50 files changed, 14480 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/15889-8.txt b/15889-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e59063
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,4832 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 613,
+October 1, 1887, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 613, October 1, 1887
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 24, 2005 [EBook #15889]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 613
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, OCTOBER 1, 1887.
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIV., No. 613.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+   I. BIOGRAPHY.--Dr. Morell Mackenzie.--Biographical note and
+      portrait of the great English laryngologist--the physician
+      of the Prussian Crown Prince.--1 illustration.               9794
+
+  II. BOTANY.--Soudan Coffee.--The _Parkia biglobosa_.--Its
+      properties and appearance, with analyses of its beans.--8
+      illustrations.                                               9797
+
+      Wisconsin Cranberry Culture.--The great cranberry crop of
+      Wisconsin.--The Indian pickers and details of the
+      cultivation.                                                 9796
+
+ III. CHEMISTRY.--Analysis of Kola Nut.--A new article
+      adapted as a substitute for cocoa and chocolate to military
+      and other dietaries.--Its use by the French and German
+      governments.                                                 9785
+
+      Carbonic Acid in the Air.--By THOMAS C. VAN NUYS and
+      BENJAMIN F. ADAMS, Jr.--The results of eighteen analyses of
+      air by Van Nuys apparatus.                                   9785
+
+      The Crimson Line of Phosphorescent Alumina.--Note on Prof.
+      Crooke's recent investigation of the anomalies of the oxide
+      of aluminum as regards its spectrum.                         9784
+
+  IV. ELECTRICITY.--Electric Time.--By M. LITTMANN.--An
+      abstruse research into a natural electric standard of
+      time.--The results and necessary formulæ.                    9793
+
+      New Method of Maintaining the Vibration of a
+      Pendulum.--Ingenious magneto-electric method of maintaining
+      the swinging of a pendulum.                                  9794
+
+      The Part that Electricity Plays in Crystallization.--C.
+      Decharme's investigations into this much debated
+      question.--The results of his work described.--3
+      illustrations.                                               9793
+
+   V. ENGINEERING.--A New Type of Railway Car.--A car with
+      lateral passageways, adapted for use in Africa--2
+      illustrations.                                               9792
+
+      Centrifugal Pumps at Mare Island Navy Yard, California.--By
+      H.R. CORNELIUS.--The great pumps for the Mare Island dry
+      docks.--Their capacity and practical working.                9792
+
+      Foundations of the Central Viaduct of Cleveland,
+      O.--Details of the foundations of this viaduct, probably
+      the largest of its kind ever constructed.                    9792
+
+  VI. METALLURGY.--Chapin Wrought Iron.--By W.H. SEARLES.--An
+      interesting account of the combined pneumatic and
+      mechanical treatment of pig iron, giving as product a true
+      wrought iron.                                                9785
+
+ VII. METEOROLOGY.--On the Cause of Iridescence in
+      Clouds.--By G. JOHNSTONE STONEY.--An interesting theory of
+      the production of prismatic colors in clouds, referring it
+      to interference of light.                                    9798
+
+      The Height of Summer Clouds.--A compendious statement,
+      giving the most reliable estimation of the elevations of
+      different forms of clouds.                                   9797
+
+VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The British Association.--Portraits
+      of the president and section presidents of the late
+      Manchester meeting of the British Association for the
+      Advancement of Science, with report of the address of the
+      president, Sir Henry E. Roscoe.--9 illustrations.            9783
+
+  IX. PHYSIOLOGY.--Hypnotism in France.--A valuable review of
+      the present status of this subject, now so much studied in
+      Paris.                                                       9795
+
+      The Duodenum a Siphon Trap.--By MAYO COLLIER, M.S., etc.--A
+      curious observation in anatomy.--The only trap found in the
+      intestinal canal.--Its uses.--2 illustrations.               9796
+
+   X. TECHNOLOGY.--Apparatus for Testing Champagne Bottles and
+      Corks.--Ingenious apparatus due to Mr. J. Salleron, for use
+      especially in the champagne industry.--2 illustrations.      9786
+
+      Celluloid.--Notes of the history and present method of
+      manufacture of this widely used substance.                   9785
+
+      Centrifugal Extractors.--By ROBERT F. GIBSON.--The second
+      installment of this extensive and important paper, giving
+      many additional forms of centrifugal apparatus--12
+      illustrations.                                               9789
+
+      Cotton Industries of Japan.--An interesting account of the
+      primitive methods of treating cotton by the Japanese.--Their
+      methods of ginning, carding, etc., described.                9788
+
+      Gas from Oil.--Notes on a paper read by Dr. Stevenson
+      Macadam at a recent meeting of the British Gas Institute,
+      giving his results with petroleum gas.                       9787
+
+      Improved Biscuit Machine.--A machine having a capacity for
+      making 4,000 small biscuits per minute.--1 illustration.     9787
+
+      Improved Cream Separator.--A centrifugal apparatus for
+      dairy use of high capacity.--3 illustrations.                9787
+
+      The Manufacture of Salt near Middlesbrough.--By Sir
+      LOWTHIAN BELL, Bart., F.C.S.--The history and origin of
+      this industry, the methods used, and the soda ash process
+      as there applied.                                            9788
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT MANCHESTER PORTRAITS OF THE
+PRESIDENT AND PRESIDENTS OF SECTIONS ]
+
+The fifty-seventh annual meeting of the British Association was opened
+on Wednesday evening, Aug. 31, 1887, at Manchester, by an address from
+the president, Sir H.E. Roscoe, M.P. This was delivered in the Free
+Trade Hall. The chair was occupied by Professor Williamson, who was
+supported by the Bishop of Manchester, Sir F. Bramwell, Professor
+Gamgee, Professor Milnes Marshall, Professor Wilkins, Professor Boyd
+Dawkins, Professor Ward, and many other distinguished men. A telegram
+was read from the retiring president, Sir Wm. Dawson, of Montreal,
+congratulating the association and Manchester on this year's meeting.
+The new president, Sir H. Roscoe, having been introduced to the
+audience, was heartily applauded.
+
+The president, in his inaugural address, said Manchester, distinguished
+as the birthplace of two of the greatest discoveries of modern science,
+welcomed the visit of the British Association for the third time. Those
+discoveries were the atomic theory of which John Dalton was the author,
+and the most far-reaching scientific principle of modern times, namely,
+that of the conservation of energy, which was given to the world about
+the year 1842 by Dr. Joule. While the place suggested these reminders,
+the time, the year of the Queen's jubilee, excited a feeling of
+thankfulness that they had lived in an age which had witnessed an
+advance in our knowledge of nature and a consequent improvement in the
+physical, moral, and intellectual well-being of the people hitherto
+unknown.
+
+
+PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY.
+
+A sketch of that progress in the science of chemistry alone would be
+the subject of his address. The initial point was the views of Dalton
+and his contemporaries compared with the ideas which now prevail; and
+he (the president) examined this comparison by the light which the
+research of the last fifty years had thrown on the subject of the
+Daltonian atoms, in the three-fold aspect of their size,
+indivisibility, and mutual relationships, and their motions.
+
+
+SIZE OF THE ATOM.
+
+As to the size of the atom, Loschmidt, of Vienna, had come to the
+conclusion that the diameter of an atom of oxygen or nitrogen was the
+ten-millionth part of a centimeter. With the highest known magnifying
+power we could distinguish the forty-thousandth part of a centimeter.
+If, now, we imagine a cubic box each of whose sides had this length,
+such a box, when filled with air, would contain from sixty to a
+hundred millions of atoms of oxygen and nitrogen. As to the
+indivisibility of the atom, the space of fifty years had completely
+changed the face of the inquiry. Not only had the number of distinct,
+well-established elementary bodies increased from fifty-three in 1837
+to seventy in 1887, but the properties of these elements had been
+studied, and were now known with a degree of precision then undreamt
+of. Had the atoms of our present elements been made to yield? To this
+a negative answer must undoubtedly be given, for even the highest of
+terrestrial temperatures, that of the electric spark, had failed to
+shake any one of these atoms in two. This was shown by the results
+with which spectrum analysis had enriched our knowledge. Terrestrial
+analysis had failed to furnish favorable evidence; and, turning to the
+chemistry of the stars, the spectra of the white, which were
+presumably the hottest stars, furnished no direct evidence that a
+decomposition of any terrestrial atom had taken place; indeed, we
+learned that the hydrogen atom, as we know it here, can endure
+unscathed the inconceivably fierce temperature of stars presumably
+many times more fervent than our sun, as Sirius and Vega. It was
+therefore no matter for surprise if the earth-bound chemist should for
+the present continue to regard the elements as the unalterable
+foundation stones upon which his science is based.
+
+
+ATOMIC MOTION.
+
+Passing to the consideration of atoms in motion, while Dalton and
+Graham indicated that they were in a continual state of motion, we
+were indebted to Joule for the first accurate determination of the
+rate of that motion. Clerk-Maxwell had calculated that a hydrogen
+molecule, moving at the rate of seventy miles per minute, must, in one
+second of time, knock against others no fewer than eighteen thousand
+million times. This led to the reflection that in nature there is no
+such thing as great or small, and that the structure of the smallest
+particle, invisible even to our most searching vision, may be as
+complicated as that of any one of the heavenly bodies which circle
+round our sun. How did this wonderful atomic motion affect their
+chemistry?
+
+
+ATOMIC COMBINATION.
+
+Lavoisier left unexplained the dynamics of combustion; but in 1843,
+before the chemical section of the association meeting at Cork, Dr.
+Joule announced the discovery which was to revolutionize modern
+science, namely, the determination of the mechanical equivalent of
+heat. Every change in the arrangement of the particles he found was
+accompanied by a definite evolution or an absorption of heat. Heat was
+evolved by the clashing of the atoms, and this amount was fixed and
+definite. Thus to Joule we owe the foundation of chemical dynamics and
+the basis of thermal chemistry. It was upon a knowledge of the mode of
+arrangement of atoms, and on a recognition of their distinctive
+properties, that the superstructure of modern organic chemistry
+rested. We now assumed on good grounds that the atom of each element
+possessed distinct capabilities of combination. The knowledge of the
+mode in which the atoms in the molecule are arranged had given to
+organic chemistry an impetus which had overcome many experimental
+obstacles, and organic chemistry had now become synthetic.
+
+Liebig and Wohler, in 1837, foresaw the artificial production in the
+laboratories of all organic substances so far as they did not
+constitute a living organism. And after fifty years their prophecy had
+been fulfilled, for at the present time we could prepare an artificial
+sweetening principle, an artificial alkaloid, and salacine.
+
+
+SYNTHESIS.
+
+We know now that the same laws regulate the formation of chemical
+compounds in both animate and inanimate nature, and the chemist only
+asked for a knowledge of the constitution of any definite chemical
+compounds found in the organic world in order to be able to promise to
+prepare it artificially. Seventeen years elapsed between Wohler's
+discovery of the artificial production of urea and the next real
+synthesis, which was accomplished by Kolbe, when in 1845 he prepared
+acetic acid from its elements. Since then a splendid harvest of
+results had been gathered in by chemists of all nations. In 1834 Dumas
+made known the law of substitution, and showed that an exchange could
+take place between the constituent atoms in a molecule, and upon this
+law depended in great measure the astounding progress made in the wide
+field of organic synthesis.
+
+Perhaps the most remarkable result had been the production of an
+artificial sweetening agent, termed saccharin, 250 times sweeter than
+sugar, prepared by a complicated series of reactions from coal tar.
+These discoveries were not only of scientific interest, for they had
+given rise to the industry of coal tar colors, founded by our
+countryman Perkin, the value of which was measured by millions
+sterling annually. Another interesting application of synthetic
+chemistry to the needs of everyday life was the discovery of a series
+of valuable febrifuges, of which antipyrin might be named as the most
+useful.
+
+An important aspect in connection with the study of these bodies was
+the physiological value which had been found to attach to the
+introduction of certain organic radicals, so that an indication was
+given of the possibility of preparing a compound which will possess
+certain desired physiological properties, or even to foretell the kind
+of action which such bodies may exert on the animal economy. But now
+the question might well be put, Was any limit set to this synthetic
+power of the chemist? Although the danger of dogmatizing as to the
+progress of science had already been shown in too many instances, yet
+one could not help feeling that the barrier between the organized and
+unorganized worlds was one which the chemist at present saw no chance
+of breaking down. True, there were those who professed to foresee that
+the day would arrive when the chemist, by a succession of constructive
+efforts, might pass beyond albumen, and gather the elements of
+lifeless matter into a living structure. Whatever might be said
+regarding this from other standpoints, the chemist could only say that
+at present no such problem lay within his province.
+
+Protoplasm, with which the simplest manifestations of life are
+associated, was not a compound, but a structure built up of compounds.
+The chemist might successfully synthesize any of its component
+molecules, but he had no more reason to look forward to the synthetic
+production of the structure than to imagine that the synthesis of
+gallic acid led to the artificial production of gall nuts. Although
+there was thus no prospect of effecting a synthesis of organized
+material, yet the progress made in our knowledge of the chemistry of
+life during the last fifty years had been very great, so much so
+indeed that the sciences of physiological and of pathological
+chemistry might be said to have entirely arisen within that period.
+
+
+CHEMISTRY OF VITAL FUNCTIONS.
+
+He would now briefly trace a few of the more important steps which had
+marked the recent study of the relations between the vital phenomena
+and those of the inorganic world. No portion of the science of
+chemistry was of greater interest or greater complexity than that
+which, bearing on the vital functions both of plants and of animals,
+endeavored to unravel the tangled skein of the chemistry of life, and
+to explain the principles according to which our bodies live, and
+move, and have their being. If, therefore, in the less complicated
+problems with which other portions of our science have to deal, we
+found ourselves often far from possessing satisfactory solutions, we
+could not be surprised to learn that with regard to the chemistry of
+the living body--whether vegetable or animal--in health or disease, we
+were still farther from a complete knowledge of phenomena, even those
+of fundamental importance.
+
+Liebig asked if we could distinguish, on the one hand, between the
+kind of food which goes to create warmth and, on the other, that by
+the oxidation of which the motions and mechanical energy of the body
+are kept up. He thought he was able to do this, and he divided food
+into two categories. The starchy or carbo-hydrate food was that, said
+he, which by its combustion provided the warmth necessary for the
+existence and life of the body. The albuminous or nitrogenous
+constituents of our food, the flesh meat, the gluten, the casein out
+of which our muscles are built up, were not available for the purpose
+of creating warmth, but it was by the waste of those muscles that the
+mechanical energy, the activity, the motions of the animal are
+supplied.
+
+Soon after the promulgation of these views, J.R. Mayer warmly attacked
+them, throwing out the hypothesis that all muscular action is due to
+the combustion of food, and not to the destruction of muscle.
+
+What did modern research say to this question? Could it be brought to
+the crucial test of experiment? It could; but how? In the first place,
+we could ascertain the work done by a man or any other animal; we
+could measure this work in terms of our mechanical standard, in
+kilogramme-meters or foot-pounds. We could next determine what was the
+destruction of nitrogenous tissue at rest and under exercise by the
+amount of nitrogenous material thrown off by the body. And here we
+must remember that these tissues were never completely burned, so that
+free nitrogen was never eliminated. If now we knew the heat value of
+the burned muscle, it was easy to convert this into its mechanical
+equivalent and thus measure the energy generated. What was the result?
+
+Was the weight of muscle destroyed by ascending the Faulhorn or by
+working on the treadmill sufficient to produce on combustion heat
+enough when transformed into mechanical exercise to lift the body up
+to the summit of the Faulhorn or to do the work on the treadmill?
+
+Careful experiment had shown that this was so far from being the case
+that the actual energy developed was twice as great as that which
+could possibly be produced by the oxidation of the nitrogenous
+constituents eliminated from the body during twenty-four hours. That
+was to say, taking the amount of nitrogenous substance cast off from
+the body, not only while the work was being done, but during
+twenty-four hours, the mechanical effect capable of being produced by
+the muscular tissue from which this cast-off material was derived
+would only raise the body half way up the Faulhorn, or enable the
+prisoner to work half his time on the treadmill. Hence it was clear
+that Liebig's proposition was not true.
+
+The nitrogenous constituents of the food did doubtless go to repair
+the waste of muscle, which, like every other portion of the body,
+needed renewal, while the function of the non-nitrogenous food was not
+only to supply the animal heat, but also to furnish, by its oxidation,
+the muscular energy of the body. We thus came to the conclusion that
+it was the potential energy of the food which furnished the actual
+energy of the body, expressed in terms either of heat or of mechanical
+work.
+
+But there was one other factor which came into play in this question
+of mechanical energy, and must be taken into account; and this factor
+we were as yet unable to estimate in our usual terms. It concerned the
+action of the mind on the body, and although incapable of exact
+expression, exerted none the less an important influence on the
+physics and chemistry of the body, so that a connection undoubtedly
+existed between intellectual activity or mental work and bodily
+nutrition. What was the expenditure of mechanical energy which
+accompanied mental effort was a question which science was probably
+far from answering; but that the body experienced exhaustion as the
+result of mental activity was a well-recognized fact.
+
+
+CHEMISTRY OF VEGETATION.
+
+The phenomena of vegetation, no less than those of the animal world,
+had, however, during the last fifty years been placed by the chemist
+on an entirely new basis.
+
+Liebig, in 1860, asserted that the whole of the carbon of vegetation
+was obtained from the atmospheric carbonic acid, which, though only
+present in the small relative proportion of four parts in 10,000 of
+air, was contained in such absolutely large quantity that if all the
+vegetation on the earth's surface were burned, the proportion of
+carbonic acid which would thus be thrown into the air would not be
+sufficient to double the present amount. That this conclusion was
+correct needed experimental proof, but such proof could only be given
+by long-continued and laborious experiment.
+
+It was to our English agricultural chemists, Lawes and Gilbert, that
+we owed the complete experimental proof required, and this experiment
+was long and tedious, for it had taken forty-four years to give a
+definite reply.
+
+At Rothamsted a plot was set apart for the growth of wheat. For
+forty-four successive years that field had grown wheat without the
+addition of any carbonized manure, so that the only possible source
+from which the plant could obtain the carbon for its growth was the
+atmospheric carbonic acid. The quantity of carbon which on an average
+was removed in the form of wheat and straw from a plot manured only
+with mineral matter was 1,000 lb., while on another plot, for which a
+nitrogenous manure was employed, 1,500 lb. more carbon was annually
+removed, or 2,500 lb. of carbon were removed by this crop annually
+without the addition of any carbonaceous manure. So that Liebig's
+prevision had received a complete experimental verification.
+
+
+CHEMICAL PATHOLOGY.
+
+Touching us as human beings even still more closely than the foregoing
+was the influence which chemistry had exerted on the science of
+pathology, and in no direction had greater progress been made than in
+the study of micro-organisms in relation to health and disease. In the
+complicated chemical changes to which we gave the names of
+fermentation and putrefaction, Pasteur had established the fundamental
+principle that these processes were inseparately connected with the
+life of certain low forms of organisms. Thus was founded the science
+of bacteriology, which in Lister's hands had yielded such splendid
+results in the treatment of surgical cases, and in those of Klebs,
+Koch, and others, had been the means of detecting the cause of many
+diseases both in man and animals, the latest and not the least
+important of which was the remarkable series of successful researches
+by Pasteur into the nature and mode of cure of that most dreadful of
+maladies, hydrophobia. The value of his discovery was greater than
+could be estimated by its present utility, for it showed that it might
+be possible to avert other diseases besides hydrophobia by the
+adoption of a somewhat similar method of investigation and of
+treatment.
+
+Here it might seem as if we had outstepped the boundaries of
+chemistry, and had to do with phenomena purely vital. But recent
+research indicated that this was not the case, and pointed to the
+conclusion that the microscopist must again give way to the chemist,
+and that it was by chemical rather than biological investigation that
+the causes of diseases would be discovered, and the power of removing
+them obtained. For we learned that the symptoms of infective diseases
+were no more due to the microbes which constituted the infection than
+alcoholic intoxication was produced by the yeast cell, but that these
+symptoms were due to the presence of definite chemical compounds, the
+result of the life of these microscopic organisms. So it was to the
+action of these poisonous substances formed during the life of the
+organism, rather than to that of the organism itself, that the special
+characteristics of the disease were to be traced, for it had been
+shown that the disease could be communicated by such poisons in the
+entire absence of living organisms.
+
+Had time permitted, he would have wished to have illustrated the
+dependence of industrial success upon original investigation, and to
+have pointed out the prodigious strides which chemical industry in
+this country had made during the fifty years of her Majesty's reign.
+As it was, he must be content to remark how much our modern life, both
+in its artistic and useful aspects, owed to chemistry, and therefore
+how essential a knowledge of the principles of the science was to all
+who had the industrial progress of the country at heart. The country
+was now beginning to see that if she was to maintain her commercial
+and industrial supremacy, the education of her people from top to
+bottom must be carried out on new lines. The question how this could
+be most safely and surely accomplished was one of transcendent
+national importance, and the statesman who solved this educational
+problem would earn the gratitude of generations yet to come.
+
+In welcoming the unprecedentedly large number of foreign men of
+science who had on this occasion honored the British Association by
+their presence, he hoped that that meeting might be the commencement
+of an international scientific organization, the only means nowadays
+existing of establishing that fraternity among nations from which
+politics appeared to remove them further and further, by absorbing
+human powers and human work, and directing them to purposes of
+destruction. It would indeed be well if Great Britain, which had
+hitherto taken the lead in so many things that are great and good,
+should now direct her attention to the furthering of international
+organizations of a scientific nature. A more appropriate occasion than
+the present meeting could perhaps hardly be found for the inauguration
+of such a movement. But whether this hope were realized or not, they
+all united in that one great object, the search after truth for its
+own sake, and they all, therefore, might join in re-echoing the words
+of Lessing: "The worth of man lies not in the truth which he
+possesses, or believes that he possesses, but in the honest endeavor
+which he puts forth to secure that truth; for not by the possession of
+truth, but by the search after it, are the faculties of man enlarged,
+and in this alone consists his ever-growing perfection. Possession
+fosters content, indolence, and pride. If God should hold in his right
+hand all truth, and in his left hand the ever-active desire to seek
+truth, though with the condition of perpetual error, I would humbly
+ask for the contents of the left hand, saying, 'Father, give me this;
+pure truth is only for thee.'"
+
+At the close of his address a vote of thanks was passed to the
+president, on the motion of the Mayor of Manchester, seconded by
+Professor Asa Gray, of Harvard College. The president mentioned that
+the number of members is already larger than at any previous annual
+meeting, namely, 3,568, including eighty foreigners.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CRIMSON LINE OF PHOSPHORESCENT ALUMINA.
+
+
+Crookes has presented to the Royal Society a paper on the color
+emitted by pure alumina when submitted to the electric discharge _in
+vacuo_, in answer to the statements of De Boisbaudran. In 1879 he had
+stated that "next to the diamond, alumina, in the form of ruby, is
+perhaps the most strikingly phosphorescent stone I have examined. It
+glows with a rich, full red; and a remarkable feature is that it is of
+little consequence what degree of color the earth or stone possesses
+naturally, the color of the phosphorescence is nearly the same in all
+cases; chemically precipitated amorphous alumina, rubies of a pale
+reddish yellow, and gems of the prized 'pigeon's blood' color glowing
+alike in the vacuum." These results, as well as the spectra obtained,
+he stated further, corroborated Becquerel's observations. In
+consequence of the opposite results obtained by De Boisbaudran,
+Crookes has now re-examined this question with a view to clear up the
+mystery. On examining a specimen of alumina prepared from tolerably
+pure aluminum sulphate, shown by the ordinary tests to be free from
+chromium, the bright crimson line, to which the red phosphorescent
+light is due, was brightly visible in its spectrum. The aluminum
+sulphate was then, in separate portions, purified by various processes
+especially adapted to separate from it any chromium that might be
+present; the best of these being that given by Wohler, solution in
+excess of potassium hydrate and precipitation of the alumina by a
+current of chlorine. The alumina filtered off, ignited, and tested in
+a radiant matter tube gave as good a crimson line spectrum as did that
+from the original sulphate.
+
+A repetition of this purifying process gave no change in the result.
+Four possible explanations are offered of the phenomena observed: "(1)
+The crimson line is due to alumina, but it is capable of being
+suppressed by an accompanying earth which concentrates toward one end
+of the fractionations; (2) the crimson line is not due to alumina, but
+is due to the presence of an accompanying earth concentrating toward
+the other end of the fractionations; (3) the crimson line belongs to
+alumina, but its full development requires certain precautions to be
+observed in the time and intensity of ignition, degree of exhaustion,
+or its absolute freedom from alkaline and other bodies carried down by
+precipitated alumina and difficult to remove by washing; experience
+not having yet shown which of these precautions are essential to the
+full development of the crimson line and which are unessential; and
+(4) the earth alumina is a compound molecule, one of its constituent
+molecules giving the crimson line. According to this hypothesis,
+alumina would be analogous to yttria."--_Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CARBONIC ACID IN THE AIR.
+
+By THOMAS C. VAN NUYS and BENJAMIN F. ADAMS, JR.
+
+
+During the month of April, 1886, we made eighteen estimations of
+carbonic acid in the air, employing Van Nuys' apparatus,[1] recently
+described in this journal. These estimations were made in the
+University Park, one-half mile from the town of Bloomington. The park
+is hilly, thinly shaded, and higher than the surrounding country. The
+formation is sub-carboniferous and altitude 228 meters. There are no
+lowlands or swamps near. The estimations were made at 10 A.M.
+
+  [Footnote 1: See SCI. AM. SUPPLEMENT No. 577.]
+
+The air was obtained one-half meter from the ground and about 100
+meters from any of the university buildings. The number of volumes of
+carbonic acid is calculated at zero C. and normal pressure 760 mm.
+
+  --------+----------+--------------+------------------------
+          |          | Vols. CO_{2} |
+   Date.  |   Bar.   |  in 100,000  | State of Weather.
+          | Pressure |  Vols. Air.  |
+  --------+----------+--------------+------------------------
+  April 2 |  743.5   |    28.86     | Cloudy, snow on ground.
+    "   5 |  743.5   |    28.97     |    "     "   "    "
+    "   6 |  735     |    28.61     | Snowing.
+    "   7 |  744.5   |    28.63     | Clear, snow on ground.
+    "   8 |  748     |    27.59     |   "    thawing.
+    "   9 |  747.5   |    28.10     |   "       "
+    "  12 |  744     |    28.04     | Cloudy.
+    "  13 |  744     |    28.10     | Clear.
+    "  14 |  743.5   |    28.98     |   "
+    "  15 |  750.5   |    28.17     | Raining.
+    "  19 |  748     |    28.09     | Clear.
+    "  20 |  746     |    27.72     |   "
+    "  21 |  746     |    28.16     |   "
+    "  22 |  741.5   |    27.92     |   "
+    "  23 |  740     |    28.12     |   "
+    "  24 |  738.5   |    28.15     |   "
+    "  25 |  738.5   |    27.46     |   "
+    "  28 |  738     |    27.34     |   "
+  --------+----------+--------------+------------------------
+
+The average number of volumes of carbonic acid in 100,000 volumes of
+air is 28.16, the maximum number is 28.98, and the minimum 27.34.
+These results agree with estimations made within the last ten or
+fifteen years. Reiset[2] made a great number of estimations from
+September 9, 1872, to August 20, 1873, the average of which is 29.42.
+Six years later[3] he made many estimations from June to November, the
+average of which is 29.78. The average of Schultze's[4] estimations is
+29 2. The results of estimations of carbonic acid in the air, made
+under the supervision of Munz and Aubin[5] in October, November, and
+December, 1882, at the stations where observations were made of the
+transit of Venus by astronomers sent out by the French government,
+yield the average, for all stations north of the equator to latitude
+29° 54' in Florida, 28.2 volumes carbonic acid in 100,000 volumes air,
+and for all stations south of the equator 27.1 volumes. The average of
+Claesson's[6] estimations is 27.9 volumes, his maximum number is 32.7,
+and his minimum is 23.7. It is apparent, from the results of
+estimations of carbonic acid of the air of various parts of the globe,
+by the employment of apparatus with which errors are avoided, that the
+quantity of carbonic acid is subject to slight variation, and not, as
+stated in nearly all text books of science, from 4 to 6 volumes in
+10,000 volumes of air; and it is further apparent that the law of
+Schloesing[7] holds good. By this law the carbonic acid of an
+atmosphere in contact with water containing calcium or magnesium
+carbonate in solution is dissolved according to the tension of the
+carbonic acid; that is, by an increased quantity its tension
+increases, and more would pass in solution in the form of
+bicarbonates. On the other hand, by diminishing the quantity of
+carbonic acid in the atmosphere, some of the bicarbonates would
+decompose and carbonic acid pass into the atmosphere.
+
+  [Footnote 2: Comptes Rendus, 88, 1007.]
+  [Footnote 3: Comptes Rendus, 90, 1144.]
+  [Footnote 4: Chem. Centralblatt, 1872 and 1875.]
+  [Footnote 5: Comptes Rendus, 96, 1793.]
+  [Footnote 6: Berichte der deutsch chem. Gesellschaft, 9, 174.]
+  [Footnote 7: Comptes Rendus, 74, 1552, and 75, 70.]
+
+Schloesing's law has been verified by R. Engel[8].
+
+  [Footnote 8: Comptes Rendus, 101, 949.]
+
+The results of estimations of bases and carbonic acid in the water of
+the English Channel lead Schloesing[9] to conclude that the carbonic
+acid combined with normal carbonates, forming bicarbonates, dissolved
+in the water of the globe is ten times greater in quantity than that
+of the atmosphere, and on account of this available carbonic acid, if
+the atmosphere should be deprived of some of its carbonic acid, the
+loss would soon be supplied.
+
+  [Footnote 9: Comptes Rendus, 90, 1410.]
+
+As, in nearly all of the methods which were employed for estimating
+carbonic acid in the air, provision is not made for the exclusion of
+air not measured containing carbonic acid from the alkaline fluid
+before titrating or weighing, the results are generally too high and
+show a far greater variation than is found by more exact methods. For
+example, Gilm[10] found from 36 to 48 volumes; Levy's[11] average is
+34 volumes; De Luna's[12] 50 volumes; and Fodor's,[13] 38.9 volumes.
+Admitting that the quantity of carbonic acid in the air is subject to
+variation, yet the results of Reiset's and Schultze's estimations go
+to prove that the variation is within narrow limits.
+
+  [Footnote 10: Sitzungsher. d. Wien. Akad. d. Wissenschaften, 34, 257.]
+  [Footnote 11: Ann. d. l'Observ. d. Mountsouris, 1878 and 1879.]
+  [Footnote 12: Estudios quimicos sobre el aire atmosferico, Madrid, 1860.]
+  [Footnote 13: Hygien. Untersuch., 1, 10.]
+
+                  Indiana University Chemical Laboratory,
+                     Bloomington, Indiana.
+                        --_Amer. Chem. Journal._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF KOLA NUT.
+
+
+Alkaloids or crystallizable principles:
+
+                                                     Per Cent.
+    Caffeine.                                           2.710
+    Theobromine.                                        0.084
+    Bitter principle.                                   0.018
+        Total alkaloids.                                -----   2.812
+  Fatty matters:
+    Saponifiable fat or oil.                            0.734
+    Essential oil.                                      0.081
+        Total oils.                                     -----   0.815
+  Resinoid matter (_sol. in abs. alcohol_)              1.012
+
+  Sugar:
+    Glucose (_reduces alkaline cuprammonium_).          3.312
+    Sucrose? (_red. alk. cupram. after inversion_)[1].  0.602
+        Total sugars.                                   -----   3.914
+
+  Starch, gum, etc.:
+    Gum (_soluble in H2O at 90° F_.).                   4.876
+    Starch.                                            28.990
+    Amidinous matter (_coloring with iodine_).          2.130
+        Total gum and fecula.                           -----  35.999
+  Albuminoid matters.                                           8.642
+  Red and other coloring matters.                               3.670
+  Kolatannic acids.                                             1.204
+
+  Mineral matter:
+    Potassa.                                            1.415
+    Chlorine.                                           0.702
+    Phosphoric acid.                                    0.371
+    Other salts, etc.                                   2.330
+        Total ash.                                      -----   4.818
+  Moisture.                                                     9.722
+  Ligneous matter and loss.                                    27.395
+                                                              -------
+                                                              100.000
+
+  [Footnote 1: Inverted by boiling with a 2.5 per cent. solution of
+               citric acid for ten minutes.]
+
+Both the French and German governments are introducing it into their
+military dietaries, and in England several large contract orders
+cannot yet be filled, owing to insufficiency of supply, while a
+well-known cocoa manufacturing firm has taken up the preparation of
+kola chocolate upon a commercial scale.--_W. Lascelles-Scott, in Jour.
+Soc. Arts._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPIN WROUGHT IRON.
+
+By W.H. SEARLES, Chairman of the Committee, Civil Engineers' Club
+of Cleveland, O.
+
+
+Notwithstanding the wonderful development of our steel industries in
+the last decade, the improvements in the modes of manufacture, and the
+undoubted strength of the metal under certain circumstances,
+nevertheless we find that steel has not altogether met the
+requirements of engineers as a structural material. Although its
+breaking strain and elastic limit are higher than those of wrought
+iron, the latter metal is frequently preferred and selected for
+tensile members, even when steel is used under compression in the same
+structure. The Niagara cantilever bridge is a notable instance of this
+practice. When steel is used in tension its working strains are not
+allowed to be over fifty per cent. above those adopted for wrought
+iron.
+
+The reasons for the suspicion with which steel is regarded are well
+understood. Not only is there a lack of uniformity in the product, but
+apparently the same steel will manifest very different results under
+slight provocation. Steel is very sensitive, not only to slight
+changes in chemical composition, but also to mechanical treatment,
+such as straightening, bending, punching, planing, heating, etc.
+Initial strains may be developed by any of these processes that would
+seriously affect the efficiency of the metal in service.
+
+Among the steels, those that are softer are more serviceable and
+reliable than the harder ones, especially whereever shocks and
+concussions or rapidly alternating strains are to be endured. In other
+words, the more nearly steel resembles good wrought iron, the more
+certain it is to render lasting service when used within appropriate
+limits of strain. Indeed, a wrought iron of fine quality is better
+calculated to endure fatigue than any steel. This is particularly
+noticeable in steam hammer pistons, propeller shafts, and railroad
+axles. A better quality of wrought iron, therefore, has long been a
+desideratum, and it appears now that it has at last been found.
+
+Several years since, a pneumatic process of manufacturing wrought iron
+was invented and patented by Dr. Chapin, and an experimental plant was
+erected near Chicago. Enough was done to demonstrate, first, that an
+iron of unprecedentedly good qualities was attainable from common pig;
+and second, that the cost of its manufacture would not exceed that of
+Bessemer steel. Nevertheless, owing to lack of funds properly to push
+the invention against the jealous opposition which it encountered, the
+enterprise came to a halt until quite recently, when its merits found
+a champion in Gustav Lindenthal, C.E., member of this club, who is
+now the general manager of the Chapin Pneumatic Iron Co., and under
+whose direction this new quality of iron will soon be put upon the
+market.
+
+The process of manufacture is briefly as follows: The pig metal, after
+being melted in a cupola and tapped into a discharging ladle, is
+delivered into a Bessemer converter, in which the metal is largely
+relieved of its silicon, sulphur, carbon, etc., by the ordinary
+pneumatic process. At the end of the blow the converter is turned down
+and its contents discharged into a traveling ladle, and quickly
+delivered to machines called ballers, which are rotary reverberatory
+furnaces, each revolving on a horizontal axis. In the baller the iron
+is very soon made into a ball without manual aid. It is then lifted
+out by means of a suspended fork and carried to a Winslow squeezer,
+where the ball is reduced to a roll twelve inches in diameter. Thence
+it is taken to a furnace for a wash heat, and finally to the muck
+train.
+
+No reagents are employed, as in steel making or ordinary iron
+puddling. The high heat of the metal is sufficient to preserve its
+fluidity during its transit from the converter to the baller; and the
+cinder from the blow is kept in the ladle.
+
+The baller is a bulging cylinder having hollow trunnions through which
+the flame passes. The cylinder is lined with fire brick, and this in
+turn is covered with a suitable refractory iron ore, from eight to ten
+inches thick, grouted with pulverized iron ore, forming a bottom, as
+in the common puddling furnace. The phosphorus of the iron, which
+cannot be eliminated in the intense heat of the converter, is,
+however, reduced to a minimum in the baller at a much lower
+temperature and on the basic lining. The process wastes the lining
+very slightly indeed. As many as sixty heats have been taken off in
+succession without giving the lining any attention. The absence of any
+reagent leaves the iron simply pure and homogeneous to a degree never
+realized in muck bars made by the old puddling process. Thus the
+expense of a reheating and rerolling to refine the iron is obviated.
+It was such iron as here results that Bessemer, in his early
+experiments, was seeking to obtain when he was diverted from his
+purpose by his splendid discoveries in the art of making steel. So
+effective is the new process, that even from the poorest grades of pig
+may be obtained economically an iron equal in quality to the refined
+irons made from the best pig by the ordinary process of puddling.
+
+Numerous tests of the Chapin irons have been made by competent and
+disinterested parties, and the results published. The samples here
+noted were cut and piled only once from the muck bar.
+
+Sample A was made from No. 3 mill cinder pig.
+
+Sample B was made from No. 4 mill pig and No. 3 Bessemer pig, half and
+half.
+
+Sample C was made from No. 3 Bessemer pig, with the following results:
+
+            Sample.                 A         B         C
+  Tensile strength per sq. in.    56,000    60,772    64,377
+  Elastic limit.                  34,000      ....    36,000
+  Extension, per cent.              11.8      ....      17.0
+  Reduction of area, per cent.      65.0      16.0      33.0
+
+The tensile strength of these irons made by ordinary puddling would be
+about 38,000, 40,000, and 42,000 respectively, or the gain of the iron
+in tensile strength by the Chapin process is about fifty per cent. Not
+only so, but these irons made in this manner from inferior pig show a
+higher elastic limit and breaking strain than are commonly specified
+for refined iron of best quality. The usual specifications are for
+refined iron: Tensile strength, 50,000; elongation, 15 per cent.;
+elastic limit, 26,000; reduction, 25 cent.
+
+Thus the limits of the Chapin iron are from 12 to 20 per cent. above
+those of refined iron, and not far below those of structural steel,
+while there is a saving of some four dollars per ton in the price of
+the pig iron from which it can be made. When made from the best pig
+metal its breaking and elastic limits will probably reach 70,000 and
+40,000 pounds respectively. If so, it will be a safer material than
+steel under the same working strains, owing to its greater resilience.
+
+Such results are very interesting in both a mechanical and economical
+point of view. Engineers will hail with delight the accession to the
+list of available building materials of a wrought iron at once fine,
+fibrous, homogeneous, ductile, easily weldable, not subject to injury
+by the ordinary processes of shaping, punching, etc., and having a
+tensile strength and elastic limit nearly equal to any steel that
+could safely be used in the same situation.
+
+A plant for the manufacture of Chapin iron is now in course of
+erection at Bethlehem, Pa., and there is every reason to believe that
+the excellent results attained in Chicago will be more than reached in
+the new works.--_Proceed. Jour. Asso. of Eng. Societies_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CELLULOID.
+
+
+Professor Sadler, of the University of Pennsylvania, has lately given
+an account of the development and method of the manufacture of
+celluloid. Alexander Parkes, an Englishman, invented this remarkable
+substance in 1855, but after twelve years quit making it because of
+difficulties in manipulation, although he made a fine display at the
+Paris Exposition of 1867. Daniel Spill, also of England, began
+experiments two years after Parkes, but a patent of his for dissolving
+the nitrated wood fiber, or "pyroxyline," in alcohol and camphor was
+decided by Judge Blatchford in a suit brought against the Celluloid
+Manufacturing Company to be valueless. No further progress was made
+until the Hyatt Brothers, of Albany, N.Y., discovered that gum
+camphor, when finely divided, mixed with the nitrated fiber and then
+heated, is a perfect solvent, giving a homogeneous and plastic mass.
+American patents of 1870 and 1874 are substantially identical with
+those now in use in England. In France there is only one factory, and
+there is none elsewhere on the Continent, one in Hanover having been
+given up on account of the explosive nature of the stuff. In this
+country pure cellulose is commonly obtained from paper makers, in the
+form of tissue paper, in wide rolls; this, after being nitrated by a
+bath of mixed nitric and sulphuric acids, is thoroughly washed and
+partially dried. Camphor is then added, and the whole is ground
+together and thoroughly mixed. At this stage coloring matter may be
+put in. A little alcohol increases the plasticity of the mass, which
+is then treated for some time to powerful hydraulic pressure. Then
+comes breaking up the cakes and feeding the fragments between heated
+rolls, by which the amalgamation of the whole is completed. Its
+perfect plasticity allows it to be rolled into sheets, drawn into
+tubes, or moulded into any desired shape.--_Jewelers' Journal._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPARATUS FOR TESTING CHAMPAGNE BOTTLES AND CORKS.
+
+
+Mr. J. Salleron has devised several apparatus which are destined to
+render valuable service in the champagne industry. The apparently
+simple operation of confining the carbonic acid due to fermentation in
+a bottle in order to blow the cork from the latter with force at a
+given moment is not always successful, notwithstanding the skill and
+experience of the manipulator. How could it be otherwise?
+
+Everything connected with the production of champagne wine was but
+recently unknown and unexplained. The proportioning of the sugar
+accurately dates, as it were, from but yesterday, and the measurement
+of the absorbing power of wine for carbonic acid has but just entered
+into practice, thanks to Mr. Salleron's absorptiometer. The real
+strength of the bottles, and the laws of the elasticity of glass and
+its variation with the temperature, are but little known. Finally, the
+physical constitution of cork, its chemical composition, its
+resistance to compression and the dissolving action of the wine, must
+be taken into consideration. In fact, all the elements of the
+difficult problem of the manufacture of sparkling wine show that there
+is an urgent necessity of introducing scientific methods into this
+industry, as without them work can now no longer be done.
+
+No one has had a better opportunity to show how easy it is to convert
+the juice of the grape into sparkling wine through a series of simple
+operations whose details are known and accurately determined, so we
+believe it our duty to recommend those of our readers who are
+particularly interested in this subject to read Mr. Salleron's book on
+sparkling wine. We shall confine ourselves in this article to a
+description of two of the apparatus invented by the author for testing
+the resistance of bottles and cork stoppers.
+
+It is well, in the first place, to say that one of the important
+elements in the treatment of sparkling wine is the normal pressure
+that it is to produce in the bottles. After judicious deductions and
+numerous experiments, Mr. Salleron has adopted for the normal pressure
+of highly sparkling wines five atmospheres at the temperature of the
+cellar, which does not exceed 10 degrees. But, in a defective cellar,
+the bottles may be exposed to frost in winter and to a temperature of
+25° in summer, corresponding to a tension of ten atmospheres. It may
+naturally be asked whether bottles will withstand such an ordeal. Mr.
+Salleron has determined their resistance through the process by which
+we estimate that of building materials, viz., by measuring the limit
+of their elasticity, or, in other words, the pressure under which they
+take on a new permanent volume. In fact, glass must be assimilated to
+a perfectly elastic body; and bottles expand under the internal
+pressure that they support. If their resistance is insufficient, they
+continue to increase in measure as the pressure is further prolonged,
+and at every increase in permanent capacity, their resistance
+diminishes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--MACHINE FOR TESTING BOTTLES.]
+
+The apparatus shown in Fig. 1 is called an elasticimeter, and permits
+of a preliminary testing of bottles. The bottle to be tested is put
+into the receptacle, A B, which is kept full of water, and when it has
+become full, its neck is played between the jaws of the clamp, _p_.
+Upon turning the hand wheel, L, the bottle and the receptacle that
+holds it are lifted, and the mouth of the bottle presses against a
+rubber disk fixed under the support, C D. The pressure of the neck of
+the bottle against this disk is such that the closing is absolutely
+hermetical. The support, C D, contains an aperture which allows the
+interior of the bottle to communicate with a glass tube, _a b_, which
+thus forms a prolongation of the neck of the bottle. This tube is very
+narrow and is divided into fiftieths of a cubic centimeter. A
+microscope, _m_, fixed in front of the tube, magnifies the divisions,
+and allows the position of the level of the water to be ascertained to
+within about a millionth of a cubic centimeter.
+
+A force and suction pump, P, sucks in air through the tube, _t_, and
+compresses it through the tube, _t'_, in the copper tube, T, which
+communicates with the glass tube, _a b_, after passing through the
+pressure gauge, M. This pump, then, compresses the air in the bottle,
+and the gauge accurately measures its pressure.
+
+To make a test, after the bottle full of water has been fastened under
+the support, C D, the cock, _s_, is opened and the liquid with which
+the small reservoir, R, has been filled flows through an aperture above
+the mouth of the bottle and rises in the tube, _a b_. When its level
+reaches the division, O, the cock, _s_, is closed. The bottle and its
+prolongation, _a b_, are now exactly full of water without any air
+bubbles.
+
+The pump is actuated, and, in measure as the pressure rises, the level
+of the liquid in the tube, _a b_, is seen to descend. This descent
+measures the expansion or flexion of the bottle as well as the
+compression of the water itself. When the pressure is judged to be
+sufficient, the button, _n_, is turned, and the air compressed by the
+pump finding an exit, the needle of the pressure gauge will be seen to
+redescend and the level of the tube, _a b_, to rise.
+
+If the glass of the bottle has undergone no permanent deformation, the
+level will rise exactly to the zero mark, and denote that the bottle
+has supported the test without any modification of its structure. But
+if, on the contrary, the level does not return to the zero mark, the
+limit of the glass's elasticity has been extended, its molecules have
+taken on a new state of equilibrium, and its resistance has
+diminished, and, even if it has not broken, it is absolutely certain
+that it has lost its former resistance and that it presents no
+particular guarantee of strength.
+
+The vessel, A B, which must be always full of water, is designed to
+keep the bottle at a constant temperature during the course of the
+experiment. This is an essential condition, since the bottle thus
+filled with water constitutes a genuine thermometer, of which _a b_ is
+the graduated tube. It is therefore necessary to avoid attributing a
+variation in level due to an expansion of the water produced by a
+change in temperature, to a deformation of the bottle.
+
+The test, then, that can be made with bottles by means of the
+elasticimeter consists in compressing them to a pressure of ten
+atmospheres when filled with water at a temperature of 25°, and in
+finding out whether, under such a stress, they change their volume
+permanently. In order that the elasticimeter may not be complicated by
+a special heating apparatus, it suffices to determine once for all
+what the pressure is that, at a mean temperature of 15°, acts upon
+bottles with the same energy as that of ten atmospheres at 25°.
+Experiment has demonstrated that such stress corresponds to twelve
+atmospheres in a space in which the temperature remains about 15°.
+
+In addition, the elasticimeter is capable of giving other and no less
+useful data. It permits of comparing the resistance of bottles and of
+classifying them according to the degree of such resistance. After
+numerous experiments, it has been found that first class bottles
+easily support a pressure of twelve atmospheres without distortion,
+while in those of an inferior quality the resistance is very variable.
+The champagne wine industry should therefore use the former
+exclusively.
+
+Various precautions must be taken in the use of corks. The bottles
+that lose their wine in consequence of the bad quality of their corks
+are many in number, and it is not long since that they were the cause
+of genuine disaster to the champagne trade.
+
+Mr. Salleron has largely contributed to the improving of the quality
+of corks found in the market. The physical and chemical composition of
+cork bark is peculiarly favorable to the special use to which it is
+applied; but the champagne wine industry requires of it an exaggerated
+degree of resistance, inalterability, and elasticity. A 1¼ inch cork
+must, under the action of a powerful machine, enter a ¾ inch neck,
+support the dissolving action of a liquid containing 12 per cent. of
+alcohol compressed to at least five atmospheres, and, in a few years,
+shoot out of the bottle and assume its pristine form and color. Out of
+a hundred corks of good quality, not more than ten support such a
+test.
+
+In order to explain wherein resides the quality of cork, it is
+necessary to refer to a chemical analysis of it. In cork bark there is
+70 per cent. of suberine, which is soluble in alcohol and ether, and
+is plastic, ductile, and malleable under the action of humid heat.
+Mixed with suberine, cerine and resin give cork its insolubility and
+inalterability. These substances are soluble in alcohol and ether, but
+insoluble in water.
+
+According to the origin of cork, the wax and resin exist in it in very
+variable proportion. The more resinous kinds resist the dissolving
+action of wine better than those that are but slightly resinous. The
+latter soon become corroded and spoiled by wine. An attempt has often
+been made, but without success, to improve poor corks by impregnating
+them with the resinous principle that they lack.
+
+Various other processes have been tried without success, and so it
+finally became necessary simply to separate the good from the bad
+corks by a practical and rapid operation. A simple examination does
+not suffice. Mr. Bouché has found that corks immersed in water finally
+became covered with brown spots, and, by analogy, in order to test
+corks, he immersed them in water for a fortnight or a month. All those
+that came out spotted were rejected. Under the prolonged action of
+moisture, the suberine becomes soft, and, if it is not resinous
+enough, the cells of the external layer of the cork burst, the water
+enters, and the cork becomes spotted.
+
+It was left to Mr. Salleron to render the method of testing practical.
+He compresses the cork in a very strong reservoir filled with water
+under a pressure of from four to five atmospheres. By this means, the
+but slightly resinous cork is quickly dissolved, so that, after a few
+hours' immersion, the bad corks come out spotted and channeled as if
+they had been in the neck of a bottle for six months. On the contrary,
+good corks resist the operation, and come out of the reservoir as
+white and firm as they were when they were put into it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--SALLERON'S APPARATUS FOR TESTING CORKS.]
+
+Fig. 2 gives a perspective view of Mr. Salleron's apparatus for
+testing corks. A reservoir, A B, of tinned copper, capable of holding
+100 corks, is provided with a cover firmly held in place by a clamp.
+Into the cover is screwed a pressure gauge, M, which measures the
+internal pressure of the apparatus.
+
+A pump, P, sucks water from a vessel through the tubulure, _t'_, and
+forces it through the tubulure, _t_, into the reservoir full of corks.
+After being submitted to a pressure of five atmospheres in this
+apparatus for a few hours, the corks are verified and then sorted out.
+In addition to the apparatus here illustrated, there is one of larger
+dimensions for industrial applications. This differs from the other
+only in the arrangement of its details, and will hold as many as
+10,000 corks.--_Revue Industrielle._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED BISCUIT MACHINE.
+
+
+The accompanying illustration represents a combined biscuit cutting,
+scrapping, and panning machine, specially designed for running at high
+speeds, and so arranged as to allow of the relative movements of the
+various parts being adjusted while in motion. The cutters or dies,
+mounted on a cross head working in a vertical guide frame, are
+operated from the main shaft by eccentrics and vertical connecting
+rods, as shown. These rods are connected to the lower strap of the
+eccentric by long guide bolts, on which intermediate spiral springs
+are mounted, and by this means, although the dies are brought quickly
+down to the dough, they are suffered to remain in contact therewith,
+under a gradually increasing pressure, for a sufficient length of time
+to insure the dough being effectually stamped and completely cut
+through.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED BISCUIT MACHINE.]
+
+Further, the springs tend to counteract any tendency to vibration that
+might be set up by the rapid reciprocation of the cross head, cutters,
+and their attendant parts. Mounted also on the main shaft is one of a
+pair of reversed cone drums. These, with their accompanying belt and
+its adjusting gear, worked by a hand wheel and traversing screw, as
+shown, serve to adjust the speed of the feed rollers, so as to suit
+the different lengths of the intermediate travel or "skip" of the
+dough-carrying web.
+
+Provision is made for taking up the slack of this belt by mounting the
+spindle of the outer coned drum in bearings adjustable along a
+circular path struck from the axis of the lower feed roller as a
+center, thus insuring a uniform engagement between the teeth of the
+small pinion and those of the spur wheel with which the drum and
+roller are respectively provided.
+
+The webs for carrying forward the dough between the different
+operations pass round rollers, which are each operated by an
+adjustable silent clutch feed, in place of the usual ratchet and pawl
+mechanism. Movement is given to each feed by the connecting links
+shown, to each of which motion is in turn imparted by the bell crank
+lever placed beside the eccentric. This lever is actuated by a crank
+pin on the main shaft, working into a block sliding in a slot in the
+shorter or horizontal arm of the lever, while a similar but adjustable
+block, sliding in the vertical arm, serves to impart the motion of the
+lever to the system of connecting links, the adjustable block allowing
+of a longer or shorter stroke being given to the different feeds, as
+desired.
+
+The scraps are carried over the roller in rear of the cutters, and so
+to a scrap pan, while the stamped biscuits pass by a lower web into
+the pans. These pans are carried by two endless chains, provided with
+pins, which take hold of the pans and carry them along in the proper
+position. The roller over which these chains pass is operated by a
+silent clutch, and in order to give an additional motion to the chains
+when a pan is full, and it is desired to bring the next pan into
+position, an additional clutch is caused to operate upon the roller.
+This clutch is kept out of gear with its pulley by means of a
+projection upon it bearing against a disk slightly greater in diameter
+than the pulley, and provided with two notches, into which the
+projection passes when the additional feed is required.
+
+The makers, H. Edwards & Co., Liverpool, have run one of these
+machines easily and smoothly at a hundred revolutions per minute, at
+which speed, and when absorbing about 3.5 horse power, the output
+would equal 4,000 small biscuits per minute.--_Industries._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR.
+
+
+A hand separator of this type was exhibited at the Royal Show at
+Newcastle by the Aylesbury Dairy Company, of 31 St. Petersburg Place,
+Bayswater, England.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 2.]
+
+Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the machine, Fig. 2 being a vertical
+section. The drums of these machines, which make 2,700 revolutions per
+minute for the large and 4,000 for the small one, have a diameter of
+27 in. and 15½ in. respectively, and are capable of extracting the
+cream from 220 and 115 gallons of milk per hour. These drums are
+formed by hydraulic pressure from one piece of sheet steel. To avoid
+the possibility of the machines being overdriven, which might happen
+through the negligence of the attendant or through the governing gear
+on the engine failing to act, an ingenious controlling apparatus is
+fixed to the intermediate motion of the separator as shown in Fig. 3.
+This apparatus consists of a pair of governor balls pivoted near the
+center of the arms and attached to the main shaft of the intermediate
+gear by means of a collar fixed on it. The main shaft is bored out
+sufficiently deep to admit a steel rod, against which bear the three
+ends of the governor arms. The steel rod presses against the
+counterbalance, which is made exactly the right weight to withstand
+the force tending to raise it, when the intermediate motion is running
+at its designed speed. The forks between which the belt runs are also
+provided with a balance weight. This brings them to the loose pulley,
+unless they are fixed by means of the ratchet. Should the number of
+revolutions of the intermediate increase beyond the correct amount,
+the extra centrifugal force imparted to the governor balls enables
+them to overcome the balance weight, and in raising this they raise
+the arm. This arm striking against the ratchet detent releases the
+balance weight, and the belt is at once brought on to the loose
+pulley.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 3.]
+
+The steel drum is fitted with an internal ring at the bottom (see Fig.
+2), into which the milk flows, and from which it is delivered, by
+three apertures, to the periphery of the drum, thus preventing the
+milk from striking against the cone of the drum, and from mixing with
+the cream which has already been separated. The upper part of the drum
+is fitted with an annular flange, about 1½ in. from the top, reaching
+to within one-sixteenth of an inch of the periphery. After the
+separation of the skim milk from the cream, the former passes behind
+and above this flange through the aperture, B, and is removed by means
+of the tube, D, furnished with a steel tip projecting from the cover
+of the machine into the space between the top of the drum and the
+annular flange, a similar tube, F, reaching below this flange,
+removing the cream which collects there. The skim milk tube is
+provided with a screw regulator, the function of which is to enable
+cream of any desired consistency to be obtained, varying with the
+distance between the skim milk and cream points from the center of the
+drum. Another point about these tubes is their use as elevating tubes
+for the skim, milk and cream, as, owing to the velocity at which the
+drum is rotating, the products can be delivered by these tubes at a
+height of 8 or 10 feet above the machine if required, thus enabling
+scalding and cooling of either to be carried on while the separator is
+at work, and saving hand labor.--_Iron._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GAS FROM OIL.
+
+
+At the twenty-fourth annual meeting of the Gas Institute, which was
+recently held in Glasgow, Dr. Stevenson Macadam, F.R.S.E., lecturer on
+chemistry, Edinburgh, submitted the first paper, which was on "Gas
+from Oil."
+
+He said that during the last seventeen years he had devoted much
+attention to the photogenic or illuminating values of different
+qualities of paraffin oils in various lamps, and to the production of
+permanent illuminating gas from such oils. The earlier experiments
+were directed to the employment of paraffin oils as oils, and the
+results proved the great superiority of the paraffin oils as
+illuminating agents over vegetable and animal oils, alike for
+lighthouse and ordinary house service.
+
+The later trials were mainly concerned with the breaking up of the
+paraffin oils into permanent illuminating gas. Experiments were made
+at low heats, medium heats, and high heats, which proved that,
+according to the respective qualities of the paraffin oils employed in
+the trials, there was more or less tendency at the lower heats to
+distill oil instead of permanent gas, while at the high heats there
+was a liability to decarbonize the oil and gas, and to obtain a thin
+gas of comparatively small illuminating power. When, however, a good
+cherry red heat was maintained, the oils split up in large proportion
+into permanent gas of high illuminating quality, accompanied by little
+tarry matter, and with only a slight amount of separated carbon or
+deposited soot.
+
+The best mode of splitting up the paraffin oils, and the special
+arrangements of the retort or distilling apparatus, also formed, he
+said, an extensive inquiry by itself. In one set of trials the oil was
+distilled into gaseous vapor, and then passed through the retort. In
+another set of experiments, the oil was run into or allowed to trickle
+into the retorts, while both modes of introducing the oil were tried
+in retorts charged with red hot coke and in retorts free from coke.
+
+Ultimately, it was found that the best results were obtained by the
+more simple arrangement of employing iron retorts at a good cherry red
+heat, and running in the oil as a thin stream direct into the retort,
+so that it quickly impinged upon the red hot metal, and without the
+intervention of any coke or other matter in the retorts. The paraffin
+oils employed in the investigations were principally: (1) Crude
+paraffin oil, being the oil obtained direct from the destructive
+distillation of shale in retorts; (2) green paraffin oil, which is
+yielded by distilling or re-running the crude paraffin oil, and
+removing the lighter or more inflammable portion by fractional
+distillation; and (3) blue paraffin oil, which is obtained by
+rectifying the twice run oil with sulphuric acid and soda, and
+distilling off the paraffin spirit, burning oil, and intermediate oil,
+and freezing out the solid paraffin as paraffin scale. The best
+practical trials were obtained in Pintsch's apparatus and in Keith's
+apparatus.
+
+After describing both of these, Dr. Macadam went on to give in great
+detail the results obtained in splitting up blue paraffin oil into gas
+in each apparatus. He then said that these experimental results
+demonstrated that Pintsch's apparatus yielded from the gallon of oil
+in one case 90.70 cubic feet of gas of 62.50 candle power, and in the
+second case 103.36 cubic feet of 59.15 candle gas, or an average of
+97.03 cubic feet of 60.82 candle power gas.
+
+In both cases, the firing of the retorts was moderate, though in the
+second trial greater care was taken to secure uniformity of heat, and
+the oil was run in more slowly, so that there was more thorough
+splitting up of the oil into permanent gas. The gas obtained in the
+two trials was of high quality, owing to its containing a large
+percentage of heavy hydrocarbons, of which there were, respectively,
+39.25 and 37.15 per cent., or an average of 38.2 per cent., while the
+sulphureted hydrogen was nothing, and the carbonic acid a mere trace.
+Besides testing the gas on the occasion of the actual trials, he had
+also examined samples of the gas which he had taken from various
+cylinders in which the gas had been stored for several months under a
+pressure of ten atmospheres, and in all cases the gas was found to be
+practically equal to the quantity mentioned, and hence of a permanent
+character.
+
+By using Keith's apparatus the results obtained were generally the
+same, with the exception that an average of 0.27 per cent. of carbonic
+acid gas and decided proportions of sulphureted hydrogen were found to
+be present in the gas. Dr. Macadam devoted some remarks to the
+consideration of the question as to how far the gas obtained from the
+paraffin oil represented the light power of the oil itself, and then
+he proceeded to say that, taking the crude paraffin oil at 2d. a
+gallon, and with a specific gravity of 850 (water = 1,000), or 8½ lb.
+to the gallon, there were 264 gallons to the ton, at a cost of £2 4s.
+per ton. The sperm light from the ton of oil as gas being 3,443 lb.,
+he reckoned that fully 6 lb. of sperm light were obtained from a
+pennyworth of the crude oil as gas.
+
+Then, taking the blue paraffin oil at 4d. per gallon, and there being
+255 gallons to the ton, it was found that the cost of one ton was £4
+5s., and as the sperm light of a ton of that oil as gas was 5,150 lb.,
+it was calculated that 5 lb. of sperm light were yielded in the gas
+from a pennyworth of the blue oil. The very rich character of the oil
+gas rendered it unsuitable for consumption at ordinary gas jets,
+though it burned readily and satisfactorily at small burners not
+larger than No. 1 jets.
+
+In practical use it would be advisable to reduce the quality by
+admixture with thin and feeble gas, or to employ the oil gas simply
+for enriching inferior gases derived from the more common coals. On
+the question of dilution, he said that he preferred to use carbonic
+oxide and hydrogen, and most of the remainder of his paper was devoted
+to an explanation of the best mode of preparing those gases (water
+gases).
+
+He concluded by saying: The employment of paraffin oil for gas making
+has advantages in its favor, in the readiness of charging the retorts,
+as the oil can be run in continuously for days at a time, and may be
+discontinued and commenced again without opening, clearing out
+residual products, recharging and reclosing the retorts. There is
+necessarily, therefore, less labor and cost in working, and as the gas
+is cleaner or freer from impurities, purifying plant and material will
+be correspondingly less. Oil gas is now employed for lighthouse
+service in the illumination of the lanterns on Ailsa Craig and as
+motive power in the gas engines connected with the fog horns at
+Langness and Ailsa Craig lighthouse stations. It is also used largely
+in the lighting of railway carriages. Various populous places are now
+introducing oil gas for house service, and he felt sure that the
+system is one which ought to commend itself for its future development
+to the careful consideration and practical skill of the members of the
+Gas Institute.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MANUFACTURE OF SALT NEAR MIDDLESBROUGH.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: Abstract of paper read before the Institution of
+               Civil Engineers, May 17, 1887.]
+
+By Sir LOWTHIAN BELL, Bart., F.R.S.
+
+
+The geology of the Middlesbrough salt region was first referred to,
+and it was stated that the development of the salt industry in that
+district was the result of accident. In 1859, Messrs. Bolckow &
+Vaughan sank a deep well at Middlesbrough, in the hope of obtaining
+water for steam and other purposes in connection with their iron works
+in that town, although they had previously been informed of the
+probably unsuitable character of the water if found. The bore hole was
+put down to a depth of 1,200 feet, when a bed of salt rock was struck,
+which proved to have a thickness of about 100 feet. At that time
+one-eighth of the total salt production of Cheshire was being brought
+to the Tyne for the chemical works on that river, hence the discovery
+of salt instead of water was regarded by some as the reverse of a
+disappointment. The mode of reaching the salt rock by an ordinary
+shaft, however, failed, from the influx of water being too great, and
+nothing more was heard of Middlesbrough salt until a dozen years
+later, when Messrs. Bell Brothers, of Port Clarence, decided to try
+the practicability of raising the salt by a method detailed in the
+paper. A site was selected 1,314 yards distant from the well of
+Messrs. Bolckow & Vaughan, and the Diamond Rock Boring Company was
+intrusted with the work of putting down a hole in order to ascertain
+whether the bed of salt extended under their land. This occupied
+nearly two years, when the salt, 65 feet in thickness, was reached at
+a depth of 1,127 feet. Other reasons induced the owners of the
+Clarence iron works to continue the bore hole for 150 feet below the
+bed of salt; a depth of 1,342 feet from the surface was then reached.
+During the process of boring, considerable quantities of inflammable
+gas were met with, which, on the application of flame, took fire at
+the surface of the water in the bore hole. The origin of this gas, in
+connection with the coal measures underlying the magnesian limestone,
+will probably hereafter be investigated.
+
+For raising the salt, recourse was had to the method of solution, the
+principle being that a column of descending water should raise the
+brine nearly as far as the differences of specific gravity between the
+two liquids permitted--in the present case about 997 feet. In other
+words, a column of fresh water of 1,200 feet brought the brine to
+within 203 feet of the surface. For the practical application of this
+system a hole of say 12 inches in diameter at the surface was
+commenced, and a succession of wrought iron tubes put down as the
+boring proceeded, the pipes being of gradually decreasing diameter,
+until the bottom of the salt bed was reached. The portion of this
+outer or retaining tube, where it passed through the bed of salt, was
+pierced with two sets of apertures, the upper edge of the higher set
+coinciding with the top of the seam, and the other set occupying the
+lower portion of the tube. Within the tube so arranged, and secured at
+its lower extremity by means of a cavity sunk in the limestone, a
+second tube was lowered, having an outer diameter from two to four
+inches less than the interior diameter of the first tube. The latter
+served for pumping the brine. The pump used was of the ordinary bucket
+and clack type, but, in addition, at the surface, there was a plunger,
+which served to force the brine into an air vessel for the purposes of
+distribution. The bucket and clack were placed some feet below the
+point to which the brine was raised by the column of fresh water
+descending in the annulus formed between the two tubes. In commencing
+work, water was let down the annulus until the cavity formed in the
+salt became sufficiently large to admit of a few hours' pumping of
+concentrated brine. On the machinery being set in motion, the stronger
+brine was first drawn, which, from its greater specific gravity,
+occupied the lower portion of the cavity. As the brine was raised,
+fresh water flowed down. The solvent power of the newly admitted water
+was of course greater than that of water partially saturated, and
+being also lighter it occupied the upper portion of the excavated
+space. The combined effect was to give the cavity the form of an
+inverted cone. The mode of extraction thus possessed the disadvantage
+of removing the greatest quantity of the mineral where it was most
+wanted for supporting the roof, and had given rise to occasional
+accidents to the pipes underground. These were referred to in detail,
+and the question was started as to possible legal complications
+arising hereafter from new bore holes put down in close proximity to
+the dividing line of different properties, the pumping of brine formed
+under the conditions described presenting an altogether different
+aspect from the pumping of water or natural brine.
+
+The second part of the paper referred to the uses to which the brine
+was applied, the chief one being the manufacture of common salt. For
+this purpose the brine, as delivered from the wells, was run into a
+large reservoir, where any earthy matter held in suspension was
+allowed to settle. The clear solution was then run into pans sixty
+feet long by twenty feet wide by two feet deep. Heat was applied at
+one end by the combustion of small coal, beyond which longitudinal
+walls, serving to support the pan and to distribute the heat,
+conducted the products of combustion to the further extremity, where
+they escaped into the chimney at a temperature of from 500° to 700°
+Fahr. On the surface of the heated brine, kept at 196° Fahr., minute
+cubical crystals speedily formed. On the upper surface of these, other
+small cubes of salt arranged themselves in such a way that, in course
+of time, a hollow inverted pyramid of crystallized salt was formed.
+This ultimately sank to the bottom, where other small crystals united
+with it, so that the shape became frequently completely cubical. Every
+second day the salt was "fished" out and laid on drainers to permit
+the adhering brine to run back into the pans. For the production of
+table salt the boiling was carried on much more rapidly, and at a
+higher temperature than for salt intended for soda manufacture. The
+crystals were very minute, and adhered together by the solidification
+of the brine, effected by exposure on heated flues. For fishery
+purposes the crystals were preferred very coarse in size. These were
+obtained by evaporating the brine more slowly and at a still lower
+temperature than when salt for soda makers was required. At the
+Clarence works experiments had been made in utilizing surplus gas from
+the adjacent blast furnaces, instead of fuel, under the evaporating
+pans, the furnaces supplying more gas than was needed for heating air
+and raising steam for iron making. By means of this waste heat, from
+200 to 300 tons of salt per week were now obtained.
+
+The paper concluded with some particulars of the soda industry. The
+well-known sulphuric acid process of Leblanc had stood its ground for
+three-quarters of a century in spite of several disadvantages, and
+various modes of utilizing the by-products having been from time to
+time introduced, it had until recent years seemed too firmly
+established to fear any rivals. About seven years ago, however, Mr.
+Solvay, of Brussels, revived in a practical form the ammonia process,
+patented forty years ago by Messrs. Hemming & Dyar, but using brine
+instead of salt, and thus avoiding the cost of evaporation. This
+process consisted of forcing into the brine currents of carbonic acid
+and ammoniacal gases in such proportions as to generate bicarbonate of
+ammonia, which, reacting on the salt of the brine, gave bicarbonate of
+soda and chloride of ammonium. The bicarbonate was placed in a
+reverberatory furnace, where the heat drove off the water and one
+equivalent of carbonic acid, leaving the alkali as monocarbonate. Near
+Middlesbrough, the only branch of industry established in connection
+with its salt trade was the manufacture of soda by an ammonia process,
+invented by Mr. Schloesing, of Paris. The works were carried on in
+connection with the Clarence salt works. It was believed that the
+total quantity of dry soda produced by the two ammonia processes,
+Solvay's and Schloesing's, in this country was something under 100,000
+tons per annum, but this make was considerably exceeded on the
+Continent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+COTTON INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN.
+
+
+The cotton plant principally cultivated in Japan is of the species
+known as _Gossypium herbaceum_, resembling that of India, China, and
+Egypt. The plant is of short stature, seldom attaining a growth of
+over two feet; the flower is deciduous, with yellow petals and purple
+center, and the staple is short, but fine. It is very widely
+cultivated in Japan, and is produced in thirty-seven out of the
+forty-four prefectures forming the empire, but the best qualities and
+largest quantities are grown in the southern maritime provinces of the
+mainland and on the islands of Kiusiu and Shikoku. Vice consul
+Longford, in his last report, says that the plant is not indigenous to
+Japan, the seed having been first imported from China in the year
+1558. There are now many varieties of the original species, and the
+cultivation of the plant varies in its details in different
+localities. The variations are, however, mostly in dates, and the
+general grinding principles of the several operations are nearly the
+same throughout the whole country. The land best suited for cotton
+growing is one of a sandy soil, the admixture of earth and sand being
+in the proportion of two parts earth to one of sand. During the winter
+and spring months, crops of wheat or barley are raised on it, and it
+is when these crops have attained their full height during the month
+of May that the cotton is sown. About fifty days prior to the sowing a
+manure is prepared consisting of chopped straw, straw ashes, green
+grass, rice, bran, and earth from the bottom of the stagnant pools.
+These ingredients are all carefully mixed together in equal
+proportions, and the manure thus made is allowed to stand till
+required for use. Ten days before the time fixed for sowing, narrow
+trenches, about one inch in depth, are dug in the furrows, between the
+rows of standing wheat or barleys and the manure is liberally
+sprinkled along them by hand. For one night before sowing the seed is
+steeped in water. It is then taken out, slightly mixed with straw
+ashes, and sown in the trenches at intervals of a few inches. When
+sown, it is covered with earth to the depth of half an inch, and
+gently trampled down by foot. Four or five days after sowing, the buds
+begin to appear above the earth, and almost simultaneously the wheat
+or barley between which they grow is ripe for the sickle. While the
+latter is being harvested, the cotton may be left to itself, but not
+for very long. The buds appear in much larger numbers than the soil
+could support if they were allowed to grow. They have accordingly to
+be carefully thinned out, so that not more than five or six plants are
+left in each foot of length. The next process is the sprinkling of a
+manure composed of one part night soil and three parts water, and
+again, subsequent to this, there are two further manurings; one of a
+mixture of dried sardines, lees of oil, and lees of rice beer, which
+is applied about the middle of June, when the plant has attained a
+height of four inches; and again early in July, when the plant has
+grown to a height of six or seven inches, a further manuring of night
+soil, mixed with a larger proportion of water than before. At this
+stage the head of the plant is pinched off with the fingers, in order
+to check the excessive growth of the stem, and direct the strength
+into the branches, which usually number five or six. From these
+branches minor ones spring, but the latter are carefully pruned off as
+they appear. In the middle of August the flowers begin to appear
+gradually. They fall soon after their appearance, leaving in their
+place the pod or peach (_momo_), which, after ripening, opens in
+October by three or four valves and exposes the cotton to view. The
+cotton is gathered in baskets, in which it is allowed to remain till a
+bright, sunshiny day, when it is spread out on mats to dry and swell
+in the sun for two or three days. After drying, the cotton is packed
+in bags made of straw matting, and either sold or put aside until such
+time as the farmer's leisure from other agricultural operations
+enables him to deal with it. The average yield of cotton in good
+districts in Japan is about 120 lb. to the acre, but as cotton is only
+a secondary crop, this does not therefore represent the whole profit
+gained by the farmer from his land. The prefectures in which the
+production is largest are Aichi on the east coast, Osaka, Hiogo,
+Hiroshima, and Yamaguchi on the inland sea, and Fukui and Ishikawa on
+the west coast. Vice-consul Longford says that the manufacture of
+cotton in Japan is still in all its stages largely a domestic one.
+Gin, spindle, and loom are all found in the house of the farmer on
+whose land the cotton is grown, and not only what is required for the
+wants of his own family is spun and woven by the female members
+thereof, but a surplus is also produced for sale.
+
+Several spinning factories with important English machinery have been
+established during the last twenty years, but Consul Longford says
+that he has only known of one similar cotton-weaving factory, and that
+has not been a successful experiment. Other so called weaving
+factories throughout the country consist only of a collection of the
+ordinary hand looms, to the number of forty or fifty, scarcely ever
+reaching to one hundred, in one building or shed, wherein individual
+manufacturers have their own special piece goods made.
+
+The first operation in the manufacture is that of ginning, which is
+conducted by means of a small implement called the _rokuro_, or
+windlass. This consists of two wooden rollers revolving in opposite
+directions, fixed on a frame about 12 inches high and 6 inches in
+width, standing on a small platform, the dimensions of which slightly
+exceed that of the frame. The operator, usually a woman, kneels on one
+side of the frame, holding it firm by her weight, works the roller
+with one hand, and with the other presses the cotton, which she takes
+from a heap at her side, between the rollers. The cotton passes
+through, falling in small lumps on the other side of the frame, while
+the seeds fall on that nearest the woman. The utmost weight of
+unginned cotton that one woman working an entire day of ten hours can
+give is from 8 lb. to 10 lb., which gives, in the end, only a little
+over 3 lb. weight of ginned cotton, and her daily earnings amount to
+less than 2d. A few saw gins have been introduced into Japan during
+the last fifteen years, but no effort has been made to secure their
+distribution throughout the country districts. After ginning, a
+certain proportion of the seed is reserved for the agricultural
+requirements of the following year, and the remainder is sent to oil
+factories, where it is pressed, and yields about one-eighth of its
+capacity in measurement in oil, the refuse, after pressing, being used
+for manure. The ginning having been finished in the country districts,
+the cotton is either packed in bales and sent to the dealers in the
+cities, or else the next process, that of carding, is at once
+proceeded with on the spot.
+
+This process is almost as primitive as that of the ginning. A long
+bamboo, sufficiently thin to be flexible, is fastened at its base to a
+pillar or the corner of a small room. It slopes upward into the center
+of the room, and from its upper end a hempen cord is suspended. To
+this is fastened the "bow," an instrument made of oak, about five feet
+in length, two inches in circumference, and shaped like a ladle. A
+string of coarse catgut is tightly stretched from end to end of the
+bow, and this is beaten with a small mallet made of willow, bound at
+the end with a ring of iron or brass. The raw cotton, in its coarse
+state, is piled on the floor just underneath the string of the bow.
+The string is then rapidly beaten with the mallet, and as it rises and
+falls it catches the rough cotton, cuts it to the required degree of
+fineness, removes impurities from it, and flings it to the side of the
+operator, where it falls on a hempen net stretched over a four-cornered
+wooden frame. The spaces of the net are about one-quarter of an inch
+square, and through these any particles of dust that may still have
+adhered to the cotton fall to the floor, leaving piled on top of the
+net the pure cotton wool in its finished state. This work is always
+performed by a man, and by assiduous toil throughout a long day, one
+man can card from ten to twenty pounds weight of raw cotton. Payment is
+made in proportion to the work done, and in the less remote country
+districts is at the rate of about one penny for each pound carded. As
+regards spinning and weaving, in the first of these branches of cotton
+manufacture the Japanese have largely had recourse to the aid of
+foreign machinery, but it is still to a much greater extent a domestic
+industry, or at best carried on like weaving in the establishments of
+cotton traders, in which a number of workers, varying from 20 to 100 or
+more, each with his own spinning wheel, are collected together. Consul
+Longford says the spinning wheel used in Japan differs in no respect
+from that used in the country 300 years ago or (except that bamboo
+forms an integral part of the materials of which it is made) from that
+used in England prior to the invention of the jenny. The cost of one of
+the wheels is about 9d., it will last for five or six years, and with
+it a woman of ordinary skill can spin about 1 lb. of yarn in a day of
+ten hours, earning thereby about 2d. There are at present in various
+parts of Japan, in all, 21 spinning factories worked by foreign
+machinery. Of four of these there is no information, but of the
+remainder, one has 120 spindles; eleven, 2,000 spindles; two, 3,000
+spindles; two, 4,000 spindles; and one, 18,000 spindles.--_Journal Soc.
+of Arts._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 612, page 9774.]
+
+
+
+
+CENTRIFUGAL EXTRACTORS.
+
+By ROBERT F. GIBSON.
+
+
+SUGAR MACHINES.--Besides separating the crystalline sugar and the
+sirup, secondary objects are to wash the crystals and to pack them in
+cakes. The cleansing fluid or "white liquor" is introduced at the
+center of the basket and is hurled against and passes through the sugar
+wall left from draining. The basket may be divided into compartments
+and the liquor guided into each. The compartments are removable boxes
+and are shaped to give bars or cakes or any form desired of sugar in
+mass. These boxes being removable cannot fit tightly against the liquor
+guides, and the liquor is apt to escape. This difficulty is overcome by
+giving the guides radial movement or by having rubber packing around
+the edges.
+
+Sugar machines proper are of two kinds--those which are loaded, drained
+and then unloaded and those which are continuous in their working. The
+various figures preceding are of the first kind, and what has been said
+of vibrations applies directly to these.
+
+The general advantages claimed for continuous working over intermittent
+are--that saving is made of time and motive power incident to
+introducing charge and developing velocity, in retarding and stopping,
+and in discharging; that, as the power is brought into the machine
+continuously, no shifting of belts or ungearing is necessary; and that
+there are less of the dangers incident to variable motion, either in
+the machine itself or the belting or gearing. The magma (the mixture of
+crystalline sugar and sirup) is fed in gradually, by which means it is
+more likely to assume a position of equilibrium in the basket.
+
+There are two methods of discharging in continuous working--the sugar
+is thrown out periodically as the basket fills, or continuously. In
+neither case is the speed slackened. In the first either the upper
+half of the basket has an upward motion, on the lower half a downward
+motion (Pat. 252,483); and through the opening thus made the sugar is
+thrown. Fig. 22 (R.B. Palmer & Sons) is a machine of this kind. The
+bottom, B, with the cone distributor, _a_, have downward motion.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+Continuous discharge of the second kind may be brought about by having
+a scoop fixed to the curb (or casing), extending down into the basket
+and delivering the sugar over the side (Pat. 144,319). Another method
+will be described under "Beet Machines."
+
+BASKET.--The construction of the basket is exceedingly important. Hard
+experience has taught this. When centrifugals were first introduced,
+users were compelled by law to put them below ground; for they
+frequently exploded, owing to the speed being suddenly augmented by
+inequalities in the running of the engine or to the basket being too
+weak to resist the centrifugal force of the overcharge. Increasing the
+thickness merely adds to the centrifugal force, and hence to the
+danger, as even a perfectly balanced basket may sever.
+
+One plan for a better basket was to have more than one wall. For
+example, there might be an inner wall of perforated copper, then one
+of wire gauze, and then another of copper with larger perforations.
+Another plan was to have an internal metallic cloth, bearing against
+the internally projecting ridges of the corrugations of the basket
+wall. A further complication is to give this internal gauze cylinder a
+rotation relative to the basket.
+
+The basket wall has been variously constructed. In one case it
+consists of wire wound round and round and fastened to uprights,
+commonly known as the "wire basket;" in another case of a periphery
+without perforations, but spirally corrugated and having an opening at
+the bottom for the escape of the extracted liquid; in still another of
+a series of narrow bars or rings, placed edgewise, packed as close as
+desired. An advantage of this last style is that it is easily cleaned.
+
+The best basket consists of sheet metal with bored perforations and
+having bands or flanges sprung on around the outside. The metal is
+brass, if it is apt to be corroded; if not, sheet iron. The
+perforations may be round, or horizontally much longer than wide
+vertically. One method for the manufacture of the basket wall (Pat.
+149,553) is to roll down a plate, having round perforations, to the
+required thickness, causing narrowing and elongation of the holes and
+at the same time hardening the plate by compacting its texture. Long
+narrow slots are well adapted to catch sugar crystals, and this is not
+an unimportant point. Round perforations are usually countersunk.
+Instead of flanges, wire bands have been used, their lapping ends
+secured by solder.
+
+As to comparative wear, it maybe remarked that one perforated basket
+will outlast three wire ones.
+
+As to size, sugar baskets vary from 80 inches in diameter by 14 in.
+depth to 54 by 24. They are made, however, in England as large as 6
+feet in diameter--a size which can be run only at a comparatively slow
+speed.
+
+A peculiar complication of basket deserves notice (Pat. 275 874). It
+had been noticed that when a charge of magma was put into a
+centrifugal in one mass, the sugar wall on the side of the basket was
+apt to form irregularly, too thick at base and of varied color. To
+remedy this it was suggested to have within and concentric with the
+basket a charger with flaring sides, into which the mixture was to be
+put. When this charger reached a certain rotary velocity, the magma
+would be hurled out over the edge by centrifugal force and evenly
+distributed on the wall of the main basket.
+
+SPINDLE.--The spindle as now made is solid cast steel, and the
+considerations governing its size, form, material, etc., are identical
+with those for any spindle. In order that the basket might be replaced
+by another after draining, the shaft has been made telescopic, but at
+the expense of stability and rigidity. In Fig. 16 is shown a device to
+avoid crystallizations, which are apt to occur in large forgings, and
+would prove fatal should they creep into the upper part of the spindle
+proper in a hanging machine. It consists of the secondary spindle, _c_.
+
+DISCHARGING.--The drained sugar may either be lifted over the top of
+the basket (in machines which stop to be emptied), or be cast through
+openings in the bottom provided with valves. A section of the best form
+of valve may be seen in Figs. 15 and 17. Fig. 23 is a plan of the
+openings. The valve turns on the basket bearing. It may be constructed
+to open in the same direction in which the basket turns; so that when
+the brake is put on, the inertia of the valve operates to open it and
+while running to keep it closed. There are many other styles, but no
+other need be mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+CASING.--The different styles of casing may be seen by reference to the
+various drawings. In one machine (not described) the casing is rigidly
+fixed to the basket, space enough being left between the bottom of the
+basket and the bottom of the casing to hold all the molasses from a
+charge. This arrangement merely adds to the bulk of the revolving
+parts, and no real advantage is gained.
+
+BEARINGS.--The various styles of bearings can be seen by reference to
+the figures. One which deserves special attention is shown in Fig. 16
+and Fig. 19. In one case it consists of loose disks, in the other of
+loose washers, rotating on one another. They are alternately of steel
+and hard bronze (copper and tin).
+
+"There is probably no machine so little understood or so imperfectly
+constructed by the common manufacturer of sugar supplies as the high
+speed separator or centrifugal." Unless the product of experience and
+good workmanship, it is a dangerous thing at high velocities. Besides,
+its usual fate is to have an incompetent workman assigned to it, who
+does not use judgment in charging and running. So that designers and
+manufacturers have been forced not only to take into account the
+disturbing forces inherent in revolving bodies, but also to make
+allowance for poor management in running and neglect in cleaning.
+
+CANE AND BEET MACHINES.--The first step in the process of sugar making
+is the extraction of the juice from the beet or cane. This juice is
+obtained by pressure. The operation is not usually, but may be,
+performed in a special kind of centrifugal. One style (Pat. 239,222)
+consists of a conical basket with a spiral flange within on the shaft,
+and turning on the shaft, and having a slight rotary motion relative to
+the basket. The material is fed in and moves downward under increased
+pressure, the sirup released flying out through the perforations of the
+basket, the whole revolving at high velocity. The solid portion falls
+out at the bottom. Another plan suggested (Pat. 343,932) is to let a
+loose cover of an ordinary cylindrical basket screw itself down into
+the basket, by reason of its slower velocity (owing to inertia),
+causing pressure on the charge.
+
+Various other applications of the different styles of sugar machines
+are the defibration of raw sugar juice, freeing beet crystals of
+objectionable salts, freeing various crystals of the mother liquor,
+drying saltpeter.
+
+DRIERS.--Another important division of this first class of centrifugals
+is that of driers or, as they are variously styled, whizzers, wringers,
+hydro-extractors. The charge in these is never large in weight compared
+to a sugar charge, and its initial distribution can be made more
+symmetrical. The uses of driers are various, such as extracting water
+from clothes, cloth, silk, yarns, etc. Water may be introduced at the
+center of the basket from above or below to wash the material before
+draining. A typical form of drier is shown in Fig. 24. (Pat. Aug. 22,
+1876--W.P. Uhlinger.) Baskets have been made removable for use in
+dyeing establishments, basket and load together going into dyeing vat.
+Yarn and similar material can be drained by a method analogous to that
+of hanging it upon sticks in a room and allowing the water to drip off.
+It is suspended from short sticks, which are held in horizontal layers
+around the shaft in the basket, and the action is such during the
+operation as to cause the yarn to stand out in radial lines.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+Driers are not materially different from sugar machines. Any of the
+devices before enumerated for meeting vibrations in the latter may be
+applied to the former. There is one curious invention which has been
+applied to driers only (Pat. 322,762--W.H. Tolhurst). See Fig. 25. A
+convex shaft-supporting step resting on a concave supporting base,
+with the center of its arc of concavity at the center of the upper
+universal joint, has been employed, and its movements controlled by
+springs, but the step was apt to be forced from its support. The
+drawing shows the improvement on this, which is to give the
+shaft-supporting step a less radius of curvature.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+An interesting form of drier has its own motor, a little steam engine,
+attached to the frame of the machine. See Fig 24. This of course
+demands fixed bearings. The engine is very small. One size used is 3"×4".
+When a higher velocity of basket is required, we have the arrangement
+in Fig. 26.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+MOTORS.--This naturally introduces the subject of motive power. We may
+have the engine direct acting as above, or the power may be brought on
+by belting. Fig. 27 shows a drier with pulley for belting. Fig. 28
+(W.H. Tolhurst) shows a very common arrangement of belting and also the
+fast and loose pulleys. When the heaviest part of the engine is so far
+from the vertical shaft as to overhang the casing on one side, there is
+apt to be an objectionable tremor. To remedy this, it is suggested to
+put these heavy parts as near the shaft as possible. It has been
+suggested also to use the Westinghouse type of engine, although the
+type shown in Fig. 24 works faultlessly in practice.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+One plan (Pat. 346,030), designed to combine the advantages of a direct
+acting motor and an oscillating shaft, mounts the whole machine, motor
+and all, on a rocking frame. The spindle is of course in fixed bearings
+in the frame. However, the plan is not practical.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+In driers the direct acting engine has many advantages over the belt.
+The atmosphere is always very moist about a whizzer, and there are
+frequently injurious fumes. The belt will be alternately dry and wet,
+stretched and limp, and wears out rapidly and is liable to sever. In
+all machines in which the shaft oscillates, if the center of
+oscillation does not lie in the central plane of the belt, the tension
+of the latter is not uniform. This affects badly both the belt and the
+running. A reference to the various figures will show the best position
+for the pulley.
+
+The greatest difficulty experienced with belting is in getting up speed
+and stopping. The basket must not be started with a sudden impulse. Its
+inertia will resist and something must give way. A gradual starting can
+be obtained by the slipping of the belt at first, but this is
+expensive. The best plan is to conduct the power through a species of
+friction clutch--an iron disk between two wooden ones. This has been
+found to work admirably.
+
+BRAKES.--The first centrifugals had no brakes. They ran until the
+friction of the bearings was sufficient to stop them. This occasioned,
+however, rapid wearing and too great a loss of time. The best material
+for a brake consists of soft wood into which shoe pegs have been
+driven, and which is thoroughly saturated with oil. The wooden disks
+referred to just above are of the same construction. The center of
+oscillation ought to be in the central plane of the brake as well as
+that of the pulley, but the preference is given to the pulley.
+
+Figs. 15 and 16 (I) give sectional views of a brake for hanging
+machines. Figs. 19, 20, and 21 give two sections and a view of a brake
+which can be used on both hanging and standing machines. A very simple
+form of brake is shown in Figs. 24, 26, and 27 (A), a mere block
+pressing on the rim of the basket.
+
+OIL AND FAT.--A machine in most respects like a whizzer is used for the
+"extraction of oil and fat and oily and fatty matters from woolen yarns
+and fabrics, and such other fibrous material or mixtures of materials
+as are from their nature affected in color or quality when hydrocarbons
+are used for the purpose of extracting such oily or fatty matters, and
+are subsequently removed from the material under treatment by the slow
+process of admitting steam, or using other means of raising the
+temperature to the respective boiling points of such hydrocarbons, and
+so driving them off by evaporation." In the centrifugal method
+carbon-bisulphide, or some other volatile agent, is admitted and is
+driven through the material by centrifugal force, when the necessary
+reactions take place, and is allowed to escape in the form of
+hydrocarbons. A machine differing only in slight particulars from the
+above is used for cleansing wool.
+
+LOOSE FIBER.--Another application is the drying of loose fiber. Two
+distinctive points deserve to be noticed in the centrifugal used for
+this purpose. An endless chain or belt provided with blades moves the
+material vertically in the basket, and discharges it over the edge.
+During its upward course the material is subjected to a shower of water
+to wash it.
+
+OIL FROM METAL CHIPS.--Very material savings are made in many factories
+by collecting the metal chips and turnings, coated and mixed with oil,
+which fall from the various machines, and extracting the oil
+centrifugally. The separator consists of a chip holder, having an
+imperforate shell flaring upward and outward from the spindle (in fixed
+bearings) to which it is attached. When filled, a cover is placed upon
+it and keyed to the spindle. Between the cover and holder there is a
+small annular opening through which oil, but not chips, can escape.
+Fig. 29 (Pat. 225,949--C.F. Roper) is designed (like the greater part
+of the drawings inserted) to show relative position of parts merely,
+and not relative _size_. This style of machine can be used for sugar
+separating (Pat. 345,994--F.P. Sherman) and many other purposes, to
+which, however, there are other styles more especially adapted.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+FILTERERS.--There are two distinct kinds of centrifugal filterers,
+working on different principles. Petroleum separators (Pat. 217,063)
+are of the first kind. They are in form in all respects like a sugar
+machine. The flakes of paraffine, stearine, etc., which are to be
+extracted, when chilled are very brittle and would be disintegrated
+upon being hurled against a plain wire gauze and would escape. Even a
+woven fabric presents too harsh a surface. It is necessary to have a
+very elastic basket lining of wool, cotton, or other fibrous material.
+The basket itself may be either wire or perforated, but must have a
+perfectly smooth bottom.
+
+As the pressure of the liquor upon the filtering medium per unit of
+surface depends entirely upon its radial depth, mere tubes, connecting
+a central inlet with an annular compartment, will serve the purpose
+quite as well as a whole basket. In this style of machine (Pat. 10,457)
+the filtering material constitutes a wall between two annular
+compartments. The outer one is connected with a vacuum apparatus.
+
+Filterers of the second kind work on the following principle: If a
+cylinder be rapidly revolved in a liquid in which solid particles are
+suspended, the liquid will be drawn into a like rotation and the heavy
+particles will be thrown to the outer part of the receptacle. If a
+perforated cylinder is used as stirrer, the purified liquid will escape
+into it through the perforations and may be conducted away. The
+impurities, likewise, after falling down the sides of the receptacle,
+are carried off. The advantages of this method are that no filtering
+material is needed and the filtering surface is never in contact with
+anything but pure liquor.
+
+Very fine sawdust is, to a considerable extent, employed in sugar
+refineries as a filtering medium. By such use the sawdust becomes mixed
+with sand, fine particles of cane, etc. As sawdust of such fineness is
+expensive, it is desirable to purify it in order to reuse it. A
+centrifugal (Pat. 353,775--J.V.V. Booraem) built on the following
+principle is used for this purpose. It has been observed that by
+rotating rather _slowly_ small particles of various substances in
+water, the finer particles will be thrown outward and deposit near the
+circumference of the vessel, while the heavier and coarser particles
+will deposit nearer to or at the center, their centrifugal force not
+being sufficient to carry them out. A mere rod, extending radially in
+both directions, serves by its rotation to set the water in motion.
+
+Another form of filter of this second kind (Pat. 148,513) has a
+rotating imperforate basket into which the impure liquor is run. Within
+and concentric with it is another cylinder whose walls are of some
+filtering medium. The liquid already partly purified by centrifugal
+force passes through into the inner cylinder, thus becoming further
+purified. Centrifugal filters are used also to cleanse gums for
+varnishes.
+
+HONEY.--The simplest form of honey extractor (Pat. 61,216) consists of
+a square framework, symmetrical with respect to a vertical spindle.
+This framework is surrounded by a wire gauze. The combs, after having
+the heads of the cells cut off, are placed in comb-holders against the
+wire netting on the four sides, the cells pointing outward. The machine
+is turned by hand. The honey is hurled against the walls of a receiving
+case and caught below. But few improvements have been made on this. The
+latest machines are still hand-driven, as a sufficiently high velocity
+can be obtained in this manner. In one style the combs are placed upon
+a floor which rests upon springs. The rotating box is given a slight
+vertical and horizontal reciprocatory motion, by which the combs are
+made to grate on the wire gauze sides, breaking the cells and
+liberating the honey. Thus the labor of cutting the cells is saved.
+Every comb has two sides, and to present each side in succession to the
+outside without removing from the basket, several devices have been
+patented. In some the comb holders are hinged in the corners of the
+basket, and have an angular motion of ninety degrees. Decreasing the
+speed is sufficient to swing these. The other side is then emptied by
+revolving in the opposite direction. In one case each holder has a
+spindle of its own, connected with the main spindle by gearing and, to
+present opposite side, turns through 180°. The usual number of sides
+and hence of comb holders is four, but eight have been used. There are
+minor differences in details of construction, looking to the most
+convenient removal and insertion of comb, the reception of the
+extracted honey in cups, buckets, etc., and the best method of giving
+rapid rotation, which cannot be touched upon. The product of the
+operation is white and opaque, but upon heating regains its golden
+color and transparency.
+
+STARCH.--A centrifugal to separate starch from triturated grain,
+carried in suspension in water, is as follows. (Pat. 273,127--Müller &
+Decastro.) The starch water is led to the bottom of a basket, and, as
+starch is heavier than the gluten with which it is mixed, the former
+will be immediately compacted against the periphery of the basket,
+lodging first in the lower corner, the starch and gluten forming two
+distinct strata. A tube with a cutting edge enters the compacted mass
+so deeply as to peel off the gluten and part of the starch, which is
+carried through the tube to another compartment of the basket, just
+above, where the same operation is performed, and so on. There may be
+only one compartment, the tube carrying the gluten directly out of the
+machine. These machines are continuous working, and hence some way must
+be devised to carry the water off. The inner surface of the water is,
+as we have seen, a cylinder. When the diameter of this cylinder becomes
+too small, overflow must be allowed. One plan is to have an overflow
+opening made in the bottom of the basket in such a way that as the
+starch wall thickens, the opening recedes toward the center. The starch
+wall is either lifted out in cakes or put again in suspension by
+spraying water on it and conducting the mixture off.
+
+A centrifugal (Pat. 74,021) to separate liquids from paints depends on
+building a wall of paint on the sides of the basket and carrying the
+liquids off at the center.
+
+A centrifugal (Pat. 310,469) for assorting wood pulp, paper pulp, etc.,
+works by massing the constituents in two or three cylindrical strata,
+and after action severing and removing these separately.
+
+BREWING.--In brewing, centrifugals are quite useful. After the wort has
+been boiled with hops, albuminous matters are precipitated by the
+tannic acid, which must be extracted. Besides these the mixture
+frequently contains husk, fiber, and gluten. The machine (Pat.
+315,876), although quite unique in construction, has the same principle
+of working as a sugar centrifugal, and need not be described. There is
+one point, however, which might be noticed--that air is introduced at
+about the same point as the material, and has an oxidizing and
+refrigerating effect.
+
+Class I. includes also centrifugals for the following purposes: The
+removal of must from the grape after crushing, making butter,
+extracting oils from solid fats, separating the liquid and solid parts
+of sewerage, drying hides, skins, spent tan and the like, drying coils
+of wire.
+
+HORIZONTAL CENTRIFUGALS.--Only vertical machines have been and will be
+dealt with. Horizontal centrifugals, that is, those whose spindles are
+horizontal have been made, but the great inconvenience of charging and
+discharging connected with them has occasioned their disuse; though in
+other respects for liquids they are quite as good as vertical
+separators. Their underlying theory is practically the same as that
+hereinbefore discussed.
+
+CLASS II., CREAMERS.--Centrifugals of the second class separate liquids
+from liquids. There are two main applications in this class--to
+separate cream from milk and fusel oil from alcoholic liquors. When a
+liquid is to be separated from a liquid, the receptacle must be
+imperforate. The components of different specific gravity become
+arranged in distinct concentric cylindrical strata in the basket, and
+must be conducted away separately. In creamers the particles of cream
+must not be broken or subjected to any concussion, as partial churning
+is caused and the cream will, in consequence, sour more rapidly.
+
+The chief cause of oscillations in machines of this class, where the
+charge is liquid, is the waves which form on the inner surface. They
+may be met by allowing a slight overflow over the inner edge of the rim
+of the basket; or by having either horizontal partitions, or vertical,
+radial ones, special cases of which will be noticed. Oscillations may
+also be met in the same manner as in sugar machines, by allowing the
+revolving parts to revolve about an axis through their common center of
+gravity. (Pat. 360,342--J. Evans.)
+
+The crudest form of creamer contains a number of bottles, with their
+necks all directed toward the spindle, filled with milk. The necks, in
+which the cream collects, are graduated to tell when the operation is
+complete.
+
+Many methods for introducing the milk into creamers have been devised.
+It may run in from the top at the center, or emerge from a pipe at the
+bottom of the basket; or the spindle may be hollow and the milk sucked
+up through it from a basin below. It is usual to let the milk enter
+under hydrostatic pressure (Pat. 239,900--D. M. Weston) and let the
+force of expulsion of the cream be dependent on this pressure. This
+renders the escape quiet, and prevents churning. Gravity, too, is made
+effective in carrying the constituents off.
+
+The cream may escape through a passage in the bottom at the center, and
+the skim milk at the lower outer corner; or by ingeniously managed
+passages both may escape at or near center. The rate of discharge can
+be managed by regulating the size of opening of exit passages.
+
+A curious method consists in having discharge pipes provided with
+valves and floats at their lower ends, dipping into the liquid (Pat.
+240,175). "The valves are opened and closed, or partially opened or
+closed, by the floats attached to them, these floats being so
+constructed and arranged with reference to their specific gravity and
+the specific gravity of the component parts of the liquids operated
+upon, that they will permit only a liquid of a determinate specific
+gravity to escape through the pipes to which they are respectively
+attached."
+
+We may have tubes directed into the different strata with cutting
+edges. (Pat. 288,782.) A remarkable fact noticed in their use is that
+these edges wear as rapidly as if solids were cut instead of liquids.
+
+The separated fluids may be received into recessed rings, having
+discharge pipes, the proportionate quantity discharged being regulated
+by the proximity of the discharge lips to the surface of the ring, and
+the centrifugal force being availed of to project the liquids through
+the discharge pipes.
+
+There is a very simple device by which a very rapid circulation of the
+liquid is brought about. (Pat. 358,587--C.A. Backstrom.) The basket has
+radial vertical partitions, all but one having communicating holes,
+alternately in upper and lower corners. The milk is delivered into the
+basket on one side of this imperforate partition and must travel the
+whole circuit of the basket through these communicating holes, until it
+reaches the partition again, and then passes into a discharge pipe.
+Thus during this long course every particle of cream escapes to the
+center. As the holes are close to the walls of the basket, the cream
+has not the undulatory motion of the milk, which would injure it. The
+greater the number of partitions, the longer is the travel of the milk,
+and the more rapid the circulation. Blades have been devised similar to
+the above, having communicating passages extending the whole width of
+the blade, but we see that here the cream would circulate with the
+milk; which must not be allowed. Curved blades have been used, and
+paddles and stirrers, to set the milk in motion, but to them the same
+objection may be made.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30]
+
+Fig. 30 (Pat. 355,048--C.A. Backstrom) illustrates one of the latest
+and best styles of creamers. The milk enters at C. The skim milk passes
+into tube, T, and the cream goes to the center and passes out of the
+openings in the bottom, _k^{l}_, _k^{2}_, and _k^{3}_, out of the slit,
+k, and thence out through D^{5}. The skim milk moves through T,
+becoming more thoroughly separated all the while, and at each of the
+radial branch tubes, T^{1}, T^{2}, T^{3}, and T^{4}, some cream leaves
+it and goes to the center, while it passes down out of slit, t^{3}, and
+thence out of D^{6}.
+
+Fig. 31 (Pat. 355,050--C.A. Backstrom) shows another very late style of
+creamer. A pipe delivers the milk into P^{4}. Passing out of the tube
+separation takes place, and cream falls down the center to P^{2} and
+out of O^{3}. When the compartment under the first shelf becomes full
+of the skim milk, the latter passes up through the slot, S, strikes a
+radial partition, R, and its course is reversed. Here more cream
+separates and passes to center and falls directly, and so on through
+the whole series of annular compartments, until the top one, when the
+skim milk enters tube T^{2} and passes out of O^{2}. By this operation
+there are substantially repeated subjections of specified quantities of
+milk to the action of centrifugal force, bringing about a thorough
+separation. By changing the course of the milk in direction, its path
+is made longer. This machine can run at much lower speed than many
+other styles, and yet do the same work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31]
+
+CLASS III., SOLIDS FROM SOLIDS.--As for grain machines, which are in
+this class, it may be said that in centrifugal flour bolters, bran
+cleaners, and middlings purifiers, though theoretically centrifugal
+force plays an important part in their action, yet practically the real
+separation is brought about by other agencies: in some by brushes which
+rub the finer particles through wire netting as they rotate against it.
+
+The principle exhibited in a separator of grains and seeds is very
+neat. (Pat. 167,297.) See Fig. 32. That part of the machine with which
+we have to do consists essentially of a horizontal revolving disk. The
+mixed grains are cast on this disk, pass to the edge, and are hurled
+off at a tangent. Suppose at A. Each particle is immediately acted on
+by three forces. For all particles of the same size and having the same
+velocity the resistance of the air may be taken the same, that is,
+proportional to the area presented. The acceleration of gravity is the
+same; but the inertia of the heavier grain is greater. The resultant of
+the two conspiring forces R and (M_v_^{2})/2 varies, and is greater for
+a heavier grain. Therefore, the paths described in the air will vary,
+especially in length; and how this is utilized the drawing illustrates.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+ORE.--In ore machines there is one for pulverizing and separating coal
+(Pat. 306,544), in which there is a breaker provided with helical
+blades or paddles, partaking of rapid rotary motion within a stationary
+cylinder of wire netting. The dust, constituting the valuable part of
+the product, is hurled out as fast as formed. In this style of machine,
+beaters are necessary not only for pulverizing, but to get up rotary
+motion for generating centrifugal force. In the classes preceding, the
+friction of the basket sufficed for this latter purpose; but here there
+is no rotating basket and no definite charge. As the material falls
+through the machine, separation takes place. Various kinds of ore may
+be treated in the same manner.
+
+An "ore concentrator" (Pat. 254,123), as it is called, consists of a
+pan having rotary and oscillatory motions. Crushed ore is delivered
+over the edge in water. The heavy particles of the metal are thrown by
+centrifugal force against the rim of the pan, overcoming the force of
+the water, which carries the sand and other impurities in toward the
+center and away.
+
+AMALGAMATORS.--The best ore centrifugal or separator is what is called
+an "amalgamator." The last invention (Pat. 355,958, White) consists
+essentially of a pan, a meridian section of which would give a curve
+whose normal at any point is in the direction of the resultant of the
+centrifugal force at that point and gravity. There is a cover to this
+pan whose convexity almost fits the concavity of the pan, leaving a
+space of about an inch between. Crushed ore with water is admitted at
+the center between the cover and the pan, and is driven by centrifugal
+force through a mass of mercury (which occupies part of this space
+between the two) and out over the edge of the pan. The particles of
+metal coming in contact with the mercury amalgamate, and as the speed
+is regulated so that it is never great enough to hurl the mercury out,
+nothing but sand, water, etc., escape. There have been many different
+constructions devised, but this general principle runs through all. By
+having annular flanges running down from the cover with openings placed
+alternately, the mixture is compelled to follow a tortuous course, thus
+giving time for all the gold or other metal to become amalgamated.
+There are ridges in the pan, too, against which the amalgam lodges. It
+is claimed for this machine that not a particle of the precious metal
+is lost, and experiments seem to uphold the claim.
+
+A machine for separating fine from coarse clay for porcelain or for
+separating the finer quality of plumbago from the coarser for lead
+pencils uses an imperforate basket, against the wall of which the
+coarser part banks and catches under the rim. The finer part forms an
+inner cylindrical stratum, but is allowed to spill over the edge of the
+rim. The mixture is introduced at the bottom of the basket at the
+center.
+
+CLASS IV., GASES AND SOLIDS.--There is a very simple contrivance
+illustrating machines of this class used to free air from dust or other
+heavy solid impurities which may be in suspension. See Fig. 33. The air
+enters the passage, B (if it has no considerable velocity of itself, it
+must be forced in), forms a whirlpool in the conically shaped
+receptable, A, and passes up out of the passage, D. The heavy particles
+are thrown on the sides and collect there and fall through opening, C,
+into some closed receiver.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33]
+
+CLASS V., GASES AND LIQUIDS.--The occluded gases in steel and other
+metal castings, if not separated, render the castings more or less
+porous. This separation is effected by subjecting the molten metal to
+the action of centrifugal force under exclusion of air, producing not
+only the most minute division of the particles, but also a vacuum, both
+favorable conditions for obtaining a dense metal casting.
+
+Most of the devices for drying steam come under this head. Such are
+those in which the steam with the water in suspension is forced to take
+a circular path, by which the water is hurled by centrifugal force
+against the concave side of the passage and passes back to the water in
+the boiler.
+
+SPEED.--The centrifugal force of a revolving particle varies, as we
+have seen, as the square of the angular velocity, so that the effort
+has been to obtain as high a number of revolutions per minute as was
+consistent with safety and with the principle of the machine. For
+example, creamers which are small and light make 4,000 revolutions per
+minute, though the latest styles run much more slowly. Driers and sugar
+machines vary from 600 to 2,000, while on the other hand the necessity
+of keeping the mercury from hurling off in an amalgamator prevents its
+turning more rapidly than sixty or eighty times a minute.
+
+However, speed in another sense, the speed with which the operation is
+performed, is what especially characterizes centrifugal extractors. In
+this particular a contrast between the old methods and the new is
+impressive. Under the action of gravity, cream rises to the milk's
+surface, but compare the hours necessary for this to the almost
+instantaneous separation in a centrifugal creamer. The sugar
+manufacturer trusted to gravity to drain the sirup from his crystals,
+but the operation was long and at best imperfect. An average sugar
+centrifugal will separate 600 pounds of magma perfectly in three
+minutes. Gold quartz which formerly could not pay for its mining is now
+making its owners' fortunes. It is boasted by a Southern company that
+whereas they were by old methods making twenty-five _cents_ per ton of
+gold quartz, they now by the use of the latest amalgamator make
+twenty-five _dollars_. Centrifugal force, as applied in extractors, has
+opened up new industries and enlarged old ones, has lowered prices and
+added to our comforts, and centrifugal extractors may well command, as
+they do, the admiration of all as wonderful examples of the way in
+which this busy age economizes time.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW TYPE OF RAILWAY CAR.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--CAR WITH LATERAL PASSAGEWAYS.]
+
+Figs. 1 and 2 give a perspective view and plan of a new style of car
+recently adopted by the Bone-Guelma Railroad Company, and which has
+isolated compartments opening upon a lateral passageway. In this
+arrangement, which is due to Mr. Desgranges, the lateral passageway
+does not extend all along one side of the car, but passes through the
+center of the latter and then runs along the opposite side so as to
+form a letter S. The car consists in reality of two boxes connected
+beneath the transverse passageway, but having a continuous roof and
+flooring. The two ends are provided with platforms that are reached by
+means of steps, and that permit one to enter the corresponding half of
+the car or to pass on to the next. The length from end to end is 33
+feet in the mixed cars, comprising two first-class and four
+second-class compartments, and 32 feet in cars of the third class,
+with six compartments. The width of the compartments is 5.6 and 5
+feet, according to the class. The passageway is 28 inches in width in
+the mixed cars, and 24 in those of the third class. The roof is so
+arranged as to afford a circulation of cool air in the interior.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--PLAN.]
+
+The application of the zigzag passageway has the inconvenience of
+slightly elongating the car, but it is advantageous to the passengers,
+who can thus enjoy a view of the landscape on both sides of the
+train.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOUNDATIONS OF THE CENTRAL VIADUCT OF CLEVELAND, O.
+
+
+The Central viaduct, now under construction in the city of Cleveland,
+is probably the longest structure of the kind devoted entirely to
+street traffic. The superstructure is in two distinct portions,
+separated by a point of high ground. The main portion, extending
+across the river valley from Hill street to Jennings avenue, is 2,840
+feet long on the floor line, including the river bridge, a swing 233
+feet in length; the other portion, crossing Walworth run from Davidson
+street to Abbey street, is 1,093 feet long. Add to these the earthwork
+and masonry approaches, 1,415 feet long, and we have a total length of
+5,348 feet. The width of roadway is 40 feet, sidewalks 8 feet each.
+The elevation of the roadway above the water level at the river
+crossing is 102 feet. The superstructure is of wrought iron, mainly
+trapezoidal trusses, varying in length from 45 feet to 150 feet. The
+river piers are of first-class masonry, on pile and timber foundations.
+The other supports of the viaduct are wrought iron trestles on masonry
+piers, resting on broad concrete foundations. The pressure on the
+material beneath the concrete, which is plastic blue clay of varying
+degrees of stiffness mixed with fine sand, is about one ton per square
+foot.
+
+The Cuyahoga valley, which the viaduct crosses from bluff to bluff, is
+composed mainly of blue clay to a depth of over 150 feet below the
+river level. No attempt is made to carry the foundation to the rock.
+White oak piles from 50 to 60 feet in length and 10 inches in diameter
+at small end are driven for the bridge piers either side of the river
+bed, and these are cut off with a circular saw 18 feet below the
+surface of the water. Excavation by dredging was made to a depth of 3
+feet below where the piles are cut off to allow for the rising of the
+clay during the driving of the piles. The piles are spaced about 2
+feet 5 inches each way, center to center. The grillage or platform
+covering the piles consists of 14 courses of white oak timber, 12
+inches by 12 inches, having a few pine timbers interspersed so as to
+allow the mass to float during construction. The lower half of the
+platform was built on shore, care being taken to keep the lower
+surface of the mass of timber out of wind. The upper and lower
+surfaces of each timber were dressed in a Daniels planer, and all
+pieces in the same course were brought to a uniform thickness. The
+timbers in adjacent courses are at right angles to each other. The
+lower course is about 58 feet by 22 feet, the top course about 50 by
+24 feet, thus allowing four steps of one foot each all around. The
+first course of masonry is 48 feet by 21 feet 8 inches; the first
+course of battered work is 41 feet 8½ inches by 16 feet 3 inches. Thus
+the area of the platform on the piles is 1,856 square feet, and of the
+first batter course of masonry 777.6 square feet, or in the ratio of
+2.4 to 1. The height of the masonry is 78 feet above the timber, or
+73½ feet above the water. The number of piles in each foundation is
+312. The average load per pile is about 11 tons, and the estimated
+pressure per square inch of the timber on the heads of the piles is
+about 200 pounds.
+
+To prevent the submersion of the lower courses of masonry during
+construction, temporary sides of timber were drift-bolted to the
+margin of the upper course of the timber platform, and carried high
+enough to be above the surface of the water when the platform was sunk
+to the head of the piles by the increasing weight of masonry.
+
+The center pier is octagonal, and is built in the same general manner
+as to foundations as the shore piers, but the piles are cut off 22
+feet below water, and there are eighteen courses of timber in the
+grillage. The diameter of the platform between parallel sides is 53
+feet, while that of the lower course of battered masonry is but 37
+feet. The areas are as 2,332 to 1,147, or as 2 to 1 nearly. The
+pressure per square inch of timber on the heads of the piles is about
+the same as stated above for the shore piers. The number of piles
+under the center pier is 483.
+
+The risks and delays by this method of constructing the foundations
+were much less, and the cost also, than if an ordinary coffer dam had
+been used. Also the total weight of the piers is much less, as that
+portion below a point about two feet below the water adds nothing to
+their weight.
+
+The piles were driven with a Cram steam hammer weighing two tons, in a
+frame weighing also two tons. The iron frame rests directly upon the
+head of the pile and goes down with it. The fall of the hammer is
+about 40 inches before striking the pile. The total penetration of the
+piles into the clay averaged 27 feet. The settlement of the pile
+during the final strokes of the hammer varied from one quarter to
+three quarters of an inch per blow.
+
+There are 122 masonry pedestals, of which eight are large and heavy,
+carrying spans of considerable length. They will all be built upon
+concrete beds, except a few near the river on the north side, where
+piles are required.
+
+The four abutments with their retaining walls are of first-class
+rock-faced masonry. The footing courses are stepped out liberally, so
+as to present an unusually large bottom surface. They rest on beds of
+concrete 4 feet thick. The foundation pits are about 50 feet below the
+top of the bluffs, and are in a material common to the Cleveland
+plateau, a mixture of blue sand and clay, with some water. The
+estimated load of masonry on the earth at the bottom of the concrete
+is one and seven tenths tons to the square foot. Two of the large
+abutments were completed last season. They show an average settlement
+of three eighths of an inch since the lower footing courses were laid.
+
+The facts and figures here given regarding the viaduct were kindly
+furnished by the city civil engineer, C.G. Force, who has the work in
+charge.--_Jour. Asso. of Eng. Societies._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+For sticking paper to zinc, use starch paste with which a little
+Venice turpentine has been incorporated, or else use a dilute solution
+of white gelatine or isinglass.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS AT MARE ISLAND NAVY YARD, CALIFORNIA.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: Built by the Southwark Foundry and Machine Company,
+               of Philadelphia.]
+
+By H.R. CORNELIUS.
+
+
+In December, 1883, bids were asked for by the United States government
+on pumping machinery, to remove the water from a dry dock for vessels
+of large size.
+
+The dimensions of the dock, which is situated on San Pablo Bay,
+directly opposite the city of Vallejo, are as follows:
+
+Five hundred and twenty-nine feet wide at its widest part, 36 feet
+deep, with a capacity at mean tide of 9,000,000 gallons.
+
+After receiving the contract, several different sizes of pumps were
+considered, but the following dimensions were finally chosen: Two 42
+inch centrifugal pumps, with runner 66 inches in diameter and
+discharge pipes 42 inches, each driven direct by a vertical engine
+with 28 inch diameter cylinder and 24 inch stroke.
+
+These were completed and shipped in June, 1885, on nine cars,
+constituting a special train, which arrived safely at its destination
+in the short space of two weeks, and the pumps were there erected on
+foundations prepared by the government.
+
+From the "Report of the Chief of Bureau of Yards and Docks" I quote
+the following account of the official tests:
+
+     "The board appointed to make the test resolved to fill the
+     dock to about the level that would attain in actual service
+     with a naval ship of second rate in the dock, and the tide at
+     a stage which would give the minimum pumping necessary to
+     free the dock. The level of the 20th altar was considered as
+     the proper point, and the water was admitted through two of
+     the gates of the caisson until this level was reached; they
+     were then closed. The contents of the dock at this point is
+     5,963,921 gallons.
+
+     "The trial was commenced and continued to completion without
+     any interruption in a very satisfactory manner.
+
+     "In the separate trials had of each pump, the average
+     discharge per minute was taken of the whole process, and
+     there was a singular uniformity throughout with equal piston
+     speed of the engine.
+
+     "It was to be expected, and in a measure realized, that
+     during the first moments of the operations, when the level of
+     the water in the dock was above the center of the runner of
+     the pumps, that the discharge would be proportioned to the
+     work done, where no effort was necessary to maintain a free
+     and full flow through the suction pipes; but as the level
+     passed lower and farther away from the center there was no
+     apparent diminution of the flow, and no noticeable addition
+     to the load imposed on the engine. The variation in piston
+     speed, noted during the trial, was probably due to the
+     variation of the boiler pressure, as it was difficult to
+     preserve an equal pressure, as it rose in spite of great
+     care, owing to the powerful draught and easy steaming
+     qualities of the boilers.
+
+     "After the trial of the second pump had been completed the
+     dock was again filled through the caisson, and as both pumps
+     were to be tried, the water was admitted to a level with the
+     23d altar, containing 7,317,779 gallons, which was seven feet
+     above the center of the pumps; this was in favor of the pumps
+     for the reasons before stated. In this case all the boilers
+     were used.
+
+     "Everything moved most admirably, and the performance of
+     these immense machines was almost startling. By watching the
+     water in the dock it could be seen to lower bodily, and so
+     rapidly that it could be detected by the eye without
+     reference to any fixed point.
+
+     "The well which communicates with the suction tunnel was
+     open, and the water would rise and fall, full of rapid swirls
+     and eddies, though far above the entrance of these tunnels.
+     Through the man hole in the discharge culvert the issuance
+     from the pipes could be seen, and its volume was beyond
+     conception. It flowed rapidly through the culvert, and its
+     outfall was a solid prism of water, the full size of the
+     tunnel, projecting far into the river.
+
+     "During a pumping period of 55 minutes, the dock had been
+     emptied from the twenty-third to two inches above the sixth
+     altar, containing 6,210,698 gallons, an average throughout of
+     112,922 gallons per minute. At one time, when the revolutions
+     were increased to 160 per minute, the discharge was 137,797
+     gallons per minute. This is almost a river, and is hardly
+     conceivable. After the pumps were stopped, on this occasion,
+     tests were made with each in succession as to the power of
+     the ejectors with which each is fitted to recharge the pumps.
+
+     "The valves in the discharge pipe were closed and steam
+     admitted to the ejector, the pump being still and no water in
+     the gauge glass on the pump casing, which must be full before
+     the pumps will work. The suction pipe of the ejector is only
+     two and a half inches in diameter, the steam pipe one inch in
+     diameter. To fully charge the pumps at this point required
+     filling the pump casing and the suction pipe containing about
+     2,000 gallons; this was accomplished in four minutes, and
+     when the gauge glass was full the pump operated instantly and
+     with certainty, discharging its full volume of water.
+
+     "I went on several occasions down in the valve pits on the
+     ladder of the casing, and to all accessible parts while in
+     motion at its highest speed, and there was no undue
+     vibration, only a uniform murmur of well-balanced parts, and
+     the peculiar clash of water against the sides of the casing
+     as its velocity was checked by the blank spaces in the
+     runner.
+
+     "The pumps are noisy while at work, due to the clashing of
+     the water just mentioned, but it affords a means of detecting
+     any faulty arrangements of the runner or unequal discharge
+     from any of its openings. While moving at a uniform speed,
+     this clashing has a tone whose pitch corresponds with that
+     velocity of discharge, and if this tone is lacking in
+     quality, or at all confused, there is want of equality of
+     discharge through the various openings of the runner. To this
+     part I gave close attention, and there was nothing that the
+     ear could detect to indicate aught but the nicest adjustment.
+     The bearings of the runners worked with great smoothness, and
+     did not become at all heated. Through a simple, novel
+     arrangement, these bearings are lubricated and kept cool.
+     There is a constant circulation of water from the pumps by
+     means of a small pipe, which completes a circuit to an
+     annular in the bearings back to the discharge pipe while the
+     pump is in motion, requiring no oil and making it seemingly
+     impossible to heat these bearings.
+
+     "The large cast steel valves placed in the embouchement of
+     the casing, it was thought, might act to check the free
+     discharge, and arrangements were provided for raising and
+     keeping them open by a long lever key attached to their axes
+     of revolution, but, to our great surprise, at the first gush
+     from the pumps these valves, weighing nearly 1,500 pounds,
+     were lifted into their recessed chambers, giving an
+     unobstructed opening to the flow, and they floated on its
+     surface unsupported, save by the swiftly flowing water,
+     without a movement, while the pump was in operation.
+
+     "The steam-actuated valves in the suction and discharge pipes
+     worked very well, and the water cushion gave a slow, uniform
+     motion, and without shock, either in opening or closing them.
+
+     "The engines worked noiselessly, without shock or labor. At
+     no time during the trial was the throttle valve open more
+     than three-eighths of an inch.
+
+     "The indicator cards taken at various intervals gave 796
+     horse power, and the revolutions did not exceed 160 at any
+     time, though it was estimated that 900 horse power and 210
+     revolutions would be necessary to attain the requisite
+     delivery. So that there is a large reserve of power available
+     at any time.
+
+     "The erection of this massive machinery has been admirably
+     done. The parts, as sent from the shops of the contractor,
+     have matched in all cases without interference here; and,
+     when lowered into place, its final adjustment was then made
+     without the use of chisel or file, and has never been touched
+     since.
+
+     "The joints of the steam and water connections were perfect,
+     and the method of concentrating all valves, waste pipes, and
+     important movements at the post of the engineer in charge
+     gives him complete control of the whole system of each engine
+     and pump without leaving his place, and reduces to a minimum
+     the necessary attendance. All the parts are strong and of
+     excellent design and workmanship; simple, and without
+     ornamentation.
+
+     "Looking down upon them from a level of the pump house
+     gallery, they are impressive and massive in their simplicity.
+
+     "The government is well worth of congratulation in possessing
+     the largest pumping machinery of this type and of the
+     greatest capacity in the world, and the contractors have
+     reason to be proud of their work."--_Proc. Eng. Club._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PART THAT ELECTRICITY PLAYS IN CRYSTALLIZATION.
+
+
+Since the discovery of the multiplying galvanometer, we know for an
+absolute certainty that in every chemical action there is a production
+of electricity in a more or less notable quantity, according to the
+nature of the bodies in presence. Though, in the play of _affinity_,
+there is a manifestation of electricity, is it the same with
+_cohesion_, which also is a chemical force?
+
+We know, on another hand, that, on causing electricity to intervene,
+we bring about the crystallization of a large number of substances.
+But is the converse true? Is spontaneous crystallization accompanied
+with an appreciable manifestation of electricity? If we consult the
+annals of science and works treating on electricity in regard to this
+subject, we find very few examples and experiments proper to elucidate
+the question.
+
+Mr. Mascart is content to say: "Some experiments seem to indicate that
+the solidification of a body produces electricity." Mr. Becquerel does
+more than doubt--he denies: "As regards the disengagement of
+electricity in the changing of the state of bodies, we find none."
+This assertion is too sweeping, for further along we shall cite facts
+that prove, on the contrary, that in the phenomena of crystallization
+(to speak of this change of state only) there is an unequivocal
+production of electricity. Let us remark, in the first place, that
+when a number of phenomena of physical and chemical order
+incontestably testify to the very intimate correlation that exists
+between the molecular motions of bodies and their electrical state, it
+would not be very logical to grant that electricity is absent in
+crystallization.
+
+Thus, to select an example from among physical effects, the vibratory
+phenomena that occur in telephone transmissions, under the influence
+of a very feeble electric current, show us that the molecular
+constitution of a solid body is extremely variable, although within
+slight limits. The feeblest modification in the electric current may
+be shown by molecular motions capable of propagating themselves to
+considerable distances in the conducting wire. Conversely, it is
+logical to suppose that a modification in the molecular state of a
+body must bring electricity into play. If, in the phenomena of
+solidification, and particularly of crystallization, we collect but
+small quantities of electricity, that may be due to the fact that,
+under the experimental conditions involved, the electricity is more or
+less completely absorbed by the work of crystal building.
+
+On another hand, the behavior of electricity shows in advance the
+multiple role that this agent may play in the various physical,
+chemical, and mechanical phenomena.
+
+There is no doubt that electricity exists immovable or in circulation
+everywhere, latent or imperceptible, around us, and within ourselves,
+and that it enters as a cause into the majority of the chemical,
+physical, and mechanical phenomena that are constantly taking place
+before our eyes. A body cannot change state, nature, temperature,
+form, or place, even, without electricity being brought into play, and
+without its accompanying such modifications, if it presides therein.
+Like heat, it is _the_ natural agent _par excellence_; it is the
+invisible and ever present force which, in the ultimate particles of
+matter, causes those motions, vibrations, and rotations that have the
+effect of changing the properties of bodies. Upon entering their
+intimate structure, it orients or groups their atoms, and separates
+their molecules or brings them together. From this, would it not be
+surprising if it did not intervene in the wonderful phenomenon of
+crystallization? Crystallization, in fact, depends upon _cohesion_,
+and, in the thermic theory, this force is not distinct from affinity,
+just as solution and dissociation are not distinct from combination.
+
+On this occasion, it is necessary to say that, between affinity, heat,
+and electricity there is such a correlation, such a dependency, that
+physicists have endeavored to reduce to one single principle all the
+causes that are now distinct. The mechanical theory of heat has made a
+great stride in this direction.
+
+The equivalence of the thermic, mechanical and chemical forces has
+been demonstrated; the only question hereafter will be to select from
+among such forces the one that must be adopted as the sole principle,
+in order to account for all the phenomena that depend upon these
+causes of various orders. But in the present state of science, it is
+not yet possible to explain completely by heat or electricity, taken
+isolatedly, all the effects dependent upon the causes just mentioned.
+We must confine ourselves for the present to a study of the relations
+that exist between the principal natural forces--affinity, molecular
+forces, heat, electricity, and light. But from the mutual dependence
+of such forces, it is admitted that, in every natural phenomenon,
+there is a more or less apparent simultaneous concurrence of these
+causes.
+
+In order to explain electric or magnetic phenomena, and also those of
+crystallization, it is admitted that the atoms of which bodies are
+composed are surrounded, each of them, with a sort of atmosphere
+formed of electric currents, owing to which these atoms are attracted
+or repelled on certain sides, and produce those varied effects that we
+observe under different circumstances. According to this theory, then,
+atoms would be small electro-magnets behaving like genuine magnets.
+Entirely free in gases, but less so in liquids and still less so in
+solids, they are nevertheless capable of arranging themselves and of
+becoming polarized in a regular order, special to each kind of atom,
+in order to produce crystals of geometrical form characteristic of
+each species. Thus, as Mr. Saigey remarks in "Physique Moderne" (p.
+181): "So long as the atmospheres of the molecules do not touch each
+other, no trace of cohesion manifests itself; but as soon as they come
+together force is born. We understand why the temperatures of fusion
+and solidification are fixed for the same body. Such effects occur at
+the precise moment at which these atmospheres, which are variable with
+the temperature, have reached the desired diameter."
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 1., 2., and 3.]
+
+Although the phenomenon of crystallization does not essentially depend
+upon temperature, but rather upon the relative quantity of liquid that
+holds the substance in solution, it will be conceived that a moment
+will arrive when, the liquid having evaporated, the atmospheres will
+be close enough to each other to attract each other and become
+polarized and symmetrically juxtaposed, and, in a word, to
+crystallize.
+
+Before giving examples of the production of electricity in the
+phenomenon of crystallization, it will be well to examine, beforehand,
+the different circumstances under which electricity acts as the
+determining cause of crystallization or intervenes among the causes
+that bring about the phenomenon. In the first place, two words
+concerning crystallization itself: We know that crystallization is the
+passage, or rather the result of the passage, of a body from a liquid
+or gaseous state to a solid one. It occurs when the substance has lost
+its cohesion through any cause whatever, and when, such cause ceasing
+to act, the body slowly returns to a solid state.
+
+Under such circumstances, it may take on regular, geometrical forms
+called crystalline. Such conditions are brought about by different
+processes--fusion, volatilization, solution, the dry way, wet way, and
+electric way. Further along, we shall give some examples of the last
+named means.
+
+Let us add that crystallization may be regarded as a general property
+of bodies, for the majority of substances are capable of
+crystallizing. Although certain bodies seem to be amorphous at first
+sight, it is only necessary to examine their fracture with a lens or
+microscope to see that they are formed of a large number of small
+juxtaposed crystals. Many amorphous precipitates become crystalline in
+the long run.
+
+In the examination of the various crystallizations that occupy us, we
+shall distinguish the following: (1) Those that are produced through
+the direct intervention of the electric current; (2) those in which
+electricity is manifestly produced by small voltaic couples resulting
+from the presence of two different metals in the solution experimented
+with; (3) those in which there are no voltaic couples, but in which it
+is proved that electricity is one of the causes that concur in the
+production of the phenomenon; (4) finally, those in which it is
+rational, through analogy with the preceding, to infer that
+electricity is not absent from the phenomenon.
+
+I. We know that, by means of voltaic electricity or induction, we can
+crystallize a large number of substances.
+
+Despretz tried this means for months at a time upon carbon, either by
+using the electricity from a Ruhmkorff coil or the current from a weak
+Daniell's battery. In both cases, he obtained on the platinum wires a
+black powder, in which were found very small octohedral crystals,
+having the property of polishing rubies rapidly and perfectly--a
+property characteristic of diamonds.
+
+The use of voltaic apparatus of high tension has allowed Mr. Cross to
+form a large number of mineral substances artificially, and among
+these we may mention carbonate of lime, arragonite, quartz, arseniate
+of copper, crystalline sulphur, etc.
+
+As regards products formed with the concurrence of electricity
+(oxides, sulphides, chlorides, iodides, etc.), see "Des Forces
+Physico-Chimiques," by Becquerel (p. 231).
+
+There is no doubt as to the part played by electricity in the chemical
+effects of electro-metallurgy, but it will not prove useless for our
+subject to remark that when, in this operation, the current has become
+too weak, the deposit of metal, instead of forming in a thin,
+adherent, and uniform layer, sometimes occurs under the form of
+protuberances and crystalline, brittle nodules. When, on the contrary,
+the current is very strong, the deposit is pulverulent, that is, in a
+confused crystallization or in an amorphous state.
+
+Further along, we shall find an application of this remark. We obtain,
+moreover, all the intermediate effects of cohesion, form, and color of
+galvanic deposits.
+
+When, into a solution of acetate of lead, we pass a current through
+two platinum electrodes, we observe the formation, at the negative
+pole, of numerous arborizations of metallic lead that grow under the
+observer's eye (Fig. 1). The phenomenon is of a most interesting
+character when, by means of solar or electric light, we project these
+brilliant vegetations on a screen. One might believe that he was
+witness of the rapid growth of a plant (Fig. 2). The same phenomenon
+occurs none the less brilliantly with a solution of nitrate of silver.
+A large number of saline solutions are adapted to these
+decompositions, in which the metal is laid bare under a crystalline
+form. Further along we shall see another means of producing analogous
+ramifications, without the direct use of the electric current.--_C.
+Decharme, in La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRIC TIME.
+
+By M. LIPPMANN.
+
+
+The unit of time universally adopted, the second, undergoes only very
+slow secular variations, and can be determined with a precision and an
+ease which compel its employment. Still it is true that the second is
+an arbitrary and a variable unit--arbitrary, in as far as it has no
+relation with the properties of matter, with physical constants;
+variable, since the duration of the diurnal movement undergoes causes
+of secular perturbation, some of which, such as the friction of the
+tides, are not as yet calculable.
+
+We may ask if it is possible to define an absolutely invariable unit
+of time; it would be desirable to determine with sufficient precision,
+if only once in a century, the relation of the second to such a unit,
+so that we might verify the variations of the second indirectly and
+independently of any astronomical hypothesis.
+
+Now, the study of certain electrical phenomena furnishes a unit of
+time which is absolutely invariable, as this magnitude is a specific
+constant. Let us consider a conductive substance which may always be
+found identical with itself, and to fix our ideas let us choose
+mercury, taken at the temperature of 0° C., which completely fulfills
+this condition. We may determine by several methods the specific
+electric resistance, [rho], of mercury in absolute electrostatic
+units; [rho] is a specific property of mercury, and is consequently a
+magnitude absolutely invariable. Moreover, [rho] is _an interval of
+time_. We might, therefore, take [rho] as a unit of time, unless we
+prefer to consider this value as an imperishable standard of time.
+
+In fact, [rho] is not simply a quantity the measure of which is found
+to be in relation with the measure of time. It is a concrete interval
+of time, disregarding every convention established with reference to
+measures and every selection of unit. It may at first sight, appear
+singular that an interval of time is found in a manner hidden under
+the designation _electric resistance_. But we need merely call to mind
+that in the electrostatic system the intensities of the current are
+speeds of efflux and that the resistances are times, i.e., the times
+necessary for the efflux of the electricity under given conditions. We
+must, in particular, remember what is meant by the specific
+resistance, [rho] of mercury in the electrostatic system. If we
+consider a circuit having a resistance equal to that of a cube of
+mercury, the side of which = the unit of length, the circuit being
+submitted to an electromotive force equal to unity, this circuit will
+take a given time to be traversed by the unit quantity of electricity,
+and this time is precisely [rho]. It must be remarked that the
+selection of the unit of length, like that of the unit of mass, is
+indifferent, for the different units brought here into play depend on
+it in such a manner that [rho] is not affected.
+
+It is now required to bring this definition experimentally into
+action, i.e., to realize an interval of time which may be a known
+multiple of [rho]. This problem may be solved in various ways,[1] and
+especially by means of the following apparatus.
+
+   [Footnote 1: In this system the measurement of time is not
+    effected, as ordinarily, by observing the movements of a
+    material system, but by experiments of equilibrium. All the
+    parts of the apparatus remain immovable, the electricity alone
+    being in motion. Such appliances are in a manner clepsydræ. This
+    analogy with the clepsydræ will be perceived if we consider the
+    form of the following experiment: Two immovable metallic plates
+    constitute the armatures of a charged condenser, and attract
+    each other with a force, F. If the plates are insulated, these
+    charges remain constant, as well as the force, F. If, on the
+    contrary, we connect the armatures of resistance, R, their
+    charges diminish and the force, F, becomes a function of the
+    time, _t_; the time, _t_, inversely becomes a function of P. We
+    find _t_ by the following formula:
+
+        t = [rho] × (lS / S[pi]es) × log hyp(F0/F)
+
+    F0 and F being the values of the force at the beginning and
+    at the end of the time, _t_. The above formula is independent of
+    the choice of units. If we wish _t_ to be expressed in seconds,
+    we must give [rho] the corresponding value ([rho] = 1.058 X
+    10^-16). If we take [rho] as a unit we make [rho] = 1, and we
+    find the absolute value of the time by the expression:
+
+        (lS) / (8[pi]es) log hyp(F0/F)
+
+    We remark that this expression of time contains only abstract
+    numbers, being independent of the choice of the units of length
+    and force. S and _e_ denote surface and the thickness of the
+    condenser; _s_ and _l_ the section and the length of a column of
+    mercury of the resistance, R. This form of apparatus enables us
+    practically to measure the notable values of _t_ only if the
+    value of the resistance, R, is enormous, the arrangement
+    described in the text has not the same inconvenience.]
+
+A battery of an arbitrary electromotive force, E, actuates at the same
+time the two antagonistic circuits of a differential galvanometer. In
+the first circuit, which has a resistance, R, the battery sends a
+continuous current of the intensity, I; in the second circuit the
+battery sends a discontinuous series of discharges, obtained by
+charging periodically by means of the battery a condenser of the
+capacity, C, which is then discharged through this second circuit. The
+needle of the galvanometer remains in equilibrium if the two currents
+yield equal quantities of electricity during one and the same time,
+[tau].
+
+Let us suppose this condition of equilibrium realized and the needle
+remaining motionless at zero; it is easy to write the conditions of
+equilibrium. During the time, [tau], the continuous current yields a
+                           E
+quantity of electricity = -- [tau]; on the other hand, each charge of
+                           R
+the condenser = CE, and during the time, [tau], the number of
+             [tau]
+discharges = -----, t being the fixed time between two discharges;
+               t
+[tau] and t are here supposed to be expressed by the aid of an
+arbitrary unit of time; the second circuit yields, therefore, a
+                                      [tau]
+quantity of electricity equal to CE × -----. The condition of
+                                        t
+                      E              [tau]
+equilibrium is then  ---[tau] = CE × ----- ; or, more simply, t = CR.
+                      R                t
+C and R are known in absolute values, i.e., we know that C is equal to
+_p_ times the capacity of a sphere of the radius, _l_; we have,
+therefore, C = _pl_; in the same manner we know that R is equal to _q_
+times the resistance of a cube of mercury having l for its side. We
+                             l      [rho]
+have, therefore, R = q[rho] --- = q ----- ; and consequently t = pq[rho].
+                             l²       l
+
+Such is the value of _t_ obtained on leaving all the units
+undetermined. If we express [rho] as a function of the second, we have
+_t_ in seconds. If we take [rho] = 1, we have the absolute value
+[Theta] of the same interval of time as a function of this unit; we
+have simply [Theta] = _pq_.
+
+If we suppose that the commutator which produces the successive
+charges and discharges of the condenser consists of a vibrating tuning
+fork, we see that the duration of a vibration is equal to the product
+of the two abstract numbers, _pq_.
+
+It remains for us to ascertain to what degree of approximation we can
+determine _p_ and _q_. To find _q_ we must first construct a column of
+mercury of known dimensions; this problem was solved by the
+International Bureau of Weights and Measures for the construction of
+the legal ohm. The legal ohm is supposed to have a resistance equal to
+106.00 times that of a cube of mercury of 0.01 meter, side
+measurement. The approximation obtained is comprised between 1/50000
+and 1/200000. To obtain _p_, we must be able to construct a plane
+condenser of known capacity. The difficulty here consists in knowing
+with a sufficient approximation the thickness of the stratum of air.
+We may employ as armatures two surfaces of glass, ground optically,
+silvered to render them conductive, but so slightly as to obtain by
+transparence Fizeau's interference rings. Fizeau's method will then
+permit us to arrive at a close approximation. In fine, then, we may,
+_a priori_, hope to reach an approximation of one hundred-thousandth
+of the value of _pq_.
+
+Independently of the use which may be made of it for measuring time in
+absolute value, the apparatus described possesses peculiar properties.
+It constitutes a kind of clock which indicates, registers, and, if
+needful, corrects automatically its own variations of speed. The
+apparatus being regulated so that the magnetic needle may be at zero,
+if the speed of the commutator is slightly increased, the equilibrium
+is disturbed and the magnetic needle deviates in the corresponding
+direction; if on the contrary the speed diminishes, the action of the
+antagonistic circuit predominates, and the needle deviates in the
+contrary direction. These deviations, when small, are proportional to
+the variations of speed. They may be, in the first place, observed.
+They may, further, be registered, either photographically or by
+employing a Redier apparatus, like that which M. Mascart has adapted
+to his quadrant electrometer; finally, we may arrange the Redier to
+react upon the speed so as to reduce its variations to zero. If these
+variations are not completely annulled, they will still be registered
+and can be taken into account.
+
+As an indicator of variations this apparatus can be of remarkable
+sensitiveness, which may be increased indefinitely by enlarging its
+dimensions.
+
+With a battery of 10 volts, a condenser of a microfarad, 10 discharges
+per second, and a Thomson's differential galvanometer sensitive to
+10^{-10} amperes, we obtain already a sensitiveness of 1/1000000,
+i.e., a variation of 1/1000000 in the speed is shown after some
+seconds of a deviation of one millimeter. Even the stroboscopic method
+does not admit of such sensitiveness.
+
+We may therefore find, with a very close approximation, a speed always
+the same on condition that the solid parts of the apparatus (the
+condenser and the resistance) are protected from causes of variation
+and used always at the same temperature. Doubtless, a well-constructed
+astronomical clock maintains a very uniform movement; but the electric
+clock is placed in better conditions for invariability, for all the
+parts are massive and immovable; they are merely required to remain
+unchanged, and there is no question of the wear and tear of
+wheel-work, the oxidation of oils, or the variations of weight. In
+other words, the system formed by a condenser and a resistance
+constitutes a standard of time easy of preservation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW METHOD OF MAINTAINING THE VIBRATION OF A PENDULUM.
+
+
+A recent number of the _Comptes Rendus_ contains a note by M.J.
+Carpentier describing a method of maintaining the vibrations of a
+pendulum by means of electricity, which differs from previous devices
+of the same character in that the impulse given to the pendulum at
+each vibration is independent of the strength of the current employed,
+and that the pendulum itself is entirely free, save at the point of
+suspension. The vibrations are maintained, not by direct impulsion,
+but by a slight horizontal displacement of the point of suspension in
+alternate directions.
+
+This, as M. Carpentier observes, is the method which we naturally
+adopt in order to maintain the amplitude of swing of a heavy body
+suspended from a cord held in the hand. The required movement of the
+point of suspension is effected by means of a polarized relay, through
+the coils of which the current is periodically reversed by the action
+of the pendulum, in a manner which will presently be explained. The
+armature of the relay oscillates between two stops whose distance
+apart is capable of fine adjustment.
+
+It is clear, therefore, that the impulse is independent of the
+strength of the current in the relay, provided that the armature is
+brought up to the stop on either side. The reversal of the current is
+effected by means of a small magnet carried by the bob of the
+pendulum, and which as it passes underneath the point of suspension is
+brought close to a soft iron armature, which has the form of an arc of
+a circle described about the point of suspension. This armature is
+pivoted at its center, and thus executes vibrations synchronously with
+those of the pendulum. These vibrations are adjusted to a very narrow
+range, but are sufficient to close the contacts of a commutator which
+reverses the current at each semi-vibration of the pendulum.
+
+The beauty and ingenuity of this device will readily be appreciated.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DR. MORELL MACKENZIE.
+
+
+The name of the great English laryngologist, which has long been
+honored by scientists of England and the Continent, has lately become
+familar to everyone, even in unprofessional circles, in Germany
+because of his operations on the Crown Prince's throat. If his wide
+experience and great skill enable him to permanently remove the growth
+from the throat of his royal patient, if his diagnosis and prognosis
+are confirmed, so that no fear need be entertained for the life and
+health of the Crown Prince, the English specialist will certainly
+deserve the most sincere thanks of the German nation. Every phase of
+this treatment, every new development, is watched with suspense and
+hope.
+
+Many have been unable to suppress the expression of regret that this
+important case was not under the care of a German, and part of the
+press look upon it as unjust treatment of the German specialists. But
+science is international, it knows no political boundaries, and the
+choice of Dr. Mackenzie by the family of the Crown Prince, whose
+sympathy with England is natural, cannot be considered a slight to
+German physicians when it is taken into consideration that the German
+authorities pronounced the growth suspicious and advised a difficult
+and doubtful operation, and that Prof. v. Bergman recommended that a
+foreign authority be consulted. As Dr. Mackenzie removed the
+obstruction, which had already become threatening and, in fact,
+dangerous, causing a loss of voice, and promised to remove any new
+growth from the inside without danger to the patient, the Crown Prince
+naturally trusted him. Since Virchow has made a microscopic examination
+of the part which was cut away, and has declared the new growth to be
+benign, all Germans should watch the results of Dr. Mackenzie's
+operations with sympathy, trusting that all further growth will be
+prevented, and that the Crown Prince will be restored to the German
+people in his former state of health.
+
+[Illustration: DR. MORELL MACKENZIE.]
+
+Dr. Morell Mackenzie has lately reached his fiftieth year, and has
+attained the height of his fame as an author and practitioner. He was
+born at Leytonston in 1837, and studied first in London. At the age
+of twenty-two he passed his examination, then practiced as physician
+in the London Hospital, and obtained his degree in 1862. A year later
+he received the Jackson prize from the Royal Society of Surgeons for
+his treatment of a laryngeal case.
+
+He completed his studies in Paris, Vienna (with Siegmund), and
+Budapest. In the latter place he worked with Czermak, making a special
+study of the laryngoscope. Later he published an excellent work on
+"Diseases of the Throat and Nose," which was the fruit of twelve
+years' work. The evening before the day on which this work was to have
+been issued, the whole edition was destroyed by a fire which occurred
+in the printing establishment, and had to be reprinted from the proof
+sheets, which were saved. In 1870 his work "On Growths in the Throat"
+appeared, and he has also published many articles in the _British
+Medical Journal_, the _Lancet_, _Medical Times and Gazette_, etc.,
+which have been translated into different languages, making his name
+renowned all over Europe.
+
+Since he founded the first English hospital for diseases of the throat
+and chest, in London in 1863, and held the position of lecturer on
+diseases of the throat in the London Medical College, his career has
+been watched with interest by the public, and his practice in England
+is remarkable. Therefore it is no wonder that his lately published
+work "On the Hygiene of the Vocal Organs" has reached its fourth
+edition already. This work is read not only by physicians, but also by
+singers and lecturers.
+
+As a learned man in his profession, as an experienced diagnostician,
+and as a skillful and fortunate practitioner, he is surpassed by none;
+and his ability will be well known far beyond the borders of Great
+Britain if fortune favors him and he restores the future Emperor of
+Germany to his former strength and vigor, without which we cannot
+imagine this knightly form. The certainty with which Dr. Mackenzie
+speaks of permanent cures which he has effected in similar cases,
+together with the clear and satisfactory report of the great
+pathologist Virchow, lead us to look to the future with
+confidence.--_Illustrirte Zeitung._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HYPNOTISM IN FRANCE.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: Translated for _Science_ from _Der Spinx_.]
+
+
+The voluntary production of those abnormal conditions of the nerves
+which to-day are denoted by the term "hypnotic researches" has
+manifested itself in all ages and among most of the nations that are
+known to us. Within modern times these phenomena were first reduced to
+a system by Mesmer, and, on this account, for the future deserve the
+attention of the scientific world. The historical description of this
+department, if one intends to give a connected account of its
+development, and not a series of isolated facts, must begin with a
+notice of Mesmer's personality, and we must not confound the more
+recent development of our subject with its past history.
+
+The period of mesmerism is sufficiently understood from the numerous
+writings on the subject, but it would be a mistake to suppose that in
+Braid's "Exposition of Hypnotism" the end of this subject had been
+reached. In a later work I hope to show that the fundamental ideas of
+biomagnetism have not only had in all periods of this century capable
+and enthusiastic advocates, but that even in our day they have been
+subjected to tests by French and English investigators from which they
+have issued triumphant.
+
+The second division of this historical development is carried on by
+Braid, whose most important service was emphasizing the subjectivity
+of the phenomena. Without any connection with him, and yet by
+following out almost exactly the same experiments, Professor
+Heidenhain reached his physiological explanations. A third division is
+based upon the discovery of the hypnotic condition in animals, and
+connects itself to the _experimentum mirabile_. In 1872 the first
+writings on this subject appear from the pen of the physiologist
+Czermak; and since then the investigations have been continued,
+particularly by Professor Preyer.
+
+While England and Germany were led quite independently to the study of
+the same phenomena, France experienced a strange development, which
+shows, as nothing else could, how truth everywhere comes to the
+surface, and from small beginnings swells to a flood which carries
+irresistibly all opposition with it. This fourth division of the
+history of hypnotism is the more important, because it forms the
+foundation of a transcendental psychology, and will exert a great
+influence upon our future culture; and it is this division to which we
+wish to turn our attention. We have intentionally limited ourselves to
+a chronological arrangement, since a systematic account would
+necessarily fall into the study of single phenomena, and would far
+exceed the space offered to us.
+
+James Braid's writings, although they were discussed in detail in
+Littré and Robin's "Lexicon," were not at all the cause of Dr.
+Philips' first books, who therefore came more independently to the
+study of the same phenomena. Braid's theories became known to him
+later by the observations made upon them in Béraud's "Elements of
+Physiology" and in Littré's notes in the translation of Müller's
+"Handbook of Physiology;" and he then wrote a second brochure, in
+which he gave in his allegiance to braidism. His principal effort was
+directed to withdrawing the veil of mystery from the occurrences, and
+by a natural explanation relegating them to the realm of the known.
+The trance caused by regarding fixedly a gleaming point produces in
+the brain, in his opinion, an accumulation of a peculiar nervous
+power, which he calls "electrodynamism." If this is directed in a
+skillful manner by the operator upon certain points, it manifests
+itself in certain situations and actions that we call hypnotic. Beyond
+this somewhat questionable theory, both books contained a detailed
+description of some of the most important phenomena; but with the
+practical meaning of the phenomena, and especially with their
+therapeutic value, the author concerned himself but slightly. Just on
+account of this pathological side, however, a certain attention has
+been paid to hypnotism up to the present time.
+
+In the year 1847 two surgeons in Poictiers, Drs. Ribaut and Kiaros,
+employed hypnotism with great success in order to make an operation
+painless. "This long and horrible work," says a journal of the day,
+"was much more like a demonstration in a dissecting room than an
+operation performed upon a living being." Although this operation
+produced such an excitement, yet it was twelve years later before
+decisive and positive official intelligence was given of these facts
+by Broca, Follin, Velpeau, and Guérinau. But these accounts, as well
+as the excellent little book by Dr. Azam, shared the fate of their
+predecessors. They were looked upon by students with distrust, and by
+the disciples of Mesmer with scornful contempt.
+
+The work of Demarquay and Giraud Teulon showed considerable advance in
+this direction. The authors, indeed, fell back upon the theory of
+James Braid, which they called stillborn, and of which they said,
+"_Elle est restée accrochée en route_;" but they did not satisfy
+themselves with a simple statement of facts, as did Gigot Suard in his
+work that appeared about the same time. Through systematic experiments
+they tried to find out where the line of hypnotic phenomena intersected
+the line of the realm of the known. They justly recognized that
+hypnotism and hysteria have many points of likeness, and in this way
+were the precursors of the present Parisian school. They say that from
+magnetic sleep to the hypnotic condition an iron chain can be easily
+formed from the very same organic elements that we find in historical
+conditions.
+
+At the same time, as if to bring an experimental proof of this
+assertion, Lasigue published a report on catalepsy in persons of
+hysterical tendencies, which be afterward incorporated into his larger
+work. Among his patients, those who were of a quiet and lethargic
+temperament, by simply pressing down the eyelids, were made to enter
+into a peculiar state of languor, in which cataleptic contractions
+were easily produced, and which forcibly recalled hypnotic phenomena.
+"One can scarcely imagine," says the author, "a more remarkable
+spectacle than that of a sick person sunk in deep sleep, and
+insensible to all efforts to arouse him, who retains every position in
+which he is placed, and in it preserves the immobility and rigidity of
+a statue." But this impulse also was in vain, and in only a few cases
+were the practical tests followed up with theoretical explanations.
+
+Unbounded enthusiasm and unjust blame alike subsided into a silence
+that was not broken for ten years. Then Charles Richet, a renowned
+scientist, came forward in 1875, impelled by the duty he felt he owed
+as a priest of truth, and made some announcements concerning the
+phenomena of somnambulism; and in countless books, all of which are
+worthy of attention, he has since then considered the problem from its
+various sides.
+
+He separates somnambulism into three periods. The word here is used
+for this whole class of subjects as Richet himself uses it, viz.,
+_torpeur_, _excitation_, and _stupeur_. In the first, which is
+produced by the so-called magnetic passes and the fixing of the eyes,
+silence and languor come over the subject. The second period, usually
+produced by constant repetition of the experiment, is characterized
+chiefly by sensibility to hallucination and suggestion. The third
+period has as its principal characteristics supersensibility of the
+muscles and lack of sensation. Yet let it be noticed that these
+divisions were not expressed in their present clearness until 1880;
+while in the years between 1872 and 1880, from an entirely different
+quarter, a similar hypothesis was made out for hypnotic phenomena.
+
+Jean Martin Charcot, the renowned neurologist of the Parisian
+Salpetriere, without exactly desiring it, was led into the study of
+artificial somnambulism by his careful experiments in reference to
+hysteria, and especially by the question of _metallotherapie_, and in
+the year 1879 had prepared suitable demonstrations, which were given
+in public lectures at the Salpetriere. In the following years he
+devoted himself to closer investigation of this subject, and was
+happily and skillfully assisted by Dr. Paul Richer, with whom were
+associated many other physicians, such as Bourneville, Regnard, Fere,
+and Binet. The investigations of these men present the peculiarity
+that they observe hypnotism from its clinical and nosographical side,
+which side had until now been entirely neglected, and that they
+observe patients of the strongest hysterical temperaments. "If we can
+reasonably assert that the hypnotic phenomena which depend upon the
+disturbance of a regular function of the organism demand for their
+development a peculiar temperament, then we shall find the most marked
+phenomena when we turn to an hysterical person."
+
+The inferences of the Parisian school up to this time are somewhat the
+following, but their results, belonging almost entirely to the medical
+side of the question, can have no place in this discussion. They
+divide the phenomena of hystero-hypnotism, which they also call
+_grande hysterie_, into three plainly separable classes, which Charcot
+designates catalepsy, lethargy, and somnambulism.
+
+Catalepsy is produced by a sudden sharp noise, or by the sight of a
+brightly gleaming object. It also produces itself in a person who is
+in a state of lethargy, and whose eyes are opened. The most striking
+characteristic of the cataleptic condition is immobility. The subject
+retains every position in which he is placed, even if it is an
+unnatural one, and is only aroused by the action of suggestion from
+the rigor of a statue to the half life of an automaton. The face is
+expressionless and the eyes wide open. If they are closed, the patient
+falls into a lethargy.
+
+In this second condition, behind the tightly closed lids, the pupils
+of the eyes are convulsively turned upward. The body is almost
+entirely without sensation or power of thought. Especially
+characteristic of lethargy is the hyper-excitability of the nerves and
+muscles (_hyperexcitabilite neuromusculaire_), which manifests itself
+at the slightest touch of any object. For instance, if the extensor
+muscles of the arm are lightly touched, the arm stiffens immediately,
+and is only made flexible again by a hard rubbing of the same muscles.
+The nerves also react in a similar manner. The irritation of a nerve
+trunk not only contracts all the small nerves into which it branches,
+but also all those muscles through which it runs.
+
+Finally, the somnambulistic condition proceeds from catalepsy or from
+lethargy by means of a slight pressure upon the _vertex_, and is
+particularly sensitive to every psychical influence. In some subjects
+the eyes are open, in others closed. Here, also, a slight irritation
+produces a certain amount of rigor in the muscle that has been
+touched, but it does not weaken the antagonistic muscle, as in
+lethargy, nor does it vanish under the influence of the same
+excitement that has produced it. In order to put an end to the
+somnambulistic condition, one must press softly upon the pupil of the
+eye, upon which the subject becomes lethargic, and is easily roused by
+breathing upon him. In this early stage, somnambulism appears very
+infrequently.
+
+Charcot's school also recognize the existence of compound conditions,
+the history of whose symptoms we must not follow here. These slightly
+sketched results, as well as a number of other facts, were only
+obtained in the course of several years; yet in 1882 the fundamental
+investigations of this school were considered virtually concluded.
+Then Dumont-Pallier, the head of the Parisian Hospital Pitié, came
+forward with a number of observations, drawn also exclusively from the
+study of hystero-hypnotism, and yet differing widely from those
+reached by the physicians of the Salpetriere. In a long series of
+communications, he has given his views, which have in their turn been
+violently attacked, especially by Magnin and Bérillon. I give only the
+most important points.
+
+According to these men, the hyper-excitability of the nerves and
+muscles is present not only in the lethargic condition, but in all
+three periods; and in order to prove this, we need only apply the
+suitable remedy, which must be changed for each period and every
+subject. Slight irritations of the skin prove this most powerfully. A
+drop of warm water or a ray of sunshine produces contractions of a
+muscle whose skin covering they touch.
+
+Dumont-Pallier and Magnin accede to the theory of intermediate stages,
+and have tried to lay down rules for them with as great exactness as
+Charcot's school. They also are very decided about the three periods,
+whose succession does not appear to them as fixed; but they discovered
+a new fundamental law which regulates the production as well as the
+cessation of the condition--_La cause qui fait, defait_; that is, the
+stimulus which produces one of the three periods needs only to be
+repeated in order to do away with that condition. From this the
+following diagram of hypnotic conditions is evolved:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+And, furthermore, Dumont-Pallier should be considered as the founder
+of a series of experiments, for he was the first one to show in a
+decisive manner that the duality of the cerebral system was proved by
+these hypnotic phenomena; and his works, as well as those of Messrs.
+Bérillon and Descourtis, have brought to light the following facts:
+Under hypnotic conditions, the psychical activity of a brain
+hemisphere may be suppressed without nullifying the intellectual
+activity or consciousness. Both hemispheres may be started at the same
+time in different degrees of activity; and also, when the grade is the
+same, they may be independently the seat of psychical manifestations
+which are in their natures entirely different. In close connection
+with this and with the whole doctrine of hemi-hypnotism, which is
+founded upon these facts, stand the phenomena of thought transference,
+which we must consider later.
+
+As an addition to the investigations of Charcot and Dumont-Pallier,
+Brémaud, in 1884, made the discovery that there was a fourth hypnotic
+state, "fascination," which preceded the three others, and manifested
+itself by a tendency to muscular contractions, as well as through
+sensitiveness to hallucination and suggestion, but at the same time
+left to the subject a full consciousness of his surroundings and
+remembrance of what had taken place. Descourtis, in addition,
+perceived a similar condition in the transition from hypnotic sleep to
+waking, which he called _delire posthypnotique_, and, instead of using
+the word "fascination" to express the opening stage, he substituted
+"captation." According to him, the diagram would be the following:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This whole movement, which I have tried to sketch, and whose chief
+peculiarity is that it considers hypnotism a nervous malady, and one
+that must be treated clinically and nosographically, was opposed in
+1880 in two directions--one source of opposition producing great
+results, while the other fell to the ground. The latter joined itself
+to the theory of the mesmerists, and tried, by means of exact
+experiments, to measure the fluid emanating from the human body--an
+undertaking which gave slight promise of any satisfactory result.
+
+Baillif in his thesis (1878) and Chevillard in his (for spiritualists)
+very interesting books, tried, by means of various arguments, to
+uphold the fluidic explanation. Despine also thought that by its help
+he had been able to explain the phenomena; but it was Baréty who, in
+the year 1881, first turned general attention in this direction.
+According to him, mankind possesses a nerve force which emanates from
+him in different kinds of streams. Those coming from the eyes and
+fingers produce insensibility to pain, while those generated by the
+breath cause hypnotic conditions. This nerve force goes out into the
+ether, and there obeys the laws that govern light, being broken into
+spectra, etc.
+
+Claude Perronnet has more lately advanced similar views, and his
+greatest work is now in press. Frederick W.H. Myers and Edmund Gurney
+sympathize with these views, and try to unite them with the mesmerist
+doctrine of personal influence and their theory of telepathy. The
+third champion in England of hypnotism, Prof. Hack Tuke, on the
+contrary, sympathizes entirely with the Parisian school, only
+differing from them in that he has experimented with satisfactory
+results upon healthy subjects. In France this view has lately been
+accepted by Dr. Bottey, who recognizes the three hypnotic stages in
+healthy persons, but has observed other phenomena in them, and
+vehemently opposes the conception of hypnotism as a malady. His
+excellently written book is particularly commended to those who wish
+to experiment in the same manner as the French investigator, without
+using hysterical subjects.
+
+The second counter current that opposed itself to the French
+neuropathologists, and produced the most lasting impression, is
+expressed by the magic word "suggestion." A generation ago, Dr.
+Liebault, the patient investigator and skillful physician, had
+endeavored to make a remedial use of suggestion in his clinic at
+Nancy. Charles Richet and others have since referred to it, but
+Professor Bernheim was the first one to demonstrate its full
+significance in the realm of hypnotism. According to him,
+suggestion--that is, the influence of any idea, whether received
+through the senses or in a hypersensible manner (_suggestion
+mentale_)--is the key to all hypnotic phenomena. He has not been able
+in a single case to verify the bodily phenomena of _grandehypnotisme_
+without finding suggestion the primary cause, and on this account
+denies the truth of the asserted physical causes. Bernheim says that
+when the intense expectance of the subject has produced a compliant
+condition, a peculiar capacity is developed to change the idea that
+has been received into an action as well as a great acuteness of
+acceptation, which together will produce all those phenomena that we
+should call by the name of "pathological sleep," since they are only
+separable in a gradual way from the ordinary sleep and dream
+conditions. Bernheim is particularly strenuous that psychology should
+appear in the foreground of hypnotism, and on this point has been
+strongly upheld by men like Professors Beaunis and Richet.
+
+The possibility of suggestion in waking conditions, and also a long
+time after the sleep has passed off (_suggestions posthypnotiques ou
+suggestions a (longue) echeance_), as well as the remarkable capacity
+of subjects to change their personality (_changement de la
+personnalite objectivation des types_), have been made the subject of
+careful investigation. The voluntary production of bleeding and
+stigmata through spiritual influence has been asserted, particularly
+by Messrs. Tocachon, Bourru, and Burot. The judicial significance of
+suggestion has been discussed by Professor Liegeois and Dr. Ladame.
+Professor Pitres in Bordeaux is one of the suggestionists, though
+differing in many points from the Nancy school.
+
+This whole tendency brings into prominence the psychical influence,
+while it denies the production of these results from purely physical
+phenomena, endeavoring to explain them in a different manner. These
+explanations carry us into two realms, the first of which has been
+lately opened, and at present seems to abound more in enigmas than in
+solutions.
+
+_Metallotherapie_, which was called into existence by Dr. Burg, and
+further extended by Dr. Gellé, contains a special point of
+interest--the so-called transference in the case of hysterically or
+hypnotically affected persons. Transference is caused by
+electro-magnetism, which has this peculiarity--that in the case of
+specially sensitive persons it can transfer the bodily affection from
+left to right, and _vice versa_. The transference of paralysis, the
+cures attempted on this plan, and the so-called "psychical
+transference," which contains special interest for graphologists, are
+at the present time still open questions, as well as the closely
+connected theory of human polarity; and the odic experiments of Dr.
+Chazarain are yet waiting for their confirmation. At present the
+problem of the connection between magnetism and hypnotism is under
+investigation, and in such a manner that we may hope for a speedy
+solution.
+
+Still stranger than these reports are the accounts of the distant
+operation of certain bodies; at least, they seem strange to those
+unacquainted with psychometry and the literature of the past century
+relating to this subject. Two physicians in Rochefort, Professors
+Bourru and Burot, in treating a hystero-epileptic person, found that
+gold, even when at a distance of fifteen centimeters, produced in him
+a feeling of unbearable heat. They continued these experiments with
+great care, and, after a number of trials, came to this
+conclusion--that in some persons certain substances, even when
+carefully separated from them by long distance, exercise exactly the
+same physiological influence as if introduced into their organism. In
+order to explain these phenomena, they refer to the radiating force of
+Baréty, an explanation neither satisfactory to themselves nor to
+others. Lately the distinguished Parisian physician, Dr. Luys, has
+confirmed by his experiments the existence of these phenomena, but he
+thinks the explanation referable to hyper-sensitiveness of the
+"_regions emotives et intellectuelles de l'encephale_" yet even he has
+not reached the kernel of the difficulty.
+
+In close connection with action at a distance is the question of
+distant production of hypnotic sleep. For an answer to this problem,
+they are experimenting in both France and England; and Frederick W.H.
+Myers has thrown an entirely new light upon the subject by the
+investigations he is making upon a purely experimental basis. In Italy
+they have limited themselves to the study of isolated cases of
+hystero-hypnotism, except as the phenomena of magnetic fascination
+investigated by Donato have given rise to further research; but all
+the books I have seen upon this subject, as well as many by French
+authors, suffer from ignorance of the latest English discoveries.
+
+With this I think that I have given a slight outline of the history of
+hypnotic investigation to the end of the year 1886. I shall attempt a
+criticism of this whole movement at some other time, as space is not
+afforded to me here; but I should like to make this statement now,
+that two of the characteristic indications of this period are of the
+gravest import--first the method ("Our work," says Richet, "is that of
+strictly scientific _testing_, _observation_, and _arrangement_");
+and, secondly, the result. Hypnotism has been received into the realm
+of scientific investigation, and with this the foundation of a true
+experimental psychology has been laid.
+
+MAX DESSOIR.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DUODENUM: A SIPHON TRAP.
+
+By MAYO COLLIER, M.S. Lond., F.R.C.S. Eng.; Senior
+Assistant Surgeon, North-West London Hospital; Assistant Demonstrator
+of Anatomy, London Hospital Medical College.
+
+
+We may take it for granted that all gases generated in the jejunum,
+ileum, and large intestines pass onward toward the anus, and there
+sooner or later escape. Fetid gases--except those generated in the
+stomach and duodenum--never pass upward, not even during vomiting due
+to hernia, obstruction, and other causes. Physiologists, it would
+appear, have never busied themselves to find an explanation for this
+apparent breach of the laws of gravity. The intestinal canal is a tube
+with various dilatations and constrictions, but at no spot except the
+pylorus does the constriction completely obliterate the lumen of the
+tube, and here only periodically. It is perfectly evident, then, that,
+unless some system of trap exists in the canal, gases are free to
+travel from below upward in obedience to the laws of gravity, and
+would, as a matter of fact, sooner or later do so. From the straight,
+course and vertical position of the oesophagus, a very slight
+pressure of gas in the stomach easily overcomes the closure of its
+cardiac sphincter and allows of escape. When the stomach has digested
+its contents and the pylorus is relaxed, gases generated in the
+duodenum can and do ascend into the stomach and so escape. Normally,
+no fetid gases are generated in the stomach or duodenum. If we follow
+the course of the intestines down, we find that the duodenum presents
+a remarkable curve.
+
+Now, there are some points of great interest in connection with this
+remarkable, almost circular, curve of the duodenum. In the first
+place, this curve is a constant feature in all mammalians. Mr. Treves
+says it is one of the most constant features in the anatomy of the
+intestines in man, and, speaking of mammalians in general, that the
+curve of the duodenum varies in shape, but is never absent, becoming
+more complex in some of the higher primates, but seldom less distinct
+than in man. In birds the duodenum always forms a long loop embracing
+the pancreas.
+
+A second point of great interest is the absolute constancy and
+fixation of its terminal portion at the point of junction with the
+jejunum, more correctly termed second ascending or fourth portion. Mr.
+Treves says that this fourth portion is never less than an inch, and
+is practically constant. It extends along the side of the left crus of
+the diaphragm opposite the second lumbar vertebra, and is there firmly
+fixed to the front of the aorta and crus of the diaphragm by a strong
+fibro-muscular band, slinging it up and absolutely retaining it in
+position. This band has been termed the "musculus suspensorius
+duodeni," but is chiefly composed of white fibrous tissue, and is more
+of the native of a ligament than a muscle. This ligament is always
+present, and its position is never altered. The curve of the duodenum
+may descend as far as the iliac fossa, but the terminal portion is
+always maintained by this band in its normal position.
+
+Another point of great constancy is the position of the pancreas and
+its relation to the curve of the duodenum. The duodenum always curves
+round the head of the pancreas and is, as it were, moulded on it and
+retained in position by it. In birds the duodenum always forms a long
+loop embracing the pancreas. Further, the ducts of the liver and
+pancreas always open into the center Of the duodenum, either
+separately or by a common opening.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Now, the absolute constancy of the curve of the duodenum, the complete
+fixation of its fourth portion, the position of the pancreas, and the
+place of entry of the ducts of the pancreas and liver, are all
+component parts of a siphon trap, whereby gases generated below the
+duodenum are prevented from passing upward. A reference to the
+accompanying diagrams will make this quite clear. A is a diagram of a
+siphon trap copied from Parkes' hygiene. B is a very diagrammatic
+outline of the stomach and duodenum, _a_ is intended to mark the
+position of the fibrous band, or musculus suspensorius duodeni; and
+_b_ the position of entry of the ducts of the liver and pancreas. The
+duodenum, then, is a siphon trap, and a most efficient one. Now, the
+efficiency of a siphon trap depends not only on its shape, but what is
+absolutely essential is that the curve must be kept constantly full of
+fluid, without which it ceases to be a trap, and would allow gases to
+ascend freely. The position of the place of entry of the ducts of the
+pancreas and liver assures that this _sine qua non_ shall be present.
+The discharge of the secretions of the pancreas and liver, although
+more active during and after feeding, is practically constant, and so
+insures in an admirable manner that the curve on which the efficiency
+of the trap depends shall be constantly kept full not only with fluid,
+but, as I would suggest, antiseptic fluid. There is no other trap in
+the intestinal canal, but the peculiar position of the colon would no
+doubt have more or less effect in preventing gases ascending through
+the ileo-cæcal valve.--_Lancet._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+WISCONSIN CRANBERRY CULTURE.
+
+
+Among the many thousands of well informed persons with whom the
+cranberry is a staple article of food throughout the autumn and
+winter, and who especially derive from its pungent flavor sharp relish
+for their Thanksgiving and Christmas turkey, not one in ten has any
+definite idea as to where the delicious fruit comes from, or of the
+method of growing and harvesting it. Most people are, however, aware
+that it is raised on little "truck patches" somewhere down in New
+Jersey or about Cape Cod, and some have heard that it is gleaned from
+the swamps in the Far West by Indians and shipped to market by white
+traders. But to the great majority its real history is unknown.
+
+Yet the cranberry culture is an industry in which millions of dollars
+are invested in this country, and it gives employment, for at least a
+portion of each year, to many thousands of people. In the East, where
+the value of an acre of even swamp land may run up into the thousands
+of dollars, a cranberry marsh of five or ten acres is considered a
+large one, and, cultivated in the careful, frugal style in vogue
+there, may yield its owner a handsome yearly income. But in the great,
+boundless West, where land, and more especially swamp land, may be had
+for from $1 to $5 an acre, we do these things differently, if not
+better.
+
+The State of Wisconsin produces nearly one-half of the cranberries
+annually grown in the United States. There are marshes there covering
+thousands of acres, whereon this fruit grows wild, having done so even
+as far back as the oldest tradition of the native red man extends. In
+many cases the land on which the berries grow has been bought from the
+government by individuals or firms, in vast tracts, and the growth of
+the fruit promoted and encouraged by a system of dikes and dams
+whereby the effects of droughts, frost, and heavy rainfalls are
+counteracted to almost any extent desired. Some of these holdings
+aggregate many thousands of acres under a single ownership; and after
+a marsh of this vast extent has been thoroughly ditched and good
+buildings, water works, etc., are erected on it, its value may reach
+many thousands of dollars, while the original cost of the land may
+have been merely nominal.
+
+Large portions of Jackson, Wood, Monroe, Marinette, Juneau, and Green
+counties are natural cranberry marshes. The Wisconsin Valley division
+of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway runs through a closely
+continuous marsh, forty miles long and nearly as wide, as level as a
+floor, which is an almost unbroken series of cranberry farms. The
+Indians, who inhabited this country before the white man came, used to
+congregate here every fall, many of them traveling several hundred
+miles, to lay in their winter supply of berries. Many thousands of
+barrels are now annually shipped from this region; and thus this vast
+area, which to the stranger looking upon it would appear utterly
+worthless, is as valuable as the richest farming lands in the State.
+
+In a few instances, however, this fruit is cultivated in Wisconsin in
+a style similar to that practiced in the East; that is, by paring the
+natural sod from the bog, covering the earth to a depth of two or
+three inches with sand, and then transplanting the vines into soil
+thus prepared. The weeds are then kept down for a year or two, when
+the vines take full possession of the soil, and further attention is
+unnecessary. The natural "stand" of the vines in the sod is so
+productive, however, and the extent of country over which bountiful
+nature has distributed them so vast, that few operators have thought
+it necessary to incur the expense of special culture.
+
+One of the best and most perfectly equipped marshes in Wisconsin is
+owned by Mr. G.B. Sackett, of Berlin. It is situated four miles north
+of that village, and comprises 1,600 acres, nearly all of which is a
+veritable bog, and is covered with a natural and luxuriant growth of
+cranberry vines. A canal has been cut from the Fox River to the
+southern limit of the marsh, a distance of 4,400 ft. It is 45 ft.
+wide, and the water stands in it to a depth of nine feet, sufficient
+to float fair sized steamboats. At the intersection of the canal with
+the marsh steam water works have been erected, with flood gates and
+dams by means of which the entire marsh may be flooded to a depth of a
+foot or more when desired. There are two engines of 150 horse power
+each, and two pumps that are capable of raising 80,000 gallons per
+minute.
+
+When, in early autumn, the meteorological conditions indicate the
+approach of frost, the pumps may he put to work in the afternoon and
+the berries be effectually covered by water and thus protected before
+nightfall. At sunrise the gates are opened and the water allowed to
+run off again, so that the pickers may proceed with their work. The
+marsh is flooded to a depth of about two feet at the beginning of each
+winter and allowed to remain so until spring, the heavy body of ice
+that forms preventing the upheaval that would result from freezing and
+thawing--a natural process which, if permitted, works injury to the
+vines.
+
+There is a three-story warehouse on the marsh, with a capacity of
+20,000 barrels of berries, and four large two-story houses capable of
+furnishing shelter for 1,500 pickers. The superintendent's residence
+is a comfortable cottage house, surrounded by giant oaks and elms, and
+stands near the warehouse on an "island," or small tract of high, dry
+land near the center of the great marsh. The pickers' quarters stand
+on another island about 200 yards away.
+
+A plank roadway, built on piles, about two feet above the level of the
+ground, leads from the mainland to the warehouse and other buildings,
+a distance of more than half a mile. Several wooden railways diverge
+from the warehouse to all parts of the marsh, and on them flat cars,
+propelled by hand, are sent out at intervals during the picking season
+to bring in the berries from the hands of the pickers. Each picker is
+provided with a crate, holding just a bushel, which is kept close at
+hand. The berries are first picked into tin pans and pails, and from
+these emptied into the crates, in which they are carried to the
+warehouse, where an empty crate is given the picker in exchange for a
+full one. Thus equipped and improved, the Sackett marsh is valued at
+$150,000. Thirteen thousand barrels have been harvested from this
+great farm in a single season. The selling price in the Chicago market
+varies, in different seasons, from $8 to $16 per barrel. There are
+several other marshes of various sizes in the vicinity.
+
+The picking season usually begins about Sept. 1, and from that time
+until Oct. 1 the marshes swarm with men, women, and children, ranging
+in age from six to eight years, made up from almost every nationality
+under the sun. Bohemians and Poles furnish the majority of the working
+force, while Germans, Irish, Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, negroes,
+Indians, and Americans contribute to the motley contingent. They come
+from every direction and from various distances, some of them
+traveling a hundred miles or more to secure a few days' or weeks'
+work. Almost every farmer or woodsman living anywhere in the region of
+the marshes turns out with his entire family; and the families of all
+the laboring men and mechanics of the surrounding towns and cities
+join in the general hegira to the bogs, and help to harvest the fruit.
+Those living within a few miles go out in the morning and return home
+at night, taking their noon-day meal with them, while those from a
+distance take provisions and bedding with them and camp in the
+buildings provided for that purpose by the marsh owners, doing their
+own cooking on the stoves and with the fuel furnished them.
+
+The wages vary from fifty cents to a dollar a bushel, owing to the
+abundance or scarcity of the fruit. A good picker will gather from
+three to four bushels a day where the yield is light, and five to six
+bushels where it is good. The most money is made by families numbering
+from half a dozen to a dozen members. Every chick and child in such
+families over six years old is required to turn out and help swell the
+revenue of the little household, and the frugal father often pockets
+ten to twenty dollars a day as the fruits of the combined labors. The
+pickers wade into the grass, weeds, and vines, however wet with dew or
+rain, or however deeply flooded underneath, making not the slightest
+effort to keep even their feet dry, and after an hour's work in the
+morning are almost as wet as if they had swum a river. Many of them
+wade in barefooted, others wearing low cowhide shoes, and their feet,
+at least, are necessarily wet all day long. In many cases their bodies
+are thinly clad, and they must inevitably suffer in frosty mornings
+and evenings and on the raw, cold, rainy days that are frequent in the
+autumn months in this latitude; yet they go about their work singing,
+shouting, and jabbering as merrily as a party of comfortably clad
+school children at play. How any of them avoid colds, rheumatism, and
+a dozen other diseases is a mystery; and yet it is rarely that one of
+them is ill from the effects of this exposure. As many as 3000 or 4000
+pickers are sometimes employed on a single marsh when there is a heavy
+crop, and an army of such ragamuffins as get together for this
+purpose, scattered over a bog in confusion and disorder, presents a
+strange and picturesque appearance.
+
+Indians are not usually as good pickers as white people, but in the
+sparsely settled districts, where many of the berry farms are
+situated, it is impossible to get white help enough to take care of
+the crop in the short time available for the work, and owners are
+compelled to employ the aborigines. A rake, with the prongs shaped
+like the letter V, is used for picking in some cases, but owing to the
+large amount of grass and weeds that grow among the vines on these
+wild marshes, this instrument is rarely available. After being picked
+the berries are stored in warehouses for a period varying from one to
+three weeks. They are washed and dried by being passed through a
+fanning mill made for the purpose, and are then allowed to cure and
+ripen thoroughly before they are shipped to market.
+
+From statistics gathered by the American Cranberry Growers'
+Association it is learned that in 1883 Wisconsin produced 135,507
+bushels, in 1884 24,738 bushels, in 1885 264,432 bushels, and in 1886
+70,686 bushels of this fruit. By these figures it will be seen that
+the yield is very irregular. This is owing, principally, to the fact
+that many of the marshes are not yet provided with the means of
+flooding, and of course suffer from worms, droughts, late spring or
+early autumn frosts, and extensive fires started by sparks from the
+engines on railroads running through the marshes. These and various
+other evils are averted on the more improved farms. So that, while
+handsome fortunes have in many cases been made in cranberry growing,
+many thousands of dollars have, on the other hand, been sunk in the
+same industry. Only the wealthier owners, who have expended vast sums
+of money in improving and equipping their property, can calculate with
+any degree of certainty on a paying crop of fruit every year.
+
+Chicago is the great distributing point for the berries produced in
+Wisconsin, shipments being made thence to nearly every State and
+Territory in the Union, to Canada, to Mexico, and to several European
+countries. Berries sent to the Southern markets are put up in
+watertight packages, and the casks are then filled with water, this
+being the only means by which they can be kept in hot weather. Even in
+this condition they can only be kept a few days after reaching hot
+climates.--_American Magazine._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SOUDAN COFFEE.
+
+(_Parkia biglobosa._)
+
+
+There are valuable plants on every continent. Civilized Europe no
+longer counts them. Mysterious Africa is no less largely and
+spontaneously favored with them than young America and the ancient
+territory of Asia.
+
+The latter has given us the majority of the best fruits of our
+gardens. We have already shown how useful the butter tree
+(_Butyrospermum Parkii_) is in tropical Africa, and we also know how
+the _gourou_ (_Sterculia acuminata_) is cultivated in the same
+regions. But that is not all, for the great family of Leguminosæ,
+whose numerous representatives encumber this continent, likewise
+furnishes the negro natives a food that is nearly as indispensable to
+them as the _gourou_ or the products of the baobab--another valuable
+tree and certainly the most widely distributed one in torrid Africa.
+This leguminous tree, which is as yet but little known in the
+civilized world, has been named scientifically _Parkia biglobosa_ by
+Bentham. The negroes give it various names, according to the tribe;
+among the Ouloffs, it is the _houlle_; among the Mandigues, _naytay_;
+in Cazamance (Nalon language), it is _nayray_; in Bornou, _rounuo_; in
+Haoussa, _doroa_; in Hant-fleure (Senegal), _nayraytou_. On the old
+mysterious continent it plays the same role that the algarobas do in
+young America. However, it is quite a common rule to find in the order
+Leguminosæ, and especially in the section Mimosæ, plants whose pods
+are edible. Examples of this fact are numerous. As regards the
+Mediterranean region, it suffices to cite the classic carob tree
+(_Ceratonia siliqua_), which also is of African nationality, but which
+is wanting in the warm region of this continent.
+
+Throughout the tropical region of Africa, the aborigines love to
+consume the saccharine pulp and the seed contained in the pod of the
+_houlle_. Prepared in different ways, according to tribe and latitude,
+these two products constitute a valuable aliment. The pulp is consumed
+either just as it is or as a fermented beverage. As for the seeds,
+they serve, raw or roasted, for the production of a tea-like infusion
+(whence the name "Soudan coffee"), or, after fermentation in water,
+for making a national condiment, which in certain places is called
+_kinda_, and which is mixed with boiled rice or prepared meats. This
+preparation has in most cases a pasty form or the consistency of
+cohesive flour; but in order to render its carriage easier in certain
+of the African centers where the trade in it is brisk, it is
+compressed into tablets similar to those of our chocolate. As these
+two products are very little known in Europe, it has seemed to us that
+it would be of interest to give a description and chemical analysis of
+them. We shall say but little of the plant, which has sufficiently
+occupied botanists.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 1 TO 6.--PODS OF THE HOULLE AND MICROSCOPIC
+DETAILS.]
+
+The houlle (_Parkia biglobosa_) is a large tree from 35 to 50 feet in
+height, with a gray bark, many branches, and large, elegant leaves.
+The latter are compound, bipinnate (Fig. 7), and have fifty pairs of
+leaflets, which are linear and obtuse and of a grayish green. The
+inflorescence is very pleasing to the eye. The flowers, say the
+authors of the _Floræ Senegambiæ Tentamen_, form balls of a dazzling
+red, contracted at the base, and resembling the pompons of our
+grenadiers (Fig. 8). The support of this latter consists only of male
+flowers. The fruit that succeeds these flowers is supported by a
+club-shaped receptacle. It consists of a large pod, which at maturity
+is 13 inches in length by 10 in width (Fig. 1). This pod is chocolate
+brown, quite smooth or slightly tubercular, and is swollen at the
+points where the seeds are situated. The pods are straight or slightly
+curved. The aborigines of Rio Nunez use the pods for poisoning the
+fishes that abound in the watercourses. We do not know what the nature
+of the toxic principle is that is contained in these hard pods, but we
+well know the nature of the yellowish pulp and of the seeds that
+entirely fill the pods.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--PARKIA BIGLOBOSA.]
+
+Although the pulp forms a continuous whole, each seed easily separates
+from the following and carries with it a part of the pulp that
+surrounds it and that constitutes an independent mass (Fig. 2). This
+pulpy substance, formed entirely of oval cells filled with aleurone,
+consists of two distinct layers. The first, an external one of a
+beautiful yellow, is from 10 to 15 times bulkier than the internal
+one, which likewise is of a beautiful yellow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8--FLOWERS OF PARKIA.]
+
+It detaches itself easily from the seed, while the internal layer,
+which adheres firmly to the exterior of the seed, can be detached only
+by maceration in water. This fresh pulp has a sweet and agreeable
+although slightly insipid taste. Upon growing old and becoming dry, it
+takes on a still more agreeable taste, for it preserves its sweetness
+and gets a perfume like that of the violet.
+
+As for the seed, which is of a brown color and provided with a hard,
+shining skin, that is 0.4 inch long, 0.3 inch wide, and 0.2 inch
+thick. It is oval in form, with quite a prominent beak at the hilum
+(Fig. 4). The margin is blunt and the two convex sides are provided in
+the center with a gibbosity limited by a line parallel with the
+margin, and this has given the plant its specific name of _biglobosa_.
+The mean weight of each seed is 4½ grains. The skin, though thick, is
+not very strong. It consists, anatomically, of four layers (Fig. 5) of
+a thick cuticle, _c_; of a zone of palissade cells, _z p_; of a zone
+of cells with thick tangential walls arranged in a single row; and of
+a zone tougher than the others, formed of numerous cells with thick
+walls, without definite form, and filled with a blackish red coloring
+matter, _cs_. This perisperm covers an exalbuminous embryo formed
+almost entirely of two thick, greenish yellow cotyledons having a
+strong taste of legumine.
+
+When examined under the microscope, these cotyledons, the alimentary
+part of the seed, have the appearance represented in Fig. 6, where
+_ep_ is the epidermic layer and _cp_ constitutes the uniform
+parenchyma of the cotyledonary leaf. This parenchymatous mass consists
+of oval cells filled with fatty matter and granules of aleurone.
+
+According to some chemical researches made by Professor
+Schlagdenhauffen, the pulp has the following composition per 100
+parts:
+
+    Fatty matter                     2.407
+    Glucose                         33.92
+    Inverted sugar                   7.825
+    Coloring matter and free acids   1.300
+    Albuminous matter                5.240
+    Gummy matter                    19.109
+    Cellulose                        8.921
+    Lignose                         17.195
+    Salts                            4.080
+                                   -------
+    Total                          100.000
+
+The salient point of these analytical results is the enormous quantity
+of matter (nearly 60 per cent.) formed almost exclusively by sugar. It
+is not surprising, from this that this product constitutes a food both
+agreeable and useful.
+
+An analysis of the entire seed, made by the same chemist, has given
+the following results:
+
+    Solid fatty matter                     21.145
+    Unreduced sugar                         6.183
+    Undetermined matters                    5.510
+    Gummy          "                       10.272
+    Albuminoid     "                       24.626
+    Cellulosic     "                        5.752
+    Lignose and losses                     20.978
+    Salts                                   5.534
+                                          -------
+    Total                                 100.000
+
+The presence in these seeds of a large quantity of fatty matters and
+sugar, and especially of albuminoid matters (very nutritive), largely
+justifies the use made of them as a food. The innate instinct of the
+savage peoples of Africa has thus anticipated the data of
+science.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HEIGHT OF SUMMER CLOUDS.
+
+
+A knowledge of the heights and movements of the clouds is of much
+interest to science, and of especial importance in the prediction of
+weather. The subject has therefore received much attention during
+recent years from meteorologists, chiefly in this country and in
+Sweden. In the last published report of the Meteorological Council for
+1885-86 will be found an account of the steps taken by that body to
+obtain cloud photographs; and in the _Meteorologische Zeitschrift_ for
+March last, M.M. Ekholm and Hagstrom have published an interesting
+summary of the results of observations made at Upsala during the
+summers of 1884-85. They determined the parallax of the clouds by
+angular measurements made from two stations at the extremities of a
+base of convenient length and having telephonic connection. The
+instruments used were altazimuths, constructed under the direction of
+Prof. Mohn, specially for measuring the parallax of the aurora
+borealis. A full description of these instruments and of the
+calculations will be found in the _Acta Reg Soc. Sc. Ups._, 1884. The
+results now in question are based upon nearly 1,500 measurements of
+_heights_; the _motions_ will form the subject of a future paper. It
+was found that clouds are formed at all levels, but that they occur
+most frequently at certain elevations or stages. The following are,
+approximately, the mean heights, in feet, of the principal forms:
+Stratus, 2,000; nimbus, 5,000; cumulus (base) 4,500, (summit) 6,000;
+cumulo-stratus (base), 4,600; "false-cirrus" (a form which often
+accompanies the cumulo-stratus), 12,800; cirro cumulus, 21,000;
+cirrus, 29,000 (the highest being 41,000). The maximum of cloud
+frequency was found to be at levels of 2,300 and 5,500 feet.
+
+Generally speaking, all the forms of cloud have a tendency to rise
+during the course of the day; the change, excepting for the cumulus
+form, amounting to nearly 6,500 feet. In the morning, when the cirrus
+clouds are at their lowest level, the frequency of their lowest
+forms--the cirro-cumulus--is greatest; and in the evening, when the
+height of the cirrus is greatest, the frequency of its highest
+forms--the cirro-stratus--is also greatest. With regard to the
+connection between the character of the weather and the height of the
+clouds, the heights of the bases of the cumulus are nearly constant in
+all conditions. The summits, however, are lowest in the vicinity of a
+barometric maximum. They increase in the region of a depression, and
+attain their greatest height in thunderstorms, the thickness of the
+cumulo stratus stretching sometimes for several miles. The highest
+forms of clouds appear to float at their lowest levels in the region
+of a depression. The forms of clouds are identical in all parts of the
+world, as has been shown in papers lately read by the Hon. R.
+Abercromby before the English and Scottish Meteorological
+Societies.--_Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE CAUSE OF IRIDESCENCE IN CLOUDS.
+
+By G. JOHNSTONE STONEY.
+
+
+When the sky is occupied by light cirro-cumulus cloud, an optical
+phenomenon of the most delicate beauty sometimes presents itself, in
+which the borders of the clouds and their lighter portions are
+suffused with soft shades of color like those of mother-of-pearl,
+among which lovely pinks and greens are the most conspicuous. Usually
+these colors are distributed in irregular patches, just as in
+mother-of-pearl; but occasionally they are seen to form round the
+denser patches of cloud a regular colored fringe, in which the several
+tints are arranged in stripes following the sinuosities of the outline
+of the cloud.
+
+I cannot find in any of the books an explanation of this beautiful
+spectacle, all the more pleasing because it generally presents itself
+in delightful summer weather. It is not mentioned in the part of
+Moigno's great _Repertoire d'Optique_ which treats of meteorological
+optics, nor in any other work which I have consulted. It seems
+desirable, therefore, to make an attempt to search out what appears to
+be its explanation.
+
+At the elevation in our atmosphere at which these delicate clouds are
+formed the temperature is too low, even in midsummer, for water to
+exist in the liquid state; and accordingly, the attenuated vapor from
+which they were condensed passed at once into a solid form. They
+consist, in fact, of tiny crystals of ice, not of little drops of
+water. If the precipitation has been hasty, the crystals will, though
+all small, be of many sizes jumbled together, and in that case the
+beautiful optical phenomenon with which we are now dealing will not
+occur. But if the opposite conditions prevail (which they do on rare
+occasions), if the vapor had been evenly distributed, and if the
+precipitation took place slowly, then will the crystals in any one
+neighborhood be little ice crystals of nearly the same form and size,
+and from one neighborhood to another they will differ chiefly in
+number and size, owing to the process having gone on longer or taken
+place somewhat faster, or through a greater depth, in some
+neighborhoods than others. This will give rise to the patched
+appearance of the clouds which prevails when this phenomenon presents
+itself. It also causes the tiny crystals, of which the cloud consists,
+to grow larger in some places than others.
+
+Captain Scoresby, in his "Account of the Arctic Regions," gives the
+best description of snow crystals formed at low temperatures with
+which I am acquainted. From his observations it appears--(a) that
+when formed at temperatures several degrees below the freezing point,
+the crystals, whether simple or compound, are nearly all of
+symmetrical forms; (b) that thin tabular crystals are extremely
+numerous, consisting either of simple transverse slices of the
+fundamental hexagon or, more frequently, of aggregations of these
+attached edgewise and lying in one plane; and (c) that, according as
+atmospheric conditions vary, one form of crystal or another largely
+preponderates. A fuller account of these most significant observations
+is given in the appendix to this paper.
+
+Let us then consider the crystals in any one neighborhood in the sky,
+where the conditions that prevail are such as to produce lamellar
+crystals of nearly the same thickness. The tabular plates are
+subsiding through the atmosphere--in fact, falling toward the earth.
+And although their descent is very slow, owing to their minute size,
+the resistance of the air will act upon them as it does upon a falling
+feather. It will cause them, if disturbed, to oscillate before they
+settle into that horizontal position which flat plates finally assume
+when falling through quiescent air. We shall presently consider what
+the conditions must be, in order that the crystals may be liable to be
+now and then disturbed from the horizontal position. If this
+occasionally happens, the crystals will keep fluttering, and at any
+one moment some of them will be turned so as to reflect a ray from the
+sun to the eye of the observer from the flat surface of the crystal
+which is next him. Now, if the conditions are such as to produce
+crystals which are plates with parallel faces, and as they are also
+transparent, part only of the sun's ray that reaches the front face of
+the crystal will be reflected from it; the rest will enter the
+crystal, and, falling on the parallel surface behind, a portion will
+be there reflected, and passing out through the front face, will also
+reach the eye of the observer.
+
+These two portions of the ray--that reflected from the front face and
+that reflected from the back--are precisely in the condition in which
+they can interfere with one another, so as to produce the splendid
+colors with which we are familiar in soap bubbles. If the crystals are
+of diverse thicknesses, the colors from the individual crystals will
+be different, and the mixture of them all will produce merely white
+light; but if all are nearly of the same thickness, they will transmit
+the same color toward the observer, who will accordingly see this
+color in the part of the cloud occupied by these crystals. The color
+will, of course, not be undiluted; for other crystals will send
+forward white light, and this, blended with the colored light, will
+produce delicate shades in cases where the corresponding colors of a
+soap bubble would be vivid.
+
+We have now only to explain how it happens that on very rare occasions
+the colors, instead of lying in irregular patches, form definite
+fringes round the borders of the cloudlets. The circumstances that
+give rise to this special form of the phenomenon appear to be the
+following: While the cloud is in the process of growth (that is, so
+long as the precipitation of vapor into the crystalline state
+continues to take place), so long will the crystals keep augmenting.
+If, then, a cloudlet is in the process of formation, not only by the
+springing up of fresh crystals around, but also by the continued
+growth of the crystals within it, then will that patch of cloud
+consist of crystals which are largest in its central part, and
+gradually smaller as their situation approaches the outside. Here,
+then, are conditions which will produce one color round the margin of
+the cloud, and that color mixed with others, and so giving rise to
+other tints, farther in. In this way there comes into existence that
+iris-like border which is now and then seen.
+
+The occasional upsetting of the crystals, which is required to keep
+them fluttering, may be produced in any of three ways. The cloudlets
+may have been formed from the blending together of two layers of air
+saturated at different temperatures, and moving with different
+velocities or in different directions. Where these currents intermix,
+a certain amount of disturbance will prevail, which, if sufficiently
+slight, would not much interfere with the regularity of the crystals,
+and might yet be sufficient to occasion little draughts, which would
+blow them about when formed. Or, if the cold layer is above, and if it
+is in a sufficient degree colder, there need not be any previous
+relative motion of the two layers; the inevitable convection currents
+will suffice. Another, and probably the most frequent, cause for
+little breezes in the neighborhood of the cloudlets is that when the
+cloudlets are formed they immediately absorb the heat of the sun in a
+way that the previously clear air had not done. If they absorb enough,
+they will rise like feeble balloons, and slight return currents will
+travel downward round their margins, throwing all crystals in that
+situation into disorder.
+
+I do not include among the causes which may agitate the crystals
+another cause which must produce excessively slight currents of air,
+namely, that arising from the subsidence of the cloudlets owing to
+their weight. The crystals will fall faster wherein cloud masses than
+in the intervening portions where the cloud is thinner. But the
+subsidence itself is so slow that any relative motions to which
+differences in the rate of subsidence can give rise are probably too
+feeble to produce an appreciable effect. Of course, in general, more
+than one of the above causes will concur; and it is the resultant of
+the effects which they would have separately produced that will be
+felt by the crystals.
+
+If the precipitation had taken place so very evenly over the sky that
+there were no cloudlets formed, but only one uniform veil of haze,
+then the currents which would flutter the crystals may be so entirely
+absent that the little plates of crystals can fixedly assume the
+horizontal position which is natural to them. In this event the cloud
+will exhibit no iridescence, but, instead of it, a vertical circle
+through the sun will present itself. This, on some rare occasions, is
+a feature of the phenomenon of parhelia.
+
+It thus appears that the occasional iridescence of cirrus clouds is
+satisfactorily accounted for by the concurrence of conditions, each of
+which is known to have a real existence in nature....--_Phil. Mag.,
+July 1887._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+
+ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION.
+
+$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts.
+
+This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued
+monthly--on the first day of the month. Each number contains about
+forty large quarto pages, equal to about two hundred ordinary book
+pages, forming, practically, a large and splendid MAGAZINE OF
+ARCHITECTURE, richly adorned with _elegant plates in colors_ and with
+fine engravings, illustrating the most interesting examples of modern
+Architectural Construction and allied subjects.
+
+A special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of
+the latest and best plans for private residences, city and country,
+including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive.
+Drawings in perspective and in color are given, together with full
+Plans, Specifications, Costs, Bills of Estimate, and Sheets of
+Details.
+
+No other building paper contains so many plans, details, and
+specifications regularly presented as the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.
+Hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans
+we have issued during the past year, and many others are in process of
+construction.
+
+Architects, Builders, and Owners will find this work valuable in
+furnishing fresh and useful suggestions. All who contemplate building
+or improving homes, or erecting structures of any kind, have before
+them in this work an almost _endless series of the latest and best
+examples_ from which to make selections, thus saving time and money.
+
+Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping, Lighting, Warming,
+Ventilating, Decorating, Laying out of Grounds, etc., are illustrated.
+An extensive Compendium of Manufacturers' Announcements is also given,
+in which the most reliable and approved Building Materials, Goods,
+Machines, Tools, and Appliances are described and illustrated, with
+addresses of the makers, etc.
+
+The fullness, richness, cheapness, and convenience of this work have
+won for it the LARGEST CIRCULATION of any Architectural publication
+in the world.
+
+  MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS,
+  361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A Catalogue of valuable books on Architecture, Building, Carpentry,
+Masonry, Heating, Warming, Lighting, Ventilation, and all branches of
+industry pertaining to the art of Building, is supplied free of
+charge, sent to any address.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BUILDING PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS.
+
+In connection with the publication of the BUILDING EDITION of the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. Munn & Co. furnish plans and
+specifications for buildings of every kind, including Churches,
+Schools, Stores, Dwellings, Carriage Houses, Barns, etc.
+
+In this work they are assisted by able and experienced architects.
+Full plans, details, and specifications for the various buildings
+illustrated in this paper can be supplied.
+
+Those who contemplate building, or who wish to alter, improve, extend,
+or add to existing buildings, whether wings, porches, bay windows, or
+attic rooms, are invited to communicate with the undersigned. Our work
+extends to all parts of the country. Estimates, plans, and drawings
+promptly prepared. Terms moderate. Address
+
+MUNN & CO., 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.
+
+PUBLISHED WEEKLY.
+
+Terms of Subscription, $5 a year.
+
+Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
+United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
+foreign country.
+
+All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January
+1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.
+
+All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two
+volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in
+paper, or $3.50 bound in stiff covers.
+
+COMBINED RATES.--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.
+
+A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.
+
+MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N.Y.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PATENTS.
+
+In connection with the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. MUNN & Co. are
+solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 42 years'
+experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world.
+Patents are obtained on the best terms.
+
+A special notice is made in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of all
+inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and residence
+of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public
+attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or
+introduction often easily effected.
+
+Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain,
+free of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing
+to MUNN & CO.
+
+We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
+Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address
+
+    MUNN & CO.,
+    361 Broadway, New York.
+    Branch Office, 622 and 624 F St., Washington, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+613, October 1, 1887, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 15889-8.txt or 15889-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/8/8/15889/
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/15889-8.zip b/15889-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f0983d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-8.zip
diff --git a/15889-h.zip b/15889-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb14fee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h.zip
diff --git a/15889-h/15889-h.htm b/15889-h/15889-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..791cdbd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/15889-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,4800 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
+
+<title>
+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American Supplement, October 1, 1887
+</title>
+
+<style type="text/css">
+<!--
+       body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white}
+       p    {text-align: justify;}
+       img {border: 0;}
+       h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;}
+
+       hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;}
+       hr.short {width: 25%;}
+       hr.long  {width: 75%;}
+       hr.full  {width: 100%;}
+
+       .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;}
+       .ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+
+       .center {text-align: center;}
+       div.center table {margin-left: auto;
+                         margin-right: auto; }
+       p#title  {text-align: center;
+                 margin-left: -10%;
+                 margin-right: -10%;}
+       .signature {text-align: right; }
+       .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;}
+-->
+</style>
+</head>
+
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 613,
+October 1, 1887, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 613, October 1, 1887
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 24, 2005 [EBook #15889]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<p id="title"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt="Issue Title" /></a></p>
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 613.</h1>
+<h2>NEW YORK, OCTOBER 1, 1887.</h2>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIV., No. 613.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+<hr />
+
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">I.</td><td><a href="#art01"> BIOGRAPHY.&mdash;Dr. Morell Mackenzie.&mdash;Biographical note and
+ portrait of the great English laryngologist&mdash;the physician
+ of the Prussian Crown Prince.&mdash;1 illustration. </a></td><td>9794</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">II.</td><td><a href="#art02"> BOTANY.&mdash;Soudan Coffee.&mdash;The <i>Parkia biglobosa</i>.&mdash;Its
+ properties and appearance, with analyses of its beans.&mdash;8
+ illustrations. </a></td><td>9797</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art03"> Wisconsin Cranberry Culture.&mdash;The great cranberry crop of
+ Wisconsin.&mdash;The Indian pickers and details of the
+ cultivation. </a></td><td>9796</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">III.</td><td><a href="#art04"> CHEMISTRY.&mdash;Analysis of Kola Nut.&mdash;A new article
+ adapted as a substitute for cocoa and chocolate to military
+ and other dietaries.&mdash;Its use by the French and German
+ governments. </a></td><td>9785</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art05"> Carbonic Acid in the Air.&mdash;By THOMAS C. VAN NUYS and
+ BENJAMIN F. ADAMS, Jr.&mdash;The results of eighteen analyses of
+ air by Van Nuys apparatus. </a></td><td>9785</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art06"> The Crimson Line of Phosphorescent Alumina.&mdash;Note on Prof.
+ Crooke's recent investigation of the anomalies of the oxide
+ of aluminum as regards its spectrum. </a></td><td>9784</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">IV.</td><td><a href="#art07"> ELECTRICITY.&mdash;Electric Time.&mdash;By M. LITTMANN.&mdash;An
+ abstruse research into a natural electric standard of
+ time.&mdash;The results and necessary formul&aelig;. </a></td><td>9793</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art08"> New Method of Maintaining the Vibration of a
+ Pendulum.&mdash;Ingenious magneto-electric method of maintaining
+ the swinging of a pendulum. </a></td><td>9794</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art09"> The Part that Electricity Plays in Crystallization.&mdash;C.
+ Decharme's investigations into this much debated
+ question.&mdash;The results of his work described.&mdash;3
+ illustrations. </a></td><td>9793</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">V.</td><td><a href="#art10"> ENGINEERING.&mdash;A New Type of Railway Car.&mdash;A car with
+ lateral passageways, adapted for use in Africa&mdash;2
+ illustrations. </a></td><td>9792</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art11"> Centrifugal Pumps at Mare Island Navy Yard, California.&mdash;By
+ H.R. CORNELIUS.&mdash;The great pumps for the Mare Island dry
+ docks.&mdash;Their capacity and practical working. </a></td><td>9792</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art12"> Foundations of the Central Viaduct of Cleveland,
+ O.&mdash;Details of the foundations of this viaduct, probably
+ the largest of its kind ever constructed. </a></td><td>9792</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">VI.</td><td><a href="#art13"> METALLURGY.&mdash;Chapin Wrought Iron.&mdash;By W.H. SEARLES.&mdash;An
+ interesting account of the combined pneumatic and
+ mechanical treatment of pig iron, giving as product a true
+ wrought iron. </a></td><td>9785</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">VII.</td><td><a href="#art14"> METEOROLOGY.&mdash;On the Cause of Iridescence in
+ Clouds.&mdash;By G. JOHNSTONE STONEY.&mdash;An interesting theory of
+ the production of prismatic colors in clouds, referring it
+ to interference of light. </a></td><td>9798</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art15"> The Height of Summer Clouds.&mdash;A compendious statement,
+ giving the most reliable estimation of the elevations of
+ different forms of clouds. </a></td><td>9797</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art16">VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.&mdash;The British Association.&mdash;Portraits
+ of the president and section presidents of the late
+ Manchester meeting of the British Association for the
+ Advancement of Science, with report of the address of the
+ president, Sir Henry E. Roscoe.&mdash;9 illustrations. </a></td><td>9783</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">IX.</td><td><a href="#art17"> PHYSIOLOGY.&mdash;Hypnotism in France.&mdash;A valuable review of
+ the present status of this subject, now so much studied in
+ Paris. </a></td><td>9795</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art18"> The Duodenum a Siphon Trap.&mdash;By MAYO COLLIER, M.S., etc.&mdash;A
+ curious observation in anatomy.&mdash;The only trap found in the
+ intestinal canal.&mdash;Its uses.&mdash;2 illustrations. </a></td><td>9796</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">X.</td><td><a href="#art19"> TECHNOLOGY.&mdash;Apparatus for Testing Champagne Bottles and
+ Corks.&mdash;Ingenious apparatus due to Mr. J. Salleron, for use
+ especially in the champagne industry.&mdash;2 illustrations. </a></td><td>9786</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art20"> Celluloid.&mdash;Notes of the history and present method of
+ manufacture of this widely used substance. </a></td><td>9785</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art21"> Centrifugal Extractors.&mdash;By ROBERT F. GIBSON.&mdash;The second
+ installment of this extensive and important paper, giving
+ many additional forms of centrifugal apparatus&mdash;12
+ illustrations. </a></td><td>9789</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art22"> Cotton Industries of Japan.&mdash;An interesting account of the
+ primitive methods of treating cotton by the Japanese.&mdash;Their
+ methods of ginning, carding, etc., described. </a></td><td>9788</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art23"> Gas from Oil.&mdash;Notes on a paper read by Dr. Stevenson
+ Macadam at a recent meeting of the British Gas Institute,
+ giving his results with petroleum gas. </a></td><td>9787</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art24"> Improved Biscuit Machine.&mdash;A machine having a capacity for
+ making 4,000 small biscuits per minute.&mdash;1 illustration. </a></td><td>9787</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art25"> Improved Cream Separator.&mdash;A centrifugal apparatus for
+ dairy use of high capacity.&mdash;3 illustrations. </a></td><td>9787</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art26"> The Manufacture of Salt near Middlesbrough.&mdash;By Sir
+ LOWTHIAN BELL, Bart., F.C.S.&mdash;The history and origin of
+ this industry, the methods used, and the soda ash process
+ as there applied.</a></td><td>9788</td>
+</tr></table>
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="Page_9783" id="Page_9783"></a><a name="art16" id="art16"></a>THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/1.png"><img src="./images/1_th.png" alt="THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT MANCHESTER PORTRAITS OF THE" /></a>
+<br />THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT MANCHESTER<br /> PORTRAITS OF THE
+PRESIDENT AND PRESIDENTS OF SECTIONS</p>
+
+<p>The fifty-seventh annual meeting of the British Association was opened
+on Wednesday evening, Aug. 31, 1887, at Manchester, by an address from
+the president, Sir H.E. Roscoe, M.P. This was delivered in the Free
+Trade Hall. The chair was occupied by Professor Williamson, who was
+supported by the Bishop of Manchester, Sir F. Bramwell, Professor
+Gamgee, Professor Milnes Marshall, Professor Wilkins, Professor Boyd
+Dawkins, Professor Ward, and many other distinguished men. A telegram
+was read from the retiring president, Sir Wm. Dawson, of Montreal,
+congratulating the association and Manchester on this year's meeting.
+The new president, Sir H. Roscoe, having been introduced to the
+audience, was heartily applauded.</p>
+
+<p>The president, in his inaugural address, said Manchester,
+distinguished as the birthplace of two of the greatest discoveries of
+modern science, welcomed the visit of the British Association for the
+third time. Those discoveries were the atomic theory of which John
+Dalton was the author, and the most far-reaching scientific principle
+of modern times, namely, that of the conservation of energy, which was
+given to the world about the year 1842 by Dr. Joule. While the place
+suggested these reminders, the time, the year of the Queen's jubilee,
+excited a feeling of thankfulness that they had lived in an age which
+had witnessed an advance in our knowledge of nature and a consequent
+improvement in the physical, moral, and intellectual well-being of the
+people hitherto unknown.</p>
+
+<h3>PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY.</h3>
+
+<p>A sketch of that progress in the science of chemistry alone would be
+the subject of his address. The initial point was the views of Dalton
+and his contemporaries compared with the ideas which now prevail; and
+he (the president) examined this comparison by the light which the
+research of the last fifty years had thrown on the subject of the
+Daltonian atoms, in the three-fold aspect of their size,
+indivisibility, and mutual relationships, and their motions.</p>
+
+<h3>SIZE OF THE ATOM.</h3>
+
+<p>As to the size of the atom, Loschmidt, of Vienna, had come to the
+conclusion that the diameter of an atom of oxygen or nitrogen was the
+ten-millionth part of a centimeter. With the highest known magnifying
+power we could distinguish the forty-thousandth part of a centimeter.
+If, now, we imagine a cubic box each of whose sides had this length,
+such a box, when filled with air, would contain from sixty to a
+hundred millions of atoms of oxygen and nitrogen. As to the
+indivisibility of the atom, the space of fifty years had completely
+changed the face of the inquiry. Not only had the number of distinct,
+well-established elementary bodies increased from fifty-three in 1837
+to seventy in 1887, but the properties of these elements had been
+studied, and were now known with a degree of precision then undreamt
+of. Had the atoms of our present <a name="Page_9784" id="Page_9784"></a>elements been made to yield? To this
+a negative answer must undoubtedly be given, for even the highest of
+terrestrial temperatures, that of the electric spark, had failed to
+shake any one of these atoms in two. This was shown by the results
+with which spectrum analysis had enriched our knowledge. Terrestrial
+analysis had failed to furnish favorable evidence; and, turning to the
+chemistry of the stars, the spectra of the white, which were
+presumably the hottest stars, furnished no direct evidence that a
+decomposition of any terrestrial atom had taken place; indeed, we
+learned that the hydrogen atom, as we know it here, can endure
+unscathed the inconceivably fierce temperature of stars presumably
+many times more fervent than our sun, as Sirius and Vega. It was
+therefore no matter for surprise if the earth-bound chemist should for
+the present continue to regard the elements as the unalterable
+foundation stones upon which his science is based.</p>
+
+<h3>ATOMIC MOTION.</h3>
+
+<p>Passing to the consideration of atoms in motion, while Dalton and
+Graham indicated that they were in a continual state of motion, we
+were indebted to Joule for the first accurate determination of the
+rate of that motion. Clerk-Maxwell had calculated that a hydrogen
+molecule, moving at the rate of seventy miles per minute, must, in one
+second of time, knock against others no fewer than eighteen thousand
+million times. This led to the reflection that in nature there is no
+such thing as great or small, and that the structure of the smallest
+particle, invisible even to our most searching vision, may be as
+complicated as that of any one of the heavenly bodies which circle
+round our sun. How did this wonderful atomic motion affect their
+chemistry?</p>
+
+<h3>ATOMIC COMBINATION.</h3>
+
+<p>Lavoisier left unexplained the dynamics of combustion; but in 1843,
+before the chemical section of the association meeting at Cork, Dr.
+Joule announced the discovery which was to revolutionize modern
+science, namely, the determination of the mechanical equivalent of
+heat. Every change in the arrangement of the particles he found was
+accompanied by a definite evolution or an absorption of heat. Heat was
+evolved by the clashing of the atoms, and this amount was fixed and
+definite. Thus to Joule we owe the foundation of chemical dynamics and
+the basis of thermal chemistry. It was upon a knowledge of the mode of
+arrangement of atoms, and on a recognition of their distinctive
+properties, that the superstructure of modern organic chemistry
+rested. We now assumed on good grounds that the atom of each element
+possessed distinct capabilities of combination. The knowledge of the
+mode in which the atoms in the molecule are arranged had given to
+organic chemistry an impetus which had overcome many experimental
+obstacles, and organic chemistry had now become synthetic.</p>
+
+<p>Liebig and Wohler, in 1837, foresaw the artificial production in the
+laboratories of all organic substances so far as they did not
+constitute a living organism. And after fifty years their prophecy had
+been fulfilled, for at the present time we could prepare an artificial
+sweetening principle, an artificial alkaloid, and salacine.</p>
+
+<h3>SYNTHESIS.</h3>
+
+<p>We know now that the same laws regulate the formation of chemical
+compounds in both animate and inanimate nature, and the chemist only
+asked for a knowledge of the constitution of any definite chemical
+compounds found in the organic world in order to be able to promise to
+prepare it artificially. Seventeen years elapsed between Wohler's
+discovery of the artificial production of urea and the next real
+synthesis, which was accomplished by Kolbe, when in 1845 he prepared
+acetic acid from its elements. Since then a splendid harvest of
+results had been gathered in by chemists of all nations. In 1834 Dumas
+made known the law of substitution, and showed that an exchange could
+take place between the constituent atoms in a molecule, and upon this
+law depended in great measure the astounding progress made in the wide
+field of organic synthesis.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most remarkable result had been the production of an
+artificial sweetening agent, termed saccharin, 250 times sweeter than
+sugar, prepared by a complicated series of reactions from coal tar.
+These discoveries were not only of scientific interest, for they had
+given rise to the industry of coal tar colors, founded by our
+countryman Perkin, the value of which was measured by millions
+sterling annually. Another interesting application of synthetic
+chemistry to the needs of everyday life was the discovery of a series
+of valuable febrifuges, of which antipyrin might be named as the most
+useful.</p>
+
+<p>An important aspect in connection with the study of these bodies was
+the physiological value which had been found to attach to the
+introduction of certain organic radicals, so that an indication was
+given of the possibility of preparing a compound which will possess
+certain desired physiological properties, or even to foretell the kind
+of action which such bodies may exert on the animal economy. But now
+the question might well be put, Was any limit set to this synthetic
+power of the chemist? Although the danger of dogmatizing as to the
+progress of science had already been shown in too many instances, yet
+one could not help feeling that the barrier between the organized and
+unorganized worlds was one which the chemist at present saw no chance
+of breaking down. True, there were those who professed to foresee that
+the day would arrive when the chemist, by a succession of constructive
+efforts, might pass beyond albumen, and gather the elements of
+lifeless matter into a living structure. Whatever might be said
+regarding this from other standpoints, the chemist could only say that
+at present no such problem lay within his province.</p>
+
+<p>Protoplasm, with which the simplest manifestations of life are
+associated, was not a compound, but a structure built up of compounds.
+The chemist might successfully synthesize any of its component
+molecules, but he had no more reason to look forward to the synthetic
+production of the structure than to imagine that the synthesis of
+gallic acid led to the artificial production of gall nuts. Although
+there was thus no prospect of effecting a synthesis of organized
+material, yet the progress made in our knowledge of the chemistry of
+life during the last fifty years had been very great, so much so
+indeed that the sciences of physiological and of pathological
+chemistry might be said to have entirely arisen within that period.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHEMISTRY OF VITAL FUNCTIONS.</h3>
+
+<p>He would now briefly trace a few of the more important steps which had
+marked the recent study of the relations between the vital phenomena
+and those of the inorganic world. No portion of the science of
+chemistry was of greater interest or greater complexity than that
+which, bearing on the vital functions both of plants and of animals,
+endeavored to unravel the tangled skein of the chemistry of life, and
+to explain the principles according to which our bodies live, and
+move, and have their being. If, therefore, in the less complicated
+problems with which other portions of our science have to deal, we
+found ourselves often far from possessing satisfactory solutions, we
+could not be surprised to learn that with regard to the chemistry of
+the living body&mdash;whether vegetable or animal&mdash;in health or disease, we
+were still farther from a complete knowledge of phenomena, even those
+of fundamental importance.</p>
+
+<p>Liebig asked if we could distinguish, on the one hand, between the
+kind of food which goes to create warmth and, on the other, that by
+the oxidation of which the motions and mechanical energy of the body
+are kept up. He thought he was able to do this, and he divided food
+into two categories. The starchy or carbo-hydrate food was that, said
+he, which by its combustion provided the warmth necessary for the
+existence and life of the body. The albuminous or nitrogenous
+constituents of our food, the flesh meat, the gluten, the casein out
+of which our muscles are built up, were not available for the purpose
+of creating warmth, but it was by the waste of those muscles that the
+mechanical energy, the activity, the motions of the animal are
+supplied.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the promulgation of these views, J.R. Mayer warmly attacked
+them, throwing out the hypothesis that all muscular action is due to
+the combustion of food, and not to the destruction of muscle.</p>
+
+<p>What did modern research say to this question? Could it be brought to
+the crucial test of experiment? It could; but how? In the first place,
+we could ascertain the work done by a man or any other animal; we
+could measure this work in terms of our mechanical standard, in
+kilogramme-meters or foot-pounds. We could next determine what was the
+destruction of nitrogenous tissue at rest and under exercise by the
+amount of nitrogenous material thrown off by the body. And here we
+must remember that these tissues were never completely burned, so that
+free nitrogen was never eliminated. If now we knew the heat value of
+the burned muscle, it was easy to convert this into its mechanical
+equivalent and thus measure the energy generated. What was the result?</p>
+
+<p>Was the weight of muscle destroyed by ascending the Faulhorn or by
+working on the treadmill sufficient to produce on combustion heat
+enough when transformed into mechanical exercise to lift the body up
+to the summit of the Faulhorn or to do the work on the treadmill?</p>
+
+<p>Careful experiment had shown that this was so far from being the case
+that the actual energy developed was twice as great as that which
+could possibly be produced by the oxidation of the nitrogenous
+constituents eliminated from the body during twenty-four hours. That
+was to say, taking the amount of nitrogenous substance cast off from
+the body, not only while the work was being done, but during
+twenty-four hours, the mechanical effect capable of being produced by
+the muscular tissue from which this cast-off material was derived
+would only raise the body half way up the Faulhorn, or enable the
+prisoner to work half his time on the treadmill. Hence it was clear
+that Liebig's proposition was not true.</p>
+
+<p>The nitrogenous constituents of the food did doubtless go to repair
+the waste of muscle, which, like every other portion of the body,
+needed renewal, while the function of the non-nitrogenous food was not
+only to supply the animal heat, but also to furnish, by its oxidation,
+the muscular energy of the body. We thus came to the conclusion that
+it was the potential energy of the food which furnished the actual
+energy of the body, expressed in terms either of heat or of mechanical
+work.</p>
+
+<p>But there was one other factor which came into play in this question
+of mechanical energy, and must be taken into account; and this factor
+we were as yet unable to estimate in our usual terms. It concerned the
+action of the mind on the body, and although incapable of exact
+expression, exerted none the less an important influence on the
+physics and chemistry of the body, so that a connection undoubtedly
+existed between intellectual activity or mental work and bodily
+nutrition. What was the expenditure of mechanical energy which
+accompanied mental effort was a question which science was probably
+far from answering; but that the body experienced exhaustion as the
+result of mental activity was a well-recognized fact.</p>
+
+<h3>CHEMISTRY OF VEGETATION.</h3>
+
+<p>The phenomena of vegetation, no less than those of the animal world,
+had, however, during the last fifty years been placed by the chemist
+on an entirely new basis.</p>
+
+<p>Liebig, in 1860, asserted that the whole of the carbon of vegetation
+was obtained from the atmospheric carbonic acid, which, though only
+present in the small relative proportion of four parts in 10,000 of
+air, was contained in such absolutely large quantity that if all the
+vegetation on the earth's surface were burned, the proportion of
+carbonic acid which would thus be thrown into the air would not be
+sufficient to double the present amount. That this conclusion was
+correct needed experimental proof, but such proof could only be given
+by long-continued and laborious experiment.</p>
+
+<p>It was to our English agricultural chemists, Lawes and Gilbert, that
+we owed the complete experimental proof required, and this experiment
+was long and tedious, for it had taken forty-four years to give a
+definite reply.</p>
+
+<p>At Rothamsted a plot was set apart for the growth of wheat. For
+forty-four successive years that field had grown wheat without the
+addition of any carbonized manure, so that the only possible source
+from which the plant could obtain the carbon for its growth was the
+atmospheric carbonic acid. The quantity of carbon which on an average
+was removed in the form of wheat and straw from a plot manured only
+with mineral matter was 1,000 lb., while on another plot, for which a
+nitrogenous manure was employed, 1,500 lb. more carbon was annually
+removed, or 2,500 lb. of carbon were removed by this crop annually
+without the addition of any carbonaceous manure. So that Liebig's
+prevision had received a complete experimental verification.</p>
+
+<h3>CHEMICAL PATHOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<p>Touching us as human beings even still more closely than the foregoing
+was the influence which chemistry had exerted on the science of
+pathology, and in no direction had greater progress been made than in
+the study of micro-organisms in relation to health and disease. In the
+complicated chemical changes to which we gave the names of
+fermentation and putrefaction, Pasteur had established the fundamental
+principle that these processes were inseparately connected with the
+life of certain low forms of organisms. Thus was founded the science
+of bacteriology, which in Lister's hands had yielded such splendid
+results in the treatment of surgical cases, and in those of Klebs,
+Koch, and others, had been the means of detecting the cause of many
+diseases both in man and animals, the latest and not the least
+important of which was the remarkable series of successful researches
+by Pasteur into the nature and mode of cure of that most dreadful of
+maladies, hydrophobia. The value of his discovery was greater than
+could be estimated by its present utility, for it showed that it might
+be possible to avert other diseases besides hydrophobia by the
+adoption of a somewhat similar method of investigation and of
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p>Here it might seem as if we had outstepped the boundaries of
+chemistry, and had to do with phenomena purely vital. But recent
+research indicated that this was not the case, and pointed to the
+conclusion that the microscopist must again give way to the chemist,
+and that it was by chemical rather than biological investigation that
+the causes of diseases would be discovered, and the power of removing
+them obtained. For we learned that the symptoms of infective diseases
+were no more due to the microbes which constituted the infection than
+alcoholic intoxication was produced by the yeast cell, but that these
+symptoms were due to the presence of definite chemical compounds, the
+result of the life of these microscopic organisms. So it was to the
+action of these poisonous substances formed during the life of the
+organism, rather than to that of the organism itself, that the special
+characteristics of the disease were to be traced, for it had been
+shown that the disease could be communicated by such poisons in the
+entire absence of living organisms.</p>
+
+<p>Had time permitted, he would have wished to have illustrated the
+dependence of industrial success upon original investigation, and to
+have pointed out the prodigious strides which chemical industry in
+this country had made during the fifty years of her Majesty's reign.
+As it was, he must be content to remark how much our modern life, both
+in its artistic and useful aspects, owed to chemistry, and therefore
+how essential a knowledge of the principles of the science was to all
+who had the industrial progress of the country at heart. The country
+was now beginning to see that if she was to maintain her commercial
+and industrial supremacy, the education of her people from top to
+bottom must be carried out on new lines. The question how this could
+be most safely and surely accomplished was one of transcendent
+national importance, and the statesman who solved this educational
+problem would earn the gratitude of generations yet to come.</p>
+
+<p>In welcoming the unprecedentedly large number of foreign men of
+science who had on this occasion honored the British Association by
+their presence, he hoped that that meeting might be the commencement
+of an international scientific organization, the only means nowadays
+existing of establishing that fraternity among nations from which
+politics appeared to remove them further and further, by absorbing
+human powers and human work, and directing them to purposes of
+destruction. It would indeed be well if Great Britain, which had
+hitherto taken the lead in so many things that are great and good,
+should now direct her attention to the furthering of international
+organizations of a scientific nature. A more appropriate occasion than
+the present meeting could perhaps hardly be found for the inauguration
+of such a movement. But whether this hope were realized or not, they
+all united in that one great object, the search after truth for its
+own sake, and they all, therefore, might join in re-echoing the words
+of Lessing: &quot;The worth of man lies not in the truth which he
+possesses, or believes that he possesses, but in the honest endeavor
+which he puts forth to secure that truth; for not by the possession of
+truth, but by the search after it, are the faculties of man enlarged,
+and in this alone consists his ever-growing perfection. Possession
+fosters content, indolence, and pride. If God should hold in his right
+hand all truth, and in his left hand the ever-active desire to seek
+truth, though with the condition of perpetual error, I would humbly
+ask for the contents of the left hand, saying, 'Father, give me this;
+pure truth is only for thee.'&quot;</p>
+
+<p>At the close of his address a vote of thanks was passed to the
+president, on the motion of the Mayor of Manchester, seconded by
+Professor Asa Gray, of Harvard College. The president mentioned that
+the number of members is already larger than at any previous annual
+meeting, namely, 3,568, including eighty foreigners.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>THE CRIMSON LINE OF PHOSPHORESCENT ALUMINA.</h2>
+
+<p>Crookes has presented to the Royal Society a paper on the color
+emitted by pure alumina when submitted to the electric discharge <i>in
+vacuo</i>, in answer to the statements of De Boisbaudran. In 1879 he had
+stated that &quot;next to the diamond, alumina, in the form of ruby, is
+perhaps the most strikingly phosphorescent stone I have examined. It
+glows with a rich, full red; and a remarkable feature is that it is of
+little consequence what degree of color the earth or stone possesses
+naturally, the color of the phosphorescence is nearly the same in all
+cases; chemically precipitated amorphous alumina, rubies of a pale
+reddish yellow, and gems of the prized 'pigeon's blood' color glowing
+alike in the vacuum.&quot; These results, as well as the spectra obtained,
+he stated further, corroborated Becquerel's observations. In
+consequence of the opposite results obtained by De Boisbaudran,
+Crookes has now re-examined this question with a view to clear up the
+mystery. On examining a specimen of alumina prepared from tolerably
+pure aluminum sulphate, shown <a name="Page_9785" id="Page_9785"></a>by the ordinary tests to be free from
+chromium, the bright crimson line, to which the red phosphorescent
+light is due, was brightly visible in its spectrum. The aluminum
+sulphate was then, in separate portions, purified by various processes
+especially adapted to separate from it any chromium that might be
+present; the best of these being that given by Wohler, solution in
+excess of potassium hydrate and precipitation of the alumina by a
+current of chlorine. The alumina filtered off, ignited, and tested in
+a radiant matter tube gave as good a crimson line spectrum as did that
+from the original sulphate.</p>
+
+<p>A repetition of this purifying process gave no change in the result.
+Four possible explanations are offered of the phenomena observed: &quot;(1)
+The crimson line is due to alumina, but it is capable of being
+suppressed by an accompanying earth which concentrates toward one end
+of the fractionations; (2) the crimson line is not due to alumina, but
+is due to the presence of an accompanying earth concentrating toward
+the other end of the fractionations; (3) the crimson line belongs to
+alumina, but its full development requires certain precautions to be
+observed in the time and intensity of ignition, degree of exhaustion,
+or its absolute freedom from alkaline and other bodies carried down by
+precipitated alumina and difficult to remove by washing; experience
+not having yet shown which of these precautions are essential to the
+full development of the crimson line and which are unessential; and
+(4) the earth alumina is a compound molecule, one of its constituent
+molecules giving the crimson line. According to this hypothesis,
+alumina would be analogous to yttria.&quot;&mdash;<i>Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a>CARBONIC ACID IN THE AIR.</h2>
+
+<h3>By THOMAS C. VAN NUYS and BENJAMIN F. ADAMS, JR.</h3>
+
+<p>During the month of April, 1886, we made eighteen estimations of
+carbonic acid in the air, employing Van Nuys' apparatus,<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a> recently
+described in this journal. These estimations were made in the
+University Park, one-half mile from the town of Bloomington. The park
+is hilly, thinly shaded, and higher than the surrounding country. The
+formation is sub-carboniferous and altitude 228 meters. There are no
+lowlands or swamps near. The estimations were made at 10 A.M.</p>
+
+<p>The air was obtained one-half meter from the ground and about 100
+meters from any of the university buildings. The number of volumes of
+carbonic acid is calculated at zero C. and normal pressure 760 mm.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" summary="">
+<colgroup span="5"><col align="center" /><col align="right" span="3" /><col align="left" /></colgroup>
+<tr><th colspan="2" align="center">Date.</th><th>Bar. Pressure</th><th>Vols. CO<sup>2</sup><br />in 100,000 <br />Vols. Air.</th><th>State of Weather.</th></tr>
+<tr><td>April</td><td>2</td><td>743.5</td><td>28.86</td><td>Cloudy, snow on ground.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>5</td><td>743.5</td><td>28.97</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>6</td><td>735</td><td>28.61</td><td>Snowing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>7</td><td>744.5</td><td>28.63</td><td>Clear, snow on ground.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>8</td><td>748</td><td>27.59</td><td>Clear, thawing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>9</td><td>747.5</td><td>28.10</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>12</td><td>744</td><td>28.04</td><td>Cloudy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>13</td><td>744</td><td>28.10</td><td>Clear.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>14</td><td>743.5</td><td>28.98</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>15</td><td>750.5</td><td>28.17</td><td>Raining.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>19</td><td>748</td><td>28.09</td><td>Clear.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>20</td><td>746</td><td>27.72</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>21</td><td>746</td><td>28.16</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>22</td><td>741.5</td><td>27.92</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>23</td><td>740</td><td>28.12</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>24</td><td>738.5</td><td>28.15</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>25</td><td>738.5</td><td>27.46</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>28</td><td>738</td><td>27.34</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The average number of volumes of carbonic acid in 100,000 volumes of
+air is 28.16, the maximum number is 28.98, and the minimum 27.34.
+These results agree with estimations made within the last ten or
+fifteen years. Reiset<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>2</sup></a> made a great number of estimations from
+September 9, 1872, to August 20, 1873, the average of which is 29.42.
+Six years later<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>3</sup></a> he made many estimations from June to November, the
+average of which is 29.78. The average of Schultze's<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>4</sup></a> estimations is
+29 2. The results of estimations of carbonic acid in the air, made
+under the supervision of Munz and Aubin<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5"><sup>5</sup></a> in October, November, and
+December, 1882, at the stations where observations were made of the
+transit of Venus by astronomers sent out by the French government,
+yield the average, for all stations north of the equator to latitude
+29° 54' in Florida, 28.2 volumes carbonic acid in 100,000 volumes air,
+and for all stations south of the equator 27.1 volumes. The average of
+Claesson's<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6"><sup>6</sup></a> estimations is 27.9 volumes, his maximum number is 32.7,
+and his minimum is 23.7. It is apparent, from the results of
+estimations of carbonic acid of the air of various parts of the globe,
+by the employment of apparatus with which errors are avoided, that the
+quantity of carbonic acid is subject to slight variation, and not, as
+stated in nearly all text books of science, from 4 to 6 volumes in
+10,000 volumes of air; and it is further apparent that the law of
+Schloesing<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7"><sup>7</sup></a> holds good. By this law the carbonic acid of an
+atmosphere in contact with water containing calcium or magnesium
+carbonate in solution is dissolved according to the tension of the
+carbonic acid; that is, by an increased quantity its tension
+increases, and more would pass in solution in the form of
+bicarbonates. On the other hand, by diminishing the quantity of
+carbonic acid in the atmosphere, some of the bicarbonates would
+decompose and carbonic acid pass into the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>Schloesing's law has been verified by R. Engel<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8"><sup>8</sup></a>.</p>
+
+<p>The results of estimations of bases and carbonic acid in the water of
+the English Channel lead Schloesing<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9"><sup>9</sup></a> to conclude that the carbonic
+acid combined with normal carbonates, forming bicarbonates, dissolved
+in the water of the globe is ten times greater in quantity than that
+of the atmosphere, and on account of this available carbonic acid, if
+the atmosphere should be deprived of some of its carbonic acid, the
+loss would soon be supplied.</p>
+
+
+<p>As, in nearly all of the methods which were employed for estimating
+carbonic acid in the air, provision is not made for the exclusion of
+air not measured containing carbonic acid from the alkaline fluid
+before titrating or weighing, the results are generally too high and
+show a far greater variation than is found by more exact methods. For
+example, Gilm<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10"><sup>10</sup></a> found from 36 to 48 volumes; Levy's<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11"><sup>11</sup></a> average is
+34 volumes; De Luna's<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12"><sup>12</sup></a> 50 volumes; and Fodor's,<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13"><sup>13</sup></a> 38.9 volumes.
+Admitting that the quantity of carbonic acid in the air is subject to
+variation, yet the results of Reiset's and Schultze's estimations go
+to prove that the variation is within narrow limits.</p>
+
+<p class="signature">  Indiana University Chemical Laboratory,<br />
+Bloomington, Indiana.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;<i>Amer. Chem. Journal.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a><br/><span class="note">See SCI. AM. SUPPLEMENT No. 577.</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[2]</a><br /><span class="note">Comptes Rendus, 88, 1007.</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[3]</a><br /><span class="note">Comptes Rendus, 90, 1144.</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[4]</a><br /><span class="note">Chem. Centralblatt, 1872 and 1875.</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5">[5]</a><br /><span class="note">Comptes Rendus, 96, 1793.</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6">[6]</a><br /><span class="note">Berichte der deutsch chem. Gesellschaft, 9, 174.</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7">[7]</a><br /><span class="note">Comptes Rendus, 74, 1552, and 75, 70.</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8">[8]</a><br /><span class="note">Comptes Rendus, 101, 949.</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9">[9]</a><br /><span class="note">Comptes Rendus, 90, 1410.</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10">[10]</a><br /><span class="note">Sitzungsher. d. Wien. Akad. d. Wissenschaften, 34, 257.</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11">[11]</a><br /><span class="note">Ann. d. l'Observ. d. Mountsouris, 1878 and 1879.</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12">[12]</a><br /><span class="note">Estudios quimicos sobre el aire atmosferico, Madrid, 1860.</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13">[13]</a><br /><span class="note">Hygien. Untersuch., 1, 10.</span></p>
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>ANALYSIS OF KOLA NUT.</h2>
+
+<p>Alkaloids or crystallizable principles:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" summary="" >
+<colgroup span="5"><col align="left" span="3"/><col span="2" align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Per Cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Caffeine.</td><td>2.710</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Theobromine.</td><td>0.084</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Bitter principle.</td><td>0.018</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Total alkaloids.</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>2.812</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">Fatty matters:</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Saponifiable fat or oil.</td><td>0.734</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Essential oil.</td><td>0.081</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Total oils.</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>0.815</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Resinoid matter (<i>sol. in abs. alcohol</i>)</td><td>1.012</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">Sugar:</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Glucose (<i>reduces alkaline cuprammonium</i>).</td><td>3.312</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Sucrose? (<i>red. alk. cupram. after inversion</i>)<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14"><sup>1</sup></a>.</td><td>0.602</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Total sugars.</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>3.914</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">Starch, gum, etc.:</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Gum (<i>soluble in H2O at 90° F.</i>).</td><td>4.876</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Starch.</td><td>28.990</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Amidinous matter (<i>coloring with iodine</i>).</td><td>2.130</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Total gum and fecula.</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>35.999</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">Albuminoid matters.</td><td>8.642</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">Red and other coloring matters.</td><td>3.670</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">Kolatannic acids.</td><td>1.204</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">Mineral matter:</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Potassa.</td><td>1.415</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Chlorine.</td><td>0.702</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Phosphoric acid.</td><td>0.371</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2">Other salts, etc.</td><td>2.330</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>Total ash.</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>4.818</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">Moisture.</td><td>9.722</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4">Ligneous matter and loss.</td><td>27.395</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4"></td><td>100.000</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Both the French and German governments are introducing it into their
+military dietaries, and in England several large contract orders
+cannot yet be filled, owing to insufficiency of supply, while a
+well-known cocoa manufacturing firm has taken up the preparation of
+kola chocolate upon a commercial scale.&mdash;<i>W. Lascelles-Scott, in Jour.
+Soc. Arts.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14">[1]</a>
+<br /><span class="note">Inverted by boiling with a 2.5 per cent. solution of
+citric acid for ten minutes.</span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a>CHAPIN WROUGHT IRON.</h2>
+
+<h3>By W.H. SEARLES, Chairman of the Committee, Civil Engineers' Club
+of Cleveland, O.</h3>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the wonderful development of our steel industries in
+the last decade, the improvements in the modes of manufacture, and the
+undoubted strength of the metal under certain circumstances,
+nevertheless we find that steel has not altogether met the
+requirements of engineers as a structural material. Although its
+breaking strain and elastic limit are higher than those of wrought
+iron, the latter metal is frequently preferred and selected for
+tensile members, even when steel is used under compression in the same
+structure. The Niagara cantilever bridge is a notable instance of this
+practice. When steel is used in tension its working strains are not
+allowed to be over fifty per cent. above those adopted for wrought
+iron.</p>
+
+<p>The reasons for the suspicion with which steel is regarded are well
+understood. Not only is there a lack of uniformity in the product, but
+apparently the same steel will manifest very different results under
+slight provocation. Steel is very sensitive, not only to slight
+changes in chemical composition, but also to mechanical treatment,
+such as straightening, bending, punching, planing, heating, etc.
+Initial strains may be developed by any of these processes that would
+seriously affect the efficiency of the metal in service.</p>
+
+<p>Among the steels, those that are softer are more serviceable and
+reliable than the harder ones, especially whereever shocks and
+concussions or rapidly alternating strains are to be endured. In other
+words, the more nearly steel resembles good wrought iron, the more
+certain it is to render lasting service when used within appropriate
+limits of strain. Indeed, a wrought iron of fine quality is better
+calculated to endure fatigue than any steel. This is particularly
+noticeable in steam hammer pistons, propeller shafts, and railroad
+axles. A better quality of wrought iron, therefore, has long been a
+desideratum, and it appears now that it has at last been found.</p>
+
+<p>Several years since, a pneumatic process of manufacturing wrought iron
+was invented and patented by Dr. Chapin, and an experimental plant was
+erected near Chicago. Enough was done to demonstrate, first, that an
+iron of unprecedentedly good qualities was attainable from common pig;
+and second, that the cost of its manufacture would not exceed that of
+Bessemer steel. Nevertheless, owing to lack of funds properly to push
+the invention against the jealous opposition which it encountered, the
+enterprise came to a halt until quite recently, when its merits found
+a champion in Gustav Lindenthal, C.E., member of this club, who is
+now the general manager of the Chapin Pneumatic Iron Co., and under
+whose direction this new quality of iron will soon be put upon the
+market.</p>
+
+<p>The process of manufacture is briefly as follows: The pig metal, after
+being melted in a cupola and tapped into a discharging ladle, is
+delivered into a Bessemer converter, in which the metal is largely
+relieved of its silicon, sulphur, carbon, etc., by the ordinary
+pneumatic process. At the end of the blow the converter is turned down
+and its contents discharged into a traveling ladle, and quickly
+delivered to machines called ballers, which are rotary reverberatory
+furnaces, each revolving on a horizontal axis. In the baller the iron
+is very soon made into a ball without manual aid. It is then lifted
+out by means of a suspended fork and carried to a Winslow squeezer,
+where the ball is reduced to a roll twelve inches in diameter. Thence
+it is taken to a furnace for a wash heat, and finally to the muck
+train.</p>
+
+<p>No reagents are employed, as in steel making or ordinary iron
+puddling. The high heat of the metal is sufficient to preserve its
+fluidity during its transit from the converter to the baller; and the
+cinder from the blow is kept in the ladle.</p>
+
+<p>The baller is a bulging cylinder having hollow trunnions through which
+the flame passes. The cylinder is lined with fire brick, and this in
+turn is covered with a suitable refractory iron ore, from eight to ten
+inches thick, grouted with pulverized iron ore, forming a bottom, as
+in the common puddling furnace. The phosphorus of the iron, which
+cannot be eliminated in the intense heat of the converter, is,
+however, reduced to a minimum in the baller at a much lower
+temperature and on the basic lining. The process wastes the lining
+very slightly indeed. As many as sixty heats have been taken off in
+succession without giving the lining any attention. The absence of any
+reagent leaves the iron simply pure and homogeneous to a degree never
+realized in muck bars made by the old puddling process. Thus the
+expense of a reheating and rerolling to refine the iron is obviated.
+It was such iron as here results that Bessemer, in his early
+experiments, was seeking to obtain when he was diverted from his
+purpose by his splendid discoveries in the art of making steel. So
+effective is the new process, that even from the poorest grades of pig
+may be obtained economically an iron equal in quality to the refined
+irons made from the best pig by the ordinary process of puddling.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous tests of the Chapin irons have been made by competent and
+disinterested parties, and the results published. The samples here
+noted were cut and piled only once from the muck bar.</p>
+
+<p>Sample A was made from No. 3 mill cinder pig.</p>
+
+<p>Sample B was made from No. 4 mill pig and No. 3 Bessemer pig, half and
+half.</p>
+
+<p>Sample C was made from No. 3 Bessemer pig, with the following results:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" summary="" width="60%">
+<colgroup span="4"><col align="left" /><col span="3" align="center" /></colgroup>
+<tr><th>Sample.</th><th>A</th><th>B</th><th>C</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Tensile strength per sq. in.</td><td>56,000</td><td>60,772</td><td>64,377</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Elastic limit.</td><td>34,000</td><td>....</td><td>36,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Extension, per cent.</td><td>11.8</td><td>....</td><td>17.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Reduction of area, per cent.</td><td>65.0</td><td>16.0</td><td>33.0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The tensile strength of these irons made by ordinary puddling would be
+about 38,000, 40,000, and 42,000 respectively, or the gain of the iron
+in tensile strength by the Chapin process is about fifty per cent. Not
+only so, but these irons made in this manner from inferior pig show a
+higher elastic limit and breaking strain than are commonly specified
+for refined iron of best quality. The usual specifications are for
+refined iron: Tensile strength, 50,000; elongation, 15 per cent.;
+elastic limit, 26,000; reduction, 25 cent.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the limits of the Chapin iron are from 12 to 20 per cent. above
+those of refined iron, and not far below those of structural steel,
+while there is a saving of some four dollars per ton in the price of
+the pig iron from which it can be made. When made from the best pig
+metal its breaking and elastic limits will probably reach 70,000 and
+40,000 pounds respectively. If so, it will be a safer material than
+steel under the same working strains, owing to its greater resilience.</p>
+
+<p>Such results are very interesting in both a mechanical and economical
+point of view. Engineers will hail with delight the accession to the
+list of available building materials of a wrought iron at once fine,
+fibrous, homogeneous, ductile, easily weldable, not subject to injury
+by the ordinary processes of shaping, punching, etc., and having a
+tensile strength and elastic limit nearly equal to any steel that
+could safely be used in the same situation.</p>
+
+<p>A plant for the manufacture of Chapin iron is now in course of
+erection at Bethlehem, Pa., and there is every reason to believe that
+the excellent results attained in Chicago will be more than reached in
+the new works.&mdash;<i>Proceed. Jour. Asso. of Eng. Societies</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a>CELLULOID.</h2>
+
+<p>Professor Sadler, of the University of Pennsylvania, has lately given
+an account of the development and method of the manufacture of
+celluloid. Alexander Parkes, an Englishman, invented this remarkable
+substance in 1855, but after twelve years quit making it because of
+difficulties in manipulation, although he made a fine display at the
+Paris Exposition of 1867. Daniel Spill, also of England, began
+experiments two years after Parkes, but a patent of his for dissolving
+the nitrated wood fiber, or &quot;pyroxyline,&quot; in alcohol and camphor was
+decided by Judge Blatchford in a suit brought against the Celluloid
+Manufacturing Company to be valueless. No further progress was made
+until the Hyatt Brothers, of Albany, N.Y., discovered that gum
+camphor, when finely divided, mixed with the nitrated fiber and then
+heated, is a perfect solvent, giving a homogeneous and plastic mass.
+American patents of 1870 and 1874 are substantially identical with
+those now in use in England. In France there is only one factory, and
+there is none elsewhere on the Continent, one in Hanover having been
+given up on account of the explosive nature of the stuff. In this
+country pure cellulose is commonly obtained from paper makers, in the
+form of tissue paper, in wide rolls; this, after being nitrated by a
+bath of mixed nitric and sulphuric acids, is thoroughly washed and
+partially dried. Camphor is then added, and the whole is ground
+together and thoroughly mixed. At this stage <a name="Page_9786" id="Page_9786"></a>coloring matter may be
+put in. A little alcohol increases the plasticity of the mass, which
+is then treated for some time to powerful hydraulic pressure. Then
+comes breaking up the cakes and feeding the fragments between heated
+rolls, by which the amalgamation of the whole is completed. Its
+perfect plasticity allows it to be rolled into sheets, drawn into
+tubes, or moulded into any desired shape.&mdash;<i>Jewelers' Journal.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art19" id="art19"></a>APPARATUS FOR TESTING CHAMPAGNE BOTTLES AND CORKS.</h2>
+
+<p>Mr. J. Salleron has devised several apparatus which are destined to
+render valuable service in the champagne industry. The apparently
+simple operation of confining the carbonic acid due to fermentation in
+a bottle in order to blow the cork from the latter with force at a
+given moment is not always successful, notwithstanding the skill and
+experience of the manipulator. How could it be otherwise?</p>
+
+<p>Everything connected with the production of champagne wine was but
+recently unknown and unexplained. The proportioning of the sugar
+accurately dates, as it were, from but yesterday, and the measurement
+of the absorbing power of wine for carbonic acid has but just entered
+into practice, thanks to Mr. Salleron's absorptiometer. The real
+strength of the bottles, and the laws of the elasticity of glass and
+its variation with the temperature, are but little known. Finally, the
+physical constitution of cork, its chemical composition, its
+resistance to compression and the dissolving action of the wine, must
+be taken into consideration. In fact, all the elements of the
+difficult problem of the manufacture of sparkling wine show that there
+is an urgent necessity of introducing scientific methods into this
+industry, as without them work can now no longer be done.</p>
+
+<p>No one has had a better opportunity to show how easy it is to convert
+the juice of the grape into sparkling wine through a series of simple
+operations whose details are known and accurately determined, so we
+believe it our duty to recommend those of our readers who are
+particularly interested in this subject to read Mr. Salleron's book on
+sparkling wine. We shall confine ourselves in this article to a
+description of two of the apparatus invented by the author for testing
+the resistance of bottles and cork stoppers.</p>
+
+<p>It is well, in the first place, to say that one of the important
+elements in the treatment of sparkling wine is the normal pressure
+that it is to produce in the bottles. After judicious deductions and
+numerous experiments, Mr. Salleron has adopted for the normal pressure
+of highly sparkling wines five atmospheres at the temperature of the
+cellar, which does not exceed 10 degrees. But, in a defective cellar,
+the bottles may be exposed to frost in winter and to a temperature of
+25° in summer, corresponding to a tension of ten atmospheres. It may
+naturally be asked whether bottles will withstand such an ordeal. Mr.
+Salleron has determined their resistance through the process by which
+we estimate that of building materials, viz., by measuring the limit
+of their elasticity, or, in other words, the pressure under which they
+take on a new permanent volume. In fact, glass must be assimilated to
+a perfectly elastic body; and bottles expand under the internal
+pressure that they support. If their resistance is insufficient, they
+continue to increase in measure as the pressure is further prolonged,
+and at every increase in permanent capacity, their resistance
+diminishes.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/4a.png">
+<img src="./images/4a_th.png" alt=" Fig. 1.&mdash;MACHINE FOR TESTING BOTTLES." /></a>
+<br /> Fig. 1.&mdash;MACHINE FOR TESTING BOTTLES.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus shown in Fig. 1 is called an elasticimeter, and permits
+of a preliminary testing of bottles. The bottle to be tested is put
+into the receptacle, A B, which is kept full of water, and when it has
+become full, its neck is played between the jaws of the clamp, <i>p</i>.
+Upon turning the hand wheel, L, the bottle and the receptacle that
+holds it are lifted, and the mouth of the bottle presses against a
+rubber disk fixed under the support, C D. The pressure of the neck of
+the bottle against this disk is such that the closing is absolutely
+hermetical. The support, C D, contains an aperture which allows the
+interior of the bottle to communicate with a glass tube, <i>a b</i>, which
+thus forms a prolongation of the neck of the bottle. This tube is very
+narrow and is divided into fiftieths of a cubic centimeter. A
+microscope, <i>m</i>, fixed in front of the tube, magnifies the divisions,
+and allows the position of the level of the water to be ascertained to
+within about a millionth of a cubic centimeter.</p>
+
+<p>A force and suction pump, P, sucks in air through the tube, <i>t</i>, and
+compresses it through the tube, <i>t'</i>, in the copper tube, T, which
+communicates with the glass tube, <i>a b</i>, after passing through the
+pressure gauge, M. This pump, then, compresses the air in the bottle,
+and the gauge accurately measures its pressure.</p>
+
+<p>To make a test, after the bottle full of water has been fastened under
+the support, C D, the cock, <i>s</i>, is opened and the liquid with which
+the small reservoir, R, has been filled flows through an aperture
+above the mouth of the bottle and rises in the tube, <i>a b</i>. When its
+level reaches the division, O, the cock, <i>s</i>, is closed. The bottle
+and its prolongation, <i>a b</i>, are now exactly full of water without any
+air bubbles.</p>
+
+<p>The pump is actuated, and, in measure as the pressure rises, the level
+of the liquid in the tube, <i>a b</i>, is seen to descend. This descent
+measures the expansion or flexion of the bottle as well as the
+compression of the water itself. When the pressure is judged to be
+sufficient, the button, <i>n</i>, is turned, and the air compressed by the
+pump finding an exit, the needle of the pressure gauge will be seen to
+redescend and the level of the tube, <i>a b</i>, to rise.</p>
+
+<p>If the glass of the bottle has undergone no permanent deformation, the
+level will rise exactly to the zero mark, and denote that the bottle
+has supported the test without any modification of its structure. But
+if, on the contrary, the level does not return to the zero mark, the
+limit of the glass's elasticity has been extended, its molecules have
+taken on a new state of equilibrium, and its resistance has
+diminished, and, even if it has not broken, it is absolutely certain
+that it has lost its former resistance and that it presents no
+particular guarantee of strength.</p>
+
+<p>The vessel, A B, which must be always full of water, is designed to
+keep the bottle at a constant temperature during the course of the
+experiment. This is an essential condition, since the bottle thus
+filled with water constitutes a genuine thermometer, of which <i>a b</i> is
+the graduated tube. It is therefore necessary to avoid attributing a
+variation in level due to an expansion of the water produced by a
+change in temperature, to a deformation of the bottle.</p>
+
+<p>The test, then, that can be made with bottles by means of the
+elasticimeter consists in compressing them to a pressure of ten
+atmospheres when filled with water at a temperature of 25°, and in
+finding out whether, under such a stress, they change their volume
+permanently. In order that the elasticimeter may not be complicated by
+a special heating apparatus, it suffices to determine once for all
+what the pressure is that, at a mean temperature of 15°, acts upon
+bottles with the same energy as that of ten atmospheres at 25°.
+Experiment has demonstrated that such stress corresponds to twelve
+atmospheres in a space in which the temperature remains about 15°.</p>
+
+<p>In addition, the elasticimeter is capable of giving other and no less
+useful data. It permits of comparing the resistance of bottles and of
+classifying them according to the degree of such resistance. After
+numerous experiments, it has been found that first class bottles
+easily support a pressure of twelve atmospheres without distortion,
+while in those of an inferior quality the resistance is very variable.
+The champagne wine industry should therefore use the former
+exclusively.</p>
+
+<p>Various precautions must be taken in the use of corks. The bottles
+that lose their wine in consequence of the bad quality of their corks
+are many in number, and it is not long since that they were the cause
+of genuine disaster to the champagne trade.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Salleron has largely contributed to the improving of the quality
+of corks found in the market. The physical and chemical composition of
+cork bark is peculiarly favorable to the special use to which it is
+applied; but the champagne wine industry requires of it an exaggerated
+degree of resistance, inalterability, and elasticity. A 1¼ inch cork
+must, under the action of a powerful machine, enter a ¾ inch neck,
+support the dissolving action of a liquid containing 12 per cent. of
+alcohol compressed to at least five atmospheres, and, in a few years,
+shoot out of the bottle and assume its pristine form and color. Out of
+a hundred corks of good quality, not more than ten support such a
+test.</p>
+
+<p>In order to explain wherein resides the quality of cork, it is
+necessary to refer to a chemical analysis of it. In cork bark there is
+70 per cent. of suberine, which is soluble in alcohol and ether, and
+is plastic, ductile, and malleable under the action of humid heat.
+Mixed with suberine, cerine and resin give cork its insolubility and
+inalterability. These substances are soluble in alcohol and ether, but
+insoluble in water.</p>
+
+<p>According to the origin of cork, the wax and resin exist in it in very
+variable proportion. The more resinous kinds resist the dissolving
+action of wine better than those that are but slightly resinous. The
+latter soon become corroded and spoiled by wine. An attempt has often
+been made, but without success, to improve poor corks by impregnating
+them with the resinous principle that they lack.</p>
+
+<p>Various other processes have been tried without success, and so it
+finally became necessary simply to separate the good from the bad
+corks by a practical and rapid operation. A simple examination does
+not suffice. Mr. Bouché has found that corks immersed in water finally
+became covered with brown spots, and, by analogy, in order to test
+corks, he immersed them in water for a fortnight or a month. All those
+that came out spotted were rejected. Under the prolonged action of
+moisture, the suberine becomes soft, and, if it is not resinous
+enough, the cells of the external layer of the cork burst, the water
+enters, and the cork becomes spotted.</p>
+
+<p>It was left to Mr. Salleron to render the method of testing practical.
+He compresses the cork in a very strong reservoir filled with water
+under a pressure of from four to five atmospheres. By this means, the
+but slightly resinous cork is quickly dissolved, so that, after a few
+hours' immersion, the bad corks come out spotted and channeled as if
+they had been in the neck of a bottle for six months. On the contrary,
+good corks resist the operation, and come out of the reservoir as
+white and firm as they were when they were put into it.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/4b.png"><img src="./images/4b_th.png" alt=" Fig. 2.&mdash;SALLERON'S APPARATUS FOR TESTING CORKS." /></a><br /> Fig. 2.&mdash;SALLERON'S APPARATUS FOR TESTING CORKS.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 2 gives a perspective view of Mr. Salleron's apparatus for
+testing corks. A reservoir, A B, of tinned copper, capable of holding
+100 corks, is provided with a cover firmly held in place by a clamp.
+Into the cover is screwed a pressure gauge, M, which measures the
+internal pressure of the apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>A pump, P, sucks water from a vessel through the tubulure, <i>t'</i>, and
+forces it through the tubulure, <i>t</i>, into the reservoir full of corks.
+After being submitted to a pressure of five atmospheres in this
+apparatus for a few hours, the corks are verified and then sorted out.
+In addition to the apparatus here illustrated, there is one of larger
+dimensions for industrial applications. This differs from the other
+only in the arrangement of its details, and will hold as many as
+10,000 corks.&mdash;<i>Revue Industrielle.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><a name="Page_9787" id="Page_9787"></a><a name="art24" id="art24"></a>IMPROVED BISCUIT MACHINE.</h2>
+
+<p>The accompanying illustration represents a combined biscuit cutting,
+scrapping, and panning machine, specially designed for running at high
+speeds, and so arranged as to allow of the relative movements of the
+various parts being adjusted while in motion. The cutters or dies,
+mounted on a cross head working in a vertical guide frame, are
+operated from the main shaft by eccentrics and vertical connecting
+rods, as shown. These rods are connected to the lower strap of the
+eccentric by long guide bolts, on which intermediate spiral springs
+are mounted, and by this means, although the dies are brought quickly
+down to the dough, they are suffered to remain in contact therewith,
+under a gradually increasing pressure, for a sufficient length of time
+to insure the dough being effectually stamped and completely cut
+through.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/5a.png"><img src="./images/5a_th.png" alt=" IMPROVED BISCUIT MACHINE." /></a><br /> IMPROVED BISCUIT MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p>Further, the springs tend to counteract any tendency to vibration that
+might be set up by the rapid reciprocation of the cross head, cutters,
+and their attendant parts. Mounted also on the main shaft is one of a
+pair of reversed cone drums. These, with their accompanying belt and
+its adjusting gear, worked by a hand wheel and traversing screw, as
+shown, serve to adjust the speed of the feed rollers, so as to suit
+the different lengths of the intermediate travel or &quot;skip&quot; of the
+dough-carrying web.</p>
+
+<p>Provision is made for taking up the slack of this belt by mounting the
+spindle of the outer coned drum in bearings adjustable along a
+circular path struck from the axis of the lower feed roller as a
+center, thus insuring a uniform engagement between the teeth of the
+small pinion and those of the spur wheel with which the drum and
+roller are respectively provided.</p>
+
+<p>The webs for carrying forward the dough between the different
+operations pass round rollers, which are each operated by an
+adjustable silent clutch feed, in place of the usual ratchet and pawl
+mechanism. Movement is given to each feed by the connecting links
+shown, to each of which motion is in turn imparted by the bell crank
+lever placed beside the eccentric. This lever is actuated by a crank
+pin on the main shaft, working into a block sliding in a slot in the
+shorter or horizontal arm of the lever, while a similar but adjustable
+block, sliding in the vertical arm, serves to impart the motion of the
+lever to the system of connecting links, the adjustable block allowing
+of a longer or shorter stroke being given to the different feeds, as
+desired.</p>
+
+<p>The scraps are carried over the roller in rear of the cutters, and so
+to a scrap pan, while the stamped biscuits pass by a lower web into
+the pans. These pans are carried by two endless chains, provided with
+pins, which take hold of the pans and carry them along in the proper
+position. The roller over which these chains pass is operated by a
+silent clutch, and in order to give an additional motion to the chains
+when a pan is full, and it is desired to bring the next pan into
+position, an additional clutch is caused to operate upon the roller.
+This clutch is kept out of gear with its pulley by means of a
+projection upon it bearing against a disk slightly greater in diameter
+than the pulley, and provided with two notches, into which the
+projection passes when the additional feed is required.</p>
+
+<p>The makers, H. Edwards &amp; Co., Liverpool, have run one of these
+machines easily and smoothly at a hundred revolutions per minute, at
+which speed, and when absorbing about 3.5 horse power, the output
+would equal 4,000 small biscuits per minute.&mdash;<i>Industries.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art25" id="art25"></a>IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR.</h2>
+
+<p>A hand separator of this type was exhibited at the Royal Show at
+Newcastle by the Aylesbury Dairy Company, of 31 St. Petersburg Place,
+Bayswater, England.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/5b.png" alt=" IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 1." /><br /> IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 1.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/5c.png" alt=" IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 2." /><br /> IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 2.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the machine, Fig. 2 being a vertical
+section. The drums of these machines, which make 2,700 revolutions per
+minute for the large and 4,000 for the small one, have a diameter of
+27 in. and 15½ in. respectively, and are capable of extracting the
+cream from 220 and 115 gallons of milk per hour. These drums are
+formed by hydraulic pressure from one piece of sheet steel. To avoid
+the possibility of the machines being overdriven, which might happen
+through the negligence of the attendant or through the governing gear
+on the engine failing to act, an ingenious controlling apparatus is
+fixed to the intermediate motion of the separator as shown in Fig. 3.
+This apparatus consists of a pair of governor balls pivoted near the
+center of the arms and attached to the main shaft of the intermediate
+gear by means of a collar fixed on it. The main shaft is bored out
+sufficiently deep to admit a steel rod, against which bear the three
+ends of the governor arms. The steel rod presses against the
+counterbalance, which is made exactly the right weight to withstand
+the force tending to raise it, when the intermediate motion is running
+at its designed speed. The forks between which the belt runs are also
+provided with a balance weight. This brings them to the loose pulley,
+unless they are fixed by means of the ratchet. Should the number of
+revolutions of the intermediate increase beyond the correct amount,
+the extra centrifugal force imparted to the governor balls enables
+them to overcome the balance weight, and in raising this they raise
+the arm. This arm striking against the ratchet detent releases the
+balance weight, and the belt is at once brought on to the loose
+pulley.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/5d.png" alt=" IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 3." /><br /> IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 3.</p>
+
+<p>The steel drum is fitted with an internal ring at the bottom (see Fig.
+2), into which the milk flows, and from which it is delivered, by
+three apertures, to the periphery of the drum, thus preventing the
+milk from striking against the cone of the drum, and from mixing with
+the cream which has already been separated. The upper part of the drum
+is fitted with an annular flange, about 1½ in. from the top, reaching
+to within one-sixteenth of an inch of the periphery. After the
+separation of the skim milk from the cream, the former passes behind
+and above this flange through the aperture, B, and is removed by means
+of the tube, D, furnished with a steel tip projecting from the cover
+of the machine into the space between the top of the drum and the
+annular flange, a similar tube, F, reaching below this flange,
+removing the cream which collects there. The skim milk tube is
+provided with a screw regulator, the function of which is to enable
+cream of any desired consistency to be obtained, varying with the
+distance between the skim milk and cream points from the center of the
+drum. Another point about these tubes is their use as elevating tubes
+for the skim, milk and cream, as, owing to the velocity at which the
+drum is rotating, the products can be delivered by these tubes at a
+height of 8 or 10 feet above the machine if required, thus enabling
+scalding and cooling of either to be carried on while the separator is
+at work, and saving hand labor.&mdash;<i>Iron.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art23" id="art23"></a>GAS FROM OIL.</h2>
+
+<p>At the twenty-fourth annual meeting of the Gas Institute, which was
+recently held in Glasgow, Dr. Stevenson Macadam, F.R.S.E., lecturer on
+chemistry, Edinburgh, submitted the first paper, which was on &quot;Gas
+from Oil.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>He said that during the last seventeen years he had devoted much
+attention to the photogenic or illuminating values of different
+qualities of paraffin oils in various lamps, and to the production of
+permanent illuminating gas from such oils. The earlier experiments
+were directed to the employment of paraffin oils as oils, and the
+results proved the great superiority of the paraffin oils as
+illuminating agents over vegetable and animal oils, alike for
+lighthouse and ordinary house service.</p>
+
+<p>The later trials were mainly concerned with the breaking up of the
+paraffin oils into permanent illuminating gas. Experiments were made
+at low heats, medium heats, and high heats, which proved that,
+according to the respective qualities of the paraffin oils employed in
+the trials, there was more or less tendency at the lower heats to
+distill oil instead of permanent gas, while at the high heats there
+was a liability to decarbonize the oil and gas, and to obtain a thin
+gas of comparatively small illuminating power. When, however, a good
+cherry red heat was maintained, the oils split up in large proportion
+into permanent gas of high illuminating quality, accompanied by little
+tarry matter, and with only a slight amount of separated carbon or
+deposited soot.</p>
+
+<p>The best mode of splitting up the paraffin oils, and the special
+arrangements of the retort or distilling apparatus, also formed, he
+said, an extensive inquiry by itself. In one set of trials the oil was
+distilled into gaseous vapor, and then passed through the retort. In
+another set of experiments, the oil was run into or allowed to trickle
+into the retorts, while both modes of introducing the oil were tried
+in retorts charged with red hot coke and in retorts free from coke.</p>
+
+<p>Ultimately, it was found that the best results were obtained by the
+more simple arrangement of employing iron retorts at a good cherry red
+heat, and running in the oil as a thin stream direct into the retort,
+so that it quickly impinged upon the red hot metal, and without the
+intervention of any coke or other matter in the retorts. The paraffin
+oils employed in the investigations were principally: (1) Crude
+paraffin oil, being the oil obtained direct from the destructive
+distillation of shale in retorts; (2) green paraffin oil, which is
+yielded by distilling or re-running the crude paraffin oil, and
+removing the lighter or more inflammable portion by fractional
+distillation; and (3) blue paraffin oil, which is obtained by
+rectifying the twice run oil with sulphuric acid and soda, and
+distilling off the paraffin spirit, burning oil, and intermediate oil,
+and freezing out the solid paraffin as paraffin scale. The best
+practical trials were obtained in Pintsch's apparatus and in Keith's
+apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>After describing both of these, Dr. Macadam went on to give in great
+detail the results obtained in splitting up blue paraffin oil into gas
+in each apparatus. He then said that these experimental results
+demonstrated that Pintsch's apparatus yielded from the gallon of oil
+in one case 90.70 cubic feet of gas of 62.50 candle power, and in the
+second case 103.36 cubic feet of 59.15 candle gas, or an average of
+97.03 cubic feet of 60.82 candle power gas.</p>
+
+<p>In both cases, the firing of the retorts was moderate, <a name="Page_9788" id="Page_9788"></a>though in the
+second trial greater care was taken to secure uniformity of heat, and
+the oil was run in more slowly, so that there was more thorough
+splitting up of the oil into permanent gas. The gas obtained in the
+two trials was of high quality, owing to its containing a large
+percentage of heavy hydrocarbons, of which there were, respectively,
+39.25 and 37.15 per cent., or an average of 38.2 per cent., while the
+sulphureted hydrogen was nothing, and the carbonic acid a mere trace.
+Besides testing the gas on the occasion of the actual trials, he had
+also examined samples of the gas which he had taken from various
+cylinders in which the gas had been stored for several months under a
+pressure of ten atmospheres, and in all cases the gas was found to be
+practically equal to the quantity mentioned, and hence of a permanent
+character.</p>
+
+<p>By using Keith's apparatus the results obtained were generally the
+same, with the exception that an average of 0.27 per cent. of carbonic
+acid gas and decided proportions of sulphureted hydrogen were found to
+be present in the gas. Dr. Macadam devoted some remarks to the
+consideration of the question as to how far the gas obtained from the
+paraffin oil represented the light power of the oil itself, and then
+he proceeded to say that, taking the crude paraffin oil at 2d. a
+gallon, and with a specific gravity of 850 (water = 1,000), or 8½ lb.
+to the gallon, there were 264 gallons to the ton, at a cost of £2 4s.
+per ton. The sperm light from the ton of oil as gas being 3,443 lb.,
+he reckoned that fully 6 lb. of sperm light were obtained from a
+pennyworth of the crude oil as gas.</p>
+
+<p>Then, taking the blue paraffin oil at 4d. per gallon, and there being
+255 gallons to the ton, it was found that the cost of one ton was £4
+5s., and as the sperm light of a ton of that oil as gas was 5,150 lb.,
+it was calculated that 5 lb. of sperm light were yielded in the gas
+from a pennyworth of the blue oil. The very rich character of the oil
+gas rendered it unsuitable for consumption at ordinary gas jets,
+though it burned readily and satisfactorily at small burners not
+larger than No. 1 jets.</p>
+
+<p>In practical use it would be advisable to reduce the quality by
+admixture with thin and feeble gas, or to employ the oil gas simply
+for enriching inferior gases derived from the more common coals. On
+the question of dilution, he said that he preferred to use carbonic
+oxide and hydrogen, and most of the remainder of his paper was devoted
+to an explanation of the best mode of preparing those gases (water
+gases).</p>
+
+<p>He concluded by saying: The employment of paraffin oil for gas making
+has advantages in its favor, in the readiness of charging the retorts,
+as the oil can be run in continuously for days at a time, and may be
+discontinued and commenced again without opening, clearing out
+residual products, recharging and reclosing the retorts. There is
+necessarily, therefore, less labor and cost in working, and as the gas
+is cleaner or freer from impurities, purifying plant and material will
+be correspondingly less. Oil gas is now employed for lighthouse
+service in the illumination of the lanterns on Ailsa Craig and as
+motive power in the gas engines connected with the fog horns at
+Langness and Ailsa Craig lighthouse stations. It is also used largely
+in the lighting of railway carriages. Various populous places are now
+introducing oil gas for house service, and he felt sure that the
+system is one which ought to commend itself for its future development
+to the careful consideration and practical skill of the members of the
+Gas Institute.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art26" id="art26"></a>THE MANUFACTURE OF SALT NEAR MIDDLESBROUGH.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By Sir LOWTHIAN BELL, Bart., F.R.S.</h3>
+
+<p>The geology of the Middlesbrough salt region was first referred to,
+and it was stated that the development of the salt industry in that
+district was the result of accident. In 1859, Messrs. Bolckow &amp;
+Vaughan sank a deep well at Middlesbrough, in the hope of obtaining
+water for steam and other purposes in connection with their iron works
+in that town, although they had previously been informed of the
+probably unsuitable character of the water if found. The bore hole was
+put down to a depth of 1,200 feet, when a bed of salt rock was struck,
+which proved to have a thickness of about 100 feet. At that time
+one-eighth of the total salt production of Cheshire was being brought
+to the Tyne for the chemical works on that river, hence the discovery
+of salt instead of water was regarded by some as the reverse of a
+disappointment. The mode of reaching the salt rock by an ordinary
+shaft, however, failed, from the influx of water being too great, and
+nothing more was heard of Middlesbrough salt until a dozen years
+later, when Messrs. Bell Brothers, of Port Clarence, decided to try
+the practicability of raising the salt by a method detailed in the
+paper. A site was selected 1,314 yards distant from the well of
+Messrs. Bolckow &amp; Vaughan, and the Diamond Rock Boring Company was
+intrusted with the work of putting down a hole in order to ascertain
+whether the bed of salt extended under their land. This occupied
+nearly two years, when the salt, 65 feet in thickness, was reached at
+a depth of 1,127 feet. Other reasons induced the owners of the
+Clarence iron works to continue the bore hole for 150 feet below the
+bed of salt; a depth of 1,342 feet from the surface was then reached.
+During the process of boring, considerable quantities of inflammable
+gas were met with, which, on the application of flame, took fire at
+the surface of the water in the bore hole. The origin of this gas, in
+connection with the coal measures underlying the magnesian limestone,
+will probably hereafter be investigated.</p>
+
+<p>For raising the salt, recourse was had to the method of solution, the
+principle being that a column of descending water should raise the
+brine nearly as far as the differences of specific gravity between the
+two liquids permitted&mdash;in the present case about 997 feet. In other
+words, a column of fresh water of 1,200 feet brought the brine to
+within 203 feet of the surface. For the practical application of this
+system a hole of say 12 inches in diameter at the surface was
+commenced, and a succession of wrought iron tubes put down as the
+boring proceeded, the pipes being of gradually decreasing diameter,
+until the bottom of the salt bed was reached. The portion of this
+outer or retaining tube, where it passed through the bed of salt, was
+pierced with two sets of apertures, the upper edge of the higher set
+coinciding with the top of the seam, and the other set occupying the
+lower portion of the tube. Within the tube so arranged, and secured at
+its lower extremity by means of a cavity sunk in the limestone, a
+second tube was lowered, having an outer diameter from two to four
+inches less than the interior diameter of the first tube. The latter
+served for pumping the brine. The pump used was of the ordinary bucket
+and clack type, but, in addition, at the surface, there was a plunger,
+which served to force the brine into an air vessel for the purposes of
+distribution. The bucket and clack were placed some feet below the
+point to which the brine was raised by the column of fresh water
+descending in the annulus formed between the two tubes. In commencing
+work, water was let down the annulus until the cavity formed in the
+salt became sufficiently large to admit of a few hours' pumping of
+concentrated brine. On the machinery being set in motion, the stronger
+brine was first drawn, which, from its greater specific gravity,
+occupied the lower portion of the cavity. As the brine was raised,
+fresh water flowed down. The solvent power of the newly admitted water
+was of course greater than that of water partially saturated, and
+being also lighter it occupied the upper portion of the excavated
+space. The combined effect was to give the cavity the form of an
+inverted cone. The mode of extraction thus possessed the disadvantage
+of removing the greatest quantity of the mineral where it was most
+wanted for supporting the roof, and had given rise to occasional
+accidents to the pipes underground. These were referred to in detail,
+and the question was started as to possible legal complications
+arising hereafter from new bore holes put down in close proximity to
+the dividing line of different properties, the pumping of brine formed
+under the conditions described presenting an altogether different
+aspect from the pumping of water or natural brine.</p>
+
+<p>The second part of the paper referred to the uses to which the brine
+was applied, the chief one being the manufacture of common salt. For
+this purpose the brine, as delivered from the wells, was run into a
+large reservoir, where any earthy matter held in suspension was
+allowed to settle. The clear solution was then run into pans sixty
+feet long by twenty feet wide by two feet deep. Heat was applied at
+one end by the combustion of small coal, beyond which longitudinal
+walls, serving to support the pan and to distribute the heat,
+conducted the products of combustion to the further extremity, where
+they escaped into the chimney at a temperature of from 500° to 700°
+Fahr. On the surface of the heated brine, kept at 196° Fahr., minute
+cubical crystals speedily formed. On the upper surface of these, other
+small cubes of salt arranged themselves in such a way that, in course
+of time, a hollow inverted pyramid of crystallized salt was formed.
+This ultimately sank to the bottom, where other small crystals united
+with it, so that the shape became frequently completely cubical. Every
+second day the salt was &quot;fished&quot; out and laid on drainers to permit
+the adhering brine to run back into the pans. For the production of
+table salt the boiling was carried on much more rapidly, and at a
+higher temperature than for salt intended for soda manufacture. The
+crystals were very minute, and adhered together by the solidification
+of the brine, effected by exposure on heated flues. For fishery
+purposes the crystals were preferred very coarse in size. These were
+obtained by evaporating the brine more slowly and at a still lower
+temperature than when salt for soda makers was required. At the
+Clarence works experiments had been made in utilizing surplus gas from
+the adjacent blast furnaces, instead of fuel, under the evaporating
+pans, the furnaces supplying more gas than was needed for heating air
+and raising steam for iron making. By means of this waste heat, from
+200 to 300 tons of salt per week were now obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The paper concluded with some particulars of the soda industry. The
+well-known sulphuric acid process of Leblanc had stood its ground for
+three-quarters of a century in spite of several disadvantages, and
+various modes of utilizing the by-products having been from time to
+time introduced, it had until recent years seemed too firmly
+established to fear any rivals. About seven years ago, however, Mr.
+Solvay, of Brussels, revived in a practical form the ammonia process,
+patented forty years ago by Messrs. Hemming &amp; Dyar, but using brine
+instead of salt, and thus avoiding the cost of evaporation. This
+process consisted of forcing into the brine currents of carbonic acid
+and ammoniacal gases in such proportions as to generate bicarbonate of
+ammonia, which, reacting on the salt of the brine, gave bicarbonate of
+soda and chloride of ammonium. The bicarbonate was placed in a
+reverberatory furnace, where the heat drove off the water and one
+equivalent of carbonic acid, leaving the alkali as monocarbonate. Near
+Middlesbrough, the only branch of industry established in connection
+with its salt trade was the manufacture of soda by an ammonia process,
+invented by Mr. Schloesing, of Paris. The works were carried on in
+connection with the Clarence salt works. It was believed that the
+total quantity of dry soda produced by the two ammonia processes,
+Solvay's and Schloesing's, in this country was something under 100,000
+tons per annum, but this make was considerably exceeded on the
+Continent.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15">[1]</a><br /><span class="note">Abstract of paper read before the Institution of Civil
+Engineers, May 17, 1887.</span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art22" id="art22"></a>COTTON INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN.</h2>
+
+<p>The cotton plant principally cultivated in Japan is of the species
+known as <i>Gossypium herbaceum</i>, resembling that of India, China, and
+Egypt. The plant is of short stature, seldom attaining a growth of
+over two feet; the flower is deciduous, with yellow petals and purple
+center, and the staple is short, but fine. It is very widely
+cultivated in Japan, and is produced in thirty-seven out of the
+forty-four prefectures forming the empire, but the best qualities and
+largest quantities are grown in the southern maritime provinces of the
+mainland and on the islands of Kiusiu and Shikoku. Vice consul
+Longford, in his last report, says that the plant is not indigenous to
+Japan, the seed having been first imported from China in the year
+1558. There are now many varieties of the original species, and the
+cultivation of the plant varies in its details in different
+localities. The variations are, however, mostly in dates, and the
+general grinding principles of the several operations are nearly the
+same throughout the whole country. The land best suited for cotton
+growing is one of a sandy soil, the admixture of earth and sand being
+in the proportion of two parts earth to one of sand. During the winter
+and spring months, crops of wheat or barley are raised on it, and it
+is when these crops have attained their full height during the month
+of May that the cotton is sown. About fifty days prior to the sowing a
+manure is prepared consisting of chopped straw, straw ashes, green
+grass, rice, bran, and earth from the bottom of the stagnant pools.
+These ingredients are all carefully mixed together in equal
+proportions, and the manure thus made is allowed to stand till
+required for use. Ten days before the time fixed for sowing, narrow
+trenches, about one inch in depth, are dug in the furrows, between the
+rows of standing wheat or barleys and the manure is liberally
+sprinkled along them by hand. For one night before sowing the seed is
+steeped in water. It is then taken out, slightly mixed with straw
+ashes, and sown in the trenches at intervals of a few inches. When
+sown, it is covered with earth to the depth of half an inch, and
+gently trampled down by foot. Four or five days after sowing, the buds
+begin to appear above the earth, and almost simultaneously the wheat
+or barley between which they grow is ripe for the sickle. While the
+latter is being harvested, the cotton may be left to itself, but not
+for very long. The buds appear in much larger numbers than the soil
+could support if they were allowed to grow. They have accordingly to
+be carefully thinned out, so that not more than five or six plants are
+left in each foot of length. The next process is the sprinkling of a
+manure composed of one part night soil and three parts water, and
+again, subsequent to this, there are two further manurings; one of a
+mixture of dried sardines, lees of oil, and lees of rice beer, which
+is applied about the middle of June, when the plant has attained a
+height of four inches; and again early in July, when the plant has
+grown to a height of six or seven inches, a further manuring of night
+soil, mixed with a larger proportion of water than before. At this
+stage the head of the plant is pinched off with the fingers, in order
+to check the excessive growth of the stem, and direct the strength
+into the branches, which usually number five or six. From these
+branches minor ones spring, but the latter are carefully pruned off as
+they appear. In the middle of August the flowers begin to appear
+gradually. They fall soon after their appearance, leaving in their
+place the pod or peach (<i>momo</i>), which, after ripening, opens in
+October by three or four valves and exposes the cotton to view. The
+cotton is gathered in baskets, in which it is allowed to remain till a
+bright, sunshiny day, when it is spread out on mats to dry and swell
+in the sun for two or three days. After drying, the cotton is packed
+in bags made of straw matting, and either sold or put aside until such
+time as the farmer's leisure from other agricultural operations
+enables him to deal with it. The average yield of cotton in good
+districts in Japan is about 120 lb. to the acre, but as cotton is only
+a secondary crop, this does not therefore represent the whole profit
+gained by the farmer from his land. The prefectures in which the
+production is largest are Aichi on the east coast, Osaka, Hiogo,
+Hiroshima, and Yamaguchi on the inland sea, and Fukui and Ishikawa on
+the west coast. Vice-consul Longford says that the manufacture of
+cotton in Japan is still in all its stages largely a domestic one.
+Gin, spindle, and loom are all found in the house of the farmer on
+whose land the cotton is grown, and not only what is required for the
+wants of his own family is spun and woven by the female members
+thereof, but a surplus is also produced for sale.</p>
+
+<p>Several spinning factories with important English machinery have been
+established during the last twenty years, but Consul Longford says
+that he has only known of one similar cotton-weaving factory, and that
+has not been a successful experiment. Other so called weaving
+factories throughout the country consist only of a collection of the
+ordinary hand looms, to the number of forty or fifty, scarcely ever
+reaching to one hundred, in one building or shed, wherein individual
+manufacturers have their own special piece goods made.</p>
+
+<p>The first operation in the manufacture is that of ginning, which is
+conducted by means of a small implement called the <i>rokuro</i>, or
+windlass. This consists of two wooden rollers revolving in opposite
+directions, fixed on a frame about 12 inches high and 6 inches in
+width, standing on a small platform, the dimensions of which slightly
+exceed that of the frame. The operator, usually a woman, kneels on one
+side of the frame, holding it firm by her weight, works the roller
+with one hand, and with the other presses the cotton, which she takes
+from a heap at her side, between the rollers. The cotton passes
+through, falling in small lumps on the other side of the frame, while
+the seeds fall on that nearest the woman. The utmost weight of
+unginned cotton that one woman working an entire day of ten hours can
+give is from 8 lb. to 10 lb., which gives, in the end, only a little
+over 3 lb. weight of ginned cotton, and her daily earnings amount to
+less than 2d. A few saw gins have been introduced into Japan during
+the last fifteen years, but no effort has been made to secure their
+distribution throughout the country districts. After ginning, a
+certain proportion of the seed is reserved for the agricultural
+requirements of the following year, and the remainder is sent to oil
+factories, where it is pressed, and yields about one-eighth of its
+capacity in measurement in oil, the refuse, after pressing, being used
+for manure. The ginning having been finished in the country districts,
+the cotton is either packed in bales and sent to the dealers in the
+cities, or else the next process, that of carding, is at once
+proceeded with on the spot.</p>
+
+<p>This process is almost as primitive as that of the ginning. A long
+bamboo, sufficiently thin to be flexible, is fastened at its base to a
+pillar or the corner of a small room. It slopes upward into the center
+of the room, and from its upper end a hempen cord is suspended. To
+this is fastened the &quot;bow,&quot; an instrument made of oak, about five feet
+in length, two inches in circumference, and shaped like a ladle. A
+string of coarse catgut is tightly stretched from end to end of the
+bow, and this is beaten with a small mallet made of willow, bound at
+the end with a ring of iron or brass. The raw cotton, in its coarse
+state, is piled on the floor just underneath the string of the bow.
+The string is then rapidly beaten with the mallet, and as it rises and
+falls it catches the rough cotton, cuts it to the required degree of
+fineness, removes impurities from it, and flings it to the side of the
+operator, where it falls on a hempen net stretched over a
+four-cornered wooden frame. The spaces of the net are about
+one-quarter of an inch square, and through these any particles of dust
+that may still have adhered to the cotton fall to the floor, leaving
+piled on top of the net the pure cotton <a name="Page_9789" id="Page_9789"></a>wool in its finished state.
+This work is always performed by a man, and by assiduous toil
+throughout a long day, one man can card from ten to twenty pounds
+weight of raw cotton. Payment is made in proportion to the work done,
+and in the less remote country districts is at the rate of about one
+penny for each pound carded. As regards spinning and weaving, in the
+first of these branches of cotton manufacture the Japanese have
+largely had recourse to the aid of foreign machinery, but it is still
+to a much greater extent a domestic industry, or at best carried on
+like weaving in the establishments of cotton traders, in which a
+number of workers, varying from 20 to 100 or more, each with his own
+spinning wheel, are collected together. Consul Longford says the
+spinning wheel used in Japan differs in no respect from that used in
+the country 300 years ago or (except that bamboo forms an integral
+part of the materials of which it is made) from that used in England
+prior to the invention of the jenny. The cost of one of the wheels is
+about 9d., it will last for five or six years, and with it a woman of
+ordinary skill can spin about 1 lb. of yarn in a day of ten hours,
+earning thereby about 2d. There are at present in various parts of
+Japan, in all, 21 spinning factories worked by foreign machinery. Of
+four of these there is no information, but of the remainder, one has
+120 spindles; eleven, 2,000 spindles; two, 3,000 spindles; two, 4,000
+spindles; and one, 18,000 spindles.&mdash;<i>Journal Soc. of Arts.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="center">[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 612, page 9774.]</p>
+
+<h2><a name="art21" id="art21"></a>CENTRIFUGAL EXTRACTORS.</h2>
+
+<h3>By ROBERT F. GIBSON.</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sugar Machines.</span>&mdash;Besides separating the crystalline sugar and
+the sirup, secondary objects are to wash the crystals and to pack them
+in cakes. The cleansing fluid or &quot;white liquor&quot; is introduced at the
+center of the basket and is hurled against and passes through the
+sugar wall left from draining. The basket may be divided into
+compartments and the liquor guided into each. The compartments are
+removable boxes and are shaped to give bars or cakes or any form
+desired of sugar in mass. These boxes being removable cannot fit
+tightly against the liquor guides, and the liquor is apt to escape.
+This difficulty is overcome by giving the guides radial movement or by
+having rubber packing around the edges.</p>
+
+<p>Sugar machines proper are of two kinds&mdash;those which are loaded,
+drained and then unloaded and those which are continuous in their
+working. The various figures preceding are of the first kind, and what
+has been said of vibrations applies directly to these.</p>
+
+<p>The general advantages claimed for continuous working over
+intermittent are&mdash;that saving is made of time and motive power
+incident to introducing charge and developing velocity, in retarding
+and stopping, and in discharging; that, as the power is brought into
+the machine continuously, no shifting of belts or ungearing is
+necessary; and that there are less of the dangers incident to variable
+motion, either in the machine itself or the belting or gearing. The
+magma (the mixture of crystalline sugar and sirup) is fed in
+gradually, by which means it is more likely to assume a position of
+equilibrium in the basket.</p>
+
+<p>There are two methods of discharging in continuous working&mdash;the sugar
+is thrown out periodically as the basket fills, or continuously. In
+neither case is the speed slackened. In the first either the upper
+half of the basket has an upward motion, on the lower half a downward
+motion (Pat. 252,483); and through the opening thus made the sugar is
+thrown. Fig. 22 (R.B. Palmer &amp; Sons) is a machine of this kind. The
+bottom, B, with the cone distributor, <i>a</i>, have downward motion.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/7a.png" alt=" Fig. 22." /><br /> Fig. 22.</p>
+
+<p>Continuous discharge of the second kind may be brought about by having
+a scoop fixed to the curb (or casing), extending down into the basket
+and delivering the sugar over the side (Pat. 144,319). Another method
+will be described under &quot;Beet Machines.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Basket.</span>&mdash;The construction of the basket is exceedingly
+important. Hard experience has taught this. When centrifugals were
+first introduced, users were compelled by law to put them below
+ground; for they frequently exploded, owing to the speed being
+suddenly augmented by inequalities in the running of the engine or to
+the basket being too weak to resist the centrifugal force of the
+overcharge. Increasing the thickness merely adds to the centrifugal
+force, and hence to the danger, as even a perfectly balanced basket
+may sever.</p>
+
+<p>One plan for a better basket was to have more than one wall. For
+example, there might be an inner wall of perforated copper, then one
+of wire gauze, and then another of copper with larger perforations.
+Another plan was to have an internal metallic cloth, bearing against
+the internally projecting ridges of the corrugations of the basket
+wall. A further complication is to give this internal gauze cylinder a
+rotation relative to the basket.</p>
+
+<p>The basket wall has been variously constructed. In one case it
+consists of wire wound round and round and fastened to uprights,
+commonly known as the &quot;wire basket;&quot; in another case of a periphery
+without perforations, but spirally corrugated and having an opening at
+the bottom for the escape of the extracted liquid; in still another of
+a series of narrow bars or rings, placed edgewise, packed as close as
+desired. An advantage of this last style is that it is easily cleaned.</p>
+
+<p>The best basket consists of sheet metal with bored perforations and
+having bands or flanges sprung on around the outside. The metal is
+brass, if it is apt to be corroded; if not, sheet iron. The
+perforations may be round, or horizontally much longer than wide
+vertically. One method for the manufacture of the basket wall (Pat.
+149,553) is to roll down a plate, having round perforations, to the
+required thickness, causing narrowing and elongation of the holes and
+at the same time hardening the plate by compacting its texture. Long
+narrow slots are well adapted to catch sugar crystals, and this is not
+an unimportant point. Round perforations are usually countersunk.
+Instead of flanges, wire bands have been used, their lapping ends
+secured by solder.</p>
+
+<p>As to comparative wear, it maybe remarked that one perforated basket
+will outlast three wire ones.</p>
+
+<p>As to size, sugar baskets vary from 80 inches in diameter by 14 in.
+depth to 54 by 24. They are made, however, in England as large as 6
+feet in diameter&mdash;a size which can be run only at a comparatively slow
+speed.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiar complication of basket deserves notice (Pat. 275 874). It
+had been noticed that when a charge of magma was put into a
+centrifugal in one mass, the sugar wall on the side of the basket was
+apt to form irregularly, too thick at base and of varied color. To
+remedy this it was suggested to have within and concentric with the
+basket a charger with flaring sides, into which the mixture was to be
+put. When this charger reached a certain rotary velocity, the magma
+would be hurled out over the edge by centrifugal force and evenly
+distributed on the wall of the main basket.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spindle.</span>&mdash;The spindle as now made is solid cast steel, and
+the considerations governing its size, form, material, etc., are
+identical with those for any spindle. In order that the basket might
+be replaced by another after draining, the shaft has been made
+telescopic, but at the expense of stability and rigidity. In Fig. 16
+is shown a device to avoid crystallizations, which are apt to occur in
+large forgings, and would prove fatal should they creep into the upper
+part of the spindle proper in a hanging machine. It consists of the
+secondary spindle, <i>c</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Discharging.</span>&mdash;The drained sugar may either be lifted over the
+top of the basket (in machines which stop to be emptied), or be cast
+through openings in the bottom provided with valves. A section of the
+best form of valve may be seen in Figs. 15 and 17. Fig. 23 is a plan
+of the openings. The valve turns on the basket bearing. It may be
+constructed to open in the same direction in which the basket turns;
+so that when the brake is put on, the inertia of the valve operates to
+open it and while running to keep it closed. There are many other
+styles, but no other need be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/7b.png" alt=" Fig. 23." /><br /> Fig. 23.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Casing.</span>&mdash;The different styles of casing may be seen by
+reference to the various drawings. In one machine (not described) the
+casing is rigidly fixed to the basket, space enough being left between
+the bottom of the basket and the bottom of the casing to hold all the
+molasses from a charge. This arrangement merely adds to the bulk of
+the revolving parts, and no real advantage is gained.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bearings.</span>&mdash;The various styles of bearings can be seen by
+reference to the figures. One which deserves special attention is
+shown in Fig. 16 and Fig. 19. In one case it consists of loose disks,
+in the other of loose washers, rotating on one another. They are
+alternately of steel and hard bronze (copper and tin).</p>
+
+<p>&quot;There is probably no machine so little understood or so imperfectly
+constructed by the common manufacturer of sugar supplies as the high
+speed separator or centrifugal.&quot; Unless the product of experience and
+good workmanship, it is a dangerous thing at high velocities. Besides,
+its usual fate is to have an incompetent workman assigned to it, who
+does not use judgment in charging and running. So that designers and
+manufacturers have been forced not only to take into account the
+disturbing forces inherent in revolving bodies, but also to make
+allowance for poor management in running and neglect in cleaning.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cane and Beet Machines.</span>&mdash;The first step in the process of
+sugar making is the extraction of the juice from the beet or cane.
+This juice is obtained by pressure. The operation is not usually, but
+may be, performed in a special kind of centrifugal. One style (Pat.
+239,222) consists of a conical basket with a spiral flange within on
+the shaft, and turning on the shaft, and having a slight rotary motion
+relative to the basket. The material is fed in and moves downward
+under increased pressure, the sirup released flying out through the
+perforations of the basket, the whole revolving at high velocity. The
+solid portion falls out at the bottom. Another plan suggested (Pat.
+343,932) is to let a loose cover of an ordinary cylindrical basket
+screw itself down into the basket, by reason of its slower velocity
+(owing to inertia), causing pressure on the charge.</p>
+
+<p>Various other applications of the different styles of sugar machines
+are the defibration of raw sugar juice, freeing beet crystals of
+objectionable salts, freeing various crystals of the mother liquor,
+drying saltpeter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Driers.</span>&mdash;Another important division of this first class of
+centrifugals is that of driers or, as they are variously styled,
+whizzers, wringers, hydro-extractors. The charge in these is never
+large in weight compared to a sugar charge, and its initial
+distribution can be made more symmetrical. The uses of driers are
+various, such as extracting water from clothes, cloth, silk, yarns,
+etc. Water may be introduced at the center of the basket from above or
+below to wash the material before draining. A typical form of drier is
+shown in Fig. 24. (Pat. Aug. 22, 1876&mdash;W.P. Uhlinger.) Baskets have
+been made removable for use in dyeing establishments, basket and load
+together going into dyeing vat. Yarn and similar material can be
+drained by a method analogous to that of hanging it upon sticks in a
+room and allowing the water to drip off. It is suspended from short
+sticks, which are held in horizontal layers around the shaft in the
+basket, and the action is such during the operation as to cause the
+yarn to stand out in radial lines.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/7c.png" alt=" Fig. 24." /><br /> Fig. 24.</p>
+
+<p>Driers are not materially different from sugar machines. Any of the
+devices before enumerated for meeting vibrations in the latter may be
+applied to the former. There is one curious invention which has been
+applied to driers only (Pat. 322,762&mdash;W.H. Tolhurst). See Fig. 25. A
+convex shaft-supporting step resting on a concave supporting base,
+with the center of its arc of concavity at the center of the upper
+universal joint, has been employed, and its movements controlled by
+springs, but the step was apt to be forced from its support. The
+drawing shows the improvement on this, which is to give the
+shaft-supporting step a less radius of curvature.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/7d.png" alt=" Fig. 25." /><br /> Fig. 25.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_9790" id="Page_9790"></a>An interesting form of drier has its own motor, a little steam engine,
+attached to the frame of the machine. See Fig 24. This of course
+demands fixed bearings. The engine is very small. One size used is 3&quot;
+× 4&quot;. When a higher velocity of basket is required, we have the
+arrangement in Fig. 26.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/7e.png" alt=" Fig. 26." /><br /> Fig. 26.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Motors.</span>&mdash;This naturally introduces the subject of motive
+power. We may have the engine direct acting as above, or the power may
+be brought on by belting. Fig. 27 shows a drier with pulley for
+belting. Fig. 28 (W.H. Tolhurst) shows a very common arrangement of
+belting and also the fast and loose pulleys. When the heaviest part of
+the engine is so far from the vertical shaft as to overhang the casing
+on one side, there is apt to be an objectionable tremor. To remedy
+this, it is suggested to put these heavy parts as near the shaft as
+possible. It has been suggested also to use the Westinghouse type of
+engine, although the type shown in Fig. 24 works faultlessly in
+practice.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/8a.png" alt=" Fig. 27." /><br /> Fig. 27.</p>
+
+<p>One plan (Pat. 346,030), designed to combine the advantages of a
+direct acting motor and an oscillating shaft, mounts the whole
+machine, motor and all, on a rocking frame. The spindle is of course
+in fixed bearings in the frame. However, the plan is not practical.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/8b.png" alt=" Fig. 28." /><br /> Fig. 28.</p>
+
+<p>In driers the direct acting engine has many advantages over the belt.
+The atmosphere is always very moist about a whizzer, and there are
+frequently injurious fumes. The belt will be alternately dry and wet,
+stretched and limp, and wears out rapidly and is liable to sever. In
+all machines in which the shaft oscillates, if the center of
+oscillation does not lie in the central plane of the belt, the tension
+of the latter is not uniform. This affects badly both the belt and the
+running. A reference to the various figures will show the best
+position for the pulley.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest difficulty experienced with belting is in getting up
+speed and stopping. The basket must not be started with a sudden
+impulse. Its inertia will resist and something must give way. A
+gradual starting can be obtained by the slipping of the belt at first,
+but this is expensive. The best plan is to conduct the power through a
+species of friction clutch&mdash;an iron disk between two wooden ones. This
+has been found to work admirably.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Brakes.</span>&mdash;The first centrifugals had no brakes. They ran until
+the friction of the bearings was sufficient to stop them. This
+occasioned, however, rapid wearing and too great a loss of time. The
+best material for a brake consists of soft wood into which shoe pegs
+have been driven, and which is thoroughly saturated with oil. The
+wooden disks referred to just above are of the same construction. The
+center of oscillation ought to be in the central plane of the brake as
+well as that of the pulley, but the preference is given to the pulley.</p>
+
+<p>Figs. 15 and 16 (I) give sectional views of a brake for hanging
+machines. Figs. 19, 20, and 21 give two sections and a view of a brake
+which can be used on both hanging and standing machines. A very simple
+form of brake is shown in Figs. 24, 26, and 27 (A), a mere block
+pressing on the rim of the basket.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oil and fat.</span>&mdash;A machine in most respects like a whizzer is
+used for the &quot;extraction of oil and fat and oily and fatty matters
+from woolen yarns and fabrics, and such other fibrous material or
+mixtures of materials as are from their nature affected in color or
+quality when hydrocarbons are used for the purpose of extracting such
+oily or fatty matters, and are subsequently removed from the material
+under treatment by the slow process of admitting steam, or using other
+means of raising the temperature to the respective boiling points of
+such hydrocarbons, and so driving them off by evaporation.&quot; In the
+centrifugal method carbon-bisulphide, or some other volatile agent, is
+admitted and is driven through the material by centrifugal force,
+when the necessary reactions take place, and is allowed to escape in
+the form of hydrocarbons. A machine differing only in slight
+particulars from the above is used for cleansing wool.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Loose fiber.</span>&mdash;Another application is the drying of loose
+fiber. Two distinctive points deserve to be noticed in the centrifugal
+used for this purpose. An endless chain or belt provided with blades
+moves the material vertically in the basket, and discharges it over
+the edge. During its upward course the material is subjected to a
+shower of water to wash it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oil from metal chips.</span>&mdash;Very material savings are made in many
+factories by collecting the metal chips and turnings, coated and mixed
+with oil, which fall from the various machines, and extracting the oil
+centrifugally. The separator consists of a chip holder, having an
+imperforate shell flaring upward and outward from the spindle (in
+fixed bearings) to which it is attached. When filled, a cover is
+placed upon it and keyed to the spindle. Between the cover and holder
+there is a small annular opening through which oil, but not chips, can
+escape. Fig. 29 (Pat. 225,949&mdash;C.F. Roper) is designed (like the
+greater part of the drawings inserted) to show relative position of
+parts merely, and not relative <i>size</i>. This style of machine can be
+used for sugar separating (Pat. 345,994&mdash;F.P. Sherman) and many other
+purposes, to which, however, there are other styles more especially
+adapted.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/8c.png" alt=" Fig. 29." /><br /> Fig. 29.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Filterers.</span>&mdash;There are two distinct kinds of centrifugal
+filterers, working on different principles. Petroleum separators (Pat.
+217,063) are of the first kind. They are in form in all respects like
+a sugar machine. The flakes of paraffine, stearine, etc., which are to
+be extracted, when chilled are very brittle and would be disintegrated
+upon being hurled against a plain wire gauze and would escape. Even a
+woven fabric presents too harsh a surface. It is necessary to have a
+very elastic basket lining of wool, cotton, or other fibrous material.
+The basket itself may be either wire or perforated, but must have a
+perfectly smooth bottom.</p>
+
+<p>As the pressure of the liquor upon the filtering medium per unit of
+surface depends entirely upon its radial depth, mere tubes, connecting
+a central inlet with an annular compartment, will serve the purpose
+quite as well as a whole basket. In this style of machine (Pat.
+10,457) the filtering material constitutes a wall between two annular
+compartments. The outer one is connected with a vacuum apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>Filterers of the second kind work on the following principle: If a
+cylinder be rapidly revolved in a liquid in which solid particles are
+suspended, the liquid will be drawn into a like rotation and the heavy
+particles will be thrown to the outer part of the receptacle. If a
+perforated cylinder is used as stirrer, the purified liquid will
+escape into it through the perforations and may be conducted away. The
+impurities, likewise, after falling down the sides of the receptacle,
+are carried off. The advantages of this method are that no filtering
+material is needed and the filtering surface is never in contact with
+anything but pure liquor.</p>
+
+<p>Very fine sawdust is, to a considerable extent, employed in sugar
+refineries as a filtering medium. By such use the sawdust becomes
+mixed with sand, fine particles of cane, etc. As sawdust of such
+fineness is expensive, it is desirable to purify it in order to reuse
+it. A centrifugal (Pat. 353,775&mdash;J.V.V. Booraem) built on the
+following principle is used for this purpose. It has been observed
+that by rotating rather <i>slowly</i> small particles of various substances
+in water, the finer particles will be thrown outward and deposit near
+the circumference of the vessel, while the heavier and coarser
+particles will deposit nearer to or at the center, their centrifugal
+force not being sufficient to carry them out. A mere rod, extending
+radially in both directions, serves by its rotation to set the water
+in motion.</p>
+
+<p>Another form of filter of this second kind (Pat. 148,513) has a
+rotating imperforate basket into which the impure liquor is run.
+Within and concentric with it is another cylinder whose walls are of
+some filtering medium. The liquid already partly purified by
+centrifugal force passes through into the inner cylinder, thus
+becoming further purified. Centrifugal filters are used also to
+cleanse gums for varnishes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Honey.</span>&mdash;The simplest form of honey extractor (Pat. 61,216)
+consists of a square framework, symmetrical with respect to a vertical
+spindle. This framework is surrounded by a wire gauze. The combs,
+after having the heads of the cells cut off, are placed in
+comb-holders against the wire netting on the four sides, the cells
+pointing outward. The machine is turned by hand. The honey is hurled
+against the walls of a receiving case and caught below. But few
+improvements have been made on this. The latest machines are still
+hand-driven, as a sufficiently high velocity can be obtained in this
+manner. In one style the combs are placed upon a floor which rests
+upon springs. The rotating box is given a slight vertical and
+horizontal reciprocatory motion, by which the combs are made to grate
+on the wire gauze sides, breaking the cells and liberating the honey.
+Thus the labor of cutting the cells is saved. Every comb has two
+sides, and to present each side in succession to the outside without
+removing from the basket, several devices have been patented. In some
+the comb holders are hinged in the corners of the basket, and have an
+angular motion of ninety degrees. Decreasing the speed is sufficient
+to swing these. The other side is then emptied by revolving in the
+opposite direction. In one case each holder has a spindle of its own,
+connected with the main spindle by gearing and, to present opposite
+side, turns through 180°. The usual number of sides and hence of comb
+holders is four, but eight have been used. There are minor differences
+in details of construction, looking to the most convenient removal and
+insertion of comb, the reception of the extracted honey in cups,
+buckets, etc., and the best method of giving rapid rotation, which
+cannot be touched upon. The product of the operation is white and
+opaque, but upon heating regains its golden color and transparency.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Starch.</span>&mdash;A centrifugal to separate starch from triturated
+grain, carried in suspension in water, is as follows. (Pat.
+273,127&mdash;Müller &amp; Decastro.) The starch water is led to the bottom of
+a basket, and, as starch is heavier than the gluten with which it is
+mixed, the former will be immediately compacted against the periphery
+of the basket, lodging first in the lower corner, the starch and
+gluten forming two distinct strata. A tube with a cutting edge enters
+the compacted mass so deeply as to peel off the gluten and part of the
+starch, which is carried through the tube to another compartment of
+the basket, just above, where the same operation is performed, and so
+on. There may be only one compartment, the tube carrying the gluten
+directly out of the machine. These machines are continuous working,
+and hence some way must be devised to carry the water off. The inner
+surface of the water is, as we have seen, a cylinder. When the
+diameter of this cylinder becomes too small, overflow must be allowed.
+One plan is to have an overflow opening made in the bottom of the
+basket in such a way that as the starch wall thickens, the opening
+recedes toward the center. The starch wall is either lifted out in
+cakes or put again in suspension by spraying water on it and
+conducting the mixture off.</p>
+
+<p>A centrifugal (Pat. 74,021) to separate liquids from paints depends on
+building a wall of paint on the sides of the basket and carrying the
+liquids off at the center.</p>
+
+<p>A centrifugal (Pat. 310,469) for assorting wood pulp, paper pulp,
+etc., works by massing the constituents in two or three cylindrical
+strata, and after action severing and removing these separately.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Brewing.</span>&mdash;In brewing, centrifugals are quite useful. After
+the wort has been boiled with hops, albuminous matters are
+precipitated by the tannic acid, which must be extracted. Besides
+these the mixture frequently contains husk, fiber, and gluten. The
+machine (Pat. 315,876), although quite unique in construction, has the
+same principle of working as a sugar centrifugal, and need not be
+described. There is one point, however, which might be noticed&mdash;that
+air is introduced at about the same point as the material, and has an
+oxidizing and refrigerating effect.</p>
+
+<p>Class I. includes also centrifugals for the following purposes: The
+removal of must from the grape after crushing, making butter,
+extracting oils from solid fats, separating the liquid and solid parts
+of sewerage, drying hides, skins, spent tan and the like, drying coils
+of wire.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Horizontal Centrifugals.</span>&mdash;Only vertical machines have been
+and will be dealt with. Horizontal centrifugals, that is, those whose
+spindles are horizontal have been made, but the great inconvenience of
+charging and discharging connected with them has occasioned their
+disuse; though in other respects for liquids they are quite as good as
+vertical separators. Their underlying theory is practically the same
+as that hereinbefore discussed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Class II., Creamers.</span>&mdash;Centrifugals of the second class
+separate liquids from liquids. There are two main applications in this
+class&mdash;to separate cream from milk and fusel oil from alcoholic
+liquors. When a liquid is to be separated from a liquid, the
+receptacle must be imperforate. The components of different specific
+gravity become arranged in distinct concentric cylindrical strata in
+the basket, and must be conducted away separately. In creamers the
+particles of cream must not be broken or subjected to any concussion,
+as partial churning is caused and the cream will, in consequence, sour
+more rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>The chief cause of oscillations in machines of this class, where the
+charge is liquid, is the waves which form on the inner surface. They
+may be met by allowing a slight overflow over the inner edge of the
+rim of the basket; or by having either horizontal partitions, or
+vertical, radial ones, special cases of which will be noticed.
+Oscillations may also be met in the same manner as in sugar machines,
+by allowing the revolving parts to revolve about an axis through their
+common center of gravity. (Pat. 360,342&mdash;J. Evans.)</p>
+
+<p>The crudest form of creamer contains a number of bottles, with their
+necks all directed toward the spindle, filled with milk. The necks, in
+which the cream collects, are graduated to tell when the operation is
+complete.</p>
+
+<p>Many methods for introducing the milk into creamers have been devised.
+It may run in from the top at the center, or emerge from a pipe at the
+bottom of the basket; or the spindle may be hollow and the milk sucked
+up through it from a basin below. It is usual to let the milk enter
+under hydrostatic pressure (Pat. 239,900&mdash;D. M. Weston) and let the
+force of expulsion of the cream be dependent on this pressure. This
+renders the escape quiet, and prevents churning. Gravity, too, is made
+effective in carrying the constituents off.</p>
+
+<p>The cream may escape through a passage in the bottom at the center,
+and the skim milk at the lower outer corner; or by ingeniously managed
+passages both may escape at or near center. The rate of discharge can
+be managed by regulating the size of opening of exit passages.</p>
+
+<p>A curious method consists in having discharge pipes provided with
+valves and floats at their lower ends, dipping into the liquid (Pat.
+240,175). &quot;The valves are opened and closed, or partially opened or
+closed, by the floats attached to them, these floats being so
+constructed and<a name="Page_9791" id="Page_9791"></a> arranged with reference to their specific gravity and
+the specific gravity of the component parts of the liquids operated
+upon, that they will permit only a liquid of a determinate specific
+gravity to escape through the pipes to which they are respectively
+attached.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>We may have tubes directed into the different strata with cutting
+edges. (Pat. 288,782.) A remarkable fact noticed in their use is that
+these edges wear as rapidly as if solids were cut instead of liquids.</p>
+
+<p>The separated fluids may be received into recessed rings, having
+discharge pipes, the proportionate quantity discharged being regulated
+by the proximity of the discharge lips to the surface of the ring, and
+the centrifugal force being availed of to project the liquids through
+the discharge pipes.</p>
+
+<p>There is a very simple device by which a very rapid circulation of the
+liquid is brought about. (Pat. 358,587&mdash;C.A. Backstrom.) The basket
+has radial vertical partitions, all but one having communicating
+holes, alternately in upper and lower corners. The milk is delivered
+into the basket on one side of this imperforate partition and must
+travel the whole circuit of the basket through these communicating
+holes, until it reaches the partition again, and then passes into a
+discharge pipe. Thus during this long course every particle of cream
+escapes to the center. As the holes are close to the walls of the
+basket, the cream has not the undulatory motion of the milk, which
+would injure it. The greater the number of partitions, the longer is
+the travel of the milk, and the more rapid the circulation. Blades
+have been devised similar to the above, having communicating passages
+extending the whole width of the blade, but we see that here the cream
+would circulate with the milk; which must not be allowed. Curved
+blades have been used, and paddles and stirrers, to set the milk in
+motion, but to them the same objection may be made.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/9a.png"><img src="./images/9a_th.png" alt=" Fig. 30" /></a><br /> Fig. 30</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 30 (Pat. 355,048&mdash;C.A. Backstrom) illustrates one of the latest
+and best styles of creamers. The milk enters at C. The skim milk
+passes into tube, T, and the cream goes to the center and passes out
+of the openings in the bottom, <i>k<sup>l</sup></i>, <i>k<sup>2</sup></i>, and <i>k<sup>3</sup></i>, out of
+the slit, k, and thence out through D<sup>5</sup>. The skim milk moves through
+T, becoming more thoroughly separated all the while, and at each of
+the radial branch tubes, T<sup>1</sup>, T<sup>2</sup>, T<sup>3</sup>, and T<sup>4</sup>, some cream
+leaves it and goes to the center, while it passes down out of slit,
+t<sup>3</sup>, and thence out of D<sup>6</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 31 (Pat. 355,050&mdash;C.A. Backstrom) shows another very late style
+of creamer. A pipe delivers the milk into P<sup>4</sup>. Passing out of the
+tube separation takes place, and cream falls down the center to P<sup>2</sup>
+and out of O<sup>3</sup>. When the compartment under the first shelf becomes
+full of the skim milk, the latter passes up through the slot, S,
+strikes a radial partition, R, and its course is reversed. Here more
+cream separates and passes to center and falls directly, and so on
+through the whole series of annular compartments, until the top one,
+when the skim milk enters tube T<sup>2</sup> and passes out of O<sup>2</sup>. By this
+operation there are substantially repeated subjections of specified
+quantities of milk to the action of centrifugal force, bringing about
+a thorough separation. By changing the course of the milk in
+direction, its path is made longer. This machine can run at much lower
+speed than many other styles, and yet do the same work.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/9b.png"><img src="./images/9b_th.png" alt=" Fig. 31" /></a><br /> Fig. 31</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Class III., Solids From Solids.</span>&mdash;As for grain machines, which
+are in this class, it may be said that in centrifugal flour bolters,
+bran cleaners, and middlings purifiers, though theoretically
+centrifugal force plays an important part in their action, yet
+practically the real separation is brought about by other agencies: in
+some by brushes which rub the finer particles through wire netting as
+they rotate against it.</p>
+
+<p>The principle exhibited in a separator of grains and seeds is very
+neat. (Pat. 167,297.) See Fig. 32. That part of the machine with which
+we have to do consists essentially of a horizontal revolving disk. The
+mixed grains are cast on this disk, pass to the edge, and are hurled
+off at a tangent. Suppose at A. Each particle is immediately acted on
+by three forces. For all particles of the same size and having the
+same velocity the resistance of the air may be taken the same, that
+is, proportional to the area presented. The acceleration of gravity
+is the same; but the inertia of the heavier grain is greater. The
+resultant of the two conspiring forces R and (M<i>v</i><sup>2</sup>)/2 varies, and
+is greater for a heavier grain. Therefore, the paths described in the
+air will vary, especially in length; and how this is utilized the
+drawing illustrates.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/9c.png" alt=" Fig. 32." /><br /> Fig. 32.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ore.</span>&mdash;In ore machines there is one for pulverizing and
+separating coal (Pat. 306,544), in which there is a breaker provided
+with helical blades or paddles, partaking of rapid rotary motion
+within a stationary cylinder of wire netting. The dust, constituting
+the valuable part of the product, is hurled out as fast as formed. In
+this style of machine, beaters are necessary not only for pulverizing,
+but to get up rotary motion for generating centrifugal force. In the
+classes preceding, the friction of the basket sufficed for this latter
+purpose; but here there is no rotating basket and no definite charge.
+As the material falls through the machine, separation takes place.
+Various kinds of ore may be treated in the same manner.</p>
+
+<p>An &quot;ore concentrator&quot; (Pat. 254,123), as it is called, consists of a
+pan having rotary and oscillatory motions. Crushed ore is delivered
+over the edge in water. The heavy particles of the metal are thrown by
+centrifugal force against the rim of the pan, overcoming the force of
+the water, which carries the sand and other impurities in toward the
+center and away.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Amalgamators.</span>&mdash;The best ore centrifugal or separator is what
+is called an &quot;amalgamator.&quot; The last invention (Pat. 355,958, White)
+consists essentially of a pan, a meridian section of which would give
+a curve whose normal at any point is in the direction of the resultant
+of the centrifugal force at that point and gravity. There is a cover
+to this pan whose convexity almost fits the concavity of the pan,
+leaving a space of about an inch between. Crushed ore with water is
+admitted at the center between the cover and the pan, and is driven
+by centrifugal force through a mass of mercury (which occupies part of
+this space between the two) and out over the edge of the pan. The
+particles of metal coming in contact with the mercury amalgamate, and
+as the speed is regulated so that it is never great enough to hurl the
+mercury out, nothing but sand, water, etc., escape. There have been
+many different constructions devised, but this general principle runs
+through all. By having annular flanges running down from the cover
+with openings placed alternately, the mixture is compelled to follow a
+tortuous course, thus giving time for all the gold or other metal to
+become amalgamated. There are ridges in the pan, too, against which
+the amalgam lodges. It is claimed for this machine that not a particle
+of the precious metal is lost, and experiments seem to uphold the
+claim.</p>
+
+<p>A machine for separating fine from coarse clay for porcelain or for
+separating the finer quality of plumbago from the coarser for lead
+pencils uses an imperforate basket, against the wall of which the
+coarser part banks and catches under the rim. The finer part forms an
+inner cylindrical stratum, but is allowed to spill over the edge of
+the rim. The mixture is introduced at the bottom of the basket at the
+center.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Class IV., Gases And Solids.</span>&mdash;There is a very simple
+contrivance illustrating machines of this class used to free air from
+dust or other heavy solid impurities which may be in suspension. See
+Fig. 33. The air enters the passage, B (if it has no considerable
+velocity of itself, it must be forced in), forms a whirlpool in the
+conically shaped receptable, A, and passes up out of the passage, D.
+The heavy particles are thrown on the sides and collect there and fall
+through opening, C, into some closed receiver.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/9d.png" alt=" Fig. 33" /><br /> Fig. 33</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Class V., Gases And Liquids.</span>&mdash;The occluded gases in steel and
+other metal castings, if not separated, render the castings more or
+less porous. This separation is effected by subjecting the molten
+metal to the action of centrifugal force under exclusion of air,
+producing not only the most minute division of the particles, but also
+a vacuum, both favorable conditions for obtaining a dense metal
+casting.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the devices for drying steam come under this head. Such are
+those in which the steam with the water in suspension is forced to
+take a circular path, by which the water is hurled by centrifugal
+force against the concave side of the passage and passes back to the
+water in the boiler.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Speed.</span>&mdash;The centrifugal force of a revolving particle varies,
+as we have seen, as the square of the angular velocity, so that the
+effort has been to obtain as high a number of revolutions per minute
+as was consistent with safety and with the principle of the machine.
+For example, creamers which are small and light make 4,000 revolutions
+per minute, though the latest styles run much more slowly. Driers and
+sugar machines vary from 600 to 2,000, while on the other hand the
+necessity of keeping the mercury from hurling off in an amalgamator
+prevents its turning more rapidly than sixty or eighty times a minute.</p>
+
+<p>However, speed in another sense, the speed with which the operation is
+performed, is what especially characterizes centrifugal extractors. In
+this particular a contrast between the old methods and the new is
+impressive. Under the action of gravity, cream rises to the milk's
+surface, but compare the hours necessary for this to the almost
+instantaneous separation in a centrifugal creamer. The sugar
+manufacturer trusted to gravity to drain the sirup from his crystals,
+but the operation was long and at best imperfect. An average sugar
+centrifugal will separate 600 pounds of magma perfectly in three
+minutes. Gold quartz which formerly could not pay for its mining is
+now making its owners' fortunes. It is boasted by a Southern company
+that whereas they were by old methods making twenty-five <i>cents</i> per
+ton of gold quartz, they now by the use of the latest amalgamator make
+twenty-five <i>dollars</i>. Centrifugal force, as applied in extractors,
+has opened up new industries and enlarged old ones, has lowered prices
+and added to our comforts, and centrifugal extractors may well
+command, as they do, the admiration of all as wonderful examples of
+the way in which this busy age economizes time.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="Page_9792" id="Page_9792"></a><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>A NEW TYPE OF RAILWAY CAR.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/10a.png"><img src="./images/10a_th.png" alt=" Fig. 1.&mdash;CAR WITH LATERAL PASSAGEWAYS." /></a><br /> Fig. 1.&mdash;CAR WITH LATERAL PASSAGEWAYS.</p>
+
+<p>Figs. 1 and 2 give a perspective view and plan of a new style of car
+recently adopted by the Bone-Guelma Railroad Company, and which has
+isolated compartments opening upon a lateral passageway. In this
+arrangement, which is due to Mr. Desgranges, the lateral passageway
+does not extend all along one side of the car, but passes through the
+center of the latter and then runs along the opposite side so as to
+form a letter S. The car consists in reality of two boxes connected
+beneath the transverse passageway, but having a continuous roof and
+flooring. The two ends are provided with platforms that are reached by
+means of steps, and that permit one to enter the corresponding half of
+the car or to pass on to the next. The length from end to end is 33
+feet in the mixed cars, comprising two first-class and four
+second-class compartments, and 32 feet in cars of the third class,
+with six compartments. The width of the compartments is 5.6 and 5
+feet, according to the class. The passageway is 28 inches in width in
+the mixed cars, and 24 in those of the third class. The roof is so
+arranged as to afford a circulation of cool air in the interior.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/10b.png"><img src="./images/10b_th.png" alt=" Fig. 2.&mdash;PLAN." /></a><br /> Fig. 2.&mdash;PLAN.</p>
+
+<p>The application of the zigzag passageway has the inconvenience of
+slightly elongating the car, but it is advantageous to the passengers,
+who can thus enjoy a view of the landscape on both sides of the
+train.&mdash;<i>La Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a>FOUNDATIONS OF THE CENTRAL VIADUCT OF CLEVELAND, O.</h2>
+
+<p>The Central viaduct, now under construction in the city of Cleveland,
+is probably the longest structure of the kind devoted entirely to
+street traffic. The superstructure is in two distinct portions,
+separated by a point of high ground. The main portion, extending
+across the river valley from Hill street to Jennings avenue, is 2,840
+feet long on the floor line, including the river bridge, a swing 233
+feet in length; the other portion, crossing Walworth run from Davidson
+street to Abbey street, is 1,093 feet long. Add to these the earthwork
+and masonry approaches, 1,415 feet long, and we have a total length of
+5,348 feet. The width of roadway is 40 feet, sidewalks 8 feet each.
+The elevation of the roadway above the water level at the river
+crossing is 102 feet. The superstructure is of wrought iron, mainly
+trapezoidal trusses, varying in length from 45 feet to 150 feet. The
+river piers are of first-class masonry, on pile and timber
+foundations. The other supports of the viaduct are wrought iron
+trestles on masonry piers, resting on broad concrete foundations. The
+pressure on the material beneath the concrete, which is plastic blue
+clay of varying degrees of stiffness mixed with fine sand, is about
+one ton per square foot.</p>
+
+<p>The Cuyahoga valley, which the viaduct crosses from bluff to bluff, is
+composed mainly of blue clay to a depth of over 150 feet below the
+river level. No attempt is made to carry the foundation to the rock.
+White oak piles from 50 to 60 feet in length and 10 inches in diameter
+at small end are driven for the bridge piers either side of the river
+bed, and these are cut off with a circular saw 18 feet below the
+surface of the water. Excavation by dredging was made to a depth of 3
+feet below where the piles are cut off to allow for the rising of the
+clay during the driving of the piles. The piles are spaced about 2
+feet 5 inches each way, center to center. The grillage or platform
+covering the piles consists of 14 courses of white oak timber, 12
+inches by 12 inches, having a few pine timbers interspersed so as to
+allow the mass to float during construction. The lower half of the
+platform was built on shore, care being taken to keep the lower
+surface of the mass of timber out of wind. The upper and lower
+surfaces of each timber were dressed in a Daniels planer, and all
+pieces in the same course were brought to a uniform thickness. The
+timbers in adjacent courses are at right angles to each other. The
+lower course is about 58 feet by 22 feet, the top course about 50 by
+24 feet, thus allowing four steps of one foot each all around. The
+first course of masonry is 48 feet by 21 feet 8 inches; the first
+course of battered work is 41 feet 8½ inches by 16 feet 3 inches. Thus
+the area of the platform on the piles is 1,856 square feet, and of the
+first batter course of masonry 777.6 square feet, or in the ratio of
+2.4 to 1. The height of the masonry is 78 feet above the timber, or
+73½ feet above the water. The number of piles in each foundation is
+312. The average load per pile is about 11 tons, and the estimated
+pressure per square inch of the timber on the heads of the piles is
+about 200 pounds.</p>
+
+<p>To prevent the submersion of the lower courses of masonry during
+construction, temporary sides of timber were drift-bolted to the
+margin of the upper course of the timber platform, and carried high
+enough to be above the surface of the water when the platform was sunk
+to the head of the piles by the increasing weight of masonry.</p>
+
+<p>The center pier is octagonal, and is built in the same general manner
+as to foundations as the shore piers, but the piles are cut off 22
+feet below water, and there are eighteen courses of timber in the
+grillage. The diameter of the platform between parallel sides is 53
+feet, while that of the lower course of battered masonry is but 37
+feet. The areas are as 2,332 to 1,147, or as 2 to 1 nearly. The
+pressure per square inch of timber on the heads of the piles is about
+the same as stated above for the shore piers. The number of piles
+under the center pier is 483.</p>
+
+<p>The risks and delays by this method of constructing the foundations
+were much less, and the cost also, than if an ordinary coffer dam had
+been used. Also the total weight of the piers is much less, as that
+portion below a point about two feet below the water adds nothing to
+their weight.</p>
+
+<p>The piles were driven with a Cram steam hammer weighing two tons, in a
+frame weighing also two tons. The iron frame rests directly upon the
+head of the pile and goes down with it. The fall of the hammer is
+about 40 inches before striking the pile. The total penetration of the
+piles into the clay averaged 27 feet. The settlement of the pile
+during the final strokes of the hammer varied from one quarter to
+three quarters of an inch per blow.</p>
+
+<p>There are 122 masonry pedestals, of which eight are large and heavy,
+carrying spans of considerable length. They will all be built upon
+concrete beds, except a few near the river on the north side, where
+piles are required.</p>
+
+<p>The four abutments with their retaining walls are of first-class
+rock-faced masonry. The footing courses are stepped out liberally, so
+as to present an unusually large bottom surface. They rest on beds of
+concrete 4 feet thick. The foundation pits are about 50 feet below the
+top of the bluffs, and are in a material common to the Cleveland
+plateau, a mixture of blue sand and clay, with some water. The
+estimated load of masonry on the earth at the bottom of the concrete
+is one and seven tenths tons to the square foot. Two of the large
+abutments were completed last season. They show an average settlement
+of three eighths of an inch since the lower footing courses were laid.</p>
+
+<p>The facts and figures here given regarding the viaduct were kindly
+furnished by the city civil engineer, C.G. Force, who has the work in
+charge.&mdash;<i>Jour. Asso. of Eng. Societies.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>For sticking paper to zinc, use starch paste with which a little
+Venice turpentine has been incorporated, or else use a dilute solution
+of white gelatine or isinglass.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS AT MARE ISLAND NAVY YARD, CALIFORNIA.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+
+<h3>By H.R. CORNELIUS.</h3>
+
+<p>In December, 1883, bids were asked for by the United States government
+on pumping machinery, to remove the water from a dry dock for vessels
+of large size.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of the dock, which is situated on San Pablo Bay,
+directly opposite the city of Vallejo, are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Five hundred and twenty-nine feet wide at its widest part, 36 feet
+deep, with a capacity at mean tide of 9,000,000 gallons.</p>
+
+<p>After receiving the contract, several different sizes of pumps were
+considered, but the following dimensions were finally chosen: Two 42
+inch centrifugal pumps, with runner 66 inches in diameter and
+discharge pipes 42 inches, each driven direct by a vertical engine
+with 28 inch diameter cylinder and 24 inch stroke.</p>
+
+<p>These were completed and shipped in June, 1885, on nine cars,
+constituting a special train, which arrived safely at its destination
+in the short space of two weeks, and the pumps were there erected on
+foundations prepared by the government.</p>
+
+<p>From the &quot;Report of the Chief of Bureau of Yards and Docks&quot; I quote
+the following account of the official tests:</p>
+
+<div class="note">
+     <p>&quot;The board appointed to make the test resolved to fill the
+     dock to about the level that would attain in actual service
+     with a naval ship of second rate in the dock, and the tide at
+     a stage which would give the minimum pumping necessary to
+     free the dock. The level of the 20th altar was considered as
+     the proper point, and the water was admitted through two of
+     the gates of the caisson until this level was reached; they
+     were then closed. The contents of the dock at this point is
+     5,963,921 gallons.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;The trial was commenced and continued to completion without
+     any interruption in a very satisfactory manner.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;In the separate trials had of each pump, the average
+     discharge per minute was taken of the whole process, and
+     there was a singular uniformity throughout with equal piston
+     speed of the engine.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;It was to be expected, and in a measure realized, that
+     during the first moments of the operations, when the level of
+     the water in the dock was above the center of the runner of
+     the pumps, that the discharge would be proportioned to the
+     work done, where no effort was necessary to maintain a free
+     and full flow through the suction pipes; but as the level
+     passed lower and farther away from the center there was no
+     apparent diminution of the flow, and no noticeable addition
+     to the load imposed on the engine. The variation in piston
+     speed, noted during the trial, was probably due to the
+     variation of the boiler pressure, as it was difficult to
+     preserve an equal pressure, as it rose in spite of great
+     care, owing to the powerful draught and easy steaming
+     qualities of the boilers.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;After the trial of the second pump had been completed the
+     dock was again filled through the caisson, and as both pumps
+     were to be tried, the water was admitted to a level with the
+     23d altar, containing 7,317,779 gallons, which was seven feet
+     above the center of the pumps; this was in favor of the pumps
+     for the reasons before stated. In this case all the boilers
+     were used.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;Everything moved most admirably, and the performance of
+     these immense machines was almost startling. By watching the
+     water in the dock it could be seen to lower bodily, and so
+     rapidly that it could be detected by the eye without
+     reference to any fixed point.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;The well which communicates with the suction tunnel was
+     open, and the water would rise and fall, full of rapid swirls
+     and eddies, though far above the entrance of these tunnels.
+     Through the man hole in the discharge culvert the issuance
+     from the pipes could be seen, and its volume was beyond
+     conception. It flowed rapidly through the culvert, and its
+     outfall was a solid prism of water, the full size of the
+     tunnel, projecting far into the river.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;During a pumping period of 55 minutes, the dock had been
+     emptied from the twenty-third to two inches above the sixth
+     altar, containing 6,210,698 gallons, an average throughout of
+     112,922 gallons per minute. At one time, when the revolutions
+     were increased to 160 per minute, the discharge was 137,797
+     gallons per minute. This is almost a river, and is hardly
+     conceivable. After the pumps were stopped, on this occasion,
+     tests were made with each in succession as to the power of
+     the ejectors with which each is fitted to recharge the pumps.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;The valves in the discharge pipe were closed and steam
+     admitted to the ejector, the pump being still and no water in
+     the gauge glass on the pump casing, which must be full before
+     the pumps will work. The suction pipe of the ejector is only
+     two and a half inches in diameter, the steam pipe one inch in
+     diameter. To fully charge the pumps at this point required
+     filling the pump casing and the suction pipe containing about
+     2,000 gallons; this was accomplished in four minutes, and
+     when the gauge glass was full the pump operated instantly and
+     with certainty, discharging its full volume of water.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;I went on several occasions down in the valve pits on the
+     ladder of the casing, and to all accessible parts while in
+     motion at its highest speed, and there was no undue
+     vibration, only a uniform murmur of well-balanced parts, and
+     the peculiar clash of water against the sides of the casing
+     as its velocity was checked by the blank spaces in the
+     runner.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;The pumps are noisy while at work, due to the clashing of
+     the water just mentioned, but it affords a means of detecting
+     any faulty arrangements of the runner or unequal discharge
+     from any of its openings. While moving at a uniform speed,
+     this clashing has a tone whose pitch corresponds with that
+     velocity of discharge, and if this tone is lacking in
+     quality, or at all confused, there is want of equality of
+     discharge through the various openings of the runner. To this
+     part I gave close attention, and there was nothing that the
+     ear could detect to indicate aught but the nicest adjustment.
+     The bearings of the runners worked with great smoothness, and
+     did not become at all heated. Through a simple, novel
+     arrangement, these bearings are lubricated and kept cool.
+     There is a constant <a name="Page_9793" id="Page_9793"></a>circulation of water from the pumps by
+     means of a small pipe, which completes a circuit to an
+     annular in the bearings back to the discharge pipe while the
+     pump is in motion, requiring no oil and making it seemingly
+     impossible to heat these bearings.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;The large cast steel valves placed in the embouchement of
+     the casing, it was thought, might act to check the free
+     discharge, and arrangements were provided for raising and
+     keeping them open by a long lever key attached to their axes
+     of revolution, but, to our great surprise, at the first gush
+     from the pumps these valves, weighing nearly 1,500 pounds,
+     were lifted into their recessed chambers, giving an
+     unobstructed opening to the flow, and they floated on its
+     surface unsupported, save by the swiftly flowing water,
+     without a movement, while the pump was in operation.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;The steam-actuated valves in the suction and discharge pipes
+     worked very well, and the water cushion gave a slow, uniform
+     motion, and without shock, either in opening or closing them.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;The engines worked noiselessly, without shock or labor. At
+     no time during the trial was the throttle valve open more
+     than three-eighths of an inch.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;The indicator cards taken at various intervals gave 796
+     horse power, and the revolutions did not exceed 160 at any
+     time, though it was estimated that 900 horse power and 210
+     revolutions would be necessary to attain the requisite
+     delivery. So that there is a large reserve of power available
+     at any time.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;The erection of this massive machinery has been admirably
+     done. The parts, as sent from the shops of the contractor,
+     have matched in all cases without interference here; and,
+     when lowered into place, its final adjustment was then made
+     without the use of chisel or file, and has never been touched
+     since.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;The joints of the steam and water connections were perfect,
+     and the method of concentrating all valves, waste pipes, and
+     important movements at the post of the engineer in charge
+     gives him complete control of the whole system of each engine
+     and pump without leaving his place, and reduces to a minimum
+     the necessary attendance. All the parts are strong and of
+     excellent design and workmanship; simple, and without
+     ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;Looking down upon them from a level of the pump house
+     gallery, they are impressive and massive in their simplicity.</p>
+
+<p>     &quot;The government is well worth of congratulation in possessing
+     the largest pumping machinery of this type and of the
+     greatest capacity in the world, and the contractors have
+     reason to be proud of their work.&quot;&mdash;<i>Proc. Eng. Club.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16">[1]</a><br /><span class="note">Built by the Southwark Foundry and Machine Company, of
+Philadelphia.</span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a>THE PART THAT ELECTRICITY PLAYS IN CRYSTALLIZATION.</h2>
+
+<p>Since the discovery of the multiplying galvanometer, we know for an
+absolute certainty that in every chemical action there is a production
+of electricity in a more or less notable quantity, according to the
+nature of the bodies in presence. Though, in the play of <i>affinity</i>,
+there is a manifestation of electricity, is it the same with
+<i>cohesion</i>, which also is a chemical force?</p>
+
+<p>We know, on another hand, that, on causing electricity to intervene,
+we bring about the crystallization of a large number of substances.
+But is the converse true? Is spontaneous crystallization accompanied
+with an appreciable manifestation of electricity? If we consult the
+annals of science and works treating on electricity in regard to this
+subject, we find very few examples and experiments proper to elucidate
+the question.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Mascart is content to say: &quot;Some experiments seem to indicate that
+the solidification of a body produces electricity.&quot; Mr. Becquerel does
+more than doubt&mdash;he denies: &quot;As regards the disengagement of
+electricity in the changing of the state of bodies, we find none.&quot;
+This assertion is too sweeping, for further along we shall cite facts
+that prove, on the contrary, that in the phenomena of crystallization
+(to speak of this change of state only) there is an unequivocal
+production of electricity. Let us remark, in the first place, that
+when a number of phenomena of physical and chemical order
+incontestably testify to the very intimate correlation that exists
+between the molecular motions of bodies and their electrical state, it
+would not be very logical to grant that electricity is absent in
+crystallization.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, to select an example from among physical effects, the vibratory
+phenomena that occur in telephone transmissions, under the influence
+of a very feeble electric current, show us that the molecular
+constitution of a solid body is extremely variable, although within
+slight limits. The feeblest modification in the electric current may
+be shown by molecular motions capable of propagating themselves to
+considerable distances in the conducting wire. Conversely, it is
+logical to suppose that a modification in the molecular state of a
+body must bring electricity into play. If, in the phenomena of
+solidification, and particularly of crystallization, we collect but
+small quantities of electricity, that may be due to the fact that,
+under the experimental conditions involved, the electricity is more or
+less completely absorbed by the work of crystal building.</p>
+
+<p>On another hand, the behavior of electricity shows in advance the
+multiple role that this agent may play in the various physical,
+chemical, and mechanical phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that electricity exists immovable or in circulation
+everywhere, latent or imperceptible, around us, and within ourselves,
+and that it enters as a cause into the majority of the chemical,
+physical, and mechanical phenomena that are constantly taking place
+before our eyes. A body cannot change state, nature, temperature,
+form, or place, even, without electricity being brought into play, and
+without its accompanying such modifications, if it presides therein.
+Like heat, it is <i>the</i> natural agent <i>par excellence</i>; it is the
+invisible and ever present force which, in the ultimate particles of
+matter, causes those motions, vibrations, and rotations that have the
+effect of changing the properties of bodies. Upon entering their
+intimate structure, it orients or groups their atoms, and separates
+their molecules or brings them together. From this, would it not be
+surprising if it did not intervene in the wonderful phenomenon of
+crystallization? Crystallization, in fact, depends upon <i>cohesion</i>,
+and, in the thermic theory, this force is not distinct from affinity,
+just as solution and dissociation are not distinct from combination.</p>
+
+<p>On this occasion, it is necessary to say that, between affinity, heat,
+and electricity there is such a correlation, such a dependency, that
+physicists have endeavored to reduce to one single principle all the
+causes that are now distinct. The mechanical theory of heat has made a
+great stride in this direction.</p>
+
+<p>The equivalence of the thermic, mechanical and chemical forces has
+been demonstrated; the only question hereafter will be to select from
+among such forces the one that must be adopted as the sole principle,
+in order to account for all the phenomena that depend upon these
+causes of various orders. But in the present state of science, it is
+not yet possible to explain completely by heat or electricity, taken
+isolatedly, all the effects dependent upon the causes just mentioned.
+We must confine ourselves for the present to a study of the relations
+that exist between the principal natural forces&mdash;affinity, molecular
+forces, heat, electricity, and light. But from the mutual dependence
+of such forces, it is admitted that, in every natural phenomenon,
+there is a more or less apparent simultaneous concurrence of these
+causes.</p>
+
+<p>In order to explain electric or magnetic phenomena, and also those of
+crystallization, it is admitted that the atoms of which bodies are
+composed are surrounded, each of them, with a sort of atmosphere
+formed of electric currents, owing to which these atoms are attracted
+or repelled on certain sides, and produce those varied effects that we
+observe under different circumstances. According to this theory, then,
+atoms would be small electro-magnets behaving like genuine magnets.
+Entirely free in gases, but less so in liquids and still less so in
+solids, they are nevertheless capable of arranging themselves and of
+becoming polarized in a regular order, special to each kind of atom,
+in order to produce crystals of geometrical form characteristic of
+each species. Thus, as Mr. Saigey remarks in &quot;Physique Moderne&quot; (p.
+181): &quot;So long as the atmospheres of the molecules do not touch each
+other, no trace of cohesion manifests itself; but as soon as they come
+together force is born. We understand why the temperatures of fusion
+and solidification are fixed for the same body. Such effects occur at
+the precise moment at which these atmospheres, which are variable with
+the temperature, have reached the desired diameter.&quot;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/11.png" alt="Figs. 1., 2., and 3." /></p>
+
+<p>Although the phenomenon of crystallization does not essentially depend
+upon temperature, but rather upon the relative quantity of liquid that
+holds the substance in solution, it will be conceived that a moment
+will arrive when, the liquid having evaporated, the atmospheres will
+be close enough to each other to attract each other and become
+polarized and symmetrically juxtaposed, and, in a word, to
+crystallize.</p>
+
+<p>Before giving examples of the production of electricity in the
+phenomenon of crystallization, it will be well to examine, beforehand,
+the different circumstances under which electricity acts as the
+determining cause of crystallization or intervenes among the causes
+that bring about the phenomenon. In the first place, two words
+concerning crystallization itself: We know that crystallization is the
+passage, or rather the result of the passage, of a body from a liquid
+or gaseous state to a solid one. It occurs when the substance has lost
+its cohesion through any cause whatever, and when, such cause ceasing
+to act, the body slowly returns to a solid state.</p>
+
+<p>Under such circumstances, it may take on regular, geometrical forms
+called crystalline. Such conditions are brought about by different
+processes&mdash;fusion, volatilization, solution, the dry way, wet way, and
+electric way. Further along, we shall give some examples of the last
+named means.</p>
+
+<p>Let us add that crystallization may be regarded as a general property
+of bodies, for the majority of substances are capable of
+crystallizing. Although certain bodies seem to be amorphous at first
+sight, it is only necessary to examine their fracture with a lens or
+microscope to see that they are formed of a large number of small
+juxtaposed crystals. Many amorphous precipitates become crystalline in
+the long run.</p>
+
+<p>In the examination of the various crystallizations that occupy us, we
+shall distinguish the following: (1) Those that are produced through
+the direct intervention of the electric current; (2) those in which
+electricity is manifestly produced by small voltaic couples resulting
+from the presence of two different metals in the solution experimented
+with; (3) those in which there are no voltaic couples, but in which it
+is proved that electricity is one of the causes that concur in the
+production of the phenomenon; (4) finally, those in which it is
+rational, through analogy with the preceding, to infer that
+electricity is not absent from the phenomenon.</p>
+
+<p>I. We know that, by means of voltaic electricity or induction, we can
+crystallize a large number of substances.</p>
+
+<p>Despretz tried this means for months at a time upon carbon, either by
+using the electricity from a Ruhmkorff coil or the current from a weak
+Daniell's battery. In both cases, he obtained on the platinum wires a
+black powder, in which were found very small octohedral crystals,
+having the property of polishing rubies rapidly and perfectly&mdash;a
+property characteristic of diamonds.</p>
+
+<p>The use of voltaic apparatus of high tension has allowed Mr. Cross to
+form a large number of mineral substances artificially, and among
+these we may mention carbonate of lime, arragonite, quartz, arseniate
+of copper, crystalline sulphur, etc.</p>
+
+<p>As regards products formed with the concurrence of electricity
+(oxides, sulphides, chlorides, iodides, etc.), see &quot;Des Forces
+Physico-Chimiques,&quot; by Becquerel (p. 231).</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt as to the part played by electricity in the chemical
+effects of electro-metallurgy, but it will not prove useless for our
+subject to remark that when, in this operation, the current has become
+too weak, the deposit of metal, instead of forming in a thin,
+adherent, and uniform layer, sometimes occurs under the form of
+protuberances and crystalline, brittle nodules. When, on the contrary,
+the current is very strong, the deposit is pulverulent, that is, in a
+confused crystallization or in an amorphous state.</p>
+
+<p>Further along, we shall find an application of this remark. We obtain,
+moreover, all the intermediate effects of cohesion, form, and color of
+galvanic deposits.</p>
+
+<p>When, into a solution of acetate of lead, we pass a current through
+two platinum electrodes, we observe the formation, at the negative
+pole, of numerous arborizations of metallic lead that grow under the
+observer's eye (Fig. 1). The phenomenon is of a most interesting
+character when, by means of solar or electric light, we project these
+brilliant vegetations on a screen. One might believe that he was
+witness of the rapid growth of a plant (Fig. 2). The same phenomenon
+occurs none the less brilliantly with a solution of nitrate of silver.
+A large number of saline solutions are adapted to these
+decompositions, in which the metal is laid bare under a crystalline
+form. Further along we shall see another means of producing analogous
+ramifications, without the direct use of the electric current.&mdash;<i>C.
+Decharme, in La Lumiere Electrique.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a>ELECTRIC TIME.</h2>
+
+<h3>By M. LIPPMANN.</h3>
+
+<p>The unit of time universally adopted, the second, undergoes only very
+slow secular variations, and can be determined with a precision and an
+ease which compel its employment. Still it is true that the second is
+an arbitrary and a variable unit&mdash;arbitrary, in as far as it has no
+relation with the properties of matter, with physical constants;
+variable, since the duration of the diurnal movement undergoes causes
+of secular perturbation, some of which, such as the friction of the
+tides, are not as yet calculable.</p>
+
+<p>We may ask if it is possible to define an absolutely invariable unit
+of time; it would be desirable to determine with sufficient precision,
+if only once in a century, the relation of the second to such a unit,
+so that we might verify the variations of the second indirectly and
+independently of any astronomical hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the study of certain electrical phenomena furnishes a unit of
+time which is absolutely invariable, as this magnitude is a specific
+constant. Let us consider a conductive substance which may always be
+found identical with itself, and to fix our ideas let us choose
+mercury, taken at the temperature of 0° C., which completely fulfills
+this condition. We may determine by several methods the specific
+electric resistance, &rho;, of mercury in absolute electrostatic
+units; &rho; is a specific property of mercury, and is consequently a
+magnitude absolutely invariable. Moreover, &rho; is <i>an interval of
+time</i>. We might, therefore, take &rho; as a unit of time, unless we
+prefer to consider this value as an imperishable standard of time.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, &rho; is not simply a quantity the measure of which is found
+to be in relation with the measure of time. It is a concrete interval
+of time, disregarding every convention established with reference to
+measures and every selection of unit. It may at first sight, appear
+singular that an interval of time is found in a manner hidden under
+the designation <i>electric resistance</i>. But we need merely call to mind
+that in the electrostatic system the intensities of the current are
+speeds of efflux and that the resistances are times, <i>i.e.</i>, the times
+necessary for the efflux of the electricity under given conditions. We
+must, in particular, remember what is meant by the specific
+resistance, &rho; of mercury in the electrostatic system. If we
+consider a circuit having a resistance equal to that of a cube of
+mercury, the side of which = the unit of length, the circuit being
+submitted to an electromotive force equal to unity, this circuit will
+take a given time to be traversed by the unit quantity of electricity,
+and this time is precisely &rho;. It must be remarked that the
+selection of the unit of length, like that of the unit of mass, is
+indifferent, for the different units brought here into play depend on
+it in such a manner that &rho; is not affected.</p>
+
+<p>It is now required to bring this definition experimentally into
+action, <i>i.e.</i>, to realize an interval of time which may be a known
+multiple of &rho;. This problem may be solved in various ways,<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17"><sup>1</sup></a> and
+especially by means of the following apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>A battery of an arbitrary electromotive force, E, actuates at the same
+time the two antagonistic circuits of a differential galvanometer. In
+the first circuit, which <a name="Page_9794" id="Page_9794"></a>has a resistance, R, the battery sends a
+continuous current of the intensity, I; in the second circuit the
+battery sends a discontinuous series of discharges, obtained by
+charging periodically by means of the battery a condenser of the
+capacity, C, which is then discharged through this second circuit. The
+needle of the galvanometer remains in equilibrium if the two currents
+yield equal quantities of electricity during one and the same time,
+&tau;.</p>
+
+<p>Let us suppose this condition of equilibrium realized and the needle
+remaining motionless at zero; it is easy to write the conditions of
+equilibrium. During the time, &tau;, the continuous current yields a
+quantity of electricity = (E / R)&tau;; on the other hand, each charge of
+the condenser = CE, and during the time, &tau;, the
+number of discharges = &tau;/<i>t</i>, <i>t</i> being the fixed time
+between two discharges; &tau; and t are here supposed to be expressed
+by the aid of an arbitrary unit of time; the second circuit yields,
+therefore, a quantity of electricity equal to CE × (&tau; / <i>t</i>).
+The condition of equilibrium is then (E / R) &tau; = CE × (&tau; / <i>t</i>); or,
+more simply, <i>t</i> = CR.</p>
+
+<p>C and R are known in absolute values, <i>i.e.</i>, we know that C is equal
+to <i>p</i> times the capacity of a sphere of the radius, <i>l</i>; we have,
+therefore, C = <i>pl</i>; in the same manner we know that R is equal to <i>q</i>
+times the resistance of a cube of mercury having l for its side. We
+have, therefore, R = <i>q</i> &rho; (<i>l</i> / <i>l²</i>) = <i>q</i> (&rho; / <i>l</i>)
+and consequently <i>t</i> = <i>pq</i>&rho;.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the value of <i>t</i> obtained on leaving all the units
+undetermined. If we express &rho; as a function of the second, we have
+<i>t</i> in seconds. If we take &rho; = 1, we have the absolute value
+&Theta; of the same interval of time as a function of this unit; we
+have simply &Theta; = <i>pq</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If we suppose that the commutator which produces the successive
+charges and discharges of the condenser consists of a vibrating tuning
+fork, we see that the duration of a vibration is equal to the product
+of the two abstract numbers, <i>pq</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It remains for us to ascertain to what degree of approximation we can
+determine <i>p</i> and <i>q</i>. To find <i>q</i> we must first construct a column of
+mercury of known dimensions; this problem was solved by the
+International Bureau of Weights and Measures for the construction of
+the legal ohm. The legal ohm is supposed to have a resistance equal to
+106.00 times that of a cube of mercury of 0.01 meter, side
+measurement. The approximation obtained is comprised between 1/50000
+and 1/200000. To obtain <i>p</i>, we must be able to construct a plane
+condenser of known capacity. The difficulty here consists in knowing
+with a sufficient approximation the thickness of the stratum of air.
+We may employ as armatures two surfaces of glass, ground optically,
+silvered to render them conductive, but so slightly as to obtain by
+transparence Fizeau's interference rings. Fizeau's method will then
+permit us to arrive at a close approximation. In fine, then, we may,
+<i>a priori</i>, hope to reach an approximation of one hundred-thousandth
+of the value of <i>pq</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Independently of the use which may be made of it for measuring time in
+absolute value, the apparatus described possesses peculiar properties.
+It constitutes a kind of clock which indicates, registers, and, if
+needful, corrects automatically its own variations of speed. The
+apparatus being regulated so that the magnetic needle may be at zero,
+if the speed of the commutator is slightly increased, the equilibrium
+is disturbed and the magnetic needle deviates in the corresponding
+direction; if on the contrary the speed diminishes, the action of the
+antagonistic circuit predominates, and the needle deviates in the
+contrary direction. These deviations, when small, are proportional to
+the variations of speed. They may be, in the first place, observed.
+They may, further, be registered, either photographically or by
+employing a Redier apparatus, like that which M. Mascart has adapted
+to his quadrant electrometer; finally, we may arrange the Redier to
+react upon the speed so as to reduce its variations to zero. If these
+variations are not completely annulled, they will still be registered
+and can be taken into account.</p>
+
+<p>As an indicator of variations this apparatus can be of remarkable
+sensitiveness, which may be increased indefinitely by enlarging its
+dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>With a battery of 10 volts, a condenser of a microfarad, 10 discharges
+per second, and a Thomson's differential galvanometer sensitive to
+10<sup>-10</sup> amperes, we obtain already a sensitiveness of 1/1000000,
+<i>i.e.</i>, a variation of 1/1000000 in the speed is shown after some
+seconds of a deviation of one millimeter. Even the stroboscopic method
+does not admit of such sensitiveness.</p>
+
+<p>We may therefore find, with a very close approximation, a speed always
+the same on condition that the solid parts of the apparatus (the
+condenser and the resistance) are protected from causes of variation
+and used always at the same temperature. Doubtless, a well-constructed
+astronomical clock maintains a very uniform movement; but the electric
+clock is placed in better conditions for invariability, for all the
+parts are massive and immovable; they are merely required to remain
+unchanged, and there is no question of the wear and tear of
+wheel-work, the oxidation of oils, or the variations of weight. In
+other words, the system formed by a condenser and a resistance
+constitutes a standard of time easy of preservation.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17">[1]</a></p>
+<div class="note"><p>In this system the measurement of time is not effected,
+as ordinarily, by observing the movements of a material system, but by
+experiments of equilibrium. All the parts of the apparatus remain
+immovable, the electricity alone being in motion. Such appliances are
+in a manner clepsydr&aelig;. This analogy with the clepsydr&aelig; will be
+perceived if we consider the form of the following experiment: Two
+immovable metallic plates constitute the armatures of a charged
+condenser, and attract each other with a force, F. If the plates are
+insulated, these charges remain constant, as well as the force, F. If,
+on the contrary, we connect the armatures of resistance, R, their
+charges diminish and the force, F, becomes a function of the time,
+<i>t</i>; the time, <i>t</i>, inversely becomes a function of P. We find <i>t</i> by
+the following formula:</p>
+
+<p class="center">  t = &rho; × (<i>l</i>S / S&pi;<i>es</i>) × log hyp(F<sub>0</sub>/F)</p>
+
+
+<p>F<sub>0</sub> and F being the values of the force at the beginning and at the
+end of the time, <i>t</i>. The above formula is independent of the choice
+of units. If we wish <i>t</i> to be expressed in seconds, we must give
+&rho; the corresponding value (&rho; = 1.058 × 10<sup>-16</sup>). If we take
+&rho; as a unit we make &rho; = 1, and we find the absolute value of
+the time by the expression:</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">  (<i>l</i>S) / (8&pi;<i>e s</i>) log hyp(F<sub>0</sub>/F)</p>
+
+
+<p>We remark that this expression of time contains only abstract numbers,
+being independent of the choice of the units of length and force. S
+and <i>e</i> denote surface and the thickness of the condenser; <i>s</i> and <i>l</i>
+the section and the length of a column of mercury of the resistance,
+R. This form of apparatus enables us practically to measure the
+notable values of <i>t</i> only if the value of the resistance, R, is
+enormous, the arrangement described in the text has not the same
+inconvenience.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a>NEW METHOD OF MAINTAINING THE VIBRATION OF A PENDULUM.</h2>
+
+<p>A recent number of the <i>Comptes Rendus</i> contains a note by M.J.
+Carpentier describing a method of maintaining the vibrations of a
+pendulum by means of electricity, which differs from previous devices
+of the same character in that the impulse given to the pendulum at
+each vibration is independent of the strength of the current employed,
+and that the pendulum itself is entirely free, save at the point of
+suspension. The vibrations are maintained, not by direct impulsion,
+but by a slight horizontal displacement of the point of suspension in
+alternate directions.</p>
+
+<p>This, as M. Carpentier observes, is the method which we naturally
+adopt in order to maintain the amplitude of swing of a heavy body
+suspended from a cord held in the hand. The required movement of the
+point of suspension is effected by means of a polarized relay, through
+the coils of which the current is periodically reversed by the action
+of the pendulum, in a manner which will presently be explained. The
+armature of the relay oscillates between two stops whose distance
+apart is capable of fine adjustment.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear, therefore, that the impulse is independent of the
+strength of the current in the relay, provided that the armature is
+brought up to the stop on either side. The reversal of the current is
+effected by means of a small magnet carried by the bob of the
+pendulum, and which as it passes underneath the point of suspension is
+brought close to a soft iron armature, which has the form of an arc of
+a circle described about the point of suspension. This armature is
+pivoted at its center, and thus executes vibrations synchronously with
+those of the pendulum. These vibrations are adjusted to a very narrow
+range, but are sufficient to close the contacts of a commutator which
+reverses the current at each semi-vibration of the pendulum.</p>
+
+<p>The beauty and ingenuity of this device will readily be appreciated.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art01" id="art01"></a>DR. MORELL MACKENZIE.</h2>
+
+<p>The name of the great English laryngologist, which has long been
+honored by scientists of England and the Continent, has lately become
+familar to everyone, even in unprofessional circles, in Germany
+because of his operations on the Crown Prince's throat. If his wide
+experience and great skill enable him to permanently remove the growth
+from the throat of his royal patient, if his diagnosis and prognosis
+are confirmed, so that no fear need be entertained for the life and
+health of the Crown Prince, the English specialist will certainly
+deserve the most sincere thanks of the German nation. Every phase of
+this treatment, every new development, is watched with suspense and
+hope.</p>
+
+<p>Many have been unable to suppress the expression of regret that this
+important case was not under the care of a German, and part of the
+press look upon it as unjust treatment of the German specialists. But
+science is international, it knows no political boundaries, and the
+choice of Dr. Mackenzie by the family of the Crown Prince, whose
+sympathy with England is natural, cannot be considered a slight to
+German physicians when it is taken into consideration that the German
+authorities pronounced the growth suspicious and advised a difficult
+and doubtful operation, and that Prof. v. Bergman recommended that a
+foreign authority be consulted. As Dr. Mackenzie removed the
+obstruction, which had already become threatening and, in fact,
+dangerous, causing a loss of voice, and promised to remove any new
+growth from the inside without danger to the patient, the Crown Prince
+naturally trusted him. Since Virchow has made a microscopic
+examination of the part which was cut away, and has declared the new
+growth to be benign, all Germans should watch the results of Dr.
+Mackenzie's operations with sympathy, trusting that all further growth
+will be prevented, and that the Crown Prince will be restored to the
+German people in his former state of health.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/12.png"><img src="./images/12_th.png" alt=" DR. MORELL MACKENZIE." /></a><br /> DR. MORELL MACKENZIE.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Morell Mackenzie has lately reached his fiftieth year, and has
+attained the height of his fame as an author and practitioner. He was
+born at Leytonston in 1837, and studied first in London. At the age
+of twenty-two he passed his examination, then practiced as physician
+in the London Hospital, and obtained his degree in 1862. A year later
+he received the Jackson prize from the Royal Society of Surgeons for
+his treatment of a laryngeal case.</p>
+
+<p>He completed his studies in Paris, Vienna (with Siegmund), and
+Budapest. In the latter place he worked with Czermak, making a special
+study of the laryngoscope. Later he published an excellent work on
+&quot;Diseases of the Throat and Nose,&quot; which was the fruit of twelve
+years' work. The evening before the day on which this work was to have
+been issued, the whole edition was destroyed by a fire which occurred
+in the printing establishment, and had to be reprinted from the proof
+sheets, which were saved. In 1870 his work &quot;On Growths in the Throat&quot;
+appeared, and he has also published many articles in the <i>British
+Medical Journal</i>, the <i>Lancet</i>, <i>Medical Times and Gazette</i>, etc.,
+which have been translated into different languages, making his name
+renowned all over Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Since he founded the first English hospital for diseases of the throat
+and chest, in London in 1863, and held the position of lecturer on
+diseases of the throat in the London Medical College, his career has
+been watched with interest by the public, and his practice in England
+is remarkable. Therefore it is no wonder that his lately published
+work &quot;On the Hygiene of the Vocal Organs&quot; has reached its fourth
+edition already. This work is read not only by physicians, but also by
+singers and lecturers.</p>
+
+<p>As a learned man in his profession, as an experienced diagnostician,
+and as a skillful and fortunate practitioner, he is surpassed by none;
+and his ability will be well known far beyond the borders of Great
+Britain if fortune favors him and he restores the future Emperor of
+Germany to his former strength and vigor, without which we cannot
+imagine this knightly form. The certainty with which Dr. Mackenzie
+speaks of permanent cures which he has effected in similar cases,
+together with the clear and satisfactory report of the great
+pathologist Virchow, lead us to look to the future with
+confidence.&mdash;<i>Illustrirte Zeitung.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>HYPNOTISM IN FRANCE.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<p>The voluntary production of those abnormal conditions of the nerves
+which to-day are denoted by the term &quot;hypnotic researches&quot; has
+manifested itself in all ages and among most of the nations that are
+known to us. Within modern times these phenomena were first reduced to
+a system by Mesmer, and, on this account, for the future deserve the
+attention of the scientific world. The historical description of this
+department, if one intends to give a connected account of its
+development, and not a series of isolated facts, must begin with a
+notice of Mesmer's personality, and we must not confound the more
+recent development of our subject with its past history.</p>
+
+<p>The period of mesmerism is sufficiently understood from the numerous
+writings on the subject, but it would be a mistake to suppose that in
+Braid's &quot;Exposition of Hypnotism&quot; the end of this subject had been
+reached. In a later work I hope to show that the fundamental ideas of
+biomagnetism have not only had in all periods of this century capable
+and enthusiastic advocates, but that even in our day they have been
+subjected to tests by French and English investigators from which they
+have issued triumphant.</p>
+
+<p>The second division of this historical development is <a name="Page_9795" id="Page_9795"></a>carried on by
+Braid, whose most important service was emphasizing the subjectivity
+of the phenomena. Without any connection with him, and yet by
+following out almost exactly the same experiments, Professor
+Heidenhain reached his physiological explanations. A third division is
+based upon the discovery of the hypnotic condition in animals, and
+connects itself to the <i>experimentum mirabile</i>. In 1872 the first
+writings on this subject appear from the pen of the physiologist
+Czermak; and since then the investigations have been continued,
+particularly by Professor Preyer.</p>
+
+<p>While England and Germany were led quite independently to the study of
+the same phenomena, France experienced a strange development, which
+shows, as nothing else could, how truth everywhere comes to the
+surface, and from small beginnings swells to a flood which carries
+irresistibly all opposition with it. This fourth division of the
+history of hypnotism is the more important, because it forms the
+foundation of a transcendental psychology, and will exert a great
+influence upon our future culture; and it is this division to which we
+wish to turn our attention. We have intentionally limited ourselves to
+a chronological arrangement, since a systematic account would
+necessarily fall into the study of single phenomena, and would far
+exceed the space offered to us.</p>
+
+<p>James Braid's writings, although they were discussed in detail in
+Littré and Robin's &quot;Lexicon,&quot; were not at all the cause of Dr.
+Philips' first books, who therefore came more independently to the
+study of the same phenomena. Braid's theories became known to him
+later by the observations made upon them in Béraud's &quot;Elements of
+Physiology&quot; and in Littré's notes in the translation of Müller's
+&quot;Handbook of Physiology;&quot; and he then wrote a second brochure, in
+which he gave in his allegiance to braidism. His principal effort was
+directed to withdrawing the veil of mystery from the occurrences, and
+by a natural explanation relegating them to the realm of the known.
+The trance caused by regarding fixedly a gleaming point produces in
+the brain, in his opinion, an accumulation of a peculiar nervous
+power, which he calls &quot;electrodynamism.&quot; If this is directed in a
+skillful manner by the operator upon certain points, it manifests
+itself in certain situations and actions that we call hypnotic. Beyond
+this somewhat questionable theory, both books contained a detailed
+description of some of the most important phenomena; but with the
+practical meaning of the phenomena, and especially with their
+therapeutic value, the author concerned himself but slightly. Just on
+account of this pathological side, however, a certain attention has
+been paid to hypnotism up to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1847 two surgeons in Poictiers, Drs. Ribaut and Kiaros,
+employed hypnotism with great success in order to make an operation
+painless. &quot;This long and horrible work,&quot; says a journal of the day,
+&quot;was much more like a demonstration in a dissecting room than an
+operation performed upon a living being.&quot; Although this operation
+produced such an excitement, yet it was twelve years later before
+decisive and positive official intelligence was given of these facts
+by Broca, Follin, Velpeau, and Guérinau. But these accounts, as well
+as the excellent little book by Dr. Azam, shared the fate of their
+predecessors. They were looked upon by students with distrust, and by
+the disciples of Mesmer with scornful contempt.</p>
+
+<p>The work of Demarquay and Giraud Teulon showed considerable advance in
+this direction. The authors, indeed, fell back upon the theory of
+James Braid, which they called stillborn, and of which they said,
+&quot;<i>Elle est restée accrochée en route</i>;&quot; but they did not satisfy
+themselves with a simple statement of facts, as did Gigot Suard in his
+work that appeared about the same time. Through systematic experiments
+they tried to find out where the line of hypnotic phenomena
+intersected the line of the realm of the known. They justly recognized
+that hypnotism and hysteria have many points of likeness, and in this
+way were the precursors of the present Parisian school. They say that
+from magnetic sleep to the hypnotic condition an iron chain can be
+easily formed from the very same organic elements that we find in
+historical conditions.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, as if to bring an experimental proof of this
+assertion, Lasigue published a report on catalepsy in persons of
+hysterical tendencies, which be afterward incorporated into his larger
+work. Among his patients, those who were of a quiet and lethargic
+temperament, by simply pressing down the eyelids, were made to enter
+into a peculiar state of languor, in which cataleptic contractions
+were easily produced, and which forcibly recalled hypnotic phenomena.
+&quot;One can scarcely imagine,&quot; says the author, &quot;a more remarkable
+spectacle than that of a sick person sunk in deep sleep, and
+insensible to all efforts to arouse him, who retains every position in
+which he is placed, and in it preserves the immobility and rigidity of
+a statue.&quot; But this impulse also was in vain, and in only a few cases
+were the practical tests followed up with theoretical explanations.</p>
+
+<p>Unbounded enthusiasm and unjust blame alike subsided into a silence
+that was not broken for ten years. Then Charles Richet, a renowned
+scientist, came forward in 1875, impelled by the duty he felt he owed
+as a priest of truth, and made some announcements concerning the
+phenomena of somnambulism; and in countless books, all of which are
+worthy of attention, he has since then considered the problem from its
+various sides.</p>
+
+<p>He separates somnambulism into three periods. The word here is used
+for this whole class of subjects as Richet himself uses it, viz.,
+<i>torpeur</i>, <i>excitation</i>, and <i>stupeur</i>. In the first, which is
+produced by the so-called magnetic passes and the fixing of the eyes,
+silence and languor come over the subject. The second period, usually
+produced by constant repetition of the experiment, is characterized
+chiefly by sensibility to hallucination and suggestion. The third
+period has as its principal characteristics supersensibility of the
+muscles and lack of sensation. Yet let it be noticed that these
+divisions were not expressed in their present clearness until 1880;
+while in the years between 1872 and 1880, from an entirely different
+quarter, a similar hypothesis was made out for hypnotic phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>Jean Martin Charcot, the renowned neurologist of the Parisian
+Salpetriere, without exactly desiring it, was led into the study of
+artificial somnambulism by his careful experiments in reference to
+hysteria, and especially by the question of <i>metallotherapie</i>, and in
+the year 1879 had prepared suitable demonstrations, which were given
+in public lectures at the Salpetriere. In the following years he
+devoted himself to closer investigation of this subject, and was
+happily and skillfully assisted by Dr. Paul Richer, with whom were
+associated many other physicians, such as Bourneville, Regnard, Fere,
+and Binet. The investigations of these men present the peculiarity
+that they observe hypnotism from its clinical and nosographical side,
+which side had until now been entirely neglected, and that they
+observe patients of the strongest hysterical temperaments. &quot;If we can
+reasonably assert that the hypnotic phenomena which depend upon the
+disturbance of a regular function of the organism demand for their
+development a peculiar temperament, then we shall find the most marked
+phenomena when we turn to an hysterical person.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The inferences of the Parisian school up to this time are somewhat the
+following, but their results, belonging almost entirely to the medical
+side of the question, can have no place in this discussion. They
+divide the phenomena of hystero-hypnotism, which they also call
+<i>grande hysterie</i>, into three plainly separable classes, which Charcot
+designates catalepsy, lethargy, and somnambulism.</p>
+
+<p>Catalepsy is produced by a sudden sharp noise, or by the sight of a
+brightly gleaming object. It also produces itself in a person who is
+in a state of lethargy, and whose eyes are opened. The most striking
+characteristic of the cataleptic condition is immobility. The subject
+retains every position in which he is placed, even if it is an
+unnatural one, and is only aroused by the action of suggestion from
+the rigor of a statue to the half life of an automaton. The face is
+expressionless and the eyes wide open. If they are closed, the patient
+falls into a lethargy.</p>
+
+<p>In this second condition, behind the tightly closed lids, the pupils
+of the eyes are convulsively turned upward. The body is almost
+entirely without sensation or power of thought. Especially
+characteristic of lethargy is the hyper-excitability of the nerves and
+muscles (<i>hyperexcitabilite neuromusculaire</i>), which manifests itself
+at the slightest touch of any object. For instance, if the extensor
+muscles of the arm are lightly touched, the arm stiffens immediately,
+and is only made flexible again by a hard rubbing of the same muscles.
+The nerves also react in a similar manner. The irritation of a nerve
+trunk not only contracts all the small nerves into which it branches,
+but also all those muscles through which it runs.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the somnambulistic condition proceeds from catalepsy or from
+lethargy by means of a slight pressure upon the <i>vertex</i>, and is
+particularly sensitive to every psychical influence. In some subjects
+the eyes are open, in others closed. Here, also, a slight irritation
+produces a certain amount of rigor in the muscle that has been
+touched, but it does not weaken the antagonistic muscle, as in
+lethargy, nor does it vanish under the influence of the same
+excitement that has produced it. In order to put an end to the
+somnambulistic condition, one must press softly upon the pupil of the
+eye, upon which the subject becomes lethargic, and is easily roused by
+breathing upon him. In this early stage, somnambulism appears very
+infrequently.</p>
+
+<p>Charcot's school also recognize the existence of compound conditions,
+the history of whose symptoms we must not follow here. These slightly
+sketched results, as well as a number of other facts, were only
+obtained in the course of several years; yet in 1882 the fundamental
+investigations of this school were considered virtually concluded.
+Then Dumont-Pallier, the head of the Parisian Hospital Pitié, came
+forward with a number of observations, drawn also exclusively from the
+study of hystero-hypnotism, and yet differing widely from those
+reached by the physicians of the Salpetriere. In a long series of
+communications, he has given his views, which have in their turn been
+violently attacked, especially by Magnin and Bérillon. I give only the
+most important points.</p>
+
+<p>According to these men, the hyper-excitability of the nerves and
+muscles is present not only in the lethargic condition, but in all
+three periods; and in order to prove this, we need only apply the
+suitable remedy, which must be changed for each period and every
+subject. Slight irritations of the skin prove this most powerfully. A
+drop of warm water or a ray of sunshine produces contractions of a
+muscle whose skin covering they touch.</p>
+
+<p>Dumont-Pallier and Magnin accede to the theory of intermediate stages,
+and have tried to lay down rules for them with as great exactness as
+Charcot's school. They also are very decided about the three periods,
+whose succession does not appear to them as fixed; but they discovered
+a new fundamental law which regulates the production as well as the
+cessation of the condition&mdash;<i>La cause qui fait, defait</i>; that is, the
+stimulus which produces one of the three periods needs only to be
+repeated in order to do away with that condition. From this the
+following diagram of hypnotic conditions is evolved:</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/13a.png" alt="" /></p>
+
+<p>And, furthermore, Dumont-Pallier should be considered as the founder
+of a series of experiments, for he was the first one to show in a
+decisive manner that the duality of the cerebral system was proved by
+these hypnotic phenomena; and his works, as well as those of Messrs.
+Bérillon and Descourtis, have brought to light the following facts:
+Under hypnotic conditions, the psychical activity of a brain
+hemisphere may be suppressed without nullifying the intellectual
+activity or consciousness. Both hemispheres may be started at the same
+time in different degrees of activity; and also, when the grade is the
+same, they may be independently the seat of psychical manifestations
+which are in their natures entirely different. In close connection
+with this and with the whole doctrine of hemi-hypnotism, which is
+founded upon these facts, stand the phenomena of thought transference,
+which we must consider later.</p>
+
+<p>As an addition to the investigations of Charcot and Dumont-Pallier,
+Brémaud, in 1884, made the discovery that there was a fourth hypnotic
+state, &quot;fascination,&quot; which preceded the three others, and manifested
+itself by a tendency to muscular contractions, as well as through
+sensitiveness to hallucination and suggestion, but at the same time
+left to the subject a full consciousness of his surroundings and
+remembrance of what had taken place. Descourtis, in addition,
+perceived a similar condition in the transition from hypnotic sleep to
+waking, which he called <i>delire posthypnotique</i>, and, instead of using
+the word &quot;fascination&quot; to express the opening stage, he substituted
+&quot;captation.&quot; According to him, the diagram would be the following:</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/13b.png" alt="" /></p>
+
+<p>This whole movement, which I have tried to sketch, and whose chief
+peculiarity is that it considers hypnotism a nervous malady, and one
+that must be treated clinically and nosographically, was opposed in
+1880 in two directions&mdash;one source of opposition producing great
+results, while the other fell to the ground. The latter joined itself
+to the theory of the mesmerists, and tried, by means of exact
+experiments, to measure the fluid emanating from the human body&mdash;an
+undertaking which gave slight promise of any satisfactory result.</p>
+
+<p>Baillif in his thesis (1878) and Chevillard in his (for spiritualists)
+very interesting books, tried, by means of various arguments, to
+uphold the fluidic explanation. Despine also thought that by its help
+he had been able to explain the phenomena; but it was Baréty who, in
+the year 1881, first turned general attention in this direction.
+According to him, mankind possesses a nerve force which emanates from
+him in different kinds of streams. Those coming from the eyes and
+fingers produce insensibility to pain, while those generated by the
+breath cause hypnotic conditions. This nerve force goes out into the
+ether, and there obeys the laws that govern light, being broken into
+spectra, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Claude Perronnet has more lately advanced similar views, and his
+greatest work is now in press. Frederick W.H. Myers and Edmund Gurney
+sympathize with these views, and try to unite them with the mesmerist
+doctrine of personal influence and their theory of telepathy. The
+third champion in England of hypnotism, Prof. Hack Tuke, on the
+contrary, sympathizes entirely with the Parisian school, only
+differing from them in that he has experimented with satisfactory
+results upon healthy subjects. In France this view has lately been
+accepted by Dr. Bottey, who recognizes the three hypnotic stages in
+healthy persons, but has observed other phenomena in them, and
+vehemently opposes the conception of hypnotism as a malady. His
+excellently written book is particularly commended to those who wish
+to experiment in the same manner as the French investigator, without
+using hysterical subjects.</p>
+
+<p>The second counter current that opposed itself to the French
+neuropathologists, and produced the most lasting impression, is
+expressed by the magic word &quot;suggestion.&quot; A generation ago, Dr.
+Liebault, the patient investigator and skillful physician, had
+endeavored to make a remedial use of suggestion in his clinic at
+Nancy. Charles Richet and others have since referred to it, but
+Professor Bernheim was the first one to demonstrate its full
+significance in the realm of hypnotism. According to him,
+suggestion&mdash;that is, the influence of any idea, whether received
+through the senses or in a hypersensible manner (<i>suggestion
+mentale</i>)&mdash;is the key to all hypnotic phenomena. He has not been able
+in a single case to verify the bodily phenomena of <i>grandehypnotisme</i>
+without finding suggestion the primary cause, and on this account
+denies the truth of the asserted physical causes. Bernheim says that
+when the intense expectance of the subject has produced a compliant
+condition, a peculiar capacity is developed to change the idea that
+has been received into an action as well as a great acuteness of
+acceptation, which together will produce all those phenomena that we
+should call by the name of &quot;pathological sleep,&quot; since they are only
+separable in a gradual way from the ordinary sleep and dream
+conditions. Bernheim is particularly strenuous that psychology should
+appear in the foreground of hypnotism, and on this point has been
+strongly upheld by men like Professors Beaunis and Richet.</p>
+
+<p>The possibility of suggestion in waking conditions, and also a long
+time after the sleep has passed off (<i>suggestions posthypnotiques ou
+suggestions a (longue) echeance</i>), as well as the remarkable capacity
+of subjects to change their personality (<i>changement de la
+personnalite objectivation des types</i>), have been made the subject of
+careful investigation. The voluntary production of bleeding and
+stigmata through spiritual influence has been asserted, particularly
+by Messrs. Tocachon, Bourru, and Burot. The judicial significance of
+suggestion has been discussed by Professor Liegeois and Dr. Ladame.
+Professor Pitres in Bordeaux is one of the suggestionists, though
+differing in many points from the Nancy school.</p>
+
+<p>This whole tendency brings into prominence the psychical influence,
+while it denies the production of these results from purely physical
+phenomena, endeavoring to explain them in a different manner. These
+explanations carry us into two realms, the first of which has been
+lately opened, and at present seems to abound more in enigmas than in
+solutions.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_9796" id="Page_9796"></a><i>Metallotherapie</i>, which was called into existence by Dr. Burg, and
+further extended by Dr. Gellé, contains a special point of
+interest&mdash;the so-called transference in the case of hysterically or
+hypnotically affected persons. Transference is caused by
+electro-magnetism, which has this peculiarity&mdash;that in the case of
+specially sensitive persons it can transfer the bodily affection from
+left to right, and <i>vice versa</i>. The transference of paralysis, the
+cures attempted on this plan, and the so-called &quot;psychical
+transference,&quot; which contains special interest for graphologists, are
+at the present time still open questions, as well as the closely
+connected theory of human polarity; and the odic experiments of Dr.
+Chazarain are yet waiting for their confirmation. At present the
+problem of the connection between magnetism and hypnotism is under
+investigation, and in such a manner that we may hope for a speedy
+solution.</p>
+
+<p>Still stranger than these reports are the accounts of the distant
+operation of certain bodies; at least, they seem strange to those
+unacquainted with psychometry and the literature of the past century
+relating to this subject. Two physicians in Rochefort, Professors
+Bourru and Burot, in treating a hystero-epileptic person, found that
+gold, even when at a distance of fifteen centimeters, produced in him
+a feeling of unbearable heat. They continued these experiments with
+great care, and, after a number of trials, came to this
+conclusion&mdash;that in some persons certain substances, even when
+carefully separated from them by long distance, exercise exactly the
+same physiological influence as if introduced into their organism. In
+order to explain these phenomena, they refer to the radiating force of
+Baréty, an explanation neither satisfactory to themselves nor to
+others. Lately the distinguished Parisian physician, Dr. Luys, has
+confirmed by his experiments the existence of these phenomena, but he
+thinks the explanation referable to hyper-sensitiveness of the
+&quot;<i>regions emotives et intellectuelles de l'encephale</i>&quot; yet even he has
+not reached the kernel of the difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>In close connection with action at a distance is the question of
+distant production of hypnotic sleep. For an answer to this problem,
+they are experimenting in both France and England; and Frederick W.H.
+Myers has thrown an entirely new light upon the subject by the
+investigations he is making upon a purely experimental basis. In Italy
+they have limited themselves to the study of isolated cases of
+hystero-hypnotism, except as the phenomena of magnetic fascination
+investigated by Donato have given rise to further research; but all
+the books I have seen upon this subject, as well as many by French
+authors, suffer from ignorance of the latest English discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>With this I think that I have given a slight outline of the history of
+hypnotic investigation to the end of the year 1886. I shall attempt a
+criticism of this whole movement at some other time, as space is not
+afforded to me here; but I should like to make this statement now,
+that two of the characteristic indications of this period are of the
+gravest import&mdash;first the method (&quot;Our work,&quot; says Richet, &quot;is that of
+strictly scientific <i>testing</i>, <i>observation</i>, and <i>arrangement</i>&quot;);
+and, secondly, the result. Hypnotism has been received into the realm
+of scientific investigation, and with this the foundation of a true
+experimental psychology has been laid.</p>
+
+<p class="signature">MAX DESSOIR.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18">[1]</a><br />
+<span class="note">Translated for <i>Science</i> from <i>Der Spinx</i>.</span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art18" id="art18"></a>THE DUODENUM: A SIPHON TRAP.</h2>
+
+<h3>By <span class="smcap">Mayo Collier</span>, M.S. Lond., F.R.C.S. Eng.; Senior
+Assistant Surgeon, North-West London Hospital; Assistant Demonstrator
+of Anatomy, London Hospital Medical College.</h3>
+
+<p>We may take it for granted that all gases generated in the jejunum,
+ileum, and large intestines pass onward toward the anus, and there
+sooner or later escape. Fetid gases&mdash;except those generated in the
+stomach and duodenum&mdash;never pass upward, not even during vomiting due
+to hernia, obstruction, and other causes. Physiologists, it would
+appear, have never busied themselves to find an explanation for this
+apparent breach of the laws of gravity. The intestinal canal is a tube
+with various dilatations and constrictions, but at no spot except the
+pylorus does the constriction completely obliterate the lumen of the
+tube, and here only periodically. It is perfectly evident, then, that,
+unless some system of trap exists in the canal, gases are free to
+travel from below upward in obedience to the laws of gravity, and
+would, as a matter of fact, sooner or later do so. From the straight,
+course and vertical position of the &oelig;sophagus, a very slight
+pressure of gas in the stomach easily overcomes the closure of its
+cardiac sphincter and allows of escape. When the stomach has digested
+its contents and the pylorus is relaxed, gases generated in the
+duodenum can and do ascend into the stomach and so escape. Normally,
+no fetid gases are generated in the stomach or duodenum. If we follow
+the course of the intestines down, we find that the duodenum presents
+a remarkable curve.</p>
+
+<p>Now, there are some points of great interest in connection with this
+remarkable, almost circular, curve of the duodenum. In the first
+place, this curve is a constant feature in all mammalians. Mr. Treves
+says it is one of the most constant features in the anatomy of the
+intestines in man, and, speaking of mammalians in general, that the
+curve of the duodenum varies in shape, but is never absent, becoming
+more complex in some of the higher primates, but seldom less distinct
+than in man. In birds the duodenum always forms a long loop embracing
+the pancreas.</p>
+
+<p>A second point of great interest is the absolute constancy and
+fixation of its terminal portion at the point of junction with the
+jejunum, more correctly termed second ascending or fourth portion. Mr.
+Treves says that this fourth portion is never less than an inch, and
+is practically constant. It extends along the side of the left crus of
+the diaphragm opposite the second lumbar vertebra, and is there firmly
+fixed to the front of the aorta and crus of the diaphragm by a strong
+fibro-muscular band, slinging it up and absolutely retaining it in
+position. This band has been termed the &quot;musculus suspensorius
+duodeni,&quot; but is chiefly composed of white fibrous tissue, and is more
+of the native of a ligament than a muscle. This ligament is always
+present, and its position is never altered. The curve of the duodenum
+may descend as far as the iliac fossa, but the terminal portion is
+always maintained by this band in its normal position.</p>
+
+<p>Another point of great constancy is the position of the pancreas and
+its relation to the curve of the duodenum. The duodenum always curves
+round the head of the pancreas and is, as it were, moulded on it and
+retained in position by it. In birds the duodenum always forms a long
+loop embracing the pancreas. Further, the ducts of the liver and
+pancreas always open into the center Of the duodenum, either
+separately or by a common opening.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/14.png" alt="" /></p>
+
+<p>Now, the absolute constancy of the curve of the duodenum, the complete
+fixation of its fourth portion, the position of the pancreas, and the
+place of entry of the ducts of the pancreas and liver, are all
+component parts of a siphon trap, whereby gases generated below the
+duodenum are prevented from passing upward. A reference to the
+accompanying diagrams will make this quite clear. A is a diagram of a
+siphon trap copied from Parkes' hygiene. B is a very diagrammatic
+outline of the stomach and duodenum, <i>a</i> is intended to mark the
+position of the fibrous band, or musculus suspensorius duodeni; and
+<i>b</i> the position of entry of the ducts of the liver and pancreas. The
+duodenum, then, is a siphon trap, and a most efficient one. Now, the
+efficiency of a siphon trap depends not only on its shape, but what is
+absolutely essential is that the curve must be kept constantly full of
+fluid, without which it ceases to be a trap, and would allow gases to
+ascend freely. The position of the place of entry of the ducts of the
+pancreas and liver assures that this <i>sine qua non</i> shall be present.
+The discharge of the secretions of the pancreas and liver, although
+more active during and after feeding, is practically constant, and so
+insures in an admirable manner that the curve on which the efficiency
+of the trap depends shall be constantly kept full not only with fluid,
+but, as I would suggest, antiseptic fluid. There is no other trap in
+the intestinal canal, but the peculiar position of the colon would no
+doubt have more or less effect in preventing gases ascending through
+the ileo-c&aelig;cal valve.&mdash;<i>Lancet.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a>WISCONSIN CRANBERRY CULTURE.</h2>
+
+<p>Among the many thousands of well informed persons with whom the
+cranberry is a staple article of food throughout the autumn and
+winter, and who especially derive from its pungent flavor sharp relish
+for their Thanksgiving and Christmas turkey, not one in ten has any
+definite idea as to where the delicious fruit comes from, or of the
+method of growing and harvesting it. Most people are, however, aware
+that it is raised on little &quot;truck patches&quot; somewhere down in New
+Jersey or about Cape Cod, and some have heard that it is gleaned from
+the swamps in the Far West by Indians and shipped to market by white
+traders. But to the great majority its real history is unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the cranberry culture is an industry in which millions of dollars
+are invested in this country, and it gives employment, for at least a
+portion of each year, to many thousands of people. In the East, where
+the value of an acre of even swamp land may run up into the thousands
+of dollars, a cranberry marsh of five or ten acres is considered a
+large one, and, cultivated in the careful, frugal style in vogue
+there, may yield its owner a handsome yearly income. But in the great,
+boundless West, where land, and more especially swamp land, may be had
+for from $1 to $5 an acre, we do these things differently, if not
+better.</p>
+
+<p>The State of Wisconsin produces nearly one-half of the cranberries
+annually grown in the United States. There are marshes there covering
+thousands of acres, whereon this fruit grows wild, having done so even
+as far back as the oldest tradition of the native red man extends. In
+many cases the land on which the berries grow has been bought from the
+government by individuals or firms, in vast tracts, and the growth of
+the fruit promoted and encouraged by a system of dikes and dams
+whereby the effects of droughts, frost, and heavy rainfalls are
+counteracted to almost any extent desired. Some of these holdings
+aggregate many thousands of acres under a single ownership; and after
+a marsh of this vast extent has been thoroughly ditched and good
+buildings, water works, etc., are erected on it, its value may reach
+many thousands of dollars, while the original cost of the land may
+have been merely nominal.</p>
+
+<p>Large portions of Jackson, Wood, Monroe, Marinette, Juneau, and Green
+counties are natural cranberry marshes. The Wisconsin Valley division
+of the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St. Paul Railway runs through a closely
+continuous marsh, forty miles long and nearly as wide, as level as a
+floor, which is an almost unbroken series of cranberry farms. The
+Indians, who inhabited this country before the white man came, used to
+congregate here every fall, many of them traveling several hundred
+miles, to lay in their winter supply of berries. Many thousands of
+barrels are now annually shipped from this region; and thus this vast
+area, which to the stranger looking upon it would appear utterly
+worthless, is as valuable as the richest farming lands in the State.</p>
+
+<p>In a few instances, however, this fruit is cultivated in Wisconsin in
+a style similar to that practiced in the East; that is, by paring the
+natural sod from the bog, covering the earth to a depth of two or
+three inches with sand, and then transplanting the vines into soil
+thus prepared. The weeds are then kept down for a year or two, when
+the vines take full possession of the soil, and further attention is
+unnecessary. The natural &quot;stand&quot; of the vines in the sod is so
+productive, however, and the extent of country over which bountiful
+nature has distributed them so vast, that few operators have thought
+it necessary to incur the expense of special culture.</p>
+
+<p>One of the best and most perfectly equipped marshes in Wisconsin is
+owned by Mr. G.B. Sackett, of Berlin. It is situated four miles north
+of that village, and comprises 1,600 acres, nearly all of which is a
+veritable bog, and is covered with a natural and luxuriant growth of
+cranberry vines. A canal has been cut from the Fox River to the
+southern limit of the marsh, a distance of 4,400 ft. It is 45 ft.
+wide, and the water stands in it to a depth of nine feet, sufficient
+to float fair sized steamboats. At the intersection of the canal with
+the marsh steam water works have been erected, with flood gates and
+dams by means of which the entire marsh may be flooded to a depth of a
+foot or more when desired. There are two engines of 150 horse power
+each, and two pumps that are capable of raising 80,000 gallons per
+minute.</p>
+
+<p>When, in early autumn, the meteorological conditions indicate the
+approach of frost, the pumps may he put to work in the afternoon and
+the berries be effectually covered by water and thus protected before
+nightfall. At sunrise the gates are opened and the water allowed to
+run off again, so that the pickers may proceed with their work. The
+marsh is flooded to a depth of about two feet at the beginning of each
+winter and allowed to remain so until spring, the heavy body of ice
+that forms preventing the upheaval that would result from freezing and
+thawing&mdash;a natural process which, if permitted, works injury to the
+vines.</p>
+
+<p>There is a three-story warehouse on the marsh, with a capacity of
+20,000 barrels of berries, and four large two-story houses capable of
+furnishing shelter for 1,500 pickers. The superintendent's residence
+is a comfortable cottage house, surrounded by giant oaks and elms, and
+stands near the warehouse on an &quot;island,&quot; or small tract of high, dry
+land near the center of the great marsh. The pickers' quarters stand
+on another island about 200 yards away.</p>
+
+<p>A plank roadway, built on piles, about two feet above the level of the
+ground, leads from the mainland to the warehouse and other buildings,
+a distance of more than half a mile. Several wooden railways diverge
+from the warehouse to all parts of the marsh, and on them flat cars,
+propelled by hand, are sent out at intervals during the picking season
+to bring in the berries from the hands of the pickers. Each picker is
+provided with a crate, holding just a bushel, which is kept close at
+hand. The berries are first picked into tin pans and pails, and from
+these emptied into the crates, in which they are carried to the
+warehouse, where an empty crate is given the picker in exchange for a
+full one. Thus equipped and improved, the Sackett marsh is valued at
+$150,000. Thirteen thousand barrels have been harvested from this
+great farm in a single season. The selling price in the Chicago market
+varies, in different seasons, from $8 to $16 per barrel. There are
+several other marshes of various sizes in the vicinity.</p>
+
+<p>The picking season usually begins about Sept. 1, and from that time
+until Oct. 1 the marshes swarm with men, women, and children, ranging
+in age from six to eight years, made up from almost every nationality
+under the sun. Bohemians and Poles furnish the majority of the working
+force, while Germans, Irish, Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, negroes,
+Indians, and Americans contribute to the motley contingent. They come
+from every direction and from various distances, some of them
+traveling a hundred miles or more to secure a few days' or weeks'
+work. Almost every farmer or woodsman living anywhere in the region of
+the marshes turns out with his entire family; and the families of all
+the laboring men and mechanics of the surrounding towns and cities
+join in the general hegira to the bogs, and help to harvest the fruit.
+Those living within a few miles go out in the morning and return home
+at night, taking their noon-day meal with them, while those from a
+distance take provisions and bedding with them and camp in the
+buildings provided for that purpose by the marsh owners, doing their
+own cooking on the stoves and with the fuel furnished them.</p>
+
+<p>The wages vary from fifty cents to a dollar a bushel, owing to the
+abundance or scarcity of the fruit. A good picker will gather from
+three to four bushels a day where the yield is light, and five to six
+bushels where it is good. The most money is made by families numbering
+from half a dozen to a dozen members. Every chick and child in such
+families over six years old is required to turn out and help swell the
+revenue of the little household, and the frugal father often pockets
+ten to twenty dollars a day as the fruits of the combined labors. The
+pickers wade into the grass, weeds, and vines, however wet with dew or
+rain, or however deeply flooded underneath, making not the slightest
+effort to keep even their feet dry, and after an hour's work in the
+morning are almost as wet as if they had swum a river. Many of them
+wade in barefooted, others wearing low cowhide shoes, and their feet,
+at least, are necessarily wet all day long. In many cases their bodies
+are thinly clad, and they must inevitably suffer in frosty mornings
+and evenings and on the raw, cold, rainy days that are frequent in the
+autumn months in this latitude; yet they go about their work singing,
+shouting, and jabbering as merrily as a party of comfortably clad
+school children at play. How any of them avoid colds, rheumatism, and
+a dozen other diseases is a mystery; and yet it is rarely that one of
+them is ill from the effects of this exposure. As many as 3000 or 4000
+pickers are sometimes employed on a single marsh when there is a heavy
+crop, and an army of such ragamuffins as get together for this
+purpose, scattered over a bog in confusion and disorder, presents a
+strange and picturesque appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Indians are not usually as good pickers as white people, but in the
+sparsely settled districts, where many of the berry farms are
+situated, it is impossible to get white help enough to take care of
+the crop in the short time available for the work, and owners are
+compelled to employ the aborigines. A rake, with the prongs shaped
+like the letter V, is used for picking in some cases, but owing to the
+large amount of grass and weeds that grow among the vines on these
+wild marshes, this instrument is rarely available. After being picked
+the berries are stored in warehouses for a period varying from one to
+three weeks. They are washed and dried by being passed through a
+fanning mill made for the purpose, and are then allowed to cure and
+ripen thoroughly before they are shipped to market.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_9797" id="Page_9797"></a>From statistics gathered by the American Cranberry Growers'
+Association it is learned that in 1883 Wisconsin produced 135,507
+bushels, in 1884 24,738 bushels, in 1885 264,432 bushels, and in 1886
+70,686 bushels of this fruit. By these figures it will be seen that
+the yield is very irregular. This is owing, principally, to the fact
+that many of the marshes are not yet provided with the means of
+flooding, and of course suffer from worms, droughts, late spring or
+early autumn frosts, and extensive fires started by sparks from the
+engines on railroads running through the marshes. These and various
+other evils are averted on the more improved farms. So that, while
+handsome fortunes have in many cases been made in cranberry growing,
+many thousands of dollars have, on the other hand, been sunk in the
+same industry. Only the wealthier owners, who have expended vast sums
+of money in improving and equipping their property, can calculate with
+any degree of certainty on a paying crop of fruit every year.</p>
+
+<p>Chicago is the great distributing point for the berries produced in
+Wisconsin, shipments being made thence to nearly every State and
+Territory in the Union, to Canada, to Mexico, and to several European
+countries. Berries sent to the Southern markets are put up in
+watertight packages, and the casks are then filled with water, this
+being the only means by which they can be kept in hot weather. Even in
+this condition they can only be kept a few days after reaching hot
+climates.&mdash;<i>American Magazine.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>SOUDAN COFFEE.</h2>
+
+<h3>(<i>Parkia biglobosa.</i>)</h3>
+
+<p>There are valuable plants on every continent. Civilized Europe no
+longer counts them. Mysterious Africa is no less largely and
+spontaneously favored with them than young America and the ancient
+territory of Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The latter has given us the majority of the best fruits of our
+gardens. We have already shown how useful the butter tree
+(<i>Butyrospermum Parkii</i>) is in tropical Africa, and we also know how
+the <i>gourou</i> (<i>Sterculia acuminata</i>) is cultivated in the same
+regions. But that is not all, for the great family of Leguminos&aelig;,
+whose numerous representatives encumber this continent, likewise
+furnishes the negro natives a food that is nearly as indispensable to
+them as the <i>gourou</i> or the products of the baobab&mdash;another valuable
+tree and certainly the most widely distributed one in torrid Africa.
+This leguminous tree, which is as yet but little known in the
+civilized world, has been named scientifically <i>Parkia biglobosa</i> by
+Bentham. The negroes give it various names, according to the tribe;
+among the Ouloffs, it is the <i>houlle</i>; among the Mandigues, <i>naytay</i>;
+in Cazamance (Nalon language), it is <i>nayray</i>; in Bornou, <i>rounuo</i>; in
+Haoussa, <i>doroa</i>; in Hant-fleure (Senegal), <i>nayraytou</i>. On the old
+mysterious continent it plays the same role that the algarobas do in
+young America. However, it is quite a common rule to find in the order
+Leguminos&aelig;, and especially in the section Mimos&aelig;, plants whose pods
+are edible. Examples of this fact are numerous. As regards the
+Mediterranean region, it suffices to cite the classic carob tree
+(<i>Ceratonia siliqua</i>), which also is of African nationality, but which
+is wanting in the warm region of this continent.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the tropical region of Africa, the aborigines love to
+consume the saccharine pulp and the seed contained in the pod of the
+<i>houlle</i>. Prepared in different ways, according to tribe and latitude,
+these two products constitute a valuable aliment. The pulp is consumed
+either just as it is or as a fermented beverage. As for the seeds,
+they serve, raw or roasted, for the production of a tea-like infusion
+(whence the name &quot;Soudan coffee&quot;), or, after fermentation in water,
+for making a national condiment, which in certain places is called
+<i>kinda</i>, and which is mixed with boiled rice or prepared meats. This
+preparation has in most cases a pasty form or the consistency of
+cohesive flour; but in order to render its carriage easier in certain
+of the African centers where the trade in it is brisk, it is
+compressed into tablets similar to those of our chocolate. As these
+two products are very little known in Europe, it has seemed to us that
+it would be of interest to give a description and chemical analysis of
+them. We shall say but little of the plant, which has sufficiently
+occupied botanists.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/15a.png"><img src="./images/15a_th.png" alt=" Figs. 1 TO 6.&mdash;PODS OF THE HOULLE AND MICROSCOPIC" /></a><br /> Figs. 1 TO 6.&mdash;PODS OF THE HOULLE AND MICROSCOPIC
+DETAILS.</p>
+
+<p>The houlle (<i>Parkia biglobosa</i>) is a large tree from 35 to 50 feet in
+height, with a gray bark, many branches, and large, elegant leaves.
+The latter are compound, bipinnate (Fig. 7), and have fifty pairs of
+leaflets, which are linear and obtuse and of a grayish green. The
+inflorescence is very pleasing to the eye. The flowers, say the
+authors of the <i>Flor&aelig; Senegambi&aelig; Tentamen</i>, form balls of a dazzling
+red, contracted at the base, and resembling the pompons of our
+grenadiers (Fig. 8). The support of this latter consists only of male
+flowers. The fruit that succeeds these flowers is supported by a
+club-shaped receptacle. It consists of a large pod, which at maturity
+is 13 inches in length by 10 in width (Fig. 1). This pod is chocolate
+brown, quite smooth or slightly tubercular, and is swollen at the
+points where the seeds are situated. The pods are straight or slightly
+curved. The aborigines of Rio Nunez use the pods for poisoning the
+fishes that abound in the watercourses. We do not know what the nature
+of the toxic principle is that is contained in these hard pods, but we
+well know the nature of the yellowish pulp and of the seeds that
+entirely fill the pods.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/15b.png" alt=" Fig. 7.&mdash;PARKIA BIGLOBOSA." /><br /> Fig. 7.&mdash;PARKIA BIGLOBOSA.</p>
+
+<p>Although the pulp forms a continuous whole, each seed easily separates
+from the following and carries with it a part of the pulp that
+surrounds it and that constitutes an independent mass (Fig. 2). This
+pulpy substance, formed entirely of oval cells filled with aleurone,
+consists of two distinct layers. The first, an external one of a
+beautiful yellow, is from 10 to 15 times bulkier than the internal
+one, which likewise is of a beautiful yellow.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/15c.png" alt=" Fig. 8&mdash;FLOWERS OF PARKIA." /><br /> Fig. 8&mdash;FLOWERS OF PARKIA.</p>
+
+<p>It detaches itself easily from the seed, while the internal layer,
+which adheres firmly to the exterior of the seed, can be detached only
+by maceration in water. This fresh pulp has a sweet and agreeable
+although slightly insipid taste. Upon growing old and becoming dry, it
+takes on a still more agreeable taste, for it preserves its sweetness
+and gets a perfume like that of the violet.</p>
+
+<p>As for the seed, which is of a brown color and provided with a hard,
+shining skin, that is 0.4 inch long, 0.3 inch wide, and 0.2 inch
+thick. It is oval in form, with quite a prominent beak at the hilum
+(Fig. 4). The margin is blunt and the two convex sides are provided in
+the center with a gibbosity limited by a line parallel with the
+margin, and this has given the plant its specific name of <i>biglobosa</i>.
+The mean weight of each seed is 4½ grains. The skin, though thick, is
+not very strong. It consists, anatomically, of four layers (Fig. 5) of
+a thick cuticle, <i>c</i>; of a zone of palissade cells, <i>z p</i>; of a zone
+of cells with thick tangential walls arranged in a single row; and of
+a zone tougher than the others, formed of numerous cells with thick
+walls, without definite form, and filled with a blackish red coloring
+matter, <i>cs</i>. This perisperm covers an exalbuminous embryo formed
+almost entirely of two thick, greenish yellow cotyledons having a
+strong taste of legumine.</p>
+
+<p>When examined under the microscope, these cotyledons, the alimentary
+part of the seed, have the appearance represented in Fig. 6, where
+<i>ep</i> is the epidermic layer and <i>cp</i> constitutes the uniform
+parenchyma of the cotyledonary leaf. This parenchymatous mass consists
+of oval cells filled with fatty matter and granules of aleurone.</p>
+
+<p>According to some chemical researches made by Professor
+Schlagdenhauffen, the pulp has the following composition per 100
+parts:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="60%" >
+<colgroup span="2"><col align="left" /><col align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Fatty matter</td><td>2.407</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Glucose</td><td>33.92</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Inverted sugar</td><td>7.825</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Coloring matter and free acids</td><td>1.300</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Albuminous matter</td><td>5.240</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gummy matter</td><td>19.109</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cellulose</td><td>8.921</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Lignose</td><td>17.195</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Salts</td><td>4.080</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Total</td><td>100.000</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The salient point of these analytical results is the enormous quantity
+of matter (nearly 60 per cent.) formed almost exclusively by sugar. It
+is not surprising, from this that this product constitutes a food both
+agreeable and useful.</p>
+
+<p>An analysis of the entire seed, made by the same chemist, has given
+the following results:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="">
+<colgroup span="2"><col align="left" /><col align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Solid fatty matter</td><td>21.145</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Unreduced sugar</td><td>6.183</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Undetermined matters</td><td>5.510</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Gummy matters</td><td>10.272</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Albuminoid matters</td><td>24.626</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cellulosic matters</td><td>5.752</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Lignose and losses</td><td>20.978</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Salts</td><td>5.534</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Total</td><td>100.000</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The presence in these seeds of a large quantity of fatty matters and
+sugar, and especially of albuminoid matters (very nutritive), largely
+justifies the use made of them as a food. The innate instinct of the
+savage peoples of Africa has thus anticipated the data of
+science.&mdash;<i>La Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>THE HEIGHT OF SUMMER CLOUDS.</h2>
+
+<p>A knowledge of the heights and movements of the clouds is of much
+interest to science, and of especial importance in the prediction of
+weather. The subject has therefore received much attention during
+recent years from meteorologists, chiefly in this country and in
+Sweden. In the last published report of the Meteorological Council for
+1885-86 will be found an account of the steps taken by that body to
+obtain cloud photographs; and in the <i>Meteorologische Zeitschrift</i> for
+March last, M.M. Ekholm and Hagstrom have published an interesting
+summary of the results of observations made at Upsala during the
+summers of 1884-85. They determined the parallax of the clouds by
+angular measurements made from two stations at the extremities of a
+base of convenient length and having telephonic connection. The
+instruments used were altazimuths, constructed under the direction of
+Prof. Mohn, specially for measuring the parallax of the aurora
+borealis. A full description of these instruments and of the
+calculations will be found in the <i>Acta Reg Soc. Sc. Ups.</i>, 1884. The
+results now in question are based upon nearly 1,500 measurements of
+<i>heights</i>; the <i>motions</i> will form the subject of a future paper. It
+was found that clouds are formed at all levels, but that they occur
+most frequently at certain elevations or stages. The following are,
+approximately, the mean heights, in feet, of the principal forms:
+Stratus, 2,000; nimbus, 5,000; cumulus (base) 4,500, (summit) 6,000;
+cumulo-stratus (base), 4,600; &quot;false-cirrus&quot; (a form which often
+accompanies the cumulo-stratus), 12,800; cirro cumulus, 21,000;
+cirrus, 29,000 (the highest being 41,000). The maximum of cloud
+frequency was found to be at levels of 2,300 and 5,500 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Generally speaking, all the forms of cloud have a tendency to rise
+during the course of the day; the change, excepting for the cumulus
+form, amounting to nearly 6,500 feet. In the morning, when the cirrus
+clouds are at their lowest level, the frequency of their lowest
+forms&mdash;the cirro-cumulus&mdash;is greatest; and in the evening, when the
+height of the cirrus is greatest, the frequency of its highest
+forms&mdash;the cirro-stratus&mdash;is also greatest. With regard to the
+connection between the character of the weather and the height of the
+clouds, the heights of the bases of the cumulus are nearly constant in
+all conditions. The summits, however, are lowest in the vicinity of a
+barometric maximum. They increase in the region of a depression, and
+attain their greatest height in thunderstorms, the thickness of the
+cumulo stratus stretching sometimes for several miles. The highest
+forms of clouds appear to float at their lowest levels in the region
+of a depression. The forms of clouds are identical in all parts of the
+world, as has been shown in papers lately read by the Hon. R.
+Abercromby before the English and Scottish Meteorological
+Societies.&mdash;<i>Nature</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="Page_9798" id="Page_9798"></a><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>ON THE CAUSE OF IRIDESCENCE IN CLOUDS.</h2>
+
+<h3>By G. JOHNSTONE STONEY.</h3>
+
+<p>When the sky is occupied by light cirro-cumulus cloud, an optical
+phenomenon of the most delicate beauty sometimes presents itself, in
+which the borders of the clouds and their lighter portions are
+suffused with soft shades of color like those of mother-of-pearl,
+among which lovely pinks and greens are the most conspicuous. Usually
+these colors are distributed in irregular patches, just as in
+mother-of-pearl; but occasionally they are seen to form round the
+denser patches of cloud a regular colored fringe, in which the several
+tints are arranged in stripes following the sinuosities of the outline
+of the cloud.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot find in any of the books an explanation of this beautiful
+spectacle, all the more pleasing because it generally presents itself
+in delightful summer weather. It is not mentioned in the part of
+Moigno's great <i>Repertoire d'Optique</i> which treats of meteorological
+optics, nor in any other work which I have consulted. It seems
+desirable, therefore, to make an attempt to search out what appears to
+be its explanation.</p>
+
+<p>At the elevation in our atmosphere at which these delicate clouds are
+formed the temperature is too low, even in midsummer, for water to
+exist in the liquid state; and accordingly, the attenuated vapor from
+which they were condensed passed at once into a solid form. They
+consist, in fact, of tiny crystals of ice, not of little drops of
+water. If the precipitation has been hasty, the crystals will, though
+all small, be of many sizes jumbled together, and in that case the
+beautiful optical phenomenon with which we are now dealing will not
+occur. But if the opposite conditions prevail (which they do on rare
+occasions), if the vapor had been evenly distributed, and if the
+precipitation took place slowly, then will the crystals in any one
+neighborhood be little ice crystals of nearly the same form and size,
+and from one neighborhood to another they will differ chiefly in
+number and size, owing to the process having gone on longer or taken
+place somewhat faster, or through a greater depth, in some
+neighborhoods than others. This will give rise to the patched
+appearance of the clouds which prevails when this phenomenon presents
+itself. It also causes the tiny crystals, of which the cloud consists,
+to grow larger in some places than others.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Scoresby, in his &quot;Account of the Arctic Regions,&quot; gives the
+best description of snow crystals formed at low temperatures with
+which I am acquainted. From his observations it appears&mdash;(<i>a</i>) that
+when formed at temperatures several degrees below the freezing point,
+the crystals, whether simple or compound, are nearly all of
+symmetrical forms; (<i>b</i>) that thin tabular crystals are extremely
+numerous, consisting either of simple transverse slices of the
+fundamental hexagon or, more frequently, of aggregations of these
+attached edgewise and lying in one plane; and (<i>c</i>) that, according as
+atmospheric conditions vary, one form of crystal or another largely
+preponderates. A fuller account of these most significant observations
+is given in the appendix to this paper.</p>
+
+<p>Let us then consider the crystals in any one neighborhood in the sky,
+where the conditions that prevail are such as to produce lamellar
+crystals of nearly the same thickness. The tabular plates are
+subsiding through the atmosphere&mdash;in fact, falling toward the earth.
+And although their descent is very slow, owing to their minute size,
+the resistance of the air will act upon them as it does upon a falling
+feather. It will cause them, if disturbed, to oscillate before they
+settle into that horizontal position which flat plates finally assume
+when falling through quiescent air. We shall presently consider what
+the conditions must be, in order that the crystals may be liable to be
+now and then disturbed from the horizontal position. If this
+occasionally happens, the crystals will keep fluttering, and at any
+one moment some of them will be turned so as to reflect a ray from the
+sun to the eye of the observer from the flat surface of the crystal
+which is next him. Now, if the conditions are such as to produce
+crystals which are plates with parallel faces, and as they are also
+transparent, part only of the sun's ray that reaches the front face of
+the crystal will be reflected from it; the rest will enter the
+crystal, and, falling on the parallel surface behind, a portion will
+be there reflected, and passing out through the front face, will also
+reach the eye of the observer.</p>
+
+<p>These two portions of the ray&mdash;that reflected from the front face and
+that reflected from the back&mdash;are precisely in the condition in which
+they can interfere with one another, so as to produce the splendid
+colors with which we are familiar in soap bubbles. If the crystals are
+of diverse thicknesses, the colors from the individual crystals will
+be different, and the mixture of them all will produce merely white
+light; but if all are nearly of the same thickness, they will transmit
+the same color toward the observer, who will accordingly see this
+color in the part of the cloud occupied by these crystals. The color
+will, of course, not be undiluted; for other crystals will send
+forward white light, and this, blended with the colored light, will
+produce delicate shades in cases where the corresponding colors of a
+soap bubble would be vivid.</p>
+
+<p>We have now only to explain how it happens that on very rare occasions
+the colors, instead of lying in irregular patches, form definite
+fringes round the borders of the cloudlets. The circumstances that
+give rise to this special form of the phenomenon appear to be the
+following: While the cloud is in the process of growth (that is, so
+long as the precipitation of vapor into the crystalline state
+continues to take place), so long will the crystals keep augmenting.
+If, then, a cloudlet is in the process of formation, not only by the
+springing up of fresh crystals around, but also by the continued
+growth of the crystals within it, then will that patch of cloud
+consist of crystals which are largest in its central part, and
+gradually smaller as their situation approaches the outside. Here,
+then, are conditions which will produce one color round the margin of
+the cloud, and that color mixed with others, and so giving rise to
+other tints, farther in. In this way there comes into existence that
+iris-like border which is now and then seen.</p>
+
+<p>The occasional upsetting of the crystals, which is required to keep
+them fluttering, may be produced in any of three ways. The cloudlets
+may have been formed from the blending together of two layers of air
+saturated at different temperatures, and moving with different
+velocities or in different directions. Where these currents intermix,
+a certain amount of disturbance will prevail, which, if sufficiently
+slight, would not much interfere with the regularity of the crystals,
+and might yet be sufficient to occasion little draughts, which would
+blow them about when formed. Or, if the cold layer is above, and if it
+is in a sufficient degree colder, there need not be any previous
+relative motion of the two layers; the inevitable convection currents
+will suffice. Another, and probably the most frequent, cause for
+little breezes in the neighborhood of the cloudlets is that when the
+cloudlets are formed they immediately absorb the heat of the sun in a
+way that the previously clear air had not done. If they absorb enough,
+they will rise like feeble balloons, and slight return currents will
+travel downward round their margins, throwing all crystals in that
+situation into disorder.</p>
+
+<p>I do not include among the causes which may agitate the crystals
+another cause which must produce excessively slight currents of air,
+namely, that arising from the subsidence of the cloudlets owing to
+their weight. The crystals will fall faster wherein cloud masses than
+in the intervening portions where the cloud is thinner. But the
+subsidence itself is so slow that any relative motions to which
+differences in the rate of subsidence can give rise are probably too
+feeble to produce an appreciable effect. Of course, in general, more
+than one of the above causes will concur; and it is the resultant of
+the effects which they would have separately produced that will be
+felt by the crystals.</p>
+
+<p>If the precipitation had taken place so very evenly over the sky that
+there were no cloudlets formed, but only one uniform veil of haze,
+then the currents which would flutter the crystals may be so entirely
+absent that the little plates of crystals can fixedly assume the
+horizontal position which is natural to them. In this event the cloud
+will exhibit no iridescence, but, instead of it, a vertical circle
+through the sun will present itself. This, on some rare occasions, is
+a feature of the phenomenon of parhelia.</p>
+
+<p>It thus appears that the occasional iridescence of cirrus clouds is
+satisfactorily accounted for by the concurrence of conditions, each of
+which is known to have a real existence in nature....&mdash;<i>Phil. Mag.,
+July 1887.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN</h3>
+
+<h2>Architects and Builders Edition.</h2>
+
+<p class="center">$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts.</p>
+
+<p>This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued
+monthly&mdash;on the first day of the month. Each number contains about
+forty large quarto pages, equal to about two hundred ordinary book
+pages, forming, practically, a large and splendid <b>Magazine of
+Architecture</b>, richly adorned with <i>elegant plates in colors</i> and with
+fine engravings, illustrating the most interesting examples of modern
+Architectural Construction and allied subjects.</p>
+
+<p>A special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of
+the latest and best plans for private residences, city and country,
+including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive.
+Drawings in perspective and in color are given, together with full
+Plans, Specifications, Costs, Bills of Estimate, and Sheets of
+Details.</p>
+
+<p>No other building paper contains so many plans, details, and
+specifications regularly presented as the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.
+Hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans
+we have issued during the past year, and many others are in process of
+construction.</p>
+
+<p>Architects, Builders, and Owners will find this work valuable in
+furnishing fresh and useful suggestions. All who contemplate building
+or improving homes, or erecting structures of any kind, have before
+them in this work an almost <i>endless series of the latest and best
+examples</i> from which to make selections, thus saving time and money.</p>
+
+<p>Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping, Lighting, Warming,
+Ventilating, Decorating, Laying out of Grounds, etc., are illustrated.
+An extensive Compendium of Manufacturers' Announcements is also given,
+in which the most reliable and approved Building Materials, Goods,
+Machines, Tools, and Appliances are described and illustrated, with
+addresses of the makers, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The fullness, richness, cheapness, and convenience of this work have
+won for it the <b>Largest Circulation</b> of any Architectural publication
+in the world.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>MUNN &amp; CO., Publishers,</b><br />
+<b>361 Broadway, New York.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>A Catalogue of valuable books on Architecture, Building, Carpentry,
+Masonry, Heating, Warming, Lighting, Ventilation, and all branches of
+industry pertaining to the art of Building, is supplied free of
+charge, sent to any address.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>Building Plans and Specifications.</h3>
+
+<p>In connection with the publication of the BUILDING EDITION of the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. Munn &amp; Co. furnish plans and
+specifications for buildings of every kind, including Churches,
+Schools, Stores, Dwellings, Carriage Houses, Barns, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In this work they are assisted by able and experienced architects.
+Full plans, details, and specifications for the various buildings
+illustrated in this paper can be supplied.</p>
+
+<p>Those who contemplate building, or who wish to alter, improve, extend,
+or add to existing buildings, whether wings, porches, bay windows, or
+attic rooms, are invited to communicate with the undersigned. Our work
+extends to all parts of the country. Estimates, plans, and drawings
+promptly prepared. Terms moderate. Address</p>
+
+<p class="center">MUNN &amp; CO., 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>THE</h3>
+
+<h2>Scientific American Supplement.</h2>
+
+<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3>
+
+<p class="center">Terms of Subscription, $5 a year.</p>
+
+<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
+United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
+foreign country.</p>
+
+<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January
+1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p>
+
+<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two
+volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in
+paper, or $3.50 bound in stiff covers.</p>
+
+<p>COMBINED RATES.&mdash;One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.</p>
+
+<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>MUNN &amp; CO., Publishers, 361 Broadway, New York, N.Y.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2>PATENTS.</h2>
+
+<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN &amp; Co. are
+solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 42 years'
+experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world.
+Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p>
+
+<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of all
+inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and residence
+of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public
+attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or
+introduction often easily effected.</p>
+
+<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain,
+free of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing
+to MUNN &amp; CO.</p>
+
+<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
+Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address</p>
+
+<p class="center"><b>MUNN &amp; CO.,</b><br />
+361 Broadway, New York.<br />
+Branch Office, 622 and 624 F St., Washington, D.C.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+613, October 1, 1887, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 15889-h.htm or 15889-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/8/8/15889/
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/15889-h/images/1.png b/15889-h/images/1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e890810
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/1.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/10a.png b/15889-h/images/10a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eb27465
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/10a.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/10a_th.png b/15889-h/images/10a_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e48724
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/10a_th.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/10b.png b/15889-h/images/10b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..395d8b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/10b.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/10b_th.png b/15889-h/images/10b_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6274aec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/10b_th.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/11.png b/15889-h/images/11.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88d55c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/11.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/12.png b/15889-h/images/12.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2d09439
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/12.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/12_th.png b/15889-h/images/12_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..36db89e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/12_th.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/13a.png b/15889-h/images/13a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d1e152a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/13a.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/13b.png b/15889-h/images/13b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d092bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/13b.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/14.png b/15889-h/images/14.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d30321a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/14.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/15a.png b/15889-h/images/15a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b504eb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/15a.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/15a_th.png b/15889-h/images/15a_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b48602
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/15a_th.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/15b.png b/15889-h/images/15b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c37fa9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/15b.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/15c.png b/15889-h/images/15c.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa5d9c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/15c.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/1_th.png b/15889-h/images/1_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8072388
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/1_th.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/4a.png b/15889-h/images/4a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e75629
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/4a.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/4a_th.png b/15889-h/images/4a_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..782bb53
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/4a_th.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/4b.png b/15889-h/images/4b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e04fa8d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/4b.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/4b_th.png b/15889-h/images/4b_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..646d26a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/4b_th.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/5a.png b/15889-h/images/5a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d91cf38
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/5a.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/5a_th.png b/15889-h/images/5a_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d07ee1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/5a_th.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/5b.png b/15889-h/images/5b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9431712
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/5b.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/5c.png b/15889-h/images/5c.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..97caec1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/5c.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/5d.png b/15889-h/images/5d.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d5ec5ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/5d.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/7a.png b/15889-h/images/7a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b9cbb79
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/7a.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/7b.png b/15889-h/images/7b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0218e40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/7b.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/7c.png b/15889-h/images/7c.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4fd0a79
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/7c.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/7d.png b/15889-h/images/7d.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e70d950
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/7d.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/7e.png b/15889-h/images/7e.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b461e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/7e.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/8a.png b/15889-h/images/8a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3c39c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/8a.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/8b.png b/15889-h/images/8b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87d3945
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/8b.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/8c.png b/15889-h/images/8c.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7735054
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/8c.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/9a.png b/15889-h/images/9a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..54618c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/9a.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/9a_th.png b/15889-h/images/9a_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fc32ca0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/9a_th.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/9b.png b/15889-h/images/9b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0710318
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/9b.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/9b_th.png b/15889-h/images/9b_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f8f602
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/9b_th.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/9c.png b/15889-h/images/9c.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da14033
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/9c.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/9d.png b/15889-h/images/9d.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d45ccd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/9d.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/title.png b/15889-h/images/title.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d249354
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/title.png
diff --git a/15889-h/images/title_th.png b/15889-h/images/title_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c47e1d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889-h/images/title_th.png
diff --git a/15889.txt b/15889.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e775a0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,4832 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 613,
+October 1, 1887, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 613, October 1, 1887
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 24, 2005 [EBook #15889]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 613
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, OCTOBER 1, 1887.
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIV., No. 613.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+   I. BIOGRAPHY.--Dr. Morell Mackenzie.--Biographical note and
+      portrait of the great English laryngologist--the physician
+      of the Prussian Crown Prince.--1 illustration.               9794
+
+  II. BOTANY.--Soudan Coffee.--The _Parkia biglobosa_.--Its
+      properties and appearance, with analyses of its beans.--8
+      illustrations.                                               9797
+
+      Wisconsin Cranberry Culture.--The great cranberry crop of
+      Wisconsin.--The Indian pickers and details of the
+      cultivation.                                                 9796
+
+ III. CHEMISTRY.--Analysis of Kola Nut.--A new article
+      adapted as a substitute for cocoa and chocolate to military
+      and other dietaries.--Its use by the French and German
+      governments.                                                 9785
+
+      Carbonic Acid in the Air.--By THOMAS C. VAN NUYS and
+      BENJAMIN F. ADAMS, Jr.--The results of eighteen analyses of
+      air by Van Nuys apparatus.                                   9785
+
+      The Crimson Line of Phosphorescent Alumina.--Note on Prof.
+      Crooke's recent investigation of the anomalies of the oxide
+      of aluminum as regards its spectrum.                         9784
+
+  IV. ELECTRICITY.--Electric Time.--By M. LITTMANN.--An
+      abstruse research into a natural electric standard of
+      time.--The results and necessary formulae.                    9793
+
+      New Method of Maintaining the Vibration of a
+      Pendulum.--Ingenious magneto-electric method of maintaining
+      the swinging of a pendulum.                                  9794
+
+      The Part that Electricity Plays in Crystallization.--C.
+      Decharme's investigations into this much debated
+      question.--The results of his work described.--3
+      illustrations.                                               9793
+
+   V. ENGINEERING.--A New Type of Railway Car.--A car with
+      lateral passageways, adapted for use in Africa--2
+      illustrations.                                               9792
+
+      Centrifugal Pumps at Mare Island Navy Yard, California.--By
+      H.R. CORNELIUS.--The great pumps for the Mare Island dry
+      docks.--Their capacity and practical working.                9792
+
+      Foundations of the Central Viaduct of Cleveland,
+      O.--Details of the foundations of this viaduct, probably
+      the largest of its kind ever constructed.                    9792
+
+  VI. METALLURGY.--Chapin Wrought Iron.--By W.H. SEARLES.--An
+      interesting account of the combined pneumatic and
+      mechanical treatment of pig iron, giving as product a true
+      wrought iron.                                                9785
+
+ VII. METEOROLOGY.--On the Cause of Iridescence in
+      Clouds.--By G. JOHNSTONE STONEY.--An interesting theory of
+      the production of prismatic colors in clouds, referring it
+      to interference of light.                                    9798
+
+      The Height of Summer Clouds.--A compendious statement,
+      giving the most reliable estimation of the elevations of
+      different forms of clouds.                                   9797
+
+VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The British Association.--Portraits
+      of the president and section presidents of the late
+      Manchester meeting of the British Association for the
+      Advancement of Science, with report of the address of the
+      president, Sir Henry E. Roscoe.--9 illustrations.            9783
+
+  IX. PHYSIOLOGY.--Hypnotism in France.--A valuable review of
+      the present status of this subject, now so much studied in
+      Paris.                                                       9795
+
+      The Duodenum a Siphon Trap.--By MAYO COLLIER, M.S., etc.--A
+      curious observation in anatomy.--The only trap found in the
+      intestinal canal.--Its uses.--2 illustrations.               9796
+
+   X. TECHNOLOGY.--Apparatus for Testing Champagne Bottles and
+      Corks.--Ingenious apparatus due to Mr. J. Salleron, for use
+      especially in the champagne industry.--2 illustrations.      9786
+
+      Celluloid.--Notes of the history and present method of
+      manufacture of this widely used substance.                   9785
+
+      Centrifugal Extractors.--By ROBERT F. GIBSON.--The second
+      installment of this extensive and important paper, giving
+      many additional forms of centrifugal apparatus--12
+      illustrations.                                               9789
+
+      Cotton Industries of Japan.--An interesting account of the
+      primitive methods of treating cotton by the Japanese.--Their
+      methods of ginning, carding, etc., described.                9788
+
+      Gas from Oil.--Notes on a paper read by Dr. Stevenson
+      Macadam at a recent meeting of the British Gas Institute,
+      giving his results with petroleum gas.                       9787
+
+      Improved Biscuit Machine.--A machine having a capacity for
+      making 4,000 small biscuits per minute.--1 illustration.     9787
+
+      Improved Cream Separator.--A centrifugal apparatus for
+      dairy use of high capacity.--3 illustrations.                9787
+
+      The Manufacture of Salt near Middlesbrough.--By Sir
+      LOWTHIAN BELL, Bart., F.C.S.--The history and origin of
+      this industry, the methods used, and the soda ash process
+      as there applied.                                            9788
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT MANCHESTER PORTRAITS OF THE
+PRESIDENT AND PRESIDENTS OF SECTIONS ]
+
+The fifty-seventh annual meeting of the British Association was opened
+on Wednesday evening, Aug. 31, 1887, at Manchester, by an address from
+the president, Sir H.E. Roscoe, M.P. This was delivered in the Free
+Trade Hall. The chair was occupied by Professor Williamson, who was
+supported by the Bishop of Manchester, Sir F. Bramwell, Professor
+Gamgee, Professor Milnes Marshall, Professor Wilkins, Professor Boyd
+Dawkins, Professor Ward, and many other distinguished men. A telegram
+was read from the retiring president, Sir Wm. Dawson, of Montreal,
+congratulating the association and Manchester on this year's meeting.
+The new president, Sir H. Roscoe, having been introduced to the
+audience, was heartily applauded.
+
+The president, in his inaugural address, said Manchester, distinguished
+as the birthplace of two of the greatest discoveries of modern science,
+welcomed the visit of the British Association for the third time. Those
+discoveries were the atomic theory of which John Dalton was the author,
+and the most far-reaching scientific principle of modern times, namely,
+that of the conservation of energy, which was given to the world about
+the year 1842 by Dr. Joule. While the place suggested these reminders,
+the time, the year of the Queen's jubilee, excited a feeling of
+thankfulness that they had lived in an age which had witnessed an
+advance in our knowledge of nature and a consequent improvement in the
+physical, moral, and intellectual well-being of the people hitherto
+unknown.
+
+
+PROGRESS OF CHEMISTRY.
+
+A sketch of that progress in the science of chemistry alone would be
+the subject of his address. The initial point was the views of Dalton
+and his contemporaries compared with the ideas which now prevail; and
+he (the president) examined this comparison by the light which the
+research of the last fifty years had thrown on the subject of the
+Daltonian atoms, in the three-fold aspect of their size,
+indivisibility, and mutual relationships, and their motions.
+
+
+SIZE OF THE ATOM.
+
+As to the size of the atom, Loschmidt, of Vienna, had come to the
+conclusion that the diameter of an atom of oxygen or nitrogen was the
+ten-millionth part of a centimeter. With the highest known magnifying
+power we could distinguish the forty-thousandth part of a centimeter.
+If, now, we imagine a cubic box each of whose sides had this length,
+such a box, when filled with air, would contain from sixty to a
+hundred millions of atoms of oxygen and nitrogen. As to the
+indivisibility of the atom, the space of fifty years had completely
+changed the face of the inquiry. Not only had the number of distinct,
+well-established elementary bodies increased from fifty-three in 1837
+to seventy in 1887, but the properties of these elements had been
+studied, and were now known with a degree of precision then undreamt
+of. Had the atoms of our present elements been made to yield? To this
+a negative answer must undoubtedly be given, for even the highest of
+terrestrial temperatures, that of the electric spark, had failed to
+shake any one of these atoms in two. This was shown by the results
+with which spectrum analysis had enriched our knowledge. Terrestrial
+analysis had failed to furnish favorable evidence; and, turning to the
+chemistry of the stars, the spectra of the white, which were
+presumably the hottest stars, furnished no direct evidence that a
+decomposition of any terrestrial atom had taken place; indeed, we
+learned that the hydrogen atom, as we know it here, can endure
+unscathed the inconceivably fierce temperature of stars presumably
+many times more fervent than our sun, as Sirius and Vega. It was
+therefore no matter for surprise if the earth-bound chemist should for
+the present continue to regard the elements as the unalterable
+foundation stones upon which his science is based.
+
+
+ATOMIC MOTION.
+
+Passing to the consideration of atoms in motion, while Dalton and
+Graham indicated that they were in a continual state of motion, we
+were indebted to Joule for the first accurate determination of the
+rate of that motion. Clerk-Maxwell had calculated that a hydrogen
+molecule, moving at the rate of seventy miles per minute, must, in one
+second of time, knock against others no fewer than eighteen thousand
+million times. This led to the reflection that in nature there is no
+such thing as great or small, and that the structure of the smallest
+particle, invisible even to our most searching vision, may be as
+complicated as that of any one of the heavenly bodies which circle
+round our sun. How did this wonderful atomic motion affect their
+chemistry?
+
+
+ATOMIC COMBINATION.
+
+Lavoisier left unexplained the dynamics of combustion; but in 1843,
+before the chemical section of the association meeting at Cork, Dr.
+Joule announced the discovery which was to revolutionize modern
+science, namely, the determination of the mechanical equivalent of
+heat. Every change in the arrangement of the particles he found was
+accompanied by a definite evolution or an absorption of heat. Heat was
+evolved by the clashing of the atoms, and this amount was fixed and
+definite. Thus to Joule we owe the foundation of chemical dynamics and
+the basis of thermal chemistry. It was upon a knowledge of the mode of
+arrangement of atoms, and on a recognition of their distinctive
+properties, that the superstructure of modern organic chemistry
+rested. We now assumed on good grounds that the atom of each element
+possessed distinct capabilities of combination. The knowledge of the
+mode in which the atoms in the molecule are arranged had given to
+organic chemistry an impetus which had overcome many experimental
+obstacles, and organic chemistry had now become synthetic.
+
+Liebig and Wohler, in 1837, foresaw the artificial production in the
+laboratories of all organic substances so far as they did not
+constitute a living organism. And after fifty years their prophecy had
+been fulfilled, for at the present time we could prepare an artificial
+sweetening principle, an artificial alkaloid, and salacine.
+
+
+SYNTHESIS.
+
+We know now that the same laws regulate the formation of chemical
+compounds in both animate and inanimate nature, and the chemist only
+asked for a knowledge of the constitution of any definite chemical
+compounds found in the organic world in order to be able to promise to
+prepare it artificially. Seventeen years elapsed between Wohler's
+discovery of the artificial production of urea and the next real
+synthesis, which was accomplished by Kolbe, when in 1845 he prepared
+acetic acid from its elements. Since then a splendid harvest of
+results had been gathered in by chemists of all nations. In 1834 Dumas
+made known the law of substitution, and showed that an exchange could
+take place between the constituent atoms in a molecule, and upon this
+law depended in great measure the astounding progress made in the wide
+field of organic synthesis.
+
+Perhaps the most remarkable result had been the production of an
+artificial sweetening agent, termed saccharin, 250 times sweeter than
+sugar, prepared by a complicated series of reactions from coal tar.
+These discoveries were not only of scientific interest, for they had
+given rise to the industry of coal tar colors, founded by our
+countryman Perkin, the value of which was measured by millions
+sterling annually. Another interesting application of synthetic
+chemistry to the needs of everyday life was the discovery of a series
+of valuable febrifuges, of which antipyrin might be named as the most
+useful.
+
+An important aspect in connection with the study of these bodies was
+the physiological value which had been found to attach to the
+introduction of certain organic radicals, so that an indication was
+given of the possibility of preparing a compound which will possess
+certain desired physiological properties, or even to foretell the kind
+of action which such bodies may exert on the animal economy. But now
+the question might well be put, Was any limit set to this synthetic
+power of the chemist? Although the danger of dogmatizing as to the
+progress of science had already been shown in too many instances, yet
+one could not help feeling that the barrier between the organized and
+unorganized worlds was one which the chemist at present saw no chance
+of breaking down. True, there were those who professed to foresee that
+the day would arrive when the chemist, by a succession of constructive
+efforts, might pass beyond albumen, and gather the elements of
+lifeless matter into a living structure. Whatever might be said
+regarding this from other standpoints, the chemist could only say that
+at present no such problem lay within his province.
+
+Protoplasm, with which the simplest manifestations of life are
+associated, was not a compound, but a structure built up of compounds.
+The chemist might successfully synthesize any of its component
+molecules, but he had no more reason to look forward to the synthetic
+production of the structure than to imagine that the synthesis of
+gallic acid led to the artificial production of gall nuts. Although
+there was thus no prospect of effecting a synthesis of organized
+material, yet the progress made in our knowledge of the chemistry of
+life during the last fifty years had been very great, so much so
+indeed that the sciences of physiological and of pathological
+chemistry might be said to have entirely arisen within that period.
+
+
+CHEMISTRY OF VITAL FUNCTIONS.
+
+He would now briefly trace a few of the more important steps which had
+marked the recent study of the relations between the vital phenomena
+and those of the inorganic world. No portion of the science of
+chemistry was of greater interest or greater complexity than that
+which, bearing on the vital functions both of plants and of animals,
+endeavored to unravel the tangled skein of the chemistry of life, and
+to explain the principles according to which our bodies live, and
+move, and have their being. If, therefore, in the less complicated
+problems with which other portions of our science have to deal, we
+found ourselves often far from possessing satisfactory solutions, we
+could not be surprised to learn that with regard to the chemistry of
+the living body--whether vegetable or animal--in health or disease, we
+were still farther from a complete knowledge of phenomena, even those
+of fundamental importance.
+
+Liebig asked if we could distinguish, on the one hand, between the
+kind of food which goes to create warmth and, on the other, that by
+the oxidation of which the motions and mechanical energy of the body
+are kept up. He thought he was able to do this, and he divided food
+into two categories. The starchy or carbo-hydrate food was that, said
+he, which by its combustion provided the warmth necessary for the
+existence and life of the body. The albuminous or nitrogenous
+constituents of our food, the flesh meat, the gluten, the casein out
+of which our muscles are built up, were not available for the purpose
+of creating warmth, but it was by the waste of those muscles that the
+mechanical energy, the activity, the motions of the animal are
+supplied.
+
+Soon after the promulgation of these views, J.R. Mayer warmly attacked
+them, throwing out the hypothesis that all muscular action is due to
+the combustion of food, and not to the destruction of muscle.
+
+What did modern research say to this question? Could it be brought to
+the crucial test of experiment? It could; but how? In the first place,
+we could ascertain the work done by a man or any other animal; we
+could measure this work in terms of our mechanical standard, in
+kilogramme-meters or foot-pounds. We could next determine what was the
+destruction of nitrogenous tissue at rest and under exercise by the
+amount of nitrogenous material thrown off by the body. And here we
+must remember that these tissues were never completely burned, so that
+free nitrogen was never eliminated. If now we knew the heat value of
+the burned muscle, it was easy to convert this into its mechanical
+equivalent and thus measure the energy generated. What was the result?
+
+Was the weight of muscle destroyed by ascending the Faulhorn or by
+working on the treadmill sufficient to produce on combustion heat
+enough when transformed into mechanical exercise to lift the body up
+to the summit of the Faulhorn or to do the work on the treadmill?
+
+Careful experiment had shown that this was so far from being the case
+that the actual energy developed was twice as great as that which
+could possibly be produced by the oxidation of the nitrogenous
+constituents eliminated from the body during twenty-four hours. That
+was to say, taking the amount of nitrogenous substance cast off from
+the body, not only while the work was being done, but during
+twenty-four hours, the mechanical effect capable of being produced by
+the muscular tissue from which this cast-off material was derived
+would only raise the body half way up the Faulhorn, or enable the
+prisoner to work half his time on the treadmill. Hence it was clear
+that Liebig's proposition was not true.
+
+The nitrogenous constituents of the food did doubtless go to repair
+the waste of muscle, which, like every other portion of the body,
+needed renewal, while the function of the non-nitrogenous food was not
+only to supply the animal heat, but also to furnish, by its oxidation,
+the muscular energy of the body. We thus came to the conclusion that
+it was the potential energy of the food which furnished the actual
+energy of the body, expressed in terms either of heat or of mechanical
+work.
+
+But there was one other factor which came into play in this question
+of mechanical energy, and must be taken into account; and this factor
+we were as yet unable to estimate in our usual terms. It concerned the
+action of the mind on the body, and although incapable of exact
+expression, exerted none the less an important influence on the
+physics and chemistry of the body, so that a connection undoubtedly
+existed between intellectual activity or mental work and bodily
+nutrition. What was the expenditure of mechanical energy which
+accompanied mental effort was a question which science was probably
+far from answering; but that the body experienced exhaustion as the
+result of mental activity was a well-recognized fact.
+
+
+CHEMISTRY OF VEGETATION.
+
+The phenomena of vegetation, no less than those of the animal world,
+had, however, during the last fifty years been placed by the chemist
+on an entirely new basis.
+
+Liebig, in 1860, asserted that the whole of the carbon of vegetation
+was obtained from the atmospheric carbonic acid, which, though only
+present in the small relative proportion of four parts in 10,000 of
+air, was contained in such absolutely large quantity that if all the
+vegetation on the earth's surface were burned, the proportion of
+carbonic acid which would thus be thrown into the air would not be
+sufficient to double the present amount. That this conclusion was
+correct needed experimental proof, but such proof could only be given
+by long-continued and laborious experiment.
+
+It was to our English agricultural chemists, Lawes and Gilbert, that
+we owed the complete experimental proof required, and this experiment
+was long and tedious, for it had taken forty-four years to give a
+definite reply.
+
+At Rothamsted a plot was set apart for the growth of wheat. For
+forty-four successive years that field had grown wheat without the
+addition of any carbonized manure, so that the only possible source
+from which the plant could obtain the carbon for its growth was the
+atmospheric carbonic acid. The quantity of carbon which on an average
+was removed in the form of wheat and straw from a plot manured only
+with mineral matter was 1,000 lb., while on another plot, for which a
+nitrogenous manure was employed, 1,500 lb. more carbon was annually
+removed, or 2,500 lb. of carbon were removed by this crop annually
+without the addition of any carbonaceous manure. So that Liebig's
+prevision had received a complete experimental verification.
+
+
+CHEMICAL PATHOLOGY.
+
+Touching us as human beings even still more closely than the foregoing
+was the influence which chemistry had exerted on the science of
+pathology, and in no direction had greater progress been made than in
+the study of micro-organisms in relation to health and disease. In the
+complicated chemical changes to which we gave the names of
+fermentation and putrefaction, Pasteur had established the fundamental
+principle that these processes were inseparately connected with the
+life of certain low forms of organisms. Thus was founded the science
+of bacteriology, which in Lister's hands had yielded such splendid
+results in the treatment of surgical cases, and in those of Klebs,
+Koch, and others, had been the means of detecting the cause of many
+diseases both in man and animals, the latest and not the least
+important of which was the remarkable series of successful researches
+by Pasteur into the nature and mode of cure of that most dreadful of
+maladies, hydrophobia. The value of his discovery was greater than
+could be estimated by its present utility, for it showed that it might
+be possible to avert other diseases besides hydrophobia by the
+adoption of a somewhat similar method of investigation and of
+treatment.
+
+Here it might seem as if we had outstepped the boundaries of
+chemistry, and had to do with phenomena purely vital. But recent
+research indicated that this was not the case, and pointed to the
+conclusion that the microscopist must again give way to the chemist,
+and that it was by chemical rather than biological investigation that
+the causes of diseases would be discovered, and the power of removing
+them obtained. For we learned that the symptoms of infective diseases
+were no more due to the microbes which constituted the infection than
+alcoholic intoxication was produced by the yeast cell, but that these
+symptoms were due to the presence of definite chemical compounds, the
+result of the life of these microscopic organisms. So it was to the
+action of these poisonous substances formed during the life of the
+organism, rather than to that of the organism itself, that the special
+characteristics of the disease were to be traced, for it had been
+shown that the disease could be communicated by such poisons in the
+entire absence of living organisms.
+
+Had time permitted, he would have wished to have illustrated the
+dependence of industrial success upon original investigation, and to
+have pointed out the prodigious strides which chemical industry in
+this country had made during the fifty years of her Majesty's reign.
+As it was, he must be content to remark how much our modern life, both
+in its artistic and useful aspects, owed to chemistry, and therefore
+how essential a knowledge of the principles of the science was to all
+who had the industrial progress of the country at heart. The country
+was now beginning to see that if she was to maintain her commercial
+and industrial supremacy, the education of her people from top to
+bottom must be carried out on new lines. The question how this could
+be most safely and surely accomplished was one of transcendent
+national importance, and the statesman who solved this educational
+problem would earn the gratitude of generations yet to come.
+
+In welcoming the unprecedentedly large number of foreign men of
+science who had on this occasion honored the British Association by
+their presence, he hoped that that meeting might be the commencement
+of an international scientific organization, the only means nowadays
+existing of establishing that fraternity among nations from which
+politics appeared to remove them further and further, by absorbing
+human powers and human work, and directing them to purposes of
+destruction. It would indeed be well if Great Britain, which had
+hitherto taken the lead in so many things that are great and good,
+should now direct her attention to the furthering of international
+organizations of a scientific nature. A more appropriate occasion than
+the present meeting could perhaps hardly be found for the inauguration
+of such a movement. But whether this hope were realized or not, they
+all united in that one great object, the search after truth for its
+own sake, and they all, therefore, might join in re-echoing the words
+of Lessing: "The worth of man lies not in the truth which he
+possesses, or believes that he possesses, but in the honest endeavor
+which he puts forth to secure that truth; for not by the possession of
+truth, but by the search after it, are the faculties of man enlarged,
+and in this alone consists his ever-growing perfection. Possession
+fosters content, indolence, and pride. If God should hold in his right
+hand all truth, and in his left hand the ever-active desire to seek
+truth, though with the condition of perpetual error, I would humbly
+ask for the contents of the left hand, saying, 'Father, give me this;
+pure truth is only for thee.'"
+
+At the close of his address a vote of thanks was passed to the
+president, on the motion of the Mayor of Manchester, seconded by
+Professor Asa Gray, of Harvard College. The president mentioned that
+the number of members is already larger than at any previous annual
+meeting, namely, 3,568, including eighty foreigners.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CRIMSON LINE OF PHOSPHORESCENT ALUMINA.
+
+
+Crookes has presented to the Royal Society a paper on the color
+emitted by pure alumina when submitted to the electric discharge _in
+vacuo_, in answer to the statements of De Boisbaudran. In 1879 he had
+stated that "next to the diamond, alumina, in the form of ruby, is
+perhaps the most strikingly phosphorescent stone I have examined. It
+glows with a rich, full red; and a remarkable feature is that it is of
+little consequence what degree of color the earth or stone possesses
+naturally, the color of the phosphorescence is nearly the same in all
+cases; chemically precipitated amorphous alumina, rubies of a pale
+reddish yellow, and gems of the prized 'pigeon's blood' color glowing
+alike in the vacuum." These results, as well as the spectra obtained,
+he stated further, corroborated Becquerel's observations. In
+consequence of the opposite results obtained by De Boisbaudran,
+Crookes has now re-examined this question with a view to clear up the
+mystery. On examining a specimen of alumina prepared from tolerably
+pure aluminum sulphate, shown by the ordinary tests to be free from
+chromium, the bright crimson line, to which the red phosphorescent
+light is due, was brightly visible in its spectrum. The aluminum
+sulphate was then, in separate portions, purified by various processes
+especially adapted to separate from it any chromium that might be
+present; the best of these being that given by Wohler, solution in
+excess of potassium hydrate and precipitation of the alumina by a
+current of chlorine. The alumina filtered off, ignited, and tested in
+a radiant matter tube gave as good a crimson line spectrum as did that
+from the original sulphate.
+
+A repetition of this purifying process gave no change in the result.
+Four possible explanations are offered of the phenomena observed: "(1)
+The crimson line is due to alumina, but it is capable of being
+suppressed by an accompanying earth which concentrates toward one end
+of the fractionations; (2) the crimson line is not due to alumina, but
+is due to the presence of an accompanying earth concentrating toward
+the other end of the fractionations; (3) the crimson line belongs to
+alumina, but its full development requires certain precautions to be
+observed in the time and intensity of ignition, degree of exhaustion,
+or its absolute freedom from alkaline and other bodies carried down by
+precipitated alumina and difficult to remove by washing; experience
+not having yet shown which of these precautions are essential to the
+full development of the crimson line and which are unessential; and
+(4) the earth alumina is a compound molecule, one of its constituent
+molecules giving the crimson line. According to this hypothesis,
+alumina would be analogous to yttria."--_Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CARBONIC ACID IN THE AIR.
+
+By THOMAS C. VAN NUYS and BENJAMIN F. ADAMS, JR.
+
+
+During the month of April, 1886, we made eighteen estimations of
+carbonic acid in the air, employing Van Nuys' apparatus,[1] recently
+described in this journal. These estimations were made in the
+University Park, one-half mile from the town of Bloomington. The park
+is hilly, thinly shaded, and higher than the surrounding country. The
+formation is sub-carboniferous and altitude 228 meters. There are no
+lowlands or swamps near. The estimations were made at 10 A.M.
+
+  [Footnote 1: See SCI. AM. SUPPLEMENT No. 577.]
+
+The air was obtained one-half meter from the ground and about 100
+meters from any of the university buildings. The number of volumes of
+carbonic acid is calculated at zero C. and normal pressure 760 mm.
+
+  --------+----------+--------------+------------------------
+          |          | Vols. CO_{2} |
+   Date.  |   Bar.   |  in 100,000  | State of Weather.
+          | Pressure |  Vols. Air.  |
+  --------+----------+--------------+------------------------
+  April 2 |  743.5   |    28.86     | Cloudy, snow on ground.
+    "   5 |  743.5   |    28.97     |    "     "   "    "
+    "   6 |  735     |    28.61     | Snowing.
+    "   7 |  744.5   |    28.63     | Clear, snow on ground.
+    "   8 |  748     |    27.59     |   "    thawing.
+    "   9 |  747.5   |    28.10     |   "       "
+    "  12 |  744     |    28.04     | Cloudy.
+    "  13 |  744     |    28.10     | Clear.
+    "  14 |  743.5   |    28.98     |   "
+    "  15 |  750.5   |    28.17     | Raining.
+    "  19 |  748     |    28.09     | Clear.
+    "  20 |  746     |    27.72     |   "
+    "  21 |  746     |    28.16     |   "
+    "  22 |  741.5   |    27.92     |   "
+    "  23 |  740     |    28.12     |   "
+    "  24 |  738.5   |    28.15     |   "
+    "  25 |  738.5   |    27.46     |   "
+    "  28 |  738     |    27.34     |   "
+  --------+----------+--------------+------------------------
+
+The average number of volumes of carbonic acid in 100,000 volumes of
+air is 28.16, the maximum number is 28.98, and the minimum 27.34.
+These results agree with estimations made within the last ten or
+fifteen years. Reiset[2] made a great number of estimations from
+September 9, 1872, to August 20, 1873, the average of which is 29.42.
+Six years later[3] he made many estimations from June to November, the
+average of which is 29.78. The average of Schultze's[4] estimations is
+29 2. The results of estimations of carbonic acid in the air, made
+under the supervision of Munz and Aubin[5] in October, November, and
+December, 1882, at the stations where observations were made of the
+transit of Venus by astronomers sent out by the French government,
+yield the average, for all stations north of the equator to latitude
+29 deg. 54' in Florida, 28.2 volumes carbonic acid in 100,000 volumes air,
+and for all stations south of the equator 27.1 volumes. The average of
+Claesson's[6] estimations is 27.9 volumes, his maximum number is 32.7,
+and his minimum is 23.7. It is apparent, from the results of
+estimations of carbonic acid of the air of various parts of the globe,
+by the employment of apparatus with which errors are avoided, that the
+quantity of carbonic acid is subject to slight variation, and not, as
+stated in nearly all text books of science, from 4 to 6 volumes in
+10,000 volumes of air; and it is further apparent that the law of
+Schloesing[7] holds good. By this law the carbonic acid of an
+atmosphere in contact with water containing calcium or magnesium
+carbonate in solution is dissolved according to the tension of the
+carbonic acid; that is, by an increased quantity its tension
+increases, and more would pass in solution in the form of
+bicarbonates. On the other hand, by diminishing the quantity of
+carbonic acid in the atmosphere, some of the bicarbonates would
+decompose and carbonic acid pass into the atmosphere.
+
+  [Footnote 2: Comptes Rendus, 88, 1007.]
+  [Footnote 3: Comptes Rendus, 90, 1144.]
+  [Footnote 4: Chem. Centralblatt, 1872 and 1875.]
+  [Footnote 5: Comptes Rendus, 96, 1793.]
+  [Footnote 6: Berichte der deutsch chem. Gesellschaft, 9, 174.]
+  [Footnote 7: Comptes Rendus, 74, 1552, and 75, 70.]
+
+Schloesing's law has been verified by R. Engel[8].
+
+  [Footnote 8: Comptes Rendus, 101, 949.]
+
+The results of estimations of bases and carbonic acid in the water of
+the English Channel lead Schloesing[9] to conclude that the carbonic
+acid combined with normal carbonates, forming bicarbonates, dissolved
+in the water of the globe is ten times greater in quantity than that
+of the atmosphere, and on account of this available carbonic acid, if
+the atmosphere should be deprived of some of its carbonic acid, the
+loss would soon be supplied.
+
+  [Footnote 9: Comptes Rendus, 90, 1410.]
+
+As, in nearly all of the methods which were employed for estimating
+carbonic acid in the air, provision is not made for the exclusion of
+air not measured containing carbonic acid from the alkaline fluid
+before titrating or weighing, the results are generally too high and
+show a far greater variation than is found by more exact methods. For
+example, Gilm[10] found from 36 to 48 volumes; Levy's[11] average is
+34 volumes; De Luna's[12] 50 volumes; and Fodor's,[13] 38.9 volumes.
+Admitting that the quantity of carbonic acid in the air is subject to
+variation, yet the results of Reiset's and Schultze's estimations go
+to prove that the variation is within narrow limits.
+
+  [Footnote 10: Sitzungsher. d. Wien. Akad. d. Wissenschaften, 34, 257.]
+  [Footnote 11: Ann. d. l'Observ. d. Mountsouris, 1878 and 1879.]
+  [Footnote 12: Estudios quimicos sobre el aire atmosferico, Madrid, 1860.]
+  [Footnote 13: Hygien. Untersuch., 1, 10.]
+
+                  Indiana University Chemical Laboratory,
+                     Bloomington, Indiana.
+                        --_Amer. Chem. Journal._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF KOLA NUT.
+
+
+Alkaloids or crystallizable principles:
+
+                                                     Per Cent.
+    Caffeine.                                           2.710
+    Theobromine.                                        0.084
+    Bitter principle.                                   0.018
+        Total alkaloids.                                -----   2.812
+  Fatty matters:
+    Saponifiable fat or oil.                            0.734
+    Essential oil.                                      0.081
+        Total oils.                                     -----   0.815
+  Resinoid matter (_sol. in abs. alcohol_)              1.012
+
+  Sugar:
+    Glucose (_reduces alkaline cuprammonium_).          3.312
+    Sucrose? (_red. alk. cupram. after inversion_)[1].  0.602
+        Total sugars.                                   -----   3.914
+
+  Starch, gum, etc.:
+    Gum (_soluble in H2O at 90 deg. F_.).                   4.876
+    Starch.                                            28.990
+    Amidinous matter (_coloring with iodine_).          2.130
+        Total gum and fecula.                           -----  35.999
+  Albuminoid matters.                                           8.642
+  Red and other coloring matters.                               3.670
+  Kolatannic acids.                                             1.204
+
+  Mineral matter:
+    Potassa.                                            1.415
+    Chlorine.                                           0.702
+    Phosphoric acid.                                    0.371
+    Other salts, etc.                                   2.330
+        Total ash.                                      -----   4.818
+  Moisture.                                                     9.722
+  Ligneous matter and loss.                                    27.395
+                                                              -------
+                                                              100.000
+
+  [Footnote 1: Inverted by boiling with a 2.5 per cent. solution of
+               citric acid for ten minutes.]
+
+Both the French and German governments are introducing it into their
+military dietaries, and in England several large contract orders
+cannot yet be filled, owing to insufficiency of supply, while a
+well-known cocoa manufacturing firm has taken up the preparation of
+kola chocolate upon a commercial scale.--_W. Lascelles-Scott, in Jour.
+Soc. Arts._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPIN WROUGHT IRON.
+
+By W.H. SEARLES, Chairman of the Committee, Civil Engineers' Club
+of Cleveland, O.
+
+
+Notwithstanding the wonderful development of our steel industries in
+the last decade, the improvements in the modes of manufacture, and the
+undoubted strength of the metal under certain circumstances,
+nevertheless we find that steel has not altogether met the
+requirements of engineers as a structural material. Although its
+breaking strain and elastic limit are higher than those of wrought
+iron, the latter metal is frequently preferred and selected for
+tensile members, even when steel is used under compression in the same
+structure. The Niagara cantilever bridge is a notable instance of this
+practice. When steel is used in tension its working strains are not
+allowed to be over fifty per cent. above those adopted for wrought
+iron.
+
+The reasons for the suspicion with which steel is regarded are well
+understood. Not only is there a lack of uniformity in the product, but
+apparently the same steel will manifest very different results under
+slight provocation. Steel is very sensitive, not only to slight
+changes in chemical composition, but also to mechanical treatment,
+such as straightening, bending, punching, planing, heating, etc.
+Initial strains may be developed by any of these processes that would
+seriously affect the efficiency of the metal in service.
+
+Among the steels, those that are softer are more serviceable and
+reliable than the harder ones, especially whereever shocks and
+concussions or rapidly alternating strains are to be endured. In other
+words, the more nearly steel resembles good wrought iron, the more
+certain it is to render lasting service when used within appropriate
+limits of strain. Indeed, a wrought iron of fine quality is better
+calculated to endure fatigue than any steel. This is particularly
+noticeable in steam hammer pistons, propeller shafts, and railroad
+axles. A better quality of wrought iron, therefore, has long been a
+desideratum, and it appears now that it has at last been found.
+
+Several years since, a pneumatic process of manufacturing wrought iron
+was invented and patented by Dr. Chapin, and an experimental plant was
+erected near Chicago. Enough was done to demonstrate, first, that an
+iron of unprecedentedly good qualities was attainable from common pig;
+and second, that the cost of its manufacture would not exceed that of
+Bessemer steel. Nevertheless, owing to lack of funds properly to push
+the invention against the jealous opposition which it encountered, the
+enterprise came to a halt until quite recently, when its merits found
+a champion in Gustav Lindenthal, C.E., member of this club, who is
+now the general manager of the Chapin Pneumatic Iron Co., and under
+whose direction this new quality of iron will soon be put upon the
+market.
+
+The process of manufacture is briefly as follows: The pig metal, after
+being melted in a cupola and tapped into a discharging ladle, is
+delivered into a Bessemer converter, in which the metal is largely
+relieved of its silicon, sulphur, carbon, etc., by the ordinary
+pneumatic process. At the end of the blow the converter is turned down
+and its contents discharged into a traveling ladle, and quickly
+delivered to machines called ballers, which are rotary reverberatory
+furnaces, each revolving on a horizontal axis. In the baller the iron
+is very soon made into a ball without manual aid. It is then lifted
+out by means of a suspended fork and carried to a Winslow squeezer,
+where the ball is reduced to a roll twelve inches in diameter. Thence
+it is taken to a furnace for a wash heat, and finally to the muck
+train.
+
+No reagents are employed, as in steel making or ordinary iron
+puddling. The high heat of the metal is sufficient to preserve its
+fluidity during its transit from the converter to the baller; and the
+cinder from the blow is kept in the ladle.
+
+The baller is a bulging cylinder having hollow trunnions through which
+the flame passes. The cylinder is lined with fire brick, and this in
+turn is covered with a suitable refractory iron ore, from eight to ten
+inches thick, grouted with pulverized iron ore, forming a bottom, as
+in the common puddling furnace. The phosphorus of the iron, which
+cannot be eliminated in the intense heat of the converter, is,
+however, reduced to a minimum in the baller at a much lower
+temperature and on the basic lining. The process wastes the lining
+very slightly indeed. As many as sixty heats have been taken off in
+succession without giving the lining any attention. The absence of any
+reagent leaves the iron simply pure and homogeneous to a degree never
+realized in muck bars made by the old puddling process. Thus the
+expense of a reheating and rerolling to refine the iron is obviated.
+It was such iron as here results that Bessemer, in his early
+experiments, was seeking to obtain when he was diverted from his
+purpose by his splendid discoveries in the art of making steel. So
+effective is the new process, that even from the poorest grades of pig
+may be obtained economically an iron equal in quality to the refined
+irons made from the best pig by the ordinary process of puddling.
+
+Numerous tests of the Chapin irons have been made by competent and
+disinterested parties, and the results published. The samples here
+noted were cut and piled only once from the muck bar.
+
+Sample A was made from No. 3 mill cinder pig.
+
+Sample B was made from No. 4 mill pig and No. 3 Bessemer pig, half and
+half.
+
+Sample C was made from No. 3 Bessemer pig, with the following results:
+
+            Sample.                 A         B         C
+  Tensile strength per sq. in.    56,000    60,772    64,377
+  Elastic limit.                  34,000      ....    36,000
+  Extension, per cent.              11.8      ....      17.0
+  Reduction of area, per cent.      65.0      16.0      33.0
+
+The tensile strength of these irons made by ordinary puddling would be
+about 38,000, 40,000, and 42,000 respectively, or the gain of the iron
+in tensile strength by the Chapin process is about fifty per cent. Not
+only so, but these irons made in this manner from inferior pig show a
+higher elastic limit and breaking strain than are commonly specified
+for refined iron of best quality. The usual specifications are for
+refined iron: Tensile strength, 50,000; elongation, 15 per cent.;
+elastic limit, 26,000; reduction, 25 cent.
+
+Thus the limits of the Chapin iron are from 12 to 20 per cent. above
+those of refined iron, and not far below those of structural steel,
+while there is a saving of some four dollars per ton in the price of
+the pig iron from which it can be made. When made from the best pig
+metal its breaking and elastic limits will probably reach 70,000 and
+40,000 pounds respectively. If so, it will be a safer material than
+steel under the same working strains, owing to its greater resilience.
+
+Such results are very interesting in both a mechanical and economical
+point of view. Engineers will hail with delight the accession to the
+list of available building materials of a wrought iron at once fine,
+fibrous, homogeneous, ductile, easily weldable, not subject to injury
+by the ordinary processes of shaping, punching, etc., and having a
+tensile strength and elastic limit nearly equal to any steel that
+could safely be used in the same situation.
+
+A plant for the manufacture of Chapin iron is now in course of
+erection at Bethlehem, Pa., and there is every reason to believe that
+the excellent results attained in Chicago will be more than reached in
+the new works.--_Proceed. Jour. Asso. of Eng. Societies_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CELLULOID.
+
+
+Professor Sadler, of the University of Pennsylvania, has lately given
+an account of the development and method of the manufacture of
+celluloid. Alexander Parkes, an Englishman, invented this remarkable
+substance in 1855, but after twelve years quit making it because of
+difficulties in manipulation, although he made a fine display at the
+Paris Exposition of 1867. Daniel Spill, also of England, began
+experiments two years after Parkes, but a patent of his for dissolving
+the nitrated wood fiber, or "pyroxyline," in alcohol and camphor was
+decided by Judge Blatchford in a suit brought against the Celluloid
+Manufacturing Company to be valueless. No further progress was made
+until the Hyatt Brothers, of Albany, N.Y., discovered that gum
+camphor, when finely divided, mixed with the nitrated fiber and then
+heated, is a perfect solvent, giving a homogeneous and plastic mass.
+American patents of 1870 and 1874 are substantially identical with
+those now in use in England. In France there is only one factory, and
+there is none elsewhere on the Continent, one in Hanover having been
+given up on account of the explosive nature of the stuff. In this
+country pure cellulose is commonly obtained from paper makers, in the
+form of tissue paper, in wide rolls; this, after being nitrated by a
+bath of mixed nitric and sulphuric acids, is thoroughly washed and
+partially dried. Camphor is then added, and the whole is ground
+together and thoroughly mixed. At this stage coloring matter may be
+put in. A little alcohol increases the plasticity of the mass, which
+is then treated for some time to powerful hydraulic pressure. Then
+comes breaking up the cakes and feeding the fragments between heated
+rolls, by which the amalgamation of the whole is completed. Its
+perfect plasticity allows it to be rolled into sheets, drawn into
+tubes, or moulded into any desired shape.--_Jewelers' Journal._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPARATUS FOR TESTING CHAMPAGNE BOTTLES AND CORKS.
+
+
+Mr. J. Salleron has devised several apparatus which are destined to
+render valuable service in the champagne industry. The apparently
+simple operation of confining the carbonic acid due to fermentation in
+a bottle in order to blow the cork from the latter with force at a
+given moment is not always successful, notwithstanding the skill and
+experience of the manipulator. How could it be otherwise?
+
+Everything connected with the production of champagne wine was but
+recently unknown and unexplained. The proportioning of the sugar
+accurately dates, as it were, from but yesterday, and the measurement
+of the absorbing power of wine for carbonic acid has but just entered
+into practice, thanks to Mr. Salleron's absorptiometer. The real
+strength of the bottles, and the laws of the elasticity of glass and
+its variation with the temperature, are but little known. Finally, the
+physical constitution of cork, its chemical composition, its
+resistance to compression and the dissolving action of the wine, must
+be taken into consideration. In fact, all the elements of the
+difficult problem of the manufacture of sparkling wine show that there
+is an urgent necessity of introducing scientific methods into this
+industry, as without them work can now no longer be done.
+
+No one has had a better opportunity to show how easy it is to convert
+the juice of the grape into sparkling wine through a series of simple
+operations whose details are known and accurately determined, so we
+believe it our duty to recommend those of our readers who are
+particularly interested in this subject to read Mr. Salleron's book on
+sparkling wine. We shall confine ourselves in this article to a
+description of two of the apparatus invented by the author for testing
+the resistance of bottles and cork stoppers.
+
+It is well, in the first place, to say that one of the important
+elements in the treatment of sparkling wine is the normal pressure
+that it is to produce in the bottles. After judicious deductions and
+numerous experiments, Mr. Salleron has adopted for the normal pressure
+of highly sparkling wines five atmospheres at the temperature of the
+cellar, which does not exceed 10 degrees. But, in a defective cellar,
+the bottles may be exposed to frost in winter and to a temperature of
+25 deg. in summer, corresponding to a tension of ten atmospheres. It may
+naturally be asked whether bottles will withstand such an ordeal. Mr.
+Salleron has determined their resistance through the process by which
+we estimate that of building materials, viz., by measuring the limit
+of their elasticity, or, in other words, the pressure under which they
+take on a new permanent volume. In fact, glass must be assimilated to
+a perfectly elastic body; and bottles expand under the internal
+pressure that they support. If their resistance is insufficient, they
+continue to increase in measure as the pressure is further prolonged,
+and at every increase in permanent capacity, their resistance
+diminishes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--MACHINE FOR TESTING BOTTLES.]
+
+The apparatus shown in Fig. 1 is called an elasticimeter, and permits
+of a preliminary testing of bottles. The bottle to be tested is put
+into the receptacle, A B, which is kept full of water, and when it has
+become full, its neck is played between the jaws of the clamp, _p_.
+Upon turning the hand wheel, L, the bottle and the receptacle that
+holds it are lifted, and the mouth of the bottle presses against a
+rubber disk fixed under the support, C D. The pressure of the neck of
+the bottle against this disk is such that the closing is absolutely
+hermetical. The support, C D, contains an aperture which allows the
+interior of the bottle to communicate with a glass tube, _a b_, which
+thus forms a prolongation of the neck of the bottle. This tube is very
+narrow and is divided into fiftieths of a cubic centimeter. A
+microscope, _m_, fixed in front of the tube, magnifies the divisions,
+and allows the position of the level of the water to be ascertained to
+within about a millionth of a cubic centimeter.
+
+A force and suction pump, P, sucks in air through the tube, _t_, and
+compresses it through the tube, _t'_, in the copper tube, T, which
+communicates with the glass tube, _a b_, after passing through the
+pressure gauge, M. This pump, then, compresses the air in the bottle,
+and the gauge accurately measures its pressure.
+
+To make a test, after the bottle full of water has been fastened under
+the support, C D, the cock, _s_, is opened and the liquid with which
+the small reservoir, R, has been filled flows through an aperture above
+the mouth of the bottle and rises in the tube, _a b_. When its level
+reaches the division, O, the cock, _s_, is closed. The bottle and its
+prolongation, _a b_, are now exactly full of water without any air
+bubbles.
+
+The pump is actuated, and, in measure as the pressure rises, the level
+of the liquid in the tube, _a b_, is seen to descend. This descent
+measures the expansion or flexion of the bottle as well as the
+compression of the water itself. When the pressure is judged to be
+sufficient, the button, _n_, is turned, and the air compressed by the
+pump finding an exit, the needle of the pressure gauge will be seen to
+redescend and the level of the tube, _a b_, to rise.
+
+If the glass of the bottle has undergone no permanent deformation, the
+level will rise exactly to the zero mark, and denote that the bottle
+has supported the test without any modification of its structure. But
+if, on the contrary, the level does not return to the zero mark, the
+limit of the glass's elasticity has been extended, its molecules have
+taken on a new state of equilibrium, and its resistance has
+diminished, and, even if it has not broken, it is absolutely certain
+that it has lost its former resistance and that it presents no
+particular guarantee of strength.
+
+The vessel, A B, which must be always full of water, is designed to
+keep the bottle at a constant temperature during the course of the
+experiment. This is an essential condition, since the bottle thus
+filled with water constitutes a genuine thermometer, of which _a b_ is
+the graduated tube. It is therefore necessary to avoid attributing a
+variation in level due to an expansion of the water produced by a
+change in temperature, to a deformation of the bottle.
+
+The test, then, that can be made with bottles by means of the
+elasticimeter consists in compressing them to a pressure of ten
+atmospheres when filled with water at a temperature of 25 deg., and in
+finding out whether, under such a stress, they change their volume
+permanently. In order that the elasticimeter may not be complicated by
+a special heating apparatus, it suffices to determine once for all
+what the pressure is that, at a mean temperature of 15 deg., acts upon
+bottles with the same energy as that of ten atmospheres at 25 deg..
+Experiment has demonstrated that such stress corresponds to twelve
+atmospheres in a space in which the temperature remains about 15 deg..
+
+In addition, the elasticimeter is capable of giving other and no less
+useful data. It permits of comparing the resistance of bottles and of
+classifying them according to the degree of such resistance. After
+numerous experiments, it has been found that first class bottles
+easily support a pressure of twelve atmospheres without distortion,
+while in those of an inferior quality the resistance is very variable.
+The champagne wine industry should therefore use the former
+exclusively.
+
+Various precautions must be taken in the use of corks. The bottles
+that lose their wine in consequence of the bad quality of their corks
+are many in number, and it is not long since that they were the cause
+of genuine disaster to the champagne trade.
+
+Mr. Salleron has largely contributed to the improving of the quality
+of corks found in the market. The physical and chemical composition of
+cork bark is peculiarly favorable to the special use to which it is
+applied; but the champagne wine industry requires of it an exaggerated
+degree of resistance, inalterability, and elasticity. A 11/4 inch cork
+must, under the action of a powerful machine, enter a 3/4 inch neck,
+support the dissolving action of a liquid containing 12 per cent. of
+alcohol compressed to at least five atmospheres, and, in a few years,
+shoot out of the bottle and assume its pristine form and color. Out of
+a hundred corks of good quality, not more than ten support such a
+test.
+
+In order to explain wherein resides the quality of cork, it is
+necessary to refer to a chemical analysis of it. In cork bark there is
+70 per cent. of suberine, which is soluble in alcohol and ether, and
+is plastic, ductile, and malleable under the action of humid heat.
+Mixed with suberine, cerine and resin give cork its insolubility and
+inalterability. These substances are soluble in alcohol and ether, but
+insoluble in water.
+
+According to the origin of cork, the wax and resin exist in it in very
+variable proportion. The more resinous kinds resist the dissolving
+action of wine better than those that are but slightly resinous. The
+latter soon become corroded and spoiled by wine. An attempt has often
+been made, but without success, to improve poor corks by impregnating
+them with the resinous principle that they lack.
+
+Various other processes have been tried without success, and so it
+finally became necessary simply to separate the good from the bad
+corks by a practical and rapid operation. A simple examination does
+not suffice. Mr. Bouche has found that corks immersed in water finally
+became covered with brown spots, and, by analogy, in order to test
+corks, he immersed them in water for a fortnight or a month. All those
+that came out spotted were rejected. Under the prolonged action of
+moisture, the suberine becomes soft, and, if it is not resinous
+enough, the cells of the external layer of the cork burst, the water
+enters, and the cork becomes spotted.
+
+It was left to Mr. Salleron to render the method of testing practical.
+He compresses the cork in a very strong reservoir filled with water
+under a pressure of from four to five atmospheres. By this means, the
+but slightly resinous cork is quickly dissolved, so that, after a few
+hours' immersion, the bad corks come out spotted and channeled as if
+they had been in the neck of a bottle for six months. On the contrary,
+good corks resist the operation, and come out of the reservoir as
+white and firm as they were when they were put into it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--SALLERON'S APPARATUS FOR TESTING CORKS.]
+
+Fig. 2 gives a perspective view of Mr. Salleron's apparatus for
+testing corks. A reservoir, A B, of tinned copper, capable of holding
+100 corks, is provided with a cover firmly held in place by a clamp.
+Into the cover is screwed a pressure gauge, M, which measures the
+internal pressure of the apparatus.
+
+A pump, P, sucks water from a vessel through the tubulure, _t'_, and
+forces it through the tubulure, _t_, into the reservoir full of corks.
+After being submitted to a pressure of five atmospheres in this
+apparatus for a few hours, the corks are verified and then sorted out.
+In addition to the apparatus here illustrated, there is one of larger
+dimensions for industrial applications. This differs from the other
+only in the arrangement of its details, and will hold as many as
+10,000 corks.--_Revue Industrielle._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED BISCUIT MACHINE.
+
+
+The accompanying illustration represents a combined biscuit cutting,
+scrapping, and panning machine, specially designed for running at high
+speeds, and so arranged as to allow of the relative movements of the
+various parts being adjusted while in motion. The cutters or dies,
+mounted on a cross head working in a vertical guide frame, are
+operated from the main shaft by eccentrics and vertical connecting
+rods, as shown. These rods are connected to the lower strap of the
+eccentric by long guide bolts, on which intermediate spiral springs
+are mounted, and by this means, although the dies are brought quickly
+down to the dough, they are suffered to remain in contact therewith,
+under a gradually increasing pressure, for a sufficient length of time
+to insure the dough being effectually stamped and completely cut
+through.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED BISCUIT MACHINE.]
+
+Further, the springs tend to counteract any tendency to vibration that
+might be set up by the rapid reciprocation of the cross head, cutters,
+and their attendant parts. Mounted also on the main shaft is one of a
+pair of reversed cone drums. These, with their accompanying belt and
+its adjusting gear, worked by a hand wheel and traversing screw, as
+shown, serve to adjust the speed of the feed rollers, so as to suit
+the different lengths of the intermediate travel or "skip" of the
+dough-carrying web.
+
+Provision is made for taking up the slack of this belt by mounting the
+spindle of the outer coned drum in bearings adjustable along a
+circular path struck from the axis of the lower feed roller as a
+center, thus insuring a uniform engagement between the teeth of the
+small pinion and those of the spur wheel with which the drum and
+roller are respectively provided.
+
+The webs for carrying forward the dough between the different
+operations pass round rollers, which are each operated by an
+adjustable silent clutch feed, in place of the usual ratchet and pawl
+mechanism. Movement is given to each feed by the connecting links
+shown, to each of which motion is in turn imparted by the bell crank
+lever placed beside the eccentric. This lever is actuated by a crank
+pin on the main shaft, working into a block sliding in a slot in the
+shorter or horizontal arm of the lever, while a similar but adjustable
+block, sliding in the vertical arm, serves to impart the motion of the
+lever to the system of connecting links, the adjustable block allowing
+of a longer or shorter stroke being given to the different feeds, as
+desired.
+
+The scraps are carried over the roller in rear of the cutters, and so
+to a scrap pan, while the stamped biscuits pass by a lower web into
+the pans. These pans are carried by two endless chains, provided with
+pins, which take hold of the pans and carry them along in the proper
+position. The roller over which these chains pass is operated by a
+silent clutch, and in order to give an additional motion to the chains
+when a pan is full, and it is desired to bring the next pan into
+position, an additional clutch is caused to operate upon the roller.
+This clutch is kept out of gear with its pulley by means of a
+projection upon it bearing against a disk slightly greater in diameter
+than the pulley, and provided with two notches, into which the
+projection passes when the additional feed is required.
+
+The makers, H. Edwards & Co., Liverpool, have run one of these
+machines easily and smoothly at a hundred revolutions per minute, at
+which speed, and when absorbing about 3.5 horse power, the output
+would equal 4,000 small biscuits per minute.--_Industries._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR.
+
+
+A hand separator of this type was exhibited at the Royal Show at
+Newcastle by the Aylesbury Dairy Company, of 31 St. Petersburg Place,
+Bayswater, England.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 2.]
+
+Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the machine, Fig. 2 being a vertical
+section. The drums of these machines, which make 2,700 revolutions per
+minute for the large and 4,000 for the small one, have a diameter of
+27 in. and 151/2 in. respectively, and are capable of extracting the
+cream from 220 and 115 gallons of milk per hour. These drums are
+formed by hydraulic pressure from one piece of sheet steel. To avoid
+the possibility of the machines being overdriven, which might happen
+through the negligence of the attendant or through the governing gear
+on the engine failing to act, an ingenious controlling apparatus is
+fixed to the intermediate motion of the separator as shown in Fig. 3.
+This apparatus consists of a pair of governor balls pivoted near the
+center of the arms and attached to the main shaft of the intermediate
+gear by means of a collar fixed on it. The main shaft is bored out
+sufficiently deep to admit a steel rod, against which bear the three
+ends of the governor arms. The steel rod presses against the
+counterbalance, which is made exactly the right weight to withstand
+the force tending to raise it, when the intermediate motion is running
+at its designed speed. The forks between which the belt runs are also
+provided with a balance weight. This brings them to the loose pulley,
+unless they are fixed by means of the ratchet. Should the number of
+revolutions of the intermediate increase beyond the correct amount,
+the extra centrifugal force imparted to the governor balls enables
+them to overcome the balance weight, and in raising this they raise
+the arm. This arm striking against the ratchet detent releases the
+balance weight, and the belt is at once brought on to the loose
+pulley.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CREAM SEPARATOR. Fig. 3.]
+
+The steel drum is fitted with an internal ring at the bottom (see Fig.
+2), into which the milk flows, and from which it is delivered, by
+three apertures, to the periphery of the drum, thus preventing the
+milk from striking against the cone of the drum, and from mixing with
+the cream which has already been separated. The upper part of the drum
+is fitted with an annular flange, about 11/2 in. from the top, reaching
+to within one-sixteenth of an inch of the periphery. After the
+separation of the skim milk from the cream, the former passes behind
+and above this flange through the aperture, B, and is removed by means
+of the tube, D, furnished with a steel tip projecting from the cover
+of the machine into the space between the top of the drum and the
+annular flange, a similar tube, F, reaching below this flange,
+removing the cream which collects there. The skim milk tube is
+provided with a screw regulator, the function of which is to enable
+cream of any desired consistency to be obtained, varying with the
+distance between the skim milk and cream points from the center of the
+drum. Another point about these tubes is their use as elevating tubes
+for the skim, milk and cream, as, owing to the velocity at which the
+drum is rotating, the products can be delivered by these tubes at a
+height of 8 or 10 feet above the machine if required, thus enabling
+scalding and cooling of either to be carried on while the separator is
+at work, and saving hand labor.--_Iron._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GAS FROM OIL.
+
+
+At the twenty-fourth annual meeting of the Gas Institute, which was
+recently held in Glasgow, Dr. Stevenson Macadam, F.R.S.E., lecturer on
+chemistry, Edinburgh, submitted the first paper, which was on "Gas
+from Oil."
+
+He said that during the last seventeen years he had devoted much
+attention to the photogenic or illuminating values of different
+qualities of paraffin oils in various lamps, and to the production of
+permanent illuminating gas from such oils. The earlier experiments
+were directed to the employment of paraffin oils as oils, and the
+results proved the great superiority of the paraffin oils as
+illuminating agents over vegetable and animal oils, alike for
+lighthouse and ordinary house service.
+
+The later trials were mainly concerned with the breaking up of the
+paraffin oils into permanent illuminating gas. Experiments were made
+at low heats, medium heats, and high heats, which proved that,
+according to the respective qualities of the paraffin oils employed in
+the trials, there was more or less tendency at the lower heats to
+distill oil instead of permanent gas, while at the high heats there
+was a liability to decarbonize the oil and gas, and to obtain a thin
+gas of comparatively small illuminating power. When, however, a good
+cherry red heat was maintained, the oils split up in large proportion
+into permanent gas of high illuminating quality, accompanied by little
+tarry matter, and with only a slight amount of separated carbon or
+deposited soot.
+
+The best mode of splitting up the paraffin oils, and the special
+arrangements of the retort or distilling apparatus, also formed, he
+said, an extensive inquiry by itself. In one set of trials the oil was
+distilled into gaseous vapor, and then passed through the retort. In
+another set of experiments, the oil was run into or allowed to trickle
+into the retorts, while both modes of introducing the oil were tried
+in retorts charged with red hot coke and in retorts free from coke.
+
+Ultimately, it was found that the best results were obtained by the
+more simple arrangement of employing iron retorts at a good cherry red
+heat, and running in the oil as a thin stream direct into the retort,
+so that it quickly impinged upon the red hot metal, and without the
+intervention of any coke or other matter in the retorts. The paraffin
+oils employed in the investigations were principally: (1) Crude
+paraffin oil, being the oil obtained direct from the destructive
+distillation of shale in retorts; (2) green paraffin oil, which is
+yielded by distilling or re-running the crude paraffin oil, and
+removing the lighter or more inflammable portion by fractional
+distillation; and (3) blue paraffin oil, which is obtained by
+rectifying the twice run oil with sulphuric acid and soda, and
+distilling off the paraffin spirit, burning oil, and intermediate oil,
+and freezing out the solid paraffin as paraffin scale. The best
+practical trials were obtained in Pintsch's apparatus and in Keith's
+apparatus.
+
+After describing both of these, Dr. Macadam went on to give in great
+detail the results obtained in splitting up blue paraffin oil into gas
+in each apparatus. He then said that these experimental results
+demonstrated that Pintsch's apparatus yielded from the gallon of oil
+in one case 90.70 cubic feet of gas of 62.50 candle power, and in the
+second case 103.36 cubic feet of 59.15 candle gas, or an average of
+97.03 cubic feet of 60.82 candle power gas.
+
+In both cases, the firing of the retorts was moderate, though in the
+second trial greater care was taken to secure uniformity of heat, and
+the oil was run in more slowly, so that there was more thorough
+splitting up of the oil into permanent gas. The gas obtained in the
+two trials was of high quality, owing to its containing a large
+percentage of heavy hydrocarbons, of which there were, respectively,
+39.25 and 37.15 per cent., or an average of 38.2 per cent., while the
+sulphureted hydrogen was nothing, and the carbonic acid a mere trace.
+Besides testing the gas on the occasion of the actual trials, he had
+also examined samples of the gas which he had taken from various
+cylinders in which the gas had been stored for several months under a
+pressure of ten atmospheres, and in all cases the gas was found to be
+practically equal to the quantity mentioned, and hence of a permanent
+character.
+
+By using Keith's apparatus the results obtained were generally the
+same, with the exception that an average of 0.27 per cent. of carbonic
+acid gas and decided proportions of sulphureted hydrogen were found to
+be present in the gas. Dr. Macadam devoted some remarks to the
+consideration of the question as to how far the gas obtained from the
+paraffin oil represented the light power of the oil itself, and then
+he proceeded to say that, taking the crude paraffin oil at 2d. a
+gallon, and with a specific gravity of 850 (water = 1,000), or 81/2 lb.
+to the gallon, there were 264 gallons to the ton, at a cost of L2 4s.
+per ton. The sperm light from the ton of oil as gas being 3,443 lb.,
+he reckoned that fully 6 lb. of sperm light were obtained from a
+pennyworth of the crude oil as gas.
+
+Then, taking the blue paraffin oil at 4d. per gallon, and there being
+255 gallons to the ton, it was found that the cost of one ton was L4
+5s., and as the sperm light of a ton of that oil as gas was 5,150 lb.,
+it was calculated that 5 lb. of sperm light were yielded in the gas
+from a pennyworth of the blue oil. The very rich character of the oil
+gas rendered it unsuitable for consumption at ordinary gas jets,
+though it burned readily and satisfactorily at small burners not
+larger than No. 1 jets.
+
+In practical use it would be advisable to reduce the quality by
+admixture with thin and feeble gas, or to employ the oil gas simply
+for enriching inferior gases derived from the more common coals. On
+the question of dilution, he said that he preferred to use carbonic
+oxide and hydrogen, and most of the remainder of his paper was devoted
+to an explanation of the best mode of preparing those gases (water
+gases).
+
+He concluded by saying: The employment of paraffin oil for gas making
+has advantages in its favor, in the readiness of charging the retorts,
+as the oil can be run in continuously for days at a time, and may be
+discontinued and commenced again without opening, clearing out
+residual products, recharging and reclosing the retorts. There is
+necessarily, therefore, less labor and cost in working, and as the gas
+is cleaner or freer from impurities, purifying plant and material will
+be correspondingly less. Oil gas is now employed for lighthouse
+service in the illumination of the lanterns on Ailsa Craig and as
+motive power in the gas engines connected with the fog horns at
+Langness and Ailsa Craig lighthouse stations. It is also used largely
+in the lighting of railway carriages. Various populous places are now
+introducing oil gas for house service, and he felt sure that the
+system is one which ought to commend itself for its future development
+to the careful consideration and practical skill of the members of the
+Gas Institute.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MANUFACTURE OF SALT NEAR MIDDLESBROUGH.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: Abstract of paper read before the Institution of
+               Civil Engineers, May 17, 1887.]
+
+By Sir LOWTHIAN BELL, Bart., F.R.S.
+
+
+The geology of the Middlesbrough salt region was first referred to,
+and it was stated that the development of the salt industry in that
+district was the result of accident. In 1859, Messrs. Bolckow &
+Vaughan sank a deep well at Middlesbrough, in the hope of obtaining
+water for steam and other purposes in connection with their iron works
+in that town, although they had previously been informed of the
+probably unsuitable character of the water if found. The bore hole was
+put down to a depth of 1,200 feet, when a bed of salt rock was struck,
+which proved to have a thickness of about 100 feet. At that time
+one-eighth of the total salt production of Cheshire was being brought
+to the Tyne for the chemical works on that river, hence the discovery
+of salt instead of water was regarded by some as the reverse of a
+disappointment. The mode of reaching the salt rock by an ordinary
+shaft, however, failed, from the influx of water being too great, and
+nothing more was heard of Middlesbrough salt until a dozen years
+later, when Messrs. Bell Brothers, of Port Clarence, decided to try
+the practicability of raising the salt by a method detailed in the
+paper. A site was selected 1,314 yards distant from the well of
+Messrs. Bolckow & Vaughan, and the Diamond Rock Boring Company was
+intrusted with the work of putting down a hole in order to ascertain
+whether the bed of salt extended under their land. This occupied
+nearly two years, when the salt, 65 feet in thickness, was reached at
+a depth of 1,127 feet. Other reasons induced the owners of the
+Clarence iron works to continue the bore hole for 150 feet below the
+bed of salt; a depth of 1,342 feet from the surface was then reached.
+During the process of boring, considerable quantities of inflammable
+gas were met with, which, on the application of flame, took fire at
+the surface of the water in the bore hole. The origin of this gas, in
+connection with the coal measures underlying the magnesian limestone,
+will probably hereafter be investigated.
+
+For raising the salt, recourse was had to the method of solution, the
+principle being that a column of descending water should raise the
+brine nearly as far as the differences of specific gravity between the
+two liquids permitted--in the present case about 997 feet. In other
+words, a column of fresh water of 1,200 feet brought the brine to
+within 203 feet of the surface. For the practical application of this
+system a hole of say 12 inches in diameter at the surface was
+commenced, and a succession of wrought iron tubes put down as the
+boring proceeded, the pipes being of gradually decreasing diameter,
+until the bottom of the salt bed was reached. The portion of this
+outer or retaining tube, where it passed through the bed of salt, was
+pierced with two sets of apertures, the upper edge of the higher set
+coinciding with the top of the seam, and the other set occupying the
+lower portion of the tube. Within the tube so arranged, and secured at
+its lower extremity by means of a cavity sunk in the limestone, a
+second tube was lowered, having an outer diameter from two to four
+inches less than the interior diameter of the first tube. The latter
+served for pumping the brine. The pump used was of the ordinary bucket
+and clack type, but, in addition, at the surface, there was a plunger,
+which served to force the brine into an air vessel for the purposes of
+distribution. The bucket and clack were placed some feet below the
+point to which the brine was raised by the column of fresh water
+descending in the annulus formed between the two tubes. In commencing
+work, water was let down the annulus until the cavity formed in the
+salt became sufficiently large to admit of a few hours' pumping of
+concentrated brine. On the machinery being set in motion, the stronger
+brine was first drawn, which, from its greater specific gravity,
+occupied the lower portion of the cavity. As the brine was raised,
+fresh water flowed down. The solvent power of the newly admitted water
+was of course greater than that of water partially saturated, and
+being also lighter it occupied the upper portion of the excavated
+space. The combined effect was to give the cavity the form of an
+inverted cone. The mode of extraction thus possessed the disadvantage
+of removing the greatest quantity of the mineral where it was most
+wanted for supporting the roof, and had given rise to occasional
+accidents to the pipes underground. These were referred to in detail,
+and the question was started as to possible legal complications
+arising hereafter from new bore holes put down in close proximity to
+the dividing line of different properties, the pumping of brine formed
+under the conditions described presenting an altogether different
+aspect from the pumping of water or natural brine.
+
+The second part of the paper referred to the uses to which the brine
+was applied, the chief one being the manufacture of common salt. For
+this purpose the brine, as delivered from the wells, was run into a
+large reservoir, where any earthy matter held in suspension was
+allowed to settle. The clear solution was then run into pans sixty
+feet long by twenty feet wide by two feet deep. Heat was applied at
+one end by the combustion of small coal, beyond which longitudinal
+walls, serving to support the pan and to distribute the heat,
+conducted the products of combustion to the further extremity, where
+they escaped into the chimney at a temperature of from 500 deg. to 700 deg.
+Fahr. On the surface of the heated brine, kept at 196 deg. Fahr., minute
+cubical crystals speedily formed. On the upper surface of these, other
+small cubes of salt arranged themselves in such a way that, in course
+of time, a hollow inverted pyramid of crystallized salt was formed.
+This ultimately sank to the bottom, where other small crystals united
+with it, so that the shape became frequently completely cubical. Every
+second day the salt was "fished" out and laid on drainers to permit
+the adhering brine to run back into the pans. For the production of
+table salt the boiling was carried on much more rapidly, and at a
+higher temperature than for salt intended for soda manufacture. The
+crystals were very minute, and adhered together by the solidification
+of the brine, effected by exposure on heated flues. For fishery
+purposes the crystals were preferred very coarse in size. These were
+obtained by evaporating the brine more slowly and at a still lower
+temperature than when salt for soda makers was required. At the
+Clarence works experiments had been made in utilizing surplus gas from
+the adjacent blast furnaces, instead of fuel, under the evaporating
+pans, the furnaces supplying more gas than was needed for heating air
+and raising steam for iron making. By means of this waste heat, from
+200 to 300 tons of salt per week were now obtained.
+
+The paper concluded with some particulars of the soda industry. The
+well-known sulphuric acid process of Leblanc had stood its ground for
+three-quarters of a century in spite of several disadvantages, and
+various modes of utilizing the by-products having been from time to
+time introduced, it had until recent years seemed too firmly
+established to fear any rivals. About seven years ago, however, Mr.
+Solvay, of Brussels, revived in a practical form the ammonia process,
+patented forty years ago by Messrs. Hemming & Dyar, but using brine
+instead of salt, and thus avoiding the cost of evaporation. This
+process consisted of forcing into the brine currents of carbonic acid
+and ammoniacal gases in such proportions as to generate bicarbonate of
+ammonia, which, reacting on the salt of the brine, gave bicarbonate of
+soda and chloride of ammonium. The bicarbonate was placed in a
+reverberatory furnace, where the heat drove off the water and one
+equivalent of carbonic acid, leaving the alkali as monocarbonate. Near
+Middlesbrough, the only branch of industry established in connection
+with its salt trade was the manufacture of soda by an ammonia process,
+invented by Mr. Schloesing, of Paris. The works were carried on in
+connection with the Clarence salt works. It was believed that the
+total quantity of dry soda produced by the two ammonia processes,
+Solvay's and Schloesing's, in this country was something under 100,000
+tons per annum, but this make was considerably exceeded on the
+Continent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+COTTON INDUSTRIES OF JAPAN.
+
+
+The cotton plant principally cultivated in Japan is of the species
+known as _Gossypium herbaceum_, resembling that of India, China, and
+Egypt. The plant is of short stature, seldom attaining a growth of
+over two feet; the flower is deciduous, with yellow petals and purple
+center, and the staple is short, but fine. It is very widely
+cultivated in Japan, and is produced in thirty-seven out of the
+forty-four prefectures forming the empire, but the best qualities and
+largest quantities are grown in the southern maritime provinces of the
+mainland and on the islands of Kiusiu and Shikoku. Vice consul
+Longford, in his last report, says that the plant is not indigenous to
+Japan, the seed having been first imported from China in the year
+1558. There are now many varieties of the original species, and the
+cultivation of the plant varies in its details in different
+localities. The variations are, however, mostly in dates, and the
+general grinding principles of the several operations are nearly the
+same throughout the whole country. The land best suited for cotton
+growing is one of a sandy soil, the admixture of earth and sand being
+in the proportion of two parts earth to one of sand. During the winter
+and spring months, crops of wheat or barley are raised on it, and it
+is when these crops have attained their full height during the month
+of May that the cotton is sown. About fifty days prior to the sowing a
+manure is prepared consisting of chopped straw, straw ashes, green
+grass, rice, bran, and earth from the bottom of the stagnant pools.
+These ingredients are all carefully mixed together in equal
+proportions, and the manure thus made is allowed to stand till
+required for use. Ten days before the time fixed for sowing, narrow
+trenches, about one inch in depth, are dug in the furrows, between the
+rows of standing wheat or barleys and the manure is liberally
+sprinkled along them by hand. For one night before sowing the seed is
+steeped in water. It is then taken out, slightly mixed with straw
+ashes, and sown in the trenches at intervals of a few inches. When
+sown, it is covered with earth to the depth of half an inch, and
+gently trampled down by foot. Four or five days after sowing, the buds
+begin to appear above the earth, and almost simultaneously the wheat
+or barley between which they grow is ripe for the sickle. While the
+latter is being harvested, the cotton may be left to itself, but not
+for very long. The buds appear in much larger numbers than the soil
+could support if they were allowed to grow. They have accordingly to
+be carefully thinned out, so that not more than five or six plants are
+left in each foot of length. The next process is the sprinkling of a
+manure composed of one part night soil and three parts water, and
+again, subsequent to this, there are two further manurings; one of a
+mixture of dried sardines, lees of oil, and lees of rice beer, which
+is applied about the middle of June, when the plant has attained a
+height of four inches; and again early in July, when the plant has
+grown to a height of six or seven inches, a further manuring of night
+soil, mixed with a larger proportion of water than before. At this
+stage the head of the plant is pinched off with the fingers, in order
+to check the excessive growth of the stem, and direct the strength
+into the branches, which usually number five or six. From these
+branches minor ones spring, but the latter are carefully pruned off as
+they appear. In the middle of August the flowers begin to appear
+gradually. They fall soon after their appearance, leaving in their
+place the pod or peach (_momo_), which, after ripening, opens in
+October by three or four valves and exposes the cotton to view. The
+cotton is gathered in baskets, in which it is allowed to remain till a
+bright, sunshiny day, when it is spread out on mats to dry and swell
+in the sun for two or three days. After drying, the cotton is packed
+in bags made of straw matting, and either sold or put aside until such
+time as the farmer's leisure from other agricultural operations
+enables him to deal with it. The average yield of cotton in good
+districts in Japan is about 120 lb. to the acre, but as cotton is only
+a secondary crop, this does not therefore represent the whole profit
+gained by the farmer from his land. The prefectures in which the
+production is largest are Aichi on the east coast, Osaka, Hiogo,
+Hiroshima, and Yamaguchi on the inland sea, and Fukui and Ishikawa on
+the west coast. Vice-consul Longford says that the manufacture of
+cotton in Japan is still in all its stages largely a domestic one.
+Gin, spindle, and loom are all found in the house of the farmer on
+whose land the cotton is grown, and not only what is required for the
+wants of his own family is spun and woven by the female members
+thereof, but a surplus is also produced for sale.
+
+Several spinning factories with important English machinery have been
+established during the last twenty years, but Consul Longford says
+that he has only known of one similar cotton-weaving factory, and that
+has not been a successful experiment. Other so called weaving
+factories throughout the country consist only of a collection of the
+ordinary hand looms, to the number of forty or fifty, scarcely ever
+reaching to one hundred, in one building or shed, wherein individual
+manufacturers have their own special piece goods made.
+
+The first operation in the manufacture is that of ginning, which is
+conducted by means of a small implement called the _rokuro_, or
+windlass. This consists of two wooden rollers revolving in opposite
+directions, fixed on a frame about 12 inches high and 6 inches in
+width, standing on a small platform, the dimensions of which slightly
+exceed that of the frame. The operator, usually a woman, kneels on one
+side of the frame, holding it firm by her weight, works the roller
+with one hand, and with the other presses the cotton, which she takes
+from a heap at her side, between the rollers. The cotton passes
+through, falling in small lumps on the other side of the frame, while
+the seeds fall on that nearest the woman. The utmost weight of
+unginned cotton that one woman working an entire day of ten hours can
+give is from 8 lb. to 10 lb., which gives, in the end, only a little
+over 3 lb. weight of ginned cotton, and her daily earnings amount to
+less than 2d. A few saw gins have been introduced into Japan during
+the last fifteen years, but no effort has been made to secure their
+distribution throughout the country districts. After ginning, a
+certain proportion of the seed is reserved for the agricultural
+requirements of the following year, and the remainder is sent to oil
+factories, where it is pressed, and yields about one-eighth of its
+capacity in measurement in oil, the refuse, after pressing, being used
+for manure. The ginning having been finished in the country districts,
+the cotton is either packed in bales and sent to the dealers in the
+cities, or else the next process, that of carding, is at once
+proceeded with on the spot.
+
+This process is almost as primitive as that of the ginning. A long
+bamboo, sufficiently thin to be flexible, is fastened at its base to a
+pillar or the corner of a small room. It slopes upward into the center
+of the room, and from its upper end a hempen cord is suspended. To
+this is fastened the "bow," an instrument made of oak, about five feet
+in length, two inches in circumference, and shaped like a ladle. A
+string of coarse catgut is tightly stretched from end to end of the
+bow, and this is beaten with a small mallet made of willow, bound at
+the end with a ring of iron or brass. The raw cotton, in its coarse
+state, is piled on the floor just underneath the string of the bow.
+The string is then rapidly beaten with the mallet, and as it rises and
+falls it catches the rough cotton, cuts it to the required degree of
+fineness, removes impurities from it, and flings it to the side of the
+operator, where it falls on a hempen net stretched over a four-cornered
+wooden frame. The spaces of the net are about one-quarter of an inch
+square, and through these any particles of dust that may still have
+adhered to the cotton fall to the floor, leaving piled on top of the
+net the pure cotton wool in its finished state. This work is always
+performed by a man, and by assiduous toil throughout a long day, one
+man can card from ten to twenty pounds weight of raw cotton. Payment is
+made in proportion to the work done, and in the less remote country
+districts is at the rate of about one penny for each pound carded. As
+regards spinning and weaving, in the first of these branches of cotton
+manufacture the Japanese have largely had recourse to the aid of
+foreign machinery, but it is still to a much greater extent a domestic
+industry, or at best carried on like weaving in the establishments of
+cotton traders, in which a number of workers, varying from 20 to 100 or
+more, each with his own spinning wheel, are collected together. Consul
+Longford says the spinning wheel used in Japan differs in no respect
+from that used in the country 300 years ago or (except that bamboo
+forms an integral part of the materials of which it is made) from that
+used in England prior to the invention of the jenny. The cost of one of
+the wheels is about 9d., it will last for five or six years, and with
+it a woman of ordinary skill can spin about 1 lb. of yarn in a day of
+ten hours, earning thereby about 2d. There are at present in various
+parts of Japan, in all, 21 spinning factories worked by foreign
+machinery. Of four of these there is no information, but of the
+remainder, one has 120 spindles; eleven, 2,000 spindles; two, 3,000
+spindles; two, 4,000 spindles; and one, 18,000 spindles.--_Journal Soc.
+of Arts._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 612, page 9774.]
+
+
+
+
+CENTRIFUGAL EXTRACTORS.
+
+By ROBERT F. GIBSON.
+
+
+SUGAR MACHINES.--Besides separating the crystalline sugar and the
+sirup, secondary objects are to wash the crystals and to pack them in
+cakes. The cleansing fluid or "white liquor" is introduced at the
+center of the basket and is hurled against and passes through the sugar
+wall left from draining. The basket may be divided into compartments
+and the liquor guided into each. The compartments are removable boxes
+and are shaped to give bars or cakes or any form desired of sugar in
+mass. These boxes being removable cannot fit tightly against the liquor
+guides, and the liquor is apt to escape. This difficulty is overcome by
+giving the guides radial movement or by having rubber packing around
+the edges.
+
+Sugar machines proper are of two kinds--those which are loaded, drained
+and then unloaded and those which are continuous in their working. The
+various figures preceding are of the first kind, and what has been said
+of vibrations applies directly to these.
+
+The general advantages claimed for continuous working over intermittent
+are--that saving is made of time and motive power incident to
+introducing charge and developing velocity, in retarding and stopping,
+and in discharging; that, as the power is brought into the machine
+continuously, no shifting of belts or ungearing is necessary; and that
+there are less of the dangers incident to variable motion, either in
+the machine itself or the belting or gearing. The magma (the mixture of
+crystalline sugar and sirup) is fed in gradually, by which means it is
+more likely to assume a position of equilibrium in the basket.
+
+There are two methods of discharging in continuous working--the sugar
+is thrown out periodically as the basket fills, or continuously. In
+neither case is the speed slackened. In the first either the upper
+half of the basket has an upward motion, on the lower half a downward
+motion (Pat. 252,483); and through the opening thus made the sugar is
+thrown. Fig. 22 (R.B. Palmer & Sons) is a machine of this kind. The
+bottom, B, with the cone distributor, _a_, have downward motion.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+Continuous discharge of the second kind may be brought about by having
+a scoop fixed to the curb (or casing), extending down into the basket
+and delivering the sugar over the side (Pat. 144,319). Another method
+will be described under "Beet Machines."
+
+BASKET.--The construction of the basket is exceedingly important. Hard
+experience has taught this. When centrifugals were first introduced,
+users were compelled by law to put them below ground; for they
+frequently exploded, owing to the speed being suddenly augmented by
+inequalities in the running of the engine or to the basket being too
+weak to resist the centrifugal force of the overcharge. Increasing the
+thickness merely adds to the centrifugal force, and hence to the
+danger, as even a perfectly balanced basket may sever.
+
+One plan for a better basket was to have more than one wall. For
+example, there might be an inner wall of perforated copper, then one
+of wire gauze, and then another of copper with larger perforations.
+Another plan was to have an internal metallic cloth, bearing against
+the internally projecting ridges of the corrugations of the basket
+wall. A further complication is to give this internal gauze cylinder a
+rotation relative to the basket.
+
+The basket wall has been variously constructed. In one case it
+consists of wire wound round and round and fastened to uprights,
+commonly known as the "wire basket;" in another case of a periphery
+without perforations, but spirally corrugated and having an opening at
+the bottom for the escape of the extracted liquid; in still another of
+a series of narrow bars or rings, placed edgewise, packed as close as
+desired. An advantage of this last style is that it is easily cleaned.
+
+The best basket consists of sheet metal with bored perforations and
+having bands or flanges sprung on around the outside. The metal is
+brass, if it is apt to be corroded; if not, sheet iron. The
+perforations may be round, or horizontally much longer than wide
+vertically. One method for the manufacture of the basket wall (Pat.
+149,553) is to roll down a plate, having round perforations, to the
+required thickness, causing narrowing and elongation of the holes and
+at the same time hardening the plate by compacting its texture. Long
+narrow slots are well adapted to catch sugar crystals, and this is not
+an unimportant point. Round perforations are usually countersunk.
+Instead of flanges, wire bands have been used, their lapping ends
+secured by solder.
+
+As to comparative wear, it maybe remarked that one perforated basket
+will outlast three wire ones.
+
+As to size, sugar baskets vary from 80 inches in diameter by 14 in.
+depth to 54 by 24. They are made, however, in England as large as 6
+feet in diameter--a size which can be run only at a comparatively slow
+speed.
+
+A peculiar complication of basket deserves notice (Pat. 275 874). It
+had been noticed that when a charge of magma was put into a
+centrifugal in one mass, the sugar wall on the side of the basket was
+apt to form irregularly, too thick at base and of varied color. To
+remedy this it was suggested to have within and concentric with the
+basket a charger with flaring sides, into which the mixture was to be
+put. When this charger reached a certain rotary velocity, the magma
+would be hurled out over the edge by centrifugal force and evenly
+distributed on the wall of the main basket.
+
+SPINDLE.--The spindle as now made is solid cast steel, and the
+considerations governing its size, form, material, etc., are identical
+with those for any spindle. In order that the basket might be replaced
+by another after draining, the shaft has been made telescopic, but at
+the expense of stability and rigidity. In Fig. 16 is shown a device to
+avoid crystallizations, which are apt to occur in large forgings, and
+would prove fatal should they creep into the upper part of the spindle
+proper in a hanging machine. It consists of the secondary spindle, _c_.
+
+DISCHARGING.--The drained sugar may either be lifted over the top of
+the basket (in machines which stop to be emptied), or be cast through
+openings in the bottom provided with valves. A section of the best form
+of valve may be seen in Figs. 15 and 17. Fig. 23 is a plan of the
+openings. The valve turns on the basket bearing. It may be constructed
+to open in the same direction in which the basket turns; so that when
+the brake is put on, the inertia of the valve operates to open it and
+while running to keep it closed. There are many other styles, but no
+other need be mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.]
+
+CASING.--The different styles of casing may be seen by reference to the
+various drawings. In one machine (not described) the casing is rigidly
+fixed to the basket, space enough being left between the bottom of the
+basket and the bottom of the casing to hold all the molasses from a
+charge. This arrangement merely adds to the bulk of the revolving
+parts, and no real advantage is gained.
+
+BEARINGS.--The various styles of bearings can be seen by reference to
+the figures. One which deserves special attention is shown in Fig. 16
+and Fig. 19. In one case it consists of loose disks, in the other of
+loose washers, rotating on one another. They are alternately of steel
+and hard bronze (copper and tin).
+
+"There is probably no machine so little understood or so imperfectly
+constructed by the common manufacturer of sugar supplies as the high
+speed separator or centrifugal." Unless the product of experience and
+good workmanship, it is a dangerous thing at high velocities. Besides,
+its usual fate is to have an incompetent workman assigned to it, who
+does not use judgment in charging and running. So that designers and
+manufacturers have been forced not only to take into account the
+disturbing forces inherent in revolving bodies, but also to make
+allowance for poor management in running and neglect in cleaning.
+
+CANE AND BEET MACHINES.--The first step in the process of sugar making
+is the extraction of the juice from the beet or cane. This juice is
+obtained by pressure. The operation is not usually, but may be,
+performed in a special kind of centrifugal. One style (Pat. 239,222)
+consists of a conical basket with a spiral flange within on the shaft,
+and turning on the shaft, and having a slight rotary motion relative to
+the basket. The material is fed in and moves downward under increased
+pressure, the sirup released flying out through the perforations of the
+basket, the whole revolving at high velocity. The solid portion falls
+out at the bottom. Another plan suggested (Pat. 343,932) is to let a
+loose cover of an ordinary cylindrical basket screw itself down into
+the basket, by reason of its slower velocity (owing to inertia),
+causing pressure on the charge.
+
+Various other applications of the different styles of sugar machines
+are the defibration of raw sugar juice, freeing beet crystals of
+objectionable salts, freeing various crystals of the mother liquor,
+drying saltpeter.
+
+DRIERS.--Another important division of this first class of centrifugals
+is that of driers or, as they are variously styled, whizzers, wringers,
+hydro-extractors. The charge in these is never large in weight compared
+to a sugar charge, and its initial distribution can be made more
+symmetrical. The uses of driers are various, such as extracting water
+from clothes, cloth, silk, yarns, etc. Water may be introduced at the
+center of the basket from above or below to wash the material before
+draining. A typical form of drier is shown in Fig. 24. (Pat. Aug. 22,
+1876--W.P. Uhlinger.) Baskets have been made removable for use in
+dyeing establishments, basket and load together going into dyeing vat.
+Yarn and similar material can be drained by a method analogous to that
+of hanging it upon sticks in a room and allowing the water to drip off.
+It is suspended from short sticks, which are held in horizontal layers
+around the shaft in the basket, and the action is such during the
+operation as to cause the yarn to stand out in radial lines.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+Driers are not materially different from sugar machines. Any of the
+devices before enumerated for meeting vibrations in the latter may be
+applied to the former. There is one curious invention which has been
+applied to driers only (Pat. 322,762--W.H. Tolhurst). See Fig. 25. A
+convex shaft-supporting step resting on a concave supporting base,
+with the center of its arc of concavity at the center of the upper
+universal joint, has been employed, and its movements controlled by
+springs, but the step was apt to be forced from its support. The
+drawing shows the improvement on this, which is to give the
+shaft-supporting step a less radius of curvature.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+An interesting form of drier has its own motor, a little steam engine,
+attached to the frame of the machine. See Fig 24. This of course
+demands fixed bearings. The engine is very small. One size used is 3"x4".
+When a higher velocity of basket is required, we have the arrangement
+in Fig. 26.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+MOTORS.--This naturally introduces the subject of motive power. We may
+have the engine direct acting as above, or the power may be brought on
+by belting. Fig. 27 shows a drier with pulley for belting. Fig. 28
+(W.H. Tolhurst) shows a very common arrangement of belting and also the
+fast and loose pulleys. When the heaviest part of the engine is so far
+from the vertical shaft as to overhang the casing on one side, there is
+apt to be an objectionable tremor. To remedy this, it is suggested to
+put these heavy parts as near the shaft as possible. It has been
+suggested also to use the Westinghouse type of engine, although the
+type shown in Fig. 24 works faultlessly in practice.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+One plan (Pat. 346,030), designed to combine the advantages of a direct
+acting motor and an oscillating shaft, mounts the whole machine, motor
+and all, on a rocking frame. The spindle is of course in fixed bearings
+in the frame. However, the plan is not practical.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.]
+
+In driers the direct acting engine has many advantages over the belt.
+The atmosphere is always very moist about a whizzer, and there are
+frequently injurious fumes. The belt will be alternately dry and wet,
+stretched and limp, and wears out rapidly and is liable to sever. In
+all machines in which the shaft oscillates, if the center of
+oscillation does not lie in the central plane of the belt, the tension
+of the latter is not uniform. This affects badly both the belt and the
+running. A reference to the various figures will show the best position
+for the pulley.
+
+The greatest difficulty experienced with belting is in getting up speed
+and stopping. The basket must not be started with a sudden impulse. Its
+inertia will resist and something must give way. A gradual starting can
+be obtained by the slipping of the belt at first, but this is
+expensive. The best plan is to conduct the power through a species of
+friction clutch--an iron disk between two wooden ones. This has been
+found to work admirably.
+
+BRAKES.--The first centrifugals had no brakes. They ran until the
+friction of the bearings was sufficient to stop them. This occasioned,
+however, rapid wearing and too great a loss of time. The best material
+for a brake consists of soft wood into which shoe pegs have been
+driven, and which is thoroughly saturated with oil. The wooden disks
+referred to just above are of the same construction. The center of
+oscillation ought to be in the central plane of the brake as well as
+that of the pulley, but the preference is given to the pulley.
+
+Figs. 15 and 16 (I) give sectional views of a brake for hanging
+machines. Figs. 19, 20, and 21 give two sections and a view of a brake
+which can be used on both hanging and standing machines. A very simple
+form of brake is shown in Figs. 24, 26, and 27 (A), a mere block
+pressing on the rim of the basket.
+
+OIL AND FAT.--A machine in most respects like a whizzer is used for the
+"extraction of oil and fat and oily and fatty matters from woolen yarns
+and fabrics, and such other fibrous material or mixtures of materials
+as are from their nature affected in color or quality when hydrocarbons
+are used for the purpose of extracting such oily or fatty matters, and
+are subsequently removed from the material under treatment by the slow
+process of admitting steam, or using other means of raising the
+temperature to the respective boiling points of such hydrocarbons, and
+so driving them off by evaporation." In the centrifugal method
+carbon-bisulphide, or some other volatile agent, is admitted and is
+driven through the material by centrifugal force, when the necessary
+reactions take place, and is allowed to escape in the form of
+hydrocarbons. A machine differing only in slight particulars from the
+above is used for cleansing wool.
+
+LOOSE FIBER.--Another application is the drying of loose fiber. Two
+distinctive points deserve to be noticed in the centrifugal used for
+this purpose. An endless chain or belt provided with blades moves the
+material vertically in the basket, and discharges it over the edge.
+During its upward course the material is subjected to a shower of water
+to wash it.
+
+OIL FROM METAL CHIPS.--Very material savings are made in many factories
+by collecting the metal chips and turnings, coated and mixed with oil,
+which fall from the various machines, and extracting the oil
+centrifugally. The separator consists of a chip holder, having an
+imperforate shell flaring upward and outward from the spindle (in fixed
+bearings) to which it is attached. When filled, a cover is placed upon
+it and keyed to the spindle. Between the cover and holder there is a
+small annular opening through which oil, but not chips, can escape.
+Fig. 29 (Pat. 225,949--C.F. Roper) is designed (like the greater part
+of the drawings inserted) to show relative position of parts merely,
+and not relative _size_. This style of machine can be used for sugar
+separating (Pat. 345,994--F.P. Sherman) and many other purposes, to
+which, however, there are other styles more especially adapted.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+FILTERERS.--There are two distinct kinds of centrifugal filterers,
+working on different principles. Petroleum separators (Pat. 217,063)
+are of the first kind. They are in form in all respects like a sugar
+machine. The flakes of paraffine, stearine, etc., which are to be
+extracted, when chilled are very brittle and would be disintegrated
+upon being hurled against a plain wire gauze and would escape. Even a
+woven fabric presents too harsh a surface. It is necessary to have a
+very elastic basket lining of wool, cotton, or other fibrous material.
+The basket itself may be either wire or perforated, but must have a
+perfectly smooth bottom.
+
+As the pressure of the liquor upon the filtering medium per unit of
+surface depends entirely upon its radial depth, mere tubes, connecting
+a central inlet with an annular compartment, will serve the purpose
+quite as well as a whole basket. In this style of machine (Pat. 10,457)
+the filtering material constitutes a wall between two annular
+compartments. The outer one is connected with a vacuum apparatus.
+
+Filterers of the second kind work on the following principle: If a
+cylinder be rapidly revolved in a liquid in which solid particles are
+suspended, the liquid will be drawn into a like rotation and the heavy
+particles will be thrown to the outer part of the receptacle. If a
+perforated cylinder is used as stirrer, the purified liquid will escape
+into it through the perforations and may be conducted away. The
+impurities, likewise, after falling down the sides of the receptacle,
+are carried off. The advantages of this method are that no filtering
+material is needed and the filtering surface is never in contact with
+anything but pure liquor.
+
+Very fine sawdust is, to a considerable extent, employed in sugar
+refineries as a filtering medium. By such use the sawdust becomes mixed
+with sand, fine particles of cane, etc. As sawdust of such fineness is
+expensive, it is desirable to purify it in order to reuse it. A
+centrifugal (Pat. 353,775--J.V.V. Booraem) built on the following
+principle is used for this purpose. It has been observed that by
+rotating rather _slowly_ small particles of various substances in
+water, the finer particles will be thrown outward and deposit near the
+circumference of the vessel, while the heavier and coarser particles
+will deposit nearer to or at the center, their centrifugal force not
+being sufficient to carry them out. A mere rod, extending radially in
+both directions, serves by its rotation to set the water in motion.
+
+Another form of filter of this second kind (Pat. 148,513) has a
+rotating imperforate basket into which the impure liquor is run. Within
+and concentric with it is another cylinder whose walls are of some
+filtering medium. The liquid already partly purified by centrifugal
+force passes through into the inner cylinder, thus becoming further
+purified. Centrifugal filters are used also to cleanse gums for
+varnishes.
+
+HONEY.--The simplest form of honey extractor (Pat. 61,216) consists of
+a square framework, symmetrical with respect to a vertical spindle.
+This framework is surrounded by a wire gauze. The combs, after having
+the heads of the cells cut off, are placed in comb-holders against the
+wire netting on the four sides, the cells pointing outward. The machine
+is turned by hand. The honey is hurled against the walls of a receiving
+case and caught below. But few improvements have been made on this. The
+latest machines are still hand-driven, as a sufficiently high velocity
+can be obtained in this manner. In one style the combs are placed upon
+a floor which rests upon springs. The rotating box is given a slight
+vertical and horizontal reciprocatory motion, by which the combs are
+made to grate on the wire gauze sides, breaking the cells and
+liberating the honey. Thus the labor of cutting the cells is saved.
+Every comb has two sides, and to present each side in succession to the
+outside without removing from the basket, several devices have been
+patented. In some the comb holders are hinged in the corners of the
+basket, and have an angular motion of ninety degrees. Decreasing the
+speed is sufficient to swing these. The other side is then emptied by
+revolving in the opposite direction. In one case each holder has a
+spindle of its own, connected with the main spindle by gearing and, to
+present opposite side, turns through 180 deg.. The usual number of sides
+and hence of comb holders is four, but eight have been used. There are
+minor differences in details of construction, looking to the most
+convenient removal and insertion of comb, the reception of the
+extracted honey in cups, buckets, etc., and the best method of giving
+rapid rotation, which cannot be touched upon. The product of the
+operation is white and opaque, but upon heating regains its golden
+color and transparency.
+
+STARCH.--A centrifugal to separate starch from triturated grain,
+carried in suspension in water, is as follows. (Pat. 273,127--Mueller &
+Decastro.) The starch water is led to the bottom of a basket, and, as
+starch is heavier than the gluten with which it is mixed, the former
+will be immediately compacted against the periphery of the basket,
+lodging first in the lower corner, the starch and gluten forming two
+distinct strata. A tube with a cutting edge enters the compacted mass
+so deeply as to peel off the gluten and part of the starch, which is
+carried through the tube to another compartment of the basket, just
+above, where the same operation is performed, and so on. There may be
+only one compartment, the tube carrying the gluten directly out of the
+machine. These machines are continuous working, and hence some way must
+be devised to carry the water off. The inner surface of the water is,
+as we have seen, a cylinder. When the diameter of this cylinder becomes
+too small, overflow must be allowed. One plan is to have an overflow
+opening made in the bottom of the basket in such a way that as the
+starch wall thickens, the opening recedes toward the center. The starch
+wall is either lifted out in cakes or put again in suspension by
+spraying water on it and conducting the mixture off.
+
+A centrifugal (Pat. 74,021) to separate liquids from paints depends on
+building a wall of paint on the sides of the basket and carrying the
+liquids off at the center.
+
+A centrifugal (Pat. 310,469) for assorting wood pulp, paper pulp, etc.,
+works by massing the constituents in two or three cylindrical strata,
+and after action severing and removing these separately.
+
+BREWING.--In brewing, centrifugals are quite useful. After the wort has
+been boiled with hops, albuminous matters are precipitated by the
+tannic acid, which must be extracted. Besides these the mixture
+frequently contains husk, fiber, and gluten. The machine (Pat.
+315,876), although quite unique in construction, has the same principle
+of working as a sugar centrifugal, and need not be described. There is
+one point, however, which might be noticed--that air is introduced at
+about the same point as the material, and has an oxidizing and
+refrigerating effect.
+
+Class I. includes also centrifugals for the following purposes: The
+removal of must from the grape after crushing, making butter,
+extracting oils from solid fats, separating the liquid and solid parts
+of sewerage, drying hides, skins, spent tan and the like, drying coils
+of wire.
+
+HORIZONTAL CENTRIFUGALS.--Only vertical machines have been and will be
+dealt with. Horizontal centrifugals, that is, those whose spindles are
+horizontal have been made, but the great inconvenience of charging and
+discharging connected with them has occasioned their disuse; though in
+other respects for liquids they are quite as good as vertical
+separators. Their underlying theory is practically the same as that
+hereinbefore discussed.
+
+CLASS II., CREAMERS.--Centrifugals of the second class separate liquids
+from liquids. There are two main applications in this class--to
+separate cream from milk and fusel oil from alcoholic liquors. When a
+liquid is to be separated from a liquid, the receptacle must be
+imperforate. The components of different specific gravity become
+arranged in distinct concentric cylindrical strata in the basket, and
+must be conducted away separately. In creamers the particles of cream
+must not be broken or subjected to any concussion, as partial churning
+is caused and the cream will, in consequence, sour more rapidly.
+
+The chief cause of oscillations in machines of this class, where the
+charge is liquid, is the waves which form on the inner surface. They
+may be met by allowing a slight overflow over the inner edge of the rim
+of the basket; or by having either horizontal partitions, or vertical,
+radial ones, special cases of which will be noticed. Oscillations may
+also be met in the same manner as in sugar machines, by allowing the
+revolving parts to revolve about an axis through their common center of
+gravity. (Pat. 360,342--J. Evans.)
+
+The crudest form of creamer contains a number of bottles, with their
+necks all directed toward the spindle, filled with milk. The necks, in
+which the cream collects, are graduated to tell when the operation is
+complete.
+
+Many methods for introducing the milk into creamers have been devised.
+It may run in from the top at the center, or emerge from a pipe at the
+bottom of the basket; or the spindle may be hollow and the milk sucked
+up through it from a basin below. It is usual to let the milk enter
+under hydrostatic pressure (Pat. 239,900--D. M. Weston) and let the
+force of expulsion of the cream be dependent on this pressure. This
+renders the escape quiet, and prevents churning. Gravity, too, is made
+effective in carrying the constituents off.
+
+The cream may escape through a passage in the bottom at the center, and
+the skim milk at the lower outer corner; or by ingeniously managed
+passages both may escape at or near center. The rate of discharge can
+be managed by regulating the size of opening of exit passages.
+
+A curious method consists in having discharge pipes provided with
+valves and floats at their lower ends, dipping into the liquid (Pat.
+240,175). "The valves are opened and closed, or partially opened or
+closed, by the floats attached to them, these floats being so
+constructed and arranged with reference to their specific gravity and
+the specific gravity of the component parts of the liquids operated
+upon, that they will permit only a liquid of a determinate specific
+gravity to escape through the pipes to which they are respectively
+attached."
+
+We may have tubes directed into the different strata with cutting
+edges. (Pat. 288,782.) A remarkable fact noticed in their use is that
+these edges wear as rapidly as if solids were cut instead of liquids.
+
+The separated fluids may be received into recessed rings, having
+discharge pipes, the proportionate quantity discharged being regulated
+by the proximity of the discharge lips to the surface of the ring, and
+the centrifugal force being availed of to project the liquids through
+the discharge pipes.
+
+There is a very simple device by which a very rapid circulation of the
+liquid is brought about. (Pat. 358,587--C.A. Backstrom.) The basket has
+radial vertical partitions, all but one having communicating holes,
+alternately in upper and lower corners. The milk is delivered into the
+basket on one side of this imperforate partition and must travel the
+whole circuit of the basket through these communicating holes, until it
+reaches the partition again, and then passes into a discharge pipe.
+Thus during this long course every particle of cream escapes to the
+center. As the holes are close to the walls of the basket, the cream
+has not the undulatory motion of the milk, which would injure it. The
+greater the number of partitions, the longer is the travel of the milk,
+and the more rapid the circulation. Blades have been devised similar to
+the above, having communicating passages extending the whole width of
+the blade, but we see that here the cream would circulate with the
+milk; which must not be allowed. Curved blades have been used, and
+paddles and stirrers, to set the milk in motion, but to them the same
+objection may be made.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30]
+
+Fig. 30 (Pat. 355,048--C.A. Backstrom) illustrates one of the latest
+and best styles of creamers. The milk enters at C. The skim milk passes
+into tube, T, and the cream goes to the center and passes out of the
+openings in the bottom, _k^{l}_, _k^{2}_, and _k^{3}_, out of the slit,
+k, and thence out through D^{5}. The skim milk moves through T,
+becoming more thoroughly separated all the while, and at each of the
+radial branch tubes, T^{1}, T^{2}, T^{3}, and T^{4}, some cream leaves
+it and goes to the center, while it passes down out of slit, t^{3}, and
+thence out of D^{6}.
+
+Fig. 31 (Pat. 355,050--C.A. Backstrom) shows another very late style of
+creamer. A pipe delivers the milk into P^{4}. Passing out of the tube
+separation takes place, and cream falls down the center to P^{2} and
+out of O^{3}. When the compartment under the first shelf becomes full
+of the skim milk, the latter passes up through the slot, S, strikes a
+radial partition, R, and its course is reversed. Here more cream
+separates and passes to center and falls directly, and so on through
+the whole series of annular compartments, until the top one, when the
+skim milk enters tube T^{2} and passes out of O^{2}. By this operation
+there are substantially repeated subjections of specified quantities of
+milk to the action of centrifugal force, bringing about a thorough
+separation. By changing the course of the milk in direction, its path
+is made longer. This machine can run at much lower speed than many
+other styles, and yet do the same work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31]
+
+CLASS III., SOLIDS FROM SOLIDS.--As for grain machines, which are in
+this class, it may be said that in centrifugal flour bolters, bran
+cleaners, and middlings purifiers, though theoretically centrifugal
+force plays an important part in their action, yet practically the real
+separation is brought about by other agencies: in some by brushes which
+rub the finer particles through wire netting as they rotate against it.
+
+The principle exhibited in a separator of grains and seeds is very
+neat. (Pat. 167,297.) See Fig. 32. That part of the machine with which
+we have to do consists essentially of a horizontal revolving disk. The
+mixed grains are cast on this disk, pass to the edge, and are hurled
+off at a tangent. Suppose at A. Each particle is immediately acted on
+by three forces. For all particles of the same size and having the same
+velocity the resistance of the air may be taken the same, that is,
+proportional to the area presented. The acceleration of gravity is the
+same; but the inertia of the heavier grain is greater. The resultant of
+the two conspiring forces R and (M_v_^{2})/2 varies, and is greater for
+a heavier grain. Therefore, the paths described in the air will vary,
+especially in length; and how this is utilized the drawing illustrates.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+ORE.--In ore machines there is one for pulverizing and separating coal
+(Pat. 306,544), in which there is a breaker provided with helical
+blades or paddles, partaking of rapid rotary motion within a stationary
+cylinder of wire netting. The dust, constituting the valuable part of
+the product, is hurled out as fast as formed. In this style of machine,
+beaters are necessary not only for pulverizing, but to get up rotary
+motion for generating centrifugal force. In the classes preceding, the
+friction of the basket sufficed for this latter purpose; but here there
+is no rotating basket and no definite charge. As the material falls
+through the machine, separation takes place. Various kinds of ore may
+be treated in the same manner.
+
+An "ore concentrator" (Pat. 254,123), as it is called, consists of a
+pan having rotary and oscillatory motions. Crushed ore is delivered
+over the edge in water. The heavy particles of the metal are thrown by
+centrifugal force against the rim of the pan, overcoming the force of
+the water, which carries the sand and other impurities in toward the
+center and away.
+
+AMALGAMATORS.--The best ore centrifugal or separator is what is called
+an "amalgamator." The last invention (Pat. 355,958, White) consists
+essentially of a pan, a meridian section of which would give a curve
+whose normal at any point is in the direction of the resultant of the
+centrifugal force at that point and gravity. There is a cover to this
+pan whose convexity almost fits the concavity of the pan, leaving a
+space of about an inch between. Crushed ore with water is admitted at
+the center between the cover and the pan, and is driven by centrifugal
+force through a mass of mercury (which occupies part of this space
+between the two) and out over the edge of the pan. The particles of
+metal coming in contact with the mercury amalgamate, and as the speed
+is regulated so that it is never great enough to hurl the mercury out,
+nothing but sand, water, etc., escape. There have been many different
+constructions devised, but this general principle runs through all. By
+having annular flanges running down from the cover with openings placed
+alternately, the mixture is compelled to follow a tortuous course, thus
+giving time for all the gold or other metal to become amalgamated.
+There are ridges in the pan, too, against which the amalgam lodges. It
+is claimed for this machine that not a particle of the precious metal
+is lost, and experiments seem to uphold the claim.
+
+A machine for separating fine from coarse clay for porcelain or for
+separating the finer quality of plumbago from the coarser for lead
+pencils uses an imperforate basket, against the wall of which the
+coarser part banks and catches under the rim. The finer part forms an
+inner cylindrical stratum, but is allowed to spill over the edge of the
+rim. The mixture is introduced at the bottom of the basket at the
+center.
+
+CLASS IV., GASES AND SOLIDS.--There is a very simple contrivance
+illustrating machines of this class used to free air from dust or other
+heavy solid impurities which may be in suspension. See Fig. 33. The air
+enters the passage, B (if it has no considerable velocity of itself, it
+must be forced in), forms a whirlpool in the conically shaped
+receptable, A, and passes up out of the passage, D. The heavy particles
+are thrown on the sides and collect there and fall through opening, C,
+into some closed receiver.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33]
+
+CLASS V., GASES AND LIQUIDS.--The occluded gases in steel and other
+metal castings, if not separated, render the castings more or less
+porous. This separation is effected by subjecting the molten metal to
+the action of centrifugal force under exclusion of air, producing not
+only the most minute division of the particles, but also a vacuum, both
+favorable conditions for obtaining a dense metal casting.
+
+Most of the devices for drying steam come under this head. Such are
+those in which the steam with the water in suspension is forced to take
+a circular path, by which the water is hurled by centrifugal force
+against the concave side of the passage and passes back to the water in
+the boiler.
+
+SPEED.--The centrifugal force of a revolving particle varies, as we
+have seen, as the square of the angular velocity, so that the effort
+has been to obtain as high a number of revolutions per minute as was
+consistent with safety and with the principle of the machine. For
+example, creamers which are small and light make 4,000 revolutions per
+minute, though the latest styles run much more slowly. Driers and sugar
+machines vary from 600 to 2,000, while on the other hand the necessity
+of keeping the mercury from hurling off in an amalgamator prevents its
+turning more rapidly than sixty or eighty times a minute.
+
+However, speed in another sense, the speed with which the operation is
+performed, is what especially characterizes centrifugal extractors. In
+this particular a contrast between the old methods and the new is
+impressive. Under the action of gravity, cream rises to the milk's
+surface, but compare the hours necessary for this to the almost
+instantaneous separation in a centrifugal creamer. The sugar
+manufacturer trusted to gravity to drain the sirup from his crystals,
+but the operation was long and at best imperfect. An average sugar
+centrifugal will separate 600 pounds of magma perfectly in three
+minutes. Gold quartz which formerly could not pay for its mining is now
+making its owners' fortunes. It is boasted by a Southern company that
+whereas they were by old methods making twenty-five _cents_ per ton of
+gold quartz, they now by the use of the latest amalgamator make
+twenty-five _dollars_. Centrifugal force, as applied in extractors, has
+opened up new industries and enlarged old ones, has lowered prices and
+added to our comforts, and centrifugal extractors may well command, as
+they do, the admiration of all as wonderful examples of the way in
+which this busy age economizes time.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW TYPE OF RAILWAY CAR.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--CAR WITH LATERAL PASSAGEWAYS.]
+
+Figs. 1 and 2 give a perspective view and plan of a new style of car
+recently adopted by the Bone-Guelma Railroad Company, and which has
+isolated compartments opening upon a lateral passageway. In this
+arrangement, which is due to Mr. Desgranges, the lateral passageway
+does not extend all along one side of the car, but passes through the
+center of the latter and then runs along the opposite side so as to
+form a letter S. The car consists in reality of two boxes connected
+beneath the transverse passageway, but having a continuous roof and
+flooring. The two ends are provided with platforms that are reached by
+means of steps, and that permit one to enter the corresponding half of
+the car or to pass on to the next. The length from end to end is 33
+feet in the mixed cars, comprising two first-class and four
+second-class compartments, and 32 feet in cars of the third class,
+with six compartments. The width of the compartments is 5.6 and 5
+feet, according to the class. The passageway is 28 inches in width in
+the mixed cars, and 24 in those of the third class. The roof is so
+arranged as to afford a circulation of cool air in the interior.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--PLAN.]
+
+The application of the zigzag passageway has the inconvenience of
+slightly elongating the car, but it is advantageous to the passengers,
+who can thus enjoy a view of the landscape on both sides of the
+train.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOUNDATIONS OF THE CENTRAL VIADUCT OF CLEVELAND, O.
+
+
+The Central viaduct, now under construction in the city of Cleveland,
+is probably the longest structure of the kind devoted entirely to
+street traffic. The superstructure is in two distinct portions,
+separated by a point of high ground. The main portion, extending
+across the river valley from Hill street to Jennings avenue, is 2,840
+feet long on the floor line, including the river bridge, a swing 233
+feet in length; the other portion, crossing Walworth run from Davidson
+street to Abbey street, is 1,093 feet long. Add to these the earthwork
+and masonry approaches, 1,415 feet long, and we have a total length of
+5,348 feet. The width of roadway is 40 feet, sidewalks 8 feet each.
+The elevation of the roadway above the water level at the river
+crossing is 102 feet. The superstructure is of wrought iron, mainly
+trapezoidal trusses, varying in length from 45 feet to 150 feet. The
+river piers are of first-class masonry, on pile and timber foundations.
+The other supports of the viaduct are wrought iron trestles on masonry
+piers, resting on broad concrete foundations. The pressure on the
+material beneath the concrete, which is plastic blue clay of varying
+degrees of stiffness mixed with fine sand, is about one ton per square
+foot.
+
+The Cuyahoga valley, which the viaduct crosses from bluff to bluff, is
+composed mainly of blue clay to a depth of over 150 feet below the
+river level. No attempt is made to carry the foundation to the rock.
+White oak piles from 50 to 60 feet in length and 10 inches in diameter
+at small end are driven for the bridge piers either side of the river
+bed, and these are cut off with a circular saw 18 feet below the
+surface of the water. Excavation by dredging was made to a depth of 3
+feet below where the piles are cut off to allow for the rising of the
+clay during the driving of the piles. The piles are spaced about 2
+feet 5 inches each way, center to center. The grillage or platform
+covering the piles consists of 14 courses of white oak timber, 12
+inches by 12 inches, having a few pine timbers interspersed so as to
+allow the mass to float during construction. The lower half of the
+platform was built on shore, care being taken to keep the lower
+surface of the mass of timber out of wind. The upper and lower
+surfaces of each timber were dressed in a Daniels planer, and all
+pieces in the same course were brought to a uniform thickness. The
+timbers in adjacent courses are at right angles to each other. The
+lower course is about 58 feet by 22 feet, the top course about 50 by
+24 feet, thus allowing four steps of one foot each all around. The
+first course of masonry is 48 feet by 21 feet 8 inches; the first
+course of battered work is 41 feet 81/2 inches by 16 feet 3 inches. Thus
+the area of the platform on the piles is 1,856 square feet, and of the
+first batter course of masonry 777.6 square feet, or in the ratio of
+2.4 to 1. The height of the masonry is 78 feet above the timber, or
+731/2 feet above the water. The number of piles in each foundation is
+312. The average load per pile is about 11 tons, and the estimated
+pressure per square inch of the timber on the heads of the piles is
+about 200 pounds.
+
+To prevent the submersion of the lower courses of masonry during
+construction, temporary sides of timber were drift-bolted to the
+margin of the upper course of the timber platform, and carried high
+enough to be above the surface of the water when the platform was sunk
+to the head of the piles by the increasing weight of masonry.
+
+The center pier is octagonal, and is built in the same general manner
+as to foundations as the shore piers, but the piles are cut off 22
+feet below water, and there are eighteen courses of timber in the
+grillage. The diameter of the platform between parallel sides is 53
+feet, while that of the lower course of battered masonry is but 37
+feet. The areas are as 2,332 to 1,147, or as 2 to 1 nearly. The
+pressure per square inch of timber on the heads of the piles is about
+the same as stated above for the shore piers. The number of piles
+under the center pier is 483.
+
+The risks and delays by this method of constructing the foundations
+were much less, and the cost also, than if an ordinary coffer dam had
+been used. Also the total weight of the piers is much less, as that
+portion below a point about two feet below the water adds nothing to
+their weight.
+
+The piles were driven with a Cram steam hammer weighing two tons, in a
+frame weighing also two tons. The iron frame rests directly upon the
+head of the pile and goes down with it. The fall of the hammer is
+about 40 inches before striking the pile. The total penetration of the
+piles into the clay averaged 27 feet. The settlement of the pile
+during the final strokes of the hammer varied from one quarter to
+three quarters of an inch per blow.
+
+There are 122 masonry pedestals, of which eight are large and heavy,
+carrying spans of considerable length. They will all be built upon
+concrete beds, except a few near the river on the north side, where
+piles are required.
+
+The four abutments with their retaining walls are of first-class
+rock-faced masonry. The footing courses are stepped out liberally, so
+as to present an unusually large bottom surface. They rest on beds of
+concrete 4 feet thick. The foundation pits are about 50 feet below the
+top of the bluffs, and are in a material common to the Cleveland
+plateau, a mixture of blue sand and clay, with some water. The
+estimated load of masonry on the earth at the bottom of the concrete
+is one and seven tenths tons to the square foot. Two of the large
+abutments were completed last season. They show an average settlement
+of three eighths of an inch since the lower footing courses were laid.
+
+The facts and figures here given regarding the viaduct were kindly
+furnished by the city civil engineer, C.G. Force, who has the work in
+charge.--_Jour. Asso. of Eng. Societies._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+For sticking paper to zinc, use starch paste with which a little
+Venice turpentine has been incorporated, or else use a dilute solution
+of white gelatine or isinglass.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS AT MARE ISLAND NAVY YARD, CALIFORNIA.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: Built by the Southwark Foundry and Machine Company,
+               of Philadelphia.]
+
+By H.R. CORNELIUS.
+
+
+In December, 1883, bids were asked for by the United States government
+on pumping machinery, to remove the water from a dry dock for vessels
+of large size.
+
+The dimensions of the dock, which is situated on San Pablo Bay,
+directly opposite the city of Vallejo, are as follows:
+
+Five hundred and twenty-nine feet wide at its widest part, 36 feet
+deep, with a capacity at mean tide of 9,000,000 gallons.
+
+After receiving the contract, several different sizes of pumps were
+considered, but the following dimensions were finally chosen: Two 42
+inch centrifugal pumps, with runner 66 inches in diameter and
+discharge pipes 42 inches, each driven direct by a vertical engine
+with 28 inch diameter cylinder and 24 inch stroke.
+
+These were completed and shipped in June, 1885, on nine cars,
+constituting a special train, which arrived safely at its destination
+in the short space of two weeks, and the pumps were there erected on
+foundations prepared by the government.
+
+From the "Report of the Chief of Bureau of Yards and Docks" I quote
+the following account of the official tests:
+
+     "The board appointed to make the test resolved to fill the
+     dock to about the level that would attain in actual service
+     with a naval ship of second rate in the dock, and the tide at
+     a stage which would give the minimum pumping necessary to
+     free the dock. The level of the 20th altar was considered as
+     the proper point, and the water was admitted through two of
+     the gates of the caisson until this level was reached; they
+     were then closed. The contents of the dock at this point is
+     5,963,921 gallons.
+
+     "The trial was commenced and continued to completion without
+     any interruption in a very satisfactory manner.
+
+     "In the separate trials had of each pump, the average
+     discharge per minute was taken of the whole process, and
+     there was a singular uniformity throughout with equal piston
+     speed of the engine.
+
+     "It was to be expected, and in a measure realized, that
+     during the first moments of the operations, when the level of
+     the water in the dock was above the center of the runner of
+     the pumps, that the discharge would be proportioned to the
+     work done, where no effort was necessary to maintain a free
+     and full flow through the suction pipes; but as the level
+     passed lower and farther away from the center there was no
+     apparent diminution of the flow, and no noticeable addition
+     to the load imposed on the engine. The variation in piston
+     speed, noted during the trial, was probably due to the
+     variation of the boiler pressure, as it was difficult to
+     preserve an equal pressure, as it rose in spite of great
+     care, owing to the powerful draught and easy steaming
+     qualities of the boilers.
+
+     "After the trial of the second pump had been completed the
+     dock was again filled through the caisson, and as both pumps
+     were to be tried, the water was admitted to a level with the
+     23d altar, containing 7,317,779 gallons, which was seven feet
+     above the center of the pumps; this was in favor of the pumps
+     for the reasons before stated. In this case all the boilers
+     were used.
+
+     "Everything moved most admirably, and the performance of
+     these immense machines was almost startling. By watching the
+     water in the dock it could be seen to lower bodily, and so
+     rapidly that it could be detected by the eye without
+     reference to any fixed point.
+
+     "The well which communicates with the suction tunnel was
+     open, and the water would rise and fall, full of rapid swirls
+     and eddies, though far above the entrance of these tunnels.
+     Through the man hole in the discharge culvert the issuance
+     from the pipes could be seen, and its volume was beyond
+     conception. It flowed rapidly through the culvert, and its
+     outfall was a solid prism of water, the full size of the
+     tunnel, projecting far into the river.
+
+     "During a pumping period of 55 minutes, the dock had been
+     emptied from the twenty-third to two inches above the sixth
+     altar, containing 6,210,698 gallons, an average throughout of
+     112,922 gallons per minute. At one time, when the revolutions
+     were increased to 160 per minute, the discharge was 137,797
+     gallons per minute. This is almost a river, and is hardly
+     conceivable. After the pumps were stopped, on this occasion,
+     tests were made with each in succession as to the power of
+     the ejectors with which each is fitted to recharge the pumps.
+
+     "The valves in the discharge pipe were closed and steam
+     admitted to the ejector, the pump being still and no water in
+     the gauge glass on the pump casing, which must be full before
+     the pumps will work. The suction pipe of the ejector is only
+     two and a half inches in diameter, the steam pipe one inch in
+     diameter. To fully charge the pumps at this point required
+     filling the pump casing and the suction pipe containing about
+     2,000 gallons; this was accomplished in four minutes, and
+     when the gauge glass was full the pump operated instantly and
+     with certainty, discharging its full volume of water.
+
+     "I went on several occasions down in the valve pits on the
+     ladder of the casing, and to all accessible parts while in
+     motion at its highest speed, and there was no undue
+     vibration, only a uniform murmur of well-balanced parts, and
+     the peculiar clash of water against the sides of the casing
+     as its velocity was checked by the blank spaces in the
+     runner.
+
+     "The pumps are noisy while at work, due to the clashing of
+     the water just mentioned, but it affords a means of detecting
+     any faulty arrangements of the runner or unequal discharge
+     from any of its openings. While moving at a uniform speed,
+     this clashing has a tone whose pitch corresponds with that
+     velocity of discharge, and if this tone is lacking in
+     quality, or at all confused, there is want of equality of
+     discharge through the various openings of the runner. To this
+     part I gave close attention, and there was nothing that the
+     ear could detect to indicate aught but the nicest adjustment.
+     The bearings of the runners worked with great smoothness, and
+     did not become at all heated. Through a simple, novel
+     arrangement, these bearings are lubricated and kept cool.
+     There is a constant circulation of water from the pumps by
+     means of a small pipe, which completes a circuit to an
+     annular in the bearings back to the discharge pipe while the
+     pump is in motion, requiring no oil and making it seemingly
+     impossible to heat these bearings.
+
+     "The large cast steel valves placed in the embouchement of
+     the casing, it was thought, might act to check the free
+     discharge, and arrangements were provided for raising and
+     keeping them open by a long lever key attached to their axes
+     of revolution, but, to our great surprise, at the first gush
+     from the pumps these valves, weighing nearly 1,500 pounds,
+     were lifted into their recessed chambers, giving an
+     unobstructed opening to the flow, and they floated on its
+     surface unsupported, save by the swiftly flowing water,
+     without a movement, while the pump was in operation.
+
+     "The steam-actuated valves in the suction and discharge pipes
+     worked very well, and the water cushion gave a slow, uniform
+     motion, and without shock, either in opening or closing them.
+
+     "The engines worked noiselessly, without shock or labor. At
+     no time during the trial was the throttle valve open more
+     than three-eighths of an inch.
+
+     "The indicator cards taken at various intervals gave 796
+     horse power, and the revolutions did not exceed 160 at any
+     time, though it was estimated that 900 horse power and 210
+     revolutions would be necessary to attain the requisite
+     delivery. So that there is a large reserve of power available
+     at any time.
+
+     "The erection of this massive machinery has been admirably
+     done. The parts, as sent from the shops of the contractor,
+     have matched in all cases without interference here; and,
+     when lowered into place, its final adjustment was then made
+     without the use of chisel or file, and has never been touched
+     since.
+
+     "The joints of the steam and water connections were perfect,
+     and the method of concentrating all valves, waste pipes, and
+     important movements at the post of the engineer in charge
+     gives him complete control of the whole system of each engine
+     and pump without leaving his place, and reduces to a minimum
+     the necessary attendance. All the parts are strong and of
+     excellent design and workmanship; simple, and without
+     ornamentation.
+
+     "Looking down upon them from a level of the pump house
+     gallery, they are impressive and massive in their simplicity.
+
+     "The government is well worth of congratulation in possessing
+     the largest pumping machinery of this type and of the
+     greatest capacity in the world, and the contractors have
+     reason to be proud of their work."--_Proc. Eng. Club._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PART THAT ELECTRICITY PLAYS IN CRYSTALLIZATION.
+
+
+Since the discovery of the multiplying galvanometer, we know for an
+absolute certainty that in every chemical action there is a production
+of electricity in a more or less notable quantity, according to the
+nature of the bodies in presence. Though, in the play of _affinity_,
+there is a manifestation of electricity, is it the same with
+_cohesion_, which also is a chemical force?
+
+We know, on another hand, that, on causing electricity to intervene,
+we bring about the crystallization of a large number of substances.
+But is the converse true? Is spontaneous crystallization accompanied
+with an appreciable manifestation of electricity? If we consult the
+annals of science and works treating on electricity in regard to this
+subject, we find very few examples and experiments proper to elucidate
+the question.
+
+Mr. Mascart is content to say: "Some experiments seem to indicate that
+the solidification of a body produces electricity." Mr. Becquerel does
+more than doubt--he denies: "As regards the disengagement of
+electricity in the changing of the state of bodies, we find none."
+This assertion is too sweeping, for further along we shall cite facts
+that prove, on the contrary, that in the phenomena of crystallization
+(to speak of this change of state only) there is an unequivocal
+production of electricity. Let us remark, in the first place, that
+when a number of phenomena of physical and chemical order
+incontestably testify to the very intimate correlation that exists
+between the molecular motions of bodies and their electrical state, it
+would not be very logical to grant that electricity is absent in
+crystallization.
+
+Thus, to select an example from among physical effects, the vibratory
+phenomena that occur in telephone transmissions, under the influence
+of a very feeble electric current, show us that the molecular
+constitution of a solid body is extremely variable, although within
+slight limits. The feeblest modification in the electric current may
+be shown by molecular motions capable of propagating themselves to
+considerable distances in the conducting wire. Conversely, it is
+logical to suppose that a modification in the molecular state of a
+body must bring electricity into play. If, in the phenomena of
+solidification, and particularly of crystallization, we collect but
+small quantities of electricity, that may be due to the fact that,
+under the experimental conditions involved, the electricity is more or
+less completely absorbed by the work of crystal building.
+
+On another hand, the behavior of electricity shows in advance the
+multiple role that this agent may play in the various physical,
+chemical, and mechanical phenomena.
+
+There is no doubt that electricity exists immovable or in circulation
+everywhere, latent or imperceptible, around us, and within ourselves,
+and that it enters as a cause into the majority of the chemical,
+physical, and mechanical phenomena that are constantly taking place
+before our eyes. A body cannot change state, nature, temperature,
+form, or place, even, without electricity being brought into play, and
+without its accompanying such modifications, if it presides therein.
+Like heat, it is _the_ natural agent _par excellence_; it is the
+invisible and ever present force which, in the ultimate particles of
+matter, causes those motions, vibrations, and rotations that have the
+effect of changing the properties of bodies. Upon entering their
+intimate structure, it orients or groups their atoms, and separates
+their molecules or brings them together. From this, would it not be
+surprising if it did not intervene in the wonderful phenomenon of
+crystallization? Crystallization, in fact, depends upon _cohesion_,
+and, in the thermic theory, this force is not distinct from affinity,
+just as solution and dissociation are not distinct from combination.
+
+On this occasion, it is necessary to say that, between affinity, heat,
+and electricity there is such a correlation, such a dependency, that
+physicists have endeavored to reduce to one single principle all the
+causes that are now distinct. The mechanical theory of heat has made a
+great stride in this direction.
+
+The equivalence of the thermic, mechanical and chemical forces has
+been demonstrated; the only question hereafter will be to select from
+among such forces the one that must be adopted as the sole principle,
+in order to account for all the phenomena that depend upon these
+causes of various orders. But in the present state of science, it is
+not yet possible to explain completely by heat or electricity, taken
+isolatedly, all the effects dependent upon the causes just mentioned.
+We must confine ourselves for the present to a study of the relations
+that exist between the principal natural forces--affinity, molecular
+forces, heat, electricity, and light. But from the mutual dependence
+of such forces, it is admitted that, in every natural phenomenon,
+there is a more or less apparent simultaneous concurrence of these
+causes.
+
+In order to explain electric or magnetic phenomena, and also those of
+crystallization, it is admitted that the atoms of which bodies are
+composed are surrounded, each of them, with a sort of atmosphere
+formed of electric currents, owing to which these atoms are attracted
+or repelled on certain sides, and produce those varied effects that we
+observe under different circumstances. According to this theory, then,
+atoms would be small electro-magnets behaving like genuine magnets.
+Entirely free in gases, but less so in liquids and still less so in
+solids, they are nevertheless capable of arranging themselves and of
+becoming polarized in a regular order, special to each kind of atom,
+in order to produce crystals of geometrical form characteristic of
+each species. Thus, as Mr. Saigey remarks in "Physique Moderne" (p.
+181): "So long as the atmospheres of the molecules do not touch each
+other, no trace of cohesion manifests itself; but as soon as they come
+together force is born. We understand why the temperatures of fusion
+and solidification are fixed for the same body. Such effects occur at
+the precise moment at which these atmospheres, which are variable with
+the temperature, have reached the desired diameter."
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 1., 2., and 3.]
+
+Although the phenomenon of crystallization does not essentially depend
+upon temperature, but rather upon the relative quantity of liquid that
+holds the substance in solution, it will be conceived that a moment
+will arrive when, the liquid having evaporated, the atmospheres will
+be close enough to each other to attract each other and become
+polarized and symmetrically juxtaposed, and, in a word, to
+crystallize.
+
+Before giving examples of the production of electricity in the
+phenomenon of crystallization, it will be well to examine, beforehand,
+the different circumstances under which electricity acts as the
+determining cause of crystallization or intervenes among the causes
+that bring about the phenomenon. In the first place, two words
+concerning crystallization itself: We know that crystallization is the
+passage, or rather the result of the passage, of a body from a liquid
+or gaseous state to a solid one. It occurs when the substance has lost
+its cohesion through any cause whatever, and when, such cause ceasing
+to act, the body slowly returns to a solid state.
+
+Under such circumstances, it may take on regular, geometrical forms
+called crystalline. Such conditions are brought about by different
+processes--fusion, volatilization, solution, the dry way, wet way, and
+electric way. Further along, we shall give some examples of the last
+named means.
+
+Let us add that crystallization may be regarded as a general property
+of bodies, for the majority of substances are capable of
+crystallizing. Although certain bodies seem to be amorphous at first
+sight, it is only necessary to examine their fracture with a lens or
+microscope to see that they are formed of a large number of small
+juxtaposed crystals. Many amorphous precipitates become crystalline in
+the long run.
+
+In the examination of the various crystallizations that occupy us, we
+shall distinguish the following: (1) Those that are produced through
+the direct intervention of the electric current; (2) those in which
+electricity is manifestly produced by small voltaic couples resulting
+from the presence of two different metals in the solution experimented
+with; (3) those in which there are no voltaic couples, but in which it
+is proved that electricity is one of the causes that concur in the
+production of the phenomenon; (4) finally, those in which it is
+rational, through analogy with the preceding, to infer that
+electricity is not absent from the phenomenon.
+
+I. We know that, by means of voltaic electricity or induction, we can
+crystallize a large number of substances.
+
+Despretz tried this means for months at a time upon carbon, either by
+using the electricity from a Ruhmkorff coil or the current from a weak
+Daniell's battery. In both cases, he obtained on the platinum wires a
+black powder, in which were found very small octohedral crystals,
+having the property of polishing rubies rapidly and perfectly--a
+property characteristic of diamonds.
+
+The use of voltaic apparatus of high tension has allowed Mr. Cross to
+form a large number of mineral substances artificially, and among
+these we may mention carbonate of lime, arragonite, quartz, arseniate
+of copper, crystalline sulphur, etc.
+
+As regards products formed with the concurrence of electricity
+(oxides, sulphides, chlorides, iodides, etc.), see "Des Forces
+Physico-Chimiques," by Becquerel (p. 231).
+
+There is no doubt as to the part played by electricity in the chemical
+effects of electro-metallurgy, but it will not prove useless for our
+subject to remark that when, in this operation, the current has become
+too weak, the deposit of metal, instead of forming in a thin,
+adherent, and uniform layer, sometimes occurs under the form of
+protuberances and crystalline, brittle nodules. When, on the contrary,
+the current is very strong, the deposit is pulverulent, that is, in a
+confused crystallization or in an amorphous state.
+
+Further along, we shall find an application of this remark. We obtain,
+moreover, all the intermediate effects of cohesion, form, and color of
+galvanic deposits.
+
+When, into a solution of acetate of lead, we pass a current through
+two platinum electrodes, we observe the formation, at the negative
+pole, of numerous arborizations of metallic lead that grow under the
+observer's eye (Fig. 1). The phenomenon is of a most interesting
+character when, by means of solar or electric light, we project these
+brilliant vegetations on a screen. One might believe that he was
+witness of the rapid growth of a plant (Fig. 2). The same phenomenon
+occurs none the less brilliantly with a solution of nitrate of silver.
+A large number of saline solutions are adapted to these
+decompositions, in which the metal is laid bare under a crystalline
+form. Further along we shall see another means of producing analogous
+ramifications, without the direct use of the electric current.--_C.
+Decharme, in La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRIC TIME.
+
+By M. LIPPMANN.
+
+
+The unit of time universally adopted, the second, undergoes only very
+slow secular variations, and can be determined with a precision and an
+ease which compel its employment. Still it is true that the second is
+an arbitrary and a variable unit--arbitrary, in as far as it has no
+relation with the properties of matter, with physical constants;
+variable, since the duration of the diurnal movement undergoes causes
+of secular perturbation, some of which, such as the friction of the
+tides, are not as yet calculable.
+
+We may ask if it is possible to define an absolutely invariable unit
+of time; it would be desirable to determine with sufficient precision,
+if only once in a century, the relation of the second to such a unit,
+so that we might verify the variations of the second indirectly and
+independently of any astronomical hypothesis.
+
+Now, the study of certain electrical phenomena furnishes a unit of
+time which is absolutely invariable, as this magnitude is a specific
+constant. Let us consider a conductive substance which may always be
+found identical with itself, and to fix our ideas let us choose
+mercury, taken at the temperature of 0 deg. C., which completely fulfills
+this condition. We may determine by several methods the specific
+electric resistance, [rho], of mercury in absolute electrostatic
+units; [rho] is a specific property of mercury, and is consequently a
+magnitude absolutely invariable. Moreover, [rho] is _an interval of
+time_. We might, therefore, take [rho] as a unit of time, unless we
+prefer to consider this value as an imperishable standard of time.
+
+In fact, [rho] is not simply a quantity the measure of which is found
+to be in relation with the measure of time. It is a concrete interval
+of time, disregarding every convention established with reference to
+measures and every selection of unit. It may at first sight, appear
+singular that an interval of time is found in a manner hidden under
+the designation _electric resistance_. But we need merely call to mind
+that in the electrostatic system the intensities of the current are
+speeds of efflux and that the resistances are times, i.e., the times
+necessary for the efflux of the electricity under given conditions. We
+must, in particular, remember what is meant by the specific
+resistance, [rho] of mercury in the electrostatic system. If we
+consider a circuit having a resistance equal to that of a cube of
+mercury, the side of which = the unit of length, the circuit being
+submitted to an electromotive force equal to unity, this circuit will
+take a given time to be traversed by the unit quantity of electricity,
+and this time is precisely [rho]. It must be remarked that the
+selection of the unit of length, like that of the unit of mass, is
+indifferent, for the different units brought here into play depend on
+it in such a manner that [rho] is not affected.
+
+It is now required to bring this definition experimentally into
+action, i.e., to realize an interval of time which may be a known
+multiple of [rho]. This problem may be solved in various ways,[1] and
+especially by means of the following apparatus.
+
+   [Footnote 1: In this system the measurement of time is not
+    effected, as ordinarily, by observing the movements of a
+    material system, but by experiments of equilibrium. All the
+    parts of the apparatus remain immovable, the electricity alone
+    being in motion. Such appliances are in a manner clepsydrae. This
+    analogy with the clepsydrae will be perceived if we consider the
+    form of the following experiment: Two immovable metallic plates
+    constitute the armatures of a charged condenser, and attract
+    each other with a force, F. If the plates are insulated, these
+    charges remain constant, as well as the force, F. If, on the
+    contrary, we connect the armatures of resistance, R, their
+    charges diminish and the force, F, becomes a function of the
+    time, _t_; the time, _t_, inversely becomes a function of P. We
+    find _t_ by the following formula:
+
+        t = [rho] x (lS / S[pi]es) x log hyp(F0/F)
+
+    F0 and F being the values of the force at the beginning and
+    at the end of the time, _t_. The above formula is independent of
+    the choice of units. If we wish _t_ to be expressed in seconds,
+    we must give [rho] the corresponding value ([rho] = 1.058 X
+    10^-16). If we take [rho] as a unit we make [rho] = 1, and we
+    find the absolute value of the time by the expression:
+
+        (lS) / (8[pi]es) log hyp(F0/F)
+
+    We remark that this expression of time contains only abstract
+    numbers, being independent of the choice of the units of length
+    and force. S and _e_ denote surface and the thickness of the
+    condenser; _s_ and _l_ the section and the length of a column of
+    mercury of the resistance, R. This form of apparatus enables us
+    practically to measure the notable values of _t_ only if the
+    value of the resistance, R, is enormous, the arrangement
+    described in the text has not the same inconvenience.]
+
+A battery of an arbitrary electromotive force, E, actuates at the same
+time the two antagonistic circuits of a differential galvanometer. In
+the first circuit, which has a resistance, R, the battery sends a
+continuous current of the intensity, I; in the second circuit the
+battery sends a discontinuous series of discharges, obtained by
+charging periodically by means of the battery a condenser of the
+capacity, C, which is then discharged through this second circuit. The
+needle of the galvanometer remains in equilibrium if the two currents
+yield equal quantities of electricity during one and the same time,
+[tau].
+
+Let us suppose this condition of equilibrium realized and the needle
+remaining motionless at zero; it is easy to write the conditions of
+equilibrium. During the time, [tau], the continuous current yields a
+                           E
+quantity of electricity = -- [tau]; on the other hand, each charge of
+                           R
+the condenser = CE, and during the time, [tau], the number of
+             [tau]
+discharges = -----, t being the fixed time between two discharges;
+               t
+[tau] and t are here supposed to be expressed by the aid of an
+arbitrary unit of time; the second circuit yields, therefore, a
+                                      [tau]
+quantity of electricity equal to CE x -----. The condition of
+                                        t
+                      E              [tau]
+equilibrium is then  ---[tau] = CE x ----- ; or, more simply, t = CR.
+                      R                t
+C and R are known in absolute values, i.e., we know that C is equal to
+_p_ times the capacity of a sphere of the radius, _l_; we have,
+therefore, C = _pl_; in the same manner we know that R is equal to _q_
+times the resistance of a cube of mercury having l for its side. We
+                             l      [rho]
+have, therefore, R = q[rho] --- = q ----- ; and consequently t = pq[rho].
+                             l squared       l
+
+Such is the value of _t_ obtained on leaving all the units
+undetermined. If we express [rho] as a function of the second, we have
+_t_ in seconds. If we take [rho] = 1, we have the absolute value
+[Theta] of the same interval of time as a function of this unit; we
+have simply [Theta] = _pq_.
+
+If we suppose that the commutator which produces the successive
+charges and discharges of the condenser consists of a vibrating tuning
+fork, we see that the duration of a vibration is equal to the product
+of the two abstract numbers, _pq_.
+
+It remains for us to ascertain to what degree of approximation we can
+determine _p_ and _q_. To find _q_ we must first construct a column of
+mercury of known dimensions; this problem was solved by the
+International Bureau of Weights and Measures for the construction of
+the legal ohm. The legal ohm is supposed to have a resistance equal to
+106.00 times that of a cube of mercury of 0.01 meter, side
+measurement. The approximation obtained is comprised between 1/50000
+and 1/200000. To obtain _p_, we must be able to construct a plane
+condenser of known capacity. The difficulty here consists in knowing
+with a sufficient approximation the thickness of the stratum of air.
+We may employ as armatures two surfaces of glass, ground optically,
+silvered to render them conductive, but so slightly as to obtain by
+transparence Fizeau's interference rings. Fizeau's method will then
+permit us to arrive at a close approximation. In fine, then, we may,
+_a priori_, hope to reach an approximation of one hundred-thousandth
+of the value of _pq_.
+
+Independently of the use which may be made of it for measuring time in
+absolute value, the apparatus described possesses peculiar properties.
+It constitutes a kind of clock which indicates, registers, and, if
+needful, corrects automatically its own variations of speed. The
+apparatus being regulated so that the magnetic needle may be at zero,
+if the speed of the commutator is slightly increased, the equilibrium
+is disturbed and the magnetic needle deviates in the corresponding
+direction; if on the contrary the speed diminishes, the action of the
+antagonistic circuit predominates, and the needle deviates in the
+contrary direction. These deviations, when small, are proportional to
+the variations of speed. They may be, in the first place, observed.
+They may, further, be registered, either photographically or by
+employing a Redier apparatus, like that which M. Mascart has adapted
+to his quadrant electrometer; finally, we may arrange the Redier to
+react upon the speed so as to reduce its variations to zero. If these
+variations are not completely annulled, they will still be registered
+and can be taken into account.
+
+As an indicator of variations this apparatus can be of remarkable
+sensitiveness, which may be increased indefinitely by enlarging its
+dimensions.
+
+With a battery of 10 volts, a condenser of a microfarad, 10 discharges
+per second, and a Thomson's differential galvanometer sensitive to
+10^{-10} amperes, we obtain already a sensitiveness of 1/1000000,
+i.e., a variation of 1/1000000 in the speed is shown after some
+seconds of a deviation of one millimeter. Even the stroboscopic method
+does not admit of such sensitiveness.
+
+We may therefore find, with a very close approximation, a speed always
+the same on condition that the solid parts of the apparatus (the
+condenser and the resistance) are protected from causes of variation
+and used always at the same temperature. Doubtless, a well-constructed
+astronomical clock maintains a very uniform movement; but the electric
+clock is placed in better conditions for invariability, for all the
+parts are massive and immovable; they are merely required to remain
+unchanged, and there is no question of the wear and tear of
+wheel-work, the oxidation of oils, or the variations of weight. In
+other words, the system formed by a condenser and a resistance
+constitutes a standard of time easy of preservation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW METHOD OF MAINTAINING THE VIBRATION OF A PENDULUM.
+
+
+A recent number of the _Comptes Rendus_ contains a note by M.J.
+Carpentier describing a method of maintaining the vibrations of a
+pendulum by means of electricity, which differs from previous devices
+of the same character in that the impulse given to the pendulum at
+each vibration is independent of the strength of the current employed,
+and that the pendulum itself is entirely free, save at the point of
+suspension. The vibrations are maintained, not by direct impulsion,
+but by a slight horizontal displacement of the point of suspension in
+alternate directions.
+
+This, as M. Carpentier observes, is the method which we naturally
+adopt in order to maintain the amplitude of swing of a heavy body
+suspended from a cord held in the hand. The required movement of the
+point of suspension is effected by means of a polarized relay, through
+the coils of which the current is periodically reversed by the action
+of the pendulum, in a manner which will presently be explained. The
+armature of the relay oscillates between two stops whose distance
+apart is capable of fine adjustment.
+
+It is clear, therefore, that the impulse is independent of the
+strength of the current in the relay, provided that the armature is
+brought up to the stop on either side. The reversal of the current is
+effected by means of a small magnet carried by the bob of the
+pendulum, and which as it passes underneath the point of suspension is
+brought close to a soft iron armature, which has the form of an arc of
+a circle described about the point of suspension. This armature is
+pivoted at its center, and thus executes vibrations synchronously with
+those of the pendulum. These vibrations are adjusted to a very narrow
+range, but are sufficient to close the contacts of a commutator which
+reverses the current at each semi-vibration of the pendulum.
+
+The beauty and ingenuity of this device will readily be appreciated.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DR. MORELL MACKENZIE.
+
+
+The name of the great English laryngologist, which has long been
+honored by scientists of England and the Continent, has lately become
+familar to everyone, even in unprofessional circles, in Germany
+because of his operations on the Crown Prince's throat. If his wide
+experience and great skill enable him to permanently remove the growth
+from the throat of his royal patient, if his diagnosis and prognosis
+are confirmed, so that no fear need be entertained for the life and
+health of the Crown Prince, the English specialist will certainly
+deserve the most sincere thanks of the German nation. Every phase of
+this treatment, every new development, is watched with suspense and
+hope.
+
+Many have been unable to suppress the expression of regret that this
+important case was not under the care of a German, and part of the
+press look upon it as unjust treatment of the German specialists. But
+science is international, it knows no political boundaries, and the
+choice of Dr. Mackenzie by the family of the Crown Prince, whose
+sympathy with England is natural, cannot be considered a slight to
+German physicians when it is taken into consideration that the German
+authorities pronounced the growth suspicious and advised a difficult
+and doubtful operation, and that Prof. v. Bergman recommended that a
+foreign authority be consulted. As Dr. Mackenzie removed the
+obstruction, which had already become threatening and, in fact,
+dangerous, causing a loss of voice, and promised to remove any new
+growth from the inside without danger to the patient, the Crown Prince
+naturally trusted him. Since Virchow has made a microscopic examination
+of the part which was cut away, and has declared the new growth to be
+benign, all Germans should watch the results of Dr. Mackenzie's
+operations with sympathy, trusting that all further growth will be
+prevented, and that the Crown Prince will be restored to the German
+people in his former state of health.
+
+[Illustration: DR. MORELL MACKENZIE.]
+
+Dr. Morell Mackenzie has lately reached his fiftieth year, and has
+attained the height of his fame as an author and practitioner. He was
+born at Leytonston in 1837, and studied first in London. At the age
+of twenty-two he passed his examination, then practiced as physician
+in the London Hospital, and obtained his degree in 1862. A year later
+he received the Jackson prize from the Royal Society of Surgeons for
+his treatment of a laryngeal case.
+
+He completed his studies in Paris, Vienna (with Siegmund), and
+Budapest. In the latter place he worked with Czermak, making a special
+study of the laryngoscope. Later he published an excellent work on
+"Diseases of the Throat and Nose," which was the fruit of twelve
+years' work. The evening before the day on which this work was to have
+been issued, the whole edition was destroyed by a fire which occurred
+in the printing establishment, and had to be reprinted from the proof
+sheets, which were saved. In 1870 his work "On Growths in the Throat"
+appeared, and he has also published many articles in the _British
+Medical Journal_, the _Lancet_, _Medical Times and Gazette_, etc.,
+which have been translated into different languages, making his name
+renowned all over Europe.
+
+Since he founded the first English hospital for diseases of the throat
+and chest, in London in 1863, and held the position of lecturer on
+diseases of the throat in the London Medical College, his career has
+been watched with interest by the public, and his practice in England
+is remarkable. Therefore it is no wonder that his lately published
+work "On the Hygiene of the Vocal Organs" has reached its fourth
+edition already. This work is read not only by physicians, but also by
+singers and lecturers.
+
+As a learned man in his profession, as an experienced diagnostician,
+and as a skillful and fortunate practitioner, he is surpassed by none;
+and his ability will be well known far beyond the borders of Great
+Britain if fortune favors him and he restores the future Emperor of
+Germany to his former strength and vigor, without which we cannot
+imagine this knightly form. The certainty with which Dr. Mackenzie
+speaks of permanent cures which he has effected in similar cases,
+together with the clear and satisfactory report of the great
+pathologist Virchow, lead us to look to the future with
+confidence.--_Illustrirte Zeitung._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HYPNOTISM IN FRANCE.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: Translated for _Science_ from _Der Spinx_.]
+
+
+The voluntary production of those abnormal conditions of the nerves
+which to-day are denoted by the term "hypnotic researches" has
+manifested itself in all ages and among most of the nations that are
+known to us. Within modern times these phenomena were first reduced to
+a system by Mesmer, and, on this account, for the future deserve the
+attention of the scientific world. The historical description of this
+department, if one intends to give a connected account of its
+development, and not a series of isolated facts, must begin with a
+notice of Mesmer's personality, and we must not confound the more
+recent development of our subject with its past history.
+
+The period of mesmerism is sufficiently understood from the numerous
+writings on the subject, but it would be a mistake to suppose that in
+Braid's "Exposition of Hypnotism" the end of this subject had been
+reached. In a later work I hope to show that the fundamental ideas of
+biomagnetism have not only had in all periods of this century capable
+and enthusiastic advocates, but that even in our day they have been
+subjected to tests by French and English investigators from which they
+have issued triumphant.
+
+The second division of this historical development is carried on by
+Braid, whose most important service was emphasizing the subjectivity
+of the phenomena. Without any connection with him, and yet by
+following out almost exactly the same experiments, Professor
+Heidenhain reached his physiological explanations. A third division is
+based upon the discovery of the hypnotic condition in animals, and
+connects itself to the _experimentum mirabile_. In 1872 the first
+writings on this subject appear from the pen of the physiologist
+Czermak; and since then the investigations have been continued,
+particularly by Professor Preyer.
+
+While England and Germany were led quite independently to the study of
+the same phenomena, France experienced a strange development, which
+shows, as nothing else could, how truth everywhere comes to the
+surface, and from small beginnings swells to a flood which carries
+irresistibly all opposition with it. This fourth division of the
+history of hypnotism is the more important, because it forms the
+foundation of a transcendental psychology, and will exert a great
+influence upon our future culture; and it is this division to which we
+wish to turn our attention. We have intentionally limited ourselves to
+a chronological arrangement, since a systematic account would
+necessarily fall into the study of single phenomena, and would far
+exceed the space offered to us.
+
+James Braid's writings, although they were discussed in detail in
+Littre and Robin's "Lexicon," were not at all the cause of Dr.
+Philips' first books, who therefore came more independently to the
+study of the same phenomena. Braid's theories became known to him
+later by the observations made upon them in Beraud's "Elements of
+Physiology" and in Littre's notes in the translation of Mueller's
+"Handbook of Physiology;" and he then wrote a second brochure, in
+which he gave in his allegiance to braidism. His principal effort was
+directed to withdrawing the veil of mystery from the occurrences, and
+by a natural explanation relegating them to the realm of the known.
+The trance caused by regarding fixedly a gleaming point produces in
+the brain, in his opinion, an accumulation of a peculiar nervous
+power, which he calls "electrodynamism." If this is directed in a
+skillful manner by the operator upon certain points, it manifests
+itself in certain situations and actions that we call hypnotic. Beyond
+this somewhat questionable theory, both books contained a detailed
+description of some of the most important phenomena; but with the
+practical meaning of the phenomena, and especially with their
+therapeutic value, the author concerned himself but slightly. Just on
+account of this pathological side, however, a certain attention has
+been paid to hypnotism up to the present time.
+
+In the year 1847 two surgeons in Poictiers, Drs. Ribaut and Kiaros,
+employed hypnotism with great success in order to make an operation
+painless. "This long and horrible work," says a journal of the day,
+"was much more like a demonstration in a dissecting room than an
+operation performed upon a living being." Although this operation
+produced such an excitement, yet it was twelve years later before
+decisive and positive official intelligence was given of these facts
+by Broca, Follin, Velpeau, and Guerinau. But these accounts, as well
+as the excellent little book by Dr. Azam, shared the fate of their
+predecessors. They were looked upon by students with distrust, and by
+the disciples of Mesmer with scornful contempt.
+
+The work of Demarquay and Giraud Teulon showed considerable advance in
+this direction. The authors, indeed, fell back upon the theory of
+James Braid, which they called stillborn, and of which they said,
+"_Elle est restee accrochee en route_;" but they did not satisfy
+themselves with a simple statement of facts, as did Gigot Suard in his
+work that appeared about the same time. Through systematic experiments
+they tried to find out where the line of hypnotic phenomena intersected
+the line of the realm of the known. They justly recognized that
+hypnotism and hysteria have many points of likeness, and in this way
+were the precursors of the present Parisian school. They say that from
+magnetic sleep to the hypnotic condition an iron chain can be easily
+formed from the very same organic elements that we find in historical
+conditions.
+
+At the same time, as if to bring an experimental proof of this
+assertion, Lasigue published a report on catalepsy in persons of
+hysterical tendencies, which be afterward incorporated into his larger
+work. Among his patients, those who were of a quiet and lethargic
+temperament, by simply pressing down the eyelids, were made to enter
+into a peculiar state of languor, in which cataleptic contractions
+were easily produced, and which forcibly recalled hypnotic phenomena.
+"One can scarcely imagine," says the author, "a more remarkable
+spectacle than that of a sick person sunk in deep sleep, and
+insensible to all efforts to arouse him, who retains every position in
+which he is placed, and in it preserves the immobility and rigidity of
+a statue." But this impulse also was in vain, and in only a few cases
+were the practical tests followed up with theoretical explanations.
+
+Unbounded enthusiasm and unjust blame alike subsided into a silence
+that was not broken for ten years. Then Charles Richet, a renowned
+scientist, came forward in 1875, impelled by the duty he felt he owed
+as a priest of truth, and made some announcements concerning the
+phenomena of somnambulism; and in countless books, all of which are
+worthy of attention, he has since then considered the problem from its
+various sides.
+
+He separates somnambulism into three periods. The word here is used
+for this whole class of subjects as Richet himself uses it, viz.,
+_torpeur_, _excitation_, and _stupeur_. In the first, which is
+produced by the so-called magnetic passes and the fixing of the eyes,
+silence and languor come over the subject. The second period, usually
+produced by constant repetition of the experiment, is characterized
+chiefly by sensibility to hallucination and suggestion. The third
+period has as its principal characteristics supersensibility of the
+muscles and lack of sensation. Yet let it be noticed that these
+divisions were not expressed in their present clearness until 1880;
+while in the years between 1872 and 1880, from an entirely different
+quarter, a similar hypothesis was made out for hypnotic phenomena.
+
+Jean Martin Charcot, the renowned neurologist of the Parisian
+Salpetriere, without exactly desiring it, was led into the study of
+artificial somnambulism by his careful experiments in reference to
+hysteria, and especially by the question of _metallotherapie_, and in
+the year 1879 had prepared suitable demonstrations, which were given
+in public lectures at the Salpetriere. In the following years he
+devoted himself to closer investigation of this subject, and was
+happily and skillfully assisted by Dr. Paul Richer, with whom were
+associated many other physicians, such as Bourneville, Regnard, Fere,
+and Binet. The investigations of these men present the peculiarity
+that they observe hypnotism from its clinical and nosographical side,
+which side had until now been entirely neglected, and that they
+observe patients of the strongest hysterical temperaments. "If we can
+reasonably assert that the hypnotic phenomena which depend upon the
+disturbance of a regular function of the organism demand for their
+development a peculiar temperament, then we shall find the most marked
+phenomena when we turn to an hysterical person."
+
+The inferences of the Parisian school up to this time are somewhat the
+following, but their results, belonging almost entirely to the medical
+side of the question, can have no place in this discussion. They
+divide the phenomena of hystero-hypnotism, which they also call
+_grande hysterie_, into three plainly separable classes, which Charcot
+designates catalepsy, lethargy, and somnambulism.
+
+Catalepsy is produced by a sudden sharp noise, or by the sight of a
+brightly gleaming object. It also produces itself in a person who is
+in a state of lethargy, and whose eyes are opened. The most striking
+characteristic of the cataleptic condition is immobility. The subject
+retains every position in which he is placed, even if it is an
+unnatural one, and is only aroused by the action of suggestion from
+the rigor of a statue to the half life of an automaton. The face is
+expressionless and the eyes wide open. If they are closed, the patient
+falls into a lethargy.
+
+In this second condition, behind the tightly closed lids, the pupils
+of the eyes are convulsively turned upward. The body is almost
+entirely without sensation or power of thought. Especially
+characteristic of lethargy is the hyper-excitability of the nerves and
+muscles (_hyperexcitabilite neuromusculaire_), which manifests itself
+at the slightest touch of any object. For instance, if the extensor
+muscles of the arm are lightly touched, the arm stiffens immediately,
+and is only made flexible again by a hard rubbing of the same muscles.
+The nerves also react in a similar manner. The irritation of a nerve
+trunk not only contracts all the small nerves into which it branches,
+but also all those muscles through which it runs.
+
+Finally, the somnambulistic condition proceeds from catalepsy or from
+lethargy by means of a slight pressure upon the _vertex_, and is
+particularly sensitive to every psychical influence. In some subjects
+the eyes are open, in others closed. Here, also, a slight irritation
+produces a certain amount of rigor in the muscle that has been
+touched, but it does not weaken the antagonistic muscle, as in
+lethargy, nor does it vanish under the influence of the same
+excitement that has produced it. In order to put an end to the
+somnambulistic condition, one must press softly upon the pupil of the
+eye, upon which the subject becomes lethargic, and is easily roused by
+breathing upon him. In this early stage, somnambulism appears very
+infrequently.
+
+Charcot's school also recognize the existence of compound conditions,
+the history of whose symptoms we must not follow here. These slightly
+sketched results, as well as a number of other facts, were only
+obtained in the course of several years; yet in 1882 the fundamental
+investigations of this school were considered virtually concluded.
+Then Dumont-Pallier, the head of the Parisian Hospital Pitie, came
+forward with a number of observations, drawn also exclusively from the
+study of hystero-hypnotism, and yet differing widely from those
+reached by the physicians of the Salpetriere. In a long series of
+communications, he has given his views, which have in their turn been
+violently attacked, especially by Magnin and Berillon. I give only the
+most important points.
+
+According to these men, the hyper-excitability of the nerves and
+muscles is present not only in the lethargic condition, but in all
+three periods; and in order to prove this, we need only apply the
+suitable remedy, which must be changed for each period and every
+subject. Slight irritations of the skin prove this most powerfully. A
+drop of warm water or a ray of sunshine produces contractions of a
+muscle whose skin covering they touch.
+
+Dumont-Pallier and Magnin accede to the theory of intermediate stages,
+and have tried to lay down rules for them with as great exactness as
+Charcot's school. They also are very decided about the three periods,
+whose succession does not appear to them as fixed; but they discovered
+a new fundamental law which regulates the production as well as the
+cessation of the condition--_La cause qui fait, defait_; that is, the
+stimulus which produces one of the three periods needs only to be
+repeated in order to do away with that condition. From this the
+following diagram of hypnotic conditions is evolved:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+And, furthermore, Dumont-Pallier should be considered as the founder
+of a series of experiments, for he was the first one to show in a
+decisive manner that the duality of the cerebral system was proved by
+these hypnotic phenomena; and his works, as well as those of Messrs.
+Berillon and Descourtis, have brought to light the following facts:
+Under hypnotic conditions, the psychical activity of a brain
+hemisphere may be suppressed without nullifying the intellectual
+activity or consciousness. Both hemispheres may be started at the same
+time in different degrees of activity; and also, when the grade is the
+same, they may be independently the seat of psychical manifestations
+which are in their natures entirely different. In close connection
+with this and with the whole doctrine of hemi-hypnotism, which is
+founded upon these facts, stand the phenomena of thought transference,
+which we must consider later.
+
+As an addition to the investigations of Charcot and Dumont-Pallier,
+Bremaud, in 1884, made the discovery that there was a fourth hypnotic
+state, "fascination," which preceded the three others, and manifested
+itself by a tendency to muscular contractions, as well as through
+sensitiveness to hallucination and suggestion, but at the same time
+left to the subject a full consciousness of his surroundings and
+remembrance of what had taken place. Descourtis, in addition,
+perceived a similar condition in the transition from hypnotic sleep to
+waking, which he called _delire posthypnotique_, and, instead of using
+the word "fascination" to express the opening stage, he substituted
+"captation." According to him, the diagram would be the following:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This whole movement, which I have tried to sketch, and whose chief
+peculiarity is that it considers hypnotism a nervous malady, and one
+that must be treated clinically and nosographically, was opposed in
+1880 in two directions--one source of opposition producing great
+results, while the other fell to the ground. The latter joined itself
+to the theory of the mesmerists, and tried, by means of exact
+experiments, to measure the fluid emanating from the human body--an
+undertaking which gave slight promise of any satisfactory result.
+
+Baillif in his thesis (1878) and Chevillard in his (for spiritualists)
+very interesting books, tried, by means of various arguments, to
+uphold the fluidic explanation. Despine also thought that by its help
+he had been able to explain the phenomena; but it was Barety who, in
+the year 1881, first turned general attention in this direction.
+According to him, mankind possesses a nerve force which emanates from
+him in different kinds of streams. Those coming from the eyes and
+fingers produce insensibility to pain, while those generated by the
+breath cause hypnotic conditions. This nerve force goes out into the
+ether, and there obeys the laws that govern light, being broken into
+spectra, etc.
+
+Claude Perronnet has more lately advanced similar views, and his
+greatest work is now in press. Frederick W.H. Myers and Edmund Gurney
+sympathize with these views, and try to unite them with the mesmerist
+doctrine of personal influence and their theory of telepathy. The
+third champion in England of hypnotism, Prof. Hack Tuke, on the
+contrary, sympathizes entirely with the Parisian school, only
+differing from them in that he has experimented with satisfactory
+results upon healthy subjects. In France this view has lately been
+accepted by Dr. Bottey, who recognizes the three hypnotic stages in
+healthy persons, but has observed other phenomena in them, and
+vehemently opposes the conception of hypnotism as a malady. His
+excellently written book is particularly commended to those who wish
+to experiment in the same manner as the French investigator, without
+using hysterical subjects.
+
+The second counter current that opposed itself to the French
+neuropathologists, and produced the most lasting impression, is
+expressed by the magic word "suggestion." A generation ago, Dr.
+Liebault, the patient investigator and skillful physician, had
+endeavored to make a remedial use of suggestion in his clinic at
+Nancy. Charles Richet and others have since referred to it, but
+Professor Bernheim was the first one to demonstrate its full
+significance in the realm of hypnotism. According to him,
+suggestion--that is, the influence of any idea, whether received
+through the senses or in a hypersensible manner (_suggestion
+mentale_)--is the key to all hypnotic phenomena. He has not been able
+in a single case to verify the bodily phenomena of _grandehypnotisme_
+without finding suggestion the primary cause, and on this account
+denies the truth of the asserted physical causes. Bernheim says that
+when the intense expectance of the subject has produced a compliant
+condition, a peculiar capacity is developed to change the idea that
+has been received into an action as well as a great acuteness of
+acceptation, which together will produce all those phenomena that we
+should call by the name of "pathological sleep," since they are only
+separable in a gradual way from the ordinary sleep and dream
+conditions. Bernheim is particularly strenuous that psychology should
+appear in the foreground of hypnotism, and on this point has been
+strongly upheld by men like Professors Beaunis and Richet.
+
+The possibility of suggestion in waking conditions, and also a long
+time after the sleep has passed off (_suggestions posthypnotiques ou
+suggestions a (longue) echeance_), as well as the remarkable capacity
+of subjects to change their personality (_changement de la
+personnalite objectivation des types_), have been made the subject of
+careful investigation. The voluntary production of bleeding and
+stigmata through spiritual influence has been asserted, particularly
+by Messrs. Tocachon, Bourru, and Burot. The judicial significance of
+suggestion has been discussed by Professor Liegeois and Dr. Ladame.
+Professor Pitres in Bordeaux is one of the suggestionists, though
+differing in many points from the Nancy school.
+
+This whole tendency brings into prominence the psychical influence,
+while it denies the production of these results from purely physical
+phenomena, endeavoring to explain them in a different manner. These
+explanations carry us into two realms, the first of which has been
+lately opened, and at present seems to abound more in enigmas than in
+solutions.
+
+_Metallotherapie_, which was called into existence by Dr. Burg, and
+further extended by Dr. Gelle, contains a special point of
+interest--the so-called transference in the case of hysterically or
+hypnotically affected persons. Transference is caused by
+electro-magnetism, which has this peculiarity--that in the case of
+specially sensitive persons it can transfer the bodily affection from
+left to right, and _vice versa_. The transference of paralysis, the
+cures attempted on this plan, and the so-called "psychical
+transference," which contains special interest for graphologists, are
+at the present time still open questions, as well as the closely
+connected theory of human polarity; and the odic experiments of Dr.
+Chazarain are yet waiting for their confirmation. At present the
+problem of the connection between magnetism and hypnotism is under
+investigation, and in such a manner that we may hope for a speedy
+solution.
+
+Still stranger than these reports are the accounts of the distant
+operation of certain bodies; at least, they seem strange to those
+unacquainted with psychometry and the literature of the past century
+relating to this subject. Two physicians in Rochefort, Professors
+Bourru and Burot, in treating a hystero-epileptic person, found that
+gold, even when at a distance of fifteen centimeters, produced in him
+a feeling of unbearable heat. They continued these experiments with
+great care, and, after a number of trials, came to this
+conclusion--that in some persons certain substances, even when
+carefully separated from them by long distance, exercise exactly the
+same physiological influence as if introduced into their organism. In
+order to explain these phenomena, they refer to the radiating force of
+Barety, an explanation neither satisfactory to themselves nor to
+others. Lately the distinguished Parisian physician, Dr. Luys, has
+confirmed by his experiments the existence of these phenomena, but he
+thinks the explanation referable to hyper-sensitiveness of the
+"_regions emotives et intellectuelles de l'encephale_" yet even he has
+not reached the kernel of the difficulty.
+
+In close connection with action at a distance is the question of
+distant production of hypnotic sleep. For an answer to this problem,
+they are experimenting in both France and England; and Frederick W.H.
+Myers has thrown an entirely new light upon the subject by the
+investigations he is making upon a purely experimental basis. In Italy
+they have limited themselves to the study of isolated cases of
+hystero-hypnotism, except as the phenomena of magnetic fascination
+investigated by Donato have given rise to further research; but all
+the books I have seen upon this subject, as well as many by French
+authors, suffer from ignorance of the latest English discoveries.
+
+With this I think that I have given a slight outline of the history of
+hypnotic investigation to the end of the year 1886. I shall attempt a
+criticism of this whole movement at some other time, as space is not
+afforded to me here; but I should like to make this statement now,
+that two of the characteristic indications of this period are of the
+gravest import--first the method ("Our work," says Richet, "is that of
+strictly scientific _testing_, _observation_, and _arrangement_");
+and, secondly, the result. Hypnotism has been received into the realm
+of scientific investigation, and with this the foundation of a true
+experimental psychology has been laid.
+
+MAX DESSOIR.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DUODENUM: A SIPHON TRAP.
+
+By MAYO COLLIER, M.S. Lond., F.R.C.S. Eng.; Senior
+Assistant Surgeon, North-West London Hospital; Assistant Demonstrator
+of Anatomy, London Hospital Medical College.
+
+
+We may take it for granted that all gases generated in the jejunum,
+ileum, and large intestines pass onward toward the anus, and there
+sooner or later escape. Fetid gases--except those generated in the
+stomach and duodenum--never pass upward, not even during vomiting due
+to hernia, obstruction, and other causes. Physiologists, it would
+appear, have never busied themselves to find an explanation for this
+apparent breach of the laws of gravity. The intestinal canal is a tube
+with various dilatations and constrictions, but at no spot except the
+pylorus does the constriction completely obliterate the lumen of the
+tube, and here only periodically. It is perfectly evident, then, that,
+unless some system of trap exists in the canal, gases are free to
+travel from below upward in obedience to the laws of gravity, and
+would, as a matter of fact, sooner or later do so. From the straight,
+course and vertical position of the oesophagus, a very slight
+pressure of gas in the stomach easily overcomes the closure of its
+cardiac sphincter and allows of escape. When the stomach has digested
+its contents and the pylorus is relaxed, gases generated in the
+duodenum can and do ascend into the stomach and so escape. Normally,
+no fetid gases are generated in the stomach or duodenum. If we follow
+the course of the intestines down, we find that the duodenum presents
+a remarkable curve.
+
+Now, there are some points of great interest in connection with this
+remarkable, almost circular, curve of the duodenum. In the first
+place, this curve is a constant feature in all mammalians. Mr. Treves
+says it is one of the most constant features in the anatomy of the
+intestines in man, and, speaking of mammalians in general, that the
+curve of the duodenum varies in shape, but is never absent, becoming
+more complex in some of the higher primates, but seldom less distinct
+than in man. In birds the duodenum always forms a long loop embracing
+the pancreas.
+
+A second point of great interest is the absolute constancy and
+fixation of its terminal portion at the point of junction with the
+jejunum, more correctly termed second ascending or fourth portion. Mr.
+Treves says that this fourth portion is never less than an inch, and
+is practically constant. It extends along the side of the left crus of
+the diaphragm opposite the second lumbar vertebra, and is there firmly
+fixed to the front of the aorta and crus of the diaphragm by a strong
+fibro-muscular band, slinging it up and absolutely retaining it in
+position. This band has been termed the "musculus suspensorius
+duodeni," but is chiefly composed of white fibrous tissue, and is more
+of the native of a ligament than a muscle. This ligament is always
+present, and its position is never altered. The curve of the duodenum
+may descend as far as the iliac fossa, but the terminal portion is
+always maintained by this band in its normal position.
+
+Another point of great constancy is the position of the pancreas and
+its relation to the curve of the duodenum. The duodenum always curves
+round the head of the pancreas and is, as it were, moulded on it and
+retained in position by it. In birds the duodenum always forms a long
+loop embracing the pancreas. Further, the ducts of the liver and
+pancreas always open into the center Of the duodenum, either
+separately or by a common opening.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Now, the absolute constancy of the curve of the duodenum, the complete
+fixation of its fourth portion, the position of the pancreas, and the
+place of entry of the ducts of the pancreas and liver, are all
+component parts of a siphon trap, whereby gases generated below the
+duodenum are prevented from passing upward. A reference to the
+accompanying diagrams will make this quite clear. A is a diagram of a
+siphon trap copied from Parkes' hygiene. B is a very diagrammatic
+outline of the stomach and duodenum, _a_ is intended to mark the
+position of the fibrous band, or musculus suspensorius duodeni; and
+_b_ the position of entry of the ducts of the liver and pancreas. The
+duodenum, then, is a siphon trap, and a most efficient one. Now, the
+efficiency of a siphon trap depends not only on its shape, but what is
+absolutely essential is that the curve must be kept constantly full of
+fluid, without which it ceases to be a trap, and would allow gases to
+ascend freely. The position of the place of entry of the ducts of the
+pancreas and liver assures that this _sine qua non_ shall be present.
+The discharge of the secretions of the pancreas and liver, although
+more active during and after feeding, is practically constant, and so
+insures in an admirable manner that the curve on which the efficiency
+of the trap depends shall be constantly kept full not only with fluid,
+but, as I would suggest, antiseptic fluid. There is no other trap in
+the intestinal canal, but the peculiar position of the colon would no
+doubt have more or less effect in preventing gases ascending through
+the ileo-caecal valve.--_Lancet._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+WISCONSIN CRANBERRY CULTURE.
+
+
+Among the many thousands of well informed persons with whom the
+cranberry is a staple article of food throughout the autumn and
+winter, and who especially derive from its pungent flavor sharp relish
+for their Thanksgiving and Christmas turkey, not one in ten has any
+definite idea as to where the delicious fruit comes from, or of the
+method of growing and harvesting it. Most people are, however, aware
+that it is raised on little "truck patches" somewhere down in New
+Jersey or about Cape Cod, and some have heard that it is gleaned from
+the swamps in the Far West by Indians and shipped to market by white
+traders. But to the great majority its real history is unknown.
+
+Yet the cranberry culture is an industry in which millions of dollars
+are invested in this country, and it gives employment, for at least a
+portion of each year, to many thousands of people. In the East, where
+the value of an acre of even swamp land may run up into the thousands
+of dollars, a cranberry marsh of five or ten acres is considered a
+large one, and, cultivated in the careful, frugal style in vogue
+there, may yield its owner a handsome yearly income. But in the great,
+boundless West, where land, and more especially swamp land, may be had
+for from $1 to $5 an acre, we do these things differently, if not
+better.
+
+The State of Wisconsin produces nearly one-half of the cranberries
+annually grown in the United States. There are marshes there covering
+thousands of acres, whereon this fruit grows wild, having done so even
+as far back as the oldest tradition of the native red man extends. In
+many cases the land on which the berries grow has been bought from the
+government by individuals or firms, in vast tracts, and the growth of
+the fruit promoted and encouraged by a system of dikes and dams
+whereby the effects of droughts, frost, and heavy rainfalls are
+counteracted to almost any extent desired. Some of these holdings
+aggregate many thousands of acres under a single ownership; and after
+a marsh of this vast extent has been thoroughly ditched and good
+buildings, water works, etc., are erected on it, its value may reach
+many thousands of dollars, while the original cost of the land may
+have been merely nominal.
+
+Large portions of Jackson, Wood, Monroe, Marinette, Juneau, and Green
+counties are natural cranberry marshes. The Wisconsin Valley division
+of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway runs through a closely
+continuous marsh, forty miles long and nearly as wide, as level as a
+floor, which is an almost unbroken series of cranberry farms. The
+Indians, who inhabited this country before the white man came, used to
+congregate here every fall, many of them traveling several hundred
+miles, to lay in their winter supply of berries. Many thousands of
+barrels are now annually shipped from this region; and thus this vast
+area, which to the stranger looking upon it would appear utterly
+worthless, is as valuable as the richest farming lands in the State.
+
+In a few instances, however, this fruit is cultivated in Wisconsin in
+a style similar to that practiced in the East; that is, by paring the
+natural sod from the bog, covering the earth to a depth of two or
+three inches with sand, and then transplanting the vines into soil
+thus prepared. The weeds are then kept down for a year or two, when
+the vines take full possession of the soil, and further attention is
+unnecessary. The natural "stand" of the vines in the sod is so
+productive, however, and the extent of country over which bountiful
+nature has distributed them so vast, that few operators have thought
+it necessary to incur the expense of special culture.
+
+One of the best and most perfectly equipped marshes in Wisconsin is
+owned by Mr. G.B. Sackett, of Berlin. It is situated four miles north
+of that village, and comprises 1,600 acres, nearly all of which is a
+veritable bog, and is covered with a natural and luxuriant growth of
+cranberry vines. A canal has been cut from the Fox River to the
+southern limit of the marsh, a distance of 4,400 ft. It is 45 ft.
+wide, and the water stands in it to a depth of nine feet, sufficient
+to float fair sized steamboats. At the intersection of the canal with
+the marsh steam water works have been erected, with flood gates and
+dams by means of which the entire marsh may be flooded to a depth of a
+foot or more when desired. There are two engines of 150 horse power
+each, and two pumps that are capable of raising 80,000 gallons per
+minute.
+
+When, in early autumn, the meteorological conditions indicate the
+approach of frost, the pumps may he put to work in the afternoon and
+the berries be effectually covered by water and thus protected before
+nightfall. At sunrise the gates are opened and the water allowed to
+run off again, so that the pickers may proceed with their work. The
+marsh is flooded to a depth of about two feet at the beginning of each
+winter and allowed to remain so until spring, the heavy body of ice
+that forms preventing the upheaval that would result from freezing and
+thawing--a natural process which, if permitted, works injury to the
+vines.
+
+There is a three-story warehouse on the marsh, with a capacity of
+20,000 barrels of berries, and four large two-story houses capable of
+furnishing shelter for 1,500 pickers. The superintendent's residence
+is a comfortable cottage house, surrounded by giant oaks and elms, and
+stands near the warehouse on an "island," or small tract of high, dry
+land near the center of the great marsh. The pickers' quarters stand
+on another island about 200 yards away.
+
+A plank roadway, built on piles, about two feet above the level of the
+ground, leads from the mainland to the warehouse and other buildings,
+a distance of more than half a mile. Several wooden railways diverge
+from the warehouse to all parts of the marsh, and on them flat cars,
+propelled by hand, are sent out at intervals during the picking season
+to bring in the berries from the hands of the pickers. Each picker is
+provided with a crate, holding just a bushel, which is kept close at
+hand. The berries are first picked into tin pans and pails, and from
+these emptied into the crates, in which they are carried to the
+warehouse, where an empty crate is given the picker in exchange for a
+full one. Thus equipped and improved, the Sackett marsh is valued at
+$150,000. Thirteen thousand barrels have been harvested from this
+great farm in a single season. The selling price in the Chicago market
+varies, in different seasons, from $8 to $16 per barrel. There are
+several other marshes of various sizes in the vicinity.
+
+The picking season usually begins about Sept. 1, and from that time
+until Oct. 1 the marshes swarm with men, women, and children, ranging
+in age from six to eight years, made up from almost every nationality
+under the sun. Bohemians and Poles furnish the majority of the working
+force, while Germans, Irish, Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, negroes,
+Indians, and Americans contribute to the motley contingent. They come
+from every direction and from various distances, some of them
+traveling a hundred miles or more to secure a few days' or weeks'
+work. Almost every farmer or woodsman living anywhere in the region of
+the marshes turns out with his entire family; and the families of all
+the laboring men and mechanics of the surrounding towns and cities
+join in the general hegira to the bogs, and help to harvest the fruit.
+Those living within a few miles go out in the morning and return home
+at night, taking their noon-day meal with them, while those from a
+distance take provisions and bedding with them and camp in the
+buildings provided for that purpose by the marsh owners, doing their
+own cooking on the stoves and with the fuel furnished them.
+
+The wages vary from fifty cents to a dollar a bushel, owing to the
+abundance or scarcity of the fruit. A good picker will gather from
+three to four bushels a day where the yield is light, and five to six
+bushels where it is good. The most money is made by families numbering
+from half a dozen to a dozen members. Every chick and child in such
+families over six years old is required to turn out and help swell the
+revenue of the little household, and the frugal father often pockets
+ten to twenty dollars a day as the fruits of the combined labors. The
+pickers wade into the grass, weeds, and vines, however wet with dew or
+rain, or however deeply flooded underneath, making not the slightest
+effort to keep even their feet dry, and after an hour's work in the
+morning are almost as wet as if they had swum a river. Many of them
+wade in barefooted, others wearing low cowhide shoes, and their feet,
+at least, are necessarily wet all day long. In many cases their bodies
+are thinly clad, and they must inevitably suffer in frosty mornings
+and evenings and on the raw, cold, rainy days that are frequent in the
+autumn months in this latitude; yet they go about their work singing,
+shouting, and jabbering as merrily as a party of comfortably clad
+school children at play. How any of them avoid colds, rheumatism, and
+a dozen other diseases is a mystery; and yet it is rarely that one of
+them is ill from the effects of this exposure. As many as 3000 or 4000
+pickers are sometimes employed on a single marsh when there is a heavy
+crop, and an army of such ragamuffins as get together for this
+purpose, scattered over a bog in confusion and disorder, presents a
+strange and picturesque appearance.
+
+Indians are not usually as good pickers as white people, but in the
+sparsely settled districts, where many of the berry farms are
+situated, it is impossible to get white help enough to take care of
+the crop in the short time available for the work, and owners are
+compelled to employ the aborigines. A rake, with the prongs shaped
+like the letter V, is used for picking in some cases, but owing to the
+large amount of grass and weeds that grow among the vines on these
+wild marshes, this instrument is rarely available. After being picked
+the berries are stored in warehouses for a period varying from one to
+three weeks. They are washed and dried by being passed through a
+fanning mill made for the purpose, and are then allowed to cure and
+ripen thoroughly before they are shipped to market.
+
+From statistics gathered by the American Cranberry Growers'
+Association it is learned that in 1883 Wisconsin produced 135,507
+bushels, in 1884 24,738 bushels, in 1885 264,432 bushels, and in 1886
+70,686 bushels of this fruit. By these figures it will be seen that
+the yield is very irregular. This is owing, principally, to the fact
+that many of the marshes are not yet provided with the means of
+flooding, and of course suffer from worms, droughts, late spring or
+early autumn frosts, and extensive fires started by sparks from the
+engines on railroads running through the marshes. These and various
+other evils are averted on the more improved farms. So that, while
+handsome fortunes have in many cases been made in cranberry growing,
+many thousands of dollars have, on the other hand, been sunk in the
+same industry. Only the wealthier owners, who have expended vast sums
+of money in improving and equipping their property, can calculate with
+any degree of certainty on a paying crop of fruit every year.
+
+Chicago is the great distributing point for the berries produced in
+Wisconsin, shipments being made thence to nearly every State and
+Territory in the Union, to Canada, to Mexico, and to several European
+countries. Berries sent to the Southern markets are put up in
+watertight packages, and the casks are then filled with water, this
+being the only means by which they can be kept in hot weather. Even in
+this condition they can only be kept a few days after reaching hot
+climates.--_American Magazine._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SOUDAN COFFEE.
+
+(_Parkia biglobosa._)
+
+
+There are valuable plants on every continent. Civilized Europe no
+longer counts them. Mysterious Africa is no less largely and
+spontaneously favored with them than young America and the ancient
+territory of Asia.
+
+The latter has given us the majority of the best fruits of our
+gardens. We have already shown how useful the butter tree
+(_Butyrospermum Parkii_) is in tropical Africa, and we also know how
+the _gourou_ (_Sterculia acuminata_) is cultivated in the same
+regions. But that is not all, for the great family of Leguminosae,
+whose numerous representatives encumber this continent, likewise
+furnishes the negro natives a food that is nearly as indispensable to
+them as the _gourou_ or the products of the baobab--another valuable
+tree and certainly the most widely distributed one in torrid Africa.
+This leguminous tree, which is as yet but little known in the
+civilized world, has been named scientifically _Parkia biglobosa_ by
+Bentham. The negroes give it various names, according to the tribe;
+among the Ouloffs, it is the _houlle_; among the Mandigues, _naytay_;
+in Cazamance (Nalon language), it is _nayray_; in Bornou, _rounuo_; in
+Haoussa, _doroa_; in Hant-fleure (Senegal), _nayraytou_. On the old
+mysterious continent it plays the same role that the algarobas do in
+young America. However, it is quite a common rule to find in the order
+Leguminosae, and especially in the section Mimosae, plants whose pods
+are edible. Examples of this fact are numerous. As regards the
+Mediterranean region, it suffices to cite the classic carob tree
+(_Ceratonia siliqua_), which also is of African nationality, but which
+is wanting in the warm region of this continent.
+
+Throughout the tropical region of Africa, the aborigines love to
+consume the saccharine pulp and the seed contained in the pod of the
+_houlle_. Prepared in different ways, according to tribe and latitude,
+these two products constitute a valuable aliment. The pulp is consumed
+either just as it is or as a fermented beverage. As for the seeds,
+they serve, raw or roasted, for the production of a tea-like infusion
+(whence the name "Soudan coffee"), or, after fermentation in water,
+for making a national condiment, which in certain places is called
+_kinda_, and which is mixed with boiled rice or prepared meats. This
+preparation has in most cases a pasty form or the consistency of
+cohesive flour; but in order to render its carriage easier in certain
+of the African centers where the trade in it is brisk, it is
+compressed into tablets similar to those of our chocolate. As these
+two products are very little known in Europe, it has seemed to us that
+it would be of interest to give a description and chemical analysis of
+them. We shall say but little of the plant, which has sufficiently
+occupied botanists.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 1 TO 6.--PODS OF THE HOULLE AND MICROSCOPIC
+DETAILS.]
+
+The houlle (_Parkia biglobosa_) is a large tree from 35 to 50 feet in
+height, with a gray bark, many branches, and large, elegant leaves.
+The latter are compound, bipinnate (Fig. 7), and have fifty pairs of
+leaflets, which are linear and obtuse and of a grayish green. The
+inflorescence is very pleasing to the eye. The flowers, say the
+authors of the _Florae Senegambiae Tentamen_, form balls of a dazzling
+red, contracted at the base, and resembling the pompons of our
+grenadiers (Fig. 8). The support of this latter consists only of male
+flowers. The fruit that succeeds these flowers is supported by a
+club-shaped receptacle. It consists of a large pod, which at maturity
+is 13 inches in length by 10 in width (Fig. 1). This pod is chocolate
+brown, quite smooth or slightly tubercular, and is swollen at the
+points where the seeds are situated. The pods are straight or slightly
+curved. The aborigines of Rio Nunez use the pods for poisoning the
+fishes that abound in the watercourses. We do not know what the nature
+of the toxic principle is that is contained in these hard pods, but we
+well know the nature of the yellowish pulp and of the seeds that
+entirely fill the pods.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--PARKIA BIGLOBOSA.]
+
+Although the pulp forms a continuous whole, each seed easily separates
+from the following and carries with it a part of the pulp that
+surrounds it and that constitutes an independent mass (Fig. 2). This
+pulpy substance, formed entirely of oval cells filled with aleurone,
+consists of two distinct layers. The first, an external one of a
+beautiful yellow, is from 10 to 15 times bulkier than the internal
+one, which likewise is of a beautiful yellow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8--FLOWERS OF PARKIA.]
+
+It detaches itself easily from the seed, while the internal layer,
+which adheres firmly to the exterior of the seed, can be detached only
+by maceration in water. This fresh pulp has a sweet and agreeable
+although slightly insipid taste. Upon growing old and becoming dry, it
+takes on a still more agreeable taste, for it preserves its sweetness
+and gets a perfume like that of the violet.
+
+As for the seed, which is of a brown color and provided with a hard,
+shining skin, that is 0.4 inch long, 0.3 inch wide, and 0.2 inch
+thick. It is oval in form, with quite a prominent beak at the hilum
+(Fig. 4). The margin is blunt and the two convex sides are provided in
+the center with a gibbosity limited by a line parallel with the
+margin, and this has given the plant its specific name of _biglobosa_.
+The mean weight of each seed is 41/2 grains. The skin, though thick, is
+not very strong. It consists, anatomically, of four layers (Fig. 5) of
+a thick cuticle, _c_; of a zone of palissade cells, _z p_; of a zone
+of cells with thick tangential walls arranged in a single row; and of
+a zone tougher than the others, formed of numerous cells with thick
+walls, without definite form, and filled with a blackish red coloring
+matter, _cs_. This perisperm covers an exalbuminous embryo formed
+almost entirely of two thick, greenish yellow cotyledons having a
+strong taste of legumine.
+
+When examined under the microscope, these cotyledons, the alimentary
+part of the seed, have the appearance represented in Fig. 6, where
+_ep_ is the epidermic layer and _cp_ constitutes the uniform
+parenchyma of the cotyledonary leaf. This parenchymatous mass consists
+of oval cells filled with fatty matter and granules of aleurone.
+
+According to some chemical researches made by Professor
+Schlagdenhauffen, the pulp has the following composition per 100
+parts:
+
+    Fatty matter                     2.407
+    Glucose                         33.92
+    Inverted sugar                   7.825
+    Coloring matter and free acids   1.300
+    Albuminous matter                5.240
+    Gummy matter                    19.109
+    Cellulose                        8.921
+    Lignose                         17.195
+    Salts                            4.080
+                                   -------
+    Total                          100.000
+
+The salient point of these analytical results is the enormous quantity
+of matter (nearly 60 per cent.) formed almost exclusively by sugar. It
+is not surprising, from this that this product constitutes a food both
+agreeable and useful.
+
+An analysis of the entire seed, made by the same chemist, has given
+the following results:
+
+    Solid fatty matter                     21.145
+    Unreduced sugar                         6.183
+    Undetermined matters                    5.510
+    Gummy          "                       10.272
+    Albuminoid     "                       24.626
+    Cellulosic     "                        5.752
+    Lignose and losses                     20.978
+    Salts                                   5.534
+                                          -------
+    Total                                 100.000
+
+The presence in these seeds of a large quantity of fatty matters and
+sugar, and especially of albuminoid matters (very nutritive), largely
+justifies the use made of them as a food. The innate instinct of the
+savage peoples of Africa has thus anticipated the data of
+science.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HEIGHT OF SUMMER CLOUDS.
+
+
+A knowledge of the heights and movements of the clouds is of much
+interest to science, and of especial importance in the prediction of
+weather. The subject has therefore received much attention during
+recent years from meteorologists, chiefly in this country and in
+Sweden. In the last published report of the Meteorological Council for
+1885-86 will be found an account of the steps taken by that body to
+obtain cloud photographs; and in the _Meteorologische Zeitschrift_ for
+March last, M.M. Ekholm and Hagstrom have published an interesting
+summary of the results of observations made at Upsala during the
+summers of 1884-85. They determined the parallax of the clouds by
+angular measurements made from two stations at the extremities of a
+base of convenient length and having telephonic connection. The
+instruments used were altazimuths, constructed under the direction of
+Prof. Mohn, specially for measuring the parallax of the aurora
+borealis. A full description of these instruments and of the
+calculations will be found in the _Acta Reg Soc. Sc. Ups._, 1884. The
+results now in question are based upon nearly 1,500 measurements of
+_heights_; the _motions_ will form the subject of a future paper. It
+was found that clouds are formed at all levels, but that they occur
+most frequently at certain elevations or stages. The following are,
+approximately, the mean heights, in feet, of the principal forms:
+Stratus, 2,000; nimbus, 5,000; cumulus (base) 4,500, (summit) 6,000;
+cumulo-stratus (base), 4,600; "false-cirrus" (a form which often
+accompanies the cumulo-stratus), 12,800; cirro cumulus, 21,000;
+cirrus, 29,000 (the highest being 41,000). The maximum of cloud
+frequency was found to be at levels of 2,300 and 5,500 feet.
+
+Generally speaking, all the forms of cloud have a tendency to rise
+during the course of the day; the change, excepting for the cumulus
+form, amounting to nearly 6,500 feet. In the morning, when the cirrus
+clouds are at their lowest level, the frequency of their lowest
+forms--the cirro-cumulus--is greatest; and in the evening, when the
+height of the cirrus is greatest, the frequency of its highest
+forms--the cirro-stratus--is also greatest. With regard to the
+connection between the character of the weather and the height of the
+clouds, the heights of the bases of the cumulus are nearly constant in
+all conditions. The summits, however, are lowest in the vicinity of a
+barometric maximum. They increase in the region of a depression, and
+attain their greatest height in thunderstorms, the thickness of the
+cumulo stratus stretching sometimes for several miles. The highest
+forms of clouds appear to float at their lowest levels in the region
+of a depression. The forms of clouds are identical in all parts of the
+world, as has been shown in papers lately read by the Hon. R.
+Abercromby before the English and Scottish Meteorological
+Societies.--_Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE CAUSE OF IRIDESCENCE IN CLOUDS.
+
+By G. JOHNSTONE STONEY.
+
+
+When the sky is occupied by light cirro-cumulus cloud, an optical
+phenomenon of the most delicate beauty sometimes presents itself, in
+which the borders of the clouds and their lighter portions are
+suffused with soft shades of color like those of mother-of-pearl,
+among which lovely pinks and greens are the most conspicuous. Usually
+these colors are distributed in irregular patches, just as in
+mother-of-pearl; but occasionally they are seen to form round the
+denser patches of cloud a regular colored fringe, in which the several
+tints are arranged in stripes following the sinuosities of the outline
+of the cloud.
+
+I cannot find in any of the books an explanation of this beautiful
+spectacle, all the more pleasing because it generally presents itself
+in delightful summer weather. It is not mentioned in the part of
+Moigno's great _Repertoire d'Optique_ which treats of meteorological
+optics, nor in any other work which I have consulted. It seems
+desirable, therefore, to make an attempt to search out what appears to
+be its explanation.
+
+At the elevation in our atmosphere at which these delicate clouds are
+formed the temperature is too low, even in midsummer, for water to
+exist in the liquid state; and accordingly, the attenuated vapor from
+which they were condensed passed at once into a solid form. They
+consist, in fact, of tiny crystals of ice, not of little drops of
+water. If the precipitation has been hasty, the crystals will, though
+all small, be of many sizes jumbled together, and in that case the
+beautiful optical phenomenon with which we are now dealing will not
+occur. But if the opposite conditions prevail (which they do on rare
+occasions), if the vapor had been evenly distributed, and if the
+precipitation took place slowly, then will the crystals in any one
+neighborhood be little ice crystals of nearly the same form and size,
+and from one neighborhood to another they will differ chiefly in
+number and size, owing to the process having gone on longer or taken
+place somewhat faster, or through a greater depth, in some
+neighborhoods than others. This will give rise to the patched
+appearance of the clouds which prevails when this phenomenon presents
+itself. It also causes the tiny crystals, of which the cloud consists,
+to grow larger in some places than others.
+
+Captain Scoresby, in his "Account of the Arctic Regions," gives the
+best description of snow crystals formed at low temperatures with
+which I am acquainted. From his observations it appears--(a) that
+when formed at temperatures several degrees below the freezing point,
+the crystals, whether simple or compound, are nearly all of
+symmetrical forms; (b) that thin tabular crystals are extremely
+numerous, consisting either of simple transverse slices of the
+fundamental hexagon or, more frequently, of aggregations of these
+attached edgewise and lying in one plane; and (c) that, according as
+atmospheric conditions vary, one form of crystal or another largely
+preponderates. A fuller account of these most significant observations
+is given in the appendix to this paper.
+
+Let us then consider the crystals in any one neighborhood in the sky,
+where the conditions that prevail are such as to produce lamellar
+crystals of nearly the same thickness. The tabular plates are
+subsiding through the atmosphere--in fact, falling toward the earth.
+And although their descent is very slow, owing to their minute size,
+the resistance of the air will act upon them as it does upon a falling
+feather. It will cause them, if disturbed, to oscillate before they
+settle into that horizontal position which flat plates finally assume
+when falling through quiescent air. We shall presently consider what
+the conditions must be, in order that the crystals may be liable to be
+now and then disturbed from the horizontal position. If this
+occasionally happens, the crystals will keep fluttering, and at any
+one moment some of them will be turned so as to reflect a ray from the
+sun to the eye of the observer from the flat surface of the crystal
+which is next him. Now, if the conditions are such as to produce
+crystals which are plates with parallel faces, and as they are also
+transparent, part only of the sun's ray that reaches the front face of
+the crystal will be reflected from it; the rest will enter the
+crystal, and, falling on the parallel surface behind, a portion will
+be there reflected, and passing out through the front face, will also
+reach the eye of the observer.
+
+These two portions of the ray--that reflected from the front face and
+that reflected from the back--are precisely in the condition in which
+they can interfere with one another, so as to produce the splendid
+colors with which we are familiar in soap bubbles. If the crystals are
+of diverse thicknesses, the colors from the individual crystals will
+be different, and the mixture of them all will produce merely white
+light; but if all are nearly of the same thickness, they will transmit
+the same color toward the observer, who will accordingly see this
+color in the part of the cloud occupied by these crystals. The color
+will, of course, not be undiluted; for other crystals will send
+forward white light, and this, blended with the colored light, will
+produce delicate shades in cases where the corresponding colors of a
+soap bubble would be vivid.
+
+We have now only to explain how it happens that on very rare occasions
+the colors, instead of lying in irregular patches, form definite
+fringes round the borders of the cloudlets. The circumstances that
+give rise to this special form of the phenomenon appear to be the
+following: While the cloud is in the process of growth (that is, so
+long as the precipitation of vapor into the crystalline state
+continues to take place), so long will the crystals keep augmenting.
+If, then, a cloudlet is in the process of formation, not only by the
+springing up of fresh crystals around, but also by the continued
+growth of the crystals within it, then will that patch of cloud
+consist of crystals which are largest in its central part, and
+gradually smaller as their situation approaches the outside. Here,
+then, are conditions which will produce one color round the margin of
+the cloud, and that color mixed with others, and so giving rise to
+other tints, farther in. In this way there comes into existence that
+iris-like border which is now and then seen.
+
+The occasional upsetting of the crystals, which is required to keep
+them fluttering, may be produced in any of three ways. The cloudlets
+may have been formed from the blending together of two layers of air
+saturated at different temperatures, and moving with different
+velocities or in different directions. Where these currents intermix,
+a certain amount of disturbance will prevail, which, if sufficiently
+slight, would not much interfere with the regularity of the crystals,
+and might yet be sufficient to occasion little draughts, which would
+blow them about when formed. Or, if the cold layer is above, and if it
+is in a sufficient degree colder, there need not be any previous
+relative motion of the two layers; the inevitable convection currents
+will suffice. Another, and probably the most frequent, cause for
+little breezes in the neighborhood of the cloudlets is that when the
+cloudlets are formed they immediately absorb the heat of the sun in a
+way that the previously clear air had not done. If they absorb enough,
+they will rise like feeble balloons, and slight return currents will
+travel downward round their margins, throwing all crystals in that
+situation into disorder.
+
+I do not include among the causes which may agitate the crystals
+another cause which must produce excessively slight currents of air,
+namely, that arising from the subsidence of the cloudlets owing to
+their weight. The crystals will fall faster wherein cloud masses than
+in the intervening portions where the cloud is thinner. But the
+subsidence itself is so slow that any relative motions to which
+differences in the rate of subsidence can give rise are probably too
+feeble to produce an appreciable effect. Of course, in general, more
+than one of the above causes will concur; and it is the resultant of
+the effects which they would have separately produced that will be
+felt by the crystals.
+
+If the precipitation had taken place so very evenly over the sky that
+there were no cloudlets formed, but only one uniform veil of haze,
+then the currents which would flutter the crystals may be so entirely
+absent that the little plates of crystals can fixedly assume the
+horizontal position which is natural to them. In this event the cloud
+will exhibit no iridescence, but, instead of it, a vertical circle
+through the sun will present itself. This, on some rare occasions, is
+a feature of the phenomenon of parhelia.
+
+It thus appears that the occasional iridescence of cirrus clouds is
+satisfactorily accounted for by the concurrence of conditions, each of
+which is known to have a real existence in nature....--_Phil. Mag.,
+July 1887._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+
+ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS EDITION.
+
+$2.50 a Year. Single Copies, 25 cts.
+
+This is a Special Edition of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, issued
+monthly--on the first day of the month. Each number contains about
+forty large quarto pages, equal to about two hundred ordinary book
+pages, forming, practically, a large and splendid MAGAZINE OF
+ARCHITECTURE, richly adorned with _elegant plates in colors_ and with
+fine engravings, illustrating the most interesting examples of modern
+Architectural Construction and allied subjects.
+
+A special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of
+the latest and best plans for private residences, city and country,
+including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive.
+Drawings in perspective and in color are given, together with full
+Plans, Specifications, Costs, Bills of Estimate, and Sheets of
+Details.
+
+No other building paper contains so many plans, details, and
+specifications regularly presented as the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.
+Hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans
+we have issued during the past year, and many others are in process of
+construction.
+
+Architects, Builders, and Owners will find this work valuable in
+furnishing fresh and useful suggestions. All who contemplate building
+or improving homes, or erecting structures of any kind, have before
+them in this work an almost _endless series of the latest and best
+examples_ from which to make selections, thus saving time and money.
+
+Many other subjects, including Sewerage, Piping, Lighting, Warming,
+Ventilating, Decorating, Laying out of Grounds, etc., are illustrated.
+An extensive Compendium of Manufacturers' Announcements is also given,
+in which the most reliable and approved Building Materials, Goods,
+Machines, Tools, and Appliances are described and illustrated, with
+addresses of the makers, etc.
+
+The fullness, richness, cheapness, and convenience of this work have
+won for it the LARGEST CIRCULATION of any Architectural publication
+in the world.
+
+  MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS,
+  361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A Catalogue of valuable books on Architecture, Building, Carpentry,
+Masonry, Heating, Warming, Lighting, Ventilation, and all branches of
+industry pertaining to the art of Building, is supplied free of
+charge, sent to any address.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BUILDING PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS.
+
+In connection with the publication of the BUILDING EDITION of the
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. Munn & Co. furnish plans and
+specifications for buildings of every kind, including Churches,
+Schools, Stores, Dwellings, Carriage Houses, Barns, etc.
+
+In this work they are assisted by able and experienced architects.
+Full plans, details, and specifications for the various buildings
+illustrated in this paper can be supplied.
+
+Those who contemplate building, or who wish to alter, improve, extend,
+or add to existing buildings, whether wings, porches, bay windows, or
+attic rooms, are invited to communicate with the undersigned. Our work
+extends to all parts of the country. Estimates, plans, and drawings
+promptly prepared. Terms moderate. Address
+
+MUNN & CO., 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.
+
+PUBLISHED WEEKLY.
+
+Terms of Subscription, $5 a year.
+
+Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
+United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
+foreign country.
+
+All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January
+1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.
+
+All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two
+volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50 stitched in
+paper, or $3.50 bound in stiff covers.
+
+COMBINED RATES.--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.
+
+A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.
+
+MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N.Y.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PATENTS.
+
+In connection with the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. MUNN & Co. are
+solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 42 years'
+experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world.
+Patents are obtained on the best terms.
+
+A special notice is made in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of all
+inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and residence
+of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public
+attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or
+introduction often easily effected.
+
+Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain,
+free of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing
+to MUNN & CO.
+
+We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
+Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address
+
+    MUNN & CO.,
+    361 Broadway, New York.
+    Branch Office, 622 and 624 F St., Washington, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+613, October 1, 1887, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 15889.txt or 15889.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/8/8/15889/
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/15889.zip b/15889.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..356c878
--- /dev/null
+++ b/15889.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..440f874
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #15889 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15889)