vilna, 1825; Moda' li-Bene Binah, ibid., 1826; cf. Baer Heteb,
+Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Helel ben Shahar, Warsaw, 1804, Introduction, and p. 81.
+See Peri ha-Arez Yashan, Letter 2, quoted by Dubnow, Pardes, ii.
+210-211.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Keneset Yisrael, i. 138; Morgulis, Voprosi Yevreyskoy
+Zhizni, pp. 7-10.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Enziklopedichesky Slovar, St. Petersburg, 1895, xvii.
+642.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Ha-Shahar, x. 44-52; FKN, p. 33; Ha-Boker Or, i. 145-146.]
+
+[Footnote 26: FSL, p. 164.]
+
+[Footnote 27: See Guenzburg, Ha-Debir, Warsaw, 1883, ii. 55;
+Israelitische Annalen, 1840, p. 263.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Ha-Zeman (monthly), iii. 10.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Minor, op. cit, p. 46; Lerner, Yevreyi v Novorossiskom
+Kraye, Odessa, 1901, p. 234; Monatsschrift, xviii. 234 f., 477 f., 551
+f.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Voskhod, 1881, i-iii; Ha-Zeman (monthly), iii. 11-14.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Op. cit, pp. 208-209.]
+
+[Footnote 32: Cf. Graetz, xi. 50; Kayserling, op. cit, p. 288; Fuenn,
+Sofre Yisrael, Vilna, 1891, pp. 138-143; WMG, p. 135.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Graetz, xi. 590, 604, 606; Annalen, xx. 467; Kayserling,
+op. cit., p. 307; Landshut, Toledot Anshe Shem, p. 85.]
+
+[Footnote 34: [Hebrew: Yd Tshlhu 'l Rm''d Bsfri]. Weiss, Zikronotai, p.
+58, n.; Ha-Zeman (monthly), i. and iii. 18-19.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Zweifel, op. cit., pp. 35-40, and Ha-Hasidut we-ha-Musar
+in Ha-Meliz, 1897; Toledot Mishpehot Shneersohn, in Ha-Asif, v. 35-40,
+and Nefesh Hayyim, iii. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Mandelkern, Dibre Yeme Russyah, iii. 98; American
+Israelite, nos. 15, 18, etc. (My Travels in Russia); Gordon, Ha-Azamot
+ha-Yebashot, Odessa, 1899; AZJ, 1854, p. 22; Zunser, Biography, New
+York, 1905, pp. 15-19 (Engl. transl., pp. 14-18); Shenot Ra'inu Ra'ah,
+in Ha-Meliz, 1860; Sefer ha-Shanah, iii. 82-101, and GMC, nos. 43-50.
+One of these songs runs as follows:
+
+  On the streets in tears we're wading,
+  In our bairns' blood we might be bathing;
+  What a misfortune, ah, wellaway--
+  Will never dawn the better day?
+
+  Little infants from heder are torn,
+  And forced to wear the soldier's uniform;
+  What a misfortune, etc.
+
+  Our leaders, rabbis, and honored elders,
+  E'en help to impress them for the czar's soldiers;
+  What a misfortune, etc.
+
+  Seven sons has Zushe Rakover,
+  Yet not a one for the army is over;
+  What a misfortune, etc.
+
+  Leah, the widow, has an only son,
+  And for the kahal's sins he's gone;
+  What a misfortune, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 37: GMC, no. 42. On similar enthusiasm among the Galician
+Maskilim, see Erter, Kol Kore, in Ha-Zofeh le-Bet Yisrael, Warsaw, 1890,
+pp. 131-133.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Elk, Die juedischen Kolonien in Russland,
+Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1886, pp. 28-53, 60-80, 119-140, 153-160,
+205-208; Jastrow, Beleuchtungen, etc., Hamburg, 1859, pp. 109-113.]
+
+[Footnote 39: See Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin, 1875, pp, 279-290;
+Jost, Freimuethige Beleuchtung, Berlin, 1830; and Culturgeschichte, pp.
+302-303.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Rabinovitz, op. cit., pp. 11-18.]
+
+[Footnote 41: On Volozhin, see Ha-Kerem, 1887, pp. 67-77; Bikkurim,
+1865, pp. 6-45; Ozar ha-Sifrut, iii.; Ha-Asif, iii.; Ha-Meliz, 1900,
+nos. 16-18; Schechter, op. cit., i. 93-98; Horowitz, Derek 'Ez
+ha-Hayyim, Cracow, 1895. The yeshibah was reopened under the deanship of
+Rabbi Raphael Shapira of Bobruisk, and still exists, though in a rather
+precarious condition.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Read the vivid description in WMG, p. 147.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Occident, ii. 563-564.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Uvarov's opinion of the Talmud was "razvrashchal i
+raz-vrashchayet" ("it has been degrading and is degrading"). Nicholas
+granted special privileges to the Karaites, and claimed they were the
+genuine Israelites, chiefly because they did not follow the precepts of
+the Talmud.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Occident, ii. 562-563.]
+
+[Footnote 46: See Loewe, Diaries of Sir Moses and Lady Montefiore,
+London, 1890, i. 100, 231, 311-312, passim; Guenzburg, Debir, ii. 99-108;
+(Dick), Ha-Oreah, Koenigsberg, 1860.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Guenzburg, op. cit., pp. 115-117, 122-125; Leket Amarim
+(suppl. to Ha-Meliz), St. Petersburg, 1887, pp. 81-86; AZJ, ix. nos.
+46-50; x. nos. 5, 49, etc.; Jastrow, op. cit., p. 12, Lubliner, De la
+condition politique .... dans le royaume de Pologne, Brussels, 1860
+(especially pp. 44-45).]
+
+[Footnote 48: GMC, no. 255.]
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CONFLICTS AND CONQUESTS
+
+1840-1855
+
+(pp. 162-221)
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Diakov states that "when the population degenerated in West
+Russia, business and industry declined, and the number of the rich
+greatly diminished, while the nobles, embittered against the Government,
+did absolutely nothing for their country, the Jews formed an
+exception.... There is no doubt that they are doing their utmost for the
+regeneration of our land, despite the restrictions heaped upon them
+without any cause" (Elk, op. cit., p. 41 seq.). Surovyetsky likewise
+maintains that "after the devastation of Poland because of the numerous
+wars, the ruining of so many cities, and the almost total extermination
+of their inhabitants ... the Jews alone effected the regeneration of our
+trade. They alone upheld our tottering industries .... We may safely
+affirm that without them, without their characteristic mobility, we
+should never have recovered our commerce and wealth" (Jastrow, op. cit.,
+p. 12).]
+
+[Footnote 2: See AZJ, April 29, 1844, and Orient, 1844, P-224, in which
+the correspondent adds: "It is a touching sight to see these laborers
+(as longshoremen), for the most part aged, perform their fatiguing
+duties in the streets during the hottest seasons, endeavoring to lighten
+their heavy burdens by the repetition of Biblical and Talmudic
+passages."]
+
+[Footnote 3: Ozar ha-Sifrut, 1877; Annalen, 1839, pp. 345-346, and 1841,
+no. 31. Bikkure ha-'Ittim, 1821, pp. 168-172; FSL, p. 150; Paperna,
+Ha-Derammah (Eichenbaum's letter); Ha-Boker Or, 1879, pp. 691-698;
+Occident, v. 255; Pirhe Zafon, ii. 216-217; Ha-Maggid, 1863, p. 348;
+Orient, 1841, p. 266; Lapin, Keset ha-Sofer, Berlin, 1857, p. 8, and
+Morgulis, op. cit., p. 48.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Jost, Culturgeschichte, pp. 308-309; Morgulis, op. cit., p.
+27; Atlas, Mah Lefanim u-mah Leaher, Warsaw, 1898, pp. 44 f.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Sbornik of the Minister of Education, iii. 140; Ha-Shahar,
+iv. 569.]
+
+[Footnote 6: See An die Verehrer, Freunde und Schueler, etc., Leipsic,
+1823, pp. 122-125.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Ueber die Verbesserung der Israeliten im Koenigreich Polen,
+Berlin, 1819.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften, pp. 296-297; Jost, op. cit, p.
+304; Jastrow, op. cit, pp. 41 f.; and Zederbaum, Kohelet, St.
+Petersburg, 1881, p. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Occident, v. 493.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Maggid Yeshu'ah, Vilna, September, 1842. It is reproduced,
+together with many Haskalah reminiscences, by Gottlober in Ha-Boker Or,
+iv. (Ha-Gizrah we-ha-Binyah). According to Gottlober the Hebrew is
+Fuenn's translation from the original German. Yet Hebrew letters (Leket
+Amarim, St. Petersburg, 1888) were published in Lilienthal's name.]
+
+[Footnote 11: See AZJ, 1842, no. 41; Mandelstamm, Hazon la-Moed, Vienna,
+1877, pp. 19, 21, 25-27; Leket Amarim, pp. 86-89; Kohelet, p. 12;
+Morgulis, op. cit, p. 55; Ha-Pardes, pp. 186-199; Nathanson, Sefer
+ha-Zikronot, Warsaw, 1878, p. 70; Lilienthal, in American Israelite,
+1854 (My Travels in Russia), and Juedisches Volksblatt, 1856 (Meine
+Reisen in Russland), and Der Zeitgeist, 1882, p. 149.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Occident, v. 252, 296.]
+
+[Footnote 13: WMG, pp. 185-200; AZJ, 1844, pp. 75, 247; 1845, pp.
+304-305; 1846, p. 18; American Israelite, i. 156.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Rede, etc., Riga, 1840, p. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Ha-Pardes, i. 202-203. See Bramson, op. cit., pp. 26-27;
+WMG, p. 118.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Ha-Kokabim, 1868, pp. 61-78; Ha-Kerem, 1887, pp. 41-62;
+Zweifel, op. cit, pp. 55-56.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Ha-Mizpah, 1882, p. 17; Kohelet, p. 16; Sbornik of the
+Minister of Education, 1840, pp. 340, 436-437, and Supplement, pp.
+35-38; Prelooker, Under the Czar and Queen Victoria, London, pp. 4-5;
+cf. AZJ, 1846, p. 86.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Elk, op. cit, ch. iii.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Occident, v. 493; Nathanson, Sefat Emet, p. 92;
+Mandelstamm, op. cit., pp. 31-32, and Morgulis, op. cit, pp. 102-147.
+
+On tax collectors, cf. the English ballad quoted by Macaulay (History of
+England, ch. iii.):
+
+  Like plundering soldiers they'd enter the door,
+  And made a distress on the goods of the poor,
+  While frightened poor children distractedly cried;
+  This nothing abated their insolent pride.
+
+And the Yiddish folk song (GMC, no. 55):
+
+  The excise young fellows,
+  They are tremendously wild:
+  They shave their beards,
+  And ride on horses,
+  Wear overshoes,
+  And eat with unwashed hands.
+
+Their lack of confidence in the permanence of the schools is expressed
+in the following song (GMC, no. 53):
+
+  May we soon be released from the Jewish Goless,
+  When we shall be expelled from the Gentile Scholess (schools).
+
+On the struggle to retain the so-called Jewish mode of dress, see I.M.
+D(ick), Die Yiddishe Kleider Umwechslung, Vilna, 1844.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Op. cit., pp. 12-13; cf. Letteris, in Moreh Nebuke
+ha-Zeman, Introduction, pp. xv-xvi; Bramson, op. cit., pp. 34-35, 43-44,
+and Levanda, Ocherki Proshlaho, St. Petersburg, 1876.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Cf. Buckle, History of Civilization, New York, 1880, ii.
+529-538.]
+
+[Footnote 22: "Fifty years ago," says Mr. Rubinow (Bulletin of the
+Bureau of Labor, no. 72, Washington, Sept., 1907, p. 578), "the
+educational standard of the [Russian] Jews was higher than that of the
+Russian people at large is at present."]
+
+[Footnote 23: Mandelkern, op. cit., iii. 33.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Buckle, op. cit., pp. 140-142, notes 33-37.]
+
+[Footnote 25: The same phenomenon was witnessed to a certain extent also
+in Galicia, where for a while Haskalah flourished in great splendor.
+There, too, the charm and fecundity of German literature, the similarity
+of Yiddish to German, and the privileges the Austrian Government
+accorded them, proved too strong a temptation for the Jews, and many of
+those who became enlightened were rapidly assimilated with their Gentile
+countrymen. While, therefore, in Galicia the Haskalah movement lasted
+longer than in Germany, it had ceased long before it reached its fullest
+development in Russia. Austrian civilization accelerated the
+assimilation of the educated, Polish prejudice retarded the progress of
+the masses. So that though Erter, Letteris, Krochmal, Goldenberg,
+Mieses, Rapoport, Perl, and Schorr exerted a great influence in Russia,
+their own country remained unaffected. Many of them, like A. Peretz,
+Eichenbaum, Feder, Pinsker, Werbel, and Rosenfeld emigrated to Russia,
+where they found a wider field for their activities, while others, like
+Professor Ludwig Gumplowicz, the sociologist, Marmorek, the physician,
+and Scheps, the litterateur, became alienated from their former
+coreligionists.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Keneset Yisrael, iii. 84; Gottlober, Za'ar Ba'ale Hayyim,
+Zhitomir, 1868: [Hebrew: T'rng Nfshi 'lid Ki] (comp. Ps. xlii, and Shir
+ha-Kabod, last verse).]
+
+[Footnote 27: Occident, v. 243. Cf. Buchholtz, op. cit., pp. 82-116.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Occident, v. 255; Yevreyskaya Biblyotyeka, ii. 207-210.]
+
+[Footnote 29: 1840, no. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Emden, Megillat Sefer, p. 5; Guenzburg, Debir, ii. 105-106;
+Mandelstamm, op. cit, i. 3-4, 11; Annalen, 1841, no. 31.]
+
+[Footnote 31: FKN, pp. 246-247; Guenzburg, op. cit., i. 48. Moses Reines
+also points out the fact that the prominent rabbis did not withhold
+their approval of the most typical Haskalah works when their authors
+were not suspected of heresy, as shown by Abele's haskamah on
+Levinsohn's Te'udah be-Yisrael, Tiktin's on Guenzburg's Toledot ha-Arez,
+and Malbim's on Zweifel's Sanegor (Ozar ha-Sifrut, 1888, p. 61).]
+
+[Footnote 32: Ha-Boker Or, 1879, no. 4; FKI, pp. 537-538, 1132;
+Ha-Lebanon, 1872, no. 35; Ha-Zefirah, 1879, no. 9; Jewish Chronicle, May
+4, 1877; Keneset Yisrael, 1887, pp. 157-162; Ha-Meliz, ix. (1889), nos.
+198-199, 201, 232; Jost, op. cit., p. 305. Da'at Kedoshim, St.
+Petersburg, 1897, pp. 19, 22, 27.]
+
+[Footnote 33: These biographical sketches, first published respectively
+in the New Era Illustrated Magazine (1905, pp. 387-396) and the American
+Israelite (April 25, 1907), are drawn from the following sources;
+Houzner, I.B. Levinsohn (Russian), Odessa, 1862; Nathanson, Sefer
+ha-Zikronot (Heb.), Warsaw, 1878; Yiddishe Bibliotek (Yid.), Kiev, 1888;
+also Annalen, 1839, no. 17; Ha-Maggid, 1863, p. 381; Ha-Zefirah, 1900,
+p. 197; Maggid, op. cit., pp. 86-115; Guenzburg, Debir, i. and ii.,
+Warsaw, 1883; Kiryat Sefer, Vilna, 1835 (esp. Letters 85-93, 101-102);
+Abi'ezer, Vilna, 1863; Lebensohn, Kiryat Soferim, Vilna, 1847; Pardes,
+i. 192; Recke und Napyersky, Allgemeines Schriftsteller und Gelehrten
+Lexicon der Provinzen Livland, Esthland und Kurland, Mitau, 1829, pp.
+147-148; and the works referred to in the text.]
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+RUSSIFICATION, REFORMATION, AND ASSIMILATION
+
+1856-1881
+
+(pp. 222-267)
+
+
+[Footnote 1: San Donato, The Jewish Question, St. Petersburg, 1883, p.
+36.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Ha-Meliz, 1888, nos. 95, 163; Gordon, Iggerot, Warsaw,
+1894, ii., and Russky Vyestnik, 1858, i. 126.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Scholz, Die Juden in Russland, Berlin, 1900, pp. 102-107;
+Hessen, Galeriya, p. 23; Voskhod, 1881, v. 1893; viii; Russky Yevrey,
+1882, i.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Second Complete Russian Code, xxv, nos. 24, 768; xxvii.
+nos. 26, 508.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Voskhod, October, 1881; Chwolson, Die Blutanklage,
+Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1901, p. 117.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Zunser, Biography, p. 28.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Kol Shire Mahallalel, i. 79-91.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Kol Shire YeLeG, i. 43.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Bramson, op. cit, pp. 52-54; Russky Yevrey, 1879, nos.
+16-17.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Rosenthal, Toledot Hebrat Marbe Haskalah, i. 3, 19, 103,
+158-159; ii. Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 11: How happy the Maskilim of that time were to save their
+fellows from the darkness of ignorance can be seen from the following
+anecdote told by a Maskil in a retrospective mood (Ha-Shiloah, xvii.,
+257-258): "Among the first of our young men to enter the gymnasium of my
+native town of Mohilev were Ackselrod and the Leventhal brothers. The
+former began to give instruction while he was still in the third grade
+.... One morning he suddenly disappeared. After several days of anxious
+search it was discovered that he had left on foot for Shklov, a distance
+of about thirty vyersts, and while there he succeeded in persuading
+fifteen boys to leave the yeshibah and come with him to Mohilev, where,
+like a puissant warrior returning in triumph, he went with his little
+army to the different homes to secure board and lodging for them while
+they were being prepared for admission into the gymnasium."]
+
+[Footnote 12: Op. cit., p. 35 (Engl. transl., p. 26).]
+
+[Footnote 13: Op. cit., p. 9.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Max Raisin, The Reform Movement, etc. (reprint from the
+Year Book of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, xvi.),
+Introduction.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Odessky Yevrey, 1847 (Novaya Yevreyskaya Synagoga v
+Odessa).]
+
+[Footnote 16: Hessen, op. cit., p. 68; Voskhod, 1881, p. 132.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Rosenthal, op. cit., p. 70; Gordon, Iggerot, nos. 60-62;
+Ha-Meliz, xx, nos. 8, 11, 13.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Voskhod, 1900, v.; Sefer ha-Shanah, ii. 288-290.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Ha-Meliz, 1899, no. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Ben Sion, Yevrey Reformatory, St. Petersburg, 1882. In his
+manifesto (Ha-Meliz, April 21, 1881) Gordon declared: "We have discarded
+the dusty Talmud. We cannot rest satisfied, in questions of religion,
+with the worm-eaten carcass, with the observances of rabbinical
+Judaism." See Ha-Shiloah, ii. 53. See also Kahan, Meahore ha-Pargud
+(reprint from Ha-Meliz, 1885), St. Petersburg, 1886.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Prelooker, op. cit., pp. 24 f.; Voskhod, Feb. 3, 1886;
+Razsvyet, 1881, no. 25.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Duprey, Great Masters of Russian Literature (Engl. transl.
+Dole, New York, 1886), p. 151.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Rosenthal, op. cit, i. 66, 103, 158-159; Ha-Maggid, 1868,
+p. 18. Cf. McClintock and Strong, Biblical, Theological and
+Ecclesiastical Cyclopedia, New York, 1891, ii. 805. The beautiful
+synagogue which the Jews began to erect in Moscow at the cost of half a
+million rubles was declared by Pobyednostsev to be "too high and
+imposing," and they were compelled to destroy the cupola and deform the
+interior. Nevertheless it had to remain a "dead" synagogue, until
+Nicholas II was pleased to give permission to open it.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Shereshevsky, O Knigie Kahala, St. Petersburg, 1872;
+Seiberling, Gegen Brafmann's Buch des Kahals, Vienna, 1881; Ha-Shahar,
+iv. 621; xi. 242.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Prelooker, Heroes and Heroines of Russia, London, p. 120;
+Ha-Shiloah, xvii. 257-263.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Zederbaum, 'Ayin Zofiyah, Warsaw, 1877, pp. 7-8;
+Prelooker, Under the Czar, etc., pp. 8-21.]
+
+[Footnote 27: It may not be superfluous to quote here the vivid picture
+given of the period I am now describing by Eliakum Zunser in his
+interesting autobiography; the more, as it is depicted very much in the
+style of the Maskilim of to-day:
+
+"It is an accepted law in hygiene that the digestive system must not be
+overburdened at any one time by too much food, that eating must not be
+done hastily, and, above all, great care must be taken to choose
+wholesome and digestible food. These principles are still more important
+to one who is hungry, who has abstained from food for any length of
+time. He should select the healthy and light foods, and partake of
+little at first until the powers of digestion are fully restored. Should
+he neglect to observe these simple rules, he will ruin his digestive
+system, the food will turn into poison, and he may contract a stubborn
+disease which no physician will be able to cure.
+
+"This is exactly what happened to our Russian Jews from 1860 to 1880.
+For many long centuries they had endured an intellectual fast. The
+Government had debarred them from the world's culture. They were closely
+packed together in the narrow and dark ghettos. They knew of their
+synagogues, yeshibot, and prayer-houses (Kloisen) on the one hand, and
+of their little stores on the other. That there was a great world beyond
+and without, a world of culture, education, and civilization, of this
+they had only heard. A great many of them strove to break through the
+bounds that confined them and step into the world of light and life; but
+the Cossack, lead-laden whip in hand, stood there ready to drive them
+back.
+
+"The thirst for education and civilization became daily more intense,
+and reached the utmost limits of endurance. Five million Russian Jews
+raised their hands to the Government and pleaded for mercy: 'Release us
+from this ghetto! We, too, are human beings! Give us breathing space!
+Give us light! We are faint and starving!' And the Cossack promptly
+answered 'Nazad ('Back!') Here you are and here you remain--not a step
+further!'
+
+"And all at once, lo! there came a light! Alexander II, as soon as he
+ascended the throne, opened wide the doors of the ghetto, and the
+Russian Jews, young and old, men and women, rushed to the new culture.
+All crowded to the dainty dish, and no time was lost in making up for
+the intellectual fast.
+
+"But here happened what usually occurs after a long fast. The wiser
+partook of food with discretion. They selected the ingredients which
+were wholesome, and which their system could digest. All unripe,
+objectionable food they rejected; their main object was to select the
+food which the Jewish system could assimilate. The governing principle
+was to unite Jewish learning with the new culture. They knew that among
+the new delicacies there were many that were injurious and unhealthy,
+though the defects were disguised by alluring spices; but those who had
+not lost the innate, unerring Jewish scent found no difficulty in
+distinguishing that which was sound from the injurious, and they remain
+strong and faithful Jews to this day.
+
+"Others, and they formed the greater part of the Russian Jews, seized
+things as they came. Nay, the more dangerous the delicacy, the more the
+relish with which it was devoured. And these delicacies were gorged at
+such a rate as to cause constitutional disorder. They who were a little
+wiser somehow shook off the objectionable matter, and became 'whole'
+again; and a great number 'died,' and a still greater number are
+dangerously 'sick' to this very day.
+
+"The sick among our Russian brethren, those who partook in dangerous
+quantities of the unwholesome delicacies, believed that they would solve
+all difficulties by 'Russification,' that is, by abandoning the old
+Jewish culture and adopting Russian mannerisms and customs--by ceasing
+to lead Jewish lives and by leading the lives of Russians. A great
+number of Jewish literary men of those times believed that if the
+Russian Jews would become 'Russified,' and would adopt modern
+civilization, they would receive full and equal rights, on the same
+terms as the other nationalities. These literary men were dazzled by the
+little liberty Alexander II granted the Russian Jews, and they did not
+understand that he pursued the same object as his father, Nicholas I. In
+the days of Alexander II, many more Jews were converted to Christianity
+than in the bitter days of Nicholas I; and many who were not converted
+remained but caricatures of real Jews.
+
+"The so-called 'Jewish Aristocracy' in Russia, and especially the
+wealthy Jews of North Russia, of St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kharkov,
+Russified at top speed. They removed from their homes and their
+home-life anything that was in the least degree Jewish. They shattered
+all that for thousands of years had been holy and dear to the Jew. Like
+apes they imitated the manners and customs of the Christians. The
+younger children did not even know that they were descended from Jews,
+as was the case in the first 'pogroms,' when the children asked their
+parents: 'Why do they beat us? Are we, too, Jews (Razve vy tozhe
+Yevrey)?'"]
+
+[Footnote 28: For a full biography see Brainin, Perez ben Mosheh
+Smolenskin, Warsaw, 1896; Keneset Yisrael, i. 249-286; Ha-Shiloah, i.
+82-92, and his works, especially Ha-Toeh be-Darke ha-Hayyim, Vienna,
+1876.]
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE AWAKENING
+
+1881-1905
+
+(pp. 268-303)
+
+
+[Footnote 1: Most of this is based on Persecution of the Jews in Russia,
+Philadelphia, 1891, pp. 8-18, 22, 35, 51-82, 184-185; Frederick, The New
+Exodus, London, 1892, pp. 192-208; Errera, Les juifs russes, Brussels,
+1893, pp. 29, 43 f., 89-90, 188-189. Between 1883 and 1885, the Mining
+Institute and Engineering Institute for Public Roads adopted the five
+per cent limit, the Kharkov Technical Institute a ten per cent limit,
+and the Veterinary Institute, of the same city, the only one of the sort
+in Russia, excluded Jews altogether.
+
+"My zemlyakes" (countrymen), says a reminiscent writer, "soon after they
+had finished their course in engineering, had taken each a different
+road. One became a crown-rabbi, one a flour merchant, a third a
+bookkeeper, but none of them could, on account of his religion, legally
+pursue his chosen vocation" (Yiddishes Tageblatt, New York, May 13,
+1908).]
+
+[Footnote 2: Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor (Engl. transl., New
+York, 1908), pp. 70, 90-91. "Out of 266 students admitted to the Kharkov
+University in 1901, only 8 were Jews, though at least 12 had 'finished
+the gymnasium,' not only with the 'highest possible' marks, but with
+gold medals. At the Technological Institute of the same city, 7 were
+Jews in a total of 240, though 12 applying for admission had received
+the 'highest possible' marks. At the Kiev University, of 580 new
+students, 32, all of them medallists, were Jews. How many applied for
+admission, the daily and weekly press, from which these figures are
+taken, did not report."]
+
+[Footnote 3: Ner ha-Ma'arabi, vii, 27.]
+
+[Footnote 4: "He who claims that a spirit of reaction has affected our
+people as a whole," says Moses Reines (Ozar ha-Sifrut, ii. 45), "is
+greatly mistaken. That the children of the poor from whom learning
+cometh forth still forsake their city and country and acquire knowledge,
+... that societies for the spread of Haskalah are formed every day, ...
+that strict and pious Jews send their sons and daughters to where they
+can obtain enlightenment, that rabbis, dayyanim, and maggidim urge their
+children to become proficient in the requirements of the times ... write
+for the press ... and deplore the gezerot (restrictions) regarding
+admission to schools--all this proves convincingly that they do not see
+right who complain that our entire nation is going backward."]
+
+[Footnote 5: See Ha-Maggid, 1899, no. 160. While in 1848 there were 2446
+and in 1854, 4439 converts, in 1860-1880 there were from 350 to 450 per
+annum, in 1881, 572, in 1882, 610, and in 1883, 461 converts. With the
+spread of Zionism conversions continued to diminish, and, while there
+were relapses during the renewed pogroms of 1891 and 1901, they
+decreased materially, though the Jewish population is constantly on the
+increase.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Autobiography, pp. 42-51. See also Kahan, Meahore
+ha-Pargud, pp. 15-17.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Ha-Meliz, 1900, no. 123; Luah Ahiasaf, 5696, p. 312;
+Zablotzky and Massel, Ha-Yizhari, Manchester, 1895, Introduction;
+Ha-Meliz, xxxvii, no. 36; The Menorah, April, 1904.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Yalkut Ma'arabi, 1904, pp. 46 f.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Ha-Shahar, x. 511, 30; Habazelet, 1882, no. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Ha-Le'om, 1906, nos. 21-22; Belkind, in Ha-Zefirah, no.
+46, 1913; Lubarsky and Lewin-Epstein, Derek Hayyim, New York, 1905.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Greenstone, The Messiah Idea in Jewish History, ch. viii.]
+
+[Footnote 12: The Progress of Zionism, pp. 3-4; cf. Voskhod, 1895, iv.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Zamenhof's new universal language was primarily intended
+to be the international language of his people, "who are speechless, and
+therefore without hope, scattered over the world, and hence unable to
+understand one another, obliged to take their culture from strange and
+hostile sources."]
+
+[Footnote 14: Ahiasaf, iv.; Gordon, op. cit., i. xxi; Razsvyet, 1882,
+i.; Magil's Kobez (Collection), no. 3, p. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Ha-Meliz, 1899, no. 256; 1901, no. 2; weekly Voskhod,
+1893, no. 40; monthly Voskhod, 1894, iv. Some Jewish financiers erected
+gymnasia in Vilna and Warsaw, improved the condition of the hadarim, and
+turned many Talmud Torahs into technical schools. Of the Lodz Talmud
+Torah a writer says that "no Jewish community, even outside of Russia,
+possesses such an institution, not excepting the Hirsch schools in
+Galicia."]
+
+[Footnote 16: London, Unter juedischen Proletariern, 1898, pp. 81-83;
+Bramson, K Istorii, etc., pp. 63-69, 71-74; Ha-Meliz, xli., no. 246
+(1901, no, 35); Ha-Zefirah, xxix., no. 285; and the Jewish Gazette, July
+16, 1909 (Kunst und Nationalismus). The Ha-Zamir (a choral society),
+founded in Lodz by Nissan Schapira, counts its members by the
+thousands.]
+
+[Footnote 17: London, op. cit, pp. 64-74; Ha-Meliz, 1900, nos. 192-193;
+Rubinow, op. cit., pp. 530-532, 548-553, 561-566.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Ha-Meliz, 1901, nos. 20, 27, 36, 54, 95.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Atlas, Mah Lefanim u-mah Leaher, pp. 53 f.; Ha-Meliz,
+1900, no. 47; 1901, no. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Ha-Meliz, 1901, no. 87.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Reflexions sur l'etat des israelites russes, Odessa, 1871,
+pp. 121-122.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Kayserling, Die juedischen Frauen, Leipsic, 1879, pp.
+306-313; Rubinow, op. cit., p. 581. The Russian Jewess has already
+produced several writers above the average (Einhorn, Mosessohn, Ben
+Yehudah, Sarah and Eva Schapira) in Hebrew, has given Russian literature
+at least one novelist of note (Rachel Khin), has furnished leaders in
+the movement for the emancipation of women (Maria Saker), and especially
+for the liberation of Russia (Finger, Helfman, Levinsohn, Novinsky,
+Rabinovich). According to Mr. Rabinow, the Russo-Jewish "women and girls
+use every available means" to obtain an education, and at least fifty
+per cent of them possess a knowledge of Russian in addition to their
+vernacular Yiddish.]
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
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+
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+Sbornik of the Ministry of Education, in., St. Petersburg.
+
+Schechter, Studies in Judaism, i., Philadelphia, 1896; ii., ibid., 1908.
+
+*Scholz, Die Juden in Russland, Berlin, 1900.
+
+*Seiberling, Gegen Brafmann's Buch des Kahals, Vienna, 1881.
+
+Shatzkes, Ha-Mafteah, Warsaw, 1866-1869.
+
+*Shereshevsky, O Knigie Kahala, St. Petersburg, 1872.
+
+Silber, Elijah Gaon, New York, 1906.
+
+Slouschz, La renaissance de la litterature hebraique, Paris, 1903. Heb.,
+Warsaw, 1906; Engl. transl., Philadelphia, 1909.
+
+*Smolenskin, Ha-Toeh be-Darke ha-Hayyim, Vienna, 1876, 4 vols.
+
+Smolenskin, Keburat Hamor, ibid., 1874.
+
+Sokolov, Sinat 'Olam le-'Am 'Olam, Warsaw, 1882.
+
+*Steinschneider, 'Ir Vilna, Vilna, 1900.
+
+Sternberg, Die Proselyten in Polen im xvi und xvii Jahrhundert, AZJ,
+1863, pp. 67-68; L'univers Israelite, 1863, pp. 272-273.
+
+
+*Tarnopol, Reflexions sur l'etat des israelites russes, Odessa, 1871.
+
+Troki, Hizzuk Emunah, Leipsic, 1857.
+
+
+*Urussov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor, Engl. transl., New York, 1908.
+
+
+Weiss, Zikronotai, Warsaw, 1895.
+
+Weissberg, Aufklaerungsliteratur, Vienna, 1898.
+
+Weissberg, Le-Toledot ha-Sifrut ha-'Ibrit ha-Hadashah be-Polin
+we-Russyah, Mi-Mizrah u-mi-Ma'arab, Berlin, 1895.
+
+*Wengeroff, Memoiren einer Grossmutter, i., Berlin, 1908.
+
+Wessely, Dibre Shalom we-Emet, Berlin, 1782.
+
+Wiener, The History of Yiddish Literature, New York, 1899.
+
+*Wolf, Maimoniana, Berlin, 1813.
+
+Wolkonsky, Pictures of Russian Life and Literature, Boston, 1897.
+
+
+Yevrey Minister, Voskhod, 1885, v.
+
+Yevreyskaya Enziklopedya, St. Petersburg, 14 vols.
+
+
+Zablotzky and Massel, Ha-Yizhari, Manchester, 1895.
+
+*Zederbaum, 'Ayin Zofiyah, Warsaw, 1877.
+
+Zederbaum, Keter Kehunnah, Odessa, 1868.
+
+Zederbaum, Kohelet, St. Petersburg, 1881.
+
+*Zunser, Biography, Yiddish (and Engl. transl.), New York, 1905.
+
+*Zunz, Aelteste Nachrichten ueber Juden und juedische Gelehrte in Polen,
+Slavonien, Russland. Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin, 1875, iii. 82-87.
+
+Zweifel, Sanegor, Warsaw, 1894.
+
+*Zweifel, Shalom 'al Yisrael, Zhitomir, 1868-1872, 4 vols.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Abele, Abraham, Talmudist, 164, 199.
+
+_Abi'ezer_, by Guenzburg, 220.
+
+Abraham, son of Elijah Gaon, 119.
+
+Abramovich, Andrey, statesman, 22.
+
+Abramovitsch, Solomon Jacob, novelist, 203.
+
+Adelsohn, Wolf, "the Hebrew Diogenes," 200.
+
+Aguilar, Grace, on Russo-Jewish misery, 154.
+
+Ahiasaf Society, 296-297.
+
+Aleksey (Abraham), proselyte-priest, 25.
+
+Alexander I, during his period of tolerance, 111-113;
+  during his period of intolerance, 127-138, 140, 144, 163, 170, 192, 201,
+  249, 251, 253.
+
+Alexander II, referred to, 11, 79, 261;
+  reign of reforms, 222-226;
+  favorable attitude towards Jews, 224-225, 229-231;
+  the Narodniki, 236;
+  change of policy, 248-255;
+  plotted against and assassinated, 255-258.
+
+Alexander III, referred to, 80, 255;
+  restrictions, 268-270;
+  pogroms, 269;
+  "May Laws," 270-273;
+  Jews excluded from schools by, 273-275.
+
+Alexander Jagellon and the Jews, 21.
+
+Allgemeine juedische Arbeiterbund, Der, in Littauen, Polen, und Russland,
+293.
+
+Alliance Israelite Universelle, programme of, 236;
+  criticism of, 285-286.
+
+Altaras, Jacques Isaac, philanthropist, 157.
+
+America. See United States, the.
+
+'Am 'Olam Society, 283.
+
+Amsterdam, referred to, 22;
+  a place of refuge for Russo-Polish proselytes, 27;
+  elects Russo-Jewish rabbis, 33-34;
+  place of study, 81, 93, 109, 126, 165.
+
+Antokolsky, Mark, sculptor, 241.
+
+Anton, Carl, author, 64.
+
+Apostol, Cossack hetman, 57.
+
+Apotheker, Abraham Ashkenazi, author, 40.
+
+Arbeiterstimme, Die, 293.
+
+Aristotle, 50, 216, 297.
+
+_Ascension of Elijah_, 134.
+
+Ashkenazi, Meir, envoy of the Khan of the Tatars, 23.
+
+Ashkenazi, Meir, rabbinical author, quoted, 31, 33.
+
+Ashkenazi, Solomon, statesman, 23.
+
+Assemblies, Jewish, under Alexander I, 117, 128;
+  under Nicholas I, 151, 173, 174-176;
+  in Vilna, 165;
+  under Alexander II, 230;
+  at Kattowitz, 285.
+
+Auerbach, Berthold, on Maimon, 88.
+
+Austria, Haskalah in, 12, 188;
+  influence on Russian Maskilim, 195;
+  place of study for Russian Jews, 285, 298.
+  See also Galicia.
+
+_Auto-Emancipation_, 281-283.
+
+_'Ayit Zabua'_, 244-245.
+
+
+Baku, antiquity of, 20.
+
+Barit, Jacob ("Yankele Kovner"), scholar, 200, 255, 259.
+
+Bathory, Stephen, 59, 253.
+
+Beer, Michel, champion of Jewish rights, 114.
+
+Behalot, 63, 161.
+
+Behr, Issachar Falkensohn, poet, 90-91, 108.
+
+Belkind, Israel, Zionist, 286.
+
+Belzyc, Jacob Nahman, author, 36.
+
+Bene Mosheh Society, 286.
+
+Bennett, Solomon, of Polotzk, engraver, champion of Jewish rights in
+England, 95-96.
+
+Bentwich, on Jewish colonists in Palestine, 289.
+
+Ben Yehudah, Eliezer, Hebraist, 284-285.
+
+Beobachter, Der, an der Weichsel, 124, 196.
+
+Berdichev, 123, 175, 200, 206, 239.
+
+Berek, Joselovich, colonel, 115.
+
+Berlin, 37, 78, 80, 81, 84, 85, 90, 91, 93, 120, 126, 132, 192, 245,
+251, 257, 291, 298.
+
+Berlin, Moses, uchony Yevrey, 230.
+
+Berlin, Naphtali Zebi Judah, dean of Yeshibah, 152, 254, 288.
+
+Bernfeld, on Maimon, 86.
+
+Besht, Israel Baal Shem [Tob], referred to, 65, 122, 123;
+  his life, 66-69;
+  opposition to rabbinism, 67, 70, 71, 75;
+  his influence, 76;
+  his biography, 134.
+
+Bet ha-Midrash, description of the, 50-51.
+
+Bet ha-Sefer, in Jaffa, 290-291.
+
+_Bet Yehudah_, by Levinsohn, 209-210.
+
+Bezalel, school of art, 291.
+
+Bibikov, on Russian Jews, 162.
+
+Bible, the, ancient Russo-Jewish commentaries on, 28;
+  customs of (according to Elijah Vilna), 74;
+  the _Biur_ on, 81, 82;
+  Mendelssohn's translation, 105, 131, 193, 203
+  translated into Russian, 239, 252.
+
+Bibleitsy (Dukhovnoye Bibleyskoye Bratstvo), 247-248.
+
+Bielski, on Jewish proselytes, 27.
+
+Bilu Society, 286.
+
+_Biur_, commentary, collaborators on, 81;
+  welcomed, 82;
+  banned, 132;
+  studied, 193;
+  referred to, 265.
+
+Blood-accusation, 59, 115, 145, 155, 208, 213, 229, 253, 275-276.
+
+Bogdanovich, Judah, merchant, 22.
+
+Bokhara, 127, 271.
+
+Bolingbroke, quoted, 215.
+
+Bompi, Issachar, bibliophile, 166-167, 200.
+
+Bone Zion Society, 286-287.
+
+Book of Common Prayer, old translation of, 30;
+  suggested changes in, 175;
+  new Russian translation, 239, 252.
+
+Brafmann, Jacob, delator, 254.
+
+Bratzlav, 53-54.
+
+Brest-Litovsk, Jewish community in, 20;
+  granted privileges, 21;
+  Talmudists of, 34;
+  persecution of Hasidim in, 76;
+  Haskalah in, 105, 166, 200.
+
+Brody, 195.
+
+Buchner's _Der Talmud in seiner Nichtigkeit_, 146.
+
+Buckle, on Russian civilization, 190;
+  referred to, 245.
+
+Buduchnost, 286.
+
+Byelostok, 113, 199, 201, 294.
+
+
+Calvinism, in Poland, 56.
+
+Cantonists, 138-139, 142, 171, 225.
+
+Carlyle, quoted, 88, 109.
+
+Caro, Joseph Hayyim, rabbi, 200.
+
+Casal, Jonas, physician, 39.
+
+Casimir IV, Jews under, 26, 253.
+
+Catherine II, favors the Jews, 110-111, 112, 147, 249.
+
+Chamisso, on "the Glusker Maggid," 132, 302.
+
+Chaucer on "beggar students," 48.
+
+Chazanowicz, Joseph, Zionist, 291.
+
+Chernichevsky's _What to Do_, 257.
+
+Chernigov, Isaac of, Talmudist, 29.
+
+Chernyshev,  Governor-General, proclaims religious liberty, 110.
+
+Chiarini, Abbe Luigi, anti-Talmudist, 145, 146.
+
+Chmielnicki, Cossack hetman, 48, 52, 53, 54, 58, 64, 77, 149.
+
+Chozi Kokos, statesman, 23, 55.
+
+Chufut-Kale (Rock of the Jews), 19.
+
+Clement VIII, pope, 72.
+
+Clement XIV, pope, 253.
+
+Clermont-Tonnerre, on Zalkind Hurwitz, 93.
+
+Coen, Moses, court physician and statesman, 40-41.
+
+Cohen, Shalom, litterateur, 99.
+
+Cohn, Tobias, physician, 41-42;
+  on Polish Jews, 64;
+  referred to, 101, 298.
+
+Coins, with Hebrew inscriptions, 21.
+
+Colonists, under Nicholas I, 140-144, 160;
+  under Alexander II, 228;
+  in America, 283;
+  in Palestine, 283, 286-289.
+
+Commendoni, on Lithuanian Jews, 24.
+
+Converts to Christianity, 25, 26, 64, 130, 136, 139, 146, 168, 177-178,
+248, 254, 260, 270-273, 278-279, 303.
+
+Cossacks, Jews as, 23-24.
+
+Costume, Jewish, origin of, 115;
+  opposition of Maskilim to, 166, 175;
+  Friedlaender opposes, 170;
+  enforced change of, by Government, 179;
+  in Courland, 194.
+
+Council of the Four Countries, 44, 208.
+
+Courland, Jews admitted into, 111;
+  annexed to Russia, 113;
+  taxes in, 129;
+  colonists from, 140;
+  stronghold of Haskalah, 193-194.
+
+Cracow, 27, 78.
+
+Cremieux, Adolphe, statesman, 154, 175.
+
+Crimea, the, 19, 23.
+
+Crusades, the, 18, 52.
+
+Cyril, apostle to Slavonians, 28.
+
+Czacki, Tadeusz, Polish historian, defends Jews, 114;
+  praises them, 115.
+
+Czartorisky, Prince, and the Polish Jews, 94, 116.
+
+Czatzskes, Baruch, translator, 124.
+
+
+Dainov, Zebi Hirsh, "the Slutsker Maggid," 246.
+
+Damascus Affair, the, 155, 208.
+
+Danzig's _Hayye Adam_, 147.
+
+Darshan, Moses Isaac, "the Khelmer Maggid," 280.
+
+_Dead Souls_, by Gogol, 257.
+
+Delacrut, philosopher, 37.
+
+Delitzsch, on Dubno, 81;
+  on Hebrew poetry, 98;
+  on Satanov, 99.
+
+Delmedigo, Joseph, physician, 24.
+
+_Derek Selulah_, by Temkin, 146.
+
+Diakov, on Russian Jews, 162, 318 (n. 1).
+
+Dillon, Eliezer, financier, 118, 125.
+
+Dob Baer, biographer of Besht, 123.
+
+Dolitzky, Menahem Mendel, poet, 98, 243.
+
+_Dos Polische Yingel_, by Linetzky, 242, 244.
+
+Dostrzegacz Nadvisyansky, 196.
+
+Dubno, 65, 200.
+
+Dubno, Solomon, grammarian, 81-82, 98, 105.
+
+Dubnow, Simon, historian, 17.
+
+Dyerzhavin's _Mnyenie_, 118.
+
+
+Edels, Samuel (Maharsha), Talmudist, 72.
+
+_Efes Dammim_, by Levinsohn, 208, 213.
+
+Efrusi, Hayyim, communal worker, 165.
+
+Eger, Akiba, rabbi, 149.
+
+Eisenmenger's _Entdecktes Judenthum_, 146.
+
+Eishishki, antiquity of, 20.
+
+Eliasberg, Jonathan, rabbi, 288.
+
+Eliasberg, Mordecai, rabbi, 288.
+
+Elijah Gaon, 70-76;
+  his curriculum of study, 73, 74;
+  his appreciation of science and influence on Haskalah, 74, 75;
+  reputed to be the author of _Sefer ha-Berit_, 102;
+  his disciples, 119-121, 126, 150;
+  his biography, _Ascension of Elijah_, 134;
+  referred to, 164, 197, 201, 212, 220.
+
+Eliot, George, on Maimon's Autobiography, 88;
+  referred to, 297.
+
+Elizabeta Petrovna, 57, 135, 195.
+
+Emden, Jacob, Talmudist, 78, 91, 94, 197.
+
+England, Russian Jews in, 29, 93-96, 109;
+  sympathy of, 154-157, 270.
+
+_Entdecktes Judenthum_, by Eisenmenger, 146.
+
+Erter, Isaac, satirist, 205, 217.
+
+Esterka, Polish Jewish queen (?), 22.
+
+Euclid, in Hebrew, 105.
+
+Exportation Law of 1843, 152-154, 179.
+
+Eybeschuetz, Jonathan, Talmudist, 64, 78.
+
+
+Falk, Hayyim Samuel Jacob, Baal Shem, 93-94.
+
+_Fathers and Sons_, by Turgenief, 257.
+
+Finkel, Elijah, educator, 164.
+
+Folk Songs, 137-138, 141, 161, 232, 316 (n. 36), 320 (n. 19).
+  See also Lullabies.
+
+France, Russian Jews in, 29, 92-93, 96, 109, 298, 300-301.
+
+Franco-Russian war, 116-117, 204.
+
+Frank, physician, 91, 127.
+
+Frank, Jacob (Yankev Leibovich), founder of the Frankists, 64-65, 66,
+69, 104, 131.
+
+"Freitisch," 47, 151.
+
+Friedlaender, David, scholar and philanthropist, referred to, 105, 237;
+  on the improvement of Jews in Poland, 169-170.
+
+Frug, Simon, poet, 290, 297.
+
+Fuenn, Joseph, historian, 106, 203.
+
+
+Gaden, Stephen von, court physician and statesman, 40.
+
+Galicia, Haskalah in, 12, 321 (n. 25);
+  Hasidism in, 69;
+  referred to, 163, 195, 205, 291.
+  See also Austria.
+
+Germany, Haskalah in, 12;
+  emigration from, 30;
+  Russo-Polish rabbis in, 33-34;
+  Russo-Jewish Maskilim in, 77-91, 104, 106;
+  Hebrew poetry of, 97-98;
+  object of Maskilim in, 99-100, 107;
+  Haskalah encouraged by the Government, 102;
+  by Jewish financiers, 237;
+  opposition to Haskalah in, 105-106, 131-133, 188;
+  state of Judaism in, 168-169;
+  reason for speedy Germanization of Jews in, 191;
+  Jewish science in, 219;
+  influence of, on Russian Maskilim, 192-198;
+  a place of refuge, 252;
+  restrictions against refugees in, 298-299, 301.
+
+Gibbon, Edward, referred to, 24.
+
+Ginzberg, Asher (Ahad Ha-'Am), and Haskalah, 13.
+
+Glueckel von Hameln's _Memoirs_, 33.
+
+"Glusker Maggid, the," 132, 302.
+
+Goethe on Maimon, 89:
+  on Behr, 90;
+  referred to, 189, 192.
+
+Gogol's Jewish traitor, 224;
+  influence of his _Dead Souls_, 257.
+
+Gordin, Jacob, ethical culturist, 247.
+
+Gordon, David, litterateur, 284.
+
+Gordon, J.L., and Haskalah, referred to, 13, 252, 261;
+  poetry of, 98;
+  and Levinsohn, 212;
+  on the new era, 232;
+  attacks the Talmud, 243;
+  laments the effect of Haskalah, 260;
+  on Zionism, 290.
+
+Gordon, Jekuthiel, scientist, 92.
+
+Gottlober, Abraham Baer, on Hasidism, 69;
+  on Luria, 168;
+  and Levinsohn, 212;
+  on Russification, 231;
+  defends Mendelssohn, 265.
+
+Graetz, on Maimon, 83;
+  on Slavonic Jews, 103.
+
+Granovsky, on Jewish emancipation, 228.
+
+Grazhdanin, 253, 302.
+
+Gregory X, pope, 253.
+
+Grodno, Jewish community in, 20;
+  a Talmudic centre, 32, 34;
+  scene of martyrdom, 57;
+  persecution of Hasidim in, 76;
+  Talmud published in, 148-149;
+  Maskilim, 201.
+
+Guizolfi, Zacharias de, statesman, 23, 55, 306 (n. 12).
+
+Guenzberg, Benjamin Wolf, student, 91.
+
+Guenzburg, Horace, financier, 237.
+
+Guenzburg, Joseph Yosel, financier, 237.
+
+Guenzburg, Mordecai Aaron, 13, 204, 225;
+  his life, 213-221;
+  on Minhagim, 215;
+  his impress on Hebrew literature, 217-219;
+  his _Abi'ezer_, 220.
+
+Gurovich, Marcus, educator, 228.
+
+
+HaBad, reform sect of Hasidim, 122.
+
+Ha-Boker Or, 265.
+
+Ha-Emet, 256.
+
+Haggadah shel Pesah, Russian translation of, 239.
+
+Haidamacks, 59, 269.
+
+Hakohen, Ephraim, rabbi, 34.
+
+Hakohen, Joseph, rabbi, 19, 195.
+
+Hakohen, Raphael, rabbi, 78.
+
+Ha-Maggid, 284.
+
+Ha-Meliz, 242, 286, 288.
+
+Hannover, Nathan, his _Safah Berurah_, 39;
+  his _Yeven Mezulah_, quotation from, 48-49.
+
+Harkavy, Abraham, Orientalist, 17, 29, 203.
+
+Ha-Shahar, 242, 261-262, 265, 267.
+
+Hasidim, 65;
+  their teachings, 66, 67, 150;
+  spread, 69;
+  persecuted by the Mitnaggedim, 76, 131;
+  efforts at reconciliation with Mitnaggedim, 120-121, 260;
+  reformed, 122;
+  united with Mitnaggedim against Haskalah, 134;
+  fought by Maskilim, 168.
+
+Haskalah, definitions of, 12-13;
+  writers on, 14;
+  regarded differently in Germany and Russia, 103-108, 131;
+  opposition to, 132-150, 185-188;
+  in the "forties," 164-197;
+  influence of Germany on, 191-199;
+  in Galicia, 205;
+  Levinsohn's advice on, 212;
+  Guenzburg's opinion of, 216;
+  spreads under Alexander II, 230-248;
+  disappointments of, 232-234;
+  and Reform Judaism, 242-248;
+  cosmopolitan, 255-257;
+  romantic and pessimistic, 278-281;
+  Zionistic, 283-291.
+
+_Ha-Toeh be-Darke ha-Hayyim_, 266, 267.
+
+_Hattot Ne'urim_, 232-234.
+
+_Hayye Adam_, by Danzig, 147.
+
+Ha-Zefirah, 286.
+
+Hebrew literature: style, 96, 97, 217-218;
+  poetry, 98;
+  Reform Judaism in, 242-248;
+  necessity of (Smolenskin), 264.
+
+Heder, 46, 184.
+
+Hegel, 86, 192.
+
+Heilprin, Joseph, financier, 175.
+
+Heine, referred to, 297;
+  on Polish Jews, 314 (n. 43).
+
+Helena, Princess, proselyte, 26.
+
+Heller, Yom-Tob Lipman, rabbi, 37.
+
+Herz, Marcus, disciple of Kant, 85.
+
+Herzl, Theodore, Zionist, 263, 281, 283.
+
+Hillul Society, 286.
+
+Hirsch, Baron de, 277.
+
+_Hizzuk Emunah_, Voltaire's opinion on, 37.
+
+Hobebe Zion, 285, 286.
+
+Horn, Meir, educator, 164.
+
+Horowitz, Isaiah, Cabbalist, 33.
+
+Horowitz, Phinehas, rabbi, 78.
+
+Horowitz, Shabbatai, rabbi, 34.
+
+Horowitz, Shmelke, rabbi, 78.
+
+Horwitz, Aaron Halevi, rabbi, 78.
+
+Hurwitz, Hirsh, educator, 164.
+
+Hurwitz, Hyman, professor, 95.
+
+Hurwitz, Judah Halevi, translator, 92, 105, 121, 123, 125, 134.
+
+[Hurwitz], Phinehas Elijah, encyclopedist, 101-103, 214.
+
+Hurwitz, Zalkind, champion of Jewish rights in France, 92-93.
+
+Huss, influence of, in Poland, 26.
+
+_Hut ha-Meshullash_, by Kohn, 244.
+
+
+Ibn Ezra, Abraham, commentaries on his works, 30, 106.
+
+Ignatiev, Nicholas, 268.
+
+'Illuyim, 47.
+
+Ilye, Manasseh of, Talmudist, 120-121, 125, 132, 134.
+
+_Information about the Killing of Christians_, etc., by Skripitzyii,
+229.
+
+Innocent IV, pope, 253.
+
+Inventions, 201-202.
+
+Israelit, Asher, Maggid, 280.
+
+Israelita, Polish weekly, 247.
+
+Isserles, Moses, rabbi, 50, 78.
+
+Italy, a place of attraction for Russian Jews, 37, 40, 91-92, 126, 165.
+
+Ivan the Terrible, 55-56, 152.
+
+
+Jacob Isaac, court physician, 39.
+
+Jaffe, Daniel, scholar, 90.
+
+Jaffe, Mordecai (Lebushim), Talmudist, 37, 61, 105.
+
+Jastrow, Marcus, rabbi, 159, 246.
+
+Jekuthiel, Solomon, financier, 204.
+
+_Jerusalem_, by Mendelssohn, 209.
+
+Jerusalem, pilgrimage to, 65.
+
+Jesuits, in Poland, 54, 58.
+
+Joffe, Mordecai, rabbi, 288.
+
+Joseph ben Isaac Levi, philosopher, 38.
+
+Josephovich, Abraham, statesman, 21-22.
+
+Josephovich, Michael, nobleman, 21-22.
+
+Judah Halevi, poet and philosopher, 28, 98, 106, 284.
+
+Judah Hasid, mystic, founder of the original Hasidim, 65.
+
+Judaizing heresy. See Proselytism.
+
+_Judex Judaeorum_, 44.
+
+Juedischer Arbeiter, Der, 293.
+
+
+_Kab ha-Yashar_, referred to, 63.
+
+Kadimah Society, 285.
+
+Kahal, 44;
+  oppression by, 61;
+  denunciation of, 254.
+
+Kalisz, antiquity of, 20.
+
+Kamenetz-Podolsk, antiquity of, 41.
+
+Kant, favorite with Maskilim, 79, 192;
+  on Maimon, 85, 88, 89;
+  referred to, 189.
+
+Kant, the Hebrew, 106.
+
+Kaplan, Wolf, educator, 225.
+
+Karaites, discussions with Rabbanites, 36;
+  with Christians, 37;
+  Nicholas I on, 136.
+
+Katkoff, defends Jews under Alexander II, 225;
+  becomes a reactionary under Alexander III, 269.
+
+Kattowitz, conference of, 285.
+
+Katz, Meir, Talmudist, 61.
+
+Katzenellenbogen, Hayyim, Talmudist, 40.
+
+Katzenellenbogen, Moses, 40.
+
+Kaufman, Governor-General, convokes conference, 255.
+
+Kertch, Archbishop of, tries to convert Jews, 25.
+
+Kharkov, 286.
+
+Khazars, 18, 20, 25.
+
+Khelm, antiquity of, 20.
+
+Khelm, Ephraim of, liturgist, 35.
+
+Kherson, 28, 142, 144, 160, 292.
+
+Kiev, early settlement of Jews in, 19-20;
+  their influence, 23;
+  proselytism in, 25;
+  Talmudists of, 29, 31;
+  University of, 126;
+  expulsions from, 153;
+  referred to, 200, 226, 227, 275.
+
+Kishinev, 154, 164, 185, 248, 276.
+
+Kissilyef, on emigration, 158.
+
+Klaczke, G., educator, 166.
+
+_Kniga Kahala_, 254-255.
+
+Kobrin, Joseph of, liturgist, 35.
+
+Kohen, Naphtali, rabbi, 34.
+
+Kohen, Shabbatai, rabbi and historian, 35-36.
+
+Kohn's _Hut ha-Meshullash_, 244.
+
+Kol Mebasser, 242.
+
+Koenigsberg, 33, 79, 90, 120, 126, 132.
+
+_Kontrabandisti_, by Levin, 303.
+
+Koerner, on Maimon, 89.
+
+Korobka, 129.
+
+Korolenko's _Skazanye O Florye Rimlyaninye_, 302.
+
+Kovno, Government of, 20;
+  city of, 21;
+  Talmudists of, 34;
+  Maskilim in, 201, 246;
+  Mussarnikes in, 280;
+  referred to, 288, 294.
+
+Kramsztyk, Isaac, rabbi, 247.
+
+Krochmal, Nahman, philosopher, 205.
+
+Kruedener, Baroness, 127, 129, 251.
+
+Kruzhevan, 276.
+
+Kryloff, 175, 189.
+
+Kuritzin, Theodore, proselyte, 26.
+
+Kusselyevsky, physician, 127.
+
+
+Ladi, Shneor Zalman of, 116, 122-123.
+
+Landau, Ezekiel, rabbi, 78, 133.
+
+Landau, Moses, educator, 164.
+
+Lassalle, 257, 293, 297.
+
+Lebensohn, Abraham Dob Bar, poet, 98, 212, 244.
+
+Leczeka, Abba, "the Glusker Maggid," 132, 302.
+
+Leibnitz, 79, 88.
+
+Leibov, Baruch, martyr, 57.
+
+Lemberg, court of, 44;
+  fair at, 49.
+
+Leo, the court physician, 23, 39, 55.
+
+Lermontoff's spy, 224.
+
+Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole, on Maimon, 130;
+  on university restrictions, 276-277;
+  referred to, 303.
+
+Lessing, Ephraim, on Israel Zamoscz, 77;
+  on Behr, 90;
+  referred to, 192.
+
+Letteris, Meir Halevi, poet, 205.
+
+Letzte Nachrichten, 293.
+
+Levanda, Lyev, novelist, 203, 279.
+
+Levin, Judah, merchant, 204.
+
+Levin, Mendel, Hebrew and Yiddish author, 99-101, 116, 119, 195, 217.
+
+Levin's _Kontrabandisti_, 303.
+
+Levinsohn, I.B., and Haskalah, 13;
+  on the settlement of Jews in Russia, 18;
+  on the effect of Chmielnicki's massacres, 52;
+  his life, 204-213;
+  _Te'udah be-Yisrael_, 205-207, 209, 210, 221;
+  _Efes Dammim_, 208, 213;
+  _Bet Yehudah_, 209-210;
+  _Zerubbabel_, 210-211, 213;
+  referred to, 219-220.
+
+Liboschuets, Jacob, physician and philanthropist, 91.
+
+Liboschuets, Osip Yakovlevich, court physician, 126.
+
+Lichtenstadt, Moses, communal worker, 165.
+
+Lieberman, Aaron ("Arthur Freeman"), socialist, 256.
+
+Lieven, Prince Emanuel, 209.
+
+Lilien, Ephraim Moses, artist, 291.
+
+Lilienblum, Moses Loeb, skeptic, 232-234;
+  attacks the Talmud, 242;
+  repentant, 279;
+  Zionist, 289-290.
+
+Lilienthal, Max, referred to, 14, 117, 151, 164, 183, 277;
+  opens school in Riga, 165, 170;
+  his personality, 171-172;
+  his _Maggid Yeshu'ah_ and his efforts in behalf of Russian Jews, 174-176;
+  his disillusionment, 177-180;
+  his opinion on Russia, 179;
+  how regarded by Maskilim, 172-173, 180-181;
+  on the Jews of Courland, 194;
+  on the Jews of Odessa, 196;
+  his supporters, 198-199, 200;
+  Guenzburg on, 216.
+
+Linetzky's _Dos Polische Yingel_, 242, 244.
+
+"Lishmah" ideal, 107.
+
+Lithuania, Magna Charta of, 21;
+  Jewish merchants of, 22;
+  description by Cardinal Commendoni and by Delmedigo, 24;
+  Talmudic centre, 31-35;
+  status of Jews of, under Ivan the Terrible, 55;
+  after the massacres, 60;
+  opposition to Hasidism in, 65, 69;
+  method of study in, 71-72;
+  inclination to Haskalah in, 105-109;
+  annexed to Russia, 113;
+  Russified, 124-125;
+  colonization in, 143-144, 159;
+  Talmud published in, 148-149;
+  referred to, 195.
+
+Litvack, Judah, deputy, 93.
+
+Livonia, Jewish merchants of, 22;
+  Gentiles remonstrate on behalf of Jews of, 57;
+  stronghold of Haskalah, 193-194.
+
+Loewe, Louis, Orientalist, quoted, 155, 199.
+
+London, 94, 126, 129.
+
+Louis XIV, and the Treaty of Ryswick, 22.
+
+Lover of Enlightenment societies, 165.
+
+Lublin, 31, 34, 40;
+  fair at, 49;
+  Haskalah in, 105.
+
+Lublin, Meir (Maharam), Talmudist, 72.
+
+Lukas, "the little Jew," 25.
+
+Lullabies, Russo-Jewish, quoted, 46, 309 (n. 39).
+  See also Folk Songs.
+
+Luria, David, philanthropist, 166, 168, 203.
+
+Luria, Solomon, Talmudist, 40;
+  censures the liberality of Isserles, 50;
+  opposes the kahal, 61;
+  his method of study, 72.
+
+Luther's doctrines in Poland, 26.
+
+Luzzatto, Moses Hayyim, poet, 92.
+
+Lyons, Israel, grammarian, 95.
+
+
+_Ma'aseh Tobiah_, 42.
+
+Macaulay, on Russian civilization, 310 (n. 6).
+
+McCaul's _Old Paths_, 146, 211.
+
+_Maggid Yeshu'ah_, by Lilienthal, 174-176.
+
+Maimon, Solomon, 81-89;
+  quoted, 31, 60, 106;
+  Autobiography, 83, 88;
+  his philosophy, 84-87;
+  his contributions to the Meassef, 98;
+  referred to, 108, 130, 132, 192, 298.
+
+Maimuni, commentators on his _Moreh Nebukim_, 38, 84, 89;
+  retranslated by Levin, 100;
+  his _Mishneh Torah_, translated, 186, 200;
+  his Hebrew style, 97.
+
+Malak, Abraham, Hasid, 122.
+
+Malak, Hayyim, Hasid, 65.
+
+Manasseh ben Israel, 32;
+  his _Nishmat Hayyim_, 63;
+  his activity, 96.
+
+Mandelkern, Solomon, rabbi, 203, 246.
+
+Mandelstamm, Benjamin, on Lilienthal, 173;
+  quoted, 186;
+  on Vilna, 198;
+  and Levinsohn, 212.
+
+Mandelstamm, Leon, graduate from University of St. Petersburg, 186, 200,
+252.
+
+Mane, Mordecai Zebi, poet, 98.
+
+Mann, Eliezer, "the Hebrew Socrates," 38.
+
+Mann, Menahem, martyr, 27.
+
+Manoah, Handel, mathematician, 38.
+
+Mapu, Abraham, novelist, 244-245.
+
+Margolioth, Judah Loeb, rabbi, 105, 125.
+
+Markusevich, Isaac, physician, 127.
+
+Marx, Karl, his teachings promulgated, 256;
+  his name assumed, 257.
+
+Masliansky, Zebi Hirsh, Maggid, 280.
+
+May laws, 270-275.
+
+Meassef, contributors to, 98-100;
+  condemned, 132;
+  referred to, 265.
+
+_Megillah 'Afah_, 36.
+
+Meisels, Berish, rabbi, 246.
+
+Melammedim, in Germany, 35, 78, 80;
+  in Russia, 47, 294.
+
+_Memorbuch_ of Mayence, 29.
+
+Mendelssohn, Meyer, communal worker, 140.
+
+Mendelssohn, Moses (Rambman, "Dessauer"), appealed to by Mitnaggedim, 75;
+  his contact with Russiam Jews, 76-78;
+  his friends and followers, 81-90, 135;
+  his philosophy, 88;
+  referred to, 92;
+  presumed to be author of _Sefer ha-Berit_, 102;
+  his translation of the Pentateuch, 78, 81, 105, 132, 133, 203;
+  post-Mendelssohnian period in Germany, 168;
+  in Russia, 192, 193;
+  his _Jerusalem_, 209;
+  his _Phaedon_, 214;
+  Alexander I's ideal Jew, 128;
+  the "Russian Mendelssohn," 213;
+  Smolenskin and Gottlober on, 265.
+
+Mendlin, Jacob Wolf, socialist, 293.
+
+Meseritz, Baer of, promoter of Hasidism, 65.
+
+_Midrash Talpiyot_, 63.
+
+Mielziner, Leo, on Zionist artists, 291.
+
+Mikhailovich, Czar Aleksey, 40.
+
+Milman, on Maimon's Autobiography, 88.
+
+Minhagim, according to Elijah Vilna, 73-74;
+  according to M.A. Guenzburg, 215.
+
+Minor, Solomon Zalkind, "the Russian Jellinek," 235, 236.
+
+Minsk, 21;
+  Talmudists of, 34,
+  persecution of Hasidim in, 76;
+  schools in, 166-167, 292;
+  reception of Lilienthal in, 172, 173;
+  Maskilim of, 200, 201-235, 246;
+  referred to, 292, 293.
+
+Mirabeau's reference to Hurwitz, 92.
+
+Mitau, 123, 216.
+
+Mitauer, Elias, communal worker, 140.
+
+Mitnaggedim, opposition to Hasidism, 70, 131;
+  efforts of, at reconciliation with Hasidim, 120-121;
+  make common cause with Hasidim against Maskilim, 134, 260.
+
+_Mnyenie_, by Dyerzhavin, 118.
+
+Mohilev, 31, 104, 119, 128, 202.
+
+Moldavia, 40-41.
+
+Molo, Francisco, economist, 22.
+
+Montefiore, Sir Moses, visits Russia, 155-157;
+  invited to Russia, 175;
+  entertained, 200;
+  visit of 1872 to Russia, 230;
+  on the pogroms, 270;
+  on Russo-Jewish women, 299.
+
+Morgulis, Manasseh, litterateur, 14, 187-188.
+
+Morschtyn, George, proselyte (?), 26.
+
+_Mosaide_, by Wessely, 98.
+
+Moscow, proselytism in, 25, 26;
+  expulsions from, 56, 153, 271;
+  Jews admitted to, 111;
+  converts in, 177;
+  Russification in, 240;
+  restrictions in the University of, 274, 276;
+  referred to, 291.
+
+Moses, martyr, 57.
+
+Mussarnikes, 280.
+
+Muzhiks, emancipation of, 222-223;
+  education of, 236-237;
+  restlessness of, 249-250;
+  socialism among, 257.
+
+Mylich, George Gottfried, Lutheran champion of Jewish rights, 113-114.
+
+
+Nachlass, Wolf, Cantonist, 139.
+
+Napoleon, convokes the Sanhedrin, 93;
+  his invasion of Russia, 112, 113;
+  his defeat, 115-117, 128;
+  on Vilna, 197.
+
+Narodnaya Volya Society, 257, 278.
+
+Narodniki, 236-237.
+
+Nazimov, Governor-General, champion of Jews, 201, 225.
+
+Nebakhovich, Alexander, theatrical director, 201.
+
+Nebakhovich, Leon (Loeb), first defender of Russian Jews in Russian, 114,
+    125, 130;
+  dramatist, 189.
+
+Nebakhovich, Michael, editor of comic paper, 201.
+
+Nemirov, 59.
+
+Nemirov, Jehiel Michael of, scholar, 35.
+
+Nestor's Chronicles, 20.
+
+Nicholas I, referred to, 104, 202, 222, 229, 246, 249, 253, 260, 268, 284;
+  his policy, 135-160;
+  his recruiting, 135-139;
+  his colonization scheme, 140-143;
+  attempts at conversion of Jews, 144-147, 188;
+  his Exportation Law, 152-154;
+  his accusations refuted, 162-164;
+  investigates number of learned Jews, 167, 168, 198;
+  outwitted, 184;
+  on Jews of Odessa, 196.
+
+Nicholas II, referred to, 80, 192;
+  persecution of Jews under, 275-277.
+
+Nieszvicz, 82, 114, 118, 127, 197.
+
+Nisanovich, Itshe, physician, 39.
+
+_Nishmat Hayyim_, by Manasseh ben Israel, 63.
+
+Noah, Mordecai Manuel, statesman, 284.
+
+Nomenclature, Russo-Jewish, 30.
+
+Notkin, Nathan, diplomat and philanthropist, 118, 125.
+
+Novgorod, 25, 139, 271.
+
+Novy Israil Society, 248.
+
+
+Odessa, schools in, 164, 185;
+  Lilienthal in, 176;
+  Jewish influences in, 194-197;
+  Talmud Torah of, 226;
+  Haskalah in, 233-235;
+  Russification of, 240, 246, 255;
+  assimilation in, 248;
+  pogromy in, 253;
+  referred to, 251, 292, 294, 295, 296;
+  Jewish women of, 299-300.
+
+'Olam Katan, 297.
+
+_Old Paths_, by McCaul, 146, 211.
+
+Ostrog, 44, 206.
+
+
+Pale, the Jewish, 188, 199, 271, 274.
+
+Palestine, rehabilitation of, 13;
+  settlers from, in Russia, 18, 27;
+  longing for, 153, 283;
+  Smolenskin on, 263-264.
+
+Parlovich, Arthur, physician, 126.
+
+Patapov, Governor-General, convokes a conference, 259.
+
+Paul I, 62, 111, 112.
+
+Paul III, pope, 253.
+
+Pechersky, St. Feodosi, 25.
+
+Peretz, Abraham, diplomat, 118, 125, 130.
+
+Peretz, Gregori, Dekabrist, 192, 249, 284.
+
+Perl, Joseph, educator, 163, 164, 205.
+
+Perl, S., educator, 166.
+
+Persia, immigrants from, 19.
+
+Peter the Great, conquers the Tatars, 54;
+  his attempts to civilize Russia, 56;
+  surrender of Riga to, 123.
+
+_Phaedon_, by Mendelssohn, 214.
+
+Philippson, Ludwig, rabbi, 154, 158, 175.
+
+Phillips, Phinehas, founder of the Anglo-Jewish family, 94.
+
+Pinczows, the, scholars, 104-105.
+
+Pinner, Ephraim Moses, Talmudist, 145.
+
+Pinsk, 76, 197, 202, 242.
+
+Pinsker, Leo, nationalist, 263, 281-283.
+
+Pinsker, Simhah, scholar, 108-109, 164, 195.
+
+Pirogov, Nikolai Ivanovich, liberal school superintendent, 226-228.
+
+Plehve, von, on restrictions, 302.
+
+Plungian, Ezekiel Feiyel, Talmudist, 119, 203.
+
+Pobyedonostsev, influences Alexander II, 250-251;
+  procurator of the Holy Synod, 269;
+  his policy regarding Jews, 270;
+  on Jewish superiority, 273.
+
+Podolia, 60, 64, 69, 162, 195, 277.
+
+Pogodin, on early Russian Jews, 19.
+
+Pogromy, 253, 269-270.
+
+Poimaniki, 136-138, 152, 162, 184.
+
+Poimshchiki, 137.
+
+Polack, Jacob, Talmudist, 72, 104.
+
+Poland, early settlement of Jews in, 20;
+  political eminence of, 22-23;
+  proselytism in, 26;
+  after Chmielnicki's massacres, 53-55;
+  influence of Calvinism in, 56-57;
+  during the rozbior, 58;
+  after the annexation, 113;
+  Jewish loyalty to, 115-116;
+  under Nicholas I, 158-159;
+  use of Polish in, 196;
+  sympathy with, and adoption of language of, 246-247.
+
+Polonnoy, Jacob Joseph of, follower of Besht, 65;
+  his _Toledot Ya'akob Yosef_ burnt in Vilna, 76;
+  mentioned, 122, 132.
+
+Polotsk, 55, 95.
+
+Poltava, 200, 239, 300.
+
+Popes, 72, 253.
+
+Posner, Solomon, philanthropist, 143-144.
+
+Pototzki, Count Valentine, proselyte, 27.
+
+Prayer book. See Book of Common Prayer.
+
+Prelooker, Jacob, 241-242, 248.
+
+Printing-press, permission to establish, 110;
+  first publications from,  124;
+  restrictions removed from use of, 230.
+
+Prochovnik, Abraham, Jewish king of Poland (?), 22.
+
+Proselytism, 18, 20, 24-28.
+
+Public schools, admission of Jews to, 111, 118, 125;
+  exclusion of Jews from, 273-275.
+
+Pumpyansky, Aaron Elijah, rabbi, 203, 246.
+
+Pushkin's prisoner, 224.
+
+
+Querido, Jacob, mystic, 64.
+
+
+Rabbinical seminaries, 144-145, 165, 170, 173, 182, 196, 202-203.
+
+Rabbis, position of, in Russo-Poland, 44-45;
+  required to know Russian, German, or Polish, 125;
+  opposed by Maskilim, 173;
+  Lilienthal on, 174, 181;
+  Guenzburg on, 216-217;
+  dukhovny and kazyony, 295-296.
+
+Rabinovich, Osip, litterateur, 201, 238, 243.
+
+Rabinowitz, Joseph, assimilationist, 248.
+
+Rachmailovich, Affras, merchant, 22.
+
+Radziwill, Prince, 24, 39, 62.
+
+Rapoport, Solomon Loeb, rabbi, 205.
+
+Rasiner, Israel, zaddik, 211.
+
+Raskolniki, 248.
+
+Rathaus, Abraham, merchant, 200.
+
+Razsvyet, 238, 243-244, 286.
+
+Reform Judaism, and the Haskalah, 242-248;
+  sermons in Russian, 246;
+  Smolenskin on, 264-265.
+
+Reform synagogues, in Odessa, 196;
+  in Warsaw, 197;
+  in Vilna, 198.
+
+Reines, Isaac Jacob, rabbi, 295.
+
+Reis, Joseph, grandfather of Wessely, 77.
+
+Revolutionaries, 192, 248-251, 255-258.
+
+Riesser, Gabriel, champion of Jewish emancipation, 78.
+
+Riga, 123, 164, 170, 180, 185, 195, 197, 225, 246, 271.
+
+Risenci, Jonathan of, rabbi, 104.
+
+Rivkes, Moses, commentator, 34.
+
+Romm, Menahem Mann, publisher, 148-149.
+
+Rosensohn, Joseph, rabbi, 127.
+
+Rosensohn, Moses, reformer, 247.
+
+Rosenthal, Leon, financier, 200, 237-238.
+
+Rothschild, Baron Edmund de, 288.
+
+Rurik, Varangian prince, 19.
+
+Russia, Haskalah in, contrasted with Haskalah in Galicia and Germany, 12;
+  arrival of German Jews in, 18;
+  antiquity of Jews in, 19;
+  privileges of Jews in, 21;
+  Jewish envoys to, 22;
+  mentioned by medieval scholars, 28-29;
+  Sefardim and Ashkenazim resort to, 33-34;
+  scientists in, 37-39;
+  physicians in, 39-42;
+  status of Jews of, before Chmielnicki's uprising, 42-45;
+  Jewish self-government, school system, and mode of living in, 45-52;
+  under Ivan the Terrible, 55-56;
+  under Peter the Great, 56;
+  under Elizabeta Petrovna, 57;
+  state of civilization of, 60, 107;
+  favorable conditions in, under Catherine II, Paul I, and Alexander I,
+    110-128;
+  Jewish patriotism toward, under Alexander I, 117;
+  Russification of Jews of, 124-125;
+  opposition to Haskalah in, 133 f.;
+  Jewish colonization in, 140-144;
+  crusade against the Talmud in, 145-147;
+  opinions of prominent Gentiles on Jews of, 162, 224-225;
+  literature and civilization of, under Nicholas I, 189-190;
+  under Alexander II, 222-226;
+  Jewish contribution to civilization of, 201-202, 255;
+  sermons in, 246;
+  defenders of Jews in, 302-303;
+  Macaulay on civilization of, 310 (n. 6).
+
+
+Sack, Hayyim, financier, 200.
+
+Sackheim, Joseph, merchant, 200.
+
+_Safah Berurah_, by Hannover, 39.
+
+St. Petersburg, Imperial Hermitage in, 19;
+  scene of martyrdom, 57;
+  referred to, 91, 104, 267, 276, 286, 300;
+  Jews permitted in, 111, 117, 126;
+  expelled from, 128, 153, 271;
+  deputation to, 129;
+  rabbinical conferences, 151, 173, 174-176, 230;
+  converts in, 177;
+  first graduate of University of, 200;
+  restriction of students in, 274;
+  Russification in, 240;
+  revolutionaries at, 258.
+
+Salanter, Israel, rabbi, 241.
+
+Samuel ben Avigdor, rabbi, 79.
+
+Samuel ben Mattathias, Talmudist, 40.
+
+Sanchez, Antonio Ribeiro, physician, 57.
+
+Sanhedrin, the, and French Russian Jews, 93.
+
+Satanov, Isaac Halevi, litterateur, 99, 217.
+
+Schapira, Moses, publisher, 148.
+
+Schapiro, Constantin, poet, 98.
+
+Schechter, Solomon, on Hasidism, 69.
+
+Schick, Baruch (Shklover), scientist, 94, 96, 105-106, 119, 125.
+
+Schiller, on Maimon, 89;
+  referred to, 192.
+
+Schools, secular, 163-165, 182-185, 195-196, 227-228, 229, 235, 239,
+  253, 273-274, 276-277, 290-292, 297.
+
+_Sefer ha-Berit_, 102.
+
+Seiberling, Joseph, censor of Hebrew books, 200.
+
+Shabbatai Zebi, pseudo-Messiah, 64, 69.
+
+Shalkovich, Abraham Lob (Ben Avigdor), 296.
+
+Shatzkes' _Ha-Mafteah_, 244.
+
+Shavli, Moses of, writer of polemics, 36.
+
+_Shibhe ha-Besht_, 123, 134.
+
+Shklov, 105, 124.
+
+Shkud, Mikel of, rabbi, 61.
+
+Shneersohn, Menahem Mendel, zaddik, 175, 176.
+
+Shmoilovich, Abraham, merchant, 22.
+
+_Shulhan 'Aruk_, commentators on, 34, 36;
+  its effect on Jewish life, 73;
+  Elijah Vilna on, 74;
+  criticism of, 123;
+  annotations to, 127;
+  referred to, 215.
+
+Siberia, 140-143, 160.
+
+_Sin'at 'Olam le-'Am 'Olam_, 280-281.
+
+Sixtus V, pope, 72.
+
+_Skazanye O Florye Rimlyaninye_, by Korolenko, 302.
+
+Skripitzyn's _Information about the Killing of Christians_, etc., 229.
+
+Slonim, Samson of, rabbi, 106.
+
+Slonimsky, Hayyim Selig, inventor and editor, 199, 200, 201-202, 203.
+
+Slutsk, 76, 105, 202.
+
+"Slutsker Maggid, the," 246.
+
+Smolensk, 21, 162.
+
+Smolenskin, Perez, and Haskalah, 13;
+  his descriptions of the heder and yeshibah, 50, 266;
+  his life, 261-267;
+  his conception  of Haskalah, 261;
+  on nationalism, 262-263, 284;
+  on reformers, 264-265;
+  attacks Mendelssohn, 265;
+  on the prophetic consciousness of the Jewish masses, 266-267;
+  his popularity, 267;
+  organizes the Kadimah, 285;
+  opposes the Alliance Israelite Universelle, 285.
+
+Sobieski, John, 39.
+
+Society for the Promotion of Haskalah among the Russian Jews, 237-239,
+246, 252, 291-292.
+
+Sofer, Moses, rabbi, 133.
+
+Sofer, Shabbatai, rabbi, 36.
+
+Sokolov, Nahum, publicist, 280.
+
+Sosima, monkish proselyte, 26.
+
+Spector, Isaac Elhanan, rabbi, 288.
+
+Speir, Bima, of Mohilev, opponent of Frank, 104.
+
+Spinoza and Maimon compared, 86, 88.
+
+Stern, Abraham Jacob, inventor, 201.
+
+Stern, Bezalel (Basilius), pedagogue, 164, 165, 175, 176.
+
+Strashun, Mattathias, Talmudist, 203.
+
+Surovyetsky, on Russian Jews, 162, 318 (n. 1).
+
+Switzerland, 257, 298, 299, 300.
+
+
+_Talmud, Der, in seiner Nichtigkeit_, by Buchner, 146.
+
+Talmud, the, the study of, 31, 71-72;
+  burnt in public, 70;
+  customs of, according to Elijah Gaon, 74;
+  attacks on, 145-147, 170, 242-248;
+  published in Russia, 147-149;
+  neglected in Germany, 168.
+
+Talmud Torah, the, 47, 184.
+
+Talmudists, ancient Russo-Jewish, 28-30;
+  opposed by Hasidism, 66;
+  in Vilna, 197-198.
+
+Tarnopol, on Russo-Jewish women, 299-300.
+
+Taz, David, rabbi, 34.
+
+Temkin's _Derek Salulah_, 146.
+
+_Te'udah be-Yisrael_, by Levinsohn, 205-207, 209, 210, 212.
+
+_Toledot Ya'akob Yosef_, by Jacob Joseph Polonnoy, 65.
+
+Tolstoi, 245, 250, 302.
+
+Troki, city, 22.
+
+Troki, Abraham, author and physician, 39.
+
+Troki, Isaac ben Abraham, Karaite scholar, 36.
+
+Turgenief, on Russia, 224;
+  his Zhid, 224;
+  referred to, 245, 250;
+  on Alexander II, 251;
+  his _Virgin Soil_, and _Fathers and Sons_, 257;
+  his Lithuanian Jewish character, 259-260.
+
+Tushiyah Society, 296-297.
+
+
+Ukraine, the, Jewish community in, 20;
+  famous for scholars, 35-36;
+  Jewish self-government in, 44;
+  expulsions from, 56-57;
+  state of morality in, 64;
+  Hasidism in, 69, 122;
+  first school in, 164.
+
+Uman, 59, 164.
+
+United States, the, 158, 220, 270, 283.
+
+Uvarov, on persecution, 155, 302;
+  on "re-education," 171, 174, 175, 182.
+
+
+Vassile Lupu, hospodar of Moldavia, 40.
+
+Vassilyevich, Ivan, 23, 26.
+
+Vernacular, the, 18, 29, 30-31, 38, 188, 194, 255.
+
+Vilna, scene of martyrdom, 27;
+  Talmudists of, 34;
+  kahal of, 62;
+  persecution of Hasidim, 76;
+  the last rabbi of, 79;
+  notables of, 91, 92, 124, 150;
+  first graduates from University of, 126-127;
+  opposition to Haskalah in, 133;
+  first publication of the Talmud in, 148-149;
+  first assembly of Maskilim in, 165;
+  innovations in, 166;
+  reception of Lilienthal in, 172, 173;
+  rabbinical seminary at, 175, 186, 202;
+  yeshibot of, 197;
+  Haskalah in, 198, 200, 206, 246;
+  champions of Jews in, 225;
+  referred to, 230, 292, 295.
+
+_Virgin Soil_, by Turgenief, 257.
+
+Vital, Hayyim, Cabbalist, 103, 134.
+
+Vitebsk, 128, 202, 292.
+
+Vitebsk, Menahem Mendel of, zaddik, on Haskalah, 135.
+
+Vladimir, grand duke, 20.
+
+Volhynia, jurisdiction over, 44;
+  massacres in, 60;
+  Hasidism in, 69, 81, 104;
+  first complete edition of the Talmud published in, 148;
+  referred to, 162, 195;
+  blood accusations in, 208.
+
+Volozhin, Hayyim, dean, 135, 150-151, 175, 176.
+
+Volozhin, Isaac of, dean, 151.
+
+Volozhin, yeshibah of, 150-152, 245, 295.
+
+Vosnitzin, Captain, martyr, 27, 57.
+
+
+Wahl, Saul, Jewish Polish king (?), 22.
+
+Warsaw, Jewish community in, 20;
+  persecution in, 58;
+  protest at, 62;
+  defended by Jewish soldiers, 115;
+  first Yiddish paper in, 124;
+  rabbinic college of, 144-145, 170, 202;
+  censor in, 148;
+  condition of, 159;
+  German influence in, 196;
+  Maskilim of, 202, 206, 246;
+  referred to, 286.
+
+Way, Lewis, English missionary, 129-130, 144.
+
+Weigel, Katharina, proselyte, 27.
+
+Wengeroff's _Memoirs_, 163;
+  on Russo-Jewish women, 300.
+
+Wessely, Naphtali Hartwig, quoted, 38;
+  course of study prescribed by, 75;
+  his ancestry, 77;
+  his opinion on Russo-Jewish students, 80, 92, 108;
+  his _Mosaide_, 98;
+  his _Yen Lebanon_, 105;
+  his Epistles and _Yen Lebanon_ banned, 132, 133, 192.
+
+_What to Do_, by Chernichevsky, 257.
+
+White, on Jewish farmers, 288.
+
+Wissotzky, Kalonymos, philanthropist, 292.
+
+Wohl, censor of Hebrew books, 252, 294.
+
+Wolf, Levy, jurist, 126.
+
+Wolff's _Metaphysics_, 84-86;
+  _Mathematics_, 90, 108.
+
+Wolper, Michael, educator, 294.
+
+Women's education, 45-46, 253, 258, 259, 276, 296, 299-301.
+
+_Words of Peace and Truth_, by Wessely, 75.
+
+Workingmen, Russo-Jewish, 163, 293-294, 318 (n. 2).
+
+
+Yankele Kovner. See Barit, Jacob.
+
+Yaroslav, fair of, 49.
+
+Yaroslav, Aaron, friend of Mendelssohn, 81.
+
+Yavan, Baruch, diplomat, 104.
+
+Yelisavetgrad, 247, 269, 292.
+
+_Yen Lebanon_, by Wessely, 105, 132, 133, 192.
+
+Yeralash, 201.
+
+Yeshibat 'Ez Hayyim, 150-152, 175, 184, 254.
+
+Yeshibot, 32, 46-49, 168.
+
+_Yeven Mezulah_, by Hannover, 48-49.
+
+Yiddish, as spoken by Russian Jews, 38;
+  first used for secular instruction, 100-101, 124;
+  first weekly in, 123, 196;
+  studied for missionary purposes, 145;
+  employed by Maskilim, 167, 232;
+  by Zionists, 286.
+
+
+Zabludovsky, Jehiel Michael, Talmudist, 199.
+
+Zacharias, monkish proselyte, 26.
+
+Zacharias of Kiev, missionary, 25.
+
+Zaddikim, 66, 122, 220.
+
+Zamoscz, city, 90, 202.
+
+Zamoscz, Israel Moses Halevi, instructor of Mendelssohn, 77, 90, 195.
+
+Zamoscz, Reuben of, quoted, 80.
+
+Zamoscz, Solomon of, liturgical poet, 35.
+
+Zangwill, on Maimon, 88;
+  referred to, 297.
+
+Zaremba, proselyte, 27.
+
+Zaslav, fair of, 49;
+  blood accusation in, 208.
+
+Zaslaver, Jacob, Massorite, 36.
+
+Zbitkover, Samuel, financier, 116.
+
+Zederbaum, Alexander, publisher, 288.
+
+Zeitlin, Joshua, financier, 118-119.
+
+_Zeker Rab_, 124.
+
+Zelmele, Talmudist, 119-120.
+
+_Zerubbabel_, by Levinsohn, 210-212, 213.
+
+Zhagory, 200, 202.
+
+Zhitomir, rabbinical seminary at, 175, 186, 197, 202, 248;
+  printing-press in, 230;
+  trade school in, 235;
+  Evening and Sabbath schools in, 239.
+
+Zionism, 267, 284-287:
+  difficulties of, 287-288;
+  effect of, 289-291.
+
+_Zohar_, 63, 134.
+
+Zunser, Eliakum, badhan, on Alexander II, 231;
+  on Orthodoxy, 240-241;
+  on the "intelligentia," 278;
+  on Zionism, 290;
+  on the awakening, 324-327 (n. 27).
+
+
+
+The Lord Baltimore Press
+Baltimore, Md., U.S.A.
+
+
+
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